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when was the first incandescent light bulb invented | Incandescent light bulb - wikipedia
An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is an electric light with a wire filament heated to such a high temperature that it glows with visible light (incandescence). The filament, heated by passing an electric current through it, is protected from oxidation with a glass or fused quartz bulb that is filled with inert gas or evacuated. In a halogen lamp, filament evaporation is slowed by a chemical process that redeposits metal vapor onto the filament, extending its life. The light bulb is supplied with electric current by feed - through terminals or wires embedded in the glass. Most bulbs are used in a socket which provides mechanical support and electrical connections.
Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output, and voltage ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external regulating equipment, have low manufacturing costs, and work equally well on either alternating current or direct current. As a result, the incandescent lamp is widely used in household and commercial lighting, for portable lighting such as table lamps, car headlamps, and flashlights, and for decorative and advertising lighting.
Incandescent bulbs are much less efficient than most other types of electric lighting; incandescent bulbs convert less than 5 % of the energy they use into visible light, with standard light bulbs averaging about 2.2 %. The remaining energy is converted into heat. The luminous efficacy of a typical incandescent bulb is 16 lumens per watt, compared with 60 lm / W for a compact fluorescent bulb or 150 lm / W for some white LED lamps. Some applications of the incandescent bulb (such as heat lamps) deliberately use the heat generated by the filament. Such applications include incubators, brooding boxes for poultry, heat lights for reptile tanks, infrared heating for industrial heating and drying processes, lava lamps, and the Easy - Bake Oven toy. Incandescent bulbs typically have short lifetimes compared with other types of lighting; around 1,000 hours for home light bulbs versus typically 10,000 hours for compact fluorescents and 30,000 hours for lighting LEDs.
Incandescent bulbs have been replaced in many applications by other types of electric light, such as fluorescent lamps, compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL), high - intensity discharge lamps, and light - emitting diode lamps (LED). Some jurisdictions, such as the European Union, China, Canada and United States, are in the process of phasing out the use of incandescent light bulbs while others, including Colombia, Mexico, Cuba, Argentina and Brazil, have prohibited them already.
In addressing the question of who invented the incandescent lamp, historians Robert Friedel and Paul Israel list 22 inventors of incandescent lamps prior to Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison. They conclude that Edison 's version was able to outstrip the others because of a combination of three factors: an effective incandescent material, a higher vacuum than others were able to achieve (by use of the Sprengel pump) and a high resistance that made power distribution from a centralized source economically viable.
Historian Thomas Hughes has attributed Edison 's success to his development of an entire, integrated system of electric lighting.
The lamp was a small component in his system of electric lighting, and no more critical to its effective functioning than the Edison Jumbo generator, the Edison main and feeder, and the parallel - distribution system. Other inventors with generators and incandescent lamps, and with comparable ingenuity and excellence, have long been forgotten because their creators did not preside over their introduction in a system of lighting.
In 1761 Ebenezer Kinnersley demonstrated heating a wire to incandescence.
In 1802, Humphry Davy used what he described as "a battery of immense size '', consisting of 2,000 cells housed in the basement of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, to create an incandescent light by passing the current through a thin strip of platinum, chosen because the metal had an extremely high melting point. It was not bright enough nor did it last long enough to be practical, but it was the precedent behind the efforts of scores of experimenters over the next 75 years.
Over the first three - quarters of the 19th century many experimenters worked with various combinations of platinum or iridium wires, carbon rods, and evacuated or semi-evacuated enclosures. Many of these devices were demonstrated and some were patented.
In 1835, James Bowman Lindsay demonstrated a constant electric light at a public meeting in Dundee, Scotland. He stated that he could "read a book at a distance of one and a half feet ''. However, having perfected the device to his own satisfaction, he turned to the problem of wireless telegraphy and did not develop the electric light any further. His claims are not well documented, although he is credited in Challoner et al. with being the inventor of the "Incandescent Light Bulb ''.
In 1838, Belgian lithographer Marcellin Jobard invented an incandescent light bulb with a vacuum atmosphere using a carbon filament.
In 1840, British scientist Warren de la Rue enclosed a coiled platinum filament in a vacuum tube and passed an electric current through it. The design was based on the concept that the high melting point of platinum would allow it to operate at high temperatures and that the evacuated chamber would contain fewer gas molecules to react with the platinum, improving its longevity. Although a workable design, the cost of the platinum made it impractical for commercial use.
In 1841, Frederick de Moleyns of England was granted the first patent for an incandescent lamp, with a design using platinum wires contained within a vacuum bulb. He also used carbon.
In 1845, American John W. Starr acquired a patent for his incandescent light bulb involving the use of carbon filaments. He died shortly after obtaining the patent, and his invention was never produced commercially. Little else is known about him.
In 1851, Jean Eugène Robert - Houdin publicly demonstrated incandescent light bulbs on his estate in Blois, France. His light bulbs are on display in the museum of the Château de Blois.
In 1872, Russian Alexander Lodygin invented an incandescent light bulb and obtained a Russian patent in 1874. He used as a burner two carbon rods of diminished section in a glass receiver, hermetically sealed, and filled with nitrogen, electrically arranged so that the current could be passed to the second carbon when the first had been consumed. Later he lived in the US, changed his name to Alexander de Lodyguine and applied and obtained patents for incandescent lamps having chromium, iridium, rhodium, ruthenium, osmium, molybdenum and tungsten filaments, and a bulb using a molybdenum filament was demonstrated at the world fair of 1900 in Paris.
Heinrich Göbel in 1893 claimed he had designed the first incandescent light bulb in 1854, with a thin carbonized bamboo filament of high resistance, platinum lead - in wires in an all - glass envelope, and a high vacuum. Judges of four courts raised doubts about the alleged Göbel anticipation, but there was never a decision in a final hearing due to the expiry date of Edison 's patent. A research work published 2007 concluded that the story of the Göbel lamps in the 1850s is a legend.
On 24 July 1874, a Canadian patent was filed by Henry Woodward and Mathew Evans for a lamp consisting of carbon rods mounted in a nitrogen - filled glass cylinder. They were unsuccessful at commercializing their lamp, and sold rights to their patent (U.S. Patent 0,181,613) to Thomas Edison in 1879.
Joseph Swan (1828 -- 1914) was a British physicist and chemist. In 1850, he began working with carbonized paper filaments in an evacuated glass bulb. By 1860, he was able to demonstrate a working device but the lack of a good vacuum and an adequate supply of electricity resulted in a short lifetime for the bulb and an inefficient source of light. By the mid-1870s better pumps became available, and Swan returned to his experiments.
With the help of Charles Stearn, an expert on vacuum pumps, in 1878, Swan developed a method of processing that avoided the early bulb blackening. This received a British Patent in 1880. On 18 December 1878, a lamp using a slender carbon rod was shown at a meeting of the Newcastle Chemical Society, and Swan gave a working demonstration at their meeting on 17 January 1879. It was also shown to 700 who attended a meeting of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne on 3 February 1879. These lamps used a carbon rod from an arc lamp rather than a slender filament. Thus they had low resistance and required very large conductors to supply the necessary current, so they were not commercially practical, although they did furnish a demonstration of the possibilities of incandescent lighting with relatively high vacuum, a carbon conductor, and platinum lead - in wires. This bulb lasted about 40 hours. Swan then turned his attention to producing a better carbon filament and the means of attaching its ends. He devised a method of treating cotton to produce ' parchmentised thread ' in the early 1880s and obtained British Patent 4933 that same year. From this year he began installing light bulbs in homes and landmarks in England. His house, Underhill, Low Fell, Gateshead, was the first in the world to be lit by a lightbulb and also the first house in the world to be lit by hydroelectric power. In 1878 the home of Lord Armstrong at Cragside was also among the first houses to be lit by electricity. In the early 1880s he had started his company. In 1881, the Savoy Theatre in the City of Westminster, London was lit by Swan incandescent lightbulbs, which was the first theatre, and the first public building in the world, to be lit entirely by electricity. The first street in the world to be lit by an incandescent lightbulb was Mosley Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom. It was lit by Joseph Swan 's incandescent lamp on 3 February 1879.
Thomas Edison began serious research into developing a practical incandescent lamp in 1878. Edison filed his first patent application for "Improvement In Electric Lights '' on 14 October 1878. After many experiments, first with carbon in the early 1880s and then with platinum and other metals, in the end Edison returned to a carbon filament. The first successful test was on 22 October 1879, and lasted 13.5 hours. Edison continued to improve this design and by 4 November 1879, filed for a US patent for an electric lamp using "a carbon filament or strip coiled and connected... to platina contact wires. '' Although the patent described several ways of creating the carbon filament including using "cotton and linen thread, wood splints, papers coiled in various ways, '' Edison and his team later discovered that a carbonized bamboo filament could last more than 1200 hours. In 1880, the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company steamer, Columbia, became the first application for Edison 's incandescent electric lamps (it was also the first ship to use a dynamo).
Albon Man, a New York lawyer, started Electro - Dynamic Light Company in 1878 to exploit his patents and those of William Sawyer. Weeks later the United States Electric Lighting Company was organized. This company did n't make their first commercial installation of incandescent lamps until the fall of 1880 at the Mercantile Safe Deposit Company in New York City, about six months after the Edison incandescent lamps had been installed on the Columbia. Hiram S. Maxim was the chief engineer at the United States Electric Lighting Company.
Lewis Latimer, employed at the time by Edison, developed an improved method of heat - treating carbon filaments which reduced breakage and allowed them to be molded into novel shapes, such as the characteristic "M '' shape of Maxim filaments. On 17 January 1882, Latimer received a patent for the "Process of Manufacturing Carbons '', an improved method for the production of light bulb filaments, which was purchased by the United States Electric Light Company. Latimer patented other improvements such as a better way of attaching filaments to their wire supports.
In Britain, the Edison and Swan companies merged into the Edison and Swan United Electric Company (later known as Ediswan, and ultimately incorporated into Thorn Lighting Ltd). Edison was initially against this combination, but after Swan sued him and won, Edison was eventually forced to cooperate, and the merger was made. Eventually, Edison acquired all of Swan 's interest in the company. Swan sold his US patent rights to the Brush Electric Company in June 1882.
The United States Patent Office gave a ruling 8 October 1883, that Edison 's patents were based on the prior art of William Sawyer and were invalid. Litigation continued for a number of years. Eventually on 6 October 1889, a judge ruled that Edison 's electric light improvement claim for "a filament of carbon of high resistance '' was valid.
In 1896 Italian inventor Arturo Malignani (1865 -- 1939) patented an evacuation method for mass production, which allowed obtaining economic bulbs lasting 800 hours. The patent was acquired by Edison in 1898.
In 1897, German physicist and chemist Walther Nernst developed the Nernst lamp, a form of incandescent lamp that used a ceramic globar and did not require enclosure in a vacuum or inert gas. Twice as efficient as carbon filament lamps, Nernst lamps were briefly popular until overtaken by lamps using metal filaments.
On 13 December 1904, Hungarian Sándor Just and Croatian Franjo Hanaman were granted a Hungarian patent (No. 34541) for a tungsten filament lamp that lasted longer and gave brighter light than the carbon filament. Tungsten filament lamps were first marketed by the Hungarian company Tungsram in 1904. This type is often called Tungsram - bulbs in many European countries. Filling a bulb with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen retards the evaporation of the tungsten filament compared to operating it in a vacuum. This allows for greater temperatures and therefore greater efficacy with less reduction in filament life.
In 1906, William D. Coolidge developed a method of making ' ductile tungsten ' from sintered tungsten which could be made into filaments while working for General Electric Company. By 1911 General Electric began selling incandescent light bulbs with ductile tungsten wire.
In 1913, Irving Langmuir found that filling a lamp with inert gas instead of a vacuum resulted in twice the luminous efficacy and reduction of bulb blackening.
In 1917, Burnie Lee Benbow was granted a patent for inventing the coiled coil filament. In 1921, Junichi Miura created the first double - coil bulb using a coiled coil tungsten filament while working for Hakunetsusha (a predecessor of Toshiba). At the time, machinery to mass - produce coiled coil filaments did not exist. Hakunetsusha developed a method to mass - produce coiled coil filaments by 1936.
In 1924, Marvin Pipkin, an American chemist, patented a process for frosting the inside of lamp bulbs without weakening them, and in 1947, he patented a process for coating the inside of lamps with silica.
Between 1924 and the outbreak of the Second World War, the Phoebus cartel attempted to fix prices and sales quotas for bulb manufacturers outside of North America.
In 1930, Hungarian Imre Bródy filled lamps with krypton gas rather than argon, and designed a process to obtain krypton from air. Production of krypton filled lamps based on his invention started at Ajka in 1937, in a factory co-designed by Polányi and Hungarian - born physicist Egon Orowan.
By 1964, improvements in efficiency and production of incandescent lamps had reduced the cost of providing a given quantity of light by a factor of thirty, compared with the cost at introduction of Edison 's lighting system.
Consumption of incandescent light bulbs grew rapidly in the US. In 1885, an estimated 300,000 general lighting service lamps were sold, all with carbon filaments. When tungsten filaments were introduced, about 50 million lamp sockets existed in the US. In 1914, 88.5 million lamps were used, (only 15 % with carbon filaments), and by 1945, annual sales of lamps were 795 million (more than 5 lamps per person per year).
Of the power consumed by typical incandescent light bulbs, 95 % or more is converted into heat rather than visible light. Other electrical light sources are more effective.
Luminous efficacy of a light source may be defined in two ways. The radiant luminous efficacy (LER) is the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the luminous flux) to the total power radiated over all wavelengths. The source luminous efficacy (LES) is the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the luminous flux) to the total power input to the source, such as a lamp. Visible light is measured in lumens, a unit which is defined in part by the differing sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light. Not all wavelengths of visible electromagnetic energy are equally effective at stimulating the human eye; the luminous efficacy of radiant energy (LER) is a measure of how well the distribution of energy matches the perception of the eye. The units of luminous efficacy are "lumens per watt '' (lpw). The maximum LER possible is 683 lm / W for monochromatic green light at 555 nanometers wavelength, the peak sensitivity of the human eye.
The luminous efficiency is defined as the ratio of the luminous efficacy to the theoretical maximum luminous efficacy of 683 lpw, and, as for luminous efficacy, is of two types, radiant luminous efficiency (LFR) and source luminous efficacy (LFS).
The chart below lists values of overall luminous efficacy and efficiency for several types of general service, 120 - volt, 1000 - hour lifespan incandescent bulb, and several idealized light sources. The values for the incandescent bulbs are source efficiencies and efficacies. The values for the ideal sources are radiant efficiencies and efficacies. A similar chart in the article on luminous efficacy compares a broader array of light sources to one another.
The spectrum emitted by a blackbody radiator at temperatures of incandescent bulbs does not match the sensitivity characteristics of the human eye; the light emitted does not appear white, and most is not in the range of wavelengths at which the eye is most sensitive. Tungsten filaments radiate mostly infrared radiation at temperatures where they remain solid -- below 3,695 K (3,422 ° C; 6,191 ° F). Donald L. Klipstein explains it this way: "An ideal thermal radiator produces visible light most efficiently at temperatures around 6,300 ° C (6,600 K; 11,400 ° F). Even at this high temperature, a lot of the radiation is either infrared or ultraviolet, and the theoretical luminous efficacy (LER) is 95 lumens per watt. '' No known material can be used as a filament at this ideal temperature, which is hotter than the sun 's surface. An upper limit for incandescent lamp luminous efficacy (LER) is around 52 lumens per watt, the theoretical value emitted by tungsten at its melting point.
Although inefficient, incandescent light bulbs have an advantage in applications where accurate color reproduction is important, since the continuous blackbody spectrum emitted from an incandescent light - bulb filament yields near - perfect color rendition, with a color rendering index of 100 (the best possible). White - balancing is still required to avoid too "warm '' or "cool '' colors, but this is a simple process that requires only the color temperature in kelvins as input for modern, digital visual reproduction equipment such as video or still cameras unless it is completely automated. The color - rendering performance of incandescent lights can not be matched by LEDs or fluorescent lights, although they can offer satisfactory performance for non-critical applications such as home lighting. White - balancing such lights is therefore more complicated, requiring additional adjustments to reduce for example green - magenta color casts, and even when properly white - balanced, the color reproduction will not be perfect.
For a given quantity of light, an incandescent light bulb produces more heat (and thus consumes more power) than a fluorescent lamp. In buildings where air conditioning is used, incandescent lamps ' heat output increases load on the air conditioning system. While heat from lights will reduce the need for running a building 's heating system, in general a heating system can provide the same amount of heat at a lower cost than incandescent lights.
Halogen incandescent lamps have higher efficacy, which will allow a halogen light to use less power to produce the same amount of light compared to a non-halogen incandescent light. The expected life span of halogen lights is also generally longer compared to non-halogen incandescent lights, and halogen lights produce a more constant light - output over time, without much dimming.
There are many non-incandescent light sources, such as the fluorescent lamp, high - intensity discharge lamps and LED lamps, which have higher luminous efficiency, and some have been designed to be retrofitted in fixtures for incandescent lights. These devices produce light by luminescence. These lamps produce discrete spectral lines and do not have the broad "tail '' of invisible infrared emissions. By careful selection of which electron energy level transitions are used, and fluorescent coatings which modify the spectral distribution, the spectrum emitted can be tuned to mimic the appearance of incandescent sources, or other different color temperatures of white light. Due to the discrete spectral lines rather than a continuous spectrum, the light is not ideal for applications such as photography and cinematography.
The initial cost of an incandescent bulb is small compared to the cost of the energy it uses over its lifetime. Incandescent bulbs have a shorter life than most other lighting, an important factor if replacement is inconvenient or expensive. Some types of lamp, including incandescent and fluorescent, emit less light as they age; this may be an inconvenience, or may reduce effective lifetime due to lamp replacement before total failure. A comparison of incandescent lamp operating cost with other light sources must include illumination requirements, cost of the lamp and labor cost to replace lamps (taking into account effective lamp lifetime), cost of electricity used, effect of lamp operation on heating and air conditioning systems. When used for lighting in houses and commercial buildings, the energy lost to heat can significantly increase the energy required by a building 's air conditioning system. During the heating season heat produced by the bulbs is not wasted, although in most cases it is more cost effective to obtain heat from the heating system. Regardless, over the course of a year a more efficient lighting system saves energy in nearly all climates.
Since incandescent light bulbs use more energy than alternatives such as CFLs and LED lamps, many governments have introduced measures to ban their use, by setting minimum efficacy standards higher than can be achieved by incandescent lamps. Measures to ban light bulbs have been implemented in the European Union, the United States, Russia, Brazil, Argentina, Canada and Australia, among others. In the Europe the EC has calculated that the ban contributes 5 to 10 billion euros to the economy and saves 40 TWh of electricity every year, translating in CO2 emission reductions of 15 million tonnes.
In the US, federal law has scheduled the most common incandescent light bulbs to be phased out by 2014, to be replaced with more energy - efficient light bulbs. Traditional incandescent light bulbs were phased out in Australia in November 2009.
Objections to banning the use of incandescent light bulbs include the higher initial cost of alternatives and lower quality of light of fluorescent lamps. Some people have concerns about the health effects of fluorescent lamps. However, even though they contain mercury, the environmental performance of CFLs is much better than that of light bulbs, mostly because they consume much less energy and therefore strongly reduce the environmental impact of power production. LED lamps are even more efficient, and are free of mercury. They are regarded as the best solution in terms of cost effectiveness and robustness.
Some research has been carried out to improve the efficacy of commercial incandescent lamps. In 2007, the consumer lighting division of General Electric announced a "high efficiency incandescent '' (HEI) lamp project, which they claimed would ultimately be as much as four times more efficient than current incandescents, although their initial production goal was to be approximately twice as efficient. The HEI program was terminated in 2008 due to slow progress.
US Department of Energy research at Sandia National Laboratories initially indicated the potential for dramatically improved efficiency from a photonic lattice filament. However, later work indicated that initially promising results were in error.
Prompted by legislation in various countries mandating increased bulb efficiency, new "hybrid '' incandescent bulbs have been introduced by Philips. The "Halogena Energy Saver '' incandescents can produce about 23 lm / W; about 30 percent more efficient than traditional incandescents, by using a reflective capsule to reflect formerly wasted infrared radiation back to the filament from which it can be re-emitted as visible light. This concept was pioneered by Duro - Test in 1980 with a commercial product that produced 29.8 lm / W. More advanced reflectors based on interference filters or photonic crystals can theoretically result in higher efficiency, up to a limit of about 270 lm / W (40 % of the maximum efficacy possible). Laboratory proof - of - concept experiments have produced as much as 45 lm / W, approaching the efficacy of compact fluorescent bulbs.
Incandescent light bulbs consist of an air - tight glass enclosure (the envelope, or bulb) with a filament of tungsten wire inside the bulb, through which an electric current is passed. Contact wires and a base with two (or more) conductors provide electrical connections to the filament. Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass mount anchored to the bulb 's base that allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope without air or gas leaks. Small wires embedded in the stem in turn support the filament and its lead wires.
An electric current heats the filament to typically 2,000 to 3,300 K (3,140 to 5,480 ° F), well below tungsten 's melting point of 3,695 K (6,191 ° F). Filament temperatures depend on the filament type, shape, size, and amount of current drawn. The heated filament emits light that approximates a continuous spectrum. The useful part of the emitted energy is visible light, but most energy is given off as heat in the near - infrared wavelengths.
Three - way light bulbs have two filaments and three conducting contacts in their bases. The filaments share a common ground, and can be lit separately or together. Common wattages include 30 -- 70 -- 100, 50 -- 100 -- 150, and 100 -- 200 -- 300, with the first two numbers referring to the individual filaments, and the third giving the combined wattage.
Most light bulbs have either clear or coated glass. The coated glass bulbs have a white powdery substance on the inside called kaolin. Kaolin, or kaolinite, is a white, chalky clay in a very fine powder form, that is blown in and electrostatically deposited on the interior of the bulb. It diffuses the light emitted from the filament, producing a more gentle and evenly distributed light. Manufacturers may add pigments to the kaolin to adjust the characteristics of the final light emitted from the bulb. Kaolin diffused bulbs are used extensively in interior lighting because of their comparatively gentle light. Other kinds of colored bulbs are also made, including the various colors used for "party bulbs '', Christmas tree lights and other decorative lighting. These are created by coloring the glass with a dopant; which is often a metal like cobalt (blue) or chromium (green). Neodymium - containing glass is sometimes used to provide a more natural - appearing light.
Many arrangements of electrical contacts are used. Large lamps may have a screw base (one or more contacts at the tip, one at the shell) or a bayonet base (one or more contacts on the base, shell used as a contact or used only as a mechanical support). Some tubular lamps have an electrical contact at either end. Miniature lamps may have a wedge base and wire contacts, and some automotive and special purpose lamps have screw terminals for connection to wires. Contacts in the lamp socket allow the electric current to pass through the base to the filament. Power ratings for incandescent light bulbs range from about 0.1 watt to about 10,000 watts.
The glass bulb of a general service lamp can reach temperatures between 200 and 260 ° C (392 and 500 ° F). Lamps intended for high power operation or used for heating purposes will have envelopes made of hard glass or fused quartz.
The bulb is filled with an inert gas, to reduce evaporation of the filament and prevent its oxidation at a pressure of about 70 kPa (0.7 atm).
The role of the gas is to prevent evaporation of the filament, without introducing significant heat losses. For these properties, chemical inertness and high atomic or molecular weight is desirable. The presence of gas molecules knocks the liberated tungsten atoms back to the filament, reducing its evaporation and allowing it to be operated at higher temperature without reducing its life (or, for operating at the same temperature, prolongs the filament life). It however introduces heat losses (and therefore efficiency loss) from the filament, by heat conduction and heat convection.
Early lamps, and some small modern lamps used only a vacuum to protect the filament from oxygen. This however increases evaporation of the filament, albeit it eliminates the heat losses.
The most common fills are:
The gas fill must be free of traces of water. In the presence of the hot filament, water reacts with tungsten forming tungsten trioxide and atomic hydrogen. The oxide deposits on the bulb inner surface and reacts with hydrogen, decomposing to metallic tungsten and water. Water then cycles back to the filament. This greatly accelerates the bulb blackening, in comparison with evaporation - only.
The gas layer close to the filament (called the Langmuir layer) is stagnant, heat transfer occurs only by conduction. Only at some distance does convection occur to carry heat to the bulb envelope.
The orientation of the filament influences efficiency. Gas flow parallel to the filament, e.g. a vertically oriented bulb with vertical (or axial) filament, reduces convective losses.
The efficiency of the lamp increases with a larger filament diameter. Thin - filament, low - power bulbs benefit less from a fill gas, so are often only evacuated. In special cases, when rapid cooling of a filament is needed (e.g. in flashing lights), hydrogen gas fill is used.
Early lightbulbs with carbon filaments also used carbon monoxide, nitrogen, or mercury vapor. Carbon filaments however operate at lower temperatures than tungsten ones, so the effect of the fill gas was not significant as the heat losses offset any benefits.
Early lamps were laboriously assembled by hand. After automatic machinery was developed the cost of lamps fell.
In manufacturing the glass bulb, a type of "ribbon machine '' is used. A continuous ribbon of glass is passed along a conveyor belt, heated in a furnace, and then blown by precisely aligned air nozzles through holes in the conveyor belt into molds. Thus the glass bulbs are created. After the bulbs are blown, and cooled, they are cut off the ribbon machine; a typical machine of this sort produces 50,000 bulbs per hour. The filament and its supports are assembled on a glass stem, which is fused to the bulb. The air is pumped out of the bulb, and the evacuation tube in the stem press is sealed by a flame. The bulb is then inserted into the lamp base, and the whole assembly tested.
The first successful light bulb filaments were made of carbon (from carbonized paper or bamboo). Early carbon filaments had a negative temperature coefficient of resistance -- as they got hotter, their electrical resistance decreased. This made the lamp sensitive to fluctuations in the power supply, since a small increase of voltage would cause the filament to heat up, reducing its resistance and causing it to draw even more power and heat even further. In the "flashing '' process, carbon filaments were heated by current passing through them while in an evacuated vessel containing hydrocarbon vapor (usually gasoline). The carbon deposited on the filament by this treatment improved the uniformity and strength of filaments as well as their efficiency. A metallized or "graphitized '' filament was first heated in a high - temperature oven before flashing and lamp assembly. This transformed the carbon into graphite which further strengthened and smoothed the filament. This also changed the filament to have a positive temperature coefficient, like a metallic conductor, and helped stabilize the lamp 's power consumption, temperature and light output against minor variations in supply voltage.
In 1902, the Siemens company developed a tantalum lamp filament. These lamps were more efficient than even graphitized carbon filaments and could operate at higher temperatures. Since tantalum metal has a lower resistivity than carbon, the tantalum lamp filament was quite long and required multiple internal supports. The metal filament had the property of gradually shortening in use; the filaments were installed with large loops that tightened in use. This made lamps in use for several hundred hours quite fragile. Metal filaments had the property of breaking and re-welding, though this would usually decrease resistance and shorten the life of the filament. General Electric bought the rights to use tantalum filaments and produced them in the US until 1913.
From 1898 to around 1905, osmium was also used as a lamp filament in Europe, and the metal was so expensive that used broken lamps could be returned for partial credit. It could not be made for 110 V or 220 V so several lamps were wired in series for use on standard voltage circuits.
In 1906, the tungsten filament was introduced. Tungsten metal was initially not available in a form that allowed it to be drawn into fine wires. Filaments made from sintered tungsten powder were quite fragile. By 1910, a process was developed by William D. Coolidge at General Electric for production of a ductile form of tungsten. The process required pressing tungsten powder into bars, then several steps of sintering, swaging, and then wire drawing. It was found that very pure tungsten formed filaments that sagged in use, and that a very small "doping '' treatment with potassium, silicon, and aluminium oxides at the level of a few hundred parts per million greatly improved the life and durability of the tungsten filaments.
To improve the efficiency of the lamp, the filament usually consists of multiple coils of coiled fine wire, also known as a ' coiled coil '. Light bulbs using coiled coil filaments are sometimes referred to as ' double - coil bulbs '. For a 60 - watt 120 - volt lamp, the uncoiled length of the tungsten filament is usually 22.8 inches (580 mm), and the filament diameter is 0.0018 inches (0.046 mm). The advantage of the coiled coil is that evaporation of the tungsten filament is at the rate of a tungsten cylinder having a diameter equal to that of the coiled coil. The coiled - coil filament evaporates more slowly than a straight filament of the same surface area and light - emitting power. As a result, the filament can then run hotter, which results in a more efficient light source, while reducing the evaporation so that the filament will last longer than a straight filament at the same temperature.
There are several different shapes of filament used in lamps, with differing characteristics. Manufacturers designate the types with codes such as C - 6, CC - 6, C - 2V, CC - 2V, C - 8, CC - 88, C - 2F, CC - 2F, C - Bar, C - Bar - 6, C - 8I, C - 2R, CC - 2R, and Axial.
Electrical filaments are also used in hot cathodes of fluorescent lamps and vacuum tubes as a source of electrons or in vacuum tubes to heat an electron - emitting electrode.
One of the problems of the standard electric light bulb is filament notching due to evaporation of the filament. Small variations in resistivity along the filament cause "hot spots '' to form at points of higher resistivity; a variation of diameter of only 1 % will cause a 25 % reduction in service life. These hot spots evaporate faster than the rest of the filament, which increases the resistance at that point -- this creates a positive feedback that ends in the familiar tiny gap in an otherwise healthy - looking filament. Irving Langmuir found that an inert gas, instead of vacuum, would retard evaporation. General service incandescent light bulbs over about 25 watts in rating are now filled with a mixture of mostly argon and some nitrogen, or sometimes krypton. Lamps operated on direct current develop random stairstep irregularities on the filament surface which may cut lifespan in half compared to AC operation; different alloys of tungsten and rhenium can be used to counteract the effect.
Since a filament breaking in a gas - filled bulb can form an electric arc, which may spread between the terminals and draw very heavy current, intentionally thin lead - in wires or more elaborate protection devices are therefore often used as fuses built into the light bulb. More nitrogen is used in higher - voltage lamps to reduce the possibility of arcing.
While inert gas reduces filament evaporation, it also conducts heat from the filament, thereby cooling the filament and reducing efficiency. At constant pressure and temperature, the thermal conductivity of a gas depends upon the molecular weight of the gas and the cross sectional area of the gas molecules. Higher molecular weight gasses have lower thermal conductivity, because both the molecular weight is higher and also the cross sectional area is higher. Xenon gas improves efficiency because of its high molecular weight, but is also more expensive, so its use is limited to smaller lamps.
During ordinary operation, the tungsten of the filament evaporates; hotter, more - efficient filaments evaporate faster. Because of this, the lifetime of a filament lamp is a trade - off between efficiency and longevity. The trade - off is typically set to provide a lifetime of several hundred to 2,000 hours for lamps used for general illumination. Theatrical, photographic, and projection lamps may have a useful life of only a few hours, trading life expectancy for high output in a compact form. Long - life general service lamps have lower efficiency but are used where the cost of changing the lamp is high compared to the value of energy used.
If a light bulb envelope leaks, the hot tungsten filament reacts with air, yielding an aerosol of brown tungsten nitride, brown tungsten dioxide, violet - blue tungsten pentoxide, and yellow tungsten trioxide that then deposits on the nearby surfaces or the bulb interior.
In a conventional lamp, the evaporated tungsten eventually condenses on the inner surface of the glass envelope, darkening it. For bulbs that contain a vacuum, the darkening is uniform across the entire surface of the envelope. When a filling of inert gas is used, the evaporated tungsten is carried in the thermal convection currents of the gas, depositing preferentially on the uppermost part of the envelope and blackening just that portion of the envelope. An incandescent lamp that gives 93 % or less of its initial light output at 75 % of its rated life is regarded as unsatisfactory, when tested according to IEC Publication 60064. Light loss is due to filament evaporation and bulb blackening. Study of the problem of bulb blackening led to the discovery of the Edison effect, thermionic emission and invention of the vacuum tube.
A very small amount of water vapor inside a light bulb can significantly affect lamp darkening. Water vapor dissociates into hydrogen and oxygen at the hot filament. The oxygen attacks the tungsten metal, and the resulting tungsten oxide particles travel to cooler parts of the lamp. Hydrogen from water vapor reduces the oxide, reforming water vapor and continuing this water cycle. The equivalent of a drop of water distributed over 500,000 lamps will significantly increase darkening. Small amounts of substances such as zirconium are placed within the lamp as a getter to react with any oxygen that may bake out of the lamp components during operation.
Some old, high - powered lamps used in theater, projection, searchlight, and lighthouse service with heavy, sturdy filaments contained loose tungsten powder within the envelope. From time to time, the operator would remove the bulb and shake it, allowing the tungsten powder to scrub off most of the tungsten that had condensed on the interior of the envelope, removing the blackening and brightening the lamp again.
The halogen lamp reduces uneven evaporation of the filament and eliminates darkening of the envelope by filling the lamp with a halogen gas at low pressure, rather than an inert gas. The halogen cycle increases the lifetime of the bulb and prevents its darkening by redepositing tungsten from the inside of the bulb back onto the filament. The halogen lamp can operate its filament at a higher temperature than a standard gas filled lamp of similar power without loss of operating life. Such bulbs are much smaller than normal incandescent bulbs, and are widely used where intense illumination is needed in a limited space. Fiber - optic lamps for optical microscopy is one typical application.
A variation of the incandescent lamp did not use a hot wire filament, but instead used an arc struck on a spherical bead electrode to produce heat. The electrode then became incandescent, with the arc contributing little to the light produced. Such lamps were used for projection or illumination for scientific instruments such as microscopes. These arc lamps ran on relatively low voltages and incorporated tungsten filaments to start ionization within the envelope. They provided the intense concentrated light of an arc lamp but were easier to operate. Developed around 1915, these lamps were displaced by mercury and xenon arc lamps.
Incandescent lamps are nearly pure resistive loads with a power factor of 1. This means the actual power consumed (in watts) and the apparent power (in volt - amperes) are equal. Incandescent light bulbs are usually marketed according to the electrical power consumed. This is measured in watts and depends mainly on the resistance of the filament, which in turn depends mainly on the filament 's length, thickness, and material. For two bulbs of the same voltage, type, color, and clarity, the higher - powered bulb gives more light.
The table shows the approximate typical output, in lumens, of standard incandescent light bulbs at various powers. Light output of a 230 V version is usually slightly less than that of a 120 V version. The lower current (higher voltage) filament is thinner and has to be operated at a slightly lower temperature for same life expectancy, and that reduces energy efficiency. The lumen values for "soft white '' bulbs will generally be slightly lower than for clear bulbs at the same power.
The actual resistance of the filament is temperature dependent. The cold resistance of tungsten - filament lamps is about 1 / 15 the hot - filament resistance when the lamp is operating. For example, a 100 - watt, 120 - volt lamp has a resistance of 144 ohms when lit, but the cold resistance is much lower (about 9.5 ohms). Since incandescent lamps are resistive loads, simple phase - control TRIAC dimmers can be used to control brightness. Electrical contacts may carry a "T '' rating symbol indicating that they are designed to control circuits with the high inrush current characteristic of tungsten lamps. For a 100 - watt, 120 - volt general - service lamp, the current stabilizes in about 0.10 seconds, and the lamp reaches 90 % of its full brightness after about 0.13 seconds.
Carbon filament bulbs have the opposite characteristic. The resistance of a carbon filament is higher when it is cold than when it is operating. In the case of a 240 Volt, 60 Watt carbon filament bulb, the resistance of the filament when at operating temperature is 960 Ohms, but rises to around 1500 Ohms when cold.
Incandescent light bulbs come in a range of shapes and sizes. The names of the shapes vary somewhat from region to regions. Many of these shapes have a designation consisting of one or more letters followed by one or more numbers, e.g. A55 or PAR38. The letters represent the shape of the bulb. The numbers represent the maximum diameter, either in ⁄ of an inch, or in millimeters, depending on the shape and the region. For example, 63 mm reflectors are designated R63, but in the US, they are known as R20 (2.5 in). However, in both regions, a PAR38 reflector is known as PAR38. ANSI C79. 1 - 2002, IS 14897: 2000 and JIS C 7710: 1988 cover a common terminology for bulb shapes.
Common shapes:
Very small lamps may have the filament support wires extended through the base of the lamp, and can be directly soldered to a printed circuit board for connections. Some reflector - type lamps include screw terminals for connection of wires. Most lamps have metal bases that fit in a socket to support the lamp and conduct current to the filament wires. In the late 19th century, manufacturers introduced a multitude of incompatible lamp bases. General Electric introduced standard base sizes for tungsten incandescent lamps under the Mazda trademark in 1909. This standard was soon adopted across the US, and the Mazda name was used by many manufacturers under license through 1945. Today most incandescent lamps for general lighting service use an Edison screw in candelabra, intermediate, or standard or mogul sizes, or double contact bayonet base. Technical standards for lamp bases include ANSI standard C81. 67 and IEC standard 60061 - 1 for common commercial lamp sizes, to ensure interchangeablitity between different manufacturer 's products. Bayonet base lamps are frequently used in automotive lamps to resist loosening due to vibration. A bipin base is often used for halogen or reflector lamps.
Lamp bases may be secured to the bulb with a cement, or by mechanical crimping to indentations molded into the glass bulb.
Miniature lamps used for some automotive lamps or decorative lamps have wedge bases that have a partial plastic or even completely glass base. In this case, the wires wrap around to the outside of the bulb, where they press against the contacts in the socket. Miniature Christmas bulbs use a plastic wedge base as well.
Lamps intended for use in optical systems such as film projectors, microscope illuminators, or stage lighting instruments have bases with alignment features so that the filament is positioned accurately within the optical system. A screw - base lamp may have a random orientation of the filament when the lamp is installed in the socket.
Incandescent lamps are very sensitive to changes in the supply voltage. These characteristics are of great practical and economic importance.
For a supply voltage V near the rated voltage of the lamp:
This means that a 5 % reduction in operating voltage will more than double the life of the bulb, at the expense of reducing its light output by about 16 %. This may be a very acceptable trade off for a light bulb that is in a difficult - to - access location (for example, traffic lights or fixtures hung from high ceilings). Long - life bulbs take advantage of this trade - off. Since the value of the electric power they consume is much more than the value of the lamp, general service lamps emphasize efficiency over long operating life. The objective is to minimize the cost of light, not the cost of lamps. Early bulbs had a life of up to 2500 hours, but in 1924 a cartel agreed to limit life to 1000 hours. When this was exposed in 1953, General Electric and other leading American manufacturers were banned from limiting the life.
The relationships above are valid for only a few percent change of voltage around rated conditions, but they do indicate that a lamp operated at much lower than rated voltage could last for hundreds of times longer than at rated conditions, albeit with greatly reduced light output. The "Centennial Light '' is a light bulb that is accepted by the Guinness Book of World Records as having been burning almost continuously at a fire station in Livermore, California, since 1901. However, the bulb emits the equivalent light of a four watt bulb. A similar story can be told of a 40 - watt bulb in Texas that has been illuminated since 21 September 1908. It once resided in an opera house where notable celebrities stopped to take in its glow, and was moved to an area museum in 1977.
In flood lamps used for photographic lighting, the tradeoff is made in the other direction. Compared to general - service bulbs, for the same power, these bulbs produce far more light, and (more importantly) light at a higher color temperature, at the expense of greatly reduced life (which may be as short as two hours for a type P1 lamp). The upper temperature limit for the filament is the melting point of the metal. Tungsten is the metal with the highest melting point, 3,695 K (6,191 ° F). A 50 - hour - life projection bulb, for instance, is designed to operate only 50 ° C (122 ° F) below that melting point. Such a lamp may achieve up to 22 lumens per watt, compared with 17.5 for a 750 - hour general service lamp.
Lamps designed for different voltages have different luminous efficacy. For example, a 100 - watt, 120 - volt lamp will produce about 17.1 lumens per watt. A lamp with the same rated lifetime but designed for 230 V would produce only around 12.8 lumens per watt, and a similar lamp designed for 30 volts (train lighting) would produce as much as 19.8 lumens per watt. Lower voltage lamps have a thicker filament, for the same power rating. They can run hotter for the same lifetime before the filament evaporates.
The wires used to support the filament make it mechanically stronger, but remove heat, creating another tradeoff between efficiency and long life. Many general - service 120 - volt lamps use no additional support wires, but lamps designed for "rough service '' or "vibration service '' may have as many as five. Low - voltage lamps have filaments made of heavier wire and do not require additional support wires.
Very low voltages are inefficient since the lead wires would conduct too much heat away from the filament, so the practical lower limit for incandescent lamps is 1.5 volts. Very long filaments for high voltages are fragile, and lamp bases become more difficult to insulate, so lamps for illumination are not made with rated voltages over 300 volts. Some infrared heating elements are made for higher voltages, but these use tubular bulbs with widely separated terminals.
The Centennial Light is the longest - lasting light bulb in the world.
Various lighting spectra as viewed in a diffraction grating. Upper left: fluorescent lamp, upper right: incandescent bulb, lower left: white LED, lower right: candle flame.
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where did they film once upon a time in mexico | Once Upon a Time in Mexico - wikipedia
Once Upon a Time in Mexico (also known as Desperado 2) is a 2003 American contemporary western action film written, directed, produced, photographed, scored, and edited by Robert Rodriguez. It is the third and final film in Rodriguez 's Mexico Trilogy, and is a sequel to El Mariachi and Desperado. The film features Antonio Banderas in his second and final performance as El Mariachi. In the film, El Mariachi is recruited by CIA agent Sheldon Sands (Johnny Depp) to kill Armando Barillo (Willem Dafoe), a Mexican drug lord who is planning a coup d'état against the President of Mexico. At the same time, El Mariachi seeks revenge against a corrupt general responsible for the death of his wife, Carolina (Salma Hayek).
It was Rodriguez ' first big budget film to be shot in digital HD. Once Upon a Time in Mexico received positive reviews but was criticized for reducing its protagonist to an almost secondary character in his own trilogy and for having a convoluted plot. In the special features of the film 's DVD, Rodriguez explained this was intended, as he wanted this to be The Good, the Bad and the Ugly of the trilogy. Once Upon a Time in Mexico grossed $98 million.
El Mariachi is recruited by CIA agent Sheldon Sands to kill General Emiliano Marquez, a corrupt Mexican Army officer who has been hired by Mexican drug lord Armando Barillo to assassinate the President of Mexico and overthrow the government. Many years before, El Mariachi and his wife Carolina confronted Marquez in a shootout and wounded the general; in retaliation, Marquez took the lives of Carolina and their daughter in an ambush. In addition to El Mariachi, Sands persuades former FBI agent Jorge Ramírez to come out of retirement and kill Barillo, who had murdered his partner Archuleta in the past. Furthermore, AFN operative Ajedrez is assigned by Sands to tail Barillo.
While monitoring Barillo 's activities, Ramírez meets Billy Chambers, an American fugitive who has been living under the protection of Barillo, but can no longer stomach the horrible tasks he 's been forced to carry out for him. Ramírez convinces Chambers he will provide him protection in exchange for getting closer to Barillo by tagging Chambers ' pet chihuahua with a hidden microphone, and Chambers agrees to complete the deal by surrendering to U.S. authorities once Barillo has been taken down. Sands ' assistant, Cucuy, originally hired to keep an eye on El Mariachi, instead tranquilizes El Mariachi and turns him over to Barillo, also offering to reveal the details of Sands 's plan. Cucuy, however, is promptly killed by Chambers while El Mariachi escapes from captivity and calls his friends Lorenzo and Fideo to assist him in his mission.
While monitoring Barillo 's activity outside a hospital, Ramírez notices armed men storming the building and follows suit. He discovers that a group of doctors have been gunned down and Barillo has bled to death as a result of a botched facial reconstruction, but realizes that the corpse on the operating table is a body double before he is knocked out and kidnapped by the real Barillo and Ajedrez, who reveals herself to be Barillo 's daughter. Sands realizes his mission has been compromised, but is too late, as he is captured by Barillo and Ajedrez -- who drill out his eyes before sending him out. Despite his blindness, he manages to gun down a hitman tailing him with the aid of a chiclet boy.
As the village celebrates the Day of the Dead during the President 's visit, Marquez and his army storm in and attack the presidential palace. Marquez 's troops, however, are met with resistance from not only the President 's bodyguards, but the villagers and the Mariachis. Sands had instructed El Mariachi to allow the President to be killed before attacking Marquez, but the Mariachis, agreeing that the President is a good man, intervene early and protect him. Marquez enters the presidential palace, only to once again confront El Mariachi, who shoots out his kneecaps before finishing him off with a headshot. Ramírez, who was released from captivity by Chambers, faces Barillo. After Barillo guns down Chambers, Ramírez and El Mariachi kill the drug lord. Sands manages to shoot the sadistic Ajedrez dead outside the presidential palace. Ultimately, Lorenzo and Fideo walk away with the cash that Barillo was using to pay Marquez, and escort the president to safety. Ramírez says goodbye to Sands and walks away, having avenged his partner 's death. El Mariachi then gives his share of the cash to his village before walking into the sunset.
In a 2003 issue of Rolling Stone, Depp was named as one of its "People of the Year '', and gave an interview in which he briefly discussed his role as Sands:
"The idea behind him is there was this guy I used to know in Hollywood, in the business, who on the outside was very charming -- soft - spoken and almost hypnotic in the rhythm he used to speak. He refused to call me Johnny -- always called me John. You knew this guy was aiming to fuck you over, but somehow you stuck around because he was just so fascinating to watch. ''
Depp also said in an Entertainment Weekly article that he "imagine (d) this guy wore really cheesy tourist shirts '', that he had a "sideline obsession with Broadway '', and that he favored strange, obvious disguises -- all three qualities can be observed in the film. It was also revealed in the director 's commentary on the DVD that Depp himself came up with the character 's first and middle names.
Made on a US $29 million budget, the film was shot in May 2001 before Spy Kids 2: The Island of Lost Dreams (2002) and Spy Kids 3 - D: Game Over (2003) in order to avoid a potential Screen Actors Guild strike. Shooting took place over seven weeks in San Miguel de Allende and Guanajuato, Mexico. It was the first big budget film to be shot in high definition digital video. Rodriguez chose to shoot on digital after George Lucas, who was shooting Star Wars: Episode II -- Attack of the Clones, showed him early footage shot digitally. Impressed, Rodriguez chose to shoot digitally, but he knew he did not have enough time to shoot Spy Kids 2. Instead, he pitched a sequel to Desperado to Miramax and wrote a script in six days. The initial draft was 65 pages long, which he padded with a subplot borrowed from an unproduced short film. When Miramax expressed hesitation over the added subplot, he readily removed it. His primary influence was Sergio Leone 's Dollars Trilogy, specifically The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly. Rodriguez said shooting digitally saved time and money, simplified the filming process, and rendered 35 mm film obsolete for him.
The film 's score includes songs composed by director Robert Rodriguez and performed by a group of musicians gathered specifically for the soundtrack recording. Tracks performed by the group includes "Malagueña '' with guitar by Brian Setzer and "Siente Mi Amor '', with singing by Salma Hayek. Track 9, "Sands ' Theme '', credited to "Tonto 's Giant Nuts '', was written by Johnny Depp. Additional music includes Juno Reactor 's "Pistolero '', "Me Gustas Tú '' by Manu Chao, and "Cuka Rocka '' by Rodriguez ' own rock band, Chingon. On the DVD director commentary, Robert Rodriguez states that he requested that each of the main actors give him four or eight notes of a melody for their character, but Depp presented him with the entire track.
Sony 's AXN channel confirmed that it will be airing a TV series adaptation of El Mariachi franchise. The series was to have premiered on March 20, 2014.
Once Upon a Time in Mexico was released on September 12, 2003 in 3,282 theaters with an opening weekend gross of USD $23.4 million. It went on to make $56.4 million in North America and $41.8 in the rest of the world for a combined total of $98.2 million on a $29 million budget.
Rotten Tomatoes reports that 68 % of 163 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 6.3 / 10. The site 's consensus reads: "Violent, pulpy, loopy fun, with Depp stealing the show. '' Metacritic rated it 56 / 100 based on 34 reviews.
Chicago Sun - Times film critic Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars and wrote, "Like Leone 's movie, the Rodriguez epic is more interested in the moment, in great shots, in surprises and ironic reversals and closeups of sweaty faces, than in a coherent story. '' A.O. Scott wrote in his review for The New York Times, "But in the end, the punched - up editing and vibrant color schemes start to grow tiresome, and Mr. Rodriguez, bored with his own gimmickry and completely out of ideas, responds by pushing the violence to needlessly grotesque extremes. ''
In her review for USA Today, Claudia Puig wrote, "In Mexico, Rodriguez has fashioned a swaggering fantasy that pays homage to spaghetti Westerns such as Sergio Leone 's The Good, the Bad and the Ugly. Plenty of blood is shed, lots of powerful artillery is fired, and action sequences provide astounding car crashes and fiery explosions. '' Entertainment Weekly gave the film a "B '' rating and praised Depp 's performance with its "winking grace notes of Brandoesque flakery... is as minimal and laid - back as his Pirates of the Caribbean turn was deep - dish theatrical ''.
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who has won the most dally m awards | Dally M Medal - wikipedia
The Dally M Medal is awarded each year (annually) to the player voted for as the ' Player of the year ' over the entire National Rugby League (NRL) regular season. The award has existed since 1980, but has only been adopted as the official award for the Player of the Year in the NRL since 1998. Prior to that the official Player of the Year, in both the New South Wales and the Brisbane Rugby Leagues, received the Rothmans Medal whilst the Dally M Medal was awarded by the Daily Mirror newspaper.
After each game, rugby league sports commentators vote to award three votes to the best player, two votes to the second - best player, and one vote to the third - best player. Additionally, a player will lose three votes for each week of suspension that he incurs during the season. The votes for each round are made public up to Round 16 (26 - round season), then are kept secret; this allows the final winner to be kept secret until the Dally M Awards ceremony.
The Rothmans Medal was the first official player - of - the - year award to be established in rugby league in Australia. The medal was sponsored by Rothmans, Benson & Hedges Inc., a tobacco production company. There were two Rothmans Medals awarded each year: one for the best player in the New South Wales Rugby League, and one for the best player in the Brisbane Rugby League. The voting for the Rothmans Medal was the same basic format as the modern day Dally M, except that the votes were determined by the referees, rather than the media.
The two Rothmans Medals were first awarded in 1968, and were awarded each year until 1996. In 1997, the Rothmans Medal in New South Wales became known as the Provan - Summons medal, because all tobacco advertising and sponsorship was prohibited in Australia in 1992, under the Tobacco Advertising Prohibition Act 1992; the medal then disappeared altogether in 1998 with the merger of the Australian Rugby League and the Australian Super League. The Queensland Rothmans Medal was also last awarded in 1996, as the Queensland Cup superseded the Brisbane Rugby League as Queensland 's premier rugby league competition in 1997.
The Dally M Medal was named after Henry Herbert ' Dally ' Messenger, who was instrumental in the establishment of rugby league football in Australia. The award was originally established in 1980 by The Daily Mirror newspaper in 1980. For many years, it was the second major individual award in the New South Wales Rugby League behind the Rothmans Medal. It was awarded each year between 1980 and 1996. With the Super League schism in 1997, the medal was not awarded.
Since the National Rugby League (NRL) was formed from the merger of the Australian Rugby League and the Australian Super League in 1998, the Dally M Medal has been the single official player - of - the - year award for that league, and the highest individual honour in Australian rugby league. The medal is awarded, usually by the Australian Prime Minister, at the annual Dally M Awards night where as well as honoring the player of the year, the NRL recognizes the premier player in each position, the best coach and the most outstanding rookie of the season.
The medal was notably not awarded in 2003, with the players first threatening to boycott the event, followed by the league cancelling the event, during a pay dispute between the league and the players association which was going on at the time. Penrith 's Craig Gower, who led by one vote entering the final round and was unofficially considered man of the match in the final round, is the player thought to have missed out on winning the award as a result.
1 - Jarryd Hayne and Johnathan Thurston became the 1st joint winners in history of the Dally M Medal in 2014 2 - Cooper Cronk and Jason Taumalolo became the 2nd joint winners in history of the Dally M Medal in 2016
The following players have won the Dally M Medal multiple times.
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pirate who hid his treasure in a certain place | Olivier Levasseur - wikipedia
Olivier Levasseur (1688, 1689, or 1690 -- 7 July 1730), was a pirate, nicknamed La Buse ("The Buzzard '') or La Bouche ("The Mouth '') in his early days, called thus because of the speed and ruthlessness with which he always attacked his enemies. He is also known for allegedly hiding one of the biggest treasures in pirate history, estimated at over £ 1 billion, and leaving a cryptogram behind with its whereabouts.
Born at Calais during the Nine Years ' War (1688 -- 97) to a wealthy bourgeois family, he became a naval officer after receiving an excellent education. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701 -- 1714), he procured a Letter of Marque from king Louis XIV and became a privateer for the French crown. When the war ended he was ordered to return home with his ship, but instead joined the Benjamin Hornigold pirate company in 1716. Levasseur proved himself a good leader and shipmate, although he already had a scar across one eye limiting his sight.
After a year of successful looting, the Hornigold party split, Levasseur partnering briefly with Samuel Bellamy before deciding to try his luck on the West African coast. After William Moody was ejected from command by his disgruntled crew in late 1718, they elected Levasseur as Captain in Moody 's place. In 1719 he operated together with Howell Davis and Thomas Cocklyn (who had also served under Moody) for a time. In 1720, they attacked the slaver port of Ouidah, which was part of the Kingdom of Whydah at the time and is on the coast of what is now Benin, reducing the local fortress to ruins. Later that year, he was shipwrecked in the Mozambique Channel and stranded on the island of Anjouan, one of the Comores. His bad eye had become completely blind by now so he started wearing an eyepatch.
From 1720 onwards he launched his raids from a base on the island of Sainte - Marie, just off the Madagascar coast, together with pirates John Taylor, Jasper Seagar, and Edward England, (no doubt planning to capture one of the Great mughal 's heavily armed but usually heavily laden pilgrim ships to Mecca). His quartermaster at this time was Paulsgrave Williams, who had had been Bellamy 's quartermaster then fellow Captain until Bellamy was killed in a storm off Cape Cod. They first plundered the Laccadives, and sold the loot to Dutch traders for £ 75,000. Levasseur and Taylor eventually got tired of England 's humanity and marooned him on the island of Mauritius.
They then perpetrated one of piracy 's greatest exploits: the capture of the Portuguese great galleon Nossa Senhora do Cabo (Our Lady of the Cape) or Virgem Do Cabo (The Virgin of the Cape), loaded full of treasures belonging to the Bishop of Goa, also called the Patriarch of the East Indies, and the Viceroy of Portugal, who were both on board returning home to Lisbon. The pirates were able to board the vessel without firing a single broadside because the Cabo had been damaged in a storm and to avoid capsizing the crew had dumped all of its 72 cannon overboard, then anchored off Réunion island to undergo repairs. (This incident would later be used by Robert Louis Stevenson in his novel Treasure Island where the galleon is referred to as The Viceroy of the Indies in the account given by his famed fictional character Long John Silver).
The booty consisted of bars of gold and silver, dozens of boxes full of golden Guineas, diamonds, pearls, silk, art and religious objects from the Se Cathedral in Goa, including the Flaming Cross of Goa made of pure gold, inlaid with diamonds, rubies and emeralds. It was so heavy, that it required 3 men to carry it over to Levasseur 's ship. In fact, the treasure was so huge that the pirates did not bother to rob the people on board, something they normally would have done.
When the loot was divided, each pirate received at least £ 50,000 golden Guineas, as well as 42 diamonds each. Seagar died when they sailed to Madagascar to divide their take; Levasseur and Taylor split the remaining gold, silver, and other objects, with Levasseur taking the golden cross.
In 1724, Levasseur sent a negotiator to the governor on the island of Bourbon (today Réunion), to discuss an amnesty that had been offered to all pirates in the Indian Ocean who would give up their practice. However, the French government wanted a large part of the stolen loot back, so Levasseur decided to avoid the amnesty and settled down in secret on the Seychelles archipelago. Eventually he was captured near Fort Dauphin, Madagascar. He was then taken to Saint - Denis, Réunion and hanged for piracy at 5 p.m. on 7 July 1730.
Legend tells that when he stood on the scaffold he had a necklace around his neck, containing a cryptogram of 17 lines, and threw this in the crowd while exclaiming: "Find my treasure, the one who may understand it! '' What became of this necklace is unknown to this day. Many treasure hunters have since tried to decode the cryptogram hoping its solution will lead to this treasure.
In 1923 the widow of a certain Charles Savy named Rose found some carvings in the rocks at Bel Ombre beach near Beau Vallon on the island of Mahé, due to the low water level that year. She found carvings of a dog, snake, turtle, horse, fly, two joined hearts, a keyhole, a staring eye, a ballot box, a figure of a young woman 's body, and the head of a man. A public notary in Victoria heard of this news, and understood those symbols must have been made by pirates. He searched in his archives, and found two possible connections. The first was a map of the Bel Ombre beach, published in Lissabon in 1735. It stated: "owner of the land... la Buse '' (Levasseur).
The second discovery was the last will from the pirate Bernardin Nageon de L'Estang, nicknamed Le Butin, who died seventy years after Levasseur, and claimed to have obtained possession of some of Levasseur 's treasure. It contained 3 cryptograms and 2 letters, one to his nephew:
"I 've lost a lot of documents during shipwreck... I 've already collected several treasures; but there are still four left. You will find them with the key to the combinations and the other papers. ''
and one to his brother:
"(...) Our captain got injured. He made sure I was a Freemason and then entrusted me with his papers and secrets before he died. Promise your oldest son will look for the treasure and fulfill my dream of rebuilding our house. (...) The commander will hand over the documents, there are three. ''
The notary contacted Mrs. Savy, and after some excavations at the "staring eye '' they discovered two coffins containing the remains of two people, identified as pirates by the gold rings in their left ears, as well as a third body without a coffin, but no treasure was found at this location.
In 1947 Englishman Reginald Cruise - Wilkins, a neighbour of Mrs. Savy, studied the documents, but the cryptogram was much more difficult to solve than first believed. Deciphering it could be carried out only by starting from the two letters and the three cryptograms compiled in mysterious alphabet, a rebus, or at least in initiatory writing which could be put in relation to masonic symbolism. Cruise - Wilkins then discovered a connection with the Zodiac, the Clavicles of Solomon, and the Twelve Labours of Hercules. Various tasks, representing the Labours of Hercules, had to be undertaken in strict order. The treasure chamber is somewhere underground and must be approached carefully, to avoid being flooded. It is protected by the tides, which requires damming to hold them back, and is to be approached from the north.
Until his death at Réunion, Cruise - Wilkins sought and dug in the island of Mahé. In a cave, except for old guns, some coins, and pirate sarcophagi, he did not find anything. He died on 3 May 1977 before he broke the last piece of code. His son, Seychellois history teacher John is currently still seeking the treasure, concluding that after using state - of - the - art equipment, he needs "to go back to the old method, (getting) into this guy 's mind, (claiming he is) ten down, two to go in his Herculean Labours. ''
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who plays the role of negan in the walking dead | Jeffrey Dean Morgan - wikipedia
Jeffrey Dean Morgan (born April 22, 1966) is an American actor. He is known for playing John Winchester on Supernatural, Denny Duquette on the medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, The Comedian in the 2009 superhero film Watchmen, Jason Crouse on The Good Wife, and Negan on The Walking Dead.
Morgan was born in Seattle, Washington to Sandy Thomas and Richard Dean Morgan. He attended Ben Franklin Elementary School, Rose Hill Junior High, and Lake Washington High School in Kirkland, Washington, where he played football and captained the basketball team. He went on to play basketball at Skagit Valley College before being sidelined by an injury.
Starting with Uncaged (1991), Morgan has appeared in over 25 feature films. However, the bulk of his work has been in television. He was the star of the 1996 -- 1997 television series The Burning Zone; his character, Dr. Edward Marcase, appeared in 10 out of 19 episodes that season.
In 2005 and 2006, Morgan simultaneously appeared in three television series: in the CW series Supernatural as John Winchester, in a recurring role on ABC 's Grey 's Anatomy as heart transplant patient Denny Duquette, and as Judah Botwin in two episodes of the Showtime series Weeds. He has also guest - starred in a number of television series, including ER; JAG; Walker, Texas Ranger; Angel; CSI: Crime Scene Investigation; Sliders; The O.C.; and Monk. In 2007, Morgan was cast in a proposed project by Grey 's Anatomy creator Shonda Rhimes. The series, tentatively titled "Correspondents '', was to have started production in summer 2007. ABC instead picked up a spin - off of Grey 's Anatomy, called Private Practice, that was also created by Rhimes. As a result, "Correspondents '' was shelved.
In 2007, Morgan starred in the film The Accidental Husband, which finished filming in March 2007 and was released on DVD in 2009.
Morgan starred in the thriller The Resident and the drama film Days of Wrath in 2008.
In 2009, Morgan portrayed The Comedian, a cigar - chomping antihero, in Watchmen, based on Alan Moore 's graphic novel. The same year, Morgan appeared in Taking Woodstock, and played Clay in a comic book movie adaptation of The Losers.
Morgan appeared in the Texas crime thriller Texas Killing Fields as a homicide detective in 2011. The following year, Morgan starred in the television drama series Magic City, which centered on mob life in 1950s Miami. The same year, Morgan appeared in the horror thriller The Possession, and the war film Red Dawn. It was announced in January 2014, that Morgan had been cast in the lead role in Jonás Cuarón 's Desierto.
In 2014, Morgan played Charlie Peters, the owner of the Cake House, in the season finale of Shameless.
In November 2014, Morgan was cast as Joe DiMaggio opposite Kelli Garner as Marilyn Monroe in The Secret Life of Marilyn Monroe, a Lifetime four - hour miniseries based on J. Randy Taraborrelli 's book of the same name.
In 2015, Morgan portrayed Deaf Smith in Texas Rising, a five - part mini-series which aired on the History Channel. Also in 2015, Morgan became a regular cast member for season 2 of the CBS sci - fi drama Extant. He also appeared in an uncredited role in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, as Bruce Wayne 's father, Thomas Wayne.
In 2015, Morgan took on the role of freelance investigator Jason Crouse, opposite Julianna Margulies, in the popular CBS TV series The Good Wife, until that series ' conclusion in spring 2016.
In 2016, Morgan began to portray the character Negan on the AMC TV series The Walking Dead. He made his first appearance in the sixth - season finale on April 3, 2016 and served as the primary antagonist of the seventh and eighth seasons.
On May 28, 2017, Morgan drove the 2017 Chevrolet Corvette Grand Sport Pace Car to lead the starting field of the 101st Indianapolis 500.
In September 2017, Morgan appeared in a commercial for the online game Evony.
On May 30, 1992, Morgan was married to actress Anya Longwell in Las Vegas. In 2007, he was briefly engaged to his former Weeds costar Mary - Louise Parker; their engagement ended in April 2008.
In 2009, Morgan began a relationship with actress Hilarie Burton. The couple 's son Augustus "Gus '' was born in March 2010. In July, 2015, Morgan said that despite media reports to the contrary, he and Burton were not yet married but that they intended to wed when he could get enough time off from work.
Morgan and Burton made their home in the town of Rhinebeck in Dutchess County, New York on a working farm with cows, chickens and alpacas. Since 2014, they have been co-owners (along with Morgan 's friend, actor Paul Rudd) of Samuel 's Sweet Shop, a Rhinebeck candy store they saved from being closed after the previous owner, a friend of theirs, died suddenly.
In a June 2015, appearance on Jimmy Kimmel Live!, he was asked how many children he had and replied "I have one '', referring to his son with Hilarie Burton. In September 2017, it was announced that the couple is expecting their second child, a girl.
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dayalbagh educational institute (deemed university) dayalbagh agra | Dayalbagh Educational Institute - Wikipedia
Dayalbagh Educational Institute or DEI is an educational institution located at Dayalbagh in city of Taj Mahal, Agra. The institute has been given deemed university status by the University Grants Commission of India in 1981. Prof. Prem Kumar Kalra is the Director of Dayalbagh Educational Institute since September, 2013.
Founded as a primary school in 1917, and becoming a technical college in 1927 for training in automobile, electrical and mechanical engineering, it later developed into a Deemed University. Prof. M.B. Lal Sahab, a former Vice Chancellor of the Lucknow University, founded this institution and was also the first director of DEI.
The foundation of DEI goes back to 1917, with the foundation of Radhasoami Educational Institute. Soon after Dayalbagh was founded in 1915, the Radhasoami Satsang Sabha started the Radhasoami Educational Institute, as a co-educational Middle School, open to all, on 1 January 1917 administered by a Managing Committee registered under the Societies Registration Act XXI of 1860. The institute got divided and also spawned new institutions. Within six months, it was raised to the level of a High School; Intermediate classes were started in 1922; it became a Degree College in 1947, with the introduction of B.Com. classes affiliated to Agra University; B. Ed. (B.T.) classes were added in 1951 and the first batch of B.Sc. students was sent up for the final examination in 1955.
A Technical School, which later developed into a College, was started in 1927 for imparting training in automobile, electrical and mechanical engineering, leading to the award of diploma in the concerned branch of the Board of Technical Education, U.P. The Leather Working School, started in 1930, gives instructions in both theory and practice for manufacture of leather goods.
To further the cause of women 's education, Prem Vidyalaya was started in 1930. It is now an Intermediate College. The Women 's Training College was established in 1947 for B.A. and B. Ed. classes. M. Ed. classes were added in 1958. M.A. in Psychology, English and Hindi in 1969 and M.A. (Music) in 1976. Engineering College, affiliated to Agra University, for the degree of B.Sc. (Engineering), was the latest (1950) addition to the chain of educational institutions in Dayalbagh.
Dayalbagh Educational Institute was registered as a body in 1973, which integrated and brought under one umbrella all the educational institutions of Dayalbagh, including the School of Comparative Study of Religion, the School of Languages and the School of Art and Culture.
In 1981 the Ministry of Education, Government of India, conferred the status of an institution deemed to be a University on the Dayalbagh Educational Institute, to implement the new program of undergraduate studies.
In 2002, Professor Sant Saran Bhojwani, a plant embryologist and plant tissue culturist, took over as the Director of DEI.
Prof V.G. Das took over as the Director of the Institution after Prof. Bhojwani 's retirement in 2005. He had his education in Dayalbagh since 1956. He did his B.Sc. Engg. in 1965 from Agra University, ranking I in Electrical Engineering; obtained M. Tech. degree in the same branch of engineering from IIT Kanpur in 1970 and Ph. D. degree from IIT Delhi in 1978.
The institute shot into national spotlight when Neha Sharma, a PhD. scholar was found raped and murdered in the nano - biotechnology lab, with students protesting on the streets of Agra to demand justice.
The campus is situated in Dayalbagh, away from the noise of the city. It is situated at a distance of about two Km. from the city of Agra on its northern periphery. It is conveniently connected to the railway stations and bus - stands by the city bus, rickshaws, auto - rickshaws and taxies.
Coordinates: 27 ° 13 ′ 44 '' N 78 ° 00 ′ 51 '' E / 27.2288 ° N 78.0142 ° E / 27.2288; 78.0142
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what part of the world is saudi arabia located | Saudi Arabia - wikipedia
Saudi Arabia (/ ˌsɔːdi əˈreɪbiə / (listen), / ˌsaʊ - / (listen)), officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a sovereign Arab state in Western Asia constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula. With a land area of approximately 2,150,000 km (830,000 sq mi), Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the Middle East, geographically the fifth - largest in Asia, second - largest in the Arab world after Algeria and 12th - largest in the world. Saudi Arabia is bordered by Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the northeast, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast and Yemen to the south. It is separated from Israel and Egypt by the Gulf of Aqaba. It is the only nation with both a Red Sea coast and a Persian Gulf coast, and most of its terrain consists of arid desert, lowland and mountains.
The area of modern - day Saudi Arabia formerly consisted of four distinct regions: Hejaz, Najd and parts of Eastern Arabia (Al - Ahsa) and Southern Arabia (' Asir). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Ibn Saud. He united the four regions into a single state through a series of conquests beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud. Saudi Arabia has since been an absolute monarchy, effectively a hereditary dictatorship governed along Islamic lines. The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam has been called "the predominant feature of Saudi culture '', with its global spread largely financed by the oil and gas trade. Saudi Arabia is sometimes called "the Land of the Two Holy Mosques '' in reference to Al - Masjid al - Haram (in Mecca) and Al - Masjid an - Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam. As of 2013, the state had a total population of 28.7 million, of which 20 million were Saudi nationals and 8 million were foreigners. As of 2017, the population is 33 million. The state 's official language is Arabic.
Petroleum was discovered on 3 March 1938 and followed up by several other finds in the Eastern Province. Saudi Arabia has since become the world 's largest oil producer and exporter, controlling the world 's second largest oil reserves and the sixth largest gas reserves. The kingdom is categorized as a World Bank high - income economy with a high Human Development Index and is the only Arab country to be part of the G - 20 major economies. However, the economy of Saudi Arabia is the least diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, lacking any significant service or production sector (apart from the extraction of resources). The state has attracted criticism for its treatment of women and use of capital punishment. Saudi Arabia is a monarchical autocracy, has the fourth highest military expenditure in the world and SIPRI found that Saudi Arabia was the world 's second largest arms importer in 2010 -- 2014. Saudi Arabia is considered a regional and middle power. In addition to the GCC, it is an active member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and OPEC.
Following the unification of the Hejaz and Nejd kingdoms, the new state was named al - Mamlakah al - ʻArabīyah as - Suʻūdīyah (a transliteration of المملكة العربية السعودية in Arabic) by royal decree on 23 September 1932 by its founder, Abdulaziz Al Saud (Ibn Saud). Although this is normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia '' in English, it literally means "the Saudi Arab kingdom '', or "the Arab Saudi Kingdom ''.
The word "Saudi '' is derived from the element as - Suʻūdīyah in the Arabic name of the country, which is a type of adjective known as a nisba, formed from the dynastic name of the Saudi royal family, the Al Saud (Arabic: آل سعود ). Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the personal possession of the royal family. Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning "family of '' or "House of '', to the personal name of an ancestor. In the case of the Al Saud, this is the father of the dynasty 's 18th - century founder, Muhammad bin Saud.
There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 125,000 years ago. It is now believed that the first modern humans to spread east across Asia left Africa about 75,000 years ago across the Bab - el - Mandeb connecting Horn of Africa and Arabia. The Arabian peninsula is regarded as a central figure in our understanding of hominin evolution and dispersals. Arabia underwent an extreme environmental fluctuation in the Quaternary that lead to profound evolutionary and demographic changes. Arabia has a rich Lower Paleolithic record, and the quantity of Oldwan - like sites in the region indicate a significant role that Arabia had played in the early hominin colonization of Eurasia
The religions that were followed by the people of the Arabian Peninsula before Islam consisted of indigenous polytheistic beliefs, Arabian Christianity, Nestorian Christianity, Judaism and Zoroastrianism.
Al - Magar was a prehistoric culture whose epicenter lay in modern - day southwestern Najd. Al - Magar is characterized as being one of the first civilizations in the world where widespread domestication of animals occurred, particularly the horse, during the Neolithic period. Aside from horses animals such as sheep, goats, dogs, in particular of the Saluki race, ostriches, falcons and fish were discovered in the form of stone statues and rock engravings. Radiocarbon dating of these and other objects discovered indicate an age of about 9,000 years. The various discoveries reflect the significance of the site as an important ancient civilization and gives it significant pre-historic importance with enough proof and detailed data for re-writing the Neolithic history of the Arabian Peninsula and Saudi Arabia in particular. Al - Magar also reveals additional information about the relationship between human economic activities and inherent climate change, how hunter - gatherer societies became sedentary, how they made use of natural resources available to them, and how they set into motion the domestication of plants and animals.
In November 2017 hunting scenes showing images of most likely domesticated dogs, resembling the Canaan dog, wearing leashes were discovered in Shuwaymis, a hilly region of northwestern Saudi Arabia. These rock engravings date back more than 8000 years, making them the earliest depictions of dogs in the world.
Dilmun is one of the most ancient civilizations in the Middle East and in the world. It was a major trading centre, and, at the height of its power, controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes. The Dilmun encompassed the east large side of the Arabian Peninsula, particularly in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. One of the earliest inscriptions naming Dilmun is that of King Ur - Nanshe of Lagash (c. 2300 BC) discovered in a door - socket: "The ships of Dilmun brought him wood as tribute from foreign lands
Thamud is the name of an ancient civilization in the Hejaz known from the 1st millennium BC to near the time of Muhammad. More than 9,000 Thamudic inscriptions were recorded in south - west Saudi Arabia.
The Nabataeans were an Arab people who inhabited northern Arabia and the Southern Levant, and whose settlements, most prominently the assumed capital city of Raqmu, now called Petra, in CE 37 -- c. 100, gave the name of Nabatene to the borderland between Arabia and Syria, from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. Their loosely controlled trading network, which centered on strings of oases that they controlled, where agriculture was intensively practiced in limited areas, and on the routes that linked them, had no securely defined boundaries in the surrounding desert. Trajan conquered the Nabataean kingdom, annexing it to the Roman Empire, where their individual culture, easily identified by their characteristic finely potted painted ceramics, was adopted into the larger Greco - Roman culture. They were later converted to Christianity. Jane Taylor, a writer, describes them as "one of the most gifted peoples of the ancient world ''.
The kingdom of Lihyan (Arabic: لحيان) or Dedan is an Ancient North Arabian kingdom. It was located in northwestern of the now - day Saudi Arabia, and is known for its Ancient North Arabian inscriptions dating to ca. the 6th to 4th centuries BC.
Kindah was a tribal kingdom that was established in the Najd in central Arabia. Its kings exercised an influence over a number of associated tribes more by personal prestige than by coercive settled authority. Their first capital was Qaryat Dhāt Kāhil, today known as Qaryat al - Fāw.
Shortly before the advent of Islam, apart from urban trading settlements (such as Mecca and Medina), much of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic pastoral tribal societies. The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 571 CE. In the early 7th century, Muhammad united the various tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering huge and unprecedented swathes of territory (from the Iberian Peninsula in west to modern day Pakistan in east) in a matter of decades. Arabia soon became a more politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the vast and newly conquered lands.
Arab dynasties, originating from modern - day Saudi Arabia, Hejaz in particular, founded the Rashidun (632 -- 661), Umayyad (661 -- 750), Abbasid (750 -- 1517) and the Fatimid (909 -- 1171) caliphates.
From the 10th century to the early 20th century Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as the Sharif of Mecca, but at most times the Sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based in Baghdad, Cairo or Istanbul. Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule.
For much of the 10th century the Isma'ili - Shi'ite Qarmatians were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf. In 930, the Qarmatians pillaged Mecca, outraging the Muslim world, particularly with their theft of the Black Stone. In 1077 -- 1078, an Arab Sheikh named Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni defeated the Qarmatians in Bahrain and Al - Hasa with the help of the Great Seljuq Empire and founded the Uyunid dynasty. The Uyunid Emirate later underwent expansion with its territory stretching from Najd to the Syrian desert. They were overthrown by the Usfurids in 1253. Ufsurid rule was weakened after Persian rulers of Hormuz captured Bahrain and Qatif in 1320. The vassals of Ormuz, the Shia Jarwanid dynasty came to rule eastern Arabia in the 14th century. The Jabrids took control of the region after overthrowing the Jarwanids in the 15th century and clashed with Hormuz for more than 2 decades over the region for its economic revenues, until finally agreeing to pay tribute in 1507. Al - Muntafiq tribe later took over the region and came under Ottoman suzerainty. The Bani Khalid tribe later revolted against them in 17th century and took control. Their rule extended from Iraq to Oman at its height and they too came under Ottoman suzerainty.
In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, Asir and Al - Ahsa) to the Empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was to thwart Portuguese attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean. Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the Empire 's central authority.
The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began in Nejd in central Arabia in 1744, when Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab, founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam. This alliance formed in the 18th century provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today.
The first "Saudi state '' established in 1744 in the area around Riyadh, rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present - day territory of Saudi Arabia, sacking Karbala in 1802 and capturing Mecca in 1803, but was destroyed by 1818 by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha. A much smaller second "Saudi state '', located mainly in Nejd, was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a suzerainty over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers, with the Sharif of Mecca having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz. In 1902, Abdul Rahman 's son, Abdul Aziz -- later to be known as Ibn Saud -- recaptured control of Riyadh bringing the Al Saud back to Nejd. Ibn Saud gained the support of the Ikhwan, a tribal army inspired by Wahhabism and led by Faisal Al - Dawish, and which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912. With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured Al - Ahsa from the Ottomans in 1913.
In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain (which was fighting the Ottomans in World War I), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state. Although the Arab Revolt of 1916 to 1918 failed in its objective, the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia.
Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt, and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter 's final defeat, he took the title Sultan of Nejd in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Hejaz was conquered in 1924 -- 25 and on 10 January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself King of the Hejaz. A year later, he added the title of King of Nejd. For the next five years, he administered the two parts of his dual kingdom as separate units.
After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership 's objective switched to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territories. This met with Ibn Saud 's opposition, as he recognized the danger of a direct conflict with the British. At the same time, the Ikhwan became disenchanted with Ibn Saud 's domestic policies which appeared to favor modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two - year struggle, were defeated in 1929 at the Battle of Sabilla, where their leaders were massacred. In 1932 the two kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd were united as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
The new kingdom was reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues. In 1938, vast reserves of oil were discovered in the Al - Ahsa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and full - scale development of the oil fields began in 1941 under the US - controlled Aramco (Arabian American Oil Company). Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally.
Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the center for newspapers and radio. However, the large influx of foreign workers in Saudi Arabia in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for xenophobia. At the same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing.
In 1953, Saud of Saudi Arabia succeeded as the king of Saudi Arabia, on his father 's death, until 1964 when he was deposed in favor of his half brother Faisal of Saudi Arabia, after an intense rivalry, fueled by doubts in the royal family over Saud 's competence. In 1972, Saudi Arabia gained a 20 % control in Aramco, thereby decreasing US control over Saudi oil.
In 1973, Saudi Arabia led an oil boycott against the Western countries that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria. Oil prices quadrupled. In 1975, Faisal was assassinated by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musaid and was succeeded by his half - brother King Khalid.
By 1976, Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world. Khalid 's reign saw economic and social development progress at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country; in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed. In 1979, two events occurred which greatly concerned the government, and had a long - term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was the Iranian Islamic Revolution. It was feared that the country 's Shi'ite minority in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. There were several anti-government uprisings in the region such as the 1979 Qatif Uprising.
The second event was the Grand Mosque Seizure in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government. The government regained control of the mosque after 10 days and those captured were executed. Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce a much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the Ulema a greater role in government. Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength.
In 1980, Saudi Arabia bought out the American interests in Aramco.
King Khalid died of a heart attack in June 1982. He was succeeded by his brother, King Fahd, who added the title "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques '' to his name in 1986 in response to considerable fundamentalist pressure to avoid use of "majesty '' in association with anything except God. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment.
The vast wealth generated by oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society. It led to rapid technological (but not cultural) modernisation, urbanization, mass public education and the creation of new media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government.
In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia spent $25 billion in support of Saddam Hussein in the Iran -- Iraq War. However, Saudi Arabia condemned the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and asked the US to intervene. King Fahd allowed American and coalition troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of Yemen and Jordan because of their governments ' support of Iraq. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait.
Saudi Arabia 's relations with the West began to cause growing concern among some of the ulema and students of sharia law and was one of the issues that led to an increase in Islamist terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. Osama bin Laden was a Saudi national (until stripped of his nationality in 1994) and was responsible for the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings in East Africa and the 2000 USS Cole bombing near the port of Aden, Yemen. 15 of the 19 terrorists involved in September 11 attacks in New York City, Washington, D.C., and near Shanksville, Pennsylvania were Saudi nationals. Many Saudis who did not support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the government 's policies.
Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the government. Although now extremely wealthy, Saudi Arabia 's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and a growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent, and has been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited "reforms '' were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the "Basic Law '', which emphasised the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993, the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of a chairman and 60 members -- all chosen by the King. The King 's intent was to respond to dissent while making as few actual changes in the status quo as possible. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which (approves of) government by consultation (shūrā). ''
In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke, and the Crown Prince, Abdullah, assumed the role of de facto regent, taking on the day - to - day running of the country. However, his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd 's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the "Sudairi Seven ''). From the 1990s, signs of discontent continued and included, in 2003 and 2004, a series of bombings and armed violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and Khobar. In February -- April 2005, the first - ever nationwide municipal elections were held in Saudi Arabia. Women were not allowed to take part in the poll.
In 2005, King Fahd died and was succeeded by Abdullah, who continued the policy of minimum reform and clamping down on protests. The king introduced a number of economic reforms aimed at reducing the country 's reliance on oil revenue: limited deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization. In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and the Mutaween (religious police) with more moderate individuals and the appointment of the country 's first female deputy minister.
On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in the city of Jeddah in a rare display of criticism against the city 's poor infrastructure after deadly floods swept through the city, killing eleven people. Police stopped the demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people.
Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been affected by its own Arab Spring protests. In response, King Abdullah announced on 22 February 2011 a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $36 billion, of which $10.7 billion was earmarked for housing. No political reforms were announced as part of the package, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned. On 18 March the same year, King Abdullah announced a package of $93 billion, which included 500,000 new homes to a cost of $67 billion, in addition to creating 60,000 new security jobs.
Although male - only municipal elections were held on 29 September 2011, Abdullah allowed women to vote and be elected in the 2015 municipal elections, and also to be nominated to the Shura Council.
Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy. However, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (Islamic law) and the Quran, while the Quran and the Sunnah (the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country 's constitution. No political parties or national elections are permitted. Critics regard it as an authoritarian dictatorship. The Economist rated the Saudi government as the fifth most authoritarian government out of 167 rated in its 2012 Democracy Index, and Freedom House gave it its lowest "Not Free '' rating, 7.0 ("1 = best, 7 = worst '') for 2013.
In the absence of national elections and political parties, politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society. Outside of the Al - Saud, participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs and members of important commercial families on major decisions. This process is not reported by the Saudi media.
By custom, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis. In many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong and, outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation, with tribal sheikhs maintaining a considerable degree of influence over local and national events. As mentioned earlier, in recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation such as the establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003.
The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics; the Shi'ite minority -- particularly in the Eastern Province; and long - standing tribal and regionalist particularistic opponents (for example in the Hejaz). Of these, the Islamic activists have been the most prominent threat to the government and have in recent years perpetrated a number of violent or terrorist acts in the country. However, open protest against the government, even if peaceful, is not tolerated.
The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions and royal decrees form the basis of the country 's legislation. The king is also the prime minister, and presides over the Council of Ministers of Saudi Arabia and Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia.
The royal family dominates the political system. The family 's vast numbers allow it to control most of the kingdom 's important posts and to have an involvement and presence at all levels of government. The number of princes is estimated to be at least 7,000, with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of Ibn Saud. The key ministries are generally reserved for the royal family, as are the thirteen regional governorships.
Long term political and government appointments have resulted in the creation of "power fiefdoms '' for senior princes, such as those of King Abdullah, who had been Commander of the National Guard since 1963 (until 2010, when he appointed his son to replace him), former Crown Prince Sultan, Minister of Defence and Aviation from 1962 to his death in 2011, former crown prince Prince Nayef who was the Minister of Interior from 1975 to his death in 2012, Prince Saud who had been Minister of Foreign Affairs since 1975 and current King Salman, who was Minister of Defense and Aviation before he was crown prince and Governor of the Riyadh Province from 1962 to 2011. The current Minister of Defense is Prince Mohammad bin Salman, the son of King Salman and Crown Prince.
The royal family is politically divided by factions based on clan loyalties, personal ambitions and ideological differences. The most powerful clan faction is known as the ' Sudairi Seven ', comprising the late King Fahd and his full brothers and their descendants. Ideological divisions include issues over the speed and direction of reform, and whether the role of the ulema should be increased or reduced. There were divisions within the family over who should succeed to the throne after the accession or earlier death of Prince Sultan. When prince Sultan died before ascending to the throne on 21 October 2011, King Abdullah appointed Prince Nayef as crown prince. The following year Prince Nayef also died before ascending to the throne.
The Saudi government and the royal family have often, over many years, been accused of corruption. In a country that is said to "belong '' to the royal family and is named for them, the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred. The extent of corruption has been described as systemic and endemic, and its existence was acknowledged and defended by Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family) in an interview in 2001.
Although corruption allegations have often been limited to broad undocumented accusations, specific allegations were made in 2007, when it was claimed that the British defence contractor BAE Systems had paid Prince Bandar US $2 billion in bribes relating to the Al - Yamamah arms deal. Prince Bandar denied the allegations. Investigations by both US and UK authorities resulted, in 2010, in plea bargain agreements with the company, by which it paid $447 million in fines but did not admit to bribery.
Transparency International in its annual Corruption Perceptions Index for 2010 gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt '' and 10 is "highly clean ''). Saudi Arabia has undergone a process of political and social reform, such as to increase public transparency and good governance. However, nepotism and patronage are widespread when doing business in the country. The enforcement of the anti-corruption laws is selective and public officials engage in corruption with impunity. A number of prominent Saudi Arabian princes, government ministers, and businesspeople, including Prince Al - Waleed bin Talal, were arrested in Saudi Arabia in November 2017.
There has been mounting pressure to reform and modernize the royal family 's rule, an agenda championed by King Abdullah both before and after his accession in 2005. The creation of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s did not satisfy demands for political participation, and, in 2003, an annual National Dialogue Forum was announced that would allow selected professionals and intellectuals to publicly debate current national issues, within certain prescribed parameters. In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the Allegiance Council was created to regulate the succession. In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post. However, these changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic.
Saudi Arabia is almost unique in giving the ulema (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct role in government. The preferred ulema are of the Salafi persuasion. The ulema have also been a key influence in major government decisions, for example the imposition of the oil embargo in 1973 and the invitation to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990. In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and education systems and a monopoly of authority in the sphere of religious and social morals.
By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization of the country initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were under way and the power of the ulema was in decline. However, this changed following the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals. The government 's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulema 's powers and increasing their financial support: in particular, they were given greater control over the education system and allowed to enforce stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour. After his accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah took steps to reduce the powers of the ulema, for instance transferring control over girls ' education to the Ministry of Education.
The ulema have historically been led by the Al ash - Sheikh, the country 's leading religious family. The Al ash - Sheikh are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab, the 18th century founder of the Wahhabi form of Sunni Islam which is today dominant in Saudi Arabia. The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family) with whom they formed a "mutual support pact '' and power - sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago. The pact, which persists to this day, is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash - Sheikh 's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash - Sheikh support the Al Saud 's political authority thereby using its religious - moral authority to legitimize the royal family 's rule. Although the Al ash - Sheikh 's domination of the ulema has diminished in recent decades, they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.
The primary source of law is the Islamic Sharia derived from the teachings of the Qur'an and the Sunnah (the traditions of the Prophet). Saudi Arabia is unique among modern Muslim states in that Sharia is not codified and there is no system of judicial precedent, giving judges the power to use independent legal reasoning to make a decision. Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence (or fiqh) found in pre-modern texts and noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qur'an and hadith.
Because the judge is empowered to disregard previous judgments (either his own or of other judges) and may apply his personal interpretation of Sharia to any particular case, divergent judgements arise even in apparently identical cases, making predictability of legal interpretation difficult. The Sharia court system constitutes the basic judiciary of Saudi Arabia and its judges (qadi) and lawyers form part of the ulema, the country 's Islamic scholars.
Royal decrees are the other main source of law; but are referred to as regulations rather than laws because they are subordinate to the Sharia. Royal decrees supplement Sharia in areas such as labor, commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional tribal law and custom remain significant. Extra-Sharia government tribunals usually handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees. Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to the King and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure.
The Saudi system of justice has been criticized for its "ultra-puritanical judges '', who are often harsh in their sentencing (with beheading for the crime of witchcraft), but also sometimes overly lenient (for cases of rape or wife - beating) and slow, for example leaving thousands of abandoned women unable to secure a divorce. The system has also been criticized for being arcane, lacking in some of the safeguards of justice, and unable to deal with the modern world. In 2007, King Abdullah issued royal decrees reforming the judiciary and creating a new court system, and, in 2009, the King made a number of significant changes to the judiciary 's personnel at the most senior level by bringing in a younger generation.
Capital and physical punishments imposed by Saudi courts, such as beheading, stoning (to death), amputation, crucifixion and lashing, as well as the sheer number of executions have been strongly criticized. The death penalty can be imposed for a wide range of offences including murder, rape, armed robbery, repeated drug use, apostasy, adultery, witchcraft and sorcery and can be carried out by beheading with a sword, stoning or firing squad, followed by crucifixion. The 345 reported executions between 2007 and 2010 were all carried out by public beheading. The last reported execution for sorcery took place in September 2014.
Although repeated theft can be punishable by amputation of the right hand, only one instance of judicial amputation was reported between 2007 and 2010. Homosexual acts are punishable by flogging or death. Atheism or "calling into question the fundamentals of the Islamic religion on which this country is based '' is considered a terrorist crime. Lashings are a common form of punishment and are often imposed for offences against religion and public morality such as drinking alcohol and neglect of prayer and fasting obligations.
Retaliatory punishments, or Qisas, are practised: for instance, an eye can be surgically removed at the insistence of a victim who lost his own eye. Families of someone unlawfully killed can choose between demanding the death penalty or granting clemency in return for a payment of diyya (blood money), by the perpetrator.
Western - based organizations such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and Freedom House condemn both the Saudi criminal justice system and its severe punishments. There are no jury trials in Saudi Arabia and courts observe few formalities. Human Rights Watch, in a 2008 report, noted that a criminal procedure code had been introduced for the first time in 2002, but it lacked some basic protections and, in any case, had been routinely ignored by judges. Those arrested are often not informed of the crime of which they are accused or given access to a lawyer and are subject to abusive treatment and torture if they do not confess. At trial, there is a presumption of guilt and the accused is often unable to examine witnesses and evidence or present a legal defense. Most trials are held in secret. An example of sentencing is that UK pensioner and cancer victim Karl Andree, aged 74, faced 360 lashes for home brewing alcohol. He was later released due to intervention by the British government.
Saudi Arabia is widely accused of having one of the worst human rights records in the world. Human rights issues that have attracted strong criticism include the extremely disadvantaged position of women (see Women below), capital punishment for homosexuality, religious discrimination, the lack of religious freedom and the activities of the religious police (see Religion below). Between 1996 and 2000, Saudi Arabia acceded to four UN human rights conventions and, in 2004, the government approved the establishment of the National Society for Human Rights (NSHR), staffed by government employees, to monitor their implementation. To date, the activities of the NSHR have been limited and doubts remain over its neutrality and independence.
Saudi Arabia remains one of the very few countries in the world not to accept the UN 's Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In response to the continuing criticism of its human rights record, the Saudi government points to the special Islamic character of the country, and asserts that this justifies a different social and political order. The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom had unsuccessfully urged President Barack Obama to raise human rights concerns with King Abdullah on his March 2014 visit to the Kingdom especially the imprisonments of Sultan Hamid Marzooq al - Enezi, Saud Falih Awad al - Enezi, and Raif Badawi.
For example, Ali Mohammed Baqir al - Nimr was arrested in 2012 when he was 17 years old for taking part in an anti-government protests in Saudi Arabia during the Arab Spring. In May 2014, Ali al - Nimr was sentenced to be publicly beheaded and crucified.
In 2013, the government deported thousands of non-Saudis, many of them who were working illegally in the country or had overstayed their visas. Many reports abound, of foreigner workers being tortured either by employers or others. This resulted in many basic services suffering from a lack of workers, as many Saudi Arabian citizens are not keen on working in blue collar jobs.
Saudi Arabia has a "Counter-Radicalization Program '' the purpose of which is to "combat the spread and appeal of extremist ideologies among the general populous (sic) '' and to "instill the true values of the Islamic faith, such as tolerance and moderation. '' This "tolerance and moderation '' has been called into question by the Baltimore Sun, based on the reports from Amnesty International regarding Raif Badawi, and in the case of a man from Hafr al - Batin sentenced to death for rejecting Islam. In September 2015, Faisal bin Hassan Trad, Saudi Arabia 's ambassador to the UN in Geneva, has been elected Chair of the United Nations Human Rights Council panel that appoints independent experts. In January 2016, Saudi Arabia executed the prominent Shia cleric Sheikh Nimr who had called for pro-democracy demonstrations and for free elections in Saudi Arabia.
In August 2017, ten Nobel Peace Prize laureates, including Desmond Tutu and Lech Wałęsa, urged Saudi Arabia to stop the executions of 14 young people for participating in the 2011 -- 12 Saudi Arabian protests.
Saudi Arabia joined the UN in 1945 and is a founding member of the Arab League, Gulf Cooperation Council, Muslim World League, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation). It plays a prominent role in the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and in 2005 joined the World Trade Organization. Saudi Arabia supports the intended formation of the Arab Customs Union in 2015 and an Arab common market by 2020, as announced at the 2009 Arab League summit.
Since 1960, as a founding member of OPEC, its oil pricing policy has been generally to stabilize the world oil market and try to moderate sharp price movements so as to not jeopardise the Western economies.
Between the mid-1970s and 2002 Saudi Arabia expended over $70 billion in "overseas development aid ''. However, there is evidence that the vast majority was, in fact, spent on propagating and extending the influence of Wahhabism at the expense of other forms of Islam. There has been an intense debate over whether Saudi aid and Wahhabism has fomented extremism in recipient countries. The two main allegations are that, by its nature, Wahhabism encourages intolerance and promotes terrorism. Counting only the non-Muslim - majority countries, Saudi Arabia has paid for the construction of 1359 mosques, 210 Islamic centres, 202 colleges and 2000 schools.
China and Saudi Arabia are major allies, with relationship between the two countries growing significantly in recent decades. Majority of Saudi Arabians also expressed a favorable view of China. Saudi Arabia and the United States are strategic allies, and since President Barack Obama took office in 2009, the U.S. has sold $110 billion in arms to Saudi Arabia. However, relationship between Saudi Arabia and the United States are strained and have witnessed major decline in recent years. In the first decade of the 21st century the Saudi Arabia paid approximately $100 million to American firms to lobby the U.S. government. The relations with the U.S. became strained following 9 / 11. American politicians and media accused the Saudi government of supporting terrorism and tolerating a jihadist culture. Indeed, Osama bin Laden and fifteen out of the nineteen 9 / 11 hijackers were from Saudi Arabia; in ISIL - occupied Raqqa, in mid-2014, all 12 judges were Saudi. According to former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, "Saudi Arabia remains a critical financial support base for al - Qaida, the Taliban, LeT and other terrorist groups... Donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide. '' Former CIA director James Woolsey described it as "the soil in which Al - Qaeda and its sister terrorist organizations are flourishing. '' The Saudi government denies these claims or that it exports religious or cultural extremism. In April 2016, Saudi Arabia has threatened to sell off $750 billion in Treasury securities and other U.S. assets if Congress passes a bill that would allow the Saudi government to be sued over 9 / 11.
In the Arab and Muslim worlds, Saudi Arabia is considered to be pro-Western and pro-American, and it is certainly a long - term ally of the United States. However, this and Saudi Arabia 's role in the 1991 Persian Gulf War, particularly the stationing of U.S. troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile Islamist response internally. As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself from the U.S. and, for example, refused to support or to participate in the U.S. - led invasion of Iraq in 2003.
The consequences of the 2003 invasion and the Arab Spring led to increasing alarm within the Saudi monarchy over the rise of Iran 's influence in the region. These fears were reflected in comments of King Abdullah, who privately urged the United States to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the snake ''. The tentative rapprochement between the US and Iran that began in secret in 2011 was said to be feared by the Saudis, and, during the run up to the widely welcomed deal on Iran 's nuclear programme that capped the first stage of US -- Iranian détente, Robert Jordan, who was U.S. ambassador to Riyadh from 2001 to 2003, said "(t) he Saudis ' worst nightmare would be the (Obama) administration striking a grand bargain with Iran. '' A trip to Saudi by US President Barack Obama in 2014 included discussions of US -- Iran relations, though these failed to resolve Riyadh 's concerns.
In order to protect the house of Khalifa, the monarchs of Bahrain, Saudi Arabia invaded Bahrain by sending military troops to quell the uprising of Bahraini people on 14 March 2011. The Saudi government considered the two - month uprising as a "security threat '' posed by the Shia who represent the majority of Bahrain population.
According to the Iraqi prime minister Nouri al - Maliki in March 2014, Saudi Arabia along with Qatar provided political, financial and media support to terrorists against the Iraqi government.
On 25 March 2015, Saudi Arabia, spearheading a coalition of Sunni Muslim states, started a military intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh, who was deposed in the 2011 Arab Spring uprisings.
As of 2015, together with Qatar and Turkey, Saudi Arabia is openly supporting the Army of Conquest, an umbrella group of anti-government forces fighting in the Syrian Civil War that reportedly includes an al - Qaeda linked al - Nusra Front and another Salafi coalition known as Ahrar al - Sham.
Following a number of incidents during the Hajj season, the deadliest of which killed at least 2,070 pilgrim in 2015 Mina stampede, Saudi Arabia has been accused of mismanagement and focusing on increasing money revenues while neglecting pilgrims ' welfare.
Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderating influence in the Arab -- Israeli conflict, periodically putting forward a peace plan between Israel and the Palestinians and condemning Hezbollah. Following the Arab Spring Saudi Arabia offered asylum to deposed President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia and King Abdullah telephoned President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt (prior to his deposition) to offer his support. In early 2014 relations with Qatar became strained over its support for the Muslim Brotherhood, and Saudi Arabia 's belief that Qatar was interfering in its affairs. In August 2014 both countries appeared to be exploring ways of ending the rift.
Saudi Arabia halted new trade and investment dealings with Canada and suspended diplomatic ties in a dramatic escalation of a dispute over the kingdom 's arrest of a women rights activists on August 6, 2018.
Saudi Arabia has one of the highest percentages of military expenditure in the world, spending more than 10 % of its GDP in its military. The Saudi military consists of the Royal Saudi Land Forces, the Royal Saudi Air Force, the Royal Saudi Navy, the Royal Saudi Air Defense, the Saudi Arabian National Guard (SANG, an independent military force), and paramilitary forces, totaling nearly 200,000 active - duty personnel. In 2005 the armed forces had the following personnel: the army, 75,000; the air force, 18,000; air defense, 16,000; the navy, 15,500 (including 3,000 marines); and the SANG had 75,000 active soldiers and 25,000 tribal levies. In addition, there is an Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah military intelligence service.
The kingdom has a long - standing military relationship with Pakistan, it has long been speculated that Saudi Arabia secretly funded Pakistan 's atomic bomb programme and seeks to purchase atomic weapons from Pakistan, in near future. The SANG is not a reserve but a fully operational front - line force, and originated out of Ibn Saud 's tribal military - religious force, the Ikhwan. Its modern existence, however, is attributable to it being effectively Abdullah 's private army since the 1960s and, unlike the rest of the armed forces, is independent of the Ministry of Defense and Aviation. The SANG has been a counterbalance to the Sudairi faction in the royal family: The late prince Sultan, former Minister of Defense and Aviation, was one of the so - called ' Sudairi Seven ' and controlled the remainder of the armed forces until his death in 2011.
Spending on defense and security has increased significantly since the mid-1990s and was about US $63.7 billion, as of 2016. Saudi Arabia ranks among the top 10 in the world in government spending for its military, representing about 7 % of gross domestic product in 2005. Its modern high - technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the world 's most densely armed nations, with its military equipment being supplied primarily by the US, France and Britain.
The United States sold more than $80 billion in military hardware between 1951 and 2006 to the Saudi military. On 20 October 2010, the U.S. State Department notified Congress of its intention to make the biggest arms sale in American history -- an estimated $60.5 billion purchase by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The package represents a considerable improvement in the offensive capability of the Saudi armed forces. 2013 saw Saudi military spending climb to $67 bn, overtaking that of the UK, France and Japan to place fourth globally.
The United Kingdom has also been a major supplier of military equipment to Saudi Arabia since 1965. Since 1985, the UK has supplied military aircraft -- notably the Tornado and Eurofighter Typhoon combat aircraft -- and other equipment as part of the long - term Al - Yamamah arms deal estimated to have been worth £ 43 billion by 2006 and thought to be worth a further £ 40 billion. In May 2012, British defence giant BAE signed a £ 1.9 bn ($3 bn) deal to supply Hawk trainer jets to Saudi Arabia.
According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI, in 2010 -- 14 Saudi Arabia became the world 's second largest arms importer, receiving four times more major arms than in 2005 -- 2009. Major imports in 2010 -- 14 included 45 combat aircraft from the UK, 38 combat helicopters from the USA, 4 tanker aircraft from Spain and over 600 armoured vehicles from Canada. Saudi Arabia has a long list of outstanding orders for arms, including 27 more combat aircraft from the UK, 154 combat aircraft from the USA and a large number of armoured vehicles from Canada. Saudi Arabia received 41 per cent of UK arms exports in 2010 -- 14. France authorized $18 billion in weapons sales to Saudi Arabia in 2015 alone. The $15 billion arms deal with Saudi Arabia is believed to be the largest arms sale in Canadian history. In 2016, the European Parliament decided to temporarily impose an arms embargo against Saudi Arabia, as a result of the Yemen civilian population 's suffering from the conflict with Saudi Arabia. In 2017, Saudi Arabia signed a 110 billion dollar arms deal with the United States.
Saudi Arabia occupies about 80 % of the Arabian Peninsula (the world 's largest peninsula), lying between latitudes 16 ° and 33 ° N, and longitudes 34 ° and 56 ° E. Because the country 's southern borders with the United Arab Emirates and Oman are not precisely marked, the exact size of the country is undefined. The CIA World Factbook estimates 2,149,690 km (830,000 sq mi) and lists Saudi Arabia as the world 's 13th largest state. It is geographically the largest country in the Arabian Plate.
Saudi Arabia 's geography is dominated by the Arabian Desert, associated semi-desert and shrubland (see satellite image) and several mountain ranges and highlands. It is, in fact, a number of linked deserts and includes the 647,500 km (250,001 sq mi) Rub ' al Khali ("Empty Quarter '') in the southeastern part of the country, the world 's largest contiguous sand desert. There are a few lakes in the country but no permanent rivers, however wadis are very numerous. The fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases. The main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends into the Nejd and toward the Persian Gulf. On the Red Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the Tihamah parallel to which runs an imposing escarpment. The southwest province of Asir is mountainous, and contains the 3,133 m (10,279 ft) Mount Sawda, which is the highest point in the country.
Except for the southwestern province of Asir, Saudi Arabia has a desert climate with very high day - time temperatures and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around 45 ° C (113 ° F), but can be as high as 54 ° C (129 ° F). In the winter the temperature rarely drops below 0 ° C (32 ° F). In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around 29 ° C (84 ° F). Annual rainfall is extremely low. The Asir region differs in that it is influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoons, usually occurring between October and March. An average of 300 mm (12 in) of rainfall occurs during this period, which is about 60 % of the annual precipitation.
Wildlife includes the Arabian leopard, wolf, striped hyena, mongoose, baboon, hare, sand cat, and jerboa. Animals such as gazelles, oryx, leopards and cheetahs were relatively numerous until the 19th century, when extensive hunting reduced these animals almost to extinction. Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for hunting), eagles, hawks, vultures, sandgrouse, and bulbuls. There are several species of snakes, many of which are venomous. Saudi Arabia is home to a rich marine life. The Red Sea in particular is a rich and diverse ecosystem. More than 1200 species of fish have been recorded in the Red Sea, and around 10 % of these are found nowhere else. This also includes 42 species of deepwater fish.
The rich diversity is in part due to the 2,000 km (1,240 mi) of coral reef extending along its coastline; these fringing reefs are 5000 -- 7000 years old and are largely formed of stony acropora and porites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the Blue Hole (Red Sea) at Dahab). These coastal reefs are also visited by pelagic species of Red Sea fish, including some of the 44 species of shark. The Red Sea also contains many offshore reefs including several true atolls. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes, and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area. Domesticated animals include the legendary Arabian horse, Arabian camel, sheep, goats, cows, donkeys, chickens etc. Reflecting the country 's dominant desert conditions, Saudi Arabia 's plant life mostly consists of herbs, plants and shrubs that require little water. The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is widespread.
Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 regions (Arabic: مناطق إدارية ; manatiq idāriyya, sing. منطقة إدارية; mintaqah idariyya). The regions are further divided into 118 governorates (Arabic: محافظات ; muhafazat, sing. محافظة; muhafazah). This number includes the 13 regional capitals, which have a different status as municipalities (Arabic: أمانة ; amanah) headed by mayors (Arabic: أمين ; amin). The governorates are further sudivided into sub-governorates (Arabic: مراكز ; marakiz, sing. مركز; markaz).
The 13 regions of Saudi Arabia.
Saudi Arabia 's command economy is petroleum - based; roughly 75 % of budget revenues and 90 % of export earnings come from the oil industry. It is strongly dependent on foreign workers with about 80 % of those employed in the private sector being non-Saudi. Among the challenges to Saudi economy include halting or reversing the decline in per capita income, improving education to prepare youth for the workforce and providing them with employment, diversifying the economy, stimulating the private sector and housing construction, diminishing corruption and inequality.
The oil industry comprises about 45 % of Saudi Arabia 's nominal gross domestic product, compared with 40 % from the private sector (see below). Saudi Arabia officially has about 260 billion barrels (4.1 × 10 m) of oil reserves, comprising about one - fifth of the world 's proven total petroleum reserves.
In the 1990s, Saudi Arabia experienced a significant contraction of oil revenues combined with a high rate of population growth. Per capita income fell from a high of $11,700 at the height of the oil boom in 1981 to $6,300 in 1998. Taking into account the impact of the real oil price changes on the Kingdom 's real gross domestic income, the real command - basis GDP was computed to be 330.381 billion 1999 USD in 2010. Increases in oil prices in the aughts helped boost per capita GDP to $17,000 in 2007 dollars (about $7,400 adjusted for inflation), but have declined since oil price drop in mid-2014.
OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) limits its members ' oil production based on their "proven reserves. '' Saudi Arabia 's published reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about 100 billion barrels (1.6 × 10 m) between 1987 and 1988. Matthew Simmons has suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines (see peak oil).
From 2003 -- 2013 "several key services '' were privatized -- municipal water supply, electricity, telecommunications -- and parts of education and health care, traffic control and car accident reporting were also privatized. According to Arab News columnist Abdel Aziz Aluwaisheg, "in almost every one of these areas, consumers have raised serious concerns about the performance of these privatized entities. '' The Tadawul All Share Index (TASI) of the Saudi stock exchange peaked at 16,712.64 in 2005, and closed at 8,535.60, at the end of 2013. In November 2005, Saudi Arabia was approved as a member of the World Trade Organization. Negotiations to join had focused on the degree to which Saudi Arabia is willing to increase market access to foreign goods and in 2000, the government established the Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority to encourage foreign direct investment in the kingdom. Saudi Arabia maintains a list of sectors in which foreign investment is prohibited, but the government plans to open some closed sectors such as telecommunications, insurance, and power transmission / distribution over time.
The government has also made an attempt at "Saudizing '' the economy, replacing foreign workers with Saudi nationals with limited success.
Saudi Arabia has had five - year "Development Plans '' since 1970. Among its plans were to launch "economic cities '' (e.g. King Abdullah Economic City) to be completed by 2020, in an effort to diversify the economy and provide jobs. As of 2013 four cities were planned. The King has announced that the per capita income is forecast to rise from $15,000 in 2006 to $33,500 in 2020. The cities will be spread around Saudi Arabia to promote diversification for each region and their economy, and the cities are projected to contribute $150 billion to the GDP.
In addition to petroleum and gas, Saudi also has a small gold mining sector in the Mahd adh Dhahab region and other mineral industries, an agricultural sector (especially in the southwest) based on dates and livestock, and large number of temporary jobs created by the roughly two million annual hajj pilgrims.
Statistics on poverty in the kingdom are not available through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue any. The Saudi state discourages calling attention to or complaining about poverty. In December 2011, the Saudi interior ministry arrested three reporters and held them for almost two weeks for questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube. Authors of the video claim that 22 % of Saudis may be considered poor (2009). Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous because of the risk of being arrested.
Saudi Arabia encouraged desert agriculture by providing substantial subsidies as well as consuming 300 billion cubic meters of mostly non-renewable water reserves free of charge to grow alfalfa, cereals, meat and milk in the Arabian Desert. Consuming non-renewable groundwater resulted in the loss of an estimated four fifths of the total groundwater reserves by 2012.
Water supply and sanitation in Saudi Arabia is characterized by significant investments in seawater desalination, water distribution, sewerage and wastewater treatment leading to a substantial increase in access to drinking water and sanitation over the past decades. About 50 % of drinking water comes from desalination, 40 % from the mining of non-renewable groundwater and 10 % from surface water, especially in the mountainous southwest of the country. The capital Riyadh, located in the heart of the country, is supplied with desalinated water pumped from the Persian Gulf over a distance of 467 km. Given the substantial oil wealth, water is provided almost for free. Despite improvements service quality remains poor. For example, in Riyadh water was available only once every 2.5 days in 2011, while in Jeddah it is available only every 9 days. Institutional capacity and governance in the sector are weak, reflecting general characteristics of the public sector in Saudi Arabia. Since 2000, the government has increasingly relied on the private sector to operate water and sanitation infrastructure, beginning with desalination and wastewater treatment plants. Since 2008, the operation of urban water distribution systems is being gradually delegated to private companies as well.
Although most tourism in Saudi Arabia still largely involves religious pilgrimages, there is growth in the leisure tourism sector. According to the World Bank, approximately 14.3 million people visited Saudi Arabia in 2012, making it the world 's 19th-most - visited country. Tourism is an important component of the Saudi Vision 2030 and according to a report conducted by BMI Research in 2018, both religious and non-religious tourism have potential for significant expansion.
Masmak Fort in Riyadh
The King Abdullah Financial District in Riyadh
The old city of Jeddah
Jabal Sawda (3,000 m (9,800 ft)) located in the Hijaz Mountains
Abha City, located 2,270 m (7,450 ft) above sea level
The ancient city of Al - ` Ula in Al Madinah Region
A farm in Al - Qassim Province
Faifa mountains in Jizan Province
Mountains in Jizan province
The Rub ' al Khali desert
The 3000 year old ancient historical city of Dumat al - Jandal in Al Jawf Province
Snowy mountains in Tabuk Province.
One of the many extinct volcanoes in Hejaz.
Farasan Island in the Farasan Islands coral - island archipelago in the Red Sea.
The population of Saudi Arabia as of July 2013 is estimated to be 26.9 million, including between 5.5 million and 10 million non-nationalized immigrants, though the Saudi population has long proved difficult to accurately estimate due to Saudi leaders ' historical tendency to artificially inflate census results. Saudi population has grown rapidly since 1950 when it was estimated to be 3 million, and for many years had one of the highest birthrates in the world at around 3 % a year.
The ethnic composition of Saudi citizens is 90 % Arab and 10 % Afro - Asian. Most Saudis live in Hejaz (35 %), Najd (28 %), and the Eastern Province (15 %). Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia.
As late as 1970, most Saudis lived a subsistence life in the rural provinces, but in the last half of the 20th century the kingdom has urbanized rapidly. As of 2012 about 80 % of Saudis live in urban metropolitan areas -- specifically Riyadh, Jeddah, or Dammam.
Its population is also quite young with over half the population under 25 years old. A large fraction are foreign nationals. (The CIA Factbook estimated that as of 2013 foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia made up about 21 % of the population. Other estimates are 30 % or 33 %)
As recently as the early 1960s, Saudi Arabia 's slave population was estimated at 300,000. Slavery was officially abolished in 1962.
The official language of Saudi Arabia is Arabic. The three main regional variants spoken by Saudis are Hejazi Arabic (about 6 million speakers), Najdi Arabic (about 8 million speakers), and Gulf Arabic (about 0.2 million speakers). Saudi Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community. The large expatriate communities also speak their own languages, the most numerous of which are Tagalog (700,000), Rohingya (400,000), Urdu (380,000), and Egyptian Arabic (300,000).
Virtually all Saudi citizens are Muslim (officially, all are), and almost all Saudi residents are Muslim. Estimates of the Sunni population of Saudi Arabia range between 75 % and 90 %, with the remaining 10 -- 25 % being Shia Muslim. The official and dominant form of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia is commonly known as Wahhabism (proponents prefer the name Salafism, considering Wahhabi derogatory) and is often described as ' puritanical ', ' intolerant ', or ' ultra-conservative ' by observers, and as "true '' Islam by its adherents. It was founded in the Arabian Peninsula by Muhammad ibn Abd al - Wahhab in the eighteenth century. Other denominations, such as the minority Shia Islam, are systematically suppressed.
According to estimates there are about 1,500,000 Christians in Saudi Arabia, almost all foreign workers. Saudi Arabia allows Christians to enter the country as foreign workers for temporary work, but does not allow them to practice their faith openly. The percentage of Saudi Arabian citizens who are Christians is officially zero, as Saudi Arabia forbids religious conversion from Islam (apostasy) and punishes it by death. In spite of this, a 2015 study estimates 60,000 Muslims have converted to Christianity in Saudi Arabia. According to Pew Research Center there are 390,000 Hindus in Saudi Arabia, almost all foreign workers.
There may be a significant fraction of atheists and agnostics in Saudi Arabia, although they are officially called "terrorists ''. Apostasy is punishable by death in Saudi Arabia, hence non-believers hardly ever come out.
Saudi Arabia 's Central Department of Statistics & Information estimated the foreign population at the end of 2014 at 33 % (10.1 million). The CIA Factbook estimated that as of 2013 foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia made up about 21 % of the population. Other sources report differing estimates. Indian: 1.3 million, Pakistani: 1.5 million, Egyptian: 900,000, Yemeni: 800,000, Bangladeshi: 400,000, Filipino: 500,000, Jordanian / Palestinian: 260,000, Indonesian: 250,000, Sri Lankan: 350,000, Sudanese: 250,000, Syrian: 100,000 and Turkish: 80,000. There are around 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia, most of whom live in compounds or gated communities.
Foreign Muslims who have resided in the kingdom for ten years may apply for Saudi citizenship. (Priority is given to holders of degrees in various scientific fields, and exception made for Palestinians who are excluded unless married to a Saudi national, because of Arab League instructions barring the Arab states from granting them citizenship.) Saudi Arabia is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention.
As Saudi population grows and oil export revenues stagnate, pressure for "Saudization '' (the replacement of foreign workers with Saudis) has grown, and the Saudi government hopes to decrease the number of foreign nationals in the country. Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 and has built a Saudi -- Yemen barrier against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons. In November 2013, Saudi Arabia expelled thousands of illegal Ethiopian residents from the Kingdom. Various Human Rights entities have criticised Saudi Arabia 's handling of the issue. Over 500,000 undocumented migrant workers -- mostly from Somalia, Ethiopia, and Yemen -- have been detained and deported since 2013.
Saudi Arabia has centuries - old attitudes and traditions, often derived from Arab civilization. This culture has been heavily influenced by the austerely puritanical Wahhabi form of Islam, which arose in the eighteenth century and now predominates in the country. Wahhabi Islam has been called "the predominant feature of Saudi culture. ''
The Hejazi region, where the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina are located, is the destination of the Ḥajj pilgrimage, and often deemed to be the cradle of Islam.
Islam is the state religion of Saudi Arabia and its law requires that all citizens be Muslims. Neither Saudi citizens nor guest workers have the right of freedom of religion. The official and dominant form of Islam in the kingdom -- Wahhabism -- arose in the central region of Najd, in the eighteenth century. Proponents call the movement "Salafism '', and believe that its teachings purify the practice of Islam of innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh - century teachings of Muhammad and his companions. The Saudi government has often been viewed as an active oppressor of Shia Muslims because of the funding of the Wahabbi ideology which denounces the Shia faith. Prince Bandar bin Sultan, Saudi ambassador to the United States, stated: "The time is not far off in the Middle East when it will be literally ' God help the Shia '. More than a billion Sunnis have simply had enough of them. ''
Saudi Arabia is one of the few countries that have "religious police '' (known as Haia or Mutaween), who patrol the streets "enjoining good and forbidding wrong '' by enforcing dress codes, strict separation of men and women, attendance at prayer (salat) five times each day, the ban on alcohol, and other aspects of Sharia (Islamic law). (In the privacy of the home behavior can be far looser, and reports from the Daily Mail and WikiLeaks indicate that the ruling Saudi Royal family applies a different moral code to itself, indulging in parties, drugs and sex.)
Until 2016, the kingdom used the lunar Islamic calendar, not the international Gregorian calendar, but in 2016 the kingdom announced its switch to the Gregorian calendar for civil purposes.
Daily life is dominated by Islamic observance. Businesses are closed three or four times a day for 30 to 45 minutes during business hours while employees and customers are sent off to pray. The weekend is Friday - Saturday, not Saturday - Sunday, because Friday is the holiest day for Muslims. For many years only two religious holidays were publicly recognized -- ʿĪd al - Fiṭr and ʿĪd al - Aḍḥā. (ʿĪd al - Fiṭr is "the biggest '' holiday, a three - day period of "feasting, gift - giving and general letting go ''.)
As of 2004 approximately half of the broadcast airtime of Saudi state television was devoted to religious issues. 90 % of books published in the kingdom were on religious subjects, and most of the doctorates awarded by its universities were in Islamic studies. In the state school system, about half of the material taught is religious. In contrast, assigned readings over twelve years of primary and secondary schooling devoted to covering the history, literature, and cultures of the non-Muslim world comes to a total of about 40 pages.
"Fierce religious resistance '' had to be overcome to permit such innovations as paper money (in 1951), female education (1964), and television (1965) and the abolition of slavery (1962). Public support for the traditional political / religious structure of the kingdom is so strong that one researcher interviewing Saudis found virtually no support for reforms to secularize the state.
Because of religious restrictions, Saudi culture lacks any diversity of religious expression, buildings, annual festivals and public events. Celebration of other (non-Wahhabi) Islamic holidays, such as the Muhammad 's birthday and the Day of Ashura, (an important holiday for the 10 -- 25 % of the population that is Shīʿa Muslim), are tolerated only when celebrated locally and on a small scale. Shia also face systematic discrimination in employment, education, the justice system according to Human Rights Watch. Non-Muslim festivals like Christmas and Easter are not tolerated at all, although there are nearly a million Christians as well as Hindus and Buddhists among the foreign workers. No churches, temples or other non-Muslim houses of worship are permitted in the country. Proselytizing by non-Muslims and conversion by Muslims to another religion is illegal, and as of 2014 the distribution of "publications that have prejudice to any other religious belief other than Islam '' (such as Bibles), was reportedly punishable by death. In legal compensation court cases (Diyya) non-Muslim are awarded less than Muslims. Atheists are legally designated as terrorists. And at least one religious minority, the Ahmadiyya Muslims, had its adherents deported, as they are legally banned from entering the country.
Saudi Wahhabism is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give rise to ' shirk ' (idolatry), and the most significant historic Muslim sites (in Mecca and Medina) are located in the western Saudi region of Hejaz. As a consequence, under Saudi rule, an estimated 95 % of Mecca 's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, have been demolished for religious reasons. Critics claim that over the last 50 years, 300 historic sites linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost, leaving fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad. Demolished structures include the mosque originally built by Muhammad 's daughter Fatima, and other mosques founded by Abu Bakr (Muhammad 's father - in - law and the first Caliph), Umar (the second Caliph), Ali (Muhammad 's son - in - law and the fourth Caliph), and Salman al - Farsi (another of Muhammad 's companions).
Four cultural sites in Saudi Arabia are designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the archeological site at Al Hijr (Kaaba); the Turaif district in the city of Diriyah; Historic Jeddah, the Gate to Mecca; and the cave art in the Ha'il Region. Ten other sites submitted requests for recognition to UNESCO in 2015.
In June 2014, the Council of Ministers approved a law that gives the Saudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage the means to protect Saudi Arabia 's ancient relics and historic sites. Within the framework of the 2016 National Transformation Program, also known as Saudi Vision 2030, the kingdom allocated 900 million euros to preserve its historical and cultural heritage. Saudi Arabia also participates in the International Alliance for the Protection of Heritage in Conflict Areas (ALIPH), created in March 2017, with a contribution of 18.5 million euros.
Saudi Arabian dress strictly follows the principles of hijab (the Islamic principle of modesty, especially in dress). The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering, garments are suited to Saudi Arabia 's desert climate. Traditionally, men usually wear a white ankle length garment woven from wool or cotton (known as a thawb), with a keffiyeh (a large checkered square of cotton held in place by an agal) or a ghutra (a plain white square made of finer cotton, also held in place by an agal) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel - hair cloak (bisht) over the top. In public women are required to wear a black abaya or other black clothing that covers everything under the neck with the exception of their hands and feet, although most women cover their head in respect for their religion. This requirement applies to non-Muslim women too and failure to abide can result in police action, particularly in more conservative areas of the country. Women 's clothes are often decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques.
During the 1970s, cinemas were numerous in the Kingdom although they were seen as contrary to Wahhabi norms. During the Islamic revival movement in the 1980s, and as a political response to an increase in Islamist activism including the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the government closed all cinemas and theaters. However, with King Abdullah 's reforms from 2005, some cinemas have re-opened, including one in KAUST.
From the 18th century onward, Wahhabi fundamentalism discouraged artistic development inconsistent with its teaching. In addition, Sunni Islamic prohibition of creating representations of people have limited the visual arts, which tend to be dominated by geometric, floral, and abstract designs and by calligraphy. With the advent of oil - wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, such as Western housing styles, furnishings, and clothes. Music and dance have always been part of Saudi life. Traditional music is generally associated with poetry and is sung collectively. Instruments include the rabābah, an instrument not unlike a three - string fiddle, and various types of percussion instruments, such as the ṭabl (drum) and the ṭār (tambourine). Of the native dances, the most popular is a martial line dance known as the ʿarḍah, which includes lines of men, frequently armed with swords or rifles, dancing to the beat of drums and tambourines. Bedouin poetry, known as nabaṭī, is still very popular.
Censorship has limited the development of Saudi literature, although several Saudi novelists and poets have achieved critical and popular acclaim in the Arab world -- albeit generating official hostility in their home country. These include Ghazi Algosaibi, Abdelrahman Munif, Turki al - Hamad and Rajaa al - Sanea.
Football is the national sport in Saudi Arabia. The Saudi Arabia national football team is considered as one of Asia 's most successful national teams, having reached a joint record 6 AFC Asian Cup finals, winning three of those finals (1984, 1988, and 1996) and having qualified for the World Cup four consecutive times ever since debuting at the 1994 tournament. In the 1994 FIFA World Cup under the leadership of Jorge Solari, Saudi Arabia beat both Belgium and Morocco in the group stage before falling to defeat Sweden in the round of 16. During the 1992 FIFA Confederations Cup, which was played in Saudi Arabia, the country reached the final, losing 1 -- 3 to Argentina. Scuba diving, windsurfing, sailing and basketball (which is played by both men and women) are also popular with the Saudi Arabian national basketball team winning bronze at the 1999 Asian Championship. More traditional sports such as horse racing and camel racing are also popular. A stadium in Riyadh holds races in the winter. The annual King 's Camel Race, begun in 1974, is one of the sport 's most important contests and attracts animals and riders from throughout the region. Falconry, another traditional pursuit, is still practiced.
Women 's sport is controversial due to the suppression of female participation in sport by conservative Islamic religious authorities, however this restriction has eased slightly in recent years. Until 2018 women were not permitted in sport stadiums. Segregated seating, allowing women to enter, has been developed in three stadiums across major cities.
Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding countries in the Arabian Peninsula and the wider Arab world, and has influenced and been influenced by Turkish, Indian, Persian, and African food. Islamic dietary laws are enforced: pork is not allowed and other animals are slaughtered in accordance with halal. Kebabs and falafel are popular, as is shāwarmā (shawarma), a marinated grilled meat dish of lamb, mutton, or chicken. As in other Arab countries of the Arabian Peninsula, machbūs (kabsa), a rice dish with lamb, chicken, fish or shrimp, is among the national dishes as well as the dish mandi (food). Flat, unleavened taboon bread is a staple of virtually every meal, as are dates, fresh fruit, yoghurt and hummus. Coffee, served in the Arabic style, is the traditional beverage but tea and various fruit juices are popular as well. Arabic coffee is a traditional beverage in Arabian cuisine. The earliest substantiated evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree is from the 15th century, in the Sufi monasteries of Arabia.
Women do not have equal rights to men in the kingdom. The US State Department considers Saudi government 's discrimination against women a "significant problem '' in Saudi Arabia and notes that women have few political rights due to the government 's discriminatory policies. The World Economic Forum 2010 Global Gender Gap Report ranked Saudi Arabia 129th out of 134 countries for gender parity. Other sources had complained of an absence of laws criminalizing violence against women.
Under Saudi law, every adult female must have a male relative as her "guardian '' (wali), As of 2008, a woman was required to have permission from her male guardian in order to travel, study, or work. A royal decree passed in May 2017 allowed them to avail government services such as education and healthcare without the need of a consent of a male guardian. The order however also stated that it should only be allowed if it does n't contradict the Sharia system.
According to a leading Saudi feminist and journalist, Wajeha al - Huwaider, "Saudi women are weak, no matter how high their status, even the ' pampered ' ones among them, because they have no law to protect them from attack by anyone. ''
Women face discrimination in the courts, where the testimony of one man equals that of two women in family and inheritance law. Polygamy is permitted for men, and men have a unilateral right to divorce their wives (talaq) without needing any legal justification. A woman can only obtain a divorce with the consent of her husband or judicially if her husband has harmed her. In practice, it is very difficult for a Saudi woman to obtain a judicial divorce. With regard to the law of inheritance, the Quran specifies that fixed portions of the deceased 's estate must be left to the Qur'anic heirs and generally, female heirs receive half the portion of male heirs.
The average age at first marriage among Saudi females is 25 years in Saudi Arabia, with child marriage no longer common. As of 2015, Saudi women constitute 13 % of the country 's native workforce despite being 51 % of all university graduates. Female literacy is estimated to be 81 %, lower than male literacy.
Obesity is a problem among middle and upper class Saudis who have domestic servants to do traditional work but, until 2018, were forbidden to drive and so are limited in their ability to leave their home. As of April 2014, Saudi authorities in the education ministry have been asked by the Shoura Council to consider lifting a state school ban on sports for girls with the proviso that any sports conform to Sharia rules on dress and gender segregation, according to the official SPA news agency.
The religious police, known as the mutawa, impose many restrictions on women in public in Saudi Arabia. The restrictions include forcing women to sit in separate specially designated family sections in restaurants, to wear an abaya and to cover their hair.
Although Saudi Arabia imposes a strict dress code on women throughout the country by using religious police, female anchors working for Al - Arabia news network which is partly owned by Prince Abdulaziz, the son of the late King Fahad, are prohibited from wearing a veil and are encouraged to adopt a Western dress code.
A few Saudi women have risen to the top of the medical profession; for example, Dr. Ghada Al - Mutairi heads a medical research center in California and Dr. Salwa Al - Hazzaa is head of the ophthalmology department at King Faisal Specialist Hospital in Riyadh and was the late King Fahad 's personal ophthalmologist.
On 25 September 2011, King Abdullah announced that Saudi women would gain the right to vote (and to be candidates) in municipal elections, provided that a male guardian grants permission. Women were finally allowed to vote on 12 December 2015.
In August 2013, a law was passed that criminalized domestic violence against women. The ban includes penalties of a 12 - month jail sentence and fines of up to 50,000 riyals ($13,000).
In February 2017, Saudi Arabia appointed its first woman to head the Saudi Stock Exchange.
In April 2017, bin Salman announced a project to build one of the world 's largest cultural, sports and entertainment cities in Al Qidiya, southwest of Riyadh. The 334 - square kilometre city will include a safari and a Six Flags theme park.
As of February 2018, Saudi women can now open their own business, without a male 's permission and according to the Saudi Information Ministry, mothers in Saudi Arabia can now retain immediate custody of their children after divorce without having to file any lawsuits.
In April 2018 the first public cinema opened in Saudi Arabia after a ban of 35 years, with plans to have more than 2,000 screens running by 2030.
In June 2018, King Salman issued a decree allowing women to drive, lifting the world 's only ban on women drivers
Other domestic reforms include significant regulations restricting the powers of the religious police and establishing an national entertainment authority that has hosted comedy shows, pro wrestling events, and monster truck rallies Further cultural developments include the first Saudi public concerts by a female singer, the first Saudi sports stadiums to admit women, and an increased presence of women in the workforce.
Education is free at all levels. The school system is composed of elementary, intermediate, and secondary schools. A large part of the curriculum at all levels is devoted to Islam, and, at the secondary level, students are able to follow either a religious or a technical track. The rate of literacy is 90.4 % among males and is about 81.3 % among females. Classes are segregated by sex. Higher education has expanded rapidly, with large numbers of Universities and colleges being founded particularly since 2000. Institutions of higher education include the country 's first university, King Saud University founded in 1957, the Islamic University at Medina founded in 1961, and the King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah founded in 1967. King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, known as KAUST, founded recently in 2009. Other colleges and universities emphasize curricula in sciences and technology, military studies, religion, and medicine. Institutes devoted to Islamic studies, in particular, abound. Women typically receive college instruction in segregated institutions.
The Academic Ranking of World Universities, known as Shanghai Ranking, ranked 4 of Saudi Arabian institutions among its 2016 -- 2017 list of the 980 top universities in the world. Also, the QS World University Rankings has ranked nineteen Saudi universities among the top 100 Arab institutions, on its 13th edition.
According to critics, Saudi curriculum is not just dominated by Islam but suffers from Wahhabi dogma that propagates hatred towards non-Muslim and non-Wahhabis and lacks technical and other education useful for productive employment.
Memorization by rote of large parts of the Qur'an, its interpretation and understanding (Tafsir) and the application of Islamic tradition to everyday life is at the core of the curriculum. Religion taught in this manner is also a compulsory subject for all University students. As a consequence, Saudi youth "generally lacks the education and technical skills the private sector needs '' according to the CIA. Similarly, The Chronicle of Higher Education wrote in 2010 that "the country needs educated young Saudis with marketable skills and a capacity for innovation and entrepreneurship. That 's not generally what Saudi Arabia 's educational system delivers, steeped as it is in rote learning and religious instruction. ''
The religious sector of the Saudi national curriculum was examined in a 2006 report by Freedom House which concluded that "the Saudi public school religious curriculum continues to propagate an ideology of hate toward the ' unbeliever ', that is, Christians, Jews, Shiites, Sufis, Sunni Muslims who do not follow Wahhabi doctrine, Hindus, atheists and others ''. The Saudi religious studies curriculum is taught outside the Kingdom via Saudi - linked madrasah, schools, and clubs throughout the world. Critics have described the education system as "medieval '' and that its primary goal "is to maintain the rule of absolute monarchy by casting it as the ordained protector of the faith, and that Islam is at war with other faiths and cultures ''.
Saudi Arabia sponsors and promotes the teaching of Wahhabism ideology which is adopted by Sunni Jihadist groups such as ISIS, Al - Qaeda and the Nusra Front. This radical teaching takes place in Saudi funded mosques and madrasas across the Islamic world from Morocco to Pakistan to Indonesia.
According to the educational plan for secondary (high school) education 1435 -- 1438 Hijri, students enrolling in the "natural sciences '' path are required to take five religion subjects which are: Tawhid, Fiqh, Tafseer, Hadith and Islamic Education and Quran. In addition, students are required to take six science subjects which are Maths, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geology and Computer.
The approach taken in the Saudi education system has been accused of encouraging Islamic terrorism, leading to reform efforts. Following the 9 / 11 attacks, the government aimed to tackle the twin problems of encouraging extremism and the inadequacy of the country 's university education for a modern economy, by slowly modernising the education system through the "Tatweer '' reform program. The Tatweer program is reported to have a budget of approximately US $2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote learning towards encouraging students to analyze and problem - solve. It also aims to create an education system which will provide a more secular and vocationally based training.
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how microevolution and migration can affect an ecosystem | Microevolution - wikipedia
Microevolution is the change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population. This change is due to four different processes: mutation, selection (natural and artificial), gene flow, and genetic drift. This change happens over a relatively short (in evolutionary terms) amount of time compared to the changes termed ' macroevolution ' which is where greater differences in the population occur.
Population genetics is the branch of biology that provides the mathematical structure for the study of the process of microevolution. Ecological genetics concerns itself with observing microevolution in the wild. Typically, observable instances of evolution are examples of microevolution; for example, bacterial strains that have antibiotic resistance.
Microevolution over time leads to speciation or the appearance of novel structure, sometimes classified as macroevolution. Macro and microevolution describe fundamentally identical processes on different scales.
Macroevolution and microevolution describe fundamentally identical processes on different time scales. Microevolution refers to small evolutionary changes (typically described as changes in allele frequencies) within a species or population. while macroevolution is evolution on a scale of separated gene pools. Macroevolutionary studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of species.
Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell 's genome and are caused by radiation, viruses, transposons and mutagenic chemicals, as well as errors that occur during meiosis or DNA replication. Errors are introduced particularly often in the process of DNA replication, in the polymerization of the second strand. These errors can also be induced by the organism itself, by cellular processes such as hypermutation.
During the process of DNA replication, errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand. These errors, called mutations, can affect the phenotype of an organism, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene. Error rates are usually very low -- 1 error in every 10 -- 100 million bases -- due to the "proofreading '' ability of DNA polymerases. (Without proofreading error rates are a thousandfold higher; because many viruses rely on DNA and RNA polymerases that lack proofreading ability, they experience higher mutation rates.) Processes that increase the rate of changes in DNA are called mutagenic: mutagenic chemicals promote errors in DNA replication, often by interfering with the structure of base - pairing, while UV radiation induces mutations by causing damage to the DNA structure. Chemical damage to DNA occurs naturally as well, and cells use DNA repair mechanisms to repair mismatches and breaks in DNA -- nevertheless, the repair sometimes fails to return the DNA to its original sequence.
In organisms that use chromosomal crossover to exchange DNA and recombine genes, errors in alignment during meiosis can also cause mutations. Errors in crossover are especially likely when similar sequences cause partner chromosomes to adopt a mistaken alignment making some regions in genomes more prone to mutating in this way. These errors create large structural changes in DNA sequence -- duplications, inversions or deletions of entire regions, or the accidental exchanging of whole parts between different chromosomes (called translocation).
Mutation can result in several different types of change in DNA sequences; these can either have no effect, alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning. Studies in the fly Drosophila melanogaster suggest that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, this will probably be harmful, with about 70 percent of these mutations having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial. Due to the damaging effects that mutations can have on cells, organisms have evolved mechanisms such as DNA repair to remove mutations. Therefore, the optimal mutation rate for a species is a trade - off between costs of a high mutation rate, such as deleterious mutations, and the metabolic costs of maintaining systems to reduce the mutation rate, such as DNA repair enzymes. Viruses that use RNA as their genetic material have rapid mutation rates, which can be an advantage since these viruses will evolve constantly and rapidly, and thus evade the defensive responses of e.g. the human immune system.
Mutations can involve large sections of DNA becoming duplicated, usually through genetic recombination. These duplications are a major source of raw material for evolving new genes, with tens to hundreds of genes duplicated in animal genomes every million years. Most genes belong to larger families of genes of shared ancestry. Novel genes are produced by several methods, commonly through the duplication and mutation of an ancestral gene, or by recombining parts of different genes to form new combinations with new functions.
Here, domains act as modules, each with a particular and independent function, that can be mixed together to produce genes encoding new proteins with novel properties. For example, the human eye uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for color vision and one for night vision; all four arose from a single ancestral gene. Another advantage of duplicating a gene (or even an entire genome) is that this increases redundancy; this allows one gene in the pair to acquire a new function while the other copy performs the original function. Other types of mutation occasionally create new genes from previously noncoding DNA.
Selection is the process by which heritable traits that make it more likely for an organism to survive and successfully reproduce become more common in a population over successive generations.
It is sometimes valuable to distinguish between naturally occurring selection, natural selection, and selection that is a manifestation of choices made by humans, artificial selection. This distinction is rather diffuse. Natural selection is nevertheless the dominant part of selection.
The natural genetic variation within a population of organisms means that some individuals will survive more successfully than others in their current environment. Factors which affect reproductive success are also important, an issue which Charles Darwin developed in his ideas on sexual selection.
Natural selection acts on the phenotype, or the observable characteristics of an organism, but the genetic (heritable) basis of any phenotype which gives a reproductive advantage will become more common in a population (see allele frequency). Over time, this process can result in adaptations that specialize organisms for particular ecological niches and may eventually result in the speciation (the emergence of new species).
Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology. The term was introduced by Darwin in his groundbreaking 1859 book On the Origin of Species, in which natural selection was described by analogy to artificial selection, a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favored for reproduction. The concept of natural selection was originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin 's writing, nothing was known of modern genetics. The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical and molecular genetics is termed the modern evolutionary synthesis. Natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution.
Genetic drift is the change in the relative frequency in which a gene variant (allele) occurs in a population due to random sampling. That is, the alleles in the offspring in the population are a random sample of those in the parents. And chance has a role in determining whether a given individual survives and reproduces. A population 's allele frequency is the fraction or percentage of its gene copies compared to the total number of gene alleles that share a particular form.
Genetic drift is an evolutionary process which leads to changes in allele frequencies over time. It may cause gene variants to disappear completely, and thereby reduce genetic variability. In contrast to natural selection, which makes gene variants more common or less common depending on their reproductive success, the changes due to genetic drift are not driven by environmental or adaptive pressures, and may be beneficial, neutral, or detrimental to reproductive success.
The effect of genetic drift is larger in small populations, and smaller in large populations. Vigorous debates wage among scientists over the relative importance of genetic drift compared with natural selection. Ronald Fisher held the view that genetic drift plays at the most a minor role in evolution, and this remained the dominant view for several decades. In 1968 Motoo Kimura rekindled the debate with his neutral theory of molecular evolution which claims that most of the changes in the genetic material are caused by genetic drift. The predictions of neutral theory, based on genetic drift, do not fit recent data on whole genomes well: these data suggest that the frequencies of neutral alleles change primarily due to selection at linked sites, rather than due to genetic drift by means of sampling error.
Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations, which are usually of the same species. Examples of gene flow within a species include the migration and then breeding of organisms, or the exchange of pollen. Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer.
Migration into or out of a population can change allele frequencies, as well as introducing genetic variation into a population. Immigration may add new genetic material to the established gene pool of a population. Conversely, emigration may remove genetic material. As barriers to reproduction between two diverging populations are required for the populations to become new species, gene flow may slow this process by spreading genetic differences between the populations. Gene flow is hindered by mountain ranges, oceans and deserts or even man - made structures such as the Great Wall of China, which has hindered the flow of plant genes.
Depending on how far two species have diverged since their most recent common ancestor, it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with horses and donkeys mating to produce mules. Such hybrids are generally infertile, due to the two different sets of chromosomes being unable to pair up during meiosis. In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype. The importance of hybridization in creating new species of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals, with the gray tree frog being a particularly well - studied example.
Hybridization is, however, an important means of speciation in plants, since polyploidy (having more than two copies of each chromosome) is tolerated in plants more readily than in animals. Polyploidy is important in hybrids as it allows reproduction, with the two different sets of chromosomes each being able to pair with an identical partner during meiosis. Polyploid hybrids also have more genetic diversity, which allows them to avoid inbreeding depression in small populations.
Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among bacteria. In medicine, this contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance, as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species. Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean beetle Callosobruchus chinensis may also have occurred. An example of larger - scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers, which appear to have received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi, and plants. Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across biological domains. Large - scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of eukaryotic cells and prokaryotes, during the acquisition of chloroplasts and mitochondria.
Gene flow is the transfer of alleles from one population to another.
Migration into or out of a population may be responsible for a marked change in allele frequencies. Immigration may also result in the addition of new genetic variants to the established gene pool of a particular species or population.
There are a number of factors that affect the rate of gene flow between different populations. One of the most significant factors is mobility, as greater mobility of an individual tends to give it greater migratory potential. Animals tend to be more mobile than plants, although pollen and seeds may be carried great distances by animals or wind.
Maintained gene flow between two populations can also lead to a combination of the two gene pools, reducing the genetic variation between the two groups. It is for this reason that gene flow strongly acts against speciation, by recombining the gene pools of the groups, and thus, repairing the developing differences in genetic variation that would have led to full speciation and creation of daughter species.
For example, if a species of grass grows on both sides of a highway, pollen is likely to be transported from one side to the other and vice versa. If this pollen is able to fertilise the plant where it ends up and produce viable offspring, then the alleles in the pollen have effectively been able to move from the population on one side of the highway to the other.
The term microevolution was first used by botanist Robert Greenleaf Leavitt in the journal Botanical Gazette in 1909, addressing what he called the "mystery '' of how formlessness gives rise to form.
However, Leavitt was using the term to describe what we would now call developmental biology; it was not until Russian Entomologist Yuri Filipchenko used the terms "macroevolution '' and "microevolution '' in 1927 in his German language work, "Variabilität und Variation '', that it attained its modern usage. The term was later brought into the English - speaking world by Theodosius Dobzhansky in his book Genetics and the Origin of Species (1937).
In young Earth creationism and baraminology a central tenet is that evolution can explain diversity in a limited number of created kinds which can interbreed (which they call "microevolution '') while the formation of new "kinds '' (which they call "macroevolution '') is impossible. This acceptance of "microevolution '' only within a "kind '' is also typical of old Earth creationism.
Scientific organizations such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science describe microevolution as small scale change within species, and macroevolution as the formation of new species, but otherwise not being different from microevolution. In macroevolution, an accumulation of microevolutionary changes leads to speciation. The main difference between the two processes is that one occurs within a few generations, whilst the other takes place over thousands of years (i.e. a quantitative difference). Essentially they describe the same process; although evolution beyond the species level results in beginning and ending generations which could not interbreed, the intermediate generations could.
Opponents to creationism argue that changes in the number of chromosomes can be accounted for by intermediate stages in which a single chromosome divides in generational stages, or multiple chromosomes fuse, and cite the chromosome difference between humans and the other great apes as an example. Creationists insist that since the actual divergence between the other great apes and humans was not observed, the evidence is circumstantial.
Describing the fundamental similarity between macro and microevolution in his authoritative textbook "Evolutionary Biology, '' biologist Douglas Futuyma writes,
One of the most important tenets of the theory forged during the Evolutionary Synthesis of the 1930s and 1940s was that "macroevolutionary '' differences among organisms - those that distinguish higher taxa - arise from the accumulation of the same kinds of genetic differences that are found within species. Opponents of this point of view believed that "macroevolution '' is qualitatively different from "microevolution '' within species, and is based on a totally different kind of genetic and developmental patterning... Genetic studies of species differences have decisively disproved (this) claim. Differences between species in morphology, behavior, and the processes that underlie reproductive isolation all have the same genetic properties as variation within species: they occupy consistent chromosomal positions, they may be polygenic or based on few genes, they may display additive, dominant, or epistatic effects, and they can in some instances be traced to specifiable differences in proteins or DNA nucleotide sequences. The degree of reproductive isolation between populations, whether prezygotic or postzygotic, varies from little or none to complete. Thus, reproductive isolation, like the divergence of any other character, evolves in most cases by the gradual substitution of alleles in populations.
Contrary to the claims of some antievolution proponents, evolution of life forms beyond the species level (i.e. speciation) has indeed been observed and documented by scientists on numerous occasions. In creation science, creationists accepted speciation as occurring within a "created kind '' or "baramin '', but objected to what they called "third level - macroevolution '' of a new genus or higher rank in taxonomy. There is ambiguity in the ideas as to where to draw a line on "species '', "created kinds '', and what events and lineages fall within the rubric of microevolution or macroevolution.
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when was the last time canada was at war | Military History of Canada - wikipedia
The military history of Canada comprises hundreds of years of armed actions in the territory encompassing modern Canada, and interventions by the Canadian military in conflicts and peacekeeping worldwide. For thousands of years, the area that would become Canada was the site of sporadic intertribal conflicts among Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the 17th and 18th centuries, Canada was the site of four colonial wars and two additional wars in Nova Scotia and Acadia between New France and New England; the conflicts spanned almost seventy years, as each allied with various First Nation groups.
In 1763, after the final colonial war -- the Seven Years ' War -- the British emerged victorious and the French civilians, whom the British hoped to assimilate, were declared "British Subjects ''. After the passing of the Quebec Act in 1774, giving the Canadians their first charter of rights under the new regime, the northern colonies chose not to join the American Revolution and remained loyal to the British crown. The Americans launched invasions in 1775 and 1812. On both occasions, the Americans were rebuffed by Canadian forces; however, this threat would remain well into the 19th century and partially facilitated Canadian Confederation in 1867.
After Confederation, and amid much controversy, a full - fledged Canadian military was created. Canada, however, remained a British dominion, and Canadian forces joined their British counterparts in the Second Boer War and the First World War. While independence followed the Statute of Westminster, Canada 's links to Britain remained strong, and the British once again had the support of Canadians during the Second World War. Since then, Canada has been committed to multilateralism and has gone to war within large multinational coalitions such as in the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and the Afghan war.
The causes of aboriginal warfare tended to be over tribal independence, resources, and personal and tribal honour -- revenge for perceived wrongs committed against oneself or one 's tribe. Before European colonization, aboriginal warfare tended to be formal and ritualistic, and entailed few casualties. There is some evidence of much more violent warfare, even the complete genocide of some First Nations groups by others, such as the total displacement of the Dorset culture of Newfoundland by the Beothuk. Warfare was also common among indigenous peoples of the Subarctic with sufficient population density. Inuit groups of the northern Arctic extremes generally did not engage in direct warfare, primarily because of their small populations, relying instead on traditional law to resolve conflicts.
Those captured in fights were not always killed; tribes often adopted captives to replace warriors lost during raids and battles, and captives were also used for prisoner exchanges. Slavery was hereditary, the slaves being prisoners of war and their descendants. Slave - owning tribes of the fishing societies, such as the Tlingit and Haida, lived along the coast from what are now Alaska to California. Among indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, about a quarter of the population were slaves.
The first conflicts between Europeans and aboriginal peoples may have occurred around 1000 CE, when parties of Norsemen attempted to establish permanent settlements along the northeastern coast of North America (see L'Anse aux Meadows). According to Norse sagas, the skraelings of Vinland responded so ferociously that the newcomers eventually withdrew and gave up their plans to settle the area.
Prior to French settlements in the St. Lawrence River valley, the local Iroquoian peoples were almost completely displaced, probably because of warfare with their neighbours the Algonquin. The Iroquois League was established prior to major European contact. Most archaeologists and anthropologists believe that the League was formed sometime between 1450 and 1600. Existing aboriginal alliances would become important to the colonial powers in the struggle for North American hegemony during the 17th and 18th centuries.
After European arrival, fighting between aboriginal groups tended to be bloodier and more decisive, especially as tribes became caught up in the economic and military rivalries of the European settlers. By the end of the 17th century, First Nations from the northeastern woodlands, eastern subarctic and the Métis (a people of joint First Nations and European descent) had rapidly adopted the use of firearms, supplanting the traditional bow. The adoption of firearms significantly increased the number of fatalities. The bloodshed during conflicts was also dramatically increased by the uneven distribution of firearms and horses among competing aboriginal groups.
Two years after the French founded Port Royal (see also Port - Royal (Acadia) and Annapolis Royal) in 1605, the English began their first settlement, at Jamestown, Virginia, to the south. By 1706, the French population was around 16,000 and grew slowly due to a multitude of factors. This lack of immigration resulted in New France having one - tenth of the British population of the Thirteen Colonies by the mid 1700s.
La Salle 's explorations had given France a claim to the Mississippi River valley, where fur trappers and a few colonists set up scattered settlements. The colonies of New France: Acadia on the Bay of Fundy and Canada on the St. Lawrence River were based primarily on the fur trade and had only lukewarm support from the French monarchy. The colonies of New France grew slowly given the difficult geographical and climatic circumstances. The more favourably located New England Colonies to the south developed a diversified economy and flourished from immigration. From 1670, through the Hudson 's Bay Company, the English also laid claim to Hudson Bay and its drainage basin (known as Rupert 's Land), and operated fishing settlements in Newfoundland.
The early military of New France consisted of a mix of regular soldiers from the French Army (Carignan - Salières Regiment) and French Navy (Troupes de la marine and Compagnies Franches de la Marine) supported by small local volunteer militia units (Colonial militia). Most early troops were sent from France, but localization after the growth of the colony meant that, by the 1690s, many were volunteers from the settlers of New France, and by the 1750s most troops were descendants of the original French inhabitants. Additionally, many of the early troops and officers who were born in France remained in the colony after their service ended, contributing to generational service and a military elite. The French built a series of forts from Newfoundland to Louisiana and others captured from the British during the 1600s to the late 1700s. Some were a mix of military post and trading forts.
The Beaver Wars (also known as the French and Iroquois Wars) continued intermittently for nearly a century, ending with the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701. The French under Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons founded settlements at Port Royal and Samuel de Champlain three years later at Quebec City, quickly joining pre-existing aboriginal alliances that brought them into conflict with other indigenous inhabitants. Champlain joined a Huron -- Algonquin alliance against the Iroquois Confederacy (Five / Six Nations). In the first battle, superior French firepower rapidly dispersed a massed groups of aboriginals. The Iroquois changed tactics by integrating their hunting skills and intimate knowledge of the terrain with their use of firearms obtained from the Dutch; they developed a highly effective form of guerrilla warfare, and were soon a significant threat to all but the handful of fortified cities. Furthermore, the French gave few guns to their aboriginal allies.
For the first century of the colony 's existence, the chief threat to the inhabitants of New France came from the Iroquois Confederacy, and particularly from the eastern-most Mohawks. While the majority of tribes in the region were allies of the French, the tribes of the Iroquois confederacy were aligned first with the Dutch colonizers, then the British. In response to the Iroquois threat, the French government dispatched the Carignan - Salières Regiment, the first group of uniformed professional soldiers to set foot on what is today Canadian soil. After peace was attained, this regiment was disbanded in Canada. The soldiers settled in the St. Lawrence valley and, in the late 17th century, formed the core of the Compagnies Franches de la Marine, the local militia. Later militias were developed on the larger seigneuries land systems.
In the mid-17th century, Acadia was plunged into what some historians have described as a civil war. The war was between Port Royal, where Governor of Acadia Charles de Menou d'Aulnay de Charnisay was stationed, and present - day Saint John, New Brunswick, home of Governor Charles de Saint - Étienne de la Tour. During the conflict, there were four major battles. La Tour attacked d'Aulnay at Port Royal in 1640. In response to the attack, d'Aulnay sailed out of Port Royal to establish a five - month blockade of La Tour 's fort at Saint John, which La Tour eventually defeated in 1643. La Tour attacked d'Aulnay again at Port Royal in 1643; d'Aulnay and Port Royal ultimately won the war against La Tour with the 1645 siege of Saint John. However, after d'Aulnay died in 1650, La Tour re-established himself in Acadia.
During King William 's War (1689 -- 1697), the next most serious threat to Quebec in the 17th century came in 1690 when, alarmed by the attacks of the petite guerre, the New England colonies sent an armed expedition north, under Sir William Phips, to capture Quebec itself. This expedition was poorly organized and had little time to achieve its objective, having arrived in mid-October, shortly before the St. Lawrence would freeze over. The expedition was responsible for eliciting one of the most famous pronouncements in Canadian military history. When called on by Phips to surrender, the aged Governor Frontenac replied, "I will answer... only with the mouths of my cannon and the shots of my muskets. '' After a single abortive landing on the Beauport shore to the east of Quebec City, the English force withdrew down the icy waters of the St. Lawrence.
During the war, the military conflicts in Acadia included: Battle at Chedabucto (Guysborough); Battle of Port Royal (1690); a naval battle in the Bay of Fundy (Action of 14 July 1696); Raid on Chignecto (1696) and Siege of Fort Nashwaak (1696). The Maliseet from their headquarters at Meductic on the Saint John River participated in numerous raids and battles against New England during the war.
In 1695, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was called upon to attack the English stations along the Atlantic coast of Newfoundland in the Avalon Peninsula Campaign. Iberville sailed with his three vessels to Placentia (Plaisance), the French capital of Newfoundland. Both English and French fishermen exploited the Grand Banks fishery from their respective settlements on Newfoundland under the sanction of a 1687 treaty, but the purpose of the new French expedition of 1696 was nevertheless to expel the English from Newfoundland. After setting fire to St John 's, Iberville 's Canadians almost totally destroyed the English fisheries along the eastern shore of Newfoundland.
Small raiding parties attacked the hamlets in remote bays and inlets, burning, looting, and taking prisoners. By the end of March 1697, only Bonavista and Carbonear remained in English hands. In four months of raids, Iberville was responsible for the destruction of 36 settlements. At the end of the war England returned the territory to France in the Treaty of Ryswick.
During the 18th century, the British -- French struggle in Canada intensified as the rivalry worsened in Europe. The French government poured more and more military spending into its North American colonies. Expensive garrisons were maintained at distant fur trading posts, the fortifications of Quebec City were improved and augmented, and a new fortified town was built on the east coast of Île Royale, or Cape Breton Island -- the fortress of Louisbourg, called "Gibraltar of the North '' or the "Dunkirk of America. ''
New France and New England were at war with one another three times during the 18th century. The second and third colonial wars, Queen Anne 's War and King George 's War, were local offshoots of larger European conflicts -- the War of the Spanish Succession (1702 -- 13), the War of the Austrian Succession (1744 -- 48). The last, the French and Indian War (Seven Years ' War), started in the Ohio Valley. The petite guerre of the Canadiens devastated the northern towns and villages of New England, sometimes reaching as far south as Virginia. The war also spread to the forts along the Hudson Bay shore.
During Queen Anne 's War (1702 -- 1713), the British conquered Acadia when a British force managed to capture Port - Royal (see also Annapolis Royal), the capital of Acadia in present - day Nova Scotia, in 1710. As a result, France was forced to cede control of mainland Nova Scotia to Britain in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), leaving present - day New Brunswick as disputed territory and Île - St. Jean (Prince Edward Island), and Île - Royale (present day Cape Breton Island) in the hands of the French. British possession of Hudson Bay was guaranteed by the same treaty. During Queen Anne 's War, military conflicts in Nova Scotia included the Raid on Grand Pré, the Siege of Port Royal (1707), the Siege of Port Royal (1710) and the Battle of Bloody Creek (1711).
During the escalation that preceded Father Rale 's War (also known as Dummer 's War), the Mi'kmaq raided the new fort at Canso (1720). Under potential siege, in May 1722 Lieutenant Governor John Doucett took 22 Mi'kmaq hostage at Annapolis Royal to prevent the capital from being attacked. In July 1722, the Abenaki and Mi'kmaq created a blockade of Annapolis Royal with the intent of starving the capital. The Mi'kmaq captured 18 fishing vessels and prisoners in the area stretching from present - day Yarmouth to Canso.
As a result of the escalating conflict, Massachusetts Governor Samuel Shute officially declared war on the Abenaki on July 22, 1722. Early operations of Father Rale 's War happened in the Nova Scotia theatre. In July 1724, a group of sixty Mi'kmaq and Maliseets raided Annapolis Royal. The treaty that ended the war marked a significant shift in European relations with the Mi'kmaq and Maliseet. For the first time, a European empire formally acknowledged that its dominion over Nova Scotia would have to be negotiated with the region 's indigenous inhabitants. The treaty was invoked as recently as 1999 in the Donald Marshall case.
During King George 's War, also called the War of the Austrian Succession (1744 -- 1748), a force of New England militia under William Pepperell and Commodore Peter Warren of the Royal Navy succeeded in capturing Louisbourg in 1745. By the Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle that ended the war in 1748, France resumed control of Louisbourg in exchange for some of its conquests in the Netherlands and India. The New Englanders were outraged, and as a counterweight to the continuing French strength at Louisbourg, the British founded the military settlement of Halifax in 1749. During King George 's War, military conflicts in Nova Scotia included: Raid on Canso; Siege of Annapolis Royal (1744); the Siege of Louisbourg (1745); the Duc d'Anville Expedition and the Battle of Grand Pré.
Father Le Loutre 's War (1749 -- 1755) was fought in Acadia and Nova Scotia by the British and New Englanders, primarily under the leadership of the New England Ranger John Gorham and the British officer Charles Lawrence, against the Mi'kmaq and Acadians, who were led by French priest Jean - Louis Le Loutre. The war began with the British unilaterally establishing Halifax, which was a violation of an earlier treaty with the Mi'kmaq (1726), which was signed after Father Rale 's War. As a result, Acadians and Mi'kmaqs orchestrated attacks at Chignecto, Grand - Pré, Dartmouth, Canso, Halifax and Country Harbour. The French erected forts at present - day Saint John, Chignecto and Fort Gaspareaux. The British responded by attacking the Mi'kmaq and Acadians at Mirligueche (later known as Lunenburg), Chignecto and St. Croix. The British also unilaterally established communities in Lunenburg and Lawrencetown. Finally, the British erected forts in Acadian communities at Windsor, Grand - Pré and Chignecto.
Throughout the war, the Mi'kmaq and Acadians attacked the British fortifications of Nova Scotia and the newly established Protestant settlements. They wanted to retard British settlement and buy time for France to implement its Acadian resettlement scheme. The war ended after six years with the defeat of the Mi'kmaq, Acadians and French in the Battle of Fort Beauséjour. During this war, Atlantic Canada witnessed more population movements, more fortification construction, and more troop allocations than ever before in the region. The Acadians and Mi'kmaq left Nova Scotia during the Acadian Exodus for the French colonies of Île Saint - Jean (Prince Edward Island) and Île Royale (Cape Breton Island).
The fourth and final colonial war of the 18th century was the French and Indian War (1754 -- 1763). The British sought to neutralize any potential military threat and to interrupt the vital supply lines to Louisbourg by deporting the Acadians. The British began the Expulsion of the Acadians with the Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755). During the next nine years, over 12,000 Acadians were removed from Nova Scotia. In the maritime theatre, conflicts included: Battle of Fort Beauséjour; Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755); the Battle of Petitcodiac; the Raid on Lunenburg (1756); the Louisbourg Expedition (1757); Battle of Bloody Creek (1757); Siege of Louisbourg (1758), Petitcodiac River Campaign, Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (1758), St. John River Campaign, and Battle of Restigouche.
In the St. Lawrence and Mohawk theatres of the conflict, the French had begun to challenge the claims of Anglo - American traders and land speculators for supremacy in the Ohio Country to the west of the Appalachian Mountains -- land that was claimed by some of the British colonies in their royal charters. In 1753, the French started the military occupation of the Ohio Country by building a series of forts. In 1755, the British sent two regiments to North America to drive the French from these forts, but these were destroyed by French Canadians and First Nations as they approached Fort Duquesne. War was formally declared in 1756, and six French regiments of troupes de terre, or line infantry, came under the command of a newly arrived general, 44 - year - old Marquis de Montcalm.
Under their new commander, the French at first achieved a number of startling victories over the British, first at Fort William Henry to the south of Lake Champlain. The following year saw an even greater victory when the British army -- numbering about 15,000 under Major General James Abercrombie -- was defeated in its attack on a French fortification at the Carillon. In June 1758, a British force of 13,000 regulars under Major General Jeffrey Amherst, with James Wolfe as one of his brigadiers, landed and permanently captured the Fortress of Louisbourg.
Wolfe decided the next year to attempt the capture of Quebec City. After several botched landing attempts, including particularly bloody defeats at the Battle of Beauport and the Battle of Montmorency Camp, Wolfe succeeded in getting his army ashore, forming ranks on the Plains of Abraham on September 12. Montcalm, against the better judgment of his officers, came out with a numerically inferior force to meet the British. In the ensuing battle, Wolfe was killed, Montcalm mortally wounded, and 658 British and 644 French became casualties. However, in the spring of 1760, the last French General, François Gaston de Lévis, marched back to Quebec from Montreal and defeated the British at the Battle of Sainte - Foy in a battle similar to that of the previous year; now the situation was reversed, with the French laying siege to the Quebec fortifications behind which the British retreated. However, the French were finally forced to concede, losing almost all of their North American possessions. The French formally withdrew from much of North America in 1763 when they signed the Treaty of Paris.
With the French threat eliminated, Britain 's American colonies became increasingly restive; they resented paying taxes to support a large military establishment when there was no obvious enemy. This resentment was augmented by further suspicions of British motives when the Ohio Valley and other western territories previously claimed by France were not annexed to the existing British colonies, especially Pennsylvania and Virginia, which had long - standing claims to the region. Instead, under the Quebec Act, this territory was set aside for the First Nations. The American Revolutionary War (1776 -- 1783) saw the revolutionaries use force to break free from British rule and claim these western lands. American forces took Montreal and the chain of forts in the Richelieu Valley, but attempts by the revolutionaries to take Quebec City were repelled. During this time, most French Canadians stayed neutral.
Throughout the war, American privateers devastated the maritime economy by raiding many of the coastal communities. There were constant attacks by American and French privateers, such as the Raid on Lunenburg (1782), numerous raids on Liverpool, Nova Scotia (October 1776, March 1777, September 1777, May 1778, September 1780) and a raid on Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia (1781). Privateers also raided Canso in 1775, returning in 1779 to destroy the fisheries.
To guard against such attacks, the 84th Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants) was garrisoned at forts around Atlantic Canada. Fort Edward (Nova Scotia) in Windsor became the headquarters to prevent a possible American land assault on Halifax from the Bay of Fundy. There was an American attack on Nova Scotia by land, the Battle of Fort Cumberland followed by the Siege of Saint John (1777).
During the war, American privateers captured 225 vessels either leaving or arriving at Nova Scotia ports. In 1781, for example, as a result of the Franco - American alliance against Great Britain, there was a naval engagement with a French fleet at Sydney, Nova Scotia, near Spanish River, Cape Breton. The British captured numerous American privateers, particularly in the naval battle off Halifax. The Royal Navy used Halifax as a base from which to launch attacks on New England, such as the Battle of Machias (1777).
The revolutionaries ' failure to achieve success in what is now Canada, and the continuing allegiance to Britain of some colonists, resulted in the split of Britain 's North American empire. Many Americans who remained loyal to the Crown, known as the United Empire Loyalists, moved north, greatly expanding the English - speaking population of what became known as British North America. The independent republic of the United States emerged to the south.
After the cessation of hostilities at the end of the American Revolution, animosity and suspicion continued between the United States and the United Kingdom, erupting in 1812 when the Americans declared war on the British. Among the reasons for the war was British harassment of US ships (including impressment of American seamen into the Royal Navy), a byproduct of British involvement in the ongoing Napoleonic Wars. The Americans did not possess a navy capable of challenging the Royal Navy, and so an invasion of Canada was proposed as the only feasible means of attacking the British Empire. Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would not only bring an end to British support of aboriginal resistance to the westward expansion of the United States, but also finalize their claim to the western territories.
After the Americans launched an invasion in July 1812, the war raged back and forth along the border of Upper Canada, on land as well as on the waters of the Great Lakes. The British succeeded in capturing Detroit in July, and again in October. On July 12, US General William Hull invaded Canada at Sandwich (later known as Windsor). The invasion was quickly halted and Hull withdrew, giving General Isaac Brock the excuse he needed to abandon his previous orders and advance on Detroit, securing Shawnee chief Tecumseh 's aid to do so. At this point, even with his aboriginal allies, Brock was outnumbered approximately two to one. However, Brock had gauged Hull as a timid man, and particularly as being afraid of Tecumseh 's confederacy; he was thus able to convince Hull to surrender. The defeat of Detroit was utter and complete. A major American thrust across the Niagara frontier was defeated at the Battle of Queenston Heights, where Sir Isaac Brock lost his life.
In 1813, the US retook Detroit and had a string of successes along the western end of Lake Erie, culminating in the Battle of Lake Erie (September 10) and the Battle of Moraviantown or Battle of the Thames on October 5. The naval battle secured US dominance of lakes Erie and Huron. At Moraviantown, the British lost one of their key commanders, Tecumseh. Further east, the Americans succeeded in capturing and burning York (later Toronto) and taking Fort George at Niagara, which they held until the end of the year. However, in the same year, two American thrusts against Montreal were defeated -- one by a force of mostly British regulars at the Battle of Crysler 's Farm southwest of the city on the St. Lawrence; the other, by a force of mostly French Canadian regular and militia units under the command of Charles de Salaberry, to the south of the city at the Battle of Châteauguay.
After the capture of Washington, DC, in September at the Battle of Bladensburg, the British troops burned down the White House and other government buildings, only to be repulsed as they moved north for the Battle of Baltimore, while the forces attacking during the Battle of New Orleans were routed after suffering severe casualties.
During the War of 1812, Nova Scotia 's contribution to the war effort was made by communities either purchasing or building various privateer ships to lay siege to American vessels. Three members of the community of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia purchased a privateer schooner and named it Lunenburg on August 8, 1814. The vessel captured seven American vessels. The Liverpool Packet from Liverpool, Nova Scotia, another privateer vessel, is credited with having captured fifty ships during the conflict. Perhaps the most dramatic moment in the war for Nova Scotia was HMS Shannon 's leading the captured American frigate USS Chesapeake into Halifax Harbour (1813). Many of the captives were imprisoned and died at Deadman 's Island, Halifax.
Sir Isaac Brock became a martyred Canadian hero despite his British roots. The successful defence of Canada relied on Canadian militia, British regular troops (including "Fencible '' units recruited within North America), the Royal Navy and aboriginal allies. Neither side of the war can claim total victory.
Historians agree that the Native Americans were the main losers of the war. The British dropped plans to create a neutral Indian state in the Midwest, and the coalition that Tecumseh had built fell apart with his death in 1813. The Natives no longer represented a major threat to westward expansion of the American frontier.
The fear that the Americans might again attempt to conquer Canada remained a serious concern for at least the next half century, and was the chief reason for the retention of a large British garrison in the colony. From the 1820s to the 1840s, there was extensive construction of fortifications, as the British attempted to create strong points around which defending forces might centre in the event of an American invasion; these include the Citadels at Quebec City and Halifax, and Fort Henry in Kingston. The Rideau Canal was built to allow ships in wartime to travel a more northerly route from Montreal to Kingston; the customary peacetime route was the St. Lawrence River, which constituted the northern edge of the American border, and thus was vulnerable to enemy attack and interference.
One of the most important actions by the British forces and Canadian Militia during this period was the putting down of the Rebellions of 1837. The Upper Canada Rebellion was quickly and decisively defeated by the British forces and Canadian Militia. Attacks the next year by Hunters ' Lodges, US irregulars who expected to be paid in Canadian land, were crushed in 1838 in the Battle of Pelee Island and the Battle of the Windmill. The Lower Canada Rebellion was a greater threat to the British, and the rebels were victorious at the Battle of St. Denis on November 23, 1837. Two days later, the rebels were defeated at the Battle of Saint - Charles, and on December 14, they were finally routed at the Battle of Saint - Eustache.
By the 1850s, fears of an American invasion had begun to diminish, and the British felt able to start reducing the size of their garrison. The Reciprocity Treaty, negotiated between Canada and the United States in 1854, further helped to alleviate concerns. However, tensions picked up again during the American Civil War (1861 -- 65), reaching a peak with the Trent Affair of late 1861 and early 1862, touched off when the captain of a US gunboat stopped the RMS Trent and removed two Confederate officials who were bound for Britain. The British government was outraged and, with war appearing imminent, took steps to reinforce its North American garrison, increasing it from a strength of 4,000 to 18,000. However, war was averted and the sense of crisis subsided. This incident proved to be the final major episode of Anglo - American military confrontation in North America, as both sides increasingly became persuaded of the benefits of amicable relations. At the same time, many Canadians went south to fight in the Civil War, with most joining the Union side, although some were sympathetic toward the Confederacy.
Britain was at that time becoming concerned with military threats closer to home and disgruntled at paying to maintain a garrison in colonies that, after 1867, were united in the self - governing Dominion of Canada. Consequently, in 1871, the troops of the British garrison were withdrawn from Canada completely, save for Halifax and Esquimalt, where British garrisons remained in place purely for reasons of imperial strategy.
Nova Scotians fought in the Crimean War. The Welsford - Parker Monument in Halifax is the fourth oldest war monument in Canada (1860) (the Montcalm - Woffe Monument in Quebec City was erected in 1828) and the only Crimean War monument in North America. It commemorates the Siege of Sevastopol (1854 -- 1855). The first Canadian Victoria Cross recipient, Alexander Roberts Dunn, served in the war.
During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, William Nelson Hall, a descendant of former American slaves from Maryland, was the first black Canadian and first black Nova Scotian, to receive the Victoria Cross. He received the medal for his actions in the Siege of Lucknow.
It was during the period of re-examination of the British military presence in Canada and its ultimate withdrawal that the last invasion of Canada occurred. It was not carried out by any official US government force, but by an organization called the Fenians. The Fenian raids (1866 -- 1871) were carried out by groups of Irish Americans, mostly Union Army veterans from the American Civil War who believed that by seizing Canada, concessions could be wrung from the British government regarding their policy in Ireland. The Fenians had also incorrectly assumed that Irish Canadians, who were quite numerous in Canada, would support their invasive efforts both politically and militarily. However, most Irish settlers in Upper Canada at that time were Protestant, and for the most part loyal to the British Crown.
After the events of the Civil War, anti-British sentiment was high in the United States. British - built Confederate warships had wreaked havoc on US commerce during the war. Irish - Americans were a large and politically important constituency, particularly in parts of the Northeastern States, and a large number of Irish American regiments had participated in the war. Thus, while deeply concerned about the Fenians, the US government, led by Secretary of State William H. Seward, generally ignored their efforts: the Fenians were allowed to openly organize and arm themselves, and were even able to recruit in Union Army camps. The Americans were not prepared to risk war with Britain and intervened when the Fenians threatened to endanger American neutrality. The Fenians were a serious threat to Canada, as being veterans of the Union Army they were well - armed. Despite failures, the raids had some impact on Canadian politicians who were then locked in negotiations leading up to the Confederation agreement of 1867.
With Confederation in place and the British garrison gone, Canada assumed full responsibility for its own defence; it passed the Militia Act in 1868, though Britain undertook to send aid in the event of a serious emergency and the Royal Navy continued to provide maritime defence. Small professional batteries of artillery were established at Quebec City and Kingston. In 1883, a third battery of artillery was added, and small cavalry and infantry schools were created. These were intended to provide the professional backbone of the Permanent Active Militia that was to form the bulk of the Canadian defence effort. In theory, every able - bodied man between the ages of 18 and 60 was liable to be conscripted for service in the permanent militia, but in practice, the defence of the country rested on the services of volunteers who made up the Non-Permanent Active Militia.
The most important early tests of the militia were expeditions against the rebel forces of Louis Riel in the Canadian west. The Wolseley Expedition, containing a mix of British and militia forces, restored order after the Red River Rebellion in 1870. The North - West Rebellion in 1885 saw the largest military effort undertaken on Canadian soil since the end of the War of 1812: a series of battles between the Métis and their First Nations allies on one side against the Militia and North - West Mounted Police on the other.
The government forces ultimately emerged victorious despite having suffered a number of early defeats and reversals at the Battle of Duck Lake, the Battle of Fish Creek and the Battle of Cut Knife Hill. Outnumbered and out of ammunition, the Métis portion of the North - West Rebellion collapsed with the siege and Battle of Batoche. The Battle of Loon Lake, which ended this conflict, is notable as the last battle to have been fought on Canadian soil. Government losses during the North - West Rebellion amounted to 58 killed and 93 wounded.
In 1884, Britain for the first time asked Canada for aid in defending the empire, requesting experienced boatmen to help rescue Major - General Charles Gordon from the Mahdi uprising in the Sudan. However, the government was reluctant to comply, and eventually Governor General Lord Lansdowne recruited a private force of 386 Voyageurs who were placed under the command of Canadian Militia officers. This force, known as the Nile Voyageurs, served in the Sudan and became the first Canadian force to serve abroad. Sixteen Voyageurs died during the campaign.
The issue of Canadian military assistance for Britain arose again during the Second Boer War (1899 -- 1902) in South Africa. The British asked for Canadian help in the conflict, and the Conservative Party was adamantly in favour of raising 8,000 troops for service in South Africa. English Canadian opinion was also overwhelmingly in favour of active Canadian participation in the war. However, French Canadians almost universally opposed the war, as did several other groups. This split the governing Liberal Party deeply, as it relied on both pro-imperial Anglo - Canadians and anti-imperial Franco - Canadians for support. Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier was a man of compromise. When deciding to send soldiers to South Africa, Laurier was worried about conflict between Anglo - and Franco - Canadians on the home front. Intimidated by his imperial cabinet, Laurier initially sent 1,000 soldiers of the 2nd (Special Service) Battalion of the Royal Canadian Regiment of Infantry. Later, other contingents were sent, 1st Regiment, Canadian Mounted Rifles and 3rd Battalion of The Royal Canadian Regiment (as 2nd Canadian Contingent) and including the privately raised Strathcona 's Horse (as Third Canadian Contingent).
The Canadian forces missed the early period of the war and the great British defeats of Black Week. The Canadians in South Africa won much acclaim for leading the charge at the Second Battle of Paardeberg, one of the first decisive victories of the war. At the Battle of Leliefontein on November 7, 1900, three Canadians, Lieutenant Turner, Lieutenant Cockburn, Sergeant Holland and Arthur Richardson of the Royal Canadian Dragoons were awarded the Victoria Cross for protecting the rear of a retreating force. Ultimately, over 8,600 Canadians volunteered to fight. Lieutenant Harold Lothrop Borden, however, became the most famous Canadian casualty of the Second Boer War. About 7,400 Canadians, including many female nurses, served in South Africa. Of these, 224 died, 252 were wounded, and several were decorated with the Victoria Cross. Canadian forces also participated in the British - led concentration camp programs that resulted in the deaths of thousands of Boer civilians.
From 1763 to prior to the Confederation of Canada in 1867, the British Army provided the main defence of Canada, although many Canadians served with the British in various conflicts. As British troops began to leave Canada in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the importance of the Militia (comprising various cavalry, artillery, infantry and engineer units) became more pronounced. Shortly after Canada entered the Second Boer War, a debate developed over whether or not Canada should have its own army. As a result, the last Officer Commanding the Forces (Canada), Lord Dundonald, instituted a series of reforms in which Canada gained its own technical and support branches. In 1904, the Officer Commanding the Forces was replaced with a Canadian Chief of the General Staff. The new various "corps '' included the Engineer Corps (1903), Signalling Corps (1903), Service Corps (1903), Ordnance Stores Corps (1903), Corps of Guides (1903), Medical Corps (1904), Staff Clerks (1905), and Army Pay Corps (1906). Additional corps would be created in the years before and during the First World War, including the first separate military dental corps.
Canada had long had a small fishing protection force attached to the Department of Marine and Fisheries, but relied on Britain for maritime protection. Britain was increasingly engaged in an arms race with Germany, and in 1908, asked the colonies for help with the navy. The Conservative Party argued that Canada should merely contribute money to the purchase and upkeep of some British Royal Navy vessels. Some French - Canadian nationalists felt that no aid should be sent; others advocated an independent Canadian navy that could aid the British in times of need.
Eventually, Prime Minister Laurier decided to follow this compromise position, and the Canadian Naval Service was created in 1910 and designated as the Royal Canadian Navy in August 1911. To appease imperialists, the Naval Service Act included a provision that in case of emergency, the fleet could be turned over to the British. This provision led to the strenuous opposition to the bill by Quebec nationalist Henri Bourassa. The bill set a goal of building a navy composed of five cruisers and six destroyers. The first two ships were Niobe and Rainbow, somewhat aged and outdated vessels purchased from the British. With the election of the Conservatives in 1911, in part because the Liberals had lost support in Quebec, the navy was starved for funds, but it was greatly expanded during the First World War.
On August 4, 1914, Britain entered the First World War (1914 -- 1918) by declaring war on Germany. The British declaration of war automatically brought Canada into the war, because of Canada 's legal status as subservient to Britain. However, the Canadian government had the freedom to determine the country 's level of involvement in the war. The Militia was not mobilized and instead an independent Canadian Expeditionary Force was raised. The highpoints of Canadian military achievement during the First World War came during the Somme, Vimy, and Passchendaele battles and what later became known as "Canada 's Hundred Days ''.
The Canadian Corps was formed from the Canadian Expeditionary Force in September 1915 after the arrival of the 2nd Canadian Division in France. The corps was expanded by the addition of the 3rd Canadian Division in December 1915 and the 4th Canadian Division in August 1916. The organization of a 5th Canadian Division began in February 1917, but it was still not fully formed when it was broken up in February 1918 and its men used to reinforce the other four divisions. Although the corps was under the command of the British Army, there was considerable pressure among Canadian leaders, especially following the Battle of the Somme, for the corps to fight as a single unit rather than spreading the divisions. Plans for a second Canadian corps and two additional divisions were scrapped, and a divisive national dialogue on conscription for overseas service was begun.
Most of the other major combatants had introduced conscription to replace the massive casualties they were suffering. Spearheaded by Sir Robert Borden, who wished to maintain the continuity of Canada 's military contribution, and with a burgeoning pressure to introduce and enforce conscription, the Military Service Act was ratified. Although reaction to conscription was favourable in English Canada the idea was deeply unpopular in Quebec. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 did much to highlight the divisions between French and English - speaking Canadians in Canada. In June 1918, HMHS Llandovery Castle was sunk by a U-boat. In terms of the number of dead, the sinking was the most significant Canadian naval disaster of the war. In the later stages of the war, the Canadian Corps were among the most effective and respected of the military formations on the Western Front.
For a nation of eight million people, Canada 's war effort was widely regarded as remarkable. A total of 619,636 men and women served in the Canadian forces in the First World War, and of these 59,544 were killed and another 154,361 were wounded. Canadian sacrifices are commemorated at eight memorials in France and Belgium. Two of the eight are unique in design: the giant white Vimy Memorial and the distinctive brooding soldier at the Saint Julien Memorial. The other six follow a standard pattern of granite monuments surrounded by a circular path: the Hill 62 Memorial and Passchendaele Memorial in Belgium, and the Bourlon Wood Memorial, Courcelette Memorial, Dury Memorial, and Le Quesnel Memorial in France. There are also separate war memorials to commemorate the actions of the soldiers of Newfoundland (which did not join Confederation until 1949) in the Great War. The largest are the Beaumont - Hamel Newfoundland Memorial and the National War Memorial in St. John 's.
In 1919, Canada sent a Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force to aid the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War. The vast majority of these troops were based in Vladivostok and saw little combat before they withdrew, along with other foreign forces.
The First World War was the catalyst for the formation of Canada 's air force. At the outbreak of war, there was no independent Canadian air force, although many Canadians flew with the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service. In 1914 the Canadian government authorized the formation of the Canadian Aviation Corps. The corps was to accompany the Canadian Expeditionary Force to Europe and consisted of one aircraft, a Burgess - Dunne, that was never used. The Canadian Aviation Corps was disbanded in 1915. A second attempt at forming a Canadian air force was made in 1918 when two Canadian squadrons (one bomber and one fighter) were formed by the British Air Ministry in Europe. The Canadian government took control of the two squadrons by forming the Canadian Air Force. This air force, however, never saw service and was completely disbanded by 1921.
During the 1920s the British government encouraged Canada to institute a peacetime air force by providing several surplus aircraft. In 1920 a new Canadian Air Force (CAF) directed by the Air Board was formed as a part - time or militia service providing flying refresher training. After a reorganization the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. Air Board and CAF civil flying responsibilities were handled by the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) after its creation in April 1924. The Second World War would see the RCAF become a truly military service.
The Mackenzie -- Papineau Battalion (a volunteer unit not authorized or supported by the Canadian government) fought on the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War (1936 -- 1939). The first Canadians in the conflict were dispatched mainly with the US Abraham Lincoln Battalion and later the North American George Washington Battalion, with about forty Canadians serving in each group. By the summer of 1937 some 1,200 Canadians were involved in the conflict. They first engaged the fascists at the Battle of Jarama near Madrid, between February and June 1937, followed by the Battle of Brunete in July. Over the next year, Canadians fought in three major battles: the Battle of Teruel, the Aragon Offensive, and the Battle of the Ebro. In the battles in which they fought, as well as due to atrocities committed upon them when taken prisoner, 721 of the 1,546 Canadians known to have fought in Spain were killed. According to a speech given by Michaëlle Jean while unveiling the MacKenzie - Papineau Battalion Monument, "No other country gave a greater proportion of its population as volunteers in Spain than Canada ''.
The Second World War (1939 -- 1945) began following Nazi Germany 's invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939. Canada 's parliament supported the government 's decision to declare war on Germany on September 10, one week after the United Kingdom and France. Canadian airmen played a small but significant role in the Battle of Britain, and the Royal Canadian Navy and Canadian merchant marine played a crucial role in the Battle of the Atlantic. C Force, two Canadian infantry battalions, were involved in the failed defence of Hong Kong. Troops of the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division also played a leading role in the disastrous Dieppe Raid in August 1942. The 1st Canadian Infantry Division and tanks of the independent 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade landed on Sicily in July 1943 and after a 38 - day campaign took part in the successful Allied invasion of Italy. Canadian forces played an important role in the long advance north through Italy, eventually coming under their own corps headquarters in early 1944 after the costly battles on the Moro River and at Ortona.
On June 6, 1944, the 3rd Canadian Division (supported by tanks of the independent 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade) landed on Juno Beach in the Battle of Normandy. Canadian airborne troops had also landed earlier in the day behind the beaches. By day 's end, the Canadians had made the deepest penetrations inland of any of the five seaborne invasion forces. Canada went on to play an important role in the subsequent fighting in Normandy, with the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division coming ashore in July and the 4th Canadian Armoured Division in August. Both a corps headquarters (II Canadian Corps) and eventually an army headquarters -- for the first time in Canadian military history -- were activated. In the Battle of the Scheldt, the First Canadian Army defeated an entrenched German force at great cost to help open Antwerp to Allied shipping. The First Canadian Army fought in two more large campaigns; the Rhineland in February and March 1945, clearing a path to the Rhine River in anticipation of the assault crossing, and the subsequent battles on the far side of the Rhine in the last weeks of the war. The I Canadian Corps returned to northwest Europe from Italy in early 1945, and as part of a reunited First Canadian Army assisted in the liberation of The Netherlands (including the rescue of many Dutch from near - starvation conditions) and the invasion of Germany.
RCAF airmen served with RAF fighter and bomber squadrons, and played key roles in the Battle of Britain, antisubmarine warfare during the Battle of the Atlantic, and the bombing campaigns against Germany. Even though many RCAF personnel served with the RAF, No. 6 Group RAF Bomber Command was formed entirely of RCAF squadrons. Canadian air force personnel also provided close support to Allied forces during the Battle of Normandy and subsequent land campaigns in Europe. To free up male RCAF personnel who were needed on active operational or training duties, the RCAF Women 's Division was formed in 1941. By the end of the war, the RCAF would be the fourth largest allied air force. In line with other Commonwealth countries, a women 's corps entitled the Canadian Women 's Army Corps, similar to the RCAF Women 's Division, was established to release men for front - line duties. The corps existed from 1941 to 1946, was re-raised in 1948 and finally disbanded in 1964 (see Canadian women during the World Wars).
In addition to the army and air units, many thousands of Canadians also served with the Canadian Merchant Navy. Of a population of approximately 11.5 million, 1.1 million Canadians served in the armed forces during the Second World War. In all, more than 45,000 died, and another 55,000 were wounded. The Conscription Crisis of 1944 greatly affected unity between French and English - speaking Canadians on the home front, however it was not as politically intrusive as the conscription crisis of the First World War. Canada operated a benefits program similar to the American G.I. Bill for its Second World War veterans, with a strong economic impact similar to the American case.
Soon after the end of the Second World War, the Cold War (1946 -- 1991) began. The formal onset of the Cold War, is usually credited to the 1945 defection of a Soviet cipher clerk working in Ottawa, Igor Gouzenko. This was the first event that led to "PROFUNC '', a Government of Canada top secret plan to identify and detain communist sympathizers during the height of the Cold War. As a founding member of NATO and a signatory to the NORAD treaty with the US, Canada committed itself to the alliance against the Communist bloc. Canadian troops were stationed in Germany throughout the Cold War, and Canada joined with the Americans to erect defences against Soviet attack, such as the DEW Line. As a middle power, Canadian policy makers realized that Canada could do little militarily on its own, and thus a policy of multilateralism was adopted whereby Canada 's international military efforts would be a part of a larger coalition. This led to Canada choosing to stay out of several wars despite the participation of close allies, most notably the Vietnam War and the Second Iraq War, although Canada lent indirect support and Canadian citizens served in foreign armies in both conflicts.
Canada maintained a mechanized infantry brigade in West Germany from the 1950s (originally the 27th Canadian Infantry Brigade, later named 4 Combat Group and 4 Canadian Mechanized Brigade) to the 1990s as part of Canada 's NATO commitments. This brigade was maintained at close to full strength and was equipped with Canada 's most advanced vehicles and weapons systems as it was anticipated the brigade might have to move quickly in the event of a Warsaw Pact invasion of the west. The Royal Canadian Air Force established No. 1 Air Division in the early 1950s to meet Canada 's NATO air defence commitments in Europe.
After the Second World War, Canada rapidly demobilized. When the Korean War (1950 -- 1953) broke out, Canada needed several months to bring its military forces up to strength, and eventually formed part of British Commonwealth Forces Korea. Canadian land forces thus missed most of the early back - and - forth campaigns because they did not arrive until 1951, when the attrition phase of the war had largely started. Canadian troops fought as part of the 1st Commonwealth Division, and distinguished themselves at the Battle of Kapyong and in other land engagements. HMCS Haida and other ships of the Royal Canadian Navy were in active service in the Korean War. Although the Royal Canadian Air force did not have a combat role in Korea, twenty - two RCAF fighter pilots flew on exchange duty with the USAF in Korea. The RCAF was also involved with the transportation of personnel and supplies in support of the Korean War.
Canada sent 26,791 troops to fight in Korea. There were 1,558 Canadian casualties, including 516 dead. Korea has often been described as "The Forgotten War '', because for most Canadians it is overshadowed by the Canadian contributions to the two world wars. Canada is a signatory to the original 1953 armistice, but did not keep a garrison in South Korea after 1955.
In 1964 the Canadian government decided to merge the Royal Canadian Air Force, the Royal Canadian Navy and the Canadian Army to form the Canadian Armed Forces. The aim of the merger was to reduce costs and increase operating efficiency. Minister of National Defence Paul Hellyer argued in 1966 that "the amalgamation... will provide the flexibility to enable Canada to meet in the most effective manner the military requirements of the future. It will also establish Canada as an unquestionable leader in the field of military organization. '' On February 1, 1968, unification was completed.
The October Crisis was a series of events triggered by two kidnappings of government officials by members of the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) during October 1970 in the province of Quebec, mainly in the Montreal metropolitan area. During the domestic terrorist crisis Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, when asked how far he was willing to go to resolving the problem, responded "Just watch me '', a phrase that has become famous in Canadian lore. Three days later, on October 16, the circumstances ultimately culminated in the only peacetime use of the War Measures Act in Canada 's history. The invocation of the act resulted in widespread deployment of 12,500 Canadian Forces troops throughout Quebec, with 7,500 troops stationed within the Montreal area.
Canada did not fight in the Vietnam War (1955 -- 1975) and officially had the status of a "non-belligerent ''. Canadian Forces involvement was limited to a small contingent in 1973 to help enforce the Paris Peace Accords. The war nevertheless had a considerable impact on Canadians. In a counter-current to the movement of American draft - dodgers and deserters to Canada, about 30,000 Canadians volunteered to fight in southeast Asia. Among the volunteers were fifty Mohawks from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal. 110 Canadians died in Vietnam, and seven remain listed as Missing in Action.
The Oka Crisis was a land dispute between a group of Mohawk people and the town of Oka in southern Quebec, which began on July 11, 1990, and lasted until September 26, 1990. On August 8, Quebec premier Robert Bourassa had announced at a press conference that he had invoked Section 275 of the National Defence Act to requisition military support in "aid of the civil power ''. A right available to provincial governments that was enacted after one police officer and two Mohawk were killed during the conflict. The Chief of the Defence Staff, General John de Chastelain placed Federal, Quebec - based troops in support of the provincial authorities. During Operation Salon some 2,500 regular and reserve troops were mobilized. Troops and mechanized equipment mobilized at staging areas around Oka and Montreal, while reconnaissance aircraft staged air photo missions over Mohawk territory to gather intelligence. Despite high tensions between military and First Nations forces, no shots were exchanged. On September 1, 1990, freelance photographer Shaney Komulainen took a photograph of men staring each other down, dubbed by the media Face to Face, it has become one of Canada 's most famous images.
Canada was one of the first nations to condemn Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait, and quickly agreed to join the US - led coalition. In August 1990, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney committed the Canadian Forces to deploy a Naval Task Group. The destroyers HMCS Terra Nova and HMCS Athabaskan joined the maritime interdiction force supported by the supply ship HMCS Protecteur. The Canadian Task Group led the coalition maritime logistics forces in the Persian Gulf. A fourth ship, HMCS Huron, arrived in - theatre after hostilities had ceased and was the first allied ship to visit Kuwait.
Following the UN authorized use of force against Iraq, the Canadian Forces deployed a CF - 18 Hornet and Sikorsky CH - 124 Sea King squadron with support personnel, as well as a field hospital to deal with casualties from the ground war. When the air war began, Canada 's CF - 18s were integrated into the coalition force and were tasked with providing air cover and attacking ground targets. This was the first time since the Korean War that the Canadian military had participated in offensive combat operations. The only CF - 18 Hornet to record an official victory during the conflict was an aircraft involved in the beginning of the Battle of Bubiyan against the Iraqi Navy. A Canadian combat engineer regiment was investigated following the release of 1991 photographs which showed members posing with the dismembered bodies in a Kuwaiti minefield.
Canada 's forces were part of UNPROFOR, a UN peacekeeping force in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Yugoslav wars in the 1990s. Operation Medak pocket during that conflict was the largest battle fought by Canadian forces since the Korean War. The Canadian government claims that Canadian forces within the UN contingent clashed with the Croatian Army, where 27 Croatian soldiers were reported to have been killed. In 2002, the 2nd Battalion Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry Battle Group were awarded the Commander - in - Chief Unit Commendation "for a heroic and professional mission during the Medak Pocket Operation ''.
During the Somali Civil War, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney committed Canada to UNOSOM I after United Nations Security Council Resolution 751. UNOSOM I was the first part of the UN 's response effort to provide security and humanitarian relief in Somalia, while monitoring UN-brokered ceasefires. Canadian forces, under the name Operation Deliverance, participated in the American - led Operation Restore Hope. In May 1993 the operation came under UN command and was renamed UNOSOM II. By its end, the mission had turned into a political disaster for the Canadian Forces. During the humanitarian mission Canadian soldiers tortured a Somali teenager to death, leading to the Somalia Affair. Following an inquiry, the elite Canadian Airborne Regiment was disbanded and the reputation of the Canadian Forces suffered within Canada.
The 1997 Red River Flood was the most severe flood of the Red River of the North since 1826, affecting North Dakota and Manitoba. A "public welfare emergency '' was declared in the flood zone. During what was termed the "flood of the century '', over 8,500 military personnel were sent to Manitoba to help with evacuation, building dikes, and other flood - fighting efforts, the largest single Canadian troop deployment since the Korean War. Operation Assistance was termed a "public relations bonanza '' for the military: when a military convoy departed through Winnipeg in mid-May, thousands of civilians lined the streets to cheer for them.
"Operation Recuperation '' was in response to the North American ice storm of 1998, a massive combination of successive ice storms which combined to strike a relatively narrow swath of land from Lake Huron to southern Quebec to Nova Scotia, and bordering areas from northern New York to central Maine in the United States. Roads were impassable due to heavy snowfall or fallen trees, broken power lines and coated with a heavy layer of ice, emergency vehicles could hardly move. On January 7, the provinces of New Brunswick, Ontario, and Quebec requested aid from the Canadian Forces, and Operation Recuperation began on January 8 with 16,000 troops deployed. It was the largest deployment of troops ever to serve on Canadian soil in response to a natural disaster, and the largest operational deployment of Canadian military personnel since the Korean War.
Canada joined a US - led coalition in the 2001 attack on Afghanistan. The war was a response to the 9 / 11 terrorist attacks, and was intended to defeat the Taliban government and rout Al - Qaeda. Canada sent special forces and ground troops to the conflict. In this war, a Canadian sniper set the world record for the longest - distance kill. In early 2002, Canadian JTF2 troops were photographed handing shackled Taliban prisoners over to U.S. forces, sparking a debate of the Geneva Convention. In November 2005, Canadian military participation shifted from ISAF in Kabul to Operation Archer, a part of Operation Enduring Freedom in and around Kandahar. On May 17, 2006, Captain Nichola Goddard of the Royal Canadian Horse Artillery became Canada 's first female combat casualty.
One of the most notable operations of the Canadian Forces in Afghanistan thus far was the Canadian - led Operation Medusa, during which the second Battle of Panjwaii was fought. At the end of 2006, the Canadian soldier was selected by the Canadian Press as the Canadian Newsmaker of the Year because of the war in Afghanistan. On November 27, 2010, the 1st Battalion of the Royal 22 Régiment took over operations in Kandahar, marking the final rotation before Canada 's withdrawal from Afghanistan. In July 2011, a small contingent of Canadian troops was transferred to the NATO Training Mission - Afghanistan to continue the training of the Afghan National Army and Afghan National Police, until 2014.
"Operation Peregrine '' was a domestic military operation that took place between August 3 and September 16, 2003. In early August 2003, British Columbia was overwhelmed by over 800 separate forest fires. Provincial fire services were stretched to the breaking point, and tens of thousands of people were forced to evacuate their homes. The provincial government requested federal aid, and within days, over 2,200 Canadian Forces personnel had been mobilized. The operation lasted 45 days, and at its height more than 2,600 military personnel were in action. It was the Canadian Forces third - largest recent domestic deployment, after "Operation Recuperation '' in response to the 1998 ice storm, and "Operation Assistance '' in response to the 1997 Red River flood.
The Iraq War (2003 -- 2011) began with the invasion of Iraq on March 20, 2003. The government of Canada did not at any time officially declare war against Iraq. Nevertheless, the country 's participation and relationship with the US was redefined at various points in that war. The Canadian Forces were involved in ship escort duties, and expanded their participation in Task Force 151 to free up American naval assets. About a hundred Canadian exchange officers, on exchange to American units, participated in the invasion of Iraq. There were numerous protests and counter-protests related to the conflict in Canada, and some United States Military members sought refuge in the country after deserting their posts to avoid deployment to Iraq.
On March 19, 2011, a multi-state coalition began a military intervention in Libya to implement United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 in response to the 2011 Libyan civil war. Canada 's contribution included the deployment of a number of naval and air assets, which were grouped together as part of Operation Mobile. NATO assumed control of military actions on March 25, with RCAF Lieutenant General, Charles Bouchard in command. A no - fly zone was put into effect during the civil war to prevent government forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi from carrying out air attacks on anti-Gaddafi forces and civilians. The military intervention was enforced by NATO 's Operation Unified Protector and included an arms embargo, a no - fly zone and a mandate to use all means necessary, short of foreign occupation, to protect Libyan civilians and civilian - populated areas. On October 28, 2011, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that the NATO military mission had ended successfully.
Starting in early 2012 several insurgent groups in Mali started to take over the country. In January 2013 Mali asked for assistance from France to aid in ridding the country of the rebel insurgents. In December, the UN authorized an African intervention with the approval of the Economic Community of West African States. France then proceeded to ask its NATO allies to get involved, with Canada joining the effort by helping with the transportation of troops with a C - 17 Globemaster. This was followed by twenty four Joint Task Force 2 members who entered the country to secure the Canadian embassy in the capital Bamako. A ceasefire agreement was signed on February 19, 2015 in Algiers, Algeria but sporadic terrorist attacks still occur.
Operation Impact is the name of Canada 's contribution to the military intervention against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant that began in September 2014. The first Canadian airstrike against an Islamic State target occurred on 2 November. It was reported that CF - 18s successfully destroyed heavy engineering equipment used to divert the Euphrates River near the city of Fallujah. In October, then Prime Minister designate Justin Trudeau informed President Barack Obama that Canada intended to withdraw its fighter aircraft, while keeping its ground forces in Iraq and Syria.
The Constitution of Canada gives the federal government exclusive responsibility for national defence, and expenditures are thus outlined in the federal budget. For the 2007 -- 2010 fiscal year, the amount allocated for defence spending was C $ 6.15 billion which is 1.4 percent of the country 's GDP. This regular funding was augmented in 2005 with an additional C $12.5 billion over five years, as well as a commitment to increasing regular force troop levels by 5,000 persons, and the primary reserve by 4,500 over the same period. In 2010, a further C $5.3 billion over five years was provided to allow for 13,000 more regular force members, and 10,000 more primary reserve personnel, as well as C $17.1 billion for the purchase of new trucks for the Canadian Army, transport aircraft and helicopters for the Royal Canadian Air Force, and joint support ships for the Royal Canadian Navy. In July 2010, the largest purchase in Canadian military history, totalling C $9 billion for the acquisition of 65 F - 35 fighters, was announced by the federal government. Canada is one of several nations that assisted in the development of the F - 35 and has invested over C $168 million in the program. In 2010, Canada 's military expenditure totaled approximately C $122.5 billion.
The Canadian Forces have derived many of their traditions and symbols from the military, navy and air force of the United Kingdom, including those with royal elements. Contemporary icons and rituals, however, have evolved to include elements reflective of Canada and the Canadian monarchy. Members of the country 's Royal Family also continue their two - century - old practice of maintaining personal relationships with the forces ' divisions and regiments, around which the military has developed complex protocols. The role of the Canadian Crown in the Canadian Forces is established through both constitutional and statutory law; the National Defence Act states that "the Canadian Forces are the armed forces of Her Majesty raised by Canada, '' and the Constitution Act, 1867 vests Command - in - Chief of those forces in the sovereign.
All honours in Canada emanate from the country 's monarch, who is regarded as the fount of honour. A complex system of orders, decorations, and medals by which Canadians are honoured has evolved. The Victoria Cross, Order of Military Merit, Cross of Valour, Star of Courage, Medal of Bravery are some of the military awards that have been created for Canadians serving in a military capacity. The Victoria Cross has been presented to 94 Canadians and 2 Newfoundlanders between its creation in 1856 and 1993, when the Canadian Victoria Cross was instituted. However, no Canadian has received either honour since 1945.
During unification of the forces in the 1960s, a renaming of the branches took place, resulting in the "royal designations '' of the navy and air force being abandoned. On August 16, 2011, the Government of Canada announced that the name "Air Command '' was re-assuming the air force 's original historic name, Royal Canadian Air Force, "Land Command '' was re-assuming the name Canadian Army, and "Maritime Command '' was re-assuming the name Royal Canadian Navy. The change was made to better reflect Canada 's military heritage and align Canada with other key Commonwealth of Nations whose militaries use the royal designation.
Closely related to Canada 's commitment to multi-lateralism has been its strong support for peacekeeping efforts. Canada 's peacekeeping role during the 20th and 21st centuries has played a major part in its global image. Prior to Canada 's role in the Suez Crisis, Canada was viewed by many as insignificant in global issues. Canada 's successful role in the conflict gave Canada credibility and established it as a nation fighting for the "common good '' of all nations. Canada participated in every UN peacekeeping effort from its inception until 1989. Since 1995, however, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined. In July 2006, for instance, Canada ranked 51st on the list of UN peacekeepers, contributing 130 peacekeepers out of a total UN deployment of over 70,000. Where in November 1990 Canada had 1,002 troops out of a total UN deployment of 10,304, that number decreased largely because Canada began to direct its participation to UN-sanctioned military operations through NATO, rather than directly to the UN.
Canadian Nobel Peace Prize laureate Lester B. Pearson is considered to be the father of modern peacekeeping. Pearson had become a very prominent figure in the United Nations during its infancy, and found himself in a peculiar position in 1956 during the Suez Crisis: Pearson and Canada found themselves stuck between a conflict of their closest allies, being looked upon to find a solution. During United Nations meetings Lester B. Pearson proposed to the security council that a United Nations police force be established to prevent further conflict in the region, allowing the countries involved an opportunity to sort out a resolution. Pearson 's proposal and offer to dedicate 1,000 Canadian soldiers to that cause was seen as a brilliant political move that prevented another war.
The first Canadian peacekeeping mission, even before the creation of the formal UN system, was a 1948 mission to the second Kashmir conflict. Other important missions include those in Cyprus, Congo, Somalia, Yugoslav, and observation missions in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights. The loss of nine Canadian peacekeepers when their Buffalo 461 was shot down over Syria in 1974 remains the largest single loss of life in Canadian peacekeeping history. In 1988, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to United Nations peacekeepers, inspiring the creation of the Canadian Peacekeeping Service Medal to recognize Canadians, including serving and former members of the Canadian Forces, members of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, other police services, and civilians, who contributed to peace on certain missions.
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how tall is the actor that plays thor | Chris Hemsworth - Wikipedia
Christopher Hemsworth (born 11 August 1983) is an Australian actor. He is known for playing Kim Hyde in the Australian TV series Home and Away (2004 -- 07) and Thor in the Marvel Cinematic Universe since 2011. Hemsworth has also appeared in the science fiction action film Star Trek (2009), the thriller adventure A Perfect Getaway (2009), the horror comedy The Cabin in the Woods (2012), the dark - fantasy action film Snow White and the Huntsman (2012), the war film Red Dawn (2012), and the biographical sports drama film Rush (2013).
In 2015, he starred in the action thriller film Blackhat, had a comedic role in the fifth installment of National Lampoon 's Vacation series, Vacation, and headlined the biographical thriller film In the Heart of the Sea. The following year, Hemsworth had a supporting role in Sony 's reboot of Ghostbusters. Hemsworth will reprise his role as George Kirk in the upcoming Star Trek sequel.
Hemsworth was born in Melbourne, to Leonie (née van Os), an English teacher, and Craig Hemsworth, a social - services counsellor. He is the middle of three boys; his brothers Luke (older) and Liam (younger) are also actors. His maternal grandfather is a Dutch immigrant, and his other ancestry is English, Irish, Scottish, and German. He was raised both in Melbourne and in the Australian Outback in Bulman, Northern Territory. He has stated, "My earliest memories were on the cattle stations up in the Outback, and then we moved back to Melbourne and then back out there and then back again. Certainly most of my childhood was in Melbourne but probably my most vivid memories were up there in Bulman with crocodiles and buffalo. Very different walks of life. '' He attended high school at Heathmont College before his family again returned to the Northern Territory, and then moved a few years later to Phillip Island.
In 2002, Hemsworth starred in two episodes of fantasy television series, Guinevere Jones as King Arthur. He also made an appearance in soap opera series Neighbours and one episode of Marshall Law.
In 2004, Hemsworth auditioned for the Australian soap opera Home and Away role of Robbie Hunter (played by Jason Smith), but did not receive the part. He was subsequently recalled for the part of Kim Hyde and moved to Sydney to join the cast, appearing in 171 episodes of the series. He left the cast of Home and Away on 3 July 2007.
Hemsworth was a contestant on the fifth season of Dancing with the Stars Australia, partnered with professional dancer Abbey Ross. The season premiered on 26 September 2006, and after six weeks, Hemsworth was eliminated (7 November 2006).
In 2009, Hemsworth portrayed James T. Kirk 's father, George Kirk, in the opening scenes of J.J. Abrams ' film Star Trek. He played the character Kale in the thriller A Perfect Getaway the same year. He went on to play Sam in 2010 's Ca $ h, which was the first film he shot when he arrived in the United States. The film 's director, Stephen Milburn Anderson, said Hemsworth had only been in the United States for six weeks when he had auditioned for the role, recalling, "Here 's a guy who is young, has the right look, is a very good actor and, let 's face it, he 's beautiful. So I say, we need to get this guy in. I was very impressed ''. In November 2010, The Hollywood Reporter named Hemsworth as one of the young male actors who are "pushing -- or being pushed '' onto the Hollywood "A-List ''. Sony Pictures announced in 2011 that Hemsworth would star in the thriller Shadow Runner, which did not subsequently go into production as of 2014.
He is best known for his role as the Marvel Comics superhero Thor in the 2011 Marvel Studios film Thor. He and castmate Tom Hiddleston, who ultimately played Loki, had each auditioned for the role, for which Hemsworth said he put on 20 pounds of muscle. Hemsworth reprised the role in the 2012 film The Avengers as one of the six superheroes sent to defend Earth from his adopted brother, Loki, and in Thor: The Dark World, the 2013 sequel to Thor.
He starred in the horror film The Cabin in the Woods, which was shot shortly after the release of Star Trek but went unreleased until 2012. It led Hemsworth to audition for the role of Thor at Joss Whedon 's insistence. Also that year, Hemsworth starred opposite Kristen Stewart in the film Snow White and the Huntsman as the Huntsman. He also played Jed Eckert in the 2012 Red Dawn remake, a role he was cast in after MGM saw dailies footage of a scene from Cabin in the Woods. Hemsworth received the part of Thor two days after being hired for Red Dawn. In 2013, Hemsworth starred in Ron Howard 's sports drama film Rush, alongside Daniel Brühl as 1976 Formula 1 World Champion James Hunt. People magazine, in an annual feature, named him its 2014 "Sexiest Man Alive. ''
In 2015, Hemsworth starred in director Michael Mann 's action thriller Blackhat, opposite Viola Davis, and reprised his role of Thor for the fourth time in the sequel to The Avengers, Avengers: Age of Ultron. Hemsworth returned to the set of Home and Away in November 2014 to film a scene as an extra and not as his character Kim Hyde. He appeared in the episode broadcast on 19 May 2015. Also in 2015, he co-starred in the comedy film Vacation, along with Ed Helms, a revival of the film series that originally starred Chevy Chase. His last 2015 film was In the Heart of the Sea, based on the book of the same name by Nathaniel Philbrick, with Hemsworth playing first mate Owen Chase. In an interview with Jimmy Kimmel, he revealed that to prepare for the role of starving sailors, the cast was put on a diet of 500 -- 600 calories a day to lose weight. In 2016, Hemsworth reprised the role of Eric the Huntsman in The Huntsman: Winter 's War and also portrayed Kevin the receptionist in Ghostbusters.
Hemsworth also reprised his role as Thor in Thor: Ragnarok, released on November 3, 2017 in the United States, and will reprise his role in the two upcoming films Avengers: Infinity War and its untitled sequel, scheduled for release in 2018 and 2019. He will also reprise his role as George Kirk in the fourth film of the rebooted Star Trek film series.
An Australian rules football fan who supports the Western Bulldogs, Hemsworth was the star of the Australian Football League 's 2014 Everything 's Possible campaign. He donated fees for his involvement to the Australian Children Foundation. Hemsworth would go onto star in the AFL 's 2017 "I 'd Like to See That '' commercial.
Hemsworth began dating Spanish actress Elsa Pataky in early 2010 after meeting through their mutual representatives, and they wed in December 2010. They have three children: a daughter born in 2012 and twin sons born in 2014. In 2015, he and his family moved from Los Angeles to Byron Bay in his native Australia, as he no longer needs to be in the United States in order to secure film work.
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who was instrumental in publishing all three of dickinson's books | Emily Dickinson - wikipedia
Emily Elizabeth Dickinson (December 10, 1830 -- May 15, 1886) was an American poet.
Dickinson was born in Amherst, Massachusetts. Although part of a prominent family with strong ties to its community, Dickinson lived much of her life in reclusive isolation. After studying at the Amherst Academy for seven years in her youth, she briefly attended the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary before returning to her family 's house in Amherst. Considered an eccentric by locals, she developed a noted penchant for white clothing and became known for her reluctance to greet guests or, later in life, to even leave her bedroom. Dickinson never married, and most friendships between her and others depended entirely upon correspondence. Dickinson was a recluse for the later years of her life.
While Dickinson was a prolific private poet, fewer than a dozen of her nearly 1,800 poems were published during her lifetime. The work that was published during her lifetime was usually altered significantly by the publishers to fit the conventional poetic rules of the time. Dickinson 's poems are unique for the era in which she wrote; they contain short lines, typically lack titles, and often use slant rhyme as well as unconventional capitalization and punctuation. Many of her poems deal with themes of death and immortality, two recurring topics in letters to her friends.
Although Dickinson 's acquaintances were most likely aware of her writing, it was not until after her death in 1886 -- when Lavinia, Dickinson 's younger sister, discovered her cache of poems -- that the breadth of her work became apparent to the public. Her first collection of poetry was published in 1890 by personal acquaintances Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Mabel Loomis Todd, though both heavily edited the content. A complete, and mostly unaltered, collection of her poetry became available for the first time when scholar Thomas H. Johnson published The Poems of Emily Dickinson in 1955.
Emily Elizabeth Dickinson was born at the family 's homestead in Amherst, Massachusetts, on December 10, 1830, into a prominent, but not wealthy, family. Her father, Edward Dickinson was a lawyer in Amherst and a trustee of Amherst College. Two hundred years earlier, her patrilineal ancestors had arrived in the New World -- in the Puritan Great Migration -- where they prospered. Emily Dickinson 's paternal grandfather, Samuel Dickinson, was one of the founders of Amherst College. In 1813, he built the Homestead, a large mansion on the town 's Main Street, that became the focus of Dickinson family life for the better part of a century. Samuel Dickinson 's eldest son, Edward, was treasurer of Amherst College for nearly forty years, served numerous terms as a State Legislator, and represented the Hampshire district in the United States Congress. On May 6, 1828, he married Emily Norcross from Monson. They had three children:
By all accounts, young Emily was a well - behaved girl. On an extended visit to Monson when she was two, Emily 's Aunt Lavinia described Emily as "perfectly well & contented -- She is a very good child & but little trouble. '' Emily 's aunt also noted the girl 's affinity for music and her particular talent for the piano, which she called "the moosic ''.
Dickinson attended primary school in a two - story building on Pleasant Street. Her education was "ambitiously classical for a Victorian girl ''. Her father wanted his children well - educated and he followed their progress even while away on business. When Emily was seven, he wrote home, reminding his children to "keep school, and learn, so as to tell me, when I come home, how many new things you have learned ''. While Emily consistently described her father in a warm manner, her correspondence suggests that her mother was regularly cold and aloof. In a letter to a confidante, Emily wrote she "always ran Home to Awe (Austin) when a child, if anything befell me. He was an awful Mother, but I liked him better than none. ''
On September 7, 1840, Dickinson and her sister Lavinia started together at Amherst Academy, a former boys ' school that had opened to female students just two years earlier. At about the same time, her father purchased a house on North Pleasant Street. Emily 's brother Austin later described this large new home as the "mansion '' over which he and Emily presided as "lord and lady '' while their parents were absent. The house overlooked Amherst 's burial ground, described by one local minister as treeless and "forbidding ''.
They shut me up in Prose -- As when a little Girl They put me in the Closet -- Because they liked me "still '' -- Still! Could themself have peeped -- And seen my Brain -- go round -- They might as wise have lodged a Bird For Treason -- in the Pound --
Emily Dickinson, c. 1862
Dickinson spent seven years at the Academy, taking classes in English and classical literature, Latin, botany, geology, history, "mental philosophy, '' and arithmetic. Daniel Taggart Fiske, the school 's principal at the time, would later recall that Dickinson was "very bright '' and "an excellent scholar, of exemplary deportment, faithful in all school duties ''. Although she had a few terms off due to illness -- the longest of which was in 1845 -- 1846, when she was enrolled for only eleven weeks -- she enjoyed her strenuous studies, writing to a friend that the Academy was "a very fine school ''.
Dickinson was troubled from a young age by the "deepening menace '' of death, especially the deaths of those who were close to her. When Sophia Holland, her second cousin and a close friend, grew ill from typhus and died in April 1844, Emily was traumatized. Recalling the incident two years later, Emily wrote that "it seemed to me I should die too if I could not be permitted to watch over her or even look at her face. '' She became so melancholic that her parents sent her to stay with family in Boston to recover. With her health and spirits restored, she soon returned to Amherst Academy to continue her studies. During this period, she first met people who were to become lifelong friends and correspondents, such as Abiah Root, Abby Wood, Jane Humphrey, and Susan Huntington Gilbert (who later married Emily 's brother Austin).
In 1845, a religious revival took place in Amherst, resulting in 46 confessions of faith among Dickinson 's peers. Dickinson wrote to a friend the following year: "I never enjoyed such perfect peace and happiness as the short time in which I felt I had found my savior. '' She went on to say that it was her "greatest pleasure to commune alone with the great God & to feel that he would listen to my prayers. '' The experience did not last: Dickinson never made a formal declaration of faith and attended services regularly for only a few years. After her church - going ended, about 1852, she wrote a poem opening: "Some keep the Sabbath going to Church -- / I keep it, staying at Home ''.
During the last year of her stay at the Academy, Emily became friendly with Leonard Humphrey, its popular new young principal. After finishing her final term at the Academy on August 10, 1847, Dickinson began attending Mary Lyon 's Mount Holyoke Female Seminary (which later became Mount Holyoke College) in South Hadley, about ten miles (16 km) from Amherst. She was at the seminary for only ten months. Although she liked the girls at Holyoke, Dickinson made no lasting friendships there. The explanations for her brief stay at Holyoke differ considerably: either she was in poor health, her father wanted to have her at home, she rebelled against the evangelical fervor present at the school, she disliked the discipline - minded teachers, or she was simply homesick. Whatever the specific reason for leaving Holyoke, her brother Austin appeared on March 25, 1848, to "bring (her) home at all events ''. Back in Amherst, Dickinson occupied her time with household activities. She took up baking for the family and enjoyed attending local events and activities in the budding college town.
When she was eighteen, Dickinson 's family befriended a young attorney by the name of Benjamin Franklin Newton. According to a letter written by Dickinson after Newton 's death, he had been "with my Father two years, before going to Worcester -- in pursuing his studies, and was much in our family. '' Although their relationship was probably not romantic, Newton was a formative influence and would become the second in a series of older men (after Humphrey) that Dickinson referred to, variously, as her tutor, preceptor or master.
Newton likely introduced her to the writings of William Wordsworth, and his gift to her of Ralph Waldo Emerson 's first book of collected poems had a liberating effect. She wrote later that he, "whose name my Father 's Law Student taught me, has touched the secret Spring ''. Newton held her in high regard, believing in and recognizing her as a poet. When he was dying of tuberculosis, he wrote to her, saying that he would like to live until she achieved the greatness he foresaw. Biographers believe that Dickinson 's statement of 1862 -- "When a little Girl, I had a friend, who taught me Immortality -- but venturing too near, himself -- he never returned '' -- refers to Newton.
Dickinson was familiar not only with the Bible but also with contemporary popular literature. She was probably influenced by Lydia Maria Child 's Letters from New York, another gift from Newton (after reading it, she gushed "This then is a book! And there are more of them! ''). Her brother smuggled a copy of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's Kavanagh into the house for her (because her father might disapprove) and a friend lent her Charlotte Brontë 's Jane Eyre in late 1849. Jane Eyre 's influence can not be measured, but when Dickinson acquired her first and only dog, a Newfoundland, she named him "Carlo '' after the character St. John Rivers ' dog. William Shakespeare was also a potent influence in her life. Referring to his plays, she wrote to one friend, "Why clasp any hand but this? '' and to another, "Why is any other book needed? ''
In early 1850, Dickinson wrote that "Amherst is alive with fun this winter... Oh, a very great town this is! '' Her high spirits soon turned to melancholy after another death. The Amherst Academy principal, Leonard Humphrey, died suddenly of "brain congestion '' at age 25. Two years after his death, she revealed to her friend Abiah Root the extent of her depression:
some of my friends are gone, and some of my friends are sleeping -- sleeping the churchyard sleep -- the hour of evening is sad -- it was once my study hour -- my master has gone to rest, and the open leaf of the book, and the scholar at school alone, make the tears come, and I can not brush them away; I would not if I could, for they are the only tribute I can pay the departed Humphrey.
During the 1850s, Emily 's strongest and most affectionate relationship was with her sister - in - law, Susan Gilbert. Emily eventually sent her over three hundred letters, more than to any other correspondent, over the course of their friendship. Susan was supportive of the poet, playing the role of "most beloved friend, influence, muse, and adviser '' whose editorial suggestions Dickinson sometimes followed, Sue played a primary role in Emily 's creative processes. '' Sue married Austin in 1856 after a four - year courtship, though their marriage was not a happy one. Edward Dickinson built a house for Austin and Sue naming it the Evergreens, a stand of which was located on the west side of the Homestead. There is controversy over how to view Emily 's friendship with Susan; according to a point of view first promoted by Mabel Loomis Todd, Austin 's longtime mistress, Emily 's missives typically dealt with demands for Sue 's affection and the fear of unrequited admiration. Todd believed that because Sue was often aloof and disagreeable, Emily was continually hurt by what was mostly a tempestuous friendship. However, the notion of a "cruel '' Susan -- as promoted by her romantic rival -- has been questioned, most especially by Sue and Austin 's surviving children, with whom Emily was close.
Until 1855, Dickinson had not strayed far from Amherst. That spring, accompanied by her mother and sister, she took one of her longest and farthest trips away from home. First, they spent three weeks in Washington, where her father was representing Massachusetts in Congress. Then they went to Philadelphia for two weeks to visit family. In Philadelphia, she met Charles Wadsworth, a famous minister of the Arch Street Presbyterian Church, with whom she forged a strong friendship which lasted until his death in 1882. Despite seeing him only twice after 1855 (he moved to San Francisco in 1862), she variously referred to him as "my Philadelphia '', "my Clergyman '', "my dearest earthly friend '' and "my Shepherd from ' Little Girl'hood ''.
From the mid-1850s, Emily 's mother became effectively bedridden with various chronic illnesses until her death in 1882. Writing to a friend in summer 1858, Emily said that she would visit if she could leave "home, or mother. I do not go out at all, lest father will come and miss me, or miss some little act, which I might forget, should I run away -- Mother is much as usual. I Know not what to hope of her ''. As her mother continued to decline, Dickinson 's domestic responsibilities weighed more heavily upon her and she confined herself within the Homestead. Forty years later, Lavinia stated that because their mother was chronically ill, one of the daughters had to remain always with her. Emily took this role as her own, and "finding the life with her books and nature so congenial, continued to live it ''.
Withdrawing more and more from the outside world, Emily began in the summer of 1858 what would be her lasting legacy. Reviewing poems she had written previously, she began making clean copies of her work, assembling carefully pieced - together manuscript books. The forty fascicles she created from 1858 through 1865 eventually held nearly eight hundred poems. No one was aware of the existence of these books until after her death.
In the late 1850s, the Dickinsons befriended Samuel Bowles, the owner and editor - in - chief of the Springfield Republican, and his wife, Mary. They visited the Dickinsons regularly for years to come. During this time Emily sent him over three dozen letters and nearly fifty poems. Their friendship brought out some of her most intense writing and Bowles published a few of her poems in his journal. It was from 1858 to 1861 that Dickinson is believed to have written a trio of letters that have been called "The Master Letters ''. These three letters, drafted to an unknown man simply referred to as "Master '', continue to be the subject of speculation and contention amongst scholars.
The first half of the 1860s, after she had largely withdrawn from social life, proved to be Dickinson 's most productive writing period. Modern scholars and researchers are divided as to the cause for Dickinson 's withdrawal and extreme seclusion. While she was diagnosed as having "nervous prostration '' by a physician during her lifetime, some today believe she may have suffered from illnesses as various as agoraphobia and epilepsy.
In April 1862, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, a literary critic, radical abolitionist, and ex-minister, wrote a lead piece for The Atlantic Monthly titled, "Letter to a Young Contributor ''. Higginson 's essay, in which he urged aspiring writers to "charge your style with life '', contained practical advice for those wishing to break into print. Dickinson 's decision to contact Higginson suggests that by 1862 she was contemplating publication and that it may have become increasingly difficult to write poetry without an audience. Seeking literary guidance that no one close to her could provide, Dickinson sent him a letter which read in full:
Mr Higginson, Are you too deeply occupied to say if my Verse is alive? The Mind is so near itself -- it can not see, distinctly -- and I have none to ask -- Should you think it breathed -- and had you the leisure to tell me, I should feel quick gratitude -- If I make the mistake -- that you dared to tell me -- would give me sincerer honor -- toward you -- I enclose my name -- asking you, if you please -- Sir -- to tell me what is true? That you will not betray me -- it is needless to ask -- since Honor is it 's (sic) own pawn --
This highly nuanced and largely theatrical letter was unsigned, but she had included her name on a card and enclosed it in an envelope, along with four of her poems. He praised her work but suggested that she delay publishing until she had written longer, being unaware that she had already appeared in print. She assured him that publishing was as foreign to her "as Firmament to Fin '', but also proposed that "If fame belonged to me, I could not escape her ''. Dickinson delighted in dramatic self - characterization and mystery in her letters to Higginson. She said of herself, "I am small, like the wren, and my hair is bold, like the chestnut bur, and my eyes like the sherry in the glass that the guest leaves. '' She stressed her solitary nature, stating that her only real companions were the hills, the sundown, and her dog, Carlo. She also mentioned that whereas her mother did not "care for Thought '', her father bought her books, but begged her "not to read them -- because he fears they joggle the Mind ''.
Dickinson valued his advice, going from calling him "Mr. Higginson '' to "Dear friend '' as well as signing her letters, "Your Gnome '' and "Your Scholar ''. His interest in her work certainly provided great moral support; many years later, Dickinson told Higginson that he had saved her life in 1862. They corresponded until her death, but her difficulty in expressing her literary needs and a reluctance to enter into a cooperative exchange left Higginson nonplussed; he did not press her to publish in subsequent correspondence. Dickinson 's own ambivalence on the matter militated against the likelihood of publication. Literary critic Edmund Wilson, in his review of Civil War literature, surmised that "with encouragement, she would certainly have published ''.
In direct opposition to the immense productivity that she displayed in the early 1860s, Dickinson wrote fewer poems in 1866. Beset with personal loss as well as loss of domestic help, Dickinson may have been too overcome to keep up her previous level of writing. Carlo died during this time after providing sixteen years of companionship; Dickinson never owned another dog. Although the household servant of nine years, Margaret O Brien, had married and left the Homestead that same year, it was not until 1869 that her family brought in a permanent household servant, Margaret Maher, to replace the old one. Emily once again was responsible for chores, including the baking, at which she excelled.
A solemn thing -- it was -- I said -- A Woman -- White -- to be -- And wear -- if God should count me fit -- Her blameless mystery --
Emily Dickinson, c. 1861
Around this time, Dickinson 's behavior began to change. She did not leave the Homestead unless it was absolutely necessary and as early as 1867, she began to talk to visitors from the other side of a door rather than speaking to them face to face. She acquired local notoriety; she was rarely seen, and when she was, she was usually clothed in white. Dickinson 's one surviving article of clothing is a white cotton dress, possibly sewn circa 1878 -- 1882. Few of the locals who exchanged messages with Dickinson during her last fifteen years ever saw her in person. Austin and his family began to protect Emily 's privacy, deciding that she was not to be a subject of discussion with outsiders. Despite her physical seclusion, however, Dickinson was socially active and expressive through what makes up two - thirds of her surviving notes and letters. When visitors came to either the Homestead or the Evergreens, she would often leave or send over small gifts of poems or flowers. Dickinson also had a good rapport with the children in her life. Mattie Dickinson, the second child of Austin and Sue, later said that "Aunt Emily stood for indulgence. '' MacGregor (Mac) Jenkins, the son of family friends who later wrote a short article in 1891 called "A Child 's Recollection of Emily Dickinson '', thought of her as always offering support to the neighborhood children.
When Higginson urged her to come to Boston in 1868 so that they could formally meet for the first time, she declined, writing: "Could it please your convenience to come so far as Amherst I should be very glad, but I do not cross my Father 's ground to any House or town ''. It was not until he came to Amherst in 1870 that they met. Later he referred to her, in the most detailed and vivid physical account of her on record, as "a little plain woman with two smooth bands of reddish hair... in a very plain & exquisitely clean white piqué & a blue net worsted shawl. '' He also felt that he never was "with any one who drained my nerve power so much. Without touching her, she drew from me. I am glad not to live near her. ''
Scholar Judith Farr notes that Dickinson, during her lifetime, "was known more widely as a gardener, perhaps, than as a poet ''. Dickinson studied botany from the age of nine and, along with her sister, tended the garden at Homestead. During her lifetime, she assembled a collection of pressed plants in a sixty - six page leather - bound herbarium. It contained 424 pressed flower specimens that she collected, classified, and labeled using the Linnaean system. The Homestead garden was well - known and admired locally in its time. It has not survived but efforts to revive it have begun. Dickinson kept no garden notebooks or plant lists, but a clear impression can be formed from the letters and recollections of friends and family. Her niece, Martha Dickinson Bianchi, remembered "carpets of lily - of - the - valley and pansies, platoons of sweetpeas, hyacinths, enough in May to give all the bees of summer dyspepsia. There were ribbons of peony hedges and drifts of daffodils in season, marigolds to distraction -- a butterfly utopia ''. In particular, Dickinson cultivated scented exotic flowers, writing that she "could inhabit the Spice Isles merely by crossing the dining room to the conservatory, where the plants hang in baskets ''. Dickinson would often send her friends bunches of flowers with verses attached, but "they valued the posy more than the poetry ''.
On June 16, 1874, while in Boston, Edward Dickinson suffered a stroke and died. When the simple funeral was held in the Homestead 's entrance hall, Emily stayed in her room with the door cracked open. Neither did she attend the memorial service on June 28. She wrote to Higginson that her father 's "Heart was pure and terrible and I think no other like it exists. '' A year later, on June 15, 1875, Emily 's mother also suffered a stroke, which produced a partial lateral paralysis and impaired memory. Lamenting her mother 's increasing physical as well as mental demands, Emily wrote that "Home is so far from Home ''.
Though the great Waters sleep, That they are still the Deep, We can not doubt -- No vacillating God Ignited this Abode To put it out --
Emily Dickinson, c. 1884
Otis Phillips Lord, an elderly judge on the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court from Salem, in 1872 or 1873 became an acquaintance of Dickinson 's. After the death of Lord 's wife in 1877, his friendship with Dickinson probably became a late - life romance, though as their letters were destroyed, this is surmised. Dickinson found a kindred soul in Lord, especially in terms of shared literary interests; the few letters which survived contain multiple quotations of Shakespeare 's work, including the plays Othello, Antony and Cleopatra, Hamlet and King Lear. In 1880 he gave her Cowden Clarke 's Complete Concordance to Shakespeare (1877). Dickinson wrote that "While others go to Church, I go to mine, for are you not my Church, and have we not a Hymn that no one knows but us? '' She referred to him as "My lovely Salem '' and they wrote to each other religiously every Sunday. Dickinson looked forward to this day greatly; a surviving fragment of a letter written by her states that "Tuesday is a deeply depressed Day ''.
After being critically ill for several years, Judge Lord died in March 1884. Dickinson referred to him as "our latest Lost ''. Two years before this, on April 1, 1882, Dickinson 's "Shepherd from ' Little Girl'hood '', Charles Wadsworth, also had died after a long illness.
Although she continued to write in her last years, Dickinson stopped editing and organizing her poems. She also exacted a promise from her sister Lavinia to burn her papers. Lavinia, who never married, remained at the Homestead until her own death in 1899.
The 1880s were a difficult time for the remaining Dickinsons. Irreconcilably alienated from his wife, Austin fell in love in 1882 with Mabel Loomis Todd, an Amherst College faculty wife who had recently moved to the area. Todd never met Dickinson but was intrigued by her, referring to her as "a lady whom the people call the Myth ''. Austin distanced himself from his family as his affair continued and his wife became sick with grief. Dickinson 's mother died on November 14, 1882. Five weeks later, Dickinson wrote "We were never intimate... while she was our Mother -- but Mines in the same Ground meet by tunneling and when she became our Child, the Affection came. '' The next year, Austin and Sue 's third and youngest child, Gilbert -- Emily 's favorite -- died of typhoid fever.
As death succeeded death, Dickinson found her world upended. In the fall of 1884, she wrote that "The Dyings have been too deep for me, and before I could raise my Heart from one, another has come. '' That summer she had seen "a great darkness coming '' and fainted while baking in the kitchen. She remained unconscious late into the night and weeks of ill health followed. On November 30, 1885, her feebleness and other symptoms were so worrying that Austin canceled a trip to Boston. She was confined to her bed for a few months, but managed to send a final burst of letters in the spring. What is thought to be her last letter was sent to her cousins, Louise and Frances Norcross, and simply read: "Little Cousins, Called Back. Emily ''. On May 15, 1886, after several days of worsening symptoms, Emily Dickinson died at the age of 55. Austin wrote in his diary that "the day was awful... she ceased to breathe that terrible breathing just before the (afternoon) whistle sounded for six. '' Dickinson 's chief physician gave the cause of death as Bright 's disease and its duration as two and a half years.
Dickinson was buried, laid in a white coffin with vanilla - scented heliotrope, a Lady 's Slipper orchid, and a "knot of blue field violets '' placed about it. The funeral service, held in the Homestead 's library, was simple and short; Higginson, who had met her only twice, read "No Coward Soul Is Mine '', a poem by Emily Brontë that had been a favorite of Dickinson 's. At Dickinson 's request, her "coffin (was) not driven but carried through fields of buttercups '' for burial in the family plot at West Cemetery on Triangle Street.
Despite Dickinson 's prolific writing, fewer than a dozen of her poems were published during her lifetime. After her younger sister Lavinia discovered the collection of nearly 1800 poems, Dickinson 's first volume was published four years after her death. Until Thomas H. Johnson published Dickinson 's Complete Poems in 1955, Dickinson 's poems were considerably edited and altered from their manuscript versions. Since 1890 Dickinson has remained continuously in print.
A few of Dickinson 's poems appeared in Samuel Bowles ' Springfield Republican between 1858 and 1868. They were published anonymously and heavily edited, with conventionalized punctuation and formal titles. The first poem, "Nobody knows this little rose '', may have been published without Dickinson 's permission. The Republican also published "A narrow Fellow in the Grass '' as "The Snake '', "Safe in their Alabaster Chambers -- '' as "The Sleeping '', and "Blazing in the Gold and quenching in Purple '' as "Sunset ''. The poem "I taste a liquor never brewed -- '' is an example of the edited versions; the last two lines in the first stanza were completely rewritten.
Original wording I taste a liquor never brewed -- From Tankards scooped in Pearl -- Not all the Frankfort Berries Yield such an Alcohol!
Republican version I taste a liquor never brewed -- From Tankards scooped in Pearl -- Not Frankfort Berries yield the sense Such a delirious whirl!
In 1864, several poems were altered and published in Drum Beat, to raise funds for medical care for Union soldiers in the war. Another appeared in April 1864 in the Brooklyn Daily Union.
In the 1870s, Higginson showed Dickinson 's poems to Helen Hunt Jackson, who had coincidentally been at the Academy with Dickinson when they were girls. Jackson was deeply involved in the publishing world, and managed to convince Dickinson to publish her poem "Success is counted sweetest '' anonymously in a volume called A Masque of Poets. The poem, however, was altered to agree with contemporary taste. It was the last poem published during Dickinson 's lifetime.
After Dickinson 's death, Lavinia Dickinson kept her promise and burned most of the poet 's correspondence. Significantly though, Dickinson had left no instructions about the 40 notebooks and loose sheets gathered in a locked chest. Lavinia recognized the poems ' worth and became obsessed with seeing them published. She turned first to her brother 's wife and then to Mabel Loomis Todd, her brother 's mistress, for assistance. A feud ensued, with the manuscripts divided between the Todd and Dickinson houses, preventing complete publication of Dickinson 's poetry for more than half a century.
The first volume of Dickinson 's Poems, edited jointly by Mabel Loomis Todd and T.W. Higginson, appeared in November 1890. Although Todd claimed that only essential changes were made, the poems were extensively edited to match punctuation and capitalization to late 19th - century standards, with occasional rewordings to reduce Dickinson 's obliquity. The first 115 - poem volume was a critical and financial success, going through eleven printings in two years. Poems: Second Series followed in 1891, running to five editions by 1893; a third series appeared in 1896. One reviewer, in 1892, wrote: "The world will not rest satisfied till every scrap of her writings, letters as well as literature, has been published ''.
Nearly a dozen new editions of Dickinson 's poetry, whether containing previously unpublished or newly edited poems, were published between 1914 and 1945. Martha Dickinson Bianchi, the daughter of Susan and Austin Dickinson, published collections of her aunt 's poetry based on the manuscripts held by her family, whereas Mabel Loomis Todd 's daughter, Millicent Todd Bingham, published collections based on the manuscripts held by her mother. These competing editions of Dickinson 's poetry, often differing in order and structure, ensured that the poet 's work was in the public 's eye.
The first scholarly publication came in 1955 with a complete new three - volume set edited by Thomas H. Johnson. Forming the basis of later Dickinson scholarship, Johnson 's variorum brought all of Dickinson 's known poems together for the first time. Johnson 's goal was to present the poems very nearly as Dickinson had left them in her manuscripts. They were untitled, only numbered in an approximate chronological sequence, strewn with dashes and irregularly capitalized, and often extremely elliptical in their language. Three years later, Johnson edited and published, along with Theodora Ward, a complete collection of Dickinson 's letters, also presented in three volumes.
In 1981, The Manuscript Books of Emily Dickinson was published. Using the physical evidence of the original papers, the poems were intended to be published in their original order for the first time. Editor Ralph W. Franklin relied on smudge marks, needle punctures and other clues to reassemble the poet 's packets. Since then, many critics have argued for thematic unity in these small collections, believing the ordering of the poems to be more than chronological or convenient.
Dickinson biographer Alfred Habegger wrote in My Wars Are Laid Away in Books: The Life of Emily Dickinson (2001) that "The consequences of the poet 's failure to disseminate her work in a faithful and orderly manner are still very much with us ''.
Dickinson 's poems generally fall into three distinct periods, the works in each period having certain general characters in common.
The extensive use of dashes and unconventional capitalization in Dickinson 's manuscripts, and the idiosyncratic vocabulary and imagery, combine to create a body of work that is "far more various in its styles and forms than is commonly supposed ''. Dickinson avoids pentameter, opting more generally for trimeter, tetrameter and, less often, dimeter. Sometimes her use of these meters is regular, but oftentimes it is irregular. The regular form that she most often employs is the ballad stanza, a traditional form that is divided into quatrains, using tetrameter for the first and third lines and trimeter for the second and fourth, while rhyming the second and fourth lines (ABCB). Though Dickinson often uses perfect rhymes for lines two and four, she also makes frequent use of slant rhyme. In some of her poems, she varies the meter from the traditional ballad stanza by using trimeter for lines one, two and four, while only using tetrameter for line three.
Since many of her poems were written in traditional ballad stanzas with ABCB rhyme schemes, some of these poems can be sung to fit the melodies of popular folk songs and hymns that also use the common meter, employing alternating lines of iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter. Familiar examples of such songs are "O Little Town of Bethlehem '' and "Amazing Grace ' ''.
Dickinson scholar and poet Anthony Hecht finds resonances in Dickinson 's poetry not only with hymns and song - forms but also with psalms and riddles, citing the following example: "Who is the East? / The Yellow Man / Who may be Purple if he can / That carries the Sun. / Who is the West? / The Purple Man / Who may be Yellow if He can / That lets Him out again. ''
Late 20th - century scholars are "deeply interested '' by Dickinson 's highly individual use of punctuation and lineation (line lengths and line breaks). Following the publication of one of the few poems that appeared in her lifetime -- "A narrow Fellow in the Grass '', published as "The Snake '' in the Republican -- Dickinson complained that the edited punctuation (an added comma and a full stop substitution for the original dash) altered the meaning of the entire poem.
Original wording A narrow Fellow in the Grass Occasionally rides -- You may have met Him -- did you not His notice sudden is --
Republican version A narrow Fellow in the Grass Occasionally rides -- You may have met Him -- did you not, His notice sudden is.
As Farr points out, "snakes instantly notice you ''; Dickinson 's version captures the "breathless immediacy '' of the encounter; and The Republican 's punctuation renders "her lines more commonplace ''. With the increasingly close focus on Dickinson 's structures and syntax has come a growing appreciation that they are "aesthetically based ''. Although Johnson 's landmark 1955 edition of poems was relatively unaltered from the original, later scholars critiqued it for deviating from the style and layout of Dickinson 's manuscripts. Meaningful distinctions, these scholars assert, can be drawn from varying lengths and angles of dash, and differing arrangements of text on the page. Several volumes have attempted to render Dickinson 's handwritten dashes using many typographic symbols of varying length and angle. R.W. Franklin 's 1998 variorum edition of the poems provided alternate wordings to those chosen by Johnson, in a more limited editorial intervention. Franklin also used typeset dashes of varying length to approximate the manuscripts ' dashes more closely.
Dickinson left no formal statement of her aesthetic intentions and, because of the variety of her themes, her work does not fit conveniently into any one genre. She has been regarded, alongside Emerson (whose poems Dickinson admired), as a Transcendentalist. However, Farr disagrees with this analysis, saying that Dickinson 's "relentlessly measuring mind... deflates the airy elevation of the Transcendental ''. Apart from the major themes discussed below, Dickinson 's poetry frequently uses humor, puns, irony and satire.
Flowers and gardens: Farr notes that Dickinson 's "poems and letters almost wholly concern flowers '' and that allusions to gardens often refer to an "imaginative realm... wherein flowers (are) often emblems for actions and emotions ''. She associates some flowers, like gentians and anemones, with youth and humility; others with prudence and insight. Her poems were often sent to friends with accompanying letters and nosegays. Farr notes that one of Dickinson 's earlier poems, written about 1859, appears to "conflate her poetry itself with the posies '': "My nosegays are for Captives -- / Dim -- long expectant eyes -- / Fingers denied the plucking, / Patient till Paradise -- / To such, if they sh 'd whisper / Of morning and the moor -- / They bear no other errand, / And I, no other prayer ''.
The Master poems: Dickinson left a large number of poems addressed to "Signor '', "Sir '' and "Master '', who is characterized as Dickinson 's "lover for all eternity ''. These confessional poems are often "searing in their self - inquiry '' and "harrowing to the reader '' and typically take their metaphors from texts and paintings of Dickinson 's day. The Dickinson family themselves believed these poems were addressed to actual individuals but this view is frequently rejected by scholars. Farr, for example, contends that the Master is an unattainable composite figure, "human, with specific characteristics, but godlike '' and speculates that Master may be a "kind of Christian muse ''.
Morbidity: Dickinson 's poems reflect her "early and lifelong fascination '' with illness, dying and death. Perhaps surprisingly for a New England spinster, her poems allude to death by many methods: "crucifixion, drowning, hanging, suffocation, freezing, premature burial, shooting, stabbing and guillotinage ''. She reserved her sharpest insights into the "death blow aimed by God '' and the "funeral in the brain '', often reinforced by images of thirst and starvation. Dickinson scholar Vivian Pollak considers these references an autobiographical reflection of Dickinson 's "thirsting - starving persona '', an outward expression of her needy self - image as small, thin and frail. Dickinson 's most psychologically complex poems explore the theme that the loss of hunger for life causes the death of self and place this at "the interface of murder and suicide ''.
Gospel poems: Throughout her life, Dickinson wrote poems reflecting a preoccupation with the teachings of Jesus Christ and, indeed, many are addressed to him. She stresses the Gospels ' contemporary pertinence and recreates them, often with "wit and American colloquial language ''. Scholar Dorothy Oberhaus finds that the "salient feature uniting Christian poets... is their reverential attention to the life of Jesus Christ '' and contends that Dickinson 's deep structures place her in the "poetic tradition of Christian devotion '' alongside Hopkins, Eliot and Auden. In a Nativity poem, Dickinson combines lightness and wit to revisit an ancient theme: "The Savior must have been / A docile Gentleman -- / To come so far so cold a Day / For little Fellowmen / The Road to Bethlehem / Since He and I were Boys / Was leveled, but for that twould be / A rugged billion Miles -- ''.
The Undiscovered Continent: Academic Suzanne Juhasz considers that Dickinson saw the mind and spirit as tangible visitable places and that for much of her life she lived within them. Often, this intensely private place is referred to as the "undiscovered continent '' and the "landscape of the spirit '' and embellished with nature imagery. At other times, the imagery is darker and forbidding -- castles or prisons, complete with corridors and rooms -- to create a dwelling place of "oneself '' where one resides with one 's other selves. An example that brings together many of these ideas is: "Me from Myself -- to banish -- / Had I Art -- / Impregnable my Fortress / Unto All Heart -- / But since myself -- assault Me -- / How have I peace / Except by subjugating / Consciousness. / And since We 're mutual Monarch / How this be / Except by Abdication -- / Me -- of Me? ''.
The surge of posthumous publication gave Dickinson 's poetry its first public exposure. Backed by Higginson and with a favorable notice from William Dean Howells, an editor of Harper 's Magazine, the poetry received mixed reviews after it was first published in 1890. Higginson himself stated in his preface to the first edition of Dickinson 's published work that the poetry 's quality "is that of extraordinary grasp and insight '', albeit "without the proper control and chastening '' that the experience of publishing during her lifetime might have conferred. His judgment that her opus was "incomplete and unsatisfactory '' would be echoed in the essays of the New Critics in the 1930s.
Maurice Thompson, who was literary editor of The Independent for twelve years, noted in 1891 that her poetry had "a strange mixture of rare individuality and originality ''. Some critics hailed Dickinson 's effort, but disapproved of her unusual non-traditional style. Andrew Lang, a British writer, dismissed Dickinson 's work, stating that "if poetry is to exist at all, it really must have form and grammar, and must rhyme when it professes to rhyme. The wisdom of the ages and the nature of man insist on so much ''. Thomas Bailey Aldrich, a poet and novelist, equally dismissed Dickinson 's poetic technique in The Atlantic Monthly in January 1892: "It is plain that Miss Dickinson possessed an extremely unconventional and grotesque fancy. She was deeply tinged by the mysticism of Blake, and strongly influenced by the mannerism of Emerson... But the incoherence and formlessness of her -- versicles are fatal... an eccentric, dreamy, half - educated recluse in an out - of - the - way New England village (or anywhere else) can not with impunity set at defiance the laws of gravitation and grammar ''.
Critical attention to Dickinson 's poetry was meager from 1897 to the early 1920s. By the start of the 20th century, interest in her poetry became broader in scope and some critics began to consider Dickinson as essentially modern. Rather than seeing Dickinson 's poetic styling as a result of lack of knowledge or skill, modern critics believed the irregularities were consciously artistic. In a 1915 essay, Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant called the poet 's inspiration "daring '' and named her "one of the rarest flowers the sterner New England land ever bore ''. With the growing popularity of modernist poetry in the 1920s, Dickinson 's failure to conform to 19th - century poetic form was no longer surprising nor distasteful to new generations of readers. Dickinson was suddenly referred to by various critics as a great woman poet, and a cult following began to form.
In the 1930s, a number of the New Critics -- among them R.P. Blackmur, Allen Tate, Cleanth Brooks and Yvor Winters -- appraised the significance of Dickinson 's poetry. As critic Roland Hagenbüchle pointed out, their "affirmative and prohibitive tenets turned out to be of special relevance to Dickinson scholarship ''. Blackmur, in an attempt to focus and clarify the major claims for and against the poet 's greatness, wrote in a landmark 1937 critical essay: "... she was a private poet who wrote as indefatigably as some women cook or knit. Her gift for words and the cultural predicament of her time drove her to poetry instead of antimacassars... She came... at the right time for one kind of poetry: the poetry of sophisticated, eccentric vision. ''
The second wave of feminism created greater cultural sympathy for her as a female poet. In the first collection of critical essays on Dickinson from a feminist perspective, she is heralded as the greatest woman poet in the English language. Biographers and theorists of the past tended to separate Dickinson 's roles as a woman and a poet. For example, George Whicher wrote in his 1952 book This Was a Poet: A Critical Biography of Emily Dickinson, "Perhaps as a poet (Dickinson) could find the fulfillment she had missed as a woman. '' Feminist criticism, on the other hand, declares that there is a necessary and powerful conjunction between Dickinson being a woman and a poet. Adrienne Rich theorized in Vesuvius at Home: The Power of Emily Dickinson (1976) that Dickinson 's identity as a woman poet brought her power: "(she) chose her seclusion, knowing she was exceptional and knowing what she needed... She carefully selected her society and controlled the disposal of her time... neither eccentric nor quaint; she was determined to survive, to use her powers, to practice necessary economics. ''
Some scholars question the poet 's sexuality, theorizing that the numerous letters and poems that were dedicated to Susan Gilbert Dickinson indicate a lesbian romance, and speculating about how this may have influenced her poetry. Critics such as John Cody, Lillian Faderman, Vivian R. Pollak, Paula Bennett, Judith Farr, Ellen Louise Hart, and Martha Nell Smith have argued that Susan was the central erotic relationship in Dickinson 's life.
In the early 20th century, Martha Dickinson Bianchi and Millicent Todd Bingham kept the achievement of Emily Dickinson alive. Bianchi promoted Dickinson 's poetic achievement. Bianchi inherited The Evergreens as well as the copyright for her aunt 's poetry from her parents, publishing works such as Emily Dickinson Face to Face and Letters of Emily Dickinson, which stoked public curiosity about her aunt. Bianchi 's books perpetrated legends about her aunt in the context of family tradition, personal recollection and correspondence. In contrast, Millicent Todd Bingham 's took a more objective and realistic approach to the poet.
Emily Dickinson is now considered a powerful and persistent figure in American culture. Although much of the early reception concentrated on Dickinson 's eccentric and secluded nature, she has become widely acknowledged as an innovative, proto - modernist poet. As early as 1891, William Dean Howells wrote that "If nothing else had come out of our life but this strange poetry, we should feel that in the work of Emily Dickinson, America, or New England rather, had made a distinctive addition to the literature of the world, and could not be left out of any record of it. '' Critic Harold Bloom has placed her alongside Walt Whitman, Wallace Stevens, Robert Frost, T.S. Eliot, and Hart Crane as a major American poet, and in 1994 listed her among the 26 central writers of Western civilization.
Dickinson is taught in American literature and poetry classes in the United States from middle school to college. Her poetry is frequently anthologized and has been used as texts for art songs by composers such as Aaron Copland, Nick Peros, John Adams and Michael Tilson Thomas. Several schools have been established in her name; for example, Emily Dickinson Elementary Schools exist in Bozeman, Montana, Redmond, Washington, and New York City. A few literary journals -- including The Emily Dickinson Journal, the official publication of the Emily Dickinson International Society -- have been founded to examine her work. An 8 - cent commemorative stamp in honor of Dickinson was issued by the United States Postal Service on August 28, 1971 as the second stamp in the "American Poet '' series. A one - woman play titled The Belle of Amherst first appeared on Broadway in 1976, winning several awards; it was later adapted for television.
Dickinson 's herbarium, which is now held in the Houghton Library at Harvard University, was published in 2006 as Emily Dickinson 's Herbarium by Harvard University Press. The original work was compiled by Dickinson during her years at Amherst Academy, and consists of 424 pressed specimens of plants arranged on 66 pages of a bound album. A digital facsimile of the herbarium is available online. The town of Amherst Jones Library 's Special Collections department has an Emily Dickinson Collection consisting of approximately seven thousand items, including original manuscript poems and letters, family correspondence, scholarly articles and books, newspaper clippings, theses, plays, photographs and contemporary artwork and prints. The Archives and Special Collections at Amherst College has substantial holdings of Dickinson 's manuscripts and letters as well as a lock of Dickinson 's hair and the original of the only positively identified image of the poet. In 1965, in recognition of Dickinson 's growing stature as a poet, the Homestead was purchased by Amherst College. It opened to the public for tours, and also served as a faculty residence for many years. The Emily Dickinson Museum was created in 2003 when ownership of the Evergreens, which had been occupied by Dickinson family heirs until 1988, was transferred to the college.
The Dickinson Homestead today, now the Emily Dickinson Museum
Emily Dickinson commemorative stamp, 1971
Emily Dickinson 's life and works have been the source of inspiration to artists, particularly to feminist orientated artists, of a variety of mediums. A few notable examples are as follows:
Emily Dickinson 's poetry has been translated to different languages including French, Spanish, Farsi, Kurdish, and Russian. A few examples of these translations are as follows:
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what episode do you find out nathan's power | Nathan Young - wikipedia
Nathan Young is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 science fiction comedy - drama Misfits, portrayed by Robert Sheehan. He first appeared in Series 1 Episode 1 and departed in an online spinoff entitled Vegas Baby! after Sheehan quit the role. He serves as one of the main protagonists of the show. Nathan is given community service where he is caught up in a storm which gave him the power of immortality. Nathan has also been involved in a romantic relationship with Kelly Bailey (Lauren Socha). Sheehan has been nominated for a BAFTA for his role as Nathan.
Casting for the part was announced on 17 August 2009 by Digital Spy. Fellow cast member Iwan Rheon revealed that Overman who created the character discussed how to write their parts with the cast and later began writing for them as actors. Misfit 's executive producer Petra Fried announced Robert Sheehan 's decision to leave at the Kapow convention in London on 10 April 2011. His departure was addressed in an online webisode titled Vegas Baby! that debuted on the Misfits website on 15 September. On his decision to leave Sheehan said "It 's nice that the show 's successful but it does n't mean complete blind and unadmonished loyalty - ' If something is very successful you should stick to it like a barnacle! ' That 's definitely not my thinking. I think I 've made the right decision, yeah ''. On a possible return Sheehan said "There 's no point in saying never. It holds a very fond little place in my heart. No, it 's been a great big part of my life and there 's no point in turning your back on something completely. I 'm not doing that, I would never say never ''.
E4 's official website describes Nathan as having "an answer for everything, sarcastic wit, and a fondness for pushing things too far '' and that "underneath the cocky quips and sarcasm, Nathan is n't as unemotionally untouchable as he makes out ''. Tim Dowling of The Guardian described him as the "Irish one who talks too much '' of the group of "foul - mouthed young criminals ''. Digital Spy described him as a "smart aleck ''. The Metro described him as "hyperactive '' and "irritating as hell ''. The Independent described Nathan as "cheeky '' before later branding him "the annoying gobby lad ''.
Nathan steals some pick ' n ' mix from a bowling alley and continues to aggravate the situation. He causes a disruption and when the manager threatens to phone the police he tells him to do so before stapling him in the hand. Nathan is given community service for this disruption. While on his first day of community service, Nathan is caught in a storm. He appears unaffected, unlike those he is doing community service with. Nathan 's mother, Louise (Michelle Fairley), kicks him out of his house for his behaviour towards his step - father, Jeremy (Jo Stone - Fewings). Nathan begins living in the community centre. The group kill Tony (Danny Sapani / Louis Decosta Johnson), as an act of self - defense, and bury him. Nathan sleeps with Ruth (Amy Beth Hayes / Clare Welch) who he discovers has been affected by the storm and is really 82 years old. In an alternate timeline, the group are killed because Curtis Donovan (Nathan Stewart - Jarrett) used his power of time travel to change the events, preventing him from ending up in community service; Nathan, however, survives and is told that when found by paramedics he was almost dead. Rachel (Jessica Brown Findlay) begins manipulating people into behaving how she wants through her power of suggestion. Nathan kidnaps Rachel using a gun and takes her to the roof of the community centre. She ca n't or wo n't revert those back to their original state and she realises Nathan 's gun is only a water pistol. She and Nathan brawl before both falling to their deaths. After Nathan 's funeral he wakes up in his coffin, realising he is immortal.
The group dig Nathan up after they receive a message from Superhoodie. Lucy (Evelyn Hoskins) begins causing trouble for the gang. Kelly Bailey (Lauren Socha) agrees to have sex with Nathan after months of flirting. Lucy, who is a shape shifter, takes on Kelly 's form and causes trouble between the pair. Nathan discovers he has a younger brother, Jamie (Sam Keeley). Jamie and Lily (Catrin Stewart) join the group at a nightclub where they take drugs, reversing their powers. Lily 's power of cryokinesis is reversed to pyrokinesis and while in a car with Jamie she sets fire to it, killing them both. Nathan, who also has the power of mediumship, sees Jamie 's ghost who leads him to his father and they decide to give their relationship another try. Nathan falls in love with Simon Bellamy (Iwan Rheon) after Vince (Nathan Constance) uses his power to tattoo people and control how they feel. Nathan and Kelly decide to consummate their relationship, but Kelly changes her mind when she decides that it would be best if they were just friends. Nathan is killed and deduces it was Jessica (Zawe Ashton) who killed him. When Jessica shows interest in Simon, Nathan tries to warn him off, but Simon does not believe him. They later realise Dave (Adrian Rawlins) is responsible. Brian (Jordan Metcalfe) goes public about his power. The group are exposed and become famous. Brian becomes jealous of the group 's fame and begins killing them. He reduces Nathan to a state of vegetation although Curtis rewinds this timeline. Nathan begins a relationship with Marnie (Gwyneth Keyworth), who is pregnant but has no clue who the father of her child is. To support her and her baby, he sells his power of immortality to Seth (Matthew McNulty). As a result of this Nikki (Ruth Negga) is killed. The group steal money that Elliot (Edward Hogg) has collected while falsely claiming to be Jesus Christ reborn to buy new super powers.
In Vegas Baby! Nathan along with Marnie and Nathan Junior are staying in Vegas. Using his new power he begins scamming the casinos by using his power to make the dice land on all the right numbers. He is caught out when he uses his power to cheat to get eleven on the dice although he uses the numbers four and seven. He runs back to the hotel room but is eventually caught where he bids farewell to Nathan Junior. Nathan now in an orange jumpsuit is imprisoned and uses his one free call to phone Simon. Rudy Wade (Joseph Gilgun) picks up and states that he is the new guy and he does n't know a Barry before hanging up. Nathan is last seen being dragged away from the phone by the police to a cell while shouting "Save me, Barry! ''
Sheehan was nominated for a BAFTA for his portrayal of Nathan but lost out to Martin Freeman who stars in Sherlock. Sheehan was nominated for Outstanding Actor in the fiction category at the Monte - Carlo Television Festival in 2011. The Herald described him as a "curly haired Irish smart alec called Nathan (Robert Sheehan), to whom writer Howard Overman has given all the best lines ''. The Guardian also commented that "So far his only power seems to be the gift of incessant back - chat. Played by Robert Sheehan, he 's the breakout star of the show ''. The Daily Telegraph describes him as "Motormouth Nathan was the pivot here, prodding, challenging and provoking the others into revealing themselves ''. The Independent responded to the character saying he was "clearly the most quotable of the quintet ''. After Nathan decides to join the circus so he can be repeatedly killed they added "Quite right: who 'd really get all superhero - ish just because they 've got some powers? '' The Metro described him as a "cult hero ''. MSN News described Nathan saying he was "undoubtedly the star of the show ''.
The Guardian described Sheehan as the "leading light of E4 's Asbo superheroes drama '', describing him as a "cocky motormouth '' before questioning "Can Misfits survive without Nathan? '' After the character 's exit was confirmed, Digital Spy commented that he was "much - loved ''. Keith Watson of the Metro commented positively on his exit saying "rather than dismiss this key character with a couple of lines of mumbled dialogue, his farewell is deftly handled in an online mini-drama all of his own '' saying his time on the show was spent "bemoaning being short - changed in the superpower department -- finally cashes in the chips on his shoulder '' before adding "he 's going to leave a Misfits - shaped hole in my heart ''. Neela Debnath of the Independent spoke of Sheehan 's departure upon the beginning of the third series saying the absence of Nathan, who she described as "universally popular and well - liked '', was the "starkest '' difference in the series. Debnath expressed that although for a large number of people Nathan was "the most entertaining character on the show '' because of his "schoolboy humour and penchant for annoying everyone but the audience '' his departure did not detract from the quality of the show. The Guardian branded Nathan their "favourite cocky yet lovable and immortal character '' but after Rudy 's entrance questioned "As for that void after Nathan left? Well... Nathan who? ''
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where does fatty acid oxidation occur in the cell | Fatty acid metabolism - wikipedia
Fatty acid metabolism consists of catabolic processes that generate energy, and anabolic processes that create biologically important molecules (triglycerides, phospholipids, second messengers, local hormones and ketone bodies). Fatty acids are a family of molecules classified within the lipid macronutrient class. One role of fatty acids in animal metabolism is energy production, captured in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). When compared to other macronutrient classes (carbohydrates and protein), fatty acids yield the most ATP on an energy per gram basis, when they are completely oxidized to CO and water by beta oxidation and the citric acid cycle. Fatty acids (mainly in the form of triglycerides) are therefore the foremost storage form of fuel in most animals, and to a lesser extent in plants. In addition, fatty acids are important components of the phospholipids that form the phospholipid bilayers out of which all the membranes of the cell are constructed (the cell wall, and the membranes that enclose all the organelles within the cells, such as the nucleus, the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and the Golgi apparatus). Fatty acids can also be cleaved, or partially cleaved, from their chemical attachments in the cell membrane to form second messengers within the cell, and local hormones in the immediate vicinity of the cell. The prostaglandins made from arachidonic acid stored in the cell membrane, are probably the most well known group of these local hormones.
Fatty acids are released, between meals, from the fat depots in adipose tissue, where they are stored as triglycerides, as follows:
In the liver oxaloacetate can be wholly or partially diverted into the gluconeogenic pathway during fasting, starvation, a low carbohydrate diet, prolonged strenuous exercise, and in uncontrolled type 1 diabetes mellitus. Under these circumstances oxaloacetate is hydrogenated to malate which is then removed from the mitochondrion to be converted into glucose in the cytoplasm of the liver cells, from where it is released into the blood. In the liver, therefore, oxaloacetate is unavailable for condensation with acetyl - CoA when significant gluconeogenesis has been stimulated by low (or absent) insulin and high glucagon concentrations in the blood. Under these circumstances acetyl - CoA is diverted to the formation of acetoacetate and beta - hydroxybutyrate. Acetoacetate, beta - hydroxybutyrate, and their spontaneous breakdown product, acetone, are frequently, but confusingly, known as ketone bodies (as they are not "bodies '' at all, but water - soluble chemical substances). The ketone bodies are released by the liver into the blood. All cells with mitochondria can take ketone bodies up from the blood and reconvert them into acetyl - CoA, which can then be used as fuel in their citric acid cycles, as no other tissue can divert its oxaloacetate into the gluconeogenic pathway in the way that this can occur in the liver. Unlike free fatty acids, ketone bodies can cross the blood - brain barrier and are therefore available as fuel for the cells of the central nervous system, acting as a substitute for glucose, on which these cells normally survive. The occurrence of high levels of ketone bodies in the blood during starvation, a low carbohydrate diet, prolonged heavy exercise and uncontrolled type 1 diabetes mellitus is known as ketosis, and, in its extreme form, in out - of - control type 1 diabetes mellitus, as ketoacidosis.
Fatty acids, stored as triglycerides in an organism, are an important source of energy because they are both reduced and anhydrous. The energy yield from a gram of fatty acids is approximately 9 kcal (37 kJ), compared to 4 kcal (17 kJ) for carbohydrates. Since the hydrocarbon portion of fatty acids is hydrophobic, these molecules can be stored in a relatively anhydrous (water - free) environment. Carbohydrates, on the other hand, are more highly hydrated. For example, 1 g of glycogen can bind approximately 2 g of water, which translates to 1.33 kcal / g (4 kcal / 3 g). This means that fatty acids can hold more than six times the amount of energy per unit of storage mass. Put another way, if the human body relied on carbohydrates to store energy, then a person would need to carry 31 kg (67.5 lb) of hydrated glycogen to have the energy equivalent to 4.6 kg (10 lb) of fat.
Hibernating animals provide a good example for utilizing fat reserves as fuel. For example, bears hibernate for about 7 months, and, during this entire period, the energy is derived from degradation of fat stores. Migrating birds similarly build up large fat reserves before embarking on their intercontinental journeys.
Thus the young adult human 's fat stores average between about 10 -- 20 kg, but varies greatly depending on age, gender, and individual disposition. By contrast the human body stores only about 400 g of glycogen, of which 300 g is locked inside the skeletal muscles and is unavailable to the body as a whole. The 100 g or so of glycogen stored in the liver is depleted within one day of starvation. Thereafter the glucose that is released into the blood by the liver for general use by the body tissues, has to be synthesized from the glucogenic amino acids and a few other gluconeogenic substrates, which do not include fatty acids. Please note however that lipolysis releases glycerol which can enter the pathway of gluconeogenesis.
Fatty acids are broken down to acetyl - CoA by means of beta oxidation inside the mitochondria, whereas fatty acids are synthesized from acetyl - CoA outside the mitochondria, in the cytosol. The two pathways are distinct, not only in where they occur, but also in the reactions that occur, and the substrates that are used. The two pathways are mutually inhibitory, preventing the acetyl - CoA produced by beta - oxidation from entering the synthetic pathway via the acetyl - CoA carboxylase reaction. It can also not be converted to pyruvate as the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex reaction is irreversible. Instead the acetyl - CoA produced by the beta - oxidation of fatty acids condenses with oxaloacetate, to enter the citric acid cycle. During each turn of the cycle, two carbon atoms leave the cycle as CO in the decarboxylation reactions catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase and alpha - ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. Thus each turn of the citric acid cycle oxidizes an acetyl - CoA unit while regenerating the oxaloacetate molecule with which the acetyl - CoA had originally combined to form citric acid. The decarboxylation reactions occur before malate is formed in the cycle. Only plants possess the enzymes to convert acetyl - CoA into oxaloacetate from which malate can be formed to ultimately be converted to glucose.
However acetyl - CoA can be converted to acetoacetate, which can decarboxylate to acetone (either spontaneously, or by acetoacetate decarboxylase). It can then be further metabolized to isopropanol which is excreted in breath / urine, or by CYP2E1 into hydroxyacetone (acetol). Acetol can be converted to propylene glycol. This converts to formate and acetate (the latter converting to glucose), or pyruvate (by two alternative enzymes), or propionaldehyde, or to L - lactaldehyde then L - lactate (the common lactate isomer). Another pathway turns acetol to methylglyoxal, then to pyruvate, or to D - lactaldehyde (via S-D - lactoyl - glutathione or otherwise) then D - lactate. D - lactate metabolism (to glucose) is slow or impaired in humans, so most of the D - lactate is excreted in the urine; thus D - lactate derived from acetone can contribute significantly to the metabolic acidosis associated with ketosis or isopropanol intoxication. L - Lactate can complete the net conversion of fatty acids into glucose. The first experiment to show conversion of acetone to glucose was carried out in 1951. This, and further experiments used carbon isotopic labelling. Up to 11 % of the glucose can be derived from acetone during starvation in humans.
The glycerol released into the blood during the lipolysis of triglycerides in adipose tissue can only be taken up by the liver. Here it is converted into glycerol 3 - phosphate by the action of glycerol kinase which hydrolyzes one molecule of ATP per glycerol molecule which is phosphorylated. Glycerol 3 - phosphate is then oxidized to dihydroxyacetone phosphate, which is, in turn, converted into glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate by the enzyme triose phosphate isomerase. From here the three carbon atoms of the original glycerol can be oxidized via glycolysis, or converted to glucose via gluconeogenesis.
Fatty acids are an integral part of the phospholipids that make up the bulk of the plasma membranes, or cell membranes, of cells. These phospholipids can be cleaved into diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol trisphosphate (IP) through hydrolysis of the phospholipid, phosphatidylinositol 4, 5 - bisphosphate (PIP), by the cell membrane bound enzyme phospholipase C (PLC).
An example of a diacyl - glycerol shown on the right. This DAG is 1 - palmitoyl - 2 - oleoyl - glycerol, which contains side - chains derived from palmitic acid and oleic acid. Diacylglycerols can also have many other combinations of fatty acids attached at either the C - 1 and C - 2 positions or the C - 1 and C - 3 positions of the glycerol molecule. 1, 2 disubstituted glycerols are always chiral, 1, 3 disubstituted glycerols are chiral if the substituents are different from each other.
Inositol trisphosphate (IP) functions as an intracellular second messenger, which initiates the intracellular release of calcium ions (which activates intracellular enzymes, causes the release of hormones and neurotransmitters from the cells in which they are stored, and causes smooth muscle contraction when released by IP), and the activation of protein kinase C (PKC), which is then translocated from the cell cytoplasm to the cell membrane. Although inositol trisphosphate, (IP), diffuses into the cytosol, diacylglycerol (DAG) remains within the plasma membrane, due to its hydrophobic properties. IP stimulates the release of calcium ions from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, whereas DAG is a physiological activator of protein kinase C (PKC), promoting its translocation from the cytosol to the plasma membrane. PKC is a multifunctional protein kinase which phosphorylates serine and threonine residues in many target proteins. However PKC is only active in the presence of calcium ions, and it is DAG that increases the affinity of PKC for Ca and thereby renders it active at the physiological intracellular levels of this ion.
Diacylglycerol and IP act transiently because both are rapidly metabolized. This is important as their message function should not linger after the message has been '' received '' by their target molecules. DAG can be phosphorylated to phosphatidate or it can be it can be hydrolysed to glycerol and its constituent fatty acids. IP is rapidly converted to into derivatives that that do not open calcium ion channels.
The prostaglandins are a group of physiologically active lipid compounds having diverse hormone - like effects in animals. Prostaglandins have been found in almost every tissue in humans and other animals. They are enzymatically derived from arachidonic acid a 20 - carbon polyunsaturated fatty acid. Every prostaglandin therefore contains 20 carbon atoms, including a 5 - carbon ring. They are a subclass of eicosanoids and form the prostanoid class of fatty acid derivatives.
The prostaglandins are synthesized in the cell membrane by the cleavage of arachidonate from the phospholipids that make up the membrane. This is catalyzed either by phospholipase A acting directly on a membrane phospholipid, or by a lipase acting on DAG (diacyl - glycerol). The arachidonate is then acted upon by the cyclooxygenase component of prostaglandin synthase. This forms a cyclopentane ring in roughly the middle of the fatty acid chain. The reaction also adds 4 oxygen atoms derived from two molecules of O. The resulting molecule is prostaglandin G which is converted by the hydroperoxidase component of the enzyme complex into prostaglandin H. This highly unstable compound is rapidly transformed into other prostaglandins, prostacyclin and thromboxanes. These are then released into the interstitial fluids surrounding the cells that have manufactured the eicosanoid hormone.
If arachidonate is acted upon by a lipoxygenase instead of cyclooxygenase, Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids and leukotrienes are formed. They also act as local hormones.
Prostaglandins were originally believed to leave the cells via passive diffusion because of their high lipophilicity. The discovery of the prostaglandin transporter (PGT, SLCO2A1), which mediates the cellular uptake of prostaglandin, demonstrated that diffusion alone can not explain the penetration of prostaglandin through the cellular membrane. The release of prostaglandin has now also been shown to be mediated by a specific transporter, namely the multidrug resistance protein 4 (MRP4, ABCC4), a member of the ATP - binding cassette transporter superfamily. Whether MRP4 is the only transporter releasing prostaglandins from the cells is still unclear.
The structural differences between prostaglandins account for their different biological activities. A given prostaglandin may have different and even opposite effects in different tissues. The ability of the same prostaglandin to stimulate a reaction in one tissue and inhibit the same reaction in another tissue is determined by the type of receptor to which the prostaglandin binds. They act as autocrine or paracrine factors with their target cells present in the immediate vicinity of the site of their secretion. Prostaglandins differ from endocrine hormones in that they are not produced at a specific site but in many places throughout the human body.
Prostaglandins have two derivatives: prostacyclins and thromboxanes. Prostacyclins are powerful locally acting vasodilators and inhibit the aggregation of blood platelets. Through their role in vasodilation, prostacyclins are also involved in inflammation. They are synthesized in the walls of blood vessels and serve the physiological function of preventing needless clot formation, as well as regulating the contraction of smooth muscle tissue. Conversely, thromboxanes (produced by platelet cells) are vasoconstrictors and facilitate platelet aggregation. Their name comes from their role in clot formation (thrombosis).
A significant proportion of the fatty acids in the body are obtained from the diet, in the form of triglycerides of either animal or plant origin. The fatty acids in the fats obtained from land animals tend to be saturated, whereas the fatty acids in the triglycerides of fish and plants are often polyunsaturated and therefore present as oils.
These triglycerides, can not be absorbed by the intestine. They are broken down into mono - and di - glycerides plus free fatty acids (but no free glycerol) by pancreatic lipase, which forms a 1: 1 complex with a protein called colipase (also a constituent of pancreatic juice), which is necessary for its activity. The activated complex can work only at a water - fat interface. Therefore, it is essential that fats are first emulsified by bile salts for optimal activity of these enzymes. The digestion products consisting of a mixture of tri -, di - and monoglycerides and free fatty acids, which, together with the other fat soluble contents of the diet (e.g. the fat soluble vitamins and cholesterol) and bile salts form mixed micelles, in the watery duodenal contents (see diagrams on the right).
The contents of these micelles (but not the bile salts) enter the enterocytes (epithelial cells lining the small intestine) where they are resynthesized into triglycerides, and packaged into chylomicrons which are released into the lacteals (the capillaries of the lymph system of the intestines). These lacteals drain into the thoracic duct which empties into the venous blood at the junction of the left jugular and left subclavian veins on the lower left hand side of the neck. This means that the fat soluble products of digestion are discharged directly into the general circulation, without first passing through the liver, as all other digestion products do. The reason for this peculiarity is unknown.
The chylomicrons circulate throughout the body, giving the blood plasma a milky, or creamy appearance after a fatty meal. Lipoprotein lipase on the endothelial surfaces of the capillaries, especially in adipose tissue, but to a lesser extent also in other tissues, partially digests the chylomicrons into free fatty acids, glycerol and chylomicron remnants. The fatty acids are absorbed by the adipocytes, but the glycerol and chylomicron remnants remain in the blood plasma, ultimately to be removed from the circulation by the liver. The free fatty acids released by the digestion of the chylomicrons are absorbed by the adipocytes, where they are resynthesized into triglycerides using glycerol derived from glucose in the glycolytic pathway. These triglycerides are stored, until needed for the fuel requirements of other tissues, in the fat droplet of the adipocyte.
The liver absorbs a proportion of the glucose from the blood in the portal vein coming from the intestines. After the liver has replenished its glycogen stores (which amount to only about 100 g of glycogen when full) much of the rest of the glucose is converted into fatty acids as described below. These fatty acids are combined with glycerol to form triglycerides which are packaged into droplets very similar to chylomicrons, but known as very low - density lipoproteins (VLDL). These VLDL droplets are handled in exactly the same manner as chylomicrons, except that the VLDL remnant is known as an intermediate - density lipoprotein (IDL), which is capable of scavenging cholesterol from the blood. This converts IDL into low - density lipoprotein (LDL), which is taken up by cells that require cholesterol for incorporation into their cell membranes or for synthetic purposes (e.g. the formation of the steroid hormones). The remainder of the LDLs is removed by the liver.
Adipose tissue and lactating mammary glands also take up glucose from the blood for conversion into triglycerides. This occurs in the same way as it does in the liver, except that these tissues do not release the triglycerides thus produced as VLDL into the blood. Adipose tissue cells store the triglycerides in their fat droplets, ultimately to release them again as free fatty acids and glycerol into the blood (as described above), when the plasma concentration of insulin is low, and that of glucagon and / or epinephrine is high. Mammary glands discharge the fat (as cream fat droplets) into the milk that they produce under the influence of the anterior pituitary hormone prolactin.
All cells in the body need to manufacture and maintain their membranes and the membranes of their organelles. Whether they rely for this entirely on free fatty acids absorbed from the blood, or are able to synthesize their own fatty acids from the blood glucose, is not known. The cells of the central nervous system will almost certainly have the capability of manufacturing their own fatty acids, as these molecules can not reach them through the blood brain barrier, while, on the other hand, no cell in the body can manufacture the required essential fatty acids which have to be obtained from the diet and delivered to each cell via the blood.
Much like beta - oxidation, straight - chain fatty acid synthesis occurs via the six recurring reactions shown below, until the 16 - carbon palmitic acid is produced.
The diagrams presented show how fatty acids are synthesized in microorganisms and list the enzymes found in Escherichia coli. These reactions are performed by fatty acid synthase II (FASII), which in general contain multiple enzymes that act as one complex. FASII is present in prokaryotes, plants, fungi, and parasites, as well as in mitochondria.
In animals, as well as some fungi such as yeast, these same reactions occur on fatty acid synthase I (FASI), a large dimeric protein that has all of the enzymatic activities required to create a fatty acid. FASI is less efficient than FASII; however, it allows for the formation of more molecules, including "medium - chain '' fatty acids via early chain termination.
Once a 16: 0 carbon fatty acid has been formed, it can undergo a number of modifications, resulting in desaturation and / or elongation. Elongation, starting with stearate (18: 0), is performed mainly in the ER by several membrane - bound enzymes. The enzymatic steps involved in the elongation process are principally the same as those carried out by FAS, but the four principal successive steps of the elongation are performed by individual proteins, which may be physically associated.
Abbreviations: ACP -- Acyl carrier protein, CoA -- Coenzyme A, NADP -- Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate.
Note that during fatty synthesis the reducing agent is NADPH, whereas NAD is the oxidizing agent in beta - oxidation (the breakdown of fatty acids to acetyl - CoA). This difference exemplifies a general principle that NADPH is consumed during biosynthetic reactions, whereas NADH is generated in energy - yielding reactions. (Thus NADPH is also required for the synthesis of cholesterol from acetyl - CoA; while NADH is generated during glycolysis.) The source of the NADPH is two-fold. When malate is oxidatively decarboxylated by "NADP - linked malic enzyme '' pyruvate, CO and NADPH are formed. NADPH is also formed by the pentose phosphate pathway which converts glucose into ribose, which can be used in synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids, or it can be catabolized to pyruvate.
In humans, fatty acids are formed from carbohydrates predominantly in the liver and adipose tissue, as well as in the mammary glands during lactation. The cells of the central nervous system probably also make most of the fatty acids needed for the phospholipids of their extensive membranes from glucose, as blood - born fatty acids can not cross the blood brain barrier to reach these cells. However, how the essential fatty acids, which mammals can not synthesize themselves, but are nevertheless important components of cell membranes (and other functions described above) reach them is unknown.
The pyruvate produced by glycolysis is an important intermediary in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids and cholesterol. This occurs via the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl - CoA in the mitochondrion. However, this acetyl CoA needs to be transported into cytosol where the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol occurs. This can not occur directly. To obtain cytosolic acetyl - CoA, citrate (produced by the condensation of acetyl CoA with oxaloacetate) is removed from the citric acid cycle and carried across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the cytosol. There it is cleaved by ATP citrate lyase into acetyl - CoA and oxaloacetate. The oxaloacetate is returned to mitochondrion as malate (and then converted back into oxaloacetate to transfer more acetyl - CoA out of the mitochondrion). The cytosolic acetyl - CoA is carboxylated by acetyl CoA carboxylase into malonyl CoA, the first committed step in the synthesis of fatty acids.
Acetyl - CoA is formed into malonyl - CoA by acetyl - CoA carboxylase, at which point malonyl - CoA is destined to feed into the fatty acid synthesis pathway. Acetyl - CoA carboxylase is the point of regulation in saturated straight - chain fatty acid synthesis, and is subject to both phosphorylation and allosteric regulation. Regulation by phosphorylation occurs mostly in mammals, while allosteric regulation occurs in most organisms. Allosteric control occurs as feedback inhibition by palmitoyl - CoA and activation by citrate. When there are high levels of palmitoyl - CoA, the final product of saturated fatty acid synthesis, it allosterically inactivates acetyl - CoA carboxylase to prevent a build - up of fatty acids in cells. Citrate acts to activate acetyl - CoA carboxylase under high levels, because high levels indicate that there is enough acetyl - CoA to feed into the Krebs cycle and produce energy.
High plasma levels of insulin in the blood plasma (e.g. after meals) cause the dephosphorylation of acetyl - CoA carboxylase, thus promoting the formation of malonyl - CoA from acetyl - CoA, and consequently the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids, while epinephrine and glucagon (released into the blood during starvation and exercise) cause the phosphorylation of this enzyme, inhibiting lipogenesis in favor of fatty acid oxidation via beta - oxidation.
Disorders of fatty acid metabolism can be described in terms of, for example, hypertriglyceridemia (too high level of triglycerides), or other types of hyperlipidemia. These may be familial or acquired.
Familial types of disorders of fatty acid metabolism are generally classified as inborn errors of lipid metabolism. These disorders may be described as fatty oxidation disorders or as a lipid storage disorders, and are any one of several inborn errors of metabolism that result from enzyme defects affecting the ability of the body to oxidize fatty acids in order to produce energy within muscles, liver, and other cell types.
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where are t lymphocytes located in lymph nodes | Lymph node - wikipedia
A lymph node or lymph gland is an ovoid or kidney - shaped organ of the lymphatic system, and of the adaptive immune system, that is widely present throughout the body. They are linked by the lymphatic vessels as a part of the circulatory system. Lymph nodes are major sites of B and T lymphocytes, and other white blood cells. Lymph nodes are important for the proper functioning of the immune system, acting as filters for foreign particles and cancer cells. Lymph nodes do not have a detoxification function, which is primarily dealt with by the liver and kidneys.
In the lymphatic system the lymph node is a secondary lymphoid organ. A lymph node is enclosed in a fibrous capsule and is made up of an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
Lymph nodes also have clinical significance. They become inflamed or enlarged in various diseases which may range from trivial throat infections, to life - threatening cancers. The condition of the lymph nodes is very important in cancer staging, which decides the treatment to be used, and determines the prognosis. When swollen, inflamed or enlarged, lymph nodes can be hard, firm or tender.
Lymph nodes are kidney or oval shaped and range in size from a few millimeters to about 1 -- 2 cm long. Each lymph node is surrounded by a fibrous capsule, which extends inside the lymph node to form trabeculae. The substance of the lymph node is divided into the outer cortex and the inner medulla. The cortex is continuous around the medulla except where the medulla comes into direct contact with the hilum.
Thin reticular fibers of reticular connective tissue, and elastin form a supporting meshwork called a reticulin inside the node. B cells are mainly found in the outer (superficial cortex) where they are clustered together as follicular B cells in lymphoid follicles and the T cells are mainly in the paracortex. The lymph node is divided into compartments called lymph nodules (or lobules) each consisting of a cortical region of combined follicle B cells, a paracortical region of T cells, and a basal part of the nodule in the medulla.
The number and composition of follicles can change especially when challenged by an antigen, when they develop a germinal center. Elsewhere in the node, there are only occasional leucocytes. As part of the reticular network there are follicular dendritic cells in the B cell follicle and fibroblastic reticular cells in the T cell cortex. The reticular network not only provides the structural support, but also the surface for adhesion of the dendritic cells, macrophages and lymphocytes. It allows exchange of material with blood through the high endothelial venules and provides the growth and regulatory factors necessary for activation and maturation of immune cells.
Lymph enters the convex side of the lymph node through multiple afferent lymphatic vessels, and flows through spaces called sinuses. A lymph sinus which includes the subcapsular sinus, is a channel within the node, lined by endothelial cells along with fibroblastic reticular cells and this allows for the smooth flow of lymph through them. The endothelium of the subcapsular sinus is continuous with that of the afferent lymph vessel and is also with that of the similar sinuses flanking the trabeculae and within the cortex. All of these sinuses drain the filtered lymphatic fluid into the medullary sinuses, from where the lymph flows into the efferent lymph vessels to exit the node at the hilum on the concave side. These vessels are smaller and do n't allow the passage of the macrophages so that they remain contained to function within the lymph node. In the course of the lymph, lymphocytes may be activated as part of the adaptive immune response.
The lymph node capsule is composed of dense irregular connective tissue with some plain collagenous fibers, and from its internal surface are given off a number of membranous processes or trabeculae. They pass inward, radiating toward the center of the node, for about one - third or one - fourth of the space between the circumference and the center of the node. In some animals they are sufficiently well - marked to divide the peripheral or cortical portion of the node into a number of compartments (nodules), but in humans this arrangement is not obvious. The larger trabeculae springing from the capsule break up into finer bands, and these interlace to form a mesh - work in the central or medullary portion of the node. In these trabecular spaces formed by the interlacing trabeculae is contained the proper lymph node substance or lymphoid tissue. The node pulp does not, however, completely fill the spaces, but leaves, between its outer margin and the enclosing trabeculae, a channel or space of uniform width throughout. This is termed the subcapsular sinus (lymph path or lymph sinus). Running across it are a number of finer trabeculae of reticular connective tissue, the fibers of which are, for the most part, covered by ramifying cells.
The subcapsular sinus (lymph path, lymph sinus, marginal sinus) is the space between the capsule and the cortex which allows the free movement of lymphatic fluid and so contains few lymphocytes. It is continuous with the similar lymph sinuses that flank the trabeculae.
The lymph node contains lymphoid tissue, i.e., a meshwork or fibers called reticulum with white blood cells enmeshed in it. The regions where there are few cells within the meshwork are known as lymph sinus. It is lined by reticular cells, fibroblasts and fixed macrophages.
The subcapsular sinus has clinical importance as it is the most likely location where the earliest manifestations of a metastatic carcinoma in a lymph node would be found.
The cortex of the lymph node is the outer portion of the node, underneath the capsule and the subcapsular sinus. It has an outer superficial part and a deeper part known as the paracortex. The subcapsular sinus drains to the trabecular sinuses, and then the lymph flows into the medullary sinuses.
The outer cortex consists mainly of the B cells arranged as follicles, which may develop a germinal center when challenged with an antigen, and the deeper paracortex mainly consists of the T cells. Here the T - cells mainly interact with dendritic cells, and the reticular network is dense.
The medulla contains large blood vessels, sinuses and medullary cords that contain antibody - secreting plasma cells.
The medullary cords are cords of lymphatic tissue, and include plasma cells, macrophages, and B cells. The medullary sinuses (or sinusoids) are vessel - like spaces separating the medullary cords. Lymph flows into the medullary sinuses from cortical sinuses, and into the efferent lymphatic vessel. There is usually only one efferent vessel though sometimes there may be two. Medullary sinuses contain histiocytes (immobile macrophages) and reticular cells.
Lymph nodes are present throughout the body, are more concentrated near and within the trunk, and are divided in the study of anatomy into groups. Some lymph nodes can be felt when enlarged (and occasionally when not), such as the axillary lymph nodes under the arm, the cervical lymph nodes of the head and neck and the inguinal lymph nodes near the groin crease. Some lymph nodes can be seen, such as the tonsils. Most lymph nodes however lie within the trunk adjacent to other major structures in the body - such as the paraaortic lymph nodes and the tracheobronchial lymph nodes.
There are no lymph nodes in the central nervous system, which is separated from the body by the blood - brain barrier.
The primary function of lymph nodes is the filtering of lymph to identify and fight infection. In order to do this, lymph nodes contain lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, which includes B cells and T cells. These circulate through the bloodstream and enter and reside in lymph nodes. B cells produce antibodies. Each antibody has a single predetermined target, an antigen, that it can bind to. These circulate throughout the bloodstream and if they find this target, the antibodies bind to it and stimulate an immune response. Each B cell produces different antibodies, and this process is driven in lymph nodes. B cells enter the bloodstream as "naive '' cells produced in bone marrow. After entering a lymph node, they then enter a lymphoid follicle, where they multiply and divide, each producing a different antibody. If a cell is stimulated, it will go on to produce more antibodies (a plasma cell) or act as a memory cell to help the body fight future infection. If a cell is not stimulated, it will undergo apoptosis and die.
Antigens are molecules found on bacterial cell walls, chemical substances secreted from bacteria, or sometimes even molecules present in body tissue itself. These are taken up by cells throughout the body called antigen - presenting cells, such as dendritic cells. These antigen presenting cells enter the lymph system and then lymph nodes. They present the antigen to T cells and, if there is a T cell with the appropriate T cell receptor, it will be activated.
B cells acquire antigen directly from the afferent lymph. If a B cell binds its cognate antigen it will be activated. Some B cells will immediately develop into antibody secreting plasma cells, and secrete IgM. Other B cells will internalize the antigen and present it to Follicular helper T cells on the B and T cell zone interface. If a cognate FTh cell is found it will upregulate CD40L and promote somatic hypermutation and isotype class switching of the B cell, increasing its antigen binding affinity and changing its effector function. Proliferation of cells within the lymph node will make the node expand.
Lymph is present throughout the body, and circulates through lymphatic vessels. These drain into and from lymph nodes -- afferent vessels drain into nodes, and efferent vessels from nodes. When lymph fluid enters a node, it drains into the node just beneath the capsule in a space called the subcapsular sinus. The subcapsular sinus drains into trabecular sinuses and finally into medullary sinuses. The sinus space is criss - crossed by the pseudopods of macrophages, which act to trap foreign particles and filter the lymph. The medullary sinuses converge at the hilum and lymph then leaves the lymph node via the efferent lymphatic vessel towards either a more central lymph node or ultimately for drainage into a central venous subclavian blood vessel.
The spleen and tonsils are the larger secondary lymphoid organs that serve similar functions to lymph nodes, though the spleen filters blood cells rather than lymph.
Lymph nodes may become enlarged due to an infection, tumor, autoimmune disease, drug reactions, or to leukemia. Swollen lymph nodes (or the disease causing them) are referred to as lymphadenopathy. Swollen lymph nodes may be seen, as in enlarged tonsils, or seen as gross enlargement of nodes due to lymphoma. They may be felt, or seen on a scan. Swollen lymph nodes may be painful or cause other symptoms such as a difficulty in swallowing or in breathing. When very large they may compress on a blood vessel. Swelling can occur in one node, in a localised area, or be widespread.
The taking of a medical history and exam by a medical practitioner can help point to the cause of the swelling, whether it be a localised infection, or a systemic disorder. Many symptoms or signs may point to the cause of swelling - for example, a sore throat and a cough may point to an upper respiratory tract infection as the cause of tonsil swelling. Changes in the appearance of a breast or a mass that has been felt may explain underarm pain and axillary lymph node swelling. Ongoing fevers or night sweats may suggest a systemic infection or a lymphoma as the cause of swelling. Depending on these findings, a wide variety of medical tests that include blood tests and scans may be needed to further examine the cause. A biopsy of a lymph node may also be needed.
Lymphedema is another and fairly widespread condition that results in fluid retention and tissue swelling. It can be congenital as a result usually of undeveloped or absent lymph nodes, and is known as primary lymphedema. Secondary lymphedema usually results from the removal of lymph nodes during breast cancer surgery or from other damaging treatments such as radiation. It can also be caused by some parasitic infections. Affected tissues are at a great risk of infection.
Lymph nodes can be affected by both primary cancers of lymph tissue, and secondary cancers affecting other part of the body. Primary cancers of lymph tissue are called lymphomas and include Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer of lymph nodes can cause a wide range of symptoms from painless long - term slowly growing swelling to sudden, rapid enlargement over days or weeks. Lymphoma is managed by haematologists and oncologists
Local cancer in many parts of the body can cause lymph nodes to enlarge, usually because of tumours cells that have metastasised into the node. Lymph node involvement is often a key part in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer, acting as "sentinels '' of local disease, incorporated into TNM staging and other cancer staging systems. As part of the investigations or workup for cancer, lymph nodes may be imaged or even surgically removed. Whether lymph nodes are affected will affect the stage of the cancer and overall treatment and prognosis.
Lymphatic system
Section of small lymph node of rabbit.
Lymphatics of the arm
Lymphatics of the axillary region
Lymph node histology
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what are the dimensions of martha's vineyard | Martha 's Vineyard - Wikipedia
Martha 's Vineyard (Wampanoag: Noepe, / ˈmɑːr. θəz. ˈvɪn. jərd /, often called just "the Vineyard '') is an island located south of Cape Cod in Massachusetts that is known for being an affluent summer colony. It includes the smaller Chappaquiddick Island which is usually connected to the Vineyard, though storms and hurricanes have been known to separate the two. The last such separation of the islands was in 2007 and the two islands are again connected as of April 2, 2015.
It is the 58th largest island in the United States, with a land area of 100 square miles (260 km), and the third largest on the East Coast of the United States, after Long Island and Mount Desert Island. The island constitutes the bulk of Dukes County, Massachusetts, which also includes the Elizabeth Islands and the island of Nomans Land.
The Vineyard was home to one of the earliest known deaf communities in the United States; consequently, a special sign language developed on the island called Martha 's Vineyard Sign Language (MVSL).
The 2010 census reported a year - round population of 16,535 residents, although the summer population can swell to more than 100,000 people. About 56 % of the Vineyard 's 14,621 homes are seasonally occupied.
Martha 's Vineyard is primarily known as a summer colony, and it is only accessible by boat and air. However, its year - round population has considerably increased since the 1960s. The island 's year - round population increased about a third each decade from 1970 to 2000, for a total of 145 % or about 3 to 4 % per year (46 %, 30 %, and 29 % in each respective decade). The population of the Vineyard was 14,901 in the 2000 Census and was estimated at 15,582 in 2004. (Dukes County was 14,987 in 2000 and 15,669 in 2004). Dukes County includes the six towns on Martha 's Vineyard and Gosnold; it increased by more than 10 percent between 2000 and 2010, according to Census data released in 2011, gaining nearly 1,548 residents. The Island 's population increased from 14,987 to 16,535.
A study by the Martha 's Vineyard Commission found that the cost of living on the island is 60 % higher than the national average, and housing prices are 96 % higher. A study of housing needs by the Commission found that the average weekly wage on Martha 's Vineyard was "71 % of the state average, the median home price was 54 % above the state 's and the median rent exceeded the state 's by 17 % ''.
Originally inhabited by the Wampanoag, Martha 's Vineyard was known in their language as Noepe, or "land amid the streams ''. In 1642, the Wampanoag numbered somewhere around 3,000 on the island. By 1764, that number had dropped by around 90 % to 313.
A smaller island to the south was named "Martha 's Vineyard '' by the English explorer Bartholomew Gosnold, who sailed to the island in 1602. The name was later transferred to the main island. It is thus the eighth - oldest surviving English place - name in the United States. The island 's namesake is not positively known, but it is thought that the island was named after Gosnold 's mother - in - law or his daughter, both named Martha. His daughter was christened in St. James ' Church (now St. Edmundsbury Cathedral), Bury St. Edmunds in Suffolk, England and is buried in the Great Churchyard which lies in front of the Abbey ruins between St. Mary 's Church and the Cathedral.
The island was also known as Martin 's Vineyard (perhaps after the captain of Gosnold 's ship, John Martin); many islanders up to the 18th century called it by this name. The United States Board on Geographic Names worked to standardize placename spellings in the late 19th century, including the dropping of apostrophes. Thus for a time Martha 's Vineyard was officially named Marthas Vineyard, but the Board reversed its decision in the early 20th century, making Martha 's Vineyard one of the five placenames in the United States today with a possessive apostrophe.
English settlement began with the purchase of Martha 's Vineyard, Nantucket, and the Elizabeth Islands by Thomas Mayhew of Watertown, Massachusetts from two English "owners ''. He had friendly relations with the Wampanoags on the island, in part because he was careful to honor their land rights. His son, also named Thomas Mayhew, began the first English settlement in 1642 at Great Harbor (later Edgartown, Massachusetts).
The younger Mayhew began a relationship with Hiacoomes, a Native American neighbor, which eventually led to Hiacoomes ' family converting to Christianity. Ultimately, many of the tribe became Christian, including the pow - wows (spiritual leaders) and sachems (political leaders). During King Philip 's War later in the century, the Martha 's Vineyard band did not join their tribal relatives in the uprising and remained armed, a testimony to the good relations cultivated by the Mayhews as the leaders of the English colony. In 1657, the younger Thomas Mayhew was drowned when a ship he was travelling in was lost at sea on a voyage to England. Mayhew 's grandsons Matthew Mayhew (1648 -), John Mayhew (1652 -), and other members of his family assisted him in running his business and government. In 1665, Mayhew 's lands were included in a grant to the Duke of York. In 1671, a settlement was arranged which allowed Mayhew to continue in his position while placing his territory under the jurisdiction of the Province of New York. In 1682, Matthew Mayhew succeeded his grandfather as Governor and Chief Magistrate, and occasionally preached to the Native Americans. He was also appointed judge of the Court of Common Pleas for Dukes county in 1697, and remained on the bench until 1700. He was judge of probate from 1696 to 1710. In 1683, Dukes County, New York was incorporated, including Martha 's Vineyard. In 1691, at the collapse of rule by Sir Edmund Andros and the reorganization of Massachusetts as a royal colony, Dukes County was transferred back to the Province of Massachusetts Bay, and split into the county of Dukes County, Massachusetts and Nantucket County, Massachusetts.
Native American literacy in the schools founded by Thomas Mayhew Jr. and taught by Peter Folger, the grandfather of Benjamin Franklin, was such that the first Native American graduates of Harvard were from Martha 's Vineyard, including the son of Hiacoomes, Joel Hiacoomes. "The ship Joel Hiacoomes was sailing on, as he was returning to Boston from a trip home shortly before the graduation ceremonies, was found wrecked on the shores of Nantucket Island. Caleb Cheeshahteaumauk, the son of a sachem of Homes Hole, did graduate from Harvard in the class of 1665. '' Cheeshahteaumauk 's Latin address to the corporation (New England Corporation), which begins "Honoratissimi benefactores '' (most honored benefactors), has been preserved. In addition to speaking Wampanoag and English, they studied Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. All of the early Native American graduates died shortly after completing their course of study. Many native preachers on the island, however, also preached in the English churches from time to time.
Mayhew 's successor as leader of the community was the Hon. Leavitt Thaxter, who married Martha Mayhew, a descendant of Thomas Mayhew, and was an Edgartown educator described by Indian Commissioner John Milton Earle as "a long and steadfast friend to the Indians. '' After living in Northampton, Thaxter, a lawyer, returned home to Edgartown, where he took over the school founded by his father, Rev. Joseph Thaxter, and served in the State House and the Senate, was a member of the Massachusetts Governor 's Council and later served as U.S. Customs Collector for Martha 's Vineyard. Having rechristened his father 's Edgartown school Thaxter Academy, Hon. Leavitt Thaxter was granted on Feb. 15, 1845, the sum of $50 - per - year for "the support of William Johnson, an Indian of the Chappequiddic tribe. '' By this time, Leavitt Thaxter had taken on the role, described in an act passed by the General Court of Massachusetts, as "guardian of the Indians and people of color resident at Chappequiddic and Indiantown in the County of Dukes County. '' Thaxter Academy, founded by Leavitt Thaxter as first principal in 1825, became known for educating both white and Native American youth.
Like the nearby island of Nantucket, Martha 's Vineyard was brought to prominence in the 19th century by the whaling industry, during which ships were sent around the world to hunt whales for their oil and blubber. The discovery of petroleum in Pennsylvania gave rise to a cheaper source of oil for lamps and led to an almost complete collapse of the industry by 1870. After the Old Colony railroad came to mainland Woods Hole in 1872, summer residences began to develop on the island, such as the community of Harthaven established by William H. Hart, and later, the community of Ocean Heights, developed near Sengekontacket Pond in Edgartown by the prominent island businessman, Robert Marsden Laidlaw. Although the island struggled financially through the Great Depression, its reputation as a resort for tourists and the wealthy continued to grow. There is still a substantial Wampanoag population on the Vineyard, mainly located in the town of Aquinnah. Aquinnah means "land under the hill '' in the Wampanoag language.
The island was the last refuge of the Heath Hen, a once common game bird. Despite 19th Century efforts to protect the hen, by 1927, the population of birds had dropped to 13. The last known Heath Hen perished on Martha 's Vineyard in 1932.
The linguist William Labov wrote his MA essay on changes in the Martha 's Vineyard dialect of English. The 1963 study is widely recognized as a seminal work in the foundation of sociolinguistics.
The island received international notoriety after the July 18, 1969, Chappaquiddick incident, in which Mary Jo Kopechne was killed in a car driven off the Dike Bridge by U.S. Senator Edward "Ted '' Kennedy. The bridge crossed Poucha Pond on Chappaquiddick Island (a smaller island formerly connected to the Vineyard and part of Edgartown). As a foot bridge, it was intended for people on foot and bicycles, as well as the occasional emergency vehicle when conditions warranted. Currently, 4 × 4 vehicles with passes are allowed to cross the reconstructed bridge.
On November 23, 1970, in the Atlantic Ocean just west of Aquinnah, Simas Kudirka, a Soviet seaman of Lithuanian nationality, attempted to defect to the United States by leaping onto a United States Coast Guard cutter from a Soviet ship. The Coast Guard allowed a detachment of KGB agents to board the cutter, and subsequently arrested Kudirka, taking him back to the Soviet Union.
In 1974, Steven Spielberg filmed the movie Jaws on Martha 's Vineyard, most notably in the fishing village of Menemsha and the town of Chilmark. Spielberg selected island natives Christopher Rebello as Chief Brody 's oldest son, Michael Brody; Jay Mello as the younger son, Sean Brody; and Lee Fierro as Mrs. Kintner. Scores of other island natives appeared in the film as extras. Later, scenes from Jaws 2 and Jaws: The Revenge were filmed on the island, as well. In June 2005 the island celebrated the 30th anniversary of Jaws with a weekend - long Jawsfest.
In 1977, distressed over losing their guaranteed seat in the Massachusetts General Court, inhabitants of Martha 's Vineyard considered the possibility of secession from the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, either to become part of another state (having received offers from both Vermont and Hawaii), reincorporating as a separate U.S. territory, or as the nation 's 51st state. The separatist flag, consisting of a white seagull over an orange disk on a sky - blue background, is still seen on the island today. Although the idea of separation from Massachusetts eventually proved impracticable, it did receive attention in the local, regional, and even national media.
On March 5, 1982, John Belushi died of a drug overdose in Los Angeles, California, and was buried four days later in Abel 's Hill Cemetery in Chilmark. Belushi often visited the Vineyard and his family felt it fitting to bury him there. On his gravestone is the quote: "Though I may be gone, Rock ' N ' Roll lives on. '' Because of the many visitors to his grave and the threat of vandalism, his body was moved somewhere nearby the grave site. His grave remains a popular site for visitors to Chilmark and they often leave tokens in memory of the late comedian.
In the television show The X-Files, Fox Mulder 's parents live on the island of Martha 's Vineyard.
Bill Clinton spent vacation time on the island during and after his presidency, along with his wife, Hillary Clinton, and their daughter, Chelsea. Clinton was not the first president to visit the islands; Ulysses S. Grant visited the vacation residence of his friend, Bishop Gilbert Haven on August 24, 1874. As a coincidental footnote in history, Bishop Haven 's gingerbread cottage was located in Oak Bluffs at 10 Clinton Avenue. The avenue was named in 1851 and was designated as the main promenade of the Martha 's Vineyard Campmeeting Association campgrounds. On August 23, 2009, Barack Obama arrived in Chilmark with his family for a week 's vacation at a rental property known as Blue Heron Farm.
On July 16, 1999, a small plane crashed off the coast of Martha 's Vineyard, claiming the lives of pilot John F. Kennedy Jr., his wife Carolyn Bessette and her sister Lauren Bessette. Kennedy 's mother, former U.S. first lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, maintained a home in Aquinnah (formerly "Gay Head '') until her death in 1994.
In the summer of 2000, an outbreak of tularemia, also known as rabbit fever, resulted in one death and piqued the interest of the CDC, which wanted to test the island as a potential investigative ground for aerosolized Francisella tularensis. Over the following summers, Martha 's Vineyard was identified as the only place in the world where documented cases of tularemia resulted from lawn mowing. The research could prove valuable in preventing bioterrorism.
Martha 's Vineyard was the setting for Robert Harris ' 2007 novel, the political thriller The Ghost.
A high rate of hereditary deafness was documented on Martha 's Vineyard for almost two centuries. The island 's deaf heritage can not be traced to one common ancestor and is thought to have originated in the Weald, a region that overlaps the borders of the English counties of Kent and Sussex, prior to immigration. Researcher Nora Groce estimates that by the late 19th century, 1 in 155 people on the Vineyard was born deaf (0.7 percent), about 37 times the estimate for the nation at large (1 in 5,728, or 0.02 percent), attributed to local inbreeding.
Mixed marriages between deaf and hearing spouses comprised 65 % of all deaf marriages on the island in the late 19th century, higher than the mainland average of 20 %, and Martha 's Vineyard Sign Language (MVSL) was commonly used by hearing residents as well as deaf ones until the middle of the 20th century. This allowed deaf residents to integrate into society smoothly.
In the 20th century, tourism became a mainstay in the island economy. However, jobs in tourism were not as deaf - friendly as fishing and farming had been. Consequently, as intermarriage and further migration joined the people of Martha 's Vineyard to the mainland, the island community more and more resembled the wider community there.
The last deaf person born into the island 's sign language tradition, Katie West, died in 1952, but a few elderly residents were able to recall MVSL as recently as the 1980s when research into the language began.
According to the Köppen climate classification system, the climate of the island borders between a humid continental climate (Dfa / Dfb), a humid subtropical climate (Cfa), and an oceanic climate (Cfb), the latter a climate type rarely found on the east coast of North America. Martha 's Vineyard 's climate is highly influenced by the surrounding Atlantic Ocean, which moderates temperatures throughout the year, albeit this moderation is nowhere as strong as on opposite sides of the Atlantic (Porto, Portugal) or the United States (Crescent City) at similar latitudes.
As a result, winter temperatures tend to be a few degrees warmer while summer temperatures tend to be cooler than inland locations. Winters are cool to cold with a January average of just slightly below 32 ° F (0.0 ° C). Owing to the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, temperatures below 0 ° F (− 17.8 ° C) are rare, occurring at least 1 day per year and most days during the winter months rise above freezing. The average annual snowfall is 25.3 inches (643 mm). Summers are warm and mild with temperatures rarely exceeding 90 ° F (32.2 ° C), with only 1 or 2 days reaching or exceeding it. During the summer months, the island 's warmest months (July and August) average around 71.5 ° F (21.9 ° C). Spring and fall are transition seasons with spring being cooler than fall. Martha ` s Vineyard receives 46.94 inches (1,192 mm) of precipitation per year, which is evenly distributed throughout the year. The highest daily maximum temperature was 99 ° F (37.2 ° C) on August 27, 1948, and the highest daily minimum temperature was 76 ° F (24.4 ° C) on September 4, 2010. The lowest daily maximum temperature was 7 ° F (− 13.9 ° C) on December 26, 1980, and the lowest daily minimum temperature was − 9 ° F (− 22.8 ° C) on February 2 and 3, 1961.
Martha 's Vineyard is divided into six towns. Each town is governed by a board of selectmen elected by town voters, along with annual and periodic town meetings. Each town is also a member of the Martha 's Vineyard Commission, which regulates island - wide building, environmental, and aesthetic concerns.
Some government programs on the island have been regionalized, such as the public school system, emergency management and waste management. There is a growing push for further regionalization areas of law enforcement, water treatment, and possible government regionalization.
Each town also follows certain regulations from Dukes County. The towns are:
Martha 's Vineyard is located approximately seven miles off the southern coast of Cape Cod. It is reached by a ferry that departs from Woods Hole, Massachusetts, and by several other ferries departing from Falmouth, New Bedford, Hyannis, Quonset Point, Rhode Island, and the East 35th Street ferry terminal in Manhattan. The Steamship Authority operates most of the shorter routes, while other, smaller ferry services run faster, longer distance ferries to Rhode Island and Hyannis. There are direct ferries to each place. SeaStreak operates the seasonal, weekend New York City to Martha 's Vineyard route. One ferry departs New York City on Friday afternoon and returns on Sunday night. The trip through Long Island Sound and along the shoreline of Rhode Island and Massachusetts takes about four and a half hours (270 minutes).
The commuter airline, Cape Air offers frequent service to Martha 's Vineyard via the Martha 's Vineyard Airport (MVY). Cape Air provides service year - round to islanders and visitors to Boston, Hyannis, New Bedford, Providence, and Nantucket. Cape Air also provides seasonal services to White Plains, New York. Additional air service is provided which serves New York - LaGuardia, as well as Philadelphia and Washington - Reagan seasonally. JetBlue services the island out of New York 's Kennedy Airport. Delta Connection also operates seasonal service to New York - LaGuardia and New York - JFK Airports in New York City. The airport also handles much general aviation traffic. There is also Katama airpark, with grass runways, that is popular with private pilots. It is located near South Beach.
Bus service is provided on the island year - round by the Martha 's Vineyard Transit Authority (VTA).
Martha 's Vineyard is served by Martha 's Vineyard Public Schools:
Five of the six towns have their own elementary schools, while Aquinnah residents usually attend nearby Chilmark 's elementary school. The Chilmark school serves only grades pre-K to 5, so students in grades 6 - 8 must attend another middle school -- usually the West Tisbury school. The Martha 's Vineyard Public Charter School, located in West Tisbury, serves the entire island and provides grades K - 12. Martha 's Vineyard Regional High School, which is located in Oak Bluffs, serves the entire island.
The Vineyard grew as a tourist destination primarily because of its very pleasant summer weather (during summers, the temperature rarely breaks 32 ° C / 90 ° F) and many beautiful beaches. It is primarily a place where people go to relax. Most social life and activity takes place at people 's houses, not in the very small towns.
During the whaling era, wealthy Boston sea captains and merchant traders often created estates on Martha 's Vineyard with their trading profits. Today, the Vineyard has become one of the Northeast 's most prominent summering havens, having attracted numerous celebrity regulars.
The island now has a year - round population of about 15,000 people in six towns; in summer, the population increases to 100,000 residents, with more than 25,000 additional short - term visitors coming and going on the ferries during the summer season. The most crowded weekend is July 4, followed by the late - August weekend of the Agricultural Fair. In general, the summer season runs from June through Labor Day weekend, coinciding with the months most American children are not in school.
In 1985, the two islands of Martha 's Vineyard and Chappaquiddick Island were included in a new American Viticultural Area designation for wine appellation of origin specification: Martha 's Vineyard AVA. Wines produced from grapes grown on the two islands can be sold with labels that carry the Martha 's Vineyard AVA designation. Martha 's Vineyard was the home to the winemaker Chicama Vineyards in West Tisbury, though it closed after 37 years on August 10, 2008.
Other popular attractions include the annual Grand Illumination in Oak Bluffs; the Martha 's Vineyard Film Center, an arthouse cinema which the non-profit Martha 's Vineyard Film Society, and which screens independent and world cinema all year long; the historic Capawock and Strand theatres, also run by the Martha 's Vineyard Film Society, the Martha 's Vineyard Film Festival, which runs a winter film festival in March, a Summer Film Series and Cinema Circus every Wednesday in July and August, the Martha 's Vineyard African - American Film Festival, which showcases the works of independent and established African - American filmmakers in August, and Martha 's Vineyard International Film Festival in September; the Farm Institute at Katama Farm in Edgartown; and the Flying Horses Carousel in Oak Bluffs, the oldest operating platform carousel in the United States.
Its relatively small year - round population has led to a very activist citizenry who are highly involved in the island 's day - to - day activities. Tourism, overdevelopment, politics, and environmentalism are of keen interest to the community. Keeping the balance between the much needed tourist economy and the ecology and wildlife of the island is of paramount importance to residents. In contrast to the seasonal influx of wealthy visitors, Dukes County remains one of the poorest in the state. Residents have established resources to balance the contradictions and stresses that can arise in these circumstances, notably the Martha 's Vineyard Commission and Martha 's Vineyard Community Services, founded by the late Dr. Milton Mazer, author of People and Predicaments: Of Life and Distress on Martha 's Vineyard.
The majority of the Vineyard 's residents during the summer are well - established seasonal residents from up and down the Northeast coast of the United States. While many of these summer residents come from all over the United States and abroad, the island tends to be a destination for those within close proximity. Many communities around the island tend to have deep family roots in the island that have matured over the years to create hamlets of good friends and neighbors. Nevertheless, many visitors are summer renters and weekenders, for whom the island is simply a "home away from home ''.
Many high - profile residents, movie stars, politicians, writers, and artists contribute to fundraisers and benefits that raise awareness of the fragile ecosystem of the Vineyard and support community organizations and services. The largest of these is the annual Possible Dreams Auction.
Martha 's Vineyard has also been or is home to a number of artists and musicians, including Albert Alcalay, Evan Dando, Tim "Johnny Vegas '' Burton of the Mighty Mighty Bosstones, James Taylor, Carly Simon, Livingston Taylor, Kate Taylor, Alex Taylor, Tom Rush, Geoff Muldaur, Maria Muldaur, Willy Mason, Unbusted and Mike Nichols. Historian and author David McCullough is also an island resident, as are the young - adult books authors: Judy Blume and Norman Bridwell, and crime / political intrigue novelist Richard North Patterson. Late authors Shel Silverstein and William Styron also lived on the Vineyard, as did writer, journalist and teacher John Hersey, poet and novelist Dorothy West and artist Thomas Hart Benton. Various writers have been inspired by the island -- including the mystery writer Philip R. Craig who set several novels on the island. On related note, Martha 's Vineyard Poet Laureate, Lee H. McCormack, has written many poems about the island. The Academy Award - winning Patricia Neal owned a home on South Water St in Edgartown, and James Cagney, Lillian Hellman (who is buried in Abel 's Hill Cemetery near the site of Belushi 's grave), and Katharine Cornell all found the Vineyard an exciting, rewarding place to live. In addition the famous Life Magazine photographer Alfred Eisenstaedt was a fifty - year summer resident of the Vineyard until his death in 1995. Since 2006 the Australian born author Geraldine Brooks, writer of the Pulitzer Prize winning novel March, has lived there with her husband, Tony Horwitz, himself a Pulitzer Prize winner and successful novelist, and their two sons.
Other well - known celebrities who live on or have regularly visited the island: Famously renowned Harlem Renaissance artist Lois Mailou Jones, former U.S. President Barack Obama, former president Bill Clinton and his wife, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton; comedian and talk show host David Letterman; Bill Murray; Tony Shalhoub; Quincy Jones; Ted Danson and wife Mary Steenburgen; Peng Zhu; Larry David; the Farrelly brothers; Meg Ryan; Chelsea Handler. Mike Wallace of 60 Minutes was a summer resident of Martha 's Vineyard. Late anchorman Walter Cronkite was a prominent summer resident as well. Other regularly appearing celebrities include film writer / director Spike Lee, attorney Alan Dershowitz, comedians Dan Aykroyd and James Belushi, politico Vernon Jordan, and television news reporters Diane Sawyer, former Ambassador and President of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, William H. Luers and Charlayne Hunter - Gault. Despite popular perceptions of the Vineyard as "Hollywood East '', the island is very low - key and quiet; celebrities go to the Vineyard to enjoy the atmosphere, and not to be seen. Locals tend to be protective of celebrity privacy, though recent coverage of celebrity sightings (most notably in the two local newspapers on the Island) has begun to erode that respect for privacy through more frequent reporting on celebrity sightings and famous visitors. In August 2014, both President Obama and Hillary Clinton planned to have overlapping visits to the island, where the presence of security details that create traffic challenges is becoming an annual affair. Vineyard social life often occurs in private, down country roads, and not in the small towns, and until 2017 only two of which sold alcohol (Oak Bluffs and Edgartown).
Many of the country 's most affluent African - American families have enjoyed a century - old tradition of summering on the island. Concentrated primarily in and around the town of Oak Bluffs, and the East Chop area, these families have historically represented the black elite from Boston; Washington, D.C.; and New York City. Today, affluent families from around the country have taken to the Vineyard, and the community is known as a popular summer destination for judges, physicians, business executives, surgeons, attorneys, writers, politicians, and professors. The historic presence of African - American residents in Oak Bluffs resulted in its Town Beach being pejoratively called "The Inkwell '', a nickname which was reappropriated as an emblem of pride. The Inkwell (1994), directed by Matty Rich, dealt with this close - knit Vineyard community.. The Run&Shoot Filmworks Martha 's Vineyard African - American Film Festival held every second week in August, highlights the works of independent and established filmmakers from across the globe. This annual event draws attendees from all across the world.
Since the 19th century, the island has had a sizable community of Portuguese - Americans, concentrated primarily in the three down - Island towns of Oak Bluffs, Tisbury, and Edgartown; they have traditionally worked alongside other island residents in whaling and fishing. It also has a large community of Brazilian immigrants who work mainly in the maintenance of the island 's vacation facilities.
The island 's permanent residents were profiled in a London Telegraph article showing "the dark side of Martha 's Vineyard ''.
In the same month an article titled "Edgartown 's Darker Side '' appeared in the Boston Globe detailing the extremely poor working conditions suffered by Irish and Serbian students in a newly built private members club in Edgartown.
The year - round working population of Martha 's Vineyard earns 30 % less on average than other residents of the state while keeping up with a cost of living that is 60 % higher than average. Many people are moving to more affordable areas. Schools have seen a successive drop in enrollment over the past few years. Typically home to artists, musicians, and other creative types, the Island has many residents who manage by working several jobs in the summer and taking some time off in the winter. The lack of affordable housing on the island has forced many families to move off - island.
Most Vineyard residents also have access to FM and AM radio broadcasting from the Greater Boston Area, along with television stations from Boston via both US satellite providers (DirecTV & Dish Network), Comcast Xfinity cable, and RCN Cable. With reception methods powerful enough, it is also possible to receive Boston TV stations, along with Providence stations, over-the - air.
Coordinates: 41 ° 24 ′ N 70 ° 37 ′ W / 41.400 ° N 70.617 ° W / 41.400; - 70.617
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where are the next summer olympics being played | 2020 Summer Olympics - wikipedia
The 2020 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXXII Olympiad (Japanese: 第 三 十 二 回 オリンピック 競技 大会, Hepburn: Dai Sanjūni - kai Orinpikku Kyōgi Taikai) and commonly known as Tokyo 2020, is a forthcoming international multi-sport event that is scheduled to take place from 24 July to 9 August 2020.
Tokyo was selected as the host city during the 125th IOC Session in Buenos Aires on 7 September 2013. These Games will mark the return of the Summer Olympics to Tokyo for the first time since 1964, and the fourth Olympics overall to be held in Japan, following the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo and the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano. They will be the second of three consecutive Olympic Games to be held in East Asia, following the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea, and preceding the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing, China.
These Games will see the introduction of additional disciplines within several of the Summer Olympics events, including 3x3 basketball, freestyle BMX and Madison cycling, as well as further mixed events. Under new IOC policies that allow sports to be added to the Games ' programme to augment the permanent "core '' Olympic events, these Games will see karate, sport climbing, surfing and skateboarding make their Olympic debuts, and the return of baseball and softball (which were removed from the summer programme after 2008).
Tokyo, Istanbul, and Madrid were the three candidate cities. The applicant cities of Baku (Azerbaijan) and Doha (Qatar) were not promoted to candidate status. A bid from Rome was withdrawn.
The IOC voted to select the host city of the 2020 Summer Olympics on 7 September 2013 at the 125th IOC Session at the Buenos Aires Hilton in Buenos Aires, Argentina. An exhaustive ballot system was used. No city won over 50 % of the votes in the first round, and Madrid and Istanbul were tied for second place. A run - off vote between these two cities was held to determine which would be eliminated. In the final vote, a head - to - head contest between Tokyo and Istanbul, Tokyo was selected by 60 votes to 36, as it got at least 49 votes needed for a majority.
The Tokyo metropolitan government set aside a fund of 400 billion Japanese yen (over 3.67 billion USD) to cover the cost of hosting the Games. The Japanese government is considering increasing slot capacity at both Haneda Airport and Narita International Airport by easing airspace restrictions. A new railway line is planned to link both airports through an expansion of Tokyo Station, cutting travel time from Tokyo Station to Haneda from 30 minutes to 18 minutes, and from Tokyo Station to Narita from 55 minutes to 36 minutes; the line would cost 400 billion yen and would be funded primarily by private investors. But East Japan Railway Company (East JR) is planning a new route near Tamachi to Haneda Airport. Funding is also planned to accelerate completion of the Central Circular Route, Tokyo Gaikan Expressway and Ken - Ō Expressway, and to refurbish other major expressways in the area. There are also plans to extend the Yurikamome automated transit line from its existing terminal at Toyosu Station to a new terminal at Kachidoki Station, passing the site of the Olympic Village, although the Yurikamome would still not have adequate capacity to serve major events in the Odaiba area on its own.
The Organizing Committee is headed by former Prime Minister Yoshiro Mori. Olympic and Paralympic Minister Shunichi Suzuki is overseeing the preparations on behalf of the Japanese government.
Japan has traditionally used Olympic events to showcase new technology. Telecom company NTT DoCoMo signed a deal with Finland 's Nokia to provide 5G - ready baseband networks in Japan in time for the Olympics.
It was confirmed in February 2012 that the Olympic Stadium in Tokyo would be demolished and reconstructed, and receive a £ 1 billion upgrade for the 2019 Rugby World Cup as well as the 2020 Olympics. As a result, a design competition for the new stadium was launched. In November 2012, the Japan Sport Council announced that out of 46 finalists, Zaha Hadid Architects was awarded the design for the new stadium. Plans included dismantling the original stadium, and expanding the capacity from 50,000 to a modern Olympic capacity of about 80,000. However, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe announced in July 2015 that plans to build the New National Stadium would be scrapped and rebid on amid public discontent over the stadium 's building costs. In Autumn 2015 a new design by Kengo Kuma was approved as winning project of new stadium design competition which decreased the capacity to between 60,000 -- 80,000 depending by event
Twenty - eight of the thirty - three competition venues in Tokyo are within 8 kilometres (4.97 miles) of the Olympic Village. Eleven new venues are to be constructed.
It was reported in September 2016 that a review panel said that the cost of hosting the Olympics and Paralympics could quadruple from the original estimate, and therefore proposed a major overhaul to the current plan to reduce costs, including moving venues outside Tokyo.
Seven venues will be located within the central business area of Tokyo, northwest of the Olympic Village. Several of these venues were also used for the 1964 Summer Olympics.
20 venues will be located in the vicinity of Tokyo Bay, southeast of the Olympic Village, predominantly on Ariake, Odaiba and the surrounding artificial islands.
Twelve venues will be situated farther than 8 kilometres (5 mi) from the Olympic Village.
The opening ceremony category tickets will range from 25,000 to 150,000 yen, with a maximum price of 30,000 yen for the finals of popular sports, such as athletics and swimming. The average price of all the Olympic tickets is 7,700 yen. 60 % of the tickets will be sold for 4,400 yen or less. Tickets will be sold by PIA through 40,000 shops in Japan and by mail order to Japanese addresses through the Internet. International guests will need to visit Japan during the sales period or arrange for tickets through a third party, such as a travel agent.
The official programme for the 2020 Summer Olympics was approved by the IOC executive board on 9 June 2017. The games will feature 339 events in 33 sports; alongside the 5 new sports that will be introduced in Tokyo, there will be 15 new events within existing sports, including 3 - on - 3 basketball, freestyle BMX and Madison cycling, and new mixed events in several sports. Thomas Bach stated that the goal for Tokyo was for the Games to be "more youthful, more urban and include more women ''.
As part of a goal to control costs and ensure that the Olympics "(remain) relevant to sports fans of all generations '', the IOC assessed the 26 sports held in London, with the remit of selecting 25 ' core ' sports to join new entrants golf and rugby sevens at the 2020 Games. In effect, this would involve the dropping of one sport from the 2016 Games program. This would leave a single vacancy in the 2020 Games program, which the IOC would seek to fill from a shortlist containing seven unrepresented sports and the removed sport. On 12 February 2013, IOC leaders voted to drop wrestling from the Olympic programme, in a surprise decision that removed one of the oldest Olympic sports from the 2020 Games; wrestling as an Olympic event dates as far back as the ancient Olympic Games, and as part of the original programme of the modern Games. The New York Times felt that the lack of well - known talent and women 's competitions in wrestling were factors in the decision. Wrestling therefore joined other sports in a short list applying for inclusion in the 2020 Games.
On 29 May 2013, it was announced that three sports made the final shortlist; squash, baseball / softball, and wrestling. Five other sports (karate, roller sports, sport climbing, wakeboarding, and wushu) were excluded from consideration at this point. On 8 September 2013, at the 125th IOC Session, the IOC selected wrestling to be included in the Olympic program for 2020 and 2024. Wrestling secured 49 votes, while baseball / softball secured 24 votes and squash got 22 votes.
Under new IOC policies that shift the Games to an "event - based '' programme rather than sport - based, the host organizing committee can now also propose the addition of sports to the programme. This rule is designed so that sports popular in the host country can be added to the programme to improve local interest. As a result of these changes, a new shortlist of eight sports was unveiled on 22 June 2015, consisting of baseball / softball, bowling, karate, roller sports, sport climbing, squash, surfing, and wushu. On 28 September 2015, organisers submitted their shortlist of five proposed sports to the IOC: baseball / softball, karate, sport climbing, surfing, and skateboarding. The five proposed sports were approved on 3 August 2016 by the IOC during the 129th IOC Session in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and will be included in the sports programme for 2020 only, bringing the total number of sports at the 2020 Olympics to 33.
All times are in JST (UTC + 9)
This is a calendar adapt from the 2016 Summer Olympic calendar, and does not necessarily reflect the final 2020 schedule.
The official emblems for the 2020 Olympics and Paralympics were unveiled on 25 April 2016; designed by Asao Tokolo, who won a nationwide design contest, it takes the form of a ring in an indigo - coloured checkerboard pattern. The design is meant to "express a refined elegance and sophistication that exemplifies Japan ''. The designs replaced a previous emblem which had been scrapped due to allegations that it plagiarized the logo of a Belgian theatre.
The Tokyo 2020 Games Mascots competition accepted entries from 1 to 14 August 2017. A total of 2,042 entries were received. Three shortlisted entries were unveiled at the Kakezuka Elementary School on 7 December 2017. A poll was then conducted between 11 December 2017 and 22 February 2018 to choose the winning entry, with each participating elementary school class allocated one vote. The results were announced on 28 February 2018. The winning entry was candidate pair A, created by Ryo Taniguchi, which received 109,041 votes, followed by Kana Yano 's pair B with 61,423 votes and Sanae Akimoto 's pair C with 35,291 votes. The Olympic mascot in Pair A is a figure with blue checkered patterns inspired by the Games ' official logo, which has old - fashioned charm and new innovation combined with a special power of instant teleportation. Both Olympic and Paralympic mascots will be named by the Organising Committee by late July 2018, when the mascots will make their official debut.
As of 2015 total sponsorship for the 2020 Games reached approximately $1.3 billion, setting an Olympics record (the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing attracted $1.2 billion).
In January 2016, the second part of a World Anti-Doping Agency commission report into corruption included a footnote detailing a conversation between Khalil Diack, son of former International Athletic Association Federation (IAAF) president Lamine Diack, and Turkish officials heading up the Istanbul bid team. A transcript of the conversation cited in the report suggested that a "sponsorship '' payment of between US $ 4 million and 5 million had been made by the Japanese bid team "either to the Diamond League or IAAF ''. The footnote claimed that because Istanbul did not make such a payment, the bid lost the support of Lamine Diack. The WADA declined to investigate the claims because it was, according to its independent commission, outside the agency 's remit.
In July and October 2013 (prior to and after being awarded the Games), Tokyo made two bank payments totalling SG $ 2.8 million to a Singapore - based company known as Black Tidings. The company is tied to Papa Massata Diack, a son of Lamine Diack who worked as a marketing consultant for the IAAF, and is being pursued by French authorities under allegations of bribery, corruption, and money laundering. Black Tidings is held by Ian Tan Tong Han, a consultant to Athletics Management and Services -- which manages the IAAF 's commercial rights, and has business relationships with Japanese firm Dentsu. Black Tidings has also been connected to a doping scandal involving the Russian athletics team.
Japanese Olympic Committee and Tokyo 2020 board member Tsunekazu Takeda stated that the payments were for consulting services, but refused to discuss the matter further because it was confidential. Toshiaki Endo called on Takeda to publicly discuss the matter. Massata denied that he had received any money from Tokyo 's organizing committee. The IOC established a team to investigate these matters, and will closely follow the French investigation.
The initial design for the official emblems of the 2020 Summer Olympics and Paralympics were unveiled on 24 July 2015. The logo resembled a stylized "T ''; a red circle in the top - right corner represented a beating heart, the flag of Japan, and an "inclusive world in which everyone accepts each other '', and a black column in the centre represented diversity.
Shortly after the unveiling, Belgian graphics designer Olivier Debie accused the organizing committee of plagiarizing a logo he had designed for the Théâtre de Liège, which aside from the circle, consisted of nearly identical shapes. Tokyo 's organizing committee denied that the emblem design was plagiarized, arguing that the design had gone through "long, extensive and international '' intellectual property examinations before it was cleared for use. Debie filed a lawsuit against the IOC to prevent use of the infringing logo.
Rejected official logo of the 2020 Summer Olympics
Rejected official logo of the 2020 Summer Paralympics.
Logo of the Théâtre de Liège
The emblem 's designer, Kenjiro Sano, defended the design, stating that he had never seen the Liège logo, while TOCOG released an early sketch of the design that emphasized a stylized "T '' and did not resemble the Liège logo. However, Sano was found to have had a history of plagiarism, with others alleging his early design plagiarized work of Jan Tschichold, that he used a photo without permission in promotional materials for the emblem, along with other past cases. On 1 September 2015, following an emergency meeting of TOCOG, Governor of Tokyo Yoichi Masuzoe announced that they had decided to scrap Sano 's two logos. The committee met on 2 September 2015 to decide how to approach another new logo design.
On 24 November 2015, an Emblems Selection Committee was established to organize an open call for design proposals, open to Japanese residents over the age of 18, with a deadline set for 7 December 2015. The winner would receive ¥ 1 million and tickets to the opening ceremonies of both the 2020 Summer Olympics and Paralympics. On 8 April 2016, a new shortlist of four pairs of designs for the Olympics and Paralympics were unveiled by the Emblems Selection Committee; the Committee 's selection -- with influence from a public poll, was presented to TOCOG on 25 April 2016 for final approval.
Sony and Panasonic are partnering with NHK to develop broadcasting standards for 8K resolution television, with a goal to release 8K television sets in time for the 2020 Olympics.
In the United States, the 2020 Summer Olympics will be broadcast by NBCUniversal properties, as part of a US $4.38 billion agreement that began at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi.
In Europe, this will be the first Summer Olympics under the IOC 's exclusive pan-European rights deal with Discovery Communications, which began at the 2018 Winter Olympics and run through 2024. The rights for the 2020 Games cover almost all of Europe, excluding France due to an existing rights deal that will expire following these Games, and Russia due to a pre-existing deal with a marketer through 2024. Discovery will sub-license coverage to free - to - air networks in each territory. In the United Kingdom, these will be the last Games whose rights are fully owned by the BBC, although as a condition of a sub-licensing agreement that will carry into the 2022 and 2024 Games, Discovery holds exclusive pay television rights to these Games.
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why was germany divided into east and west by 1949 | History of Germany (1945 -- 90) - wikipedia
As a consequence of the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II, Germany was cut between the two global blocs in the East and West, a period known as the division of Germany. Germany was stripped of its war gains and lost territories in the east to Poland and the Soviet Union. At the end of the war, there were in Germany some eight million foreign displaced persons; mainly forced laborers and prisoners; including around 400,000 from the concentration camp system, survivors from a much larger number who had died from starvation, harsh conditions, murder, or being worked to death. Over 10 million German - speaking refugees arrived in Germany from other countries in Central and Eastern Europe. Some 9 million Germans were POWs, many of whom were kept as forced laborers for several years to provide restitution to the countries Germany had devastated in the war, and some industrial equipment was removed as reparations.
The Cold War divided Germany between the Allies in the west and Soviets in the east. Germans had little voice in government until 1949 when two states emerged:
After experiencing its Wirtschaftswunder or "economic miracle '' in 1955, West Germany became the most prosperous economy in Europe. Under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, West Germany built strong relationships with France, the United States, and Israel. West Germany also joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the European Economic Community (later to become the European Union). East Germany stagnated as its economy was largely organized to meet the needs of the Soviet Union; the secret police (Stasi) tightly controlled daily life, and the Berlin Wall (1961) ended the steady flow of refugees to the west. Germany was reunited in 1990, following the decline and fall of the SED as the ruling party of the GDR.
At the Potsdam Conference (17 July to 2 August 1945), after Germany 's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945, the Allies divided Germany into four military occupation zones -- France in the southwest, Britain in the northwest, the United States in the south, and the Soviet Union in the east, bounded eastwards by the Oder - Neisse line. At Potsdam these four zones in total were denoted as ' Germany as a whole ', and the four Allied Powers exercised the sovereign authority they now claimed within Germany in agreeing ' in principle ' the future transfer of lands of the former German Reich east of ' Germany as a whole ' to Poland and the Soviet Union. These eastern areas were notionally placed under Polish and Soviet administration pending a final peace treaty (which was not formalized until 1990, 45 years later); but in actuality were promptly reorganized as organic parts of their respective sovereign states.
In addition, under the Allies ' Berlin Declaration (1945), the territory of the extinguished German Reich was to be treated as the land area within its borders as of 31 December 1937. All Nazi land expansion from 1938 to 1945 was hence treated as automatically invalid. Such expansion included the League of Nations administered City - State of Danzig (occupied by Nazi Germany immediately following Germany 's 1 September 1939 invasion of Poland), Austria, the occupied territory of Czechoslovakia, Suwalki, Alsace - Lorraine, Luxembourg, post 27 September 1939 "West Prussia '', post 27 September 1939 "Posen Province '', northern Slovenia, Eupen, Malmedy, the part of Southern Silesia ultimately detached from 1918 Germany by action of the Versailles Treaty, likewise, the Hultschiner Laendchen.
The northern half of East Prussia in the region of Königsberg was administratively assigned by the Potsdam Agreement to the Soviet Union, pending a final Peace Conference (with the commitment of Britain and the United States to support its incorporation into Russia); and was then annexed by the Soviet Union. Gdańsk and the southern half of East Prussia were incorporated into Poland on a similar basis; the Allies having assured the Polish government - in - exile of their support for this after the Tehran Conference in 1943. It was also agreed at Potsdam that Poland would receive all former German lands east of the Oder - Neisse line, although the exact delimitation of the boundary was left to be resolved at an eventual Peace Conference. Under the wartime alliances of the United Kingdom with the Czechoslovak and Polish governments - in - exile, the British had agreed in July 1942 to support "... the General Principle of the transfer to Germany of German minorities in Central and South Eastern Europe after the war in cases where this seems necessary and desirable ''. In 1944 roughly 12.4 million ethnic Germans were living in territory that became part of post-war Poland and Soviet Union. Approximately 6 million fled or were evacuated before the Red Army occupied the area. Of the remainder, around 2 million died during the war or in its aftermath (1.4 million as military casualties; 600,000 as civilian deaths), 3.6 million were expelled by the Poles, one million declared themselves to be Poles, and 300,000 remained in Poland as Germans. The Sudetenland territories, surrendered to Germany by the Munich Agreement, were returned to Czechoslovakia; these territories containing a further 3 million ethnic Germans. ' Wild ' expulsions from Czechoslovakia began immediately after the German surrender.
The Potsdam Conference subsequently sanctioned the "orderly and humane '' transfer to Germany of individuals regarded as "ethnic Germans '' by authorities in Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Hungary. The Potsdam Agreement recognized that these expulsions were already underway and were putting a burden on authorities in the German Occupation Zones, including the re-defined Soviet Occupation Zone. Most of the Germans who were being expelled were from Czechoslovakia and Poland, which included most of the territory to the east of the Oder - Neisse Line. The Potsdam Declaration stated:
Since the influx of a large number of Germans into Germany would increase the burden already resting on the occupying authorities, they consider that the Allied Control Council in Germany should in the first instance examine the problem with special regard to the question of the equitable distribution of these Germans among the several zones of occupation. They are accordingly instructing their respective representatives on the control council to report to their Governments as soon as possible the extent to which such persons have already entered Germany from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, and to submit an estimate of the time and rate at which further transfers could be carried out, having regard to the present situation in Germany. The Czechoslovak Government, the Polish Provisional Government and the control council in Hungary are at the same time being informed of the above and are being requested meanwhile to suspend further expulsions pending the examination by the Governments concerned of the report from their representatives on the control council.
Many of the ethnic Germans, who were primarily women and children, and especially those under the control of Polish and Czechoslovakian authorities, were severely mistreated before they were ultimately deported to Germany. Thousands died in forced labor camps such as Lambinowice, Zgoda labour camp, Central Labour Camp Potulice, Central Labour Camp Jaworzno, Glaz, Milecin, Gronowo, and Sikawa. Others starved, died of disease, or froze to death while being expelled in slow and ill - equipped trains; or in transit camps.
Altogether, around 8 million ethnic German refugees and expellees from across Europe eventually settled in West Germany, with a further 3 million in East Germany. In West Germany these represented a major voting block; maintaining a strong culture of grievance and victimhood against Soviet Power, pressing for a continued commitment to full German reunification, claiming compensation, pursuing the right of return to lost property in the East, and opposing any recognition of the postwar extension of Poland and the Soviet Union into former German lands. Due to the Cold War rhetoric and successful political machinations of Konrad Adenauer, this block eventually became substantially aligned with the Christian Democratic Union of Germany; although in practice ' westward - looking ' CDU policies favouring the Atlantic Alliance and the European Union worked against the possibility of achieving the objectives of the expellee population from the east through negotiation with the Soviet Union. But for Adenauer, fostering and encouraging unrealistic demands and uncompromising expectations amongst the expellees would serve his "Policy of Strength '' by which West Germany contrived to inhibit consideration of unification or a final Peace Treaty until the West was strong enough to face the Soviets on equal terms. Consequently, the Federal Republic in the 1950s adopted much of the symbolism of expellee groups; especially in appropriating and subverting the terminology and imagery of the Holocaust; applying this to post-war German experience instead. Eventually in 1990, following the Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany, the unified Germany indeed confirmed in treaties with Poland and the Soviet Union that the transfer of sovereignty over the former German eastern territories in 1945 had been permanent and irreversible; Germany now undertaking never again to make territorial claims in respect of these lands.
The intended governing body of Germany was called the Allied Control Council, consisting of the commanders - in - chief in Germany of the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union; who exercised supreme authority in their respective zones, while supposedly acting in concert on questions affecting the whole country. In actuality however, the French consistently blocked any progress towards re-establishing all - German governing institutions; substantially in pursuit of French aspirations for a dismembered Germany, but also as a response to the exclusion of France from the Potsdam conference. Berlin, which lay in the Soviet (eastern) sector, was also divided into four sectors with the Western sectors later becoming West Berlin and the Soviet sector becoming East Berlin, capital of East Germany.
A key item in the occupiers ' agenda was denazification. The swastika and other outward symbols of the Nazi regime were banned, and a Provisional Civil Ensign was established as a temporary German flag. It remained the official flag of the country (necessary for reasons of international law) until East Germany and West Germany (see below) were independently established in 1949.
The United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union had agreed at Potsdam to a broad program of decentralization, treating Germany as a single economic unit with some central administrative departments. These plans never materialised as the Soviet Union was intent on extracting as much material as possible in order to make good in part the enormous destruction caused by the German Wehrmacht, and the policy broke down completely in 1948 when the Russians blockaded West Berlin and the period known as the Cold War began. It was agreed at Potsdam that the leading members of the Nazi regime who had been captured should be put on trial accused of crimes against humanity, and this was one of the few points on which the four powers were able to agree. In order to secure the presence of the western allies in Berlin, the United States agreed to withdraw from Thuringia and Saxony in exchange for the division of Berlin into four sectors. The State Department and individual U.S. congressmen pressured to have this policy lifted. In June 1945 the prohibition against speaking with German children was loosened. In July troops were permitted to speak to German adults in certain circumstances. In September 1945 the entire policy was dropped. Only the ban on marriage between Americans and German or Austrian civilians remained in place.
The initial proposal for the post-surrender policy of the Western powers, the so - called Morgenthau Plan proposed by Henry Morgenthau, Jr., was one of "pastoralization ''. The Morgenthau Plan, though subsequently ostensibly shelved due to public opposition, influenced occupation policy; most notably through the U.S. punitive occupation directive JCS 1067 and The industrial plans for Germany
The "' Level of Industry plans for Germany '' were the plans to lower German industrial potential after World War II. At the Potsdam conference, with the U.S. operating under influence of the Morgenthau plan, the victorious Allies decided to abolish the German armed forces as well as all munitions factories and civilian industries that could support them. This included the destruction of all ship and aircraft manufacturing capability. Further, it was decided that civilian industries which might have a military potential, which in the modern era of "total war '' included virtually all, were to be severely restricted. The restriction of the latter was set to Germany 's "approved peacetime needs '', which were defined to be set on the average European standard. In order to achieve this, each type of industry was subsequently reviewed to see how many factories Germany required under these minimum level of industry requirements.
The first plan, from 29 March 1946, stated that German heavy industry was to be lowered to 50 % of its 1938 levels by the destruction of 1,500 listed manufacturing plants. In January 1946 the Allied Control Council set the foundation of the future German economy by putting a cap on German steel production -- the maximum allowed was set at about 5,800,000 tons of steel a year, equivalent to 25 % of the prewar production level. The UK, in whose occupation zone most of the steel production was located, had argued for a more limited capacity reduction by placing the production ceiling at 12 million tons of steel per year, but had to submit to the will of the U.S., France and the Soviet Union (which had argued for a 3 million ton limit). Germany was to be reduced to the standard of life it had known at the height of the Great Depression (1932). Car production was set to 10 % of pre-war levels, etc.
By 1950, after the virtual completion of the by then much watered - down plans, equipment had been removed from 706 factories in the west and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6,700,000 tons.
Timber exports from the U.S. occupation zone were particularly heavy. Sources in the U.S. government stated that the purpose of this was the "ultimate destruction of the war potential of German forests. ''
With the beginning of the Cold war, the Western policies changed as it became evident that a return to operation of the West German industry was needed not only for the restoration of the whole European economy but also for the rearmament of West Germany as an ally against the Soviet Union. On 6 September 1946 United States Secretary of State, James F. Byrnes made the famous speech Restatement of Policy on Germany, also known as the Stuttgart speech, where he amongst other things repudiated the Morgenthau plan - influenced policies and gave the West Germans hope for the future. Reports such as The President 's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria helped to show the U.S. public how bad the situation in Germany really was.
The next improvement came in July 1947, when after lobbying by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and Generals Clay and Marshall, the Truman administration decided that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base on which it had previously been dependent. In July 1947, President Harry S. Truman rescinded on "national security grounds '' the punitive occupation directive JCS 1067, which had directed the U.S. forces in Germany to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany. '' It was replaced by JCS 1779, which instead stressed that "(a) n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany. ''
The dismantling did however continue, and in 1949 West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer wrote to the Allies requesting that it end, citing the inherent contradiction between encouraging industrial growth and removing factories and also the unpopularity of the policy. Support for dismantling was by this time coming predominantly from the French, and the Petersberg Agreement of November 1949 reduced the levels vastly, though dismantling of minor factories continued until 1951. The final limitations on German industrial levels were lifted after the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951, though arms manufacture remained prohibited.
Under the Monnet Plan, France -- intent on ensuring that Germany would never again have the strength to threaten it -- began in 1945 to attempt to gain economic control of the remaining German industrial areas with large coal and mineral deposits; the Rhineland, the Ruhr and the Saar (Germany 's second largest center of mining and industry, Upper Silesia, had been handed over by the Allies to Poland at the Potsdam conference and the German population was being forcibly expelled) The Ruhr Agreement had been imposed on the Germans as a condition for permitting them to establish the Federal Republic of Germany. (see also the International Authority for the Ruhr (IAR)). French attempts to gain political control of or permanently internationalize the Ruhr were abandoned in 1951 with the West German agreement to pool its coal and steel resources in return for full political control over the Ruhr (see European Coal and Steel Community). With French economic security guaranteed through access to Ruhr coal now permanently ensured France was satisfied. The French attempt to gain economic control over the Saar was temporarily even more successful.
In the speech Restatement of Policy on Germany, held in Stuttgart on 6 September 1946, the United States Secretary of State James F. Byrnes stated the U.S. motive in detaching the Saar from Germany as "The United States does not feel that it can deny to France, which has been invaded three times by Germany in 70 years, its claim to the Saar territory ''. The Saar came under French administration in 1947 as the Saar Protectorate, but did return to Germany in January 1957 (following a referendum), with economic reintegration with Germany occurring a few years later.
Although not a party to the Potsdam conference where the policy of industrial disarmament had been set, as a member of the Allied Control Council France came to champion this policy since it ensured a weak Germany.
In August 1954 the French parliament voted down the treaty that would have established the European Defense Community, a treaty they themselves had proposed in 1950 as a means to contain German revival. France instead focused on another treaty also under development. In May 1950 France had proposed the European Coal and Steel Community with the purpose of ensuring French economic security by perpetuating access to German Ruhr coal, but also to show to the U.S. and the UK that France could come up with constructive solutions, as well as to pacify Germany by making it part of an international project.
Germany was eventually allowed to rearm, but under the auspices of the Western European Union, and later NATO.
The Soviet Union engaged in a massive industrial dismantling campaign in its occupation zone, much more intensive than that carried out by the Western powers. While the Soviet powers soon realized that their actions alienated the German workforce from the Communist cause, they decided that the desperate economic situation within the Soviet Union took priority over alliance building. The allied leaders had agreed on paper to economic and political cooperation but the issue of reparations dealt an early blow to the prospect of a united Germany in 1945. The figure of $20 Billion had been floated by Stalin as an adequate recompense but as the United States refused to consider this a basis for negotiation The Soviet Union was left only with the opportunity of extracting its own reparations, at a heavy cost to the East Germans. This was the beginning of the formal split of Germany.
With the Western Allies eventually becoming concerned about the deteriorating economic situation in their "Trizone '', the American Marshall Plan of economic aid was extended to Western Germany in 1948 and a currency reform, which had been prohibited under the previous occupation directive JCS 1067, introduced the Deutsche Mark and halted rampant inflation. Though the Marshall Plan is regarded as playing a key psychological role in the West German recovery, other factors were also significant.
The Soviets had not agreed to the currency reform; in March 1948 they withdrew from the four - power governing bodies, and in June 1948 they initiated the Berlin blockade, blocking all ground transport routes between Western Germany and West Berlin. The Western Allies replied with a continuous airlift of supplies to the western half of the city. The Soviets ended the blockade after 11 months.
The Allies confiscated intellectual property of great value, all German patents, both in Germany and abroad, and used them to strengthen their own industrial competitiveness by licensing them to Allied companies. Beginning immediately after the German surrender and continuing for the next two years, the U.S. pursued a vigorous program to harvest all technological and scientific know - how as well as all patents in Germany. John Gimbel comes to the conclusion, in his book "Science Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany '', that the "intellectual reparations '' taken by the U.S. and the UK amounted to close to $10 billion. During the more than two years that this policy was in place, no industrial research in Germany could take place, as any results would have been automatically available to overseas competitors who were encouraged by the occupation authorities to access all records and facilities. Meanwhile, thousands of the best German scientists were being put to work in the U.S. (see also Operation Paperclip)
During the war, Germans seized food supplies from occupied countries and forced millions of foreigners to work on German farms, in addition to food shipped from farms in eastern Germany. When this ended in 1945, the German rationing system (which stayed in place) had much lower supplies of food. The U.S. Army sent in large shipments of food to feed some 7.7 million prisoners of war -- far more than they had expected -- as well as the general population. For several years following the surrender, German nutritional levels were low. The Germans were not high on the priority list for international aid, which went to the victims of the Nazis. It was directed that all relief went to non-German displaced persons, liberated Allied POWs, and concentration camp inmates. During 1945 it was estimated that the average German civilian in the U.S. and UK occupation zones received 1200 kilocalories a day in official rations, not counting food they grew themselves or purchased on the large - scale black market. In early October 1945 the UK government privately acknowledged in a cabinet meeting that German civilian adult death rates had risen to 4 times the pre-war levels and death rates amongst the German children had risen by 10 times the pre-war levels. The German Red Cross was dissolved, and the International Red Cross and the few other allowed international relief agencies were kept from helping Germans through strict controls on supplies and on travel. The few agencies permitted to help Germans, such as the indigenous Caritasverband, were not allowed to use imported supplies. When the Vatican attempted to transmit food supplies from Chile to German infants, the U.S. State Department forbade it. The German food situation became worse during the very cold winter of 1946 -- 1947 when German calorie intake ranged from 1,000 -- 1,500 kilocalories per day, a situation made worse by severe lack of fuel for heating.
As agreed by the Allies at the Yalta conference Germans were used as forced labor as part of the reparations to be extracted. By 1947 it is estimated that 400,000 Germans (both civilians and POWs) were being used as forced labor by the U.S., France, the UK, and the Soviet Union. German prisoners were for example forced to clear minefields in France and the Low Countries. By December 1945 it was estimated by French authorities that 2,000 German prisoners were being killed or injured each month in accidents. In Norway the last available casualty record, from 29 August 1945, shows that by that time a total of 275 German soldiers died while clearing mines, while 392 had been injured. Death rates for the German civilians doing forced labor in the Soviet Union ranged between 19 % and 39 %, depending on category.
Norman Naimark writes in The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945 -- 1949 that although the exact number of women and girls who were raped by members of the Red Army in the months preceding and years following the capitulation will never be known, their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, quite possibly as high as the 2,000,000 victims estimate made by Barbara Johr, in "Befreier und Befreite ''. Many of these victims were raped repeatedly. Naimark states that not only had each victim to carry the trauma with her for the rest of her days, it inflicted a massive collective trauma on the East German nation (the German Democratic Republic). Naimark concludes "The social psychology of women and men in the Soviet zone of occupation was marked by the crime of rape from the first days of occupation, through the founding of the GDR in the fall of 1949, until -- one could argue -- the present. '' Some of the victims had been raped as many as 60 to 70 times.
In 1947, the Saar Protectorate had been established under French control, in the area corresponding to the current German state of Saarland. It was not allowed to join its fellow German neighbors until a plebiscite in 1955 rejected the proposed autonomy. This paved the way for the accession of the Saarland to the Federal Republic of Germany as its 12th state, which went into effect on 1 January 1957.
On 23 May 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, Bundesrepublik Deutschland) was established on the territory of the Western occupied zones, with Bonn as its "provisional '' capital. It comprised the area of 11 newly formed states (replacing the pre-war states), with present - day Baden - Württemberg being split into three states until 1952). The Federal Republic was declared "fully sovereign '' on 5 May 1955. On 7 October 1949 the German Democratic Republic (GDR, Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR)), with East Berlin as its capital, was established in the Soviet Zone.
The 1952 Stalin Note proposed German reunification and superpower disengagement from Central Europe but Britain, France, and the United States rejected the offer as insincere. Also, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer preferred "Westintegration '', rejecting "experiments ''.
In English, the two larger states were known informally as "West Germany '' and "East Germany '' respectively. In both cases, the former occupying troops remained permanently stationed there. The former German capital, Berlin, was a special case, being divided into East Berlin and West Berlin, with West Berlin completely surrounded by East German territory. Though the German inhabitants of West Berlin were citizens of the Federal Republic of Germany, West Berlin was not legally incorporated into West Germany; it remained under the formal occupation of the western allies until 1990, although most day - to - day administration was conducted by an elected West Berlin government.
West Germany was allied with the United States, the United Kingdom, and France. A western democratic country with a "social market economy '', the country would from the 1950s onwards come to enjoy prolonged economic growth (Wirtschaftswunder) following the Marshall Plan help from the Allies, the currency reform of June 1948 and helped by the fact that the Korean War (1950 -- 53) led to a worldwide increased demand for goods, where the resulting shortage helped overcome lingering resistance to the purchase of German products.
East Germany was at first occupied by and later (May 1955) allied with the Soviet Union.
The Western Allies turned over increasing authority to West German officials and moved to establish a nucleus for a future German government by creating a central Economic Council for their zones. The program later provided for a West German constituent assembly, an occupation statute governing relations between the Allies and the German authorities, and the political and economic merger of the French with the British and American zones. On 23 May 1949, the Grundgesetz (Basic Law), the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany, was promulgated. Following elections in August, the first federal government was formed on 20 September 1949, by Konrad Adenauer (CDU). Adenauer 's government was a coalition of the CDU, the CSU and the Free Democrats. The next day, the occupation statute came into force, granting powers of self - government with certain exceptions.
In 1949 the new provisional capital of the Federal Republic of Germany was established in Bonn, after Chancellor Konrad Adenauer intervened emphatically for Bonn (which was only fifteen kilometers away from his hometown). Most of the members of the German constitutional assembly (as well as the U.S. Supreme Command) had favored Frankfurt am Main where the Hessian administration had already started the construction of a plenary assembly hall. The Parlamentarischer Rat (interim parliament) proposed a new location for the capital, as Berlin was then a special administrative region controlled directly by the allies and surrounded by the Soviet zone of occupation. The former Reichstag building in Berlin was occasionally used as a venue for sittings of the Bundestag and its committees and the Bundesversammlung, the body which elects the German Federal President. However, the Soviets disrupted the use of the Reichstag building by institutions of the Federal Republic of Germany by flying supersonic jets near the building. A number of cities were proposed to host the federal government, and Kassel (among others) was eliminated in the first round. Other politicians opposed the choice of Frankfurt out of concern that, as one of the largest German cities and a former centre of the Holy Roman Empire, it would be accepted as a "permanent '' capital of Germany, thereby weakening the West German population 's support for reunification and the eventual return of the Government to Berlin.
After the Petersberg agreement West Germany quickly progressed toward fuller sovereignty and association with its European neighbors and the Atlantic community. The London and Paris agreements of 1954 restored most of the state 's sovereignty (with some exceptions) in May 1955 and opened the way for German membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In April 1951, West Germany joined with France, Italy and the Benelux countries in the European Coal and Steel Community (forerunner of the European Union).
The outbreak of the Korean War (June 1950) led to U.S. calls for the rearmament of West Germany in order to defend western Europe from the perceived Soviet threat. But the memory of German aggression led other European states to seek tight control over the West German military. Germany 's partners in the Coal and Steel Community decided to establish a European Defence Community (EDC), with an integrated army, navy and air force, composed of the armed forces of its member states. The West German military would be subject to complete EDC control, but the other EDC member states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) would cooperate in the EDC while maintaining independent control of their own armed forces.
Though the EDC treaty was signed (May 1952), it never entered into force. France 's Gaullists rejected it on the grounds that it threatened national sovereignty, and when the French National Assembly refused to ratify it (August 1954), the treaty died. The French had killed their own proposal. Other means had to be found to allow West German rearmament. In response, the Brussels Treaty was modified to include West Germany, and to form the Western European Union (WEU). West Germany was to be permitted to rearm, and have full sovereign control of its military; the WEU would, however, regulate the size of the armed forces permitted to each of its member states. Fears of a return to Nazism, however, soon receded, and as a consequence, these provisions of the WEU treaty have little effect today.
Between 1949 and 1960, the West German economy grew at an unparalleled rate. Low rates of inflation, modest wage increases and a quickly rising export quota made it possible to restore the economy and brought a modest prosperity. According to the official statistics the German gross national product grew in average by about 7 % annually between 1950 and 1960.
The initial demand for housing, the growing demand for machine tools, chemicals, and automobiles and a rapidly increasing agricultural production were the initial triggers to this ' Wirtschaftswunder ' (economic miracle) as it was known, although there was nothing miraculous about it. The era became closely linked with the name of Ludwig Erhard, who led the Ministry of Economics during the decade. Unemployment at the start of the decade stood at 10.3 %, but by 1960 it had dropped to 1.2 %, practically speaking full employment. In fact, there was a growing demand for labor in many industries as the workforce grew by 3 % per annum, the reserves of labor were virtually used up. The millions of displaced persons and the refugees from the eastern provinces had all been integrated into the workforce. At the end of the decade, thousands of younger East Germans were packing their bags and migrating westwards, posing an ever - growing problem for the GDR nomenklatura. With the construction of the Berlin wall in August 1961 they hoped to end the loss of labor and in doing so they posed the West German government with a new problem -- how to satisfy the apparently insatiable demand for labor. The answer was to recruit unskilled workers from Southern European countries; the era of the Gastarbeiter (foreign laborers) began.
In October 1961 an initial agreement was signed with the Turkish government and the first Gastarbeiter began to arrive. By 1966, some 1,300,000 foreign workers had been recruited mainly from Italy, Turkey, Spain, and Greece. By 1971, the number had reached 2.6 million workers. The initial plan was that single workers would come to Germany, would work for a limited number of years and then return home. The significant differences between wages in their home countries and in Germany led many workers to bring their families and to settle -- at least until retirement -- in Germany. That the German authorities took little notice of the radical changes that these shifts of population structure meant was the cause of considerable debate in later years.
In the 1950s Federal Republic, restitution laws for compensation for those who had suffered under the Nazis was limited to only those who had suffered from "racial, religious or political reasons '', which were defined in such a way as to sharply limit the number of people entitled to collect compensation. According to the 1953 law on compensation for suffering during the National Socialist era, only those with a territorial connection with Germany could receive compensation for their suffering, which had the effect of excluding the millions of people, mostly from Central and Eastern Europe, who had been taken to Germany to work as slave labor during World War II. In the same vein, to be eligible for compensation they would have to prove that they were part of the "realm of German language and culture '', a requirement that excluded most of the surviving slave laborers who did not know German or at least enough German to be considered part of the "realm of German language and culture ''. Likewise, the law excluded homosexuals, Gypsies, Communists, Asoziale ("Asocials '' - people considered by the National Socialist state to be anti-social, a broad category comprising anyone from petty criminals to people who just were merely eccentric and non-conformist), and homeless people for their suffering in the concentration camps under the grounds that all these people were "criminals '' whom the state was protecting German society from by sending them to concentration camps, and in essence these victims of the National Socialist state got what they deserved, making them unworthy of compensation. In this regard it is significant that the 1935 version of Paragraph 175 was not repealed until 1969. As a result, German homosexuals - in many cases survivors of the concentration camps -- between 1949 and 1969 continued to be convicted under the same law that had been used to convict them between 1935 and 1945, though in the period 1949 -- 69 they were sent to prison rather than to a concentration camp.
A study done in 1953 showed that of the 42,000 people who had survived the Buchenwald concentration camp, only 700 were entitled to compensation under the 1953 law. The German historian Alf Lüdtke wrote that the decision to deny that the Roma and the Sinti had been victims of National Socialist racism and to exclude the Roma and Sinti from compensation under the grounds that they were all "criminals '' reflected the same anti-Gypsy racism that made them the target of persecution and genocide during the National Socialist era. The cause of the Roma and Sinti excited so little public interest that it was not until 1979 that a group was founded to lobby for compensation for the Roma and the Sinti survivors. Communist concentration camp survivors were excluded from compensation under the grounds that in 1933 the KPD had been seeking "violent domination '' by working for a Communist revolution, and thus the banning of the KPD and the subsequent repression of the Communists were justified. In 1956, the law was amended to allow Communist concentration camp survivors to collect compensation provided that they had not been associated with Communist causes after 1945, but as almost all the surviving Communists belonged to the Union of Persecutees of the Nazi Regime, which had been banned in 1951 by the Hamburg government as a Communist front organisation, the new law did not help many of the KPD survivors. Compensation started to be paid to most Communist survivors regardless if they had belonged to the VVN or not following a 1967 court ruling, through the same court ruling had excluded those Communists who had "actively '' fought the constitutional order after the banning of the KPD again in 1956. Only in the 1980s were demands made mostly from members of the SPD, FDP and above all the Green parties that the Federal Republic pay compensation to the Roma, Sinti, gay, homeless and Asoziale survivors of the concentration camps.
In regards to the memory of the Nazi period in the 1950s Federal Republic, there was a marked tendency to argue that everyone regardless of what side they had been on in World War II were all equally victims of the war. In the same way, the Nazi regime tended to be portrayed in the 1950s as a small clique of criminals entirely unrepresentative of German society who were sharply demarcated from the rest of German society or as the German historian Alf Ludtke argued in popular memory that it was a case of "us '' (i.e ordinary people) ruled over by "them '' (i.e. the Nazis). Though the Nazi regime itself was rarely glorified in popular memory, in the 1950s World War II and the Wehrmacht were intensely gloried and celebrated by the public. In countless memoirs, novels, histories, newspaper articles, films, magazines, and Landserheft (a type of comic book in Germany glorifying war), the Wehrmacht was celebrated as an awesome, heroic fighting force that had fought a "clean war '' unlike the SS and which would have won the war as the Wehrmacht was always portrayed as superior to the Allied forces had not been for mistakes on the part of Hitler or workings of "fate ''. The Second World War was usually portrayed in heavily romantic aura in various works that celebrated the comradeship and heroism of ordinary soldiers under danger with the war itself being shown as "... a great adventure for idealists and daredevils... '' who for the most part had a thoroughly fun time. The tendency in the 1950s to glorify war by depicting World War II as a fun - filled, grand adventure for the men who served in Hitler 's war machine meant the horrors and hardship of the war were often downplayed. In his 2004 essay "Celluloid Soldiers '' about post-war German films, the Israeli historian Omer Bartov wrote that German films of the 1950s always showed the average German soldier as a heroic victim: noble, tough, brave, honourable and patriotic, while fighting hard in a senseless war for a regime that he did not care for. Commendations of the victims of the Nazis tended to center around honoring those involved in the July 20 putsch attempt of 1944, which meant annual ceremonies attended by all the leading politicians at the Bendlerblock and Plötzensee Prison to honor those executed for their involvement in the 20 July putsch. By contrast, almost no ceremonies were held in the 1950s at the ruins of the concentration camps like Bergen - Belsen or Dachau, which were ignored and neglected by the Länder governments in charge of their care. Not until 1966 did the Land of Lower Saxony opened Bergen - Belsen to the public by founding a small "house of documentation '', and even then it was in response to criticism that the Lower Saxon government was intentionally neglecting the ruins of Bergen - Belsen. Though it was usually claimed at the time that everybody in the Second World War was a victim, Ludtke commented that the disparity between the millions of Deutsche Marks spent in the 1950s in turning the Benderblock and Plötzensee prison into sites of remembrance honoring those conservatives executed after the 20 July putsch versus the neglect of the former concentration camps suggested that in both official and popular memory that some victims of the Nazis were considered more worthy of remembrance than others. It was against this context where popular memory was focused on glorifying the heroic deeds of the Wehrmacht while treating the genocide by the National Socialist regime as almost a footnote that in the autumn of 1959 that the philosopher Theodor W. Adorno gave a much - publicized speech on TV that called for Vergangenheitsbewältigung ("coming to terms with the past ''). Adorno stated that most people were engaged in a process of "willful forgetting '' about the Nazi period and used euphemistic language to avoid confronting the period such as the use of the term Kristallnacht (Crystal Night) for the pogrom of November 1938. Adorno called for promoting a critical "consciousness '' that would allow people to "come to terms with the past ''.
West German authorities made great efforts to end the denazification process that had been started by the occupying powers and to liberate war criminals from prison, including those that had been convicted at the Nuremberg trials, while demarcating the sphere of legitimate political activity against blatant attempts at a political rehabilitation of the Nazi regime.
Until the end of occupation in 1990, the three Western Allies retained occupation powers in Berlin and certain responsibilities for Germany as a whole. Under the new arrangements, the Allies stationed troops within West Germany for NATO defense, pursuant to stationing and status - of - forces agreements. With the exception of 45,000 French troops, Allied forces were under NATO 's joint defense command. (France withdrew from the collective military command structure of NATO in 1966.)
Political life in West Germany was remarkably stable and orderly. The Adenauer era (1949 -- 63) was followed by a brief period under Ludwig Erhard (1963 -- 66) who, in turn, was replaced by Kurt Georg Kiesinger (1966 -- 69). All governments between 1949 and 1966 were formed by coalitions of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and Christian Social Union (CSU), either alone or in coalition with the smaller Free Democratic Party (FDP).
The grand old man of German postwar politics had to be dragged -- almost literally -- out of office in 1963. In 1959, it was time to elect a new President and Adenauer decided that he would place Erhard in this office. Erhard was not enthusiastic, and to everybody 's surprise, Adenauer decided at the age of 83 that he would take on the position. His aim was apparently to remain in control of German politics for another ten years despite the growing mood for change, but when his advisers informed him just how limited the powers of the president were he quickly lost interest. An alternative candidate was needed and eventually the Minister of Agriculture, Heinrich Lübke took on the task and was duly elected.
In October 1962, the weekly news magazine Der Spiegel published an analysis of the West German military defense. The conclusion was that there were several weaknesses in the system. Ten days after publication, the offices of Der Spiegel in Hamburg were raided by the police and quantities of documents were seized under the orders of the CSU Defense Minister Franz Josef Strauss. Chancellor Adenauer proclaimed in the Bundestag that the article was tantamount to high treason and that the authors would be prosecuted. The editor / owner of the magazine, Rudolf Augstein spent some time in jail before the public outcry over the breaking of laws on freedom of the press became too loud to be ignored. The FDP members of Adenauer 's cabinet resigned from the government, demanding the resignation of Franz Josef Strauss, Defence Minister, who had decidedly overstepped his competence during the crisis by his heavy - handed attempt to silence Der Spiegel for essentially running a story that was unflattering to him (which incidentally was true). The British historian Frederick Taylor argued that the Federal Republic under Adenauer retained many of the characteristics of the authoritarian "deep state '' that existed under the Weimar Republic, and that the Der Spiegel affair marked an important turning point in German values as ordinary people rejected the old authoritarian values in favor of the more democratic values that are today seen as the bedrock of the Federal Republic. Adenauer 's own reputation was impaired by Spiegel affair and he announced that he would step down in the Fall of 1963. His successor was to be the Economics Minister Ludwig Erhard, who was the man widely credited as the father of the "economic miracle '' of the 1950s and of whom great things were expected.
The proceedings of the War Crimes Tribunal at Nuremberg had been widely publicised in Germany but, a new generation of teachers, educated with the findings of historical studies, could begin to reveal the truth about the war and the crimes committed in the name of the German people. In 1963, a German court ruled that a KGB assassin named Bohdan Stashynsky who had committed several murders in the Federal Republic in the late 1950s was not legally guilty of murder, but was only an accomplice to murder as the responsibility for Stashynsky 's murders rested only with his superiors in Moscow who had given him his orders. The legal implications of the Stashynsky case, namely that in a totalitarian system only executive decision - makers can be held legally responsible for any murders committed and that anyone else who follows orders and commits murders were just accomplices to murder was to greatly hinder the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the coming decades, and ensured that even when convicted, that Nazi criminals received the far lighter sentences reserved for accomplices to murders than the harsher sentences given to murderers. The term executive decision - maker who could be found guilty of murder was reserved by the courts only for those at the highest levels of the Reich leadership during the Nazi period. The only way that a Nazi criminal could be convicted of murder was to show that they were not following orders at the time and had acted on their initiative when killing someone. One courageous attorney, Fritz Bauer patiently gathered evidence on the guards of the Auschwitz death camp and about twenty were put trial in Frankfurt between 1963 - 1965 in what came to be known as the Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials. The men on trial in Frankfurt were tried only for murders and other crimes that they committed on their own initiative at Auschwitz and were not tried for anything that they did at Auschwitz when following orders, which was considered by the courts to be the lesser crime of accomplice to murder. Because of this, Bauer could only indict for murder those who killed when not following orders, and those who had killed when following orders were indicted as accomplices to murder. Moreover because of the legal distinction between murderers and accomplices to murder, an SS man who killed thousands while operating the gas chambers at Auschwitz could only be found guilty of being accomplice to murder because he had been following orders, while an SS man who had beaten one inmate to death on his initiative could be convicted of murder because he had not been following orders. Daily newspaper reports and visits by school classes to the proceedings revealed to the German public the nature of the concentration camp system and it became evident that the Shoah was of vastly greater dimensions than the German population had believed. (The term ' Holocaust ' for the systematic mass - murder of Jews first came into use in 1979, when an American mini-series with that name was shown on German television.) The processes set in motion by the Auschwitz trial reverberated decades later.
In the early sixties, the rate of economic growth slowed down significantly. In 1962, the growth rate was 4.7 % and the following year, 2.0 %. After a brief recovery, the growth rate petered into a recession, with no growth in 1967. The economic showdown forced Erhard 's resignation in 1966 and he was replaced with Kurt Georg Kiesinger of the CDU. Kiesinger was to attract much controversy because in 1933 he had joined the National Socialist Legal Guild and NSDAP (membership in the former was necessary in order to practice law, but membership in the latter was entirely voluntary).
In order to deal with the problem of the economic slowdown, a new coalition was formed. Kiesinger 's 1966 -- 69 grand coalition was between West Germany 's two largest parties, the CDU / CSU and the Social Democratic Party (SPD). This was important for the introduction of new emergency acts -- the grand coalition gave the ruling parties the two - thirds majority of votes required for their ratification. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as freedom of movement to be limited in case of a state of emergency.
During the time leading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the Free Democratic Party, the rising German student movement, a group calling itself Notstand der Demokratie (Democracy in Crisis), the Außerparlamentarische Opposition and members of the Campaign against Nuclear Armament. In the late 1960s saw the rise of the student movement and university campuses in a constant state of uproar. A key event in the development of open democratic debate occurred in 1967 when the Shah of Iran visited West Berlin. Several thousand demonstrators gathered outside the Opera House where he was to attend a special performance. Supporters of the Shah (later known as ' Jubelperser '), armed with staves and bricks, attacked the protesters while the police stood by and watched. A demonstration in the center was being forcibly dispersed when a bystander named Benno Ohnesorg was shot in the head and killed by a plain - clothed policeman Karl - Heinz Kurras. (It has now been established that the policeman, Kurras, was a paid spy of the East German Stasi security forces.) Protest demonstrations continued, and calls for more active opposition by some groups of students were made, which was declared by the press, especially the tabloid Bild - Zeitung newspaper, to be acts of terrorism. The conservative Bild - Zeitung waged a massive campaign against the protesters who were declared to be just hooligans and thugs in the pay of East Germany. The press baron Axel Springer emerged as one of the principal hate figures for the student protesters because of Bild - Zeitung 's often violent attacks on them. Protests against the US intervention in Vietnam, mingled with anger over the vigor with which demonstrations were repressed, led to mounting militancy among the students at the universities of Berlin. One of the most prominent campaigners was a young man from East Germany called Rudi Dutschke who also criticised the forms of capitalism that were to be seen in West Berlin. Just before Easter 1968, a young man tried to kill Dutschke as he bicycled to the student union, seriously injuring him. All over West Germany, thousands demonstrated against the Springer newspapers which were seen as the prime cause of the violence against students. Trucks carrying newspapers were set on fire and windows in office buildings broken. In the wake of these demonstrations, in which the question of America 's role in Vietnam began to play a bigger role, came a desire among the students to find out more about the role of their parents ' generation in the Nazi era.
In 1968, the Bundestag passed a Misdemeanors Bill dealing with traffic misdemeanors, into which a high - ranking civil servant named Dr. Eduard Dreher who had been drafting the bill inserted a prefatory section to the bill under a very misleading heading that declared that henceforth there was a statute of limitations of 15 years from the time of the offense for the crime of being an accomplices to murder which was to apply retroactively, which made it impossible to prosecute war criminals even for being accomplices to murder since the statute of limitations as now defined for the last of the suspects had expired by 1960. The Bundestag passed the Misdemeanors Bill without bothering to read the bill in its entirety so its members missed Dreher 's amendment. It was estimated in 1969 that thanks to Dreher 's amendment to the Misdemeanors Bill that 90 % of all Nazi war criminals now enjoyed total immunity from prosecution. The prosecutor Adalbert Rückerl who headed the Central Bureau for the Prosecution of National Socialist Crimes told an interviewer in 1969 that this amendment had done immense harm to the ability of the Bureau to prosecute those suspected of war crimes and crimes against humanity.
The calling in question of the actions and policies of the government led to a new climate of debate by the late 1960s. The issues of emancipation, colonialism, environmentalism and grass roots democracy were discussed at all levels of society. In 1979, the environmental party, the Greens, reached the 5 % limit required to obtain parliamentary seats in the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen provincial election. Also of great significance was the steady growth of a feminist movement in which women demonstrated for equal rights. Until 1979, a married woman had to have the permission of her husband if she wanted to take on a job or open a bank account. Parallel to this, a gay movement began to grow in the larger cities, especially in West Berlin, where homosexuality had been widely accepted during the twenties in the Weimar Republic. In 1969, the Bundestag repealed the 1935 Nazi amendment to Paragraph 175, which not only made homosexual acts a felony, but had also made any expressions of homosexuality illegal (before 1935 only gay sex had been illegal). However, Paragraph 175 which made homosexual acts illegal remained on the statute books and was not repealed until 1994, although it had been softened in 1973 by making gay sex illegal only with those under the age of 18.
Anger over the treatment of demonstrators following the death of Benno Ohnesorg and the attack on Rudi Dutschke, coupled with growing frustration over the lack of success in achieving their aims, led to growing militancy among students and their supporters. In May 1968, three young people set fire to two department stores in Frankfurt; they were brought to trial and made very clear to the court that they regarded their action as a legitimate act in what they described as the ' struggle against imperialism '. The student movement began to split into different factions, ranging from the unattached liberals to the Maoists and supporters of direct action in every form -- the anarchists. Several groups set as their objective the aim of radicalizing the industrial workers and, taking an example from activities in Italy of the Brigade Rosse, many students went to work in the factories, but with little or no success. The most notorious of the underground groups was the ' Baader - Meinhof Group ', later known as the Red Army Faction, which began by making bank raids to finance their activities and eventually went underground having killed a number of policemen, several bystanders and eventually two prominent West Germans, whom they had taken captive in order to force the release of prisoners sympathetic to their ideas. The "Baader - Meinhof gang '' was committed to the overthrow of the Federal Republic via terrorism in order to achieve the establishment of a Communist state. In the 1990s attacks were still being committed under the name "RAF ''. The last action took place in 1993 and the group announced it was giving up its activities in 1998. Evidence that the groups had been infiltrated by German Intelligence undercover agents has since emerged, partly through the insistence of the son of one of their prominent victims, the State Counsel Buback.
In the 1969 election, the SPD -- headed by Willy Brandt -- gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP. Although Chancellor for only just over four years, Brandt was one of the most popular politicians in the whole period. Brandt was a gifted speaker and the growth of the Social Democrats from there on was in no small part due to his personality. Brandt began a policy of rapprochement with West Germany 's eastern neighbors known as Ostpolitik, a policy opposed by the CDU. The issue of improving relations with Poland, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany made for an increasingly aggressive tone in public debates but it was a huge step forward when Willy Brandt and the Foreign Minister, Walther Scheel (FDP) negotiated agreements with all three countries (Moscow Agreement, August 1970, Warsaw Agreement, December 1970, Four - Power Agreement over the status of West Berlin in 1971 and an agreement on relations between West and East Germany, signed in December 1972). These agreements were the basis for a rapid improvement in the relations between east and west and led, in the long term, to the dismantlement of the Warsaw Treaty and the Soviet Union 's control over East - Central Europe. During a visit to Warsaw on 7 December 1970, Brandt made the Warschauer Kniefall by kneeling before a monument to those killed in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, a gesture of humility and penance that no German Chancellor had made until that time. Chancellor Brandt was forced to resign in May 1974, after Günter Guillaume, a senior member of his staff, was uncovered as a spy for the East German intelligence service, the Stasi. Brandt 's contributions to world peace led to his winning the Nobel Peace Prize for 1971.
Finance Minister Helmut Schmidt (SPD) formed a coalition and he served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. Hans - Dietrich Genscher, a leading FDP official, became Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to "the political unification of Europe in partnership with the USA ''. Throughout the 1970s, the Red Army Faction had continued its terrorist campaign, assassinating or kidnapping politicians, judges, businessmen, and policemen. The highpoint of the RAF violence came with the German Autumn in autumn 1977. The industrialist Hanns - Martin Schleyer was kidnapped on 5 September 1977 in order to force the government to free the imprisoned leaders of the Baader - Meinhof Gang. A group from the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine hijacked Lufthansa Flight 181 to seize further hostages to free the RAF leaders. On 18 October 1977, the Lufthansa jet was stormed in Mogadishu by the GSG 9 commando unit, who were able to free the hostages. The same day, the leaders of the Baader - Meinhof gang, who had been waging a hunger strike, starved themselves to death, which led to Schleyer being executed by his captors. The Red Army Faction was to continue its terrorist campaign into the 1990s, but the German Autumn of 1977 was the highpoint of its campaign. That the Federal Republic had faced a crisis caused by a terrorist campaign from the radical left without succumbing to dictatorship as many feared that it would, was seen as vindication of the strength of German democracy.
In January 1979, the American mini-series Holocaust aired in West Germany. The series, which was watched by 20 million people or 50 % of West Germans, first brought the matter of the genocide in World War II to widespread public attention in a way that it had never been before. After each part of Holocaust was aired, there was a companion show where a panel of historians could answer questions from people phoning in. The historians ' panels were literally overwhelmed with thousands of phone calls from shocked and outraged Germans, a great many of whom stated that they were born after 1945 and that was the first time that they learned that their country had practiced genocide in World War II. By the late 1970s, an initially small number of young people had started to demand that the Länder governments stop neglecting the sites of the concentration camps, and start turning them into proper museums and sites of remembrance, turning them into "locations of learning '' meant to jar visitors into thinking critically about the Nazi period.
In 1980, the CDU / CSU ran Strauss as their joint candidate in the elections, and he was crushingly defeated by Schmidt. In October 1982, the SPD - FDP coalition fell apart when the FDP joined forces with the CDU / CSU to elect CDU chairman Helmut Kohl as Chancellor in a Constructive Vote of No Confidence. Genscher continued as Foreign Minister in the new Kohl government. Following national elections in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU / CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, due to the entry into the Bundestag of the Greens, who received 5.6 % of the vote. In 1983, despite major protests from peace groups, the Kohl government allowed Pershing II missiles to be stationed in the Federal Republic to counter the deployment of the SS - 20 cruise missiles by the Soviet Union in East Germany. In 1985, Kohl, who had something of a tin ear when it came to dealing with the Nazi past, caused much controversy when he invited President Ronald Reagan of the United States to visit the war cemetery at Bitburg to mark the 40th anniversary of the end of World War II. The Bitburg cemetery was soon revealed to contain the graves of SS men, which Kohl stated that he did not see as a problem and that to refuse to honor all of the dead of Bitburg including the SS men buried there was an insult to all Germans. Kohl stated that Reagan could come to the Federal Republic to hold a ceremony to honor the dead of Bitburg or not come at all, and that to change the venue of the service to another war cemetery that did not have SS men buried in it was not acceptable to him. Even more controversy was caused by Reagan 's statement that all of the SS men killed fighting for Hitler in World War II were "just kids '' who were just as much the victims of Hitler as those who been murdered by the SS in the Holocaust. Despite the huge controversy caused by honoring the SS men buried at Bitburg, the visit to Bitburg went ahead, and Kohl and Reagan honored the dead of Bitburg. What was intended to promote German - American reconciliation turned out to be a public relations disaster that had the opposite effect. Public opinion polls showed that 72 % of West Germans supported the service at Bitburg while American public opinion overwhelming disapproved of Reagan honoring the memory of the SS men who gave their lives for Hitler.
Despite or perhaps because of the Bitburg controversy, in 1985 a campaign had been started to build a memorial to the victims of the Holocaust in Berlin. It was felt by at least some Germans that there was something wrong about the Chancellor and the President of the United States honoring the memory of the SS men buried at Bitburg while there was no memorial to any of the people killed in the Holocaust. The campaign to build a Holocaust memorial, which Germany until then lacked, was given a major boost in November 1989 by the call by television journalist Lea Rosh to build the memorial at the site for the former Gestapo headquarters. In April 1992, the City of Berlin finally decided that a Holocaust memorial could be built. Along the same lines, in August 1987, protests put a stop to plans by the City of Frankfurt to raze the last remains of the Frankfurt Jewish Ghetto in order to redevelop the land, arguing that the remnants of the Frankfurt ghetto needed to be preserved.
In January 1987, the Kohl - Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. Kohl 's CDU and its Bavarian sister party, the CSU, slipped from 48.8 % of the vote in 1983 to 44.3 %. The SPD fell to 37 %; long - time SPD chairman Brandt subsequently resigned in April 1987 and was succeeded by Hans - Jochen Vogel. The FDP 's share rose from 7 % to 9.1 %, its best showing since 1980. The Greens ' share rose to 8.3 % from their 1983 share of 5.6 %. Later in 1987, Kohl had a summit with the East German leader Erich Honecker. Unknown to Kohl, the meeting room had been bugged by the Stasi, and the Stasi tapes of the summit had Kohl saying to Honecker that he did not see any realistic chance of reunification in the foreseeable future.
In the Soviet occupation zone, the Social Democratic Party was forced to merge with the Communist Party in April 1946 to form a new party, the Socialist Unity Party (Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands or SED). The October 1946 elections resulted in coalition governments in the five Land (state) parliaments with the SED as the undisputed leader.
A series of people 's congresses were called in 1948 and early 1949 by the SED. Under Soviet direction, a constitution was drafted on 30 May 1949, and adopted on 7 October, the day when East Germany was formally proclaimed. The People 's Chamber (Volkskammer) -- the lower house of the East German parliament -- and an upper house -- the States Chamber (Länderkammer) -- were created. (The Länderkammer was abolished again in 1958.) On 11 October 1949, the two houses elected Wilhelm Pieck as President, and an SED government was set up. The Soviet Union and its East European allies immediately recognized East Germany, although it remained largely unrecognized by noncommunist countries until 1972 -- 73. East Germany established the structures of a single - party, centralized, communist state. On 23 July 1952, the traditional Länder were abolished and, in their place, 14 Bezirke (districts) were established. Even though other parties formally existed, effectively, all government control was in the hands of the SED, and almost all important government positions were held by SED members.
The National Front was an umbrella organization nominally consisting of the SED, four other political parties controlled and directed by the SED, and the four principal mass organizations -- youth, trade unions, women, and culture. However, control was clearly and solely in the hands of the SED. Balloting in East German elections was not secret. As in other Soviet bloc countries, electoral participation was consistently high, as the following results indicate. In October 1950, a year after the formation of the GDR, 98.53 % of the electorate voted. 99.72 % of the votes were valid and 99.72 % were cast in favor of the ' National Front ' -- the title of the ' coalition ' of the Unity Party plus their associates in other conformist groups. In election after election, the votes cast for the Socialist Unity Party were always over 99 %, and in 1963, two years after the Berlin Wall was constructed, the support for the S.E.D. was 99.95 %. Only 0.05 % of the electorate opposed the party according to these results, the veracity of which is disputable.
With the formation of a separate East German communist state in October 1949, the Socialist Unity Party faced a huge range of problems. Not only were the cities in ruins, much of the productive machinery and equipment had been seized by the Soviet occupation force and transported to The Soviet Union in order to make some kind of reconstruction possible. While West Germany received loans and other financial assistance from the United States, the GDR was in the role of an exporter of goods to the USSR -- a role that its people could ill afford but which they could not avoid.
The S.E.D. 's intention was to transform the GDR into a socialist and later into a communist state. These processes would occur step by step according to the laws of scientific ' Marxism - Leninism ' and economic planning was the key to this process. In July 1952, at a conference of the S.E.D., Walter Ulbricht announced that "the democratic (sic) and economic development, and the consciousness (Bewusstsein) of the working class and the majority of the employed classes must be developed so that the construction of Socialism becomes their most important objective. '' This meant that the administration, the armed forces, the planning of industry and agriculture would be under the sole authority of the S.E.D. and its planning committee. Industries would be nationalized and collectivization introduced in the farm industry. When the first Five - Year Plan was announced, the flow of refugees out of East Germany began to grow. As a consequence, production fell, food became short and protests occurred in a number of factories. On 14 May 1952, the S.E.D. ordered that the production quotas (the output per man per shift) were to be increased by 10 %, but wages to be kept at the former level. This decision was not popular with the new leaders in the Kremlin. Stalin had died in March 1953 and the new leadership was still evolving. The imposition of new production quotas contradicted the new direction of Soviet policies for their satellites.
On 5 June 1953, the S.E.D. announced a ' new course ' in which farmers, craftsmen, and factory owners would benefit from a relaxation of controls. The new production quotas remained; the East German workers protested and up to sixty strikes occurred the following day. One of the window - dressing projects in the ruins of East Berlin was the construction of Stalin Allee, on which the most ' class - conscious ' workers (in S.E.D. propaganda terms) were involved. At a meeting, strikers declared "You give the capitalists (the factory owners) presents, and we are exploited! '' A delegation of building workers marched to the headquarters of the S.E.D. demanding that the production quotas be rescinded. The crowd grew, demands were made for the removal of Ulbricht from office and a general strike called for the following day.
On 17 June 1953 strikes and demonstrations occurred in 250 towns and cities in the GDR. Between 300,000 and 400,000 workers took part in the strikes, which were specifically directed towards the rescinding of the production quotas and were not an attempt to overthrow the government. The strikers were for the most part convinced that the transformation of the GDR into a socialist state was the proper course to take but that the S.E.D. had taken a wrong turn. The S.E.D. responded with all of the force at its command and also with the help of the Soviet Occupation force. Thousands were arrested, sentenced to jail and many hundreds were forced to leave for West Germany. The S.E.D. later moderated its course but the damage had been done. The real face of the East German regime was revealed. The S.E.D. claimed that the strikes had been instigated by West German agents, but there is no evidence for this. Over 250 strikers were killed, around 100 policemen and some 18 Soviet soldiers died in the uprising; 17 June was declared a national day of remembrance in West Germany.
Shortly after World War II, Berlin became the seat of the Allied Control Council, which was to have governed Germany as a whole until the conclusion of a peace settlement. In 1948, however, the Soviet Union refused to participate any longer in the quadripartite administration of Germany. They also refused to continue the joint administration of Berlin and drove the government elected by the people of Berlin out of its seat in the Soviet sector and installed a communist regime in East Berlin. From then until unification, the Western Allies continued to exercise supreme authority -- effective only in their sectors -- through the Allied Kommandatura. To the degree compatible with the city 's special status, however, they turned over control and management of city affairs to the West Berlin Senate and the House of Representatives, governing bodies established by constitutional process and chosen by free elections. The Allies and German authorities in West Germany and West Berlin never recognized the communist city regime in East Berlin or East German authority there.
During the years of West Berlin 's isolation -- 176 kilometers (110 mi.) inside East Germany -- the Western Allies encouraged a close relationship between the Government of West Berlin and that of West Germany. Representatives of the city participated as non-voting members in the West German Parliament; appropriate West German agencies, such as the supreme administrative court, had their permanent seats in the city; and the governing mayor of West Berlin took his turn as President of the Bundesrat. In addition, the Allies carefully consulted with the West German and West Berlin Governments on foreign policy questions involving unification and the status of Berlin.
Between 1948 and 1990, major events such as fairs and festivals were sponsored in West Berlin, and investment in commerce and industry was encouraged by special concessionary tax legislation. The results of such efforts, combined with effective city administration and the West Berliners ' energy and spirit, were encouraging. West Berlin 's morale was sustained, and its industrial production considerably surpassed the pre-war level.
The Final Settlement Treaty ended Berlin 's special status as a separate area under Four Power control. Under the terms of the treaty between West and East Germany, Berlin became the capital of a unified Germany. The Bundestag voted in June 1991 to make Berlin the seat of government. The Government of Germany asked the Allies to maintain a military presence in Berlin until the complete withdrawal of the Western Group of Forces (ex-Soviet) from the territory of the former East Germany. The Russian withdrawal was completed 31 August 1994. Ceremonies were held on 8 September 1994, to mark the final departure of Western Allied troops from Berlin.
Government offices have been moving progressively to Berlin, and it became the formal seat of the federal government in 1999. Berlin also is one of the Federal Republic 's 16 Länder.
Under Chancellor Adenauer West Germany declared its right to speak for the entire German nation with an exclusive mandate. The Hallstein Doctrine involved non-recognition of East Germany and restricted (or often ceased) diplomatic relations with countries that gave East Germany the status of a sovereign state.
The constant stream of East Germans fleeing across the Inner German border to West Germany placed great strains on East German - West German relations in the 1950s. East Germany sealed the borders to West Germany in 1952, but people continued to flee from East Berlin to West Berlin. On 13 August 1961, East Germany began building the Berlin Wall around West Berlin to slow the flood of refugees to a trickle, effectively cutting the city in half and making West Berlin an enclave of the Western world in communist territory. The Wall became the symbol of the Cold War and the division of Europe. Shortly afterward, the main border between the two German states was fortified.
The Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops of 1965 was controversial at the time, but is now seen as an important step toward improving relations between the German states and Poland.
In 1969, Chancellor Willy Brandt announced that West Germany would remain firmly rooted in the Atlantic alliance but would intensify efforts to improve relations with the Eastern Bloc, especially East Germany. West Germany commenced this Ostpolitik, initially under fierce opposition from the conservatives, by negotiating nonaggression treaties with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Hungary.
West Germany 's relations with East Germany posed particularly difficult questions. Though anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, West Germany under Brandt 's Ostpolitik was intent on holding to its concept of "two German states in one German nation. '' Relations gradually improved. In the early 1970s, the Ostpolitik led to a form of mutual recognition between East and West Germany. The Treaty of Moscow (August 1970), the Treaty of Warsaw (December 1970), the Four Power Agreement on Berlin (September 1971), the Transit Agreement (May 1972), and the Basic Treaty (December 1972) helped to normalise relations between East and West Germany and led to both states joining the United Nations, in September 1973. The two German states exchanged permanent representatives in 1974, and, in 1987, East German head of state Erich Honecker paid an official visit to West Germany.
International plans for the unification of Germany were made during the early years following the establishment of the two states, but to no avail. In March 1952, the Soviet government proposed the Stalin Note to hold elections for a united German assembly while making the proposed united Germany a neutral state, i.e. a neutral state approved by the people, similar to the Austrians ' approval of a neutral Austria. The Western Allied governments refused this initiative, while continuing West Germany 's integration into the Western alliance system. The issue was raised again during the Foreign Ministers ' Conference in Berlin in January -- February 1954, but the western powers refused to make Germany neutral. Following Bonn 's adherence to NATO on 9 May 1955, such initiatives were abandoned by both sides.
During the summer of 1989, rapid changes took place in East Germany, which ultimately led to German reunification. Widespread discontent boiled over, following accusations of large scale vote - rigging during the local elections of May 1989. Growing numbers of East Germans emigrated to West Germany via Hungary after the Hungarians decided not to use force to stop them. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit - ins at West German diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations (Monday demonstrations) with eventually hundreds of thousands of people in several cities -- particularly in Leipzig -- continued to grow. On 7 October, the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev visited Berlin to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the establishment of East Germany and urged the East German leadership to pursue reform, without success. The movement of civil resistance against the East German regime -- both the emigration and the demonstrations -- continued unabated.
On 18 October, Erich Honecker was forced to resign as head of the SED and as head of state and was replaced by Egon Krenz. But the exodus continued unabated, and pressure for political reform mounted. On 4 November, a demonstration in East Berlin drew as many as 1 million East Germans. Finally, on 9 November 1989, the Berlin Wall was opened, and East Germans were allowed to travel freely. Thousands poured through the wall into the western sectors of Berlin, and on 12 November, East Germany began dismantling it.
On 28 November, West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl outlined the 10 - Point Plan for the peaceful unification of the two German states, based on free elections in East Germany and a unification of their two economies. In December, the East German Volkskammer eliminated the SED monopoly on power, and the entire Politbüro and Central Committee -- including Krenz -- resigned. The SED changed its name to the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) and the formation and growth of numerous political groups and parties marked the end of the communist system. Prime Minister Hans Modrow headed a caretaker government which shared power with the new, democratically oriented parties. On 7 December 1989, an agreement was reached to hold free elections in May 1990 and rewrite the East German constitution. On 28 January, all the parties agreed to advance the elections to 18 March, primarily because of an erosion of state authority and because the East German exodus was continuing apace; more than 117,000 left in January and February 1990.
In early February 1990, the Modrow government 's proposal for a unified, neutral German state was rejected by Chancellor Kohl, who affirmed that a unified Germany must be a member of NATO. Finally, on 18 March, the first free elections were held in East Germany, and a government led by Lothar de Maizière (CDU) was formed under a policy of expeditious unification with West Germany. The freely elected representatives of the Volkskammer held their first session on 5 April, and East Germany peacefully evolved from a communist to a democratically elected government. Free and secret communal (local) elections were held in the GDR on 6 May, and the CDU again won most of the available seats. On 1 July, the two German states entered into an economic and monetary union.
During 1990, in parallel with internal German developments, the Four Powers -- the Allies of World War II, being the United States, United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union -- together with the two German states negotiated to end Four Power reserved rights for Berlin and Germany as a whole. These "Two - plus - Four '' negotiations were mandated at the Ottawa Open Skies conference on 13 February 1990. The six foreign ministers met four times in the ensuing months in Bonn (5 May), Berlin (22 June), Paris (17 July), and Moscow (12 September). The Polish Foreign Minister participated in the part of the Paris meeting that dealt with the Polish - German borders.
Overcoming Soviet objections to a united Germany 's membership in NATO was of key importance. This was accomplished in July when the alliance, led by President George H.W. Bush, issued the London Declaration on a transformed NATO. On 16 July, President Gorbachev and Chancellor Kohl announced the agreement in principle on a united Germany in NATO. This cleared the way for the signing in Moscow, on 12 September, of the Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany -- in effect the peace treaty that was anticipated at the end of World War II. In addition to terminating Four Power rights, the treaty mandated the withdrawal of all Soviet forces from Germany by the end of 1994, made clear that the current borders (especially the Oder - Neisse line) were viewed as final and definitive, and specified the right of a united Germany to belong to NATO. It also provided for the continued presence of British, French, and American troops in Berlin during the interim period of the Soviet withdrawal. In the treaty, the Germans renounced nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons and stated their intention to reduce the (combined) German armed forces to 370,000 within 3 to 4 years after the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, signed in Paris on 19 November 1990, entered into force.
The conclusion of the final settlement cleared the way for the unification of East and West Germany. Formal political union occurred on 3 October 1990, preceded by the GDR declaring its accession to the Federal Republic through Article 23 of West Germany 's Basic Law (meaning that constitutionally, East Germany was subsumed into West Germany); but affected in strict legality through the subsequent Unification Treaty of 30 August 1990, which was voted into their constitutions by both the West German Bundestag and the East German Volkskammer on 20 September 1990. These votes simultaneously extinguished the GDR and affected fundamental amendments to the West German Basic Law (including the repeal of the very Article 23 under which the GDR had recently declared its post-dated accession). On 2 December 1990, all - German elections were held for the first time since 1933. The "new '' country stayed the same as the West German legal system and institutions were extended to the east. The unified nation kept the name Bundesrepublik Deutschland (though the simple ' Deutschland ' would become increasingly common) and retained the West German "Deutsche Mark '' for currency as well. Berlin would formally become the capital of the united Germany, but the political institutions remained at Bonn for the time being. Only after a heated 1991 debate did the Bundestag conclude on moving itself and most of the government to Berlin as well, a process that took until 1999 to complete, when the Bundestag held its first session at the reconstructed Reichstag building. Many government departments still maintain sizable presences in Bonn as of 2008.
To this day, there remain vast differences between the former East Germany and West Germany (for example, in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs, and other matters) and thus it is still common to speak of eastern and western Germany distinctly. The eastern German economy has struggled since unification, and large subsidies are still transferred from west to east.
Works cited
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who are the announcers for the cactus bowl | List of Cactus Bowl broadcasters - wikipedia
The following is a list of the television networks and announcers who have broadcast college football 's Cactus Bowl throughout the years.
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why does the robot only say danger will robinson | Robot (Lost in Space) - wikipedia
The Class B9 - M3 General Utility Non-Theorizing Environmental Control Robot, known simply as the Robot, is a fictional character in the television series Lost in Space. His full designation was only occasionally mentioned on the show.
Although a machine endowed with superhuman strength and futuristic weaponry, he often displayed human characteristics, such as laughter, sadness, and mockery, as well as singing and playing the guitar. With his major role often being to protect the youngest member of the crew, the Robot 's catchphrases were "It does not compute '' and "Danger, Will Robinson! '', accompanied by flailing his arms.
The Robot was performed by Bob May in a prop costume built by Bob Stewart. The voice was primarily dubbed by Dick Tufeld, who was also the series ' narrator, and Jorge Arvizu for the Spanish dubbing. The Robot was designed by Robert Kinoshita, who also designed Forbidden Planet 's Robby the Robot. Robby appears in Lost in Space episode # 20 "War of the Robots '' and in episode # 60 "Condemned of Space ''. The Robot did not appear in the unaired pilot episode, but was added to the series once it had been greenlit.
Initially, the bellows - covered legs were articulated, and were moved separately by the actor inside. However, the metal edges inside the suit cut actor Bob May 's legs, so changes were made. The legs were bolted together, and the robot was pulled along by a wire instead of walking as it had done before. A new lower section was constructed with the legs cut off at the knee. This was filmed either in close - up or behind something to obscure the actor 's feet protruding out the bottom; this version of the suit was informally referred to by the cast and crew as "the Bermuda shorts. ''
Robot consisted, from top down, of
According to the series
In one first season episode, Dr. Smith was seen to remove the robot 's programming tapes, which resemble a small reel of magnetic tape, from a hatch below the robot 's chest panel.
Two versions of the robot were used during Lost in Space filming -- a "hero robot '' costume worn by Bob May, and a static, "stunt robot '' prop that was used for distant or hazardous shots. Both versions fell into disrepair after the series, but these have since been discovered and restored. The "hero '' is privately owned by TV and film producer Kevin Burns, who commissioned a replica in the early 1990s for touring and conventions. The "stunt robot '' is in storage at the Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame in Seattle, Washington.
Like Robby the Robot, the B - 9 Robot prop costume was re-used on at least one other show. On the Saturday morning children 's show Mystery Island, it was modified to make the primary character "P.O.P.S. '' There it had different domes, different color scheme, and an added rectangular skirt of gold - colored tubes, covering the rubber bellows legs and base.
Full - size replicas of the robot are available commercially. Other versions have been built by hobbyists around the world, who have built at least 15 detailed full - size replicas of the Robot.
In the 2018 Netflix series, the Robot is an alien AI which bears few resemblances with earlier versions, such as his famous line and loyalty to Will.
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knights of the round table children's books | King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table - wikipedia
King Arthur and His Knights of the Round Table is a novel for children written by Roger Lancelyn Green. It was first published by Puffin Books in 1953 and has since been reprinted. In 2008 it was reissued in the Puffin Classics series with an introduction by David Almond (the award - winning author of Clay, Skellig, Kit 's Wilderness and The Fire - Eaters), and the original illustrations by Lotte Reiniger.
Green attempted to weave together the many legends surrounding King Arthur in a single narrative, claiming that Thomas Malory 's version of the story, Le Morte d'Arthur, was a loose collection of separate stories. Green attempted to relate each legend so that the entire story would have a beginning, middle and end. Green used many sources in addition to Malory.
After Uther Pendragon 's death, Merlin the magician forms a stone and in it a sword. After many years, the young Arthur, secretly the son of Uther Pendragon, pulls the sword out of the stone and becomes King. Together with Merlin, he constructs a round table, at which only the best knights of England may sit. More and more knights come to join the brotherhood of the Round Table, and each has his own adventures.
Eventually, the holy knight Galahad, the son of Sir Lancelot, comes to Arthur 's court. With his coming, all the knights ride throughout Europe in search of the Holy Grail of Jesus Christ. Only five knights see the Grail: Sir Lancelot, Sir Percival, Sir Bors de Gaunnes, Sir Galahad and Sir Gawain.
After the Grail is found, the last battle of the Knights of the Round Table is fought. In this battle many knights die, and with them King Arthur, Sir Gawain, who is Arthur 's nephew, and Mordred, the wicked son of King Arthur, and his half - sister Morgana le Fay. King Arthur is taken away to Avalon, a secret island after he is terribly wounded by Mordred while he was making the final stab with his sword to kill Mordred.
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santana little bit of this little bit of that | The Game of Love (Santana song) - wikipedia
"The Game of Love '' is a song performed by Latin rock band Santana from their eighteenth studio album Shaman. The vocal performance on the song is by Michelle Branch. It was composed by Gregg Alexander and Rick Nowels. The song was launched as single in 2002, and won a Grammy Award for "Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals '', as well as peaking at No. 5 in on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart. The song was also a top 10 hit in Canada, Hungary, New Zealand, Romania, and Spain, and reached number one in Poland.
The song had originally been recorded with New Radicals frontman Gregg Alexander, but producer Clive Davis felt a female voice would maximize the song 's appeal and a recording of Santana performing "The Game of Love '' with Tina Turner as vocalist was completed. When Turner declined to participate in making a video for the track, Davis recruited Macy Gray to record a replacement vocal. When Davis was not satisfied with that version, Michelle Branch was asked to record the song, with Branch 's rhythm guitar playing also added to the track. Branch said, "It was the first time for me to sing somebody else 's song. Usually I 'm like: ' Oh I want it this way ' and I 'm in charge... I did n't meet (Carlos Santana at the recording session), I did n't know what was going on... It felt to me like wow it seems like there 's so much at stake, I 'm going to go in there and just sing my heart out and just cross my fingers. ''
The Tina Turner version of "The Game of Love '' was issued on the 2007 retrospective Ultimate Santana. Santana said "There 's only one Tina Turner... No one can hit a note like Tina Turner... I love Michelle (Branch) and she did a great interpretation of it. It 's just that with all honor and respect to Michelle, there 's the girl and there 's the woman, and Michelle is unfolding into a woman... but it takes time to go from a girl into a woman. ''
The music video depicts Santana and Branch in an alley with couples around them, each expressing their love for one another. The director was Paul Fedor and the video was filmed in the Pilsen neighborhood of Chicago, with cameo appearances by Wesley Snipes, Helen Hunt and Jennifer Garner.
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what is the alcohol limit for driving in england | Drunk driving law by country - wikipedia
The laws of driving under the influence vary between countries. One difference is the acceptable limit of blood alcohol content before a person is charged with a crime.
The Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1968 -- 69 made it a per se offence to drive with a BAC in excess of 80 mg / 100 ml of blood. Refusal of a police officer 's demand to provide a breath sample was made an offence at the same time and both began as summary conviction offences, with a mandatory minimum $ 50 fine.
In the United States, the blood alcohol level at which all states make it unlawful to operate a motor vehicle is 0.08, although it is possible to be convicted of impaired driving at a lower blood alcohol level. Some states define two impaired driving offenses.
The first offense requires proof of intoxication, although evidence of BAC is admissible as rebuttably presumptive evidence of that intoxication; the second requires only proof of BAC at the time of being in physical control of a motor vehicle. An accused may potentially be convicted of both offenses as a result of a single incident, but may only be punished for one. The differences between state penalties still varies. Wisconsin, for instance, is the only state that continues to treat first offense drunk driving arrests as forfeiture.
Some states also include a lesser charge of driving with a BAC of 0.05 %; other states limit this offense to drivers under the age of 21. All states and DC also now have zero tolerance laws: the license of anyone under 21 driving with any detectable alcohol in their bloodstream (BAC limits of 0.01 % or 0.02 % apply in some states, such as Florida.) will be suspended. In 2009, Puerto Rico joined these states, setting a limit of 0.02 for drivers under 21, despite maintaining a legal drinking age of 18.
The blood alcohol limit for commercial drivers is 0.04 %. Pilots of aircraft may not fly within eight hours of consuming alcohol, while under the impairing influence of alcohol or any other drug, or while showing a blood alcohol concentration equal to or greater than 0.04 grams per decilitre of blood.
Utah became the first U.S. state to lower the legal limit to. 05 % BAC by volume on March 24, 2017. The law takes effect on December 30, 2018. The bill 's passage, HB155, was controversial in the state. A poll published on July 29, 2017 found 50 percent of Utahns supported the new law, but 47 percent opposed it.
In most states, the timing of the chemical test for suspected drunk driving is important because the law mandates a result within a given time period after the driving stopped, usually two hours.
Note: Take zero to usually mean below detection limit.
In British law it is a criminal offence to be drunk in charge of a motor vehicle. The definition depends on such things as being in or near the vehicle, and having access to a means of starting the vehicle 's engine and driving it away (i.e., the keys to a vehicle). A passenger in the vehicle can also be prosecuted if the police can prove that they were driving under the influence at some point.
The UK 's drug driving laws were updated in 2015. The changes included: a new roadside testing kit, which could detect the presence of cocaine and cannabis in a suspect 's saliva; zero tolerance limits for a number of illegal drugs, Limits were also set for certain prescription medications. The laws, however, did not end the use of the field impairment test, but made them more relevant for determining driver impairment by those drugs that are not now covered by the new legislation, or can not be identified by the limited use of a device, that currently are only authorised for cannabis and cocaine.
In the UK, driving or attempting to drive whilst above the legal limit or unfit through drink carries a maximum penalty of six months ' imprisonment, a fine of up to £ 5,000 and a minimum twelve months ' disqualification. For a second offence committed within ten years of conviction, the minimum ban is three years. Being in charge of a vehicle whilst over the legal limit or unfit through drink could result in three months ' imprisonment plus a fine of up to £ 2,500 and a driving ban. Causing death by careless driving when under the influence of alcohol or other drugs carries a maximum penalty of fourteen years in prison, a minimum two - year driving ban and a requirement to pass an extended driving test before the offender is able to drive legally again.
It is an offence to refuse to provide a specimen of breath, blood or urine for analysis. The penalties for refusing are the same as those for actual drunk driving.
The offence of driving whilst under the influence of alcohol is one to which there is no defence, as such (although defences such as duress or automatism, which are not specific to the offence of driving with excess alcohol, may apply in certain rare circumstances). However, it may be possible to argue that special reasons exist which are such that you should not be disqualified from driving despite having committed the offence. Special reasons are notoriously difficult to establish and the burden of proof is always upon the accused to establish them. Such reasons may include:
In England and Wales, when DWI offenders appear before a magistrates ' court, the magistrates have guidelines they refer to before they decide on a suitable sentence to give the offender. These guidelines are issued by the Sentencing Guidelines Council and cover offences for which sentence is frequently imposed in a magistrates ' court when dealing with adult offenders.
Offences can either be tried summarily which means they can only be heard in the magistrates ' court or they can be either way offences which means magistrates may find their sentencing powers are insufficient and indict the case to crown court. The majority of drunk driving offences are summary only offences which can only be tried in a magistrates ' court. Only the most serious offences such as a collision, death or injury involved are indicted to crown court. The maximum sentence magistrates can usually impose is a £ 5,000 fine, a six - month prison sentence or both.
As with England and Wales, road traffic law in Scotland is in the main framed within the Road Traffic Act 1988 as amended. Prosecution and disposal of drink - drive offences is broadly similar to England and Wales with less serious cases prosecuted on complaint through the sheriff summary courts. Cases involving aggravations, life - changing or fatal injuries are prosecuted on indictment via the sheriff solemn or high court. As with most UK - wide legislation, the penalties and sentencing guidelines for drunk driving in Scotland mirror those in effect in England and Wales.
Road laws are state or territory based, but all states and territories have set similar rules.
Australian law allow police officers to stop any driver and perform a random breath test without reason. Roadblocks can be set up (for example, leading out of town centres on Friday and Saturday nights and after football matches or other major events), where every single driver will be breath - tested.
This differs from UK and US laws where police generally need a reason to suspect that the driver is intoxicated before requesting a breath or sobriety test. It is an offence to refuse to provide a sample of breath when requested with severe penalties including prison.
There are also other restrictions for drivers in Victoria:
Readings over 0.08 % but under 0.15 % BAC, and 0.15 % BAC and above (legally defined as Drunk Driving) comprise separate offenses, the latter attracting heavier penalties. Persistent offenders may be barred from driving for terms up to and including life, and may also be imprisoned.
The law allows a police officer to require any driver to perform a random saliva test for methamphetamine, Cannabis or MDMA, all of which are subject to a zero limit.
New Zealand operates a program called Compulsory Breath Testing, which allows police to stop motorists at any time. CBT is usually carried out at roadside checkpoints but mobile patrol cars can also randomly stop motorists to administer a test. The police also carry out roadside drug tests upon motorists they suspect have used drugs.
The system in New Zealand is age - based. the limits are:
The penalties for exceeding the limits are:
Note that penalties apply to the lowest reading taken across both breath and blood tests. For example, if a driver twenty years or over has a breath test result of 426 μg / L but a subsequent blood test returns 0.077 % BAC, then the driver is not charged with any drink driving offence despite the breath reading being over the breath alcohol limit. The penalty for injuring or killing someone when under the influences is the same as dangerous driving (up to five years imprisonment, up to NZ $20,000 or both; loss of licence for one year or more).
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when was the last time tennessee used the death penalty | List of people executed in Tennessee - wikipedia
Six individuals have been executed in the state of Tennessee, United States since 2000, the year of Tennessee 's first execution since capital punishment was found legal in Gregg v. Georgia.
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who did the populists nominate for president in 1892 | United states presidential election, 1892 - wikipedia
Benjamin Harrison Republican
Grover Cleveland Democratic
The United States presidential election of 1892 was the 27th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 8, 1892. In a re-match of the closely contested 1888 presidential election, former Democratic President Grover Cleveland defeated incumbent Republican President Benjamin Harrison. Cleveland 's victory made him the first and to date only person in American history to be elected to a second, non-consecutive presidential term.
Though some Republicans opposed Harrison 's re-nomination, Harrison defeated James G. Blaine and William McKinley on the first presidential ballot of the 1892 Republican National Convention. Cleveland defeated challenges by David B. Hill and Horace Boies on the first presidential ballot of the 1892 Democratic National Convention, becoming the first Democrat to win his party 's presidential nomination in three different elections. The new Populist Party, formed by groups from The Grange, the Farmers ' Alliances, and the Knights of Labor, fielded a ticket led by former Congressman James B. Weaver of Iowa.
The campaign centered mainly on economic issues, especially the protectionist 1890 McKinley Tariff. Cleveland ran on a platform of lowering the tariff, and he opposed the Republicans ' 1890 voting rights proposal. Cleveland was also a proponent of the gold standard, while the Republicans and Populists both supported bimetalism.
Cleveland swept the Solid South and won several important swing states, taking a majority of the electoral vote and a plurality of the popular vote. Cleveland was the first person since Andrew Jackson to win a significant number of electoral votes in three different elections, and only Jackson, Cleveland, and Franklin D. Roosevelt have won the popular vote in three different elections. Weaver won 8.5 % of the popular vote and carried several Western states, while John Bidwell of the Prohibition Party won 2.2 % of the popular vote. The Democrats would not win another presidential election until 1912.
Benjamin Harrison 's administration was widely viewed as unsuccessful, and as a result, Thomas C. Platt (a political boss in New York) and other disaffected party leaders mounted a dump - Harrison movement coalescing around veteran candidate James G. Blaine from Maine, a favorite of Republican party regulars. Blaine had been the Republican nominee in 1884 when he was beaten by Democrat Grover Cleveland.
Privately, Harrison did not want to be re-nominated for the presidency, but he remained opposed to the nomination going to Blaine, who he was convinced intended to run, and thought himself the only candidate capable of preventing such an occurrence. Blaine, however, did not want another fight for the nomination and a re-match against Cleveland at the general election. His health had begun to fail, and three of his children had recently died (Walker and Alice in 1890, and Emmons in 1892). Blaine refused to run actively, but the cryptic nature of his responses to a draft effort fueled speculation that he was not averse to such a movement. For his part, Benjamin Harrison curtly demanded that he either renounce his supporters or resign his position as Secretary of State, with Blaine choosing the latter a scant three days before the National Convention. A boom began to build around the "draft Blaine '' effort with supporters hoping to cause a break towards their candidate.
Senator John Sherman from Ohio, who had been the leading candidate for the nomination at the 1888 Republican Convention before Harrison actually won it, was also brought up again as a possible challenger. Like Blaine, however, he was averse to another bitter battle for the nomination and "like the rebels down South, want to be let alone. '' This inevitably turned attention to Ohio 's Governor William McKinley, who was indecisive as to his intentions in spite his ill feelings toward Harrison and popularity among the Republican base. He was not averse to receiving the nomination, but did not expect to win it either. However, should Blaine and Harrison fail to attain the nomination after a number of ballots, he felt he could be brought forth as a harmony candidate. Despite the urging of Republican powerbroker Mark Hanna, McKinley would not openly put himself out as a potential candidate, afraid of offending Harrison and Blaine 's supporters, while also feeling that the coming elections would not favor the Republicans.
In any case, the president 's forces had the nomination locked up by the time delegates met in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on June 7 -- 10, 1892. Richard Thomas from Indiana delivered Harrison 's nominating speech. Harrison was nominated on the first ballot with 535.17 votes to 182.83 for Blaine, 182 for McKinley, and the rest scattered. McKinley protested when the Ohio delegation threw its entire vote in his name, despite not being formally nominated, but Joseph Foraker, who headed the delegation, managed to silence him on a point of order. With the ballots counted, many observers were surprised at the strength of the McKinley vote, which almost overtook Blaine. Whitelaw Reid from New York, editor of the New York Tribune and recent United States Ambassador to France, was nominated for vice-president. The incumbent Vice President, Levi Morton, was supported by many at the convention, including Reid himself, but he did not wish to serve another term. Harrison also did not want to have Morton on the ticket.
By the beginning of 1892, many Americans were ready to return to Cleveland 's political policies. Although he was the clear frontrunner for the Democratic presidential nomination, he was far from the universal choice of the party 's supporters; many, such as the journalists Henry Watterson and Charles Dana, thought that if he were to attain the nomination, their party would lose in November, but there were few capable of challenging him effectively. Though he had remained relatively quiet on the issue of silver versus gold, often deferring to bi-metallism, Senate Democrats in January 1891 voted for free coinage of silver. Furious, he sent a letter to Ellery Anderson, who headed the New York Reform Club, to condemn the party 's apparent drift towards inflation and agrarian control, the "dangerous and reckless experiment of free, unlimited coinage of silver at our mints. '' Advisors warned that such statements might alienate potential supporters in the South and West and risk his chances for the nomination, but Cleveland felt that being right on the issue was more important than the nomination. After making his position clear, Cleveland worked to focus his campaign on tariff reform, hoping that the silver issue would dissipate.
A challenger emerged in the form of David Hill, former Governor of and incumbent Senator from New York. In favor of bi-metallism and tariff reform, Hill hoped to make inroads with Cleveland 's supporters while appealing to those in the South and Midwest that were not keen on nominating Cleveland for a third consecutive time. Hill had begun to run for the position of president unofficially as early as 1890, and he even offered former Postmaster General Donald Dickinson his support for the vice-presidential nomination. He was not able to escape his past association with Tammany Hall, however, which he supported along machine politics, and the lack of confidence in his ability to defeat Cleveland for the nomination kept Hill from attaining the support he needed. By the time of the convention, Cleveland could count on the support of majority of the state Democratic parties, though his native New York remained pledged to Senator Hill.
In a narrow first - ballot victory, Cleveland received 617.33 votes, barely 10 more than needed, to 114 for Senator Hill from New York, 103 for Governor Horace Boies of Iowa, a populist and former Republican, and the rest scattered. Although the Cleveland forces preferred Isaac P. Gray from Indiana for vice-president, Cleveland directed his own support to the convention favorite, Adlai E. Stevenson from Illinois. As a supporter of using paper greenbacks and free silver to inflate the currency and alleviate economic distress in rural districts, Stevenson balanced the ticket headed by Cleveland, who supported hard - money and the gold standard. At the same time, it was hoped that his nomination would represent a promise not to ignore regulars, and so potentially get Hill and Tammany Hall to support the Democratic ticket to their fullest in the coming election.
Populist candidates:
In 1891, the American farmers ' alliances met with delegates from labor and reform groups in Cincinnati, Ohio, to discuss the formation of a new political party. They formed the People 's Party, commonly known as the "Populists, '' a year later in St. Louis, Missouri.
Leonidas L. Polk was the initial frontrunner to the presidential nomination. He had been instrumental in the party 's formation and held great appeal with its agrarian base, but he unexpectedly died while in Washington, D.C., on June 11. Another candidate mentioned frequently for the nomination was Walter Q. Gresham, an appellate judge who had made a number of rulings against the railroads that made him a favorite of some farmer and labor groups, and it was felt that his rather dignified image would make the Populists appear as more than a minor contender. Both Democrats and Republicans feared his nomination for this reason, and while Gresham toyed with the idea, he ultimately was not ready to make a complete break with the two parties, declining petitions for his nomination right up to and during the Populist Convention. Later he would endorse Grover Cleveland for the presidency.
At the first Populist national convention in Omaha, Nebraska, in July 1892, James B. Weaver from Iowa was nominated for president on the first ballot, now lacking any serious opposition. While his nomination brought with him significant campaigning experience from over several decades, he also had a longer tract of history for which Republicans and Democrats could criticize him, and he also alienated many potential supporters in the South, having participated in Sherman 's March to the Sea. James G. Field from Virginia was nominated for vice-president to try and rectify this problem while also attaining the regional balance often seen in Republican and Democratic tickets. I
Source: US President -- P Convention. Our Campaigns. (September 7, 2009). Source: US Vice President -- P Convention. Our Campaigns. (September 7, 2009).
The Populist platform called for nationalization of the telegraph, telephone, and railroads, free coinage of silver, a graduated income tax, and creation of postal savings banks.
Prohibition candidates:
The sixth Prohibition Party National Convention assembled in Music Hall in Cincinnati, Ohio. There were 972 delegates present from all states except Louisiana and South Carolina.
Two major stories about the convention loomed before it assembled. In the first place, some members of the national committee sought to merge the Prohibition and Populist Parties. While there appeared a likelihood that the merger would materialize, it was clear that it was not going to happen by the time that the convention convened. Secondly, the southern states sent a number of black delegates. Cincinnati hotels refused to serve meals to blacks and whites at the same time, and several hotels refused service to the black delegates altogether.
The convention nominated John Bidwell from California for president on the first ballot. Prior to the convention, the race was thought to be close between Bidwell and William Jennings Demorest, but the New York delegation became irritated with Demorest and voted for Bidwell 73 - 7. James B. Cranfill from Texas was nominated for vice-president on the first ballot with 417 votes to 351 for Joshua Levering from Maryland and 45 for others.
Source: US President -- P Convention. Our Campaigns. (May 9, 2010).
The first Socialist Labor Party National Convention assembled in New York City and, despite running on a platform that called for the abolition of the positions of president and vice-president, decided to nominate candidates for those positions: Simon Wing from Massachusetts for president and Charles Matchett from New York for vice-president. They were on the ballot in five states: Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania.
The tariff issue dominated this rather lackluster campaign. Harrison defended the protectionist McKinley Tariff passed during his term. For his part, Cleveland assured voters that he opposed absolute free trade and would continue his campaign for a reduction in the tariff. Cleveland also denounced the Lodge Bill, a voting rights bill that sought to protect the rights of African American voters in the South. William McKinley campaigned extensively for Harrison, setting the stage for his own run four years later.
The campaign took a somber turn when, in October, First Lady Caroline Harrison died. Despite the ill health that had plagued Mrs. Harrison since her youth and had worsened in the last decade, she often accompanied Mr. Harrison on official travels. On one such trip, to California in the spring of 1891, she caught a cold. It quickly deepened into her chest, and she was eventually diagnosed with tuberculosis. A summer in the Adirondack Mountains failed to restore her to health. An invalid the last six months of her life, she died in the White House on October 25, 1892, just two weeks before the national election. As a result, all of the candidates ceased campaigning.
The margin in the popular vote for Cleveland was 400,000, the largest since Grant 's re-election in 1872. The Democrats won the presidency and both houses of Congress for the first time since 1856. President Harrison 's re-election bid was a decisive loss in both the popular and electoral count, unlike President Cleveland 's re-election bid four years earlier, in which he won the popular vote, but lost the electoral vote. Cleveland was the third of only five presidents to win re-election with a smaller percentage of the popular vote than in previous elections, although in the two prior such incidents -- James Madison in 1812 and Andrew Jackson in 1832 -- not all states held popular elections. Ironically, Cleveland saw his popular support decrease not only from his electoral win in 1884, but also from his electoral loss in 1888. A similar vote decrease would happen again for Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940 and 1944 and Barack Obama in 2012.
At the county level, the Democratic candidate fared much better than the Republican candidate. The Republicans ' vote was not nearly as widespread as the Democrats. In 1892, it was still a sectionally based party mainly situated in the East, Midwest, and West and was barely visible south of the Mason -- Dixon line. In the South the party was holding on in only a few counties. In East Tennessee and tidewater Virginia, the vote at the county level showed some strength, but it barely existed in Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas.
In a continuation of its collapse there during the 1890 Congressional elections, the Republican Party even struggled in its Midwestern strongholds, where general electoral troubles from economic woes were acutely exacerbated by the promotion of temperance laws and, in Wisconsin and Illinois, the aggressive support of state politicians for English - only compulsory education laws. Such policies, which particularly in the case of the latter were associated with an upwelling of nativist and anti-Catholic attitudes amongst their supporters, resulted in the defection of large sections of immigrant communities, especially Germans, to the Democratic Party. Cleveland carried Wisconsin and Illinois with their 36 combined electoral votes, a Democratic victory not seen in those states since 1852 and 1856 respectively, and which would not be repeated until Woodrow Wilson 's election in 1912. While not as dramatic a loss as in 1890, it would take until the next election cycle for more moderate Republican leaders to pick up the pieces left by the reformist crusaders and bring alienated immigrants back to the fold.
Of the 2,683 counties making returns, Cleveland won in 1,389 (51.77 %), Harrison carried 1,017 (37.91 %), while Weaver placed first in 276 (10.29 %). One county (0.04 %) split evenly between Cleveland and Harrison.
Populist James B. Weaver, calling for free coinage of silver and an inflationary monetary policy, received such strong support in the West that he become the only third - party nominee between 1860 and 1912 to carry a single state. The Democratic Party did not have a presidential ticket on the ballot in the states of Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, North Dakota, or Wyoming, and Weaver won the first four of these states. Weaver also performed well in the South as he won counties in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, and Texas. Populists did best in Alabama, where electoral chicanery probably carried the day for the Democrats.
The Prohibition ticket received 270,879, or 2.2 % nationwide. It was the largest total vote and highest percentage of the vote received by any Prohibition Party national ticket.
Wyoming, having attained statehood two years earlier, became the first state to allow women to vote in a presidential election since 1804. (Women in New Jersey had the right to vote under the state 's original constitution, but this right was rescinded in 1807.)
Wyoming was also one of six states (along with North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, and Idaho) participating in their first presidential election. This was the most new states voting since the first election.
The election witnessed many states splitting their electoral votes. Electors from the state of Michigan were selected using the congressional district method (the winner in each congressional district wins one electoral vote, the winner of the state wins two electoral votes). This resulted in a split between the Republican and Democratic electors: nine for Harrison and five for Cleveland. In Oregon, the direct election of presidential electors combined with the fact that one Weaver elector was endorsed by the Democratic Party and elected as a Fusionist, resulted in a split between the Republican and Populist electors: three for Harrison and one for Weaver. In California, the direct election of presidential electors combined with the close race resulted in a split between the Republican and Democratic electors: eight for Cleveland and one for Harrison. In Ohio, the direct election of presidential electors combined with the close race resulted in a split between the Republican and Democratic of electors: 22 for Harrison and one for Cleveland. In North Dakota, two electors from the Democratic - Populist Fusion ticket won and one Republican Elector won. This created a split delegation of electors: one for Weaver, one for Harrison, and one for Cleveland.
This was the first occasion in which incumbent presidents were defeated in two consecutive elections. This would not happen again until 1980.
This was the last election in which the Democrats won California until 1916 (although it voted against the Republicans by supporting the Progressive Party in 1912), the last in which the Democrats won Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, New Jersey, New York, West Virginia and Wisconsin until 1912, the last in which the Democrats won a majority of electoral votes in Maryland until 1904, and the last in which the Republicans won Montana until 1904. The election was also the last in which the Democrats did n't win Colorado and Nevada until 1904.
Source (Popular Vote): Leip, David. "1892 Presidential Election Results ''. Dave Leip 's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Retrieved July 27, 2005.
Source (Electoral Vote): "Electoral College Box Scores 1789 -- 1996 ''. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved July 31, 2005.
Results by county, shaded according to winning candidate 's percentage of the vote
Map of presidential election results by county
Map of Democratic presidential election results by county
Map of Republican presidential election results by county
Map of Populist presidential election results by county
Map of "Other '' presidential election results by county
Cartogram of presidential election results by county
Cartogram of Democratic presidential election results by county
Cartogram of Republican presidential election results by county
Cartogram of Populist presidential election results by county
Cartogram of "other '' presidential election results by county
Source: Data from Walter Dean Burnham, Presidential ballots, 1836 -- 1892 (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955) pp 247 - 57.
Margin of victory less than 5 % (193 electoral votes):
Margin of victory between 5 % and 10 % (101 electoral votes):
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who has authority to act on behalf of a company | Law of agency - wikipedia
The law of agency is an area of commercial law dealing with a set of contractual, quasi-contractual and non-contractual fiduciary relationships that involve a person, called the agent, that is authorized to act on behalf of another (called the principal) to create legal relations with a third party. Succinctly, it may be referred to as the equal relationship between a principal and an agent whereby the principal, expressly or implicitly, authorizes the agent to work under his or her control and on his or her behalf. The agent is, thus, required to negotiate on behalf of the principal or bring him or her and third parties into contractual relationship. This branch of law separates and regulates the relationships between:
In India, section 182 of the Contract Act 1872 defines Agent as "a person employed to do any act for another or to represent another in dealings with third persons ''.
The reciprocal rights and liabilities between a principal and an agent reflect commercial and legal realities. A business owner often relies on an employee or another person to conduct a business. In the case of a corporation, since a corporation can only act through Natural person agents. The principal is bound by the contract entered into by the agent, so long as the agent performs within the scope of the agency.
A third party may rely in good faith on the representation by a person who identifies himself as an agent for another. It is not always cost effective to check whether someone who is represented as having the authority to act for another actually has such authority. If it is subsequently found that the alleged agent was acting without necessary authority, the agent will generally be held liable.
There are three broad classes of agent:
An agent who acts within the scope of authority conferred by his or her principal binds the principal in the obligations he or she creates against third parties. There are essentially three kinds of authority recognized in the law: actual authority (whether express or implied), apparent authority, and ratified authority (explained here).
Actual authority can be of two kinds. Either the principal may have expressly conferred authority on the agent, or authority may be implied. Authority arises by consensual agreement, and whether it exists is a question of fact. An agent, as a general rule, is only entitled to indemnity from the principal if he or she has acted within the scope of her actual authority, and may be in breach of contract, and liable to a third party for breach of the implied warranty of authority. In tort, a claimant may not recover from the principal unless the agent is acting within the scope of employment.
Express actual authority means an agent has been expressly told he or she may act on behalf of a principal.
Implied actual authority, also called "usual authority '', is authority an agent has by virtue of being reasonably necessary to carry out his express authority. As such, it can be inferred by virtue of a position held by an agent. For example, partners have authority to bind the other partners in the firm, their liability being joint and several, and in a corporation, all executives and senior employees with decision - making authority by virtue of their position have authority to bind the corporation. Other forms of implied actual authority include customary authority. This is where customs of a trade imply the agent to have certain powers. In wool buying industries it is customary for traders to purchase in their own names. Also incidental authority, where an agent is supposed to have any authority to complete other tasks which are necessary and incidental to completing the express actual authority. This must be no more than necessary
Apparent authority (also called "ostensible authority '') exists where the principal 's words or conduct would lead a reasonable person in the third party 's position to believe that the agent was authorized to act, even if the principal and the purported agent had never discussed such a relationship. For example, where one person appoints a person to a position which carries with it agency - like powers, those who know of the appointment are entitled to assume that there is apparent authority to do the things ordinarily entrusted to one occupying such a position. If a principal creates the impression that an agent is authorized but there is no actual authority, third parties are protected so long as they have acted reasonably. This is sometimes termed "agency by estoppel '' or the "doctrine of holding out '', where the principal will be estopped from denying the grant of authority if third parties have changed their positions to their detriment in reliance on the representations made.
In the case of Watteau v Fenwick, Lord Coleridge CJ on the Queen 's Bench concurred with an opinion by Wills J that a third party could hold personally liable a principal who he did not know about when he sold cigars to an agent that was acting outside of its authority. Wills J held that "the principal is liable for all the acts of the agent which are within the authority usually confided to an agent of that character, notwithstanding limitations, as between the principal and the agent, put upon that authority. '' This decision is heavily criticised and doubted, though not entirely overruled in the UK. It is sometimes referred to as "usual authority '' (though not in the sense used by Lord Denning MR in Hely - Hutchinson, where it is synonymous with "implied actual authority ''). It has been explained as a form of apparent authority, or "inherent agency power ''.
Authority by virtue of a position held to deter fraud and other harms that may befall individuals dealing with agents, there is a concept of Inherent Agency power, which is power derived solely by virtue of the agency relation. For example, partners have apparent authority to bind the other partners in the firm, their liability being joint and several (see below), and in a corporation, all executives and senior employees with decision - making authority by virtue of their declared position have apparent authority to bind the corporation.
Even if the agent does act without authority, the principal may ratify the transaction and accept liability on the transactions as negotiated. This may be express or implied from the principal 's behavior, e.g. if the agent has purported to act in a number of situations and the principal has knowingly acquiesced, the failure to notify all concerned of the agent 's lack of authority is an implied ratification to those transactions and an implied grant of authority for future transactions of a similar nature.
If the agent has actual or apparent authority, the agent will not be liable for acts performed within the scope of such authority, so long as the relationship of the agency and the identity of the principal have been disclosed. When the agency is undisclosed or partially disclosed, however, both the agent and the principal are liable. Where the principal is not bound because the agent has no actual or apparent authority, the purported agent is liable to the third party for breach of the implied warranty of.
If the agent has acted without actual authority, but the principal is nevertheless bound because the agent had apparent authority, the agent is liable to indemnify the principal for any resulting loss or damage.
If the agent has acted within the scope of the actual authority given, the principal must indemnify the agent for payments made during the course of the relationship whether the expenditure was expressly authorized or merely necessary in promoting the principal 's business.
An agent owes the principal a number of duties. These include:
An agent must not accept any new obligations that are inconsistent with the duties owed to the principal. An agent can represent the interests of more than one principal, conflicting or potentially conflicting, only after full disclosure and consent of the principal. An agent must not usurp an opportunity from the principal by taking it for himself or passing it on to a third party.
In return, the principal must make a full disclosure of all information relevant to the transactions that the agent is authorized to negotiate.
Mutual agreement also through the principal responding his authority. Through renouncing when agent hm self stop being an agent. when principal revoke.
The internal agency relationship may be dissolved by agreement. Under sections 201 to 210 of the Indian Contract Act 1872, an agency may come to an end in a variety of ways:
Alternatively, agency may be terminated by operation of law:
The principal also can not revoke the agent 's authority after it has been partly exercised, so as to bind the principal (s. 204), though he can always do so, before such authority has been so exercised (s. 203). Further, under s. 205, if the agency is for a fixed period, the principal can not terminate the agency before the time expired, except for sufficient cause. If he does, he is liable to compensate the agent for the loss caused to him thereby. The same rules apply where the agent, renounces an agency for a fixed period. Notice in this connection that want of skill, continuous disobedience of lawful orders, and rude or insulting behavior has been held to be sufficient cause for dismissal of an agent. Further, reasonable notice has to be given by one party to the other; otherwise, damage resulting from want of such notice, will have to be paid (s. 206). Under s. 207, the revocation or renunciation of an agency may be made expressly or implicitly by conduct. The termination does not take effect as regards the agent, till it becomes known to him and as regards third party, till the termination is known to them (s. 208).
When an agent 's authority is terminated, it operates as a termination of subagent also (s. 210).
This has become a more difficult area as states are not consistent on the nature of a partnership. Some states opt for the partnership as no more than an aggregate of the natural persons who have joined the firm. Others treat the partnership as a business entity and, like a corporation, vest the partnership with a separate legal personality. Hence, for example, in English law, a partner is the agent of the other partners whereas, in Scots law where there is a separate personality, a partner is the agent of the partnership. This form of agency is inherent in the status of a partner and does not arise out of a contract of agency with a principal. The English Partnership Act 1890 provides that a partner who acts within the scope of his actual authority (express or implied) will bind the partnership when he does anything in the ordinary course of carrying on partnership business. Even if that implied authority has been revoked or limited, the partner will have apparent authority unless the third party knows that the authority has been compromised. Hence, if the partnership wishes to limit any partner 's authority, it must give express notice of the limitation to the world. However, there would be little substantive difference if English law was amended: partners will bind the partnership rather than their fellow partners individually. For these purposes, the knowledge of the partner acting will be imputed to the other partners or the firm if a separate personality. The other partners or the firm are the principal and third parties are entitled to assume that the principal has been informed of all relevant information. This causes problems when one partner acts fraudulently or negligently and causes loss to clients of the firm. In most states, a distinction is drawn between knowledge of the firm 's general business activities and the confidential affairs as they affect one client. Thus, there is no imputation if the partner is acting against the interests of the firm as a fraud. There is more likely to be liability in tort if the partnership benefited by receiving fee income for the work negligently performed, even if only as an aspect of the standard provisions of vicarious liability. Whether the injured party wishes to sue the partnership or the individual partners is usually a matter for the plaintiff since, in most jurisdictions, their liability is joint and several.
Agency relationships are common in many professional areas.
An agent in commercial law (also referred to as a manager) is a person who is authorized to act on behalf of another (called the principal or client) to create a legal relationship with a third party.
Real estate transactions refer to real estate brokerage, and mortgage brokerage. In real estate brokerage, the buyers or sellers are the principals themselves and the broker or his salesperson who represents each principal is his agent.
Agency law in the United Kingdom is a component of UK commercial law, and forms a core set of rules necessary for the smooth functioning of business. Agency law is primarily governed by the Common law and to a lesser extent by statutory instruments.
In 1986, the European Communities enacted Directive 86 / 653 / EEC on self - employed commercial agents. In the UK, this was implemented into national law in the Commercial Agents Regulations 1993. Thus, agent and principals in a commercial agency relationship are subject both to the Common law and the Commercial Agents Regulations.
The Commercial Agents Regulations require agents to act "dutifully and in good faith '' in performing their activities (Reg. 3); co-extensively, principals are required principals to act "dutifully and in good faith '' in their "relations '' with their commercial agents (Reg 4). Though there is no statutory definition of this obligation to act "dutifully and in good faith '', it has been suggested that it requires principals and agents to act "with honesty, openness and regard for the interests of the other party to the transaction ''. Two "normative precepts '' assist in concretising this standard of conduct:
"Firstly, expressing honesty and openness, commercial agents and principals must mutually co-operate in the performance of their agreement. Conduct in good faith requires that each party proactively take action to assist the other in the realisation of their bargain, as opposed to mere abstention from obstructive behaviour. However, whether a party has acted in good faith must not be determined by reference to a moral or metaphysical notion of co-operation; this assessment must be based on an objective appraisal of the actual commercial agency relationship. Accordingly, the intensity of the required co-operation will vary, depending on the terms of the contract and the pertinent commercial practices.
Secondly, commercial agents and principals must not exploit asymmetries in their agency relationship in such a manner that frustrates the legitimate expectations of the other party. In this respect, whether a conduct is in breach of the Obligation must be appraised holistically, considering all aspects of the relationship; material facts will include the contractual and commercial leverage of each party, their objective intentions as enshrined in the contract, and the business practices of the sector in question. Nevertheless, the starting axiom of this investigation must be that these are commercial relationships in which professionals are expected to be self - reliant and must be free to pursue their self - interest. Critically, this will not be an estimation aimed at achieving ontological fairness, a just bargain or equilibrium between the giving and receiving of commercial agents and principals ".
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most total goals in a premier league season | Premier League records and statistics - wikipedia
The top tier of English football was renamed the Premier League for the start of the 1992 -- 93 season. The following page details the football records and statistics of the Premier League since then.
This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League.
The all - time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992. The table that follows is accurate as of the start of the 2017 -- 18 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2017 -- 18 Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest either positive or negative) numbers in each column.
League or status at 2017 -- 18:
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who played althea on in the heat of the night | Anne - Marie Johnson - wikipedia
Anne - Marie Johnson (born July 18, 1960) is an American actress and impressionist, who has starred in film and on television. She is known for her roles as Nadine Hudson Thomas on What 's Happening Now!!, Aileen Lewis on Double Trouble, Althea Tibbs on In the Heat of the Night, and as a cast member on In Living Color during its final season.
Anne - Marie Johnson was born in Los Angeles, California. Her father is African - American and her mother is Multiracial - American. She graduated from University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) with a degree in Acting and Theater.
Her first television appearance was as a contestant on the game show Card Sharks, where her name was listed as "Anne Johnson ''. She appeared on the game show Child 's Play under her full name, as well as the pilot episode for the game show Body Language as Anne Marie Johnson, where she described herself as a "struggling actress ''.
Johnson played the role of Aileen Lewis on the 1984 -- 85 NBC comedy series Double Trouble. She played Raj 's wife Nadine Hudson Thomas in the 1985 -- 88 syndicated series What 's Happening Now!!.
Cast as Althea Tibbs on the NBC / CBS series In the Heat of the Night, she became well known in this role, performing in series from 1988 through 1993.
While appearing on In the Heat of the Night, Johnson recorded the song "Little Drummer Boy '' for the 1991 cast Christmas CD Christmas Time 's A Comin '. Providing vocals behind her were country gospel group The Marksmen Quartet. The song was produced by co-stars Randall Franks and Alan Autry.
Johnson joined the cast of the Fox Network sketch comedy series In Living Color in its last season (1993 -- 1994); afterwards she portrayed Alycia Barnett in one season of the Fox series Melrose Place (1995 -- 1996). She had a recurring role on the CBS TV series JAG as Representative Bobbi Latham.
She has made guest appearances on other TV series, including Diff'rent Strokes, Hill Street Blues, Hunter, Babylon 5, Living Single, That 's So Raven, Leverage, Girlfriends, The Parkers and Rock Me Baby. Other appearances include playing fashion designer Donna Cabonna on That 's So Raven and TV reporter Janet King on I 'm in the Band.
Johnson was elected First National Vice President of the Screen Actors Guild in 2005. In 2010, she was succeeded by Ned Vaughn. She ran for president of the actors ' union in 2009 on the Membership First ticket, but she lost to eventual winner Ken Howard.
Johnson has been married to Martin Grey since 1996.
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what part of the colon is located in the rlq | Quadrant (abdomen) - wikipedia
The human abdomen is divided into regions by anatomists and physicians for purposes of study, diagnosis, and therapy. In the four - region scheme, four quadrants allow localisation of pain and tenderness, scars, lumps, and other items of interest, narrowing in on which organs and tissues may be involved. The quadrants are referred to as the left lower quadrant, left upper quadrant, right upper quadrant and right lower quadrant, as follows below. These terms are not used in comparative anatomy, since most other animals do not stand erect.
Left lower quadrant:
Left upper quadrant:
Right upper quadrant:
Right lower quadrant:
If abdominal pain or signs of peritonitis are localised in the LLQ, colitis, diverticulitis, ureteral colic or pain due to ovarian cysts or pelvic inflammatory disease may be suspected. Examples of tumors in the left lower quadrant include colon cancer and ovarian tumor.
The LUQ may be painful or tender in the case of intestinal malrotation. The RUQ may be painful or tender in hepatitis, cholecystitis, and peptic ulcer. The RLQ may be painful and / or tender in such conditions as appendicitis.
Children
Adults
Elderly
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who elects head of state government in great britain | Government of the United Kingdom - wikipedia
Her Majesty 's Government (HMG; Welsh: Llywodraeth Ei Mawrhydi), commonly referred to as the UK government or British government, is the central government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
The government is led by the Prime Minister, who selects all the remaining ministers. The prime minister and the other most senior ministers belong to the supreme decision - making committee, known as the Cabinet. The government ministers all sit in Parliament, and are accountable to it. The government is dependent on Parliament to make primary legislation, and since the Fixed - terms Parliaments Act 2011, general elections are held every five years to elect a new House of Commons, unless there is a successful vote of no confidence in the government or a two - thirds vote for a snap election (as was the case in 2017) in the House of Commons, in which case an election may be held sooner. After an election, the monarch (currently Queen Elizabeth II) selects as prime minister the leader of the party most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons, usually by possessing a majority of MPs.
Under the uncodified British constitution, executive authority lies with the monarch, although this authority is exercised only by, or on the advice of, the prime minister and the cabinet. The Cabinet members advise the monarch as members of the Privy Council. They also exercise power directly as leaders of the Government Departments.
The current prime minister is Theresa May, who took office on 13 July 2016. She is the leader of the Conservative Party, which won a majority of seats in the House of Commons in the general election on 7 May 2015, when David Cameron was the party leader; although at the last general election she failed to secure a majority government. Prior to this, Cameron and the Conservatives led a coalition from 2010 to 2015 with the Liberal Democrats, in which Cameron was prime minister.
A key principle of the British Constitution is that the government is responsible to Parliament. This is called responsible government.
The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy in which the reigning monarch (that is, the King or Queen who is the Head of State at any given time) does not make any open political decisions. All political decisions are taken by the government and Parliament. This constitutional state of affairs is the result of a long history of constraining and reducing the political power of the monarch, beginning with the Magna Carta in 1215.
Parliament is split into two houses: the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The House of Commons is the lower house and is the more powerful. The House of Lords is the upper house and although it can vote to amend proposed laws, the House of Commons can usually vote to overrule its amendments. Although the House of Lords can introduce bills, most important laws are introduced in the House of Commons -- and most of those are introduced by the government, which schedules the vast majority of parliamentary time in the Commons. Parliamentary time is essential for bills to be passed into law, because they must pass through a number of readings before becoming law. Prior to introducing a bill, the government may run a public consultation to solicit feedback from the public and businesses, and often may have already introduced and discussed the policy in the Queen 's Speech, or in an election manifesto or party platform.
Ministers of the Crown are responsible to the House in which they sit; they make statements in that House and take questions from members of that House. For most senior ministers this is usually the elected House of Commons rather than the House of Lords. There have been some recent exceptions to this: for example, cabinet ministers Lord Mandelson (First Secretary of State) and Lord Adonis (Secretary of State for Transport) sat in the Lords and were responsible to that House during the government of Gordon Brown.
Since the start of Edward VII 's reign in 1901, the prime minister has always been an elected member of Parliament (MP) and therefore directly accountable to the House of Commons. A similar convention applies to the Chancellor of the Exchequer. It would likely be politically unacceptable for the budget speech to be given in the Lords, with MPs unable to directly question the Chancellor, especially now that the Lords have very limited powers in relation to money bills. The last Chancellor of the Exchequer to be a member of the House of Lords was Lord Denman, who served as interim Chancellor of the Exchequer for one month in 1834.
Under the British system, the government is required by convention and for practical reasons to maintain the confidence of the House of Commons. It requires the support of the House of Commons for the maintenance of supply (by voting through the government 's budgets) and to pass primary legislation. By convention, if a government loses the confidence of the House of Commons it must either resign or a General Election is held. The support of the Lords, while useful to the government in getting its legislation passed without delay, is not vital. A government is not required to resign even if it loses the confidence of the Lords and is defeated in key votes in that House. The House of Commons is thus the Responsible house.
The prime minister is held to account during Prime Minister 's Question Time (PMQs) which provides an opportunity for MPs from all parties to question the PM on any subject. There are also departmental questions when ministers answer questions relating to their specific departmental brief. Unlike PMQs both the cabinet ministers for the department and junior ministers within the department may answer on behalf of the government, depending on the topic of the question.
During debates on legislation proposed by the government, ministers -- usually with departmental responsibility for the bill -- will lead the debate for the government and respond to points made by MPs or Lords.
Committees of both the House of Commons and House of Lords hold the government to account, scrutinise its work and examine in detail proposals for legislation. Ministers appear before committees to give evidence and answer questions.
Government ministers are also required by convention and the Ministerial Code, when Parliament is sitting, to make major statements regarding government policy or issues of national importance to Parliament. This allows MPs or Lords to question the government on the statement. When the government instead chooses to make announcements first outside Parliament, it is often the subject of significant criticism from MPs and the Speaker of the House of Commons.
The British monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II, is the head of state and the sovereign, but not the head of government.
The monarch takes little direct part in governing the country, and remains neutral in political affairs. However, the legal authority of the state that is vested in the sovereign, known as The Crown, remains the source of the executive power exercised by the government.
In addition to explicit statutory authority, in many areas the Crown also possesses a body of powers known as the Royal Prerogative, which can be used for many purposes, from the issue or withdrawal of passports to declaration of war. By long - standing custom, most of these powers are delegated from the sovereign to various ministers or other officers of the Crown, who may use them without having to obtain the consent of Parliament.
The head of the government, the prime minister, also has weekly meetings with the monarch, when she "has a right and a duty to express her views on Government matters... These meetings, as with all communications between The Queen and her Government, remain strictly confidential. Having expressed her views, The Queen abides by the advice of her ministers. ''
Royal Prerogative powers include, but are not limited to, the following:
Even though the United Kingdom has no single constitutional document, the government published the above list in October 2003 to increase transparency, as some of the powers exercised in the name of the monarch are part of the Royal Prerogative. However, the complete extent of the Royal Prerogative powers has never been fully set out, as many of them originated in ancient custom and the period of absolute monarchy, or were modified by later constitutional practice,
Government ministers are supported by 560,000 Civil Servants and other staff working in the 24 Ministerial Departments and their executive agencies. There are also an additional 26 non-Ministerial Departments with a range of further responsibilities.
The prime minister is based at 10 Downing Street in Westminster, London. Cabinet meetings also take place here. Most government departments have their headquarters nearby in Whitehall.
Since 1999, certain areas of central government have been devolved to accountable governments in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. These are not part of Her Majesty 's Government, and are accountable to their own institutions, with their own authority under the Crown. By contrast, there is no devolved government in England.
Up to three layers of elected local authorities (such as County, District and Parish Councils) exist throughout all parts of the United Kingdom, in some places merged into Unitary Authorities. They have limited local tax - raising powers. Many other authorities and agencies also have statutory powers, generally subject to some central government supervision.
The government 's powers include general executive and statutory powers, delegated legislation, and numerous powers of appointment and patronage. However, some powerful officials and bodies, (e.g. HM judges, local authorities, and the Charity Commissions) are legally more or less independent of the government, and government powers are legally limited to those retained by the Crown under Common Law or granted and limited by Act of Parliament, and are subject to European Union law and the competencies that it defines. Both substantive and procedural limitations are enforceable in the Courts by judicial review.
Nevertheless, magistrates and mayors can still be arrested for and put on trial for corruption, and the government has powers to insert commissioners into a local authority to oversee its work, and to issue directives that must be obeyed by the local authority, if the local authority is not abiding by its statutory obligations.
By contrast, as in every other European Union (EU) member state, EU officials can not be prosecuted for any actions carried out in pursuit of their official duties, and foreign country diplomats (though not their employees) and foreign Members of the European Parliament are immune from prosecution in the UK under any circumstance. As a consequence, neither EU bodies nor diplomats have to pay taxes, since it would not be possible to prosecute them for tax evasion. This caused a dispute in recent years when the US Ambassador to the UK claimed that London 's congestion charge was a tax, and not a charge (despite the name), and therefore he did not have to pay it -- a claim the Greater London Authority disputed.
Similarly, the monarch is totally immune from criminal prosecution and may only be sued with her permission (this is known as sovereign immunity). The monarch, by law, is not required to pay income tax, but Queen Elizabeth II has voluntarily paid it since 1993, and also pays local rates voluntarily. However, the monarchy also receives a substantial grant from the government, the Sovereign Support Grant, and Queen Elizabeth II 's inheritance from her mother, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, was exempt from inheritance tax.
In addition to legislative powers, HM Government has substantial influence over local authorities and other bodies set up by it, by financial powers and grants. Many functions carried out by local authorities, such as paying out housing benefit and council tax benefit, are funded or substantially part - funded by central government.
Even though the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is supposed to be independent of the government on a day - to - day level and is supposed to be politically unbiased, some commentators have argued that the prospects of the BBC having its funding cut or its charter changed in future charter renewals in practice cause the BBC to be subtly biased towards the government of the day (or the likely future government as an election approaches) at times.
Neither the central government nor local authorities are permitted to sue anyone for defamation. Individual politicians are allowed to sue people for defamation in a personal capacity and without using government funds, but this is relatively rare (although George Galloway, who was a backbench MP for a quarter of a century, has sued or threatened to sue for defamation a number of times). However, it is a criminal offence to make a false statement about any election candidate during an election, with the purpose of reducing the number of votes they receive (as with libel, opinions do not count).
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where is maple syrup produced in the world | Maple syrup - wikipedia
Maple syrup is a syrup usually made from the xylem sap of sugar maple, red maple, or black maple trees, although it can also be made from other maple species. In cold climates, these trees store starch in their trunks and roots before the winter; the starch is then converted to sugar that rises in the sap in late winter and early spring. Maple trees are tapped by drilling holes into their trunks and collecting the exuded sap, which is processed by heating to evaporate much of the water, leaving the concentrated syrup.
Maple syrup was first collected and used by the indigenous peoples of North America, and the practice was adopted by European settlers, who gradually refined production methods. Technological improvements in the 1970s further refined syrup processing. The Canadian province of Quebec is by far the largest producer, responsible for 70 percent of the world 's output; Canadian exports of maple syrup in 2016 were C $ 487 million (about US $ 360 million), with Quebec accounting for some 90 percent of this total. Vermont is the largest producer in the United States, generating about six percent of the global supply.
Maple syrup is graded according to the Canada, United States, or Vermont scales based on its density and translucency. Sucrose is the most prevalent sugar in maple syrup. In Canada, syrups must be made exclusively from maple sap to qualify as maple syrup and must also be at least 66 percent sugar. In the United States, a syrup must be made almost entirely from maple sap to be labelled as "maple '', though states such as Vermont and New York have more restrictive definitions (see below).
Maple syrup is often eaten with pancakes, waffles, French toast, oatmeal or porridge. It is also used as an ingredient in baking and as a sweetener or flavouring agent. Culinary experts have praised its unique flavour, although the chemistry responsible is not fully understood.
Three species of maple trees are predominantly used to produce maple syrup: the sugar maple (Acer saccharum), the black maple (A. nigrum), and the red maple (A. rubrum), because of the high sugar content (roughly two to five percent) in the sap of these species. The black maple is included as a subspecies or variety in a more broadly viewed concept of A. saccharum, the sugar maple, by some botanists. Of these, the red maple has a shorter season because it buds earlier than sugar and black maples, which alters the flavour of the sap.
A few other (but not all) species of maple (Acer) are also sometimes used as sources of sap for producing maple syrup, including the box elder or Manitoba maple (Acer negundo), the silver maple (A. saccharinum), and the bigleaf maple (A. macrophyllum). Similar syrups may also be produced from birch or palm trees, among other sources.
Indigenous peoples living in northeastern North America were the first groups known to have produced maple syrup and maple sugar. According to aboriginal oral traditions, as well as archaeological evidence, maple tree sap was being processed into syrup long before Europeans arrived in the region. There are no authenticated accounts of how maple syrup production and consumption began, but various legends exist; one of the most popular involves maple sap being used in place of water to cook venison served to a chief. Other stories credit the development of maple syrup production to Nanabozho, Glooskap, or the squirrel. Aboriginal tribes developed rituals around sugar - making, celebrating the Sugar Moon (the first full moon of spring) with a Maple Dance. Many aboriginal dishes replaced the salt traditional in European cuisine with maple sugar or syrup.
The Algonquians recognized maple sap as a source of energy and nutrition. At the beginning of the spring thaw, they used stone tools to make V - shaped incisions in tree trunks; they then inserted reeds or concave pieces of bark to run the sap into buckets, which were often made from birch bark. The maple sap was concentrated either by dropping hot cooking stones into the buckets or by leaving them exposed to the cold temperatures overnight and disposing of the layer of ice that formed on top. While there was widespread agriculture in Mesoamerica and the Southeast and Southwest regions of the United States, the production of maple syrup is one of only a few agricultural processes in the Northeast that is not a European colonial import.
In the early stages of European colonization in northeastern North America, local Indigenous peoples showed the arriving colonists how to tap the trunks of certain types of maples during the spring thaw to harvest the sap. André Thevet, the "Royal Cosmographer of France '', wrote about Jacques Cartier drinking maple sap during his Canadian voyages. By 1680, European settlers and fur traders were involved in harvesting maple products. However, rather than making incisions in the bark, the Europeans used the method of drilling tapholes in the trunks with augers. During the 17th and 18th centuries, processed maple sap was used primarily as a source of concentrated sugar, in both liquid and crystallized - solid form, as cane sugar had to be imported from the West Indies.
Maple sugaring parties typically began to operate at the start of the spring thaw in regions of woodland with sufficiently large numbers of maples. Syrup makers first bored holes in the trunks, usually more than one hole per large tree; they then inserted wooden spouts into the holes and hung a wooden bucket from the protruding end of each spout to collect the sap. The buckets were commonly made by cutting cylindrical segments from a large tree trunk and then hollowing out each segment 's core from one end of the cylinder, creating a seamless, watertight container. Sap filled the buckets, and was then either transferred to larger holding vessels (barrels, large pots, or hollowed - out wooden logs), often mounted on sledges or wagons pulled by draft animals, or carried in buckets or other convenient containers. The sap - collection buckets were returned to the spouts mounted on the trees, and the process was repeated for as long as the flow of sap remained "sweet ''. The specific weather conditions of the thaw period were, and still are, critical in determining the length of the sugaring season. As the weather continues to warm, a maple tree 's normal early spring biological process eventually alters the taste of the sap, making it unpalatable, perhaps due to an increase in amino acids.
The boiling process was very time - consuming. The harvested sap was transported back to the party 's base camp, where it was then poured into large vessels (usually made from metal) and boiled to achieve the desired consistency. The sap was usually transported using large barrels pulled by horses or oxen to a central collection point, where it was processed either over a fire built out in the open or inside a shelter built for that purpose (the "sugar shack '').
Around the time of the American Civil War (1861 - 1865), syrup makers started using large, flat sheet metal pans as they were more efficient for boiling than heavy, rounded iron kettles, because of a greater surface area for evaporation. Around this time, cane sugar replaced maple sugar as the dominant sweetener in the US; as a result, producers focused marketing efforts on maple syrup. The first evaporator, used to heat and concentrate sap, was patented in 1858. In 1872, an evaporator was developed that featured two pans and a metal arch or firebox, which greatly decreased boiling time. Around 1900, producers bent the tin that formed the bottom of a pan into a series of flues, which increased the heated surface area of the pan and again decreased boiling time. Some producers also added a finishing pan, a separate batch evaporator, as a final stage in the evaporation process.
Buckets began to be replaced with plastic bags, which allowed people to see at a distance how much sap had been collected. Syrup producers also began using tractors to haul vats of sap from the trees being tapped (the sugarbush) to the evaporator. Some producers adopted motor - powered tappers and metal tubing systems to convey sap from the tree to a central collection container, but these techniques were not widely used. Heating methods also diversified: modern producers use wood, oil, natural gas, propane, or steam to evaporate sap. Modern filtration methods were perfected to prevent contamination of the syrup.
A large number of technological changes took place during the 1970s. Plastic tubing systems that had been experimental since the early part of the century were perfected, and the sap came directly from the tree to the evaporator house. Vacuum pumps were added to the tubing systems, and preheaters were developed to recycle heat lost in the steam. Producers developed reverse - osmosis machines to take a portion of water out of the sap before it was boiled, increasing processing efficiency.
Improvements in tubing and vacuum pumps, new filtering techniques, "supercharged '' preheaters, and better storage containers have since been developed. Research continues on pest control and improved woodlot management. In 2009, researchers at the University of Vermont unveiled a new type of tap that prevents backflow of sap into the tree, reducing bacterial contamination and preventing the tree from attempting to heal the bore hole. Experiments show that it may be possible to use saplings in a plantation instead of mature trees, dramatically boosting productivity per acre.
Open pan evaporation methods have been streamlined since colonial days, but remain basically unchanged. Sap must first be collected and boiled down to obtain pure syrup without chemical agents or preservatives. Maple syrup is made by boiling between 20 and 50 volumes of sap (depending on its concentration) over an open fire until 1 volume of syrup is obtained, usually at a temperature 4.1 ° C (7.4 ° F) over the boiling point of water. As the boiling point of water varies with changes in air pressure the correct value for pure water is determined at the place where the syrup is being produced, each time evaporation is begun and periodically throughout the day. Syrup can be boiled entirely over one heat source or can be drawn off into smaller batches and boiled at a more controlled temperature.
Boiling the syrup is a tightly controlled process, which ensures appropriate sugar content. Syrup boiled too long will eventually crystallize, whereas under - boiled syrup will be watery, and will quickly spoil. The finished syrup has a density of 66 ° on the Brix scale (a hydrometric scale used to measure sugar solutions). The syrup is then filtered to remove sugar sand, crystals made up largely of sugar and calcium malate. These crystals are not toxic, but create a "gritty '' texture in the syrup if not filtered out.
In addition to open pan evaporation methods, many large producers use the more fuel efficient reverse osmosis procedure to separate the water from the sap.
The higher the sugar content of the sap, the fewer the gallons of sap are needed to obtain one gallon of syrup. 57 gallons of sap with 1.5 percent sugar content will yield 1 gallon of syrup, but only 25 gallons of sap with a 3.5 percent sugar content are needed to obtain one gallon of syrup. The sap 's sugar content is highly variable and will fluctuate even within the same tree.
The filtered syrup is graded and packaged while still hot, usually at a temperature of 82 ° C (180 ° F) or greater. The containers are turned over after being sealed to sterilize the cap with the hot syrup. Packages can be made of metal, glass, or coated plastic, depending on volume and target market. The syrup can also be heated longer and further processed to create a variety of other maple products, including maple sugar, maple butter or cream, and maple candy or taffy.
Off - flavours can sometimes develop during the production of maple syrup, resulting from contaminants in the boiling apparatus (such as disinfectants), microorganisms, fermentation products, metallic can flavours, and "buddy sap '', an off - flavour occurring late in the syrup season when tree budding has begun. In some circumstances, it is possible to remove off - flavours through processing.
Maple syrup production is centred in northeastern North America; however, given the correct weather conditions, it can be made wherever suitable species of maple trees grow.
A maple syrup production farm is called a "sugarbush '' or "sugarwood ''. Sap is often boiled in a "sugar house '' (also known as a "sugar shack '', "sugar shanty '', or cabane à sucre), a building louvered at the top to vent the steam from the boiling sap.
Maples are usually tapped beginning at 30 to 40 years of age. Each tree can support between one and three taps, depending on its trunk diameter. The average maple tree will produce 35 to 50 litres (9.2 to 13.2 US gal) of sap per season, up to 12 litres (3.2 US gal) per day. This is roughly equal to seven percent of its total sap. Seasons last for four to eight weeks, depending on the weather. During the day, starch stored in the roots for the winter rises through the trunk as sugary sap, allowing it to be tapped. Sap is not tapped at night because the temperature drop inhibits sap flow, although taps are typically left in place overnight. Some producers also tap in autumn, though this practice is less common than spring tapping. Maples can continue to be tapped for sap until they are over 100 years old.
Until the 1930s, the United States produced most of the world 's maple syrup. Today, after rapid growth in the 1990s, Canada produces more than 80 percent of the world 's maple syrup, producing about 73,000,000 litres (19,000,000 US gal) in 2016. The vast majority of this comes from the province of Quebec, which is the world 's largest producer, with about 70 percent of global production.
As of 2016, Quebec had some 7,300 producers working with 13,500 farmers, collectively making over 8,090,000 US gallons (30,600,000 L) of syrup. Production in Quebec is controlled through a supply management system, with producers receiving quota allotments from the Federation of Quebec Maple Syrup Producers (Fédération des producteurs acéricoles du Québec, FPAQ), which also maintains reserves of syrup, although there is a black - market trade in Quebec product. In 2017, the FPAQ mandated increased output of maple syrup production, attempting to establish Quebec 's dominance in the world market. Canada exported more than C $ 362 million of maple syrup in 2016. The provinces of Ontario, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island produce smaller amounts of syrup.
The Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan produce maple syrup using the sap of the box elder or Manitoba maple (Acer negundo). A Manitoba maple tree 's yield is usually less than half that of a similar sugar maple tree. Manitoba maple syrup has a slightly different flavour from sugar - maple syrup, because it contains less sugar and the tree 's sap flows more slowly. British Columbia is home to a growing maple sugar industry using sap from the bigleaf maple, which is native to the West Coast of the United States and Canada.
Vermont is the biggest US producer, with over 1,320,000 US gallons (5,000,000 L) during the 2013 season, followed by New York with 574,000 US gallons (2,170,000 L) and Maine with 450,000 US gallons (1,700,000 L). Wisconsin, Ohio, New Hampshire, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Connecticut all produced marketable quantities of maple syrup of less than 265,000 US gallons (1,000,000 L) each in 2013. As of 2003, Vermont produced about 5.5 percent of the global syrup supply.
Maple syrup has been produced on a small scale in some other countries, notably Japan and South Korea. However, in South Korea in particular, it is traditional to consume maple sap, called gorosoe, instead of processing it into syrup.
In 2015, 64 percent of Canadian maple syrup exports went to the United States (a value of C $229 million), 8 percent to Germany (C $31 million), 6 percent to Japan (C $26 million), and 5 percent to the United Kingdom (C $16 million).
Following an effort from the International Maple Syrup Institute (IMSI) and many maple syrup producer associations, both Canada and the United States have altered their laws regarding the classification of maple syrup to be uniform. Whereas in the past each state or province had their own laws on the classification of maple syrup, now those laws define a unified grading system. This had been a work in progress for several years, and most of the finalization of the new grading system was made in 2014. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) announced in the Canada Gazette on 28 June 2014 that rules for the sale of maple syrup would be amended to include new descriptors, at the request of the IMSI.
As of December 31, 2014, the CFIA and as of March 2, 2015, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Marketing Service issued revised standards intended to harmonize Canada - United States regulations on the classification of maple syrup as follows:
As long as maple syrup does not have an off - flavour, is of a uniform colour, and is free from turbidity and sediment, it can be labelled as one of the A grades. If it exhibits any problems, it does not meet Grade A requirements, and then must be labelled as Processing Grade maple syrup and may not be sold in containers smaller than 5 gallons. If maple syrup does not meet the requirements of Processing Grade maple syrup (including a fairly characteristic maple taste), it is classified as Substandard.
As of February 2015, this grading system has been accepted and made law by most maple - producing states and provinces, other than Ontario, Quebec, and Ohio. Vermont, in an effort to "jump - start '' the new grading regulations, adopted the new grading system as of January 1, 2014, after the grade changes passed the Senate and House in 2013. Maine passed a bill to take effect as soon as both Canada and the United States adopted the new grades. They are allowing a one - year grace period. In New York, the new grade changes became law on January 1, 2015, with a one - year grace period. New Hampshire did not require legislative approval and so the new grade laws became effective as of December 16, 2014, and producer compliance was required as of January 1, 2016.
Golden and Amber grades typically have a milder flavour than Dark and Very dark, which are both dark and have an intense maple flavour. The darker grades of syrup are used primarily for cooking and baking, although some specialty dark syrups are produced for table use. Syrup harvested earlier in the season tends to yield a lighter colour. With the new grading system, the classification of maple syrup depends ultimately on its internal transmittance at 560 nm wavelength through a 10 mm sample. Golden has to have 75 percent or more transmittance, Amber has to have 50.0 to 74.9 percent transmittance, Dark has to have 25.0 to 49.9 percent transmittance, and Very Dark is any product less than 25.0 percent transmittance.
In Canada, maple syrup was classified prior to December 31, 2014, by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) as one of three grades, each with several colour classes:
Producers in Ontario or Quebec may have followed either federal or provincial grading guidelines. Quebec 's and Ontario 's guidelines differed slightly from the federal:
A typical year 's yield for a maple syrup producer will be about 25 to 30 percent of each of the # 1 colours, 10 percent # 2 Amber, and 2 percent # 3 Dark.
The United States used (some states still do, as they await state regulation) different grading standards. Maple syrup was divided into two major grades:
In Massachusetts, the Grade B was renamed as Grade A Very Dark, Strong Taste.
The Vermont Agency of Agriculture Food and Markets used a similar grading system of colour, and is roughly equivalent, especially for lighter syrups, but using letters: "AA '', "A '', etc. The Vermont grading system differed from the US system in maintaining a slightly higher standard of product density (measured on the Baumé scale). New Hampshire maintained a similar standard, but not a separate state grading scale. The Vermont - graded product had 0.9 percent more sugar and less water in its composition than US - graded. One grade of syrup not for table use, called commercial or Grade C, was also produced under the Vermont system.
The basic ingredient in maple syrup is the sap from the xylem of sugar maple or various other species of maple trees. It consists primarily of sucrose and water, with small amounts of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose from the invert sugar created in the boiling process.
In a 100g amount, maple syrup provides 260 calories and is composed of 32 percent water by weight, 67 percent carbohydrates (90 percent of which are sugars), and no appreciable protein or fat (table). Maple syrup is generally low in overall micronutrient content, although manganese and riboflavin are at high levels along with moderate amounts of zinc and calcium (right table). It also contains trace amounts of amino acids which increase in content as sap flow occurs.
Maple syrup contains a wide variety of volatile organic compounds, including vanillin, hydroxybutanone, and propionaldehyde. It is not yet known exactly what compounds are responsible for maple syrup 's distinctive flavour, however its primary flavour contributing compounds are maple furanone, strawberry furanone, and maltol.
New compounds have been identified in maple syrup, one of which is quebecol, a natural phenolic compound created when the maple sap is boiled to create syrup.
One author described maple syrup as "a unique ingredient, smooth - and silky - textured, with a sweet, distinctive flavour -- hints of caramel with overtones of toffee will not do -- and a rare colour, amber set alight. Maple flavour is, well, maple flavour, uniquely different from any other. '' Agriculture Canada has developed a "flavour wheel '' that details 91 unique flavours that can be present in maple syrup. These flavours are divided into 13 families: vanilla, empyreumatic (burnt), milky, fruity, floral, spicy, foreign (deterioration or fermentation), foreign (environment), maple, confectionery, plant (herbaceous), plant (forest, humus or cereals), and plant (ligneous). These flavours are evaluated using a procedure similar to wine tasting. Other culinary experts praise its unique flavour.
Maple syrup and its various artificial imitations are widely used as toppings for pancakes, waffles, and French toast in North America. They can also be used to flavour a variety of foods, including fritters, ice cream, hot cereal, fresh fruit, and sausages. It is also used as sweetener for granola, applesauce, baked beans, candied sweet potatoes, winter squash, cakes, pies, breads, tea, coffee, and hot toddies. Maple syrup can also be used as a replacement for honey in wine (mead).
In Canada, maple syrup must be made entirely from maple sap, and syrup must have a density of 66 ° on the Brix scale to be marketed as maple syrup. In the United States, maple syrup must be made almost entirely from maple sap, although small amounts of substances such as salt may be added. Labeling laws prohibit imitation syrups from having "maple '' in their names unless the finished product contains 10 percent or more of natural maple syrup.
"Maple - flavoured '' syrups include maple syrup, but may contain additional ingredients. "Pancake syrup '', "waffle syrup '', "table syrup '', and similarly named syrups are substitutes which are less expensive than maple syrup. In these syrups, the primary ingredient is most often high - fructose corn syrup flavoured with sotolon; they have little genuine maple content, and are usually thickened above the viscosity of maple syrup.
Imitation syrups are generally cheaper than maple syrup, with less natural flavour. In the United States, consumers generally prefer imitation syrups, likely because of the significantly lower cost and sweeter flavour; they typically cost about $8 per gallon (1 US gallon (3,800 ml)), whereas authentic maple syrup costs $40 to $60 per gallon (2015 prices).
In 2016, maple syrup producers from nine US states petitioned the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to regulate labeling of products containing maple syrup or using the word "maple '' in manufactured products, indicating that imitation maple products contained insignificant amounts of natural maple syrup. In September 2016, the FDA published a consumer advisory to carefully inspect the ingredient list of products labeled as "maple ''.
Maple products are considered emblematic of Canada, in particular Quebec, and are frequently sold in tourist shops and airports as souvenirs from Canada. The sugar maple 's leaf has come to symbolize Canada, and is depicted on the country 's flag. Several US states, including New York, Vermont and Wisconsin, have the sugar maple as their state tree. A scene of sap collection is depicted on the Vermont state quarter, issued in 2001.
Maple syrup and maple sugar were used during the American Civil War and by abolitionists in the years before the war because most cane sugar and molasses were produced by Southern slaves. Because of food rationing during the Second World War, people in the northeastern United States were encouraged to stretch their sugar rations by sweetening foods with maple syrup and maple sugar, and recipe books were printed to help housewives employ this alternative source.
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man's inhumanity to man makes countless thousands mourn meaning | Man 's inhumanity to man - wikipedia
The phrase "Man 's inhumanity to man '' is first documented in the Robert Burns poem called Man was made to mourn: A Dirge in 1784. It is possible that Burns reworded a similar quote from Samuel von Pufendorf who in 1673 wrote, "More inhumanity has been done by man himself than any other of nature 's causes. ''
Many and sharp the num'rous ills Inwoven with our frame! More pointed still we make ourselves Regret, remorse, and shame! And man, whose heav'n - erected face The smiles of love adorn, -- Man 's inhumanity to man Makes countless thousands mourn!
"More inhumanity (to man) has been done by man himself than any other of nature 's causes. '' Samuel von Pufendorf, 1673.
"Man 's inhumanity (towards man) comes from within, due to the lack of cardinal virtues. '' An unknown Catholic priest, date unknown.
"There is only one way in which one can endure man 's inhumanity to man and that is to try, in one 's own life, to exemplify man 's humanity to man. '' Alan Paton.
"The inhumanity of man toward man is our greatest sin. '' Ellen G. White, 1895.
"Man 's inhumanity to man is equaled only by man 's inhumanity to himself. '' Edmund Bergler, 1949.
"Man 's inhumanity to man crosses continents and decades. '' Anthony Venutolo, 2009.
"Why do we hunt and persecute each other? Why is our world so full of man 's infamous inhumanity to man -- and to woman? '' Riane Eisler, 1987
"Woman 's Inhumanity to Man, '' a lecture topic by Emma Goldman, April 1912.
"'' Man 's inhumanity to man "-- the phrase is all too familiar... a profound silence prevailed about woman 's inhumanity to woman. Women 's aggression may not take the same form as men 's, but girls and women are indeed aggressive, often indirectly and mainly toward one another. '' Phyllis Chesler, May 2009.
"Man 's inhumanity to woman -- War has shattered many... women 's lives. '' Marty Logan, 2006
"Man 's inhumanity to man begins with man 's inhumanity to woman. '' Marilyn Stasio, 2008
"More of man 's inhumanity to man has been done in the name of religion than any other cause. '' Author unknown, circa 1929.
"This is the most tragic picture of man 's inhumanity to man. I 've been to Mississippi and Alabama and I can tell you that the hatred and hostility in Chicago are really deeper than in Alabama and Mississippi. '' Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., 1966
"For most of this country 's history, we in the African - American community have been at the receiving end of man 's inhumanity to man. And all of us understand intimately the insidious role that race still sometimes plays -- on the job, in the schools, in our health care system, and in our criminal justice system. '' Barack Obama, 2008
"Behind 1984, there is a sense of injustice, a tormented sense of the way political systems suppress individual thought. Man 's inhumanity to man. '' Jean Eloi, 2002
"It was in the great cities of Europe and among the hovels of the peasantry that my eyes were first fully opened to the extent and consequences of man 's inhumanity to man. '' Edward Bellamy in support of socialism.
"When man 's inhumanity to man shall cease from the earth, and justice and equity reign supreme, we may well be rid of both the trust and the labor union, each, in its way, a positive detriment to society. '' George Frazier Miller, 1910
"The State, therefore, is the most flagrant, the most cynical, and the most complete negation of humanity. It shatters the universal solidarity of all men on the earth, and brings some of them into association only for the purpose of destroying, conquering, and enslaving all the rest. It protects its own citizens only; it recognizes human rights, humanity, civilization within its own confines alone. Since it recognizes no rights outside itself, it logically arrogates to itself the right to exercise the most ferocious inhumanity toward all foreign populations, which it can plunder, exterminate, or enslave at will. '' Mikhail Bakunin, September 1867
"The real US healthcare issue: moral deficiency... man 's inhumanity to man '' Title of MSNBC article on healthcare, 27 December 2009
"All over the world we read of economic crises, social crises, ethnic conflicts and crises, national conflicts and crises, crises in family life, crises of poverty, crises of exploitation, crises of homelessness, crises of governmental oppression, crises of man 's inhumanity to man and so on. The fundamental crisis is the turning away of men and women from spiritual and moral values. '' L.J. Mark Cooray, 1993
"Throughout all of human history, from the first murder to the present crises (the rise of socialism in America) and catastrophes, we have faced famine, depression, wars and rumors of wars, (and) countless examples of man 's inhumanity to man. '' Gail B. Leatherwood, May 2009
"All of them covered in the darkness of man 's inhumanity to man: Revolutions, expansionism... '' ESermons, 2009?
"It has been the worst of all centuries, with more of war, more of man 's inhumanity to man, more of conflict and trouble than any other century in the history of the world. '' Gordon B. Hinckley, 1999.
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when was burma included as one of the provinces of british india | British rule in Burma - wikipedia
Rangoon (1853 -- 1948)
British rule in Burma, also known as British Burma, lasted from 1824 to 1948, from the Anglo - Burmese wars through the creation of Burma as a Province of British India to the establishment of an independently administered colony, and finally independence. Various portions of Burmese territories, including Arakan, Tenasserim were annexed by the British after their victory in the First Anglo - Burmese War; Lower Burma was annexed in 1852 after the Second Anglo - Burmese War. The annexed territories were designated the minor province (a Chief Commissionership), British Burma, of British India in 1862.
After the Third Anglo - Burmese War in 1885, Upper Burma was annexed, and the following year, the province of Burma in British India was created, becoming a major province (a Lieutenant - Governorship) in 1897. This arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma began to be administered separately by the Burma Office under the Secretary of State for India and Burma. British rule was disrupted during the Japanese occupation of much of the country during the Second World War. Burma achieved independence from British rule on 4 January 1948.
Burma is sometimes referred to as "the Scottish Colony '', due to the heavy role played by Scotsmen in colonising and running the country, one of the most notable being Sir James Scott, and the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company.
The province of Burma, after 1885 was administered as follows:
The "Frontier Areas '', also known as the "Excluded Areas '' or the "Scheduled Areas '', compose the majority of states within Burma today. They were administered separately by the British with a Burma Frontier Service, and later united with Burma proper to form Myanmar 's geographic composition today. The Frontier Areas were inhabited by ethnic minorities such as the Chin, the Shan, the Kachin and the Karenni.
By 1931 Burma had 8 divisions, split into a number of districts.
The First Anglo - Burmese War arose from friction between Arakan in western Burma and British - held Chittagong to the north. After Burma 's defeat of the Kingdom of Arakan in 1784 -- 1785, in 1823, Burmese forces again crossed the frontier and the British responded with a large seaborne expedition that took Rangoon without a fight in 1824. In Danuphyu, south of Ava, the Burmese general Maha Bandula was killed and his armies routed. The 1826 Treaty of Yandabo formally ended the First Anglo - Burmese War, the longest and the most expensive war in British India history. Fifteen thousand European and Indian soldiers died, together with an unknown number of Burmese army and civilian casualties. The campaign cost the British five million pounds sterling to 13 million pounds sterling (roughly 18.5 billion to 48 billion in 2006 US dollars) that led to a severe economic crisis in British India in 1833.
After 25 years of peace, the British and Burmese fighting started afresh, and lasted until the British occupied all of Lower Burma.
King Mindon tried to readjust to the thrust of imperialism. He enacted administrative reforms and made Burma more receptive to foreign interests. But the British effected the Third Anglo - Burmese War, which lasted less than two weeks during November 1885.
British troops entered Mandalay on 28 November 1885 and Burma was attached to the British Empire on 1 January 1886.
Burmese armed resistance continued sporadically for several years, and the British commander had to coerce the High Court of Justice to continue to function. The British decided to annexe all of Upper Burma as a colony, and to make the whole country a province of the British India, within the Indian Empire. The new colony of Upper Burma was attached to the Burma Province on 26 February 1886. Rangoon, having been the capital of British Lower Burma, became the capital of the province.
Because of its location, with trade routes between China and India passing straight through the country, Burma was kept wealthy through constant trade, although self - sufficient agriculture was still the basis of the economy. With the Indian merchants travelling along the coasts and along rivers (especially the Irrawaddy River) through the country, where the majority of Burmese lived, Indian cultural influences filtered into the country and still exist there today. It was also one of the first Southeast Asian countries to receive Buddhism, which went on to become the officially patronised religion.
Before the British conquest and colonisation, the ruling Konbaung Dynasty practised a tightly centralised form of government. The king was the chief executive, with the final say on all matters, but he could not make new laws and could only issue administrative edicts. The country had two codes of law, the Rajathat and Dammathat, and the Hluttaw, the centre of government, was divided into three branches -- fiscal, executive, and judicial. In theory the king was in charge of all of the Hluttaw but none of his orders got put into place until the Hluttaw approved them, thus checking his power. Further dividing the country, provinces were ruled by governors who were all appointed by the Hluttaw, and villages were ruled by hereditary headmen who were approved by the king. Burma was in a colony in over 50 years.
Conflict began between Myanmar and the British when the Konbaung Dynasty decided to expand into Arakan in the state of Assam, close to the British possessions in India. This close contact led to the first Anglo - Burmese War (1824 -- 26), which the British won with the aid of the Siamese. Myanmar was forced to cede Assam and other northern provinces. In 1852, the Second Anglo - Burmese War was provoked by the British who sought the teak forests in Lower Burma as well as a port between Calcutta and Singapore. The British were victorious in this war, and as a result desired access to the teak, oil and rubies of northern Myanmar. This prompted the Third Anglo - Burmese War in 1885. The British government justified their actions by claiming that the last independent king of Myanmar, Thibaw Min, was a tyrant and that he was conspiring to give France more influence in the country. Thus, in 1885, after three wars gaining various parts of the country, the British finally occupied all the area of present - day Myanmar, making the territory a Province of British India.
Burma was declared a province of India in November 1885 on the orders of the Secretary of State for India, Lord Randolph Churchill, with its capital at Rangoon, a move that ushered in a new period of economic growth. Traditional Burmese society was drastically altered by the demise of the monarchy and the separation of religion and state. Though war officially ended after only a couple of weeks, resistance continued in northern Burma until 1890, with the British finally resorting to a systematic destruction of villages and appointment of new officials to finally halt all guerrilla activity.
Intermarriage between Europeans and Burmese gave birth to an indigenous Eurasian community known as the Anglo - Burmese who would come to dominate the colonial society, hovering above the Burmese but below the British. The economic nature of society also changed dramatically. After the opening of the Suez Canal, the demand for Burmese rice grew and vast tracts of land were opened up for cultivation. However, to prepare the new land for cultivation, farmers borrowed money from Indian moneylenders called chettiars at high interest rates and were often foreclosed on and evicted losing land and livestock.
Most of the jobs also went to indentured Indian labourers, and whole villages became outlawed as they resorted to ' dacoity ' (armed robbery). While the Burmese economy grew, most of the power and wealth remained in the hands of several British firms and migrants from India. The civil service was largely staffed by Anglo - Burmese and Indians, and the ethnic Burmese were excluded almost entirely from military service, which was staffed primarily with Indians, Anglo - Burmese, Karens and other Burmese minority groups. A British General Hospital Burmah was set up in Rangoon, under the direction in early 1887 of Surg. Patrick O'Sullivan. Though the country prospered, the Burmese people largely failed to reap the rewards. (See George Orwell 's novel Burmese Days for a fictional account of the British in Burma.)
After Britain took over all of Burma, they maintained the sending of tribute to China to avoid offending them, but this unknowingly lowered the status they held in Chinese minds. It was agreed in the Burmah convention in 1886, that China would recognise Britain 's occupation of Upper Burmah while Britain continued the Burmese payment of tribute every ten years to Beijing.
The British controlled their new province through direct rule, making many changes to the previous governmental structure. The monarchy was abolished, King Thibaw sent into exile, and church and state separated. This was particularly harmful because the Buddhist monks were so dependent on the sponsorship of the monarchy. At the same time, the monarchy was given legitimacy by the Buddhist organisation, and the "church '' gave the public the opportunity to understand national politics to a greater degree.
Another way in which the British controlled their new colony directly was through their implementation of a secular education system. The colonial Government of India, which was given control of the new colony, founded secular schools teaching in both English and Burmese, while also encouraging Christian missionaries to visit and found schools. In both of these types of schools, Buddhism and traditional Burmese culture were frowned upon in an attempt to rid the Burmese people of a cultural unity separate from the British.
To control the country on the village level, the British implemented a "strategic hamlet '' strategy in which they burned villages and uprooted families who had supplied villages with their headmen, sending them to lower Burma. Once these troublesome or unloyal Burmese were forced out, the British replaced them with strangers they approved of. If the British considered any Burmese to be criminals, they would act as both judge and jury, giving the Burmese no chance to a fair trial.
The traditional Burmese economy was one of redistribution with the prices of the most important commodities set by the state. Trade itself was not as important as self - sufficient agriculture, but the country 's position on major trade routes from India to China, meant that it did gain a fair amount of money from foreign trade passing through. With the arrival of the British, the Burmese economy became tied to global market forces and was forced to become a part of the colonial export economy.
The British immediately began exploiting the rich soil of the land around the Irrawaddy delta and cleared away the dense mangrove forests. Rice, which was in high demand in Europe, especially after the building of the Suez Canal in 1869, was the main crop grown in and exported out of Myanmar. To increase the production of rice, many Burmese migrated from the northern heartland to the delta, shifting the population concentration, and changing the basis of wealth and power.
To prepare land for cultivation, farmers had to borrow capital from Indian moneylenders at high interest rates as the British banks would n't grant mortgages. Instead, the Indian moneylenders gave the mortgage loans out, but foreclosed them quickly as the rice prices and land costs soared. At the same time, thousands of Indian labourers migrated to Burma and, because of their willingness to work for less money, quickly displaced the Burmese farmers, who instead began to take part in crime, giving themselves a bad reputation.
With this quickly growing economy, came industrialisation to a certain degree, with a railway being built throughout the valley of the Irrawaddy, and hundreds of steamboats travelling along it. All of these mechanisms of transportation were owned by the British, however, and this meant that the Burmese had to pay higher rates to transport their goods to market (source?). Thus, although the balance of trade was supposed to be in favour of Burma, the society was changed so fundamentally that many people did not gain from the rapidly growing economy.
When the British began their imperial occupation of Burma, the colony was immediately thrown into a world of exportation in which they had not ever been exposed to before colonisation by the British. This massive move towards foreign trade hurt the Burmese economy initially because suddenly a large amount of their resources was being exported for Britain 's benefit, thereby taking with it a lot of the resources needed by the Burmese natives to continue living their lives as they had before colonisation. An account by a British official describing the conditions of the Burmese people 's livelihoods in 1941 describes the Burmese hardships as they must quickly adapt to foreign trade:
"Foreign landlordism and the operations of foreign moneylenders had led to an increasing exportation of a considerable proportion of the country 's resources and to the progressive impoverishment of the agriculturist and of the country as a whole.... The peasant had grown factually poorer and unemployment had increased.... The collapse of the Burmese social system led to a decay of the social conscience which, in the circumstances of poverty and unemployment caused a great increase in crime. ''
By the turn of the century, a nationalist movement began to take shape in the form of Young Men 's Buddhist Associations (YMBA), modelled after the YMCA, as religious associations were allowed by the colonial authorities. They were later superseded by the General Council of Burmese Associations (GCBA) which was linked with Wunthanu athin or National Associations that sprang up in villages throughout Burma Proper. Between 1900 and 1911 the "Irish Buddhist '' U Dhammaloka publicly challenged Christianity and imperial power, leading to two trials for sedition.
A new generation of Burmese leaders arose in the early twentieth century from amongst the educated classes that were permitted to go to London to study law. They came away from this experience with the belief that the Burmese situation could be improved through reform. Progressive constitutional reform in the early 1920s led to a legislature with limited powers, a university and more autonomy for Burma within the administration of India. Efforts were also undertaken to increase the representation of Burmese in the civil service. Some people began to feel that the rate of change was not fast enough and the reforms not expansive enough.
In 1920 the first university students ' strike in history broke out in protest against the new University Act which the students believed would only benefit the elite and perpetuate colonial rule. ' National Schools ' sprang up across the country in protest against the colonial education system, and the strike came to be commemorated as ' National Day '. There were further strikes and anti-tax protests in the later 1920s led by the Wunthanu athins. Prominent among the political activists were Buddhist monks (hpongyi), such as U Ottama and U Seinda in the Arakan who subsequently led an armed rebellion against the British and later the nationalist government after independence, and U Wisara, the first martyr of the movement to die after a protracted hunger strike in prison.
In December 1930, a local tax protest by Saya San in Tharrawaddy quickly grew into first a regional and then a national insurrection against the government. Lasting for two years, the Galon rebellion, named after the mythical bird Garuda -- enemy of the Nagas i.e. the British -- emblazoned on the pennants the rebels carried, required thousands of British troops to suppress along with promises of further political reform. The eventual trial of Saya San, who was executed, allowed several future national leaders, including Dr Ba Maw and U Saw, who participated in his defence, to rise to prominence.
May 1930 saw the founding of the Dobama Asiayone (We Burmans Association) whose members called themselves Thakin (an ironic name as thakin means "master '' in the Burmese language -- rather like the Indian ' sahib ' -- proclaiming that they were the true masters of the country entitled to the term usurped by the colonial masters). The second university students strike in 1936 was triggered by the expulsion of Aung San and Ko Nu, leaders of the Rangoon University Students Union (RUSU), for refusing to reveal the name of the author who had written an article in their university magazine, making a scathing attack on one of the senior university officials. It spread to Mandalay leading to the formation of the All Burma Students Union (ABSU). Aung San and Nu subsequently joined the Thakin movement progressing from student to national politics.
The British separated Burma Province from British India in 1937 and granted the colony a new constitution calling for a fully elected assembly, with many powers given to the Burmese, but this proved to be a divisive issue as some Burmese felt that this was a ploy to exclude them from any further Indian reforms. Ba Maw served as the first prime minister of Burma, but he was forced out by U Saw in 1939, who served as prime minister from 1940 until he was arrested on 19 January 1942 by the British for communicating with the Japanese.
A wave of strikes and protests that started from the oilfields of central Burma in 1938 became a general strike with far - reaching consequences. In Rangoon student protesters, after successfully picketing the Secretariat, the seat of the colonial government, were charged by the British mounted police wielding batons and killing a Rangoon University student called Aung Kyaw. In Mandalay, the police shot into a crowd of protesters led by Buddhist monks killing 17 people. The movement became known as Htaung thoun ya byei ayeidawbon (the ' 1300 Revolution ' named after the Burmese calendar year), and 20 December, the day the first martyr Aung Kyaw fell, commemorated by students as ' Bo Aung Kyaw Day '.
The Empire of Japan invaded Burma in 1942; this continued through 1943, when the State of Burma was proclaimed in Rangoon. Japan never succeeded in fully conquering all of the colony, however, and insurgent activity was pervasive, though not as much of an issue as it was in other former colonies. By 1945, British - led troops, mainly from the British Indian Army, had regained control over most of the colony.
The surrender of the Japanese brought a military administration to Burma. British administration sought to try Aung San and other members of BIA for treason and collaboration with the Japanese. Lord Mountbatten realised that a trial was an impossibility considering Aung San 's popular appeal. After the war ended, the British Governor, Colonel Sir Reginald Dorman - Smith, returned. The restored government established a political programme that focused on physical reconstruction of the country and delayed discussion of independence. The AFPFL opposed the government leading to political instability in the country. A rift had also developed in the AFPFL between the Communists and Aung San together with the Socialists over strategy, which led to Than Tun being forced to resign as general secretary in July 1946 and the expulsion of the CPB from the AFPFL the following October.
Dorman - Smith was replaced by Major - General Sir Hubert Rance as the new Governor, and almost immediately after his appointment the Rangoon Police went on strike. The strike, starting in September 1946, then spread from the police to government employees and came close to becoming a general strike. Rance calmed the situation by meeting with Aung San and convincing him to join the Governor 's Executive Council along with other members of the AFPFL. The new executive council, which now had increased credibility in the country, began negotiations for Burmese independence, which were concluded successfully in London as the Aung San - Attlee Agreement on 27 January 1947.
The agreement left parts of the communist and conservative branches of the AFPFL dissatisfied, sending the Red Flag Communists led by Thakin Soe underground and the conservatives into opposition. Aung San also succeeded in concluding an agreement with ethnic minorities for a unified Burma at the Panglong Conference on 12 February, celebrated since as ' Union Day '. Shortly after, rebellion broke out in the Arakan led by the veteran monk U Seinda, and it began to spread to other districts. The popularity of the AFPFL, now dominated by Aung San and the Socialists, was eventually confirmed when it won an overwhelming victory in the April 1947 constituent assembly elections.
Then a momentous event stunned the nation on 19 July 1947. U Saw, a conservative pre-war Prime Minister of Burma, engineered the assassination of Aung San and several members of his cabinet including his eldest brother Ba Win, the father of today 's National League for Democracy exile - government leader Dr Sein Win, while meeting in the Secretariat. Since then 19 July has been commemorated since as Martyrs ' Day in Burma. Thakin Nu, the Socialist leader, was now asked to form a new cabinet, and he presided over Burmese independence on 4 January 1948. Anti-British popular sentiment was so strong at the time that Burma opted not to join the Commonwealth of Nations, unlike India.
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who are the current elected members of the executive branch | Cabinet of the United States - wikipedia
The Cabinet of the United States is part of the executive branch of the federal government of the United States that normally acts as an advisory body to the President of the United States. Among the senior officers of the Cabinet are the Vice President and the heads of the federal executive departments, all of whom are by federal law (3 U.S.C. § 19) in the line of succession to the Presidency and have duties under the 25th Amendment to the Constitution. Members of the Cabinet (except for the Vice President) serve at the pleasure of the President, who can dismiss them at will for no cause. All federal public officials, including Cabinet members, are also subject to impeachment by the House of Representatives and trial in the Senate for "treason, bribery, and other high crimes and misdemeanors ''.
The President can also unilaterally designate senior White House staffers, heads of other federal agencies and the Ambassador to the United Nations as members of the Cabinet, although this is a symbolic status marker and does not, apart from attending Cabinet meetings, confer any additional powers.
There is no explicit reference to a "Cabinet '' in the United States Constitution, the United States Code, or the Code of Federal Regulations. In the Constitution, the President is authorized (but not compelled) to "require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices. '' The Constitution does not provide for an explicit forum where the principal officers ' opinions can be obtained less formally, without writing, such as a formal Cabinet.
George Washington, the first U.S. President, organized his principal officers into a Cabinet, and it has been part of the executive branch structure ever since. Washington 's Cabinet consisted of five members: himself, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of War Henry Knox and Attorney General Edmund Randolph. Vice President John Adams was not included in Washington 's Cabinet because the position was initially regarded as a legislative officer (President of the Senate). It was not until the 20th Century that Vice Presidents were regularly included as members of the Cabinet and came to be regarded primarily as a member of the executive branch.
Presidents have used Cabinet meetings of selected principal officers but to widely differing extents and for different purposes. Secretary of State William H. Seward and then Professor Woodrow Wilson advocated use of a parliamentary - style Cabinet government. But President Abraham Lincoln rebuffed Seward, and Woodrow Wilson would have none of it in his administration. In recent administrations, Cabinets have grown to include key White House staff in addition to department and various agency heads. President Ronald Reagan formed seven subcabinet councils to review many policy issues, and subsequent Presidents have followed that practice.
The term "principal Officer in each of the executive Departments '' is mentioned in the Opinion Clause (Article II, Section 2, Clause 1) and the term "Heads of Departments '' is mentioned in Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution. The term "principal officers of the executive departments '' is also mentioned in the Twenty - fifth Amendment, Section 4, the executive departments being listed in 5 U.S.C. § 101. Although there are occasional references to "Cabinet - level officers, '' which when viewed in their context do refer to these "principal officers '' and "heads of departments, '' the terms "principal officers '' and "heads of departments '' are not necessarily synonymous with "Cabinet '' members.
In 3 U.S.C. § 302 with regard to delegation of authority by the President, it is provided that "nothing herein shall be deemed to require express authorization in any case in which such an official would be presumed in law to have acted by authority or direction of the President. '' This pertains directly to the heads of the executive departments as each of their offices is created and specified by statutory law (hence the presumption) and thus gives them the authority to act for the President within their areas of responsibility without any specific delegation.
Under the 1967 Federal Anti-Nepotism statute, federal officials are prohibited from appointing their immediate family members to certain governmental positions, including those in the Cabinet.
Under the Federal Vacancies Reform Act of 1998, an incoming administration may appoint acting heads of department from employees of the relevant department. These may be existing high - level career employees, from political appointees of the outgoing administration, or sometimes lower - level appointees of the incoming administration.
The heads of the executive departments and all other federal agency heads are nominated by the President and then presented to the Senate for confirmation or rejection by a simple majority (although before the use of the "nuclear option '' during the 113th US Congress, they could have been blocked by filibuster, requiring cloture to be invoked by ⁄ supermajority to further consideration). If approved, they receive their commission scroll, are sworn in and then begin their duties.
An elected Vice President does not require Senate confirmation, nor does the White House Chief of Staff, which is an appointed staff position of the Executive Office of the President.
The heads of the executive departments and most other senior federal officers at cabinet or sub-cabinet level receive their salary under a fixed five level pay plan known as the Executive Schedule, which is codified in Title 5 of the United States Code. 21 positions, including the heads of the executive departments and others, receiving Level I pay are listed in 5 U.S.C. § 5312, and those 46 positions on Level II pay (including the number two positions of the executive departments) are listed in 5 U.S.C. § 5313. As of January 2016, the Level I annual pay was set at $205,700.
The annual salary of the Vice President is $235,300. The salary level was set by the Government Salary Reform Act of 1989, which also provides an automatic cost of living adjustment for federal employees. The Vice President does not automatically receive a pension based on that office, but instead receives the same pension as other members of Congress based on his ex officio position as President of the Senate.
The individuals listed below were nominated by President Donald Trump to form his Cabinet and were confirmed by the United States Senate on the date noted, or are serving as acting department heads by his request pending the confirmation of his nominees. For a full list of people nominated for Cabinet positions, see Formation of Donald Trump 's Cabinet.
The Cabinet includes the Vice President and the heads of 15 executive departments, listed here according to their order of succession to the Presidency. These 15 positions are the core "cabinet member '' seats, as distinct from other Cabinet - level seats for other various top level White House staffers and heads of other government agencies, none of whom are in the presidential line of succession and not all of whom are Officers of the United States. Note that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate follow the Vice President and precede the Secretary of State in the order of succession, but both are in the legislative branch and are not part of the Cabinet.
The following officials hold positions that are considered to be Cabinet - level positions. Cabinet - level officials attend Cabinet meetings, but are not official Cabinet Members:
James K. Polk and his Cabinet in 1846. The first Cabinet to be photographed.
President Buchanan and his Cabinet
Abraham Lincoln met with his Cabinet for the first reading of the Emancipation Proclamation draft (July 26, 1862).
President Theodore Roosevelt 's Cabinet
President William H. Taft 's second cabinet, 1912 (photographed by Harris & Ewing photo studio)
The Nixon Cabinet, 1969
President Gerald R. Ford meeting with his Cabinet (June 25, 1976)
President Jimmy Carter 's Cabinet meeting (February 13, 1978)
President Reagan and his Cabinet (September 11, 1986)
President George H.W. Bush and his Cabinet in the Cabinet Room (September 5, 1989).
The Clinton Cabinet, in 1993.
The Bush Cabinet (February 2008).
The first Obama Cabinet (September 2009).
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when did the story of abraham and isaac take place | Binding of Isaac - wikipedia
The Binding of Isaac (Hebrew: עֲקֵידַת יִצְחַק Aqedat Yitzhaq, in Hebrew also simply "The Binding '', הָעֲקֵידָה Ha - Aqedah), is a story from the Hebrew Bible found in Genesis 22. In the biblical narrative, God asks Abraham to sacrifice his son, Isaac, on Moriah. Abraham begins to comply, when a messenger from God interrupts him. Abraham then sees a ram and sacrifices it instead.
This episode has been the focus of a great deal of commentary in traditional Jewish, Christian, and Muslim sources, as well as being addressed by modern scholarship.
According to the Hebrew Bible, God commands Abraham to offer his son Isaac as a sacrifice. After Isaac is bound to an altar, a messenger from God stops Abraham at the last minute, saying "now I know you fear God. '' Abraham looks up and sees a ram and sacrifices it instead of Isaac.
The passage states that the event occurred at "the mount of the LORD '' in "the land of Moriah. '' 2 Chronicles 3: 1 refers to "mount Moriah '' as the site of Solomon 's Temple, while Psalms 24: 3; Isaiah 2: 3 & 30: 29; and Zechariah 8: 3 use the term "the mount of the LORD '' to refer to the site of Solomon 's Temple in Jerusalem, the location believed to be the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.
The majority of Jewish religious commentators argue that God was testing Abraham to see if he would actually kill his own son, as a test of his loyalty. However, a number of Jewish Biblical commentators from the medieval era, and many in the modern era, read the text in another way.
The early rabbinic midrash Genesis Rabbah imagines God as saying "I never considered telling Abraham to slaughter Isaac (using the Hebrew root letters for "slaughter '', not "sacrifice '') ". Rabbi Yona Ibn Janach (Spain, 11th century) wrote that God demanded only a symbolic sacrifice. Rabbi Yosef Ibn Caspi (Spain, early 14th century) wrote that Abraham 's "imagination '' led him astray, making him believe that he had been commanded to sacrifice his son. Ibn Caspi writes "How could God command such a revolting thing? '' However, according to Joseph Hertz, Chief Rabbi of the British Empire, child sacrifice was actually "rife among the Semitic peoples '' and suggests that "in that age, it was astounding that Abraham 's God should have interposed to prevent the sacrifice, not that He should have asked for it. '' Hertz interprets the Akedah as demonstrating to the Jews that human sacrifice is abhorrent.
In The Binding of Isaac, Religious Murders & Kabbalah, Lippman Bodoff argues that Abraham never intended to actually sacrifice his son, and that he had faith that God had no intention that he do so. Rabbi Ari Kahn (on the Orthodox Union website) elaborates this view as follows: Isaac 's death was never a possibility -- not as far as Abraham was concerned, and not as far as God was concerned. God 's commandment to Abraham was very specific, and Abraham understood it very precisely: Isaac was to be "raised up as an offering '', and God would use the opportunity to teach humankind, once and for all, that human sacrifice, child sacrifice, is not acceptable. This is precisely how the sages of the Talmud (Taanit 4a) understood the Akedah. Citing the Prophet Jeremiah 's exhortation against child sacrifice (Chapter 19), they state unequivocally that such behavior "never crossed God 's mind '', referring specifically to the sacrificial slaughter of Isaac. Though readers of this parashah throughout the generations have been disturbed, even horrified, by the Akeida, there was no miscommunication between God and Abraham. The thought of actually killing Isaac never crossed their minds.
Others suggest that Abraham 's apparent complicity with the sacrifice was actually his way of testing God. Abraham had previously argued with God to save lives in Sodom and Gomorrah. By silently complying with God 's instructions to kill Isaac, Abraham was putting pressure on God to act in a moral way to preserve life. More evidence that Abraham thought that he would not actually sacrifice Isaac comes from Genesis 22: 5, where Abraham said to his servants, "You stay here with the ass. The boy and I will go up there; we will worship and we will return to you. '' By saying we (as opposed to I), he meant that both he and Isaac would return. Thus, he did not believe that Isaac would be sacrificed in the end.
In The Guide for the Perplexed, Maimonides argues that the story of the Binding of Isaac contains two "great notions ''. First, Abraham 's willingness to sacrifice Isaac demonstrates the limit of humanity 's capability to both love and fear God. Second, because Abraham acted on a prophetic vision of what God had asked him to do, the story exemplifies how prophetic revelation has the same truth value as philosophical argument and thus carries equal certainty, notwithstanding the fact that it comes in a dream or vision.
In Glory and Agony: Isaac 's Sacrifice and National Narrative, Yael S. Feldman argues that the story of Isaac 's Binding, in both its biblical and post-biblical versions (the New Testament included) has had a great impact on the ethos of altruist heroism and self - sacrifice in modern Hebrew national culture. As her study demonstrates, over the last century the "Binding of Isaac '' has morphed into the "Sacrifice of Isaac '', connoting both the glory and agony of heroic death on the battlefield.
In Legends of the Jews, rabbi Louis Ginzberg argues that the binding of Isaac is a way of God to test Isaac 's claim to Ishmael, and to silence Satan 's protest about Abraham who had not brought up any offering to God after Isaac was born, also to show a proof to the world that Abraham is the true god - fearing man who ready to fulfill any God 's commands, even to sacrifice his own son:
When God commanded the father to desist from sacrificing Isaac, Abraham said: "One man tempts another, because he knoweth not what is in the heart of his neighbor. But Thou surely didst know that I was ready to sacrifice my son! '' God: "It was manifest to Me, and I foreknew it, that thou wouldst withhold not even thy soul from Me. '' Abraham: "And why, then, didst Thou afflict me thus? '' God: "It was My wish that the world should become acquainted with thee, and should know that it is not without good reason that I have chosen thee from all the nations. Now it hath been witnessed unto men that thou fearest God. ''
The Book of Genesis does not tell the age of Isaac at the time. Some Talmudic sages teach that Isaac was an adult in his age of thirty seven, likely based on the next biblical story, which is of Sarah 's death at 127 years, being 90 when Isaac was born. Isaac 's reaction to the binding is unstated in the biblical narrative. Some commentators have argued that he was traumatized and angry, often citing the fact that he and Abraham are never seen to speak to each other again; however, Jon D. Levenson notes that they never speak before the binding, either.
The Binding of Isaac is mentioned in the New Testament Epistle to the Hebrews among many acts of faith recorded in the Old Testament: "By faith Abraham, when he was tested, offered up Isaac, and he who had received the promises offered up his only begotten son, of whom it was said, ' In Isaac your seed shall be called, ' concluding that God was able to raise him up, even from the dead, from which he also received him in a figurative sense. '' (Hebrews 11: 17 -- 19, NKJV)
Abraham 's faith in God is such that he felt God would be able to resurrect the slain Isaac, in order that his prophecy (Genesis 21: 12) might be fulfilled. Early Christian preaching sometimes accepted Jewish interpretations of the binding of Isaac without elaborating. For example, Hippolytus of Rome says in his Commentary on the Song of Songs, "The blessed Isaac became desirous of the anointing and he wished to sacrifice himself for the sake of the world '' (On the Song 2: 15). Other Christians from the period saw Isaac as a type of the "Word of God '' who prefigured Christ. The majority of Christian Biblical commentators view this episode as prefiguring God 's plan to have his own Son, Jesus, die on the cross as a substitute for humanity, much like the ram God provided for Abraham. This fulfilled Abraham 's reply to Isaac 's question of where was the animal that would be used for the sacrifice; Abraham 's affirmation that "God himself will provide the lamb for the burnt offering '' is seen as a prophetic foreshadow of the promise of the Lamb of God. Abraham 's willingness to give up his own son Isaac is seen, in this view, as foreshadowing the willingness of God the Father to sacrifice his Son; also contrasted is Isaac 's submission in the whole ordeal with Christ 's, the two choosing to lay down their own lives in order for the will of God to be accomplished, as no struggle is mentioned in the Genesis account.
The version in the Quran differs from that in Genesis. In Islamic sources, when Abraham tells his son about the vision, his son accepted to be sacrificed for the fulfillment of God 's command, and no binding to the altar occurred. The Quran states that when Abraham asked for a righteous son, God granted him a son possessing forbearance. When the son was able to walk and work with him, Abraham saw a vision about sacrificing his son, Ishmael. When he told his son about it, his son agreed to fulfill the command of God in the vision. When they both had submitted their will to God and were ready for the sacrifice, God told Abraham he had fulfilled the vision, and provided him with a ram to sacrifice instead. God promised to reward Abraham. The next two verses state God also granted Abraham the righteous son Isaac and promised more rewards.
Among early Muslim scholars, however, there was a dispute over the identity of the son. The argument of those early scholars who believed it was Isaac rather than Ishmael (notably ibn Qutaybah and al - Tabari) was that "God 's perfecting his mercy on Abraham and Isaac '' referred to his making Abraham his friend, and to his rescuing Isaac. On the contrary, the other parties held that the promise to Sarah was of a son, Isaac, and a grandson, Jacob (Sura 11: 71 -- 74) excluded the possibility of a premature death of Isaac. And it has become the mainstream Muslim view that it was the first - born son Ismail, not Isaac, who was asked to be sacrificed in the vision, and that the second son Isaac was born later as one of the rewards for Abraham 's fulfillment of his vision.
The submission of Abraham and his son is celebrated and commemorated by Muslims on the days of Eid al - Adha. During the festival, those who can afford and the ones in the pilgrimage sacrifice a ram, cow, sheep or a camel. Part of the sacrifice meat is eaten by the household and remaining is distributed to the neighbors and the needy. The festival marks the end of the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca.
In Islam, the site of al - Marwah near the Kaaba is identified with the Moriah mentioned in the Book of Genesis.
Modern scholars operating under the framework of the documentary hypothesis commonly ascribe the Binding 's narrative to the biblical source E, on the grounds that it generally uses the specific term Elohim (אלוהים) and parallels characteristic E compositions. On that view, the second angelic appearance to Abraham (v. 14 -- 18), praising his obedience and blessing his offspring, is in fact a later Jahwist interpolation to E 's original account (v. 1 -- 13, 19). This is supported by the style and composition of these verses, as well as by the use of the name Yahweh for the deity.
In Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, the literary critic Erich Auerbach considers the Hebrew narrative of the Binding of Isaac, along with Homer 's description of Odysseus 's scar, as the two paradigmatic models for the representation of reality in literature. Auerbach contrasts Homer 's attention to detail and foregrounding of the spatial, historical, as well as personal contexts for events to the Bible 's sparse account, in which virtually all context is kept in the background or left outside of the narrative. As Auerbach observes, this narrative strategy virtually compels readers to add their own interpretations to the text.
More recent studies question the analysis of E and J as strictly separate. Coats argues that Abraham 's obedience to God 's command in fact necessitates praise and blessing, which he only receives in the second angelic speech. That speech, therefore, could not have been simply inserted into E 's original account. This has suggested to many that the author responsible for the interpolation of the second angelic appearance has left his mark also on the original account (v. 1 -- 13, 19).
More recently it has been suggested that these traces are in fact the first angelic appearance (v. 11 -- 12), in which the Angel of YHWH stops Abraham before he kills Isaac. The style and composition of these verses resemble that of the second angelic speech, and YHWH is used for the deity rather than God. On that reading, in the original E version of the Binding Abraham disobeys God 's command, sacrificing the ram "instead of his son '' (v. 13) on his own responsibility and without being stopped by an angel: "And Abraham stretched forth his hand, and took the knife to slay his son; but Abraham lifted up his eyes and looked and beheld, behind him was a ram, caught in a thicket by his horns; and Abraham went, and took the ram, and offered it up as a burnt offering instead of his son '' (v. 10, 13).
By interpolating the first appearance of the angel, a later redactor shifted responsibility for halting the test from Abraham to the angel (v. 11 -- 12). The second angelic appearance, in which Abraham is rewarded for his obedience (v. 14 -- 18), became necessary due to that shift of responsibility. This analysis of the story sheds light on the connection between the Binding and the story of Sodom (Genesis 18), in which Abraham protests against God 's unethical plan to destroy the city, without distinguishing between the righteous and the wicked: "Far be it from you to do such a thing: Shall not the judge of all the earth do what is just? '' Abraham 's ethical rebellion against God in the destruction of Sodom culminates in his disobedience to God, refusing to sacrifice Isaac.
The Binding also figures prominently in the writings of several of the more important modern theologians, such as Søren Kierkegaard in Fear and Trembling and Shalom Spiegel in The Last Trial. Jewish communities regularly review this literature, for instance the recent mock trial held by more than 600 members of the University Synagogue of Orange County, California. Derrida also looks at the story of the sacrifice as well as Kierkegaard 's reading in The Gift of Death.
Francesca Stavrakopoulou has speculated that it is possible that the story "contains traces of a tradition in which Abraham does sacrifice Isaac. R.E. Friedman argued that in the original E story, Abraham may have carried out the sacrifice of Isaac, but that later repugnance at the idea of a human sacrifice led the redactor of JE to add the lines in which a ram is substituted for Isaac. Likewise, Terence Fretheim wrote that the text bears no specific mark of being a polemic against child sacrifice.
Some scholars also point at the genealogical snippet (verses 20 -- 24) as containing a hint to the question whether Abraham sacrificed Isaac or not.
However, whereas verses 20 -- 23 have some significant links with other parts of the Hebrew Bible as well as with the historical and cultural entourage of the ancient Near East, such connections are absent in v. 24. The very name of Nahor 's concubine appears here exclusively and in no other place in the Hebrew Bible is Re'umah mentioned. The same applies to her children 's names with the exception of Ma'akah which is sometimes utilized in the historical books. The extreme rarity of these appellations demands some alternative interpretation with regards to its purpose.
Accordingly, the personal list may contain some "coded '' explanation concerning the rest of the story:
In other words, v. 24 begins with an interpretational invitation and continues with the names which seem to explain the cause of the rash of newborns present at the conclusion of the pericope: Somebody had been blown, slaughtered, put on the tabernacle, and burned.
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how many episdoes are in riverdale season 2 | List of the Big Bang Theory episodes - wikipedia
The Big Bang Theory is an American comedy television series created and executively produced by Chuck Lorre and Bill Prady. Like the name of the series itself (with the exception of the first episode "Pilot ''), episode titles of The Big Bang Theory always start with "The '' and resemble the name of a scientific principle, theory or experiment, whimsically referencing a plot point or quirk that is stated in that episode.
In March 2017, CBS announced that the series was renewed for two more years, leading the show to a total of 12 seasons. The eleventh season premiered on September 25, 2017. As of May 10, 2018, 255 episodes of The Big Bang Theory have aired, concluding the eleventh season. There was also an unaired pilot which CBS did not broadcast.
The original pilot, which CBS passed on, featured Amanda Walsh and Iris Bahr in the female roles for the main cast instead of Kaley Cuoco. Simon Helberg and Kunal Nayyar were not part of the cast of the unaired pilot.
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who is the old man in the walking dead | List of the Walking Dead (TV series) characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of characters from The Walking Dead television series based on the eponymous comic book series. Although some characters appear in both the television and comic series, the continuity of the television series is not shared with the original comic book series.
Rick Grimes, portrayed by Andrew Lincoln, is a former sheriff 's deputy from a small Georgia town. He is often described as an everyman -- smart, calm, just, and a good friend, husband and father, but with his own set of flaws. Rick is a natural leader even when he might doubt himself, but these doubts contribute to the ups and downs his character experiences throughout the series. His overwhelming need to do the right thing and protect those who ca n't protect themselves may pull him away from his family, causing tension within his marriage with Lori and his relationship with his son, Carl.
Acting as a sheriff 's deputy, Rick was shot in the line of duty shortly before the events of the apocalypse began. He finds himself waking up from a coma to a deserted hospital, unbelievable carnage, and his family home deserted. He eventually makes his way to Atlanta and then to the survivors ' camp where his family is taking shelter, and quickly becomes the leader of those survivors. In his quest to lead them to safety, his son Carl is shot in a hunting accident, which brings the group to the Greene farm. While he is still optimistic about the general goodwill of other survivors when the group arrives at the farm, he is shaken by the circumstances which force them to leave, becoming a much darker, warier version of himself. Focused on protecting his family, he leads the group to the prison and clears it for occupation. While there are threats and incidents at the prison, including the death of Rick 's wife Lori and the delusions Rick 's grief causes, Rick and his group transform it into a relatively safe and productive community until they are forced out permanently by the Governor and his forces. Rick subsequently travels with Carl, not knowing if the other survivors, including his daughter Judith, are alive or dead. After almost being killed for meat by the cannibalistic inhabitants of Terminus, Rick 's group is reunited and begins to travel toward Washington, D.C.
Rick and his group are on the verge of starvation when they are invited to join the Alexandria Safe Zone, and Rick becomes the leader there following the death of Deanna Monroe. Just as he has begun to regain hope for a future for his friends and children, he and the Alexandrians are thrown into a lethal conflict with the Saviors. After losing two of his closest allies, Rick is at his lowest, but eventually accepts his responsibility to work with his new allies and make a plan to bring down the Saviors.
Shane Walsh, portrayed by Jon Bernthal, is a former sheriff 's deputy from a small Georgia town. He was Rick 's partner in the sheriff 's department and his best friend since high school. Until Rick 's arrival, Shane led the group of Atlanta survivors. Shane harbors feelings for Lori, and after the start of the apocalypse, when Lori believes Rick is dead, Shane starts a sexual relationship with her. When Rick finds them, Shane relinquishes the leadership position to Rick, while trying to hide his resentment towards Rick and his relationship with Lori. During season two, Shane gradually becomes more unhinged and shows bouts of irrational violence and bloodlust after allowing another survivor to die in an act of self - preservation. Shane eventually lures Rick away from the group to kill him, but Rick kills him first. Shane 's reanimation after being stabbed was the first concrete indication to the survivors that it did n't matter how someone died: they would still come back as a walker.
While Rick claims Lori 's baby as his daughter, it is strongly implied that Judith is Shane 's biological child.
Lori Grimes, portrayed by Sarah Wayne Callies, is Rick 's wife, and Carl and Judith 's mother. Believing Rick to be dead, she begins a relationship with Shane, but is loyal to Rick once he returns, and she pushes Shane away from her and Carl, of whom she is fiercely protective. In the second season, she discovers she is pregnant, but is unsure who the father is. She attempts to comfort Shane so he will feel accepted in their group, but she is cautious about his reckless actions, and ultimately warns Rick that Shane is dangerous. At the same time, she is disturbed by her husband 's gradual change in this more savage environment, and is shocked after learning he killed Shane. From their escape from the farm till their endeavor to take up residence at the prison, Lori becomes increasingly estranged from Rick and Carl, which she blames on herself. She becomes worried about her baby 's survival, and when she goes into labor following a walker attack, Lori convinces Maggie to give her a C - section, despite the fact that it will prove fatal for her. Lori dies giving birth, and Carl is forced to shoot her to prevent reanimation.
Carl Grimes, portrayed by Chandler Riggs, is the son of Rick and Lori, and Judith 's older brother. Confronted with the harsh realities of his new world, he quickly learns to defend himself and even rescues Rick from a reanimated Shane. In the prison, when his mother dies during childbirth, he shoots her in the head to prevent her from turning. The ease with which he shoots a member of The Governor 's militia troubles Rick, leading him to give up his authority over the group and teaching Carl to farm, renouncing violence. When The Governor attacks for the final time, he and Carl are separated from the rest of the group. With Rick severely injured and unconscious, Carl reveals his anger towards his father for failing to protect the group and his mother. He raids neighboring houses for supplies, but is nearly overcome by a walker. He returns to the house and reveals he still depends on his father, and ca n't bear to bring himself to shoot Rick if he does turn. Rick eventually recovers and they are reunited with Michonne, but are driven from the house by the Claimers. They later meet the Claimers again on the road, where one of the members nearly rapes Carl. After overcoming them with Daryl 's help, they travel to Terminus and are captured. After the band of survivors reunites at Terminus, Carl devotes himself to caring for Judith. When he arrives at Alexandria, he is initially awkward with the other teenagers, but befriends Enid, a girl who was outside for a long time also, they spend time together in the woods running from walkers. During the attack of the zombies on Alexandria, Carl gets shot in his right eye by a stray bullet shot by Ron. Carl is saved by Denise, but loses his eye and faces a long recovery, during which he grows darker and more fierce. Negan calls him a future "serial killer '' in the season six finale, which could imply how seriously dangerous Carl may become. Carl, along with Glenn, Rosita, Daryl, Michonne, Abraham, Maggie, Rick, Sasha, Eugene and Aaron, are forced to kneel before Negan. In the season seven premiere, Negan begins to force Rick to cut Carl 's arm off, but changes his mind once he sees Rick is broken. Carl later sneaks into the Sanctuary against his father 's orders to try to kill Negan. While this proves unsuccessful, it does lead Negan to take an unlikely interest in Carl. Carl continues to work in and around Alexandria to try to defeat the Saviors, but begins to believe that Rick is wrong to want to completely destroy them, and wants to go back to welcoming other survivors and working together toward a better future. It is revealed in the season eight midseason finale that is trying to help a stranger named Siddiq and bring to Alexandria Safe - Zone, Carl has been bitten on the abdomen by a walker. He dies by shooting himself after.
Morgan Jones, portrayed by Lennie James, is a survivor staying in Rick Grimes ' hometown with his son, Duane. Initially, he suffers from the loss of his wife Jenny at the start of the apocalypse, unwilling to move on while her reanimated body roamed the town. He helps Rick recover after he wakes from his coma, and promises to contact him over radio as Rick continued towards Atlanta. Later, Morgan could not take action to prevent walker Jenny from biting Duane, and he becomes obsessed with clearing walkers from the town. Rick meets him again while scavenging for supplies, and asks him to join them, but Morgan refuses. After he accidentally burned down his home in a fit, Morgan takes to following Rick and eventually encounters a former prison psychologist named Eastman, who helps Morgan find inner peace through the use of aikido. This not only gives Morgan a new mode of self - defense, but also imparts a new dedication to respecting the value of human life. Morgan follows Rick 's group from Terminus to Alexandria, where he finds their violent ways, particularly of Carol 's, distressing and tries to help show them a better way to deal with the humans that want to harm them. After being asked to locate a missing Carol and becoming a part of the Kingdom, Morgan finally comes to the realization that you have to kill sometimes, and kills Richard in a rage. Morgan helps in the fight against the Saviors and Scavengers, but the violence and the familiar feeling of instability become too much for him, and he once again leaves to be on his own
Dale Horvath, portrayed by Jeffrey DeMunn, is an older man and former car salesman. His age, calm affect, worldly experience, and RV provide the nucleus around which the small community of survivors has formed. He is wise, and the respected elder of the group. He is also rather feisty and not afraid to speak his mind or call others out for mistakes in judgment. Dale manages to talk Andrea out of a suicide attempt by putting himself at risk, as well. Dale becomes wary of Shane, after witnessing that Shane contemplated assassinating Rick beforehand as well as guessing that Shane killed Otis while retrieving medical supplies for Carl. Dale becomes upset at the group when they decide to kill Randall to avoid any risks he might have posed and argues for sparing his life, leading to the execution being postponed. Dale is killed by a walker, who was accidentally lured by Carl earlier that day. Dale 's death causes the group to reevaluate their unity and allow Randall to live.
Glenn Rhee, portrayed by Steven Yeun, is a former pizza delivery boy from Atlanta. He is keenly aware of the extreme danger of his missions on behalf of the group, but because of his loyalty to the group he is willing to take the risks. His knowledge of every shortcut in Atlanta proves extremely useful, and he is an excellent scavenger. Glenn thinks well on his feet and shows great compassion and humanity. He develops a passionate relationship with Maggie while living on the Greene farm and later marries her while they are living in the prison. He becomes more confident and displays more courage and ingenuity, as well as leadership qualities later. After being infected with the illness spreading in the prison, he recovers through Hershel and Bob 's care. When The Governor attacks the prison, he is unable to find Maggie and goes on a search for her with Tara Chambler. The two encounter Abraham Ford, Eugene Porter and Rosita Espinosa, who plan to bring Eugene to Washington, D.C. to find a cure for the apocalypse. After reuniting with his wife, they journey on their mission to D.C., although Eugene eventually reveals he was a fraud hoping for protection. After his half - sister - in - law, Beth 's death, he moves forward with plans to find a safe haven for the group and continues to comfort Maggie in her loss. Glenn continues to be the voice of reason after Beth 's death, and moral support for the group. When they arrive at Alexandria, he is assigned to be one of the runners, and he and fellow runner Nicholas become rivals. After Nicholas causes the death of one of the other runners, their feud eventually culminates in Nicholas trying to shoot Glenn, and the two of them getting in a fight. Glenn is unable to kill Nicholas, and the two form a fragile peace. Glenn is seemingly killed when Nicholas commits suicide and the two fall into a hoard of walkers, but he was able to use Nicholas 's body as a shield and escape under a nearby dumpster. When he arrives back home, he learns that Maggie is expecting their first child. Glenn is part of the raid on the Savior outpost and is forced to kill his first living human, which he finds very difficult. When Maggie experiences complications in her pregnancy, Glenn is captured and, along with Rosita, Daryl, Michonne, Abraham, Maggie, Rick, Sasha, Carl, Eugene and Aaron, is forced to kneel before Negan as punishment for the raid. Negan 's wrath lands on Abraham, and Daryl 's reaction to Abraham 's death causes Negan to additionally bludgeon Glenn to death. His remains are taken by Maggie and Sasha to the Hilltop, where he and Abraham are buried together.
Andrea, portrayed by Laurie Holden, is a former civil rights attorney who is extremely protective of her younger sister, Amy. Following Amy 's death, she considers suicide, but decides to remain with the group. With the others, they find a farm owned by Hershel Greene. At the farm, she continued to confide and seek comfort in Dale, and gained survivalist skills through Shane. After escaping Hershel 's overrun farm, she is rescued by Michonne and is brought by Merle to Woodbury, where she begins a romantic relationship with The Governor. She is eventually caught in the crossfire between Rick and The Governor, and attempts to mend relations, but later turns on The Governor after learning that he intends to attack the prison. She is captured by The Governor and left in a room with a dying Milton, who bites her before she is able to free herself. She is discovered by Michonne, Rick, and the others, and makes amends before taking her own life.
Merle Dixon, portrayed by Michael Rooker, is Daryl Dixon 's older brother. A racist and misogynist, Merle grew up in an abusive household. His first meeting with Rick quickly escalates to conflict and Merle is subdued and handcuffed to a pipe, but the keys are lost. The group has to leave him there, but Rick leads a rescue party only to find that Merle has cut himself free and disappeared. Merle returns in "Walk with Me, '' alive, one - handed, and residing at Woodbury, a thriving settlement run by the malicious Governor, where Merle serves as his lieutenant and enforcer. He escapes Woodbury with Daryl, but struggles to integrate into the prison. He attempts to secure peace with The Governor by kidnapping Michonne, but relents and lets her go before returning to Woodbury and luring a pack of zombies to attack in an attempt to assassinate The Governor. He fails and is killed and left to reanimate. He is later discovered by Daryl, who kills him.
Carol Peletier, portrayed by Melissa McBride, is Sophia 's protective mother and Ed 's abused wife. Before the outbreak, she was a meek housewife, and in the beginning of the apocalypse she often depended on others for survival and appeared weak, despite showing compassion and kindness to others, particularly Daryl, and putting the good of the group ahead of her own needs. After Sophia 's death, Carol gradually undergoes a transformation from a former victim of domestic abuse to a hardened and pragmatic warrior. She manages to survive under difficult circumstances, and soon begins sharing her survival tactics with others. Her story time program at the prison is revealed as a cover for teaching a group of young children self - defense and a weapons training course. When the father of two children, Lizzie and Mika, dies following a walker attack, she becomes their adoptive mother by the father 's wishes. Carol begins taking bold risks in order to survive, especially during the epidemic that breaks out, killing the severely ill Karen and David mercifully to prevent any others from dying. After Tyreese 's devastated reaction at losing Karen, Rick banishes Carol from the prison with a car and some supplies. When she sees smoke from the prison 's destruction, she heads back and encounters Tyreese traveling with Lizzie, Mika, and Rick and Lori 's infant daughter Judith. Carol is further hardened when she is forced to kill Lizzie, who has murdered her sister Mika to convince Carol and Tyreese that turning into a walker is just a change, not death. Carol eventually confesses Tyreese that she was responsible for Karen and David 's deaths and Tyreese forgives her. With Judith, the two move towards Terminus only to discover its true nature. Carol successfully destroys Terminus and saves her friends. Rick asks her to rejoin the group and she accepts. She joins Daryl on a rescue mission for Beth in Atlanta, but Beth is killed, leaving Carol devastated. Carol arrives with the group at Alexandria and pretends to be a weak housewife so that the Alexandrians underestimate her, particularly so that she can steal guns from the armory. Young Sam Anderson takes a liking to her despite her efforts to get rid of him, and their odd friendship is what brings to light the abuse Sam, his mother, and his brother face at the hands of his father. Carol believes that the Alexandrians are weak and that they may need to take the settlement for themselves, but after reflecting on her views with Morgan, Carol realizes she had killed about twenty - five people since the beginning of the apocalypse and becomes distraught. She leaves Alexandria and, along with Morgan, discovers the Kingdom. At the Kingdom she is able to receive medical treatment from multiple gunshot wounds. After learning of the deaths of Glenn and Abraham, Carol joins the fight against the Saviors.
Daryl Dixon, portrayed by Norman Reedus, is Merle 's younger brother. A Southern redneck with a tough background, Daryl is a survivalist and member of the Atlanta band, who quickly becomes one of Rick 's closest confidantes and a leader within the group, a role he is not entirely comfortable with. He develops a close relationship with Carol Peletier in the second season after spending a large amount of time searching for her missing daughter Sophia. Following Shane 's death, Daryl becomes Rick 's right - hand man. After the fall of the prison, he escapes with Beth, who is later kidnapped while he fights off a group of walkers. He joins a nomadic group (the Claimers) before turning on them to save Rick, Carl, and Michonne. In season five, he goes with Carol to Atlanta in an attempt to rescue Beth, but is forced to return with Noah when Carol is also taken to Grady Memorial Hospital. He returns with the group to break Beth and Carol out and is clearly devastated at Beth 's death. He becomes more distant. Once the group arrives at Alexandria, Daryl has a hard time acclimating but befriends recruiter Aaron and eventually becomes a recruiter himself. Daryl and Aaron later discover Morgan in the woods and bring him to Alexandria. After an enormous herd of walkers is discovered near Alexandria, Daryl 's role is to drive them away along with Sasha and Abraham. Daryl is driven away from Sasha and Abraham and has a small encounter with three strangers; Dwight, Sherry, and Tina. He is captured by them, who believe him to be a Savior. After Tina is killed, Dwight and Sherry steal Daryl 's crossbow and motorcycle. Daryl is later found attempting to rescue Glenn and Michonne, who have been captured by Saviors. He is caught by Dwight, and shot near the shoulder. Daryl, along with Glenn, Rosita, Michonne, Abraham, Maggie, Rick, Sasha, Carl, Aaron, and Eugene are forced to kneel before Negan. Daryl is one of the members of the group forced to kneel for Negan during his infamous "Eeny, meeny, miny, moe '' speech. After the death of Abraham at Negans hands, Daryl becomes outraged when Negan forces a terrified Rosita to look at the remains of Abraham on his bat, Lucille. Daryl lashes out at Negan in retaliation and punches him. Much to Daryl 's horror, this causes Negan to further punish the group, responding to this outburst by killing Glenn. Negan takes Daryl back to the Sanctuary as prisoner, where he is tortured physically and psychologically in attempts to convince Daryl to join the Saviors. In "Hearts Still Beating, '' Sherry helps Daryl escape from the Sanctuary. He is hidden among the allied groups to avoid being caught, and is an integral part of the All Out War against the Saviors.
Maggie Greene, portrayed by Lauren Cohan, is Hershel 's daughter and Beth 's elder half - sister. A tomboy at heart, she scavenges supplies from the local town. She develops strong feelings for Glenn, impressed by his bravery and loyalty to the group. After the fall of the farm, she settles 8 months later at the prison with the rest of the group. She and Glenn are later captured and interrogated by Merle and The Governor, who forces her to undress and threatens her with rape to intimidate Glenn into giving up information. After a rescue mission, she continues to be proactive in defending the prison during The Governor 's attacks, killing several snipers and soldiers to protect the prison survivors. She soon marries Glenn. When Glenn is infected by the deadly influenza virus that has spread across the prison and her father risks exposure by caring for the sick, she is angry and frustrated but is able to help when she rushes in to rescue her father and husband from the reanimated infected that overrun the quarantine zone. The Governor returns to the prison and Maggie witnesses her father 's execution in horror. She defends the prison against The Governor 's militia before escaping the overrun compound with Sasha and Bob, unsure if Glenn and her sister are alive or not. Deciding that Glenn is alive, Maggie searches for and finds him, and joins the mission to D.C. for a cure. She receives news that her sister is still alive, only to be left heartbroken once she arrives too late to meet her, as Beth has just died. Maggie becomes depressed after her sister 's death, but begins to recover before the group arrived at Alexandria. Once in Alexandria, Maggie acts as Deanna 's assistant. She tries to persuade Deanna not to exile Rick and also prevents Sasha from killing Gabriel. Maggie later discovers she is pregnant and worries with the possibility of Glenn 's death. When they reunite, she joins the group to go to the Hilltop Colony where she negotiates a deal with Gregory for half of their supplies. When Rick initiates a plan to take out the Saviors, Maggie and Carol are captured by a female group of Saviors and Maggie is forced to kill them, as well as some others, to protect herself and the baby. She forms a maternal bond with Enid. When Enid gives Maggie a haircut, she collapses on the floor in pain and she is taken with a group to reach the Hilltop to see a doctor. Maggie, along with Glenn, Rosita, Daryl, Michonne, Abraham, Rick, Sasha, Carl, Eugene and Aaron, is forced to kneel before Negan before they can reach the Hilltop. Maggie is forced to watch as Negan kills Glenn as punishment for Daryl 's strike. A devastated Maggie tells Rick to prepare to fight Negan as she attempts to collect Glenn 's body. Glenn 's death ultimately helps Maggie grow stronger. Maggie moves to the Hilltop for medical treatment along with Sasha and Enid, and eventually takes leadership over Gregory.
Hershel Greene, portrayed by Scott Wilson, is a veterinarian and farmer, who is also a religious man and former alcoholic. He allows Rick and his group to remain at the farm while Carl recuperates after being shot, but hides from them that he is keeping walkers in his barn, merely believing them to be sick and not dead. When Shane opens the barn and the group kills everyone inside, his worldview is shattered, but he develops a close friendship with Rick and often acts as a voice of wisdom. When the group attempts to clear the prison, he is bitten and Rick cuts off his leg to prevent him from turning into a walker. Hershel becomes a member of the leading council of the prison and counsels the group to work to rebuild a society which can forgive the past wrongs of its members. When the prison becomes infected with the flu, he works as a medic and provides natural remedies to help ease the symptoms of his patients until a cure can be found. He is later taken hostage by The Governor, but is proud to hear Rick offer forgiveness and coexistence to The Governor and his group. The Governor refuses and executes Hershel before attacking the prison.
Beth Greene, portrayed by Emily Kinney, is Hershel 's younger daughter and Maggie 's younger half - sister. She sinks into a deep depression after watching her mother, half - brother, and neighbors, who had become walkers and were being housed in her father 's barn, get shot by Rick 's group, and unsuccessfully attempts suicide. She recovers and survives the fall of the farm before traveling with the group to the prison. She is often seen helping take care of Judith. When the prison becomes infected with the flu, she is put in charge of isolating the group 's children to protect them from the deadly virus. She witnesses her father 's death at the hands of The Governor and escapes the fall of the prison with Daryl. When they become separated during a walker attack, she is kidnapped. She reappears in season five at Grady Memorial Hospital, where she wakes up and discovers that she is being held in the hospital by a group of corrupt police officers. She regularly tries to fight against their strict regime, killing one officer and helping another patient, Noah, escape, but she is kept alive by the officer in charge, Dawn Lerner. As a result of an exchange plan negotiated by Rick to rescue Beth, she is returned to Rick 's group, but Rick refuses to let Lerner take back Noah. Beth stabs Dawn with hidden scissors, but Dawn 's instinctive reflexes cause her to fire a single bullet through Beth 's head, killing her instantly and unexpectedly.
Michonne, portrayed by Danai Gurira, is a resourceful and self - sufficient katana - wielding survivor. Her past, revealed slowly over the series, shows she had survived the initial apocalypse with her three - year - old son Andre, her boyfriend Mike, and their friend Terry. Mike, Terry, and Andre had been attacked by walkers while she was on a supply run, and she blamed Andre 's death on Mike and Terry. She used the reanimated Mike and Terry walkers as a means to disguise her scent among walker hordes. She saves Andrea after the group ran off from Hershel 's farm, and becomes her friend. When they are brought to Woodbury, Michonne is highly distrustful of The Governor and leaves the community to warn Andrea 's friends after witnessing Glenn and Maggie being captured. When Rick 's group attacks Woodbury, Michonne joins in and gets in a fight with The Governor, destroying one of his eyes. Michonne becomes a pivot in the conflict between Rick 's group and The Governor. Later, when Rick 's group is forced to flee the prison after The Governor 's attack, Michonne meets up with Rick and Carl, and the three become closer. As the story progresses, Michonne becomes the voice of reason for Rick, reminding him not to take risks. By the time the group has worked their way to Alexandria, Rick and Michonne have started a relationship with each other. Michonne is attacked by a member of the Scavengers and is almost killed.
The Governor (real name, Phillip Blake), portrayed by David Morrissey, is the leader of the fortified town of Woodbury. He is a charismatic man, who is nevertheless power - mad and willing to kill anyone to secure the supplies needed to strengthen the town. When Merle rescues Andrea and Michonne, he quickly develops a romantic relationship with Andrea, but Michonne remains skeptical. When she leaves, he orders Merle to track her and kill her, but she escapes. Merle instead returns with Glenn and Maggie, who are tortured. When Rick leads a rescue party, Michonne steals away to kill The Governor only to find a room full of heads in fish tanks and his reanimated daughter, who she kills. This enrages The Governor and in the ensuing fight he loses his eye. He resolves to take the prison using walkers as a weapon and eventually leading a militia. When they are routed, he murders most of the militia before being abandoned by his remaining lieutenants. He wanders alone before meeting Lilly and Tara using the pseudonym "Brian Heriot. '' He eventually meets up with a larger group and takes it over, murdering its leader and blaming the prison group. He takes Hershel and Michonne hostage and leads his new group to attack the prison, demanding that Rick and his group abandon the prison. He refuses a gesture of cohabitation before murdering Hershel and triggering a battle. Rick and The Governor brawl, with The Governor gaining the upper hand before being impaled by Michonne, and shot and killed by Lilly.
Tyreese Williams, portrayed by Chad L. Coleman, is the leader of a group from Jacksonville, Florida, which includes his sister Sasha as well as Allen 's family. After unsuccessfully trying to seek refuge at the prison due to Rick 's hallucinations, Tyreese and the others find their way to Woodbury. Tyreese and Sasha become guards at Woodbury 's walls, but he becomes wary of The Governor 's intentions. When the assault on the prison is declared, Tyreese and Sasha stay behind to protect the innocent civilians. Eventually, Rick 's group return to reveal The Governor massacred his entire army, except for lone survivor, Karen. Six months later, Karen and Tyreese form a relationship at the prison and he becomes proactive in supply runs with Daryl, Michonne, Bob, and Sasha. During the flu epidemic that breaks out at the prison, Karen is secretly killed and burned by Carol to prevent the disease from spreading. Furious, he commands Rick to investigate the murders, and attacks Daryl and Rick out of frustration. He helps find medicine for the sick inmates before The Governor returns when their numbers are down. Tyreese fights The Governor 's militia along with Rick 's group and manages to escape with Rick 's infant daughter, Judith, and Lizzie and Mika. They encounter Carol on the road, but Tyreese is unaware of her responsibility for Karen 's death. Lizzie 's psychotic behavior becomes a threat to Tyreese, Carol, and Judith when she murders her sister, forcing Carol to put her down. Carol then admits to killing Karen to prevent people from dying. Tyreese forgives her, but remains haunted by the situation at the grove where they stayed. Soon, he appears psychologically and emotionally damaged, refusing to kill and trying to teach others about mercy. After reuniting with the group, Sasha is alarmed by his behavior, but seeks his comfort in her own loss. After proposing a mission to save Beth that fails when Beth is killed, the group goes to Noah 's home town of Richmond, Virginia for possible sanctuary. Tyreese, however, is bitten in one of the overrun homes, and accepts his fate while hallucinating previously deceased group members, making the choice to let go of his guilt for their losses. The group tries to save him by amputating his arm, but he dies anyway.
Sasha Williams, portrayed by Sonequa Martin - Green, is a former firefighter from Jacksonville, Florida. She travels to Georgia with a group run by her older brother, Tyreese, in search of a safe haven. After passing on the prison, Sasha, her brother Tyreese, Allen, and Ben are welcomed into Woodbury where she protects the walls as a guard. She proves to be a great shot, much better than Tyreese, and decides to stay behind with the people of Woodbury at the walls to protect them instead of joining their army 's attack on the prison. They let Rick 's group in after Karen explains The Governor 's onslaught on his men. Sasha, along with Tyreese, Karen, and other citizens of Woodbury, is taken in by the prison group. At the prison, she is appointed to the prison council, and participates as co-leader on the majority of the supply runs that the prison organizes. She becomes infected by a deadly virus circulating the prison and is forced into quarantine. Hershel keeps her safe in a locked cell block when some infected reanimate as walkers. She is treated by Bob, one of the new prison inhabitants, who gives her medicine. She participates in the battle between her group and The Governor, and escapes the prison with Bob and Maggie. The three later discover the inhabitants in the prison bus have died and reanimated, and Sasha helps put down her undead former comrades. She eventually starts a romantic relationship with Bob, and she is devastated when he dies. This leads her to become a colder, more hardened individual, and her reclusiveness and recklessness only increase when Tyreese dies. Once at Alexandria she becomes a lookout and at one point disappears for a day, hunting walkers in the woods, before Michonne and Rosita find her and convince her to come home. She seeks help from Gabriel, who denies her, and she attempts to beat him but is stopped by Maggie. Sasha begins a romantic relationship with Abraham. Sasha, along with Glenn, Rosita, Daryl, Michonne, Abraham, Maggie, Rick, Carl, Eugene and Aaron, is forced to kneel before Negan. Sasha moves to the Hilltop with Maggie and Enid after Abraham 's death as Maggie 's protector. Sasha and Rosita decide they are tired of waiting for Rick to attack the Saviors and decide to go themselves. After their plans are compromised, Sasha locks Rosita out of the Sanctuary, saving Rosita 's life. Sasha is captured by Negan and put in a cell. When she asks him, Eugene gives Sasha the cyanide tablet he had made so she can determine her own fate. Sasha is put in a casket to travel back to Alexandria as a trade, but she poisons herself on the way there. When Negan opens the casket to prove to Rick she is still safe, a zombified Sasha emerges and tries to attack Negan, leading to the All Out War between the groups. Maggie and Jesus find zombified Sasha and put her down.
Bob Stookey, portrayed by Lawrence Gilliard Jr., is a former army medic. He joins the prison community a week before the fourth season opener, "30 Days Without an Accident, '' when Daryl found him surviving on his own. Bob maintains a confident face to prove his worth to the group, but struggles with alcoholism and his troubled past. When a deadly influenza virus affects the prison inhabitants, Bob joins Daryl 's group to retrieve medicine at a college. Bob then talks to Daryl about being the last survivor of two different groups, and admits responsibility for the death of another member of their group during a supply run when his temptation for alcohol resulted in an attack by walkers, although he is quickly forgiven by Daryl. At the college, Bob retrieves a bottle of alcohol, which is later discovered by Daryl, who loses trust in Bob. When they return to the prison, Bob creates vaccinations to help cure the infected. Bob participates in the battle against The Governor. He is injured but he manages to escape the prison with Sasha and Maggie. After being treated by Sasha, he joins them in their quest to find the prison bus. The three discover the inhabitants in the prison bus have died and reanimated, and Bob helps to put them down. He eventually starts a romantic relationship with Sasha. Later, after the group reunites and escapes Terminus, he joins Rick, Michonne, Sasha, and Father Stokes on a supply run into the nearest town 's food bank in "Strangers. '' It is eventually revealed that, during a scuffle between Bob and a walker beneath the sewage water in the food bank 's basement, he sustained a bite to his right shoulder, but kept it a secret from everyone else. Later that night, he leaves the church to put himself down, only to be kidnapped by the Hunters. Though he is initially horrified that they are eating his leg, he laughs and taunts them, saying that he is "tainted meat. '' In response, the Hunters savagely beat him and leave him outside the church, where he is found by the group. He dies the next morning, after the group has already killed the Hunters, and Tyreese stabs him in the head to put him down.
Tara Chambler, portrayed by Alanna Masterson, is a former police academy student, who holes up in an apartment complex with her remaining family -- her sister Lilly, her dying father David, and her niece Meghan. They welcome The Governor into their apartment and Tara comes to trust him and follows him as he leads them to join a larger group after her father 's death. As he leads an attack on the prison, she refuses to fight when confronted with The Governor 's true nature. Glenn discovers a catatonic Tara in the aftermath of the battle, having lost her sister (who killed The Governor out of vengeance), her niece, and her girlfriend Alisha. She agrees to stay with him until he finds Maggie. They later meet Abraham Ford, Dr. Eugene Porter, and Rosita Espinosa, who are on a mission to find a cure for the virus in Washington, D.C. She travels with them and they eventually find Maggie, Bob and Sasha before finding Terminus and being captured and imprisoned by cannibals. The group escapes as the compound is overrun and Tara is formally accepted as a member of the group by Rick, who tells her that he knows she did n't want to be a part of the assault. She accompanies group members to D.C. and develops a strong friendship with Eugene, giving him a chance to prove himself and be accepted like she was. Upon discovering his mission was a lie, she is silent, but later explains to Eugene that he needs to pull his weight within the group. The band of survivors regroup and head to Noah 's community in Virginia, suffering several losses in the process before being recruited to a safe zone outside of D.C. called Alexandria. Tara, Noah, and Glenn become supply runners. During one run, Tara is severely injured and knocked unconscious as Noah is killed. Tara later wakes up in a medical room as Rosita watches over her. She soon begins a relationship with Denise Cloyd, the local doctor for Alexandria. She is part of Rick 's plan to kill the Saviors at the outpost. After this, she joins Heath on a two - week supply run. While she is gone, Denise is killed by Dwight. Tara and Heath are separated after Tara falls off of a bridge. An unconscious Tara is discovered by the Oceanside community; Tara is able to escape Oceanside but promises she would n't tell anyone of their whereabouts. She eventually breaks this promise when Negan takes Alexandria 's guns. Tara leads Rick, Daryl, Carl, Michonne, Aaron, Gabriel, Jesus, Enid, Tobin, Eric, Scott, & Francine to Oceanside to take their guns. When Rosita brings Dwight back to Alexandria, Tara repeatedly tells Daryl to kill him. When Daryl does n't know that Tara is seemingly angry at him.
Sergeant Abraham Ford, portrayed by Michael Cudlitz, is a survivor and former member of the military. Before meeting Eugene, he had a family, who ran away after seeing him kill a group that threatened their safety. After his family was killed, Abraham attempted suicide, but Eugene arrived at the same moment, stopping him from doing so. His mission has become attempting to deliver Eugene to Washington, D.C., believing he has the answer to the cause and cure of the zombie plague. Upon discovering that Eugene was lying, he nearly beats Eugene to death. His actions cause friction with the others, but he remains with the group nonetheless. He becomes part of Alexandria 's construction crew and upon Tobin 's recommendation becomes their leader after saving Francine from walkers. Abraham 's friendship with Eugene is later repaired after intervention from Rosita. He had been in a relationship with Rosita while they traveled with Eugene, Glenn and Tara, but he ended it at Alexandria. He takes a liking to Sasha from being on some runs with her as a partner, and they become lovers... Abraham, along with Glenn, Rosita, Daryl, Michonne, Maggie, Rick, Sasha, Carl, Eugene and Aaron, is forced to kneel before Negan. After Negan plays "Eeny, meeny, miny, moe '' with the group, he lands on Abraham, who flashes Sasha a peace sign before accepting his death at Negan 's hands.
Dr. Eugene Porter, portrayed by Josh McDermitt, is a survivor of the apocalypse and a member of Abraham Ford 's survivor group and later a minor antagonist after he unwillingly begins working for the Saviors. He comes across as timid and socially awkward. Initially when encountered by Rick 's group, he appears to be a scientist that knows of a cure to the outbreak located in Washington, D.C., with Abraham and Rosita assisting him. Later, Eugene is forced to reveal that he lied to Abraham to gain his protection back when they first met, leading Abraham to punch him unconscious and creating a rift in their friendship. When the group makes it to Alexandria, Eugene assists the community with his technical knowledge to repair their solar power system. This helps to boost his confidence to learn how to defend himself, reconcile his friendship with Abraham, and help the community find a way to make more bullets. When Negan discovers that Eugene makes bullets, Eugene is taken to work for the Saviors. Although Eugene accepts the offer to become one of the Saviors, he still helps Sasha kill herself but lies about it to Negan. He is an important player for the Saviors in the All Out War arc, but is tormented with conflicting loyalties, especially after he discovers that Dwight is playing both sides.
Rosita Espinosa, portrayed by Christian Serratos, is a survivor of the apocalypse and a member of Abraham Ford 's survivor group, with whom she is in a relationship. When their truck breaks down on the way to D.C. she and the others journey with Glenn and Tara towards Terminus, ultimately leading to her capture there. She escapes with the group and goes with them from Georgia to Alexandria, forming a close relationship with fellow survivors Glenn Rhee and Tara Chambler before becoming fully accepted into their group. Upon arriving at Alexandria, Rosita is made a medical assistant. Along with Michonne, she tries to bring Sasha back to Alexandria after she goes missing, and takes close care of Tara after her injury while simultaneously trying to mend Abraham 's and Eugene 's friendship. She is with Tara when she wakes up in the season five finale. In "Not Tomorrow Yet, '' Rosita is heartbroken after Abraham breaks up with her. She then begins a relationship with Spencer. Rosita, along with Glenn, Daryl, Michonne, Abraham, Maggie, Rick, Sasha, Carl, Eugene and Aaron, is forced to kneel before Negan. Furious about Abraham and Glenn 's death, Rosita has Eugene make her a bullet to kill Negan. Negan kills Spencer which triggers Rosita to shoot at him, but she hits Lucille. She is tackled by Arat, who scars her face. Rosita becomes increasingly angry with the Saviors. She finds Sasha at Hilltop and the two go on a mission to the Sanctuary to kill Negan. During their run, Rosita reveals to Sasha that she learned everything she knows from everyone she met after the apocalypse. Later, when breaking into the Sanctuary, Eugene refuses her help and will not join them and escape. Sasha locks Rosita out of the Sanctuary, telling her that is is n't her time to die. Rosita then runs into Dwight, who she brings back to Alexandria. During the battle at Alexandria, Rosita is shot and is rushed to the infirmary by Tara.
Gareth, portrayed by Andrew J. West, is the leader of a supposed safe zone, Terminus, which he runs along with his younger brother, Alex, and his mother, Mary. He explains that Terminus initially was a safe and welcoming place, a sanctuary for all who wanted to come in, before a group of marauders took over and began ruthlessly beating and raping the other survivors. Gareth and his family had to take Terminus back by force, and decided that from then on, they would run Terminus in a similarly brutal manner by capturing, killing, and eating all those who were lured in by the various signs posted in the area. Just before Gareth and his butchers can kill Rick, Daryl, Glenn, and Bob, Carol begins her siege on Terminus by blowing up the propane tank outside, blasting open the fences and allowing the walkers to flow in. Though Terminus is destroyed and a majority of the survivors, including Alex and Mary, are killed, Gareth manages to survive and escape, along with five others, and become known as The Hunters. Later the Hunters kidnap Bob and eat one of his legs, but when he reveals that he is infected, they savagely beat him and leave him outside Father Stokes 's church, where Rick 's group has taken residence. They then attempt to lead a siege against the church in "Four Walls and a Roof, '' only to be outsmarted and overpowered by Rick, Abraham, Michonne, Glenn, Maggie and Tara. Although Gareth initially pleads for his life, Rick refuses and kills him with a red - handled machete.
Gabriel Stokes, portrayed by Seth Gilliam, is a priest at a small parish church outside Atlanta. He is an extremely nervous man, who is not used to the hazards of the outside world, having been mostly sheltered inside his church after the outbreak began, living off of stored food from the nearby town 's food drive. He also struggles with how his religious beliefs fit within this new world. He is introduced when Rick 's group rescues him from walkers while he was out foraging, and he offers them shelter in his church. Rick discovers Gabriel had locked his congregation out of the church at the start of the outbreak, an action he remains remorseful for. He joins Rick 's group as the church is overrun, though detests the use of violence. When they arrive at the relative safety of Alexandria, he attempts to convince Deanna that Rick 's group is Satan in disguise, but eventually apologizes to all for sowing seeds of distrust. He becomes a useful member of Alexandria, both a man of the cloth as well as a protector on the community 's walls. Tamiel from the Scavengers kidnaps Gabriel. Rick, Michonne, Rosita, Tara, and Aaron find Gabriel with the Scavengers, which leads to the Alexandrians ' deal to exchange guns for an alliance. This alliance proves unfaithful, and Gabriel is involved in the war against the Saviors. As he tries to help save Gregory during the attack on the Sanctuary, Gabriel ends up sheltering in the same storage room where Negan himself is hiding. Though Negan helps him escape from the walker horde, Gabriel becomes a prisoner of the Saviors, and contracts a deadly infection that requires medial attention.
Aaron, portrayed by Ross Marquand, is a recruiter for the Alexandria Safe Zone community, and generally has a cheerful, outgoing personality. Prior to formally meeting Rick 's group of survivors, he followed them around to evaluate them as candidates for membership in Alexandria, and eventually extends an invitation to Rick. The group, after some deliberation, accepts. Once the group is accustomed to Alexandria, Aaron invites Daryl to help assist him in recruiting other survivors. During once such excursion, Aaron and Daryl are lured into a walker trap set up by the Wolves. Morgan helps them to escape, though Aaron loses his kit of recruiting materials. Later, when the Wolves launch a full - out attack on Alexandria, Aaron finds that they had used his recruiting materials to locate Alexandria and plan the attack, causing him to feel guilty over the deaths of several Alexandrians. His guilt inspires him to take part in more of the fighting that follows, which leads to conflict with his husband, Eric, who worries for his safety. Aaron, along with Glenn, Daryl, Michonne, Abraham, Maggie, Rick, Sasha, Carl, Eugene and Rosita, is forced to kneel before Negan, and watches in horror as Negan brutally murders Abraham and Glenn. He helps Rick carry back Abraham and Glenn 's bodies after their deaths. He and Eric make amends and both fight against the Saviors, which leads to Eric 's death.
Deanna Monroe, portrayed by Tovah Feldshuh, is a former Congresswoman and the leader of the Alexandria Safe Zone. She is based on the character of Douglas Monroe from the comic books. When Rick 's group arrives in Alexandria, she interviews each member and records their testimonies, believing that the tapes would be important artifacts when Alexandria rekindled civilization. Deanna is very good at reading people, and she eventually finds an ideal job for each of them to contribute in the community. Deanna is the mother of Aiden and Spencer and wife to Reg. She had to deal with the loss of her son, Aiden, who died on a run for supplies and later Reg, who was accidentally killed by Pete, their medical adviser, and these losses change her views on how Alexandria has to be run... She wanted to expand Alexandria wider and gave her plans to Rick. When the herd of walkers break into Alexandria in "Start to Finish '' she is bitten, and she tells Michonne she will kill herself when the time is right. Due to Carl and Ron fighting, the walkers end up invading the house they were in, and Deanna sends them away without her. Once the walkers reach upstairs, instead of killing herself she takes out several walkers before being consumed. She is later put down by Spencer and Michonne, then buried in the woods outside Alexandria.
Jessie Anderson, portrayed by Alexandra Breckenridge, is an Alexandria resident, married to Pete and mother of Ron and Sam. She mentions to Rick she is a former stylist and gives him a haircut, where it is apparent the two have romantic chemistry. It comes to light that Jessie is abused by Pete and Rick intervenes, which leads to a fight between the two men. After Rick executes Pete for killing Reg, Jessie decides to step up in the community and learns to shoot. When the Wolves attack, Jessie is tackled by one of their women and stabs her repeatedly. She then tries to convince the other Alexandrians that they can be brave and accept the harsh realities outside the walls, and begins a relationship with Rick. When the herd breaks into Alexandria, her son Sam panics during the escape attempt and is devoured in front of her. In shock, Jessie freezes and the walkers begin to rip at her, but she is still gripping tightly onto Carl 's hand. Rick is forced to chop her hand off so she does n't pull Carl into the herd with her. She and her sons are buried together in Alexandria once the herd is destroyed.
Enid, portrayed by Katelyn Nacon, is an Alexandria resident. She is first introduced to Carl sitting on a bed with a book while Ron and Mikey show Carl their video games. She often sneaks out of the safe zone. Eventually, Carl follows her out, but she sneaks back in away from him. Ron explains to Carl that she arrived alone and that it took her a while to speak to the other kids. Carl continues to follow her outside, which she quickly realizes. Despite her uneasiness with him stalking her, she lets him accompany her as she keeps up the survival skills she used to travel before she arrived in Alexandria. Carl also seems to have developed a crush on Enid, but appears too timid to pursue it, given his resistance to even hold her hand for more than one second. Enid finally tells Carl that she is the last survivor of her family; they were attacked and only she came out safe, traveling alone until she came across Alexandria. She helps Maggie during her pregnancy and wanted to go on the trip to the Hilltop Colony, but Carl traps her in a cupboard in fear of losing her. After learning of the deaths of Glenn and Abraham, Enid travels to the Hilltop with Carl. She and Carl share their first kiss and Enid begs Carl to not travel to the Sanctuary, but he does n't give in. When at the Oceanside, Enid asks Carl what it 's like to kill somebody, anticipating she will have to do it soon. In the Season 7 finale, Enid arrives at Alexandria with Maggie, Jesus, and the other Hilltop residents to join the battle against the Scavengers and the Saviors.
Spencer Monroe, portrayed by Austin Nichols, is the son of Deanna and Reg, and the older brother of Aiden. He is distrustful of the Rick and his group even after his parents accept them and shows disregard for the society 's regulations, especially when it comes to firearm possession and food rationing. He becomes a sniper in the bell tower with Sasha, in whom he takes an interest. When the herd came upon Alexandria, he almost died attempting to climb across a wire to reach a car and lead the herd of walkers away. Saving him almost cost Tara 's life. After the events of the herd attack, he sneaks out of Alexandria to go put down his reanimated mother. Michonne follows him and then allows him to do what he wanted. In "Twice as Far, '' he awakens from sleeping with Rosita. He later asks her for a date, which she reluctantly agrees to. Spencer blames Rick for the deaths of Abraham and Glenn and even challenges Rick once after his return, but it was n't received constructively. He tried to prove himself to the Saviors by going out alone to collect supplies, but when he reveals to Negan his desire to overthrow Rick, Negan notices how cowardly Spencer truly is. Negan doubts that Spencer has any "guts '' and slashes him across the stomach, allowing his intestines to spill out before he dies, in front of the whole community. He is left to reanimate and Rick puts him down.
Dwight, portrayed by Austin Amelio, is a ruthless but reluctant member of the Saviors who forms a hostile rivalry with Daryl. He first appears in "Always Accountable '' with his wife Sherry and his sister - in - law Tina. The three of them come across Daryl in the woods and take him captive, mistaking him for a Savior coming to bring them back. Although Daryl offers to help them, they steal his motorcycle and crossbow and go back to the Sanctuary. Dwight appears later with half of his face melted and attempts to kill Daryl, but ends up shooting Denise in the eye with Daryl 's crossbow. Dwight and his crew have Eugene hostage, but Eugene creates a distraction by biting Dwight in the testicles, allowing Abraham to begin firing on them. Dwight and his men retreat. After Denise 's death, Daryl goes out to hunt for Dwight for vengeance. Michonne, Rosita, and Glenn follow him to lead him back, but Rosita agrees with him that they should bring down Dwight. Michonne and Glenn head back but are captured by Dwight 's men. Rosita and Daryl are also found by Dwight, who then shoots Daryl. Dwight stands forward when they ambush Rick 's group, taking an interest in Daryl 's gear, especially his vest, motorcycle, and crossbow. After Negan takes Daryl captive, Dwight uses Daryl 's motorcycle to get around. Dwight is sent to convince a renegade Savior to return to the fold, but he refuses. Dwight shoots him out of desperation. It is revealed the burn mark on his face came from Negan. After their failed escape attempt Sherry became one of Negan 's wives to save them both, but Dwight and Sherry were caught illicitly seeing each other, which is punishable by a red hot iron to the face. Rosita comes across Dwight and brings him to Alexandria, where he is confronted by Daryl, Rick, Tara, Michonne, and Jesus. He tells them that he wants to join them as a double agent to take down Negan. Tara wants Daryl to kill him for killing Denise, but the Alexandrians decide they need Dwight as an ally. Dwight continues to honor their new alliance as the All Out War begins, sending secret messages and internally sabotaging the Savior 's plans.
Paul "Jesus '' Rovia, portrayed by Tom Payne, is a friend of Rick 's group and a member of the Hilltop Colony. He first met Daryl and Rick while they were on a run and stole their truck full of food. Then he fought with Daryl and Rick, who knocked him unconscious and brought him to Alexandria instead of leaving him to die. Jesus introduces them to the Hilltop in order for the two communities to become trading partners, and assists them in rescuing Craig and taking out one of the Saviors ' outposts. When Maggie and Sasha make it to the Hilltop after Glenn and Abraham are killed, he is very welcoming; he constantly tries to convince Gregory of their usefulness. After the Saviors come to collect supplies, Gregory tells Jesus to follow them and find their location. He sneaks into the back of one of their supply trucks where he finds that Carl had the same idea. After infiltrating the Sanctuary, he runs into a freshly - escaped Daryl and helps him get to the Hilltop to reunite with Rick and Alexandrians.
Gregory, portrayed by Xander Berkeley, is the leader of the Hilltop Colony. He accepted the deal from the Saviors and later tried to break that deal with Rick 's help. He was stabbed by Ethan under Negan 's orders but he survived. He is seen by everyone as a great coward. Reluctantly, he ends up taking in Sasha and Maggie after Negan 's ambush. He never calls Maggie by the correct name and scoffs at the idea that Maggie and Sasha could be useful. He almost gave up their hiding space to Simon in "Go Getters, '' but Jesus, not trusting him to honor their agreement, had moved the women elsewhere. In "Rock in the Road, '' Gregory refuses to assist Rick in the oncoming fight against the Saviors and is greatly criticized by the combined communities. He is visiting the Sanctuary to prove his loyalty when the combined Alexandrian forces attack and only narrowly escapes when Gabriel stops to help him. When he gets back to the Hilltop, Maggie throws him in the pen with the Savior hostages.
Simon (also known as Lead Savior in his first appearance), portrayed by Steven Ogg, is a psychopath high - ranking member of the Saviors who serves as Negan 's right - hand man. He is first encountered in the season six finale as a roadblock to Rick 's group. He talks to Rick, musing on how that day is someone 's "last day on earth. '' He reappears at the end of the episode and announces to Rick 's group that this is their destination. He has Dwight get Daryl, Glenn, Michonne and Rosita out of the truck, and later calls for Negan to face the fearful Alexandrians, which brings the Alexandrians under Negan 's rule. Simon is the deputy in charge of relations with the Hilltop Colony and comes to remind Gregory of their agreement and how important it is for the Hilltop to keep up its end of the bargain. In the end of the seventh season Simon accompanies Negan to intimidate the Alexandrians without realizing that the community allied with Hilltop and the Kingdom. This battle is a hard blow to the Saviors, who then flee. Simon is one of Negan 's deputies during the upcoming war with the allied survivors. In the episode "How It 's Gotta Be '' Simon tries to capture Maggie without knowing of the surprise that this one will take. When The Scavengers form an alliance with Rick, Simon goes to The Scavengers and kills them all except for Jadis, making it clear that he is opposed to Negan 's order, creating a rift with the leader of the Saviors. Simon believes that the rebellion of Alexandria, The Kingdom and Hilltop are a potential threat to them since their choice is to seek other communities to subjugate but Negan does not agree as his order is to maintain a balance without causing too much collateral damage. When Negan decides to attack Hilltop using weapons tainted with walker blood to leave a "warning '', Rick notices Negan 's car and attacks the leader of the Saviors, isolating him from the others. The Saviors, including Simon and Dwight, believed that Negan was dead, and Simon immediately proclaims himself as the new leader of The Saviors. Upon Negan 's return, Simon plans a coup with Dwight and other members of the Savior 's. Dwight betrays Simon and Began walks in on their meeting. Simon challenges Negan to a fight for control of the Savior 's which Negan acceots, and wins, strangling Simon to death and turns into the walker.
Negan, portrayed by Jeffrey Dean Morgan, is a totalitarian and manipulative dictator who made his first appearance in the season six finale. He is the psychopathic and merciless leader of a vast organization of hostile survivors called the Saviors that he rules with tyranny. His group coerces other survivors to give the Saviors their possessions and supplies by the threat of force and intimidation. When Rick 's group attempt to take Maggie to the Hilltop Colony for medical assistance, the Saviors capture them all. Negan demands that Alexandria will turn over half its supplies to him from now on, and reinforces his mandate by beating to a bloody pulp Abraham and Glenn with his barbed wire - studded baseball bat, Lucille. Negan finds his way to Alexandria, where he meets the rest of the group and, as promised, takes half of all of their supplies, furniture, and weapons. At the Sanctuary, one of his standard punishments is using a hot iron to melt the face of anyone who sleeps with any of his wives, which is how Dwight 's face became scarred. When Carl sneaks into the Sanctuary and guns down Negan 's men, he takes Carl and shows him around before trying to intimidate him by making him sing a song and reveal his empty eye socket. He then returns to Alexandria with Carl to wait for Rick. In the meantime, he is taken on a tour and enjoys a meal with Carl, Olivia, and Judith. Before Rick returns, Spencer tries to ingratiate himself with Negan by offering him a drink and playing pool with him. However, when Spencer reveals his desire for Rick to be deposed, Negan suggests that he "has no guts '' for not killing Rick himself and just taking over. He then guts Spencer and Rosita to attempts to shoot him. Rosita misses and shoots Lucille instead. Furious not only at Lucille 's marring but also at the presence of a bullet in Alexandria, Negan demands that Rosita tell him who made it. When Rosita refuses, Negan tells one of his soldiers to pick someone to shoot; she turns and shoots Olivia through the head. Eugene confesses to manufacturing the bullets and Negan orders him to be taken. Negan leaves when Rick gets back, stating that he helped him and cleared up his mess. After Sasha is captured, Negan takes her as a show of goodwill to the Alexandrians even though he has allied with the Scavengers to double - cross them. He is taken by surprise to see that Rick formed alliances with the Kingdom and Hilltop and the communities had formed a militia. Their arrivals force Negan and his henchmen to retreat. In the season eight premiere Rick and his soldiers go to the Sanctuary to tell Negan that they will not submit to his tyranny and that, if the Saviors will cease their terror, they can all continue in peace. Negan rejects Rick 's offer and fighting begins. In the episode "The Big Scary U '' he confesses to Gabriel the past of his deceased wife Lucille and his inability to put her down after her reanimation.
King Ezekiel, portrayed by Khary Payton, is the leader of a community known as the Kingdom. A former actor and zookeeper, Ezekiel created his persona as a king alongside a pet Bengal tiger he rescued from the zoo, Shiva. When Carol is taken to the Kingdom, she and Ezekiel form a tentative friendship. When the Saviors escalate their harassment of the Kingdom, Ezekiel begins to realize that their relatively peaceful lifestyle can not continue and accepts the invitations of Jesus, Morgan, and Rick to band together and fight the Saviors. He maintains his kingly persona as he leads his troops into the battle where they kill a large number of Saviors and believe themselves to be victorious. Not long afterward, they come into the line of fire of Savior snipers who kill all of Ezekiel 's fighters except for Jerry and Carol and wound Ezekiel himself. As they try to escape the compound, Shiva finds them threatened by walkers and sacrifices herself to save Ezekiel. Only then does his facade break down. When he returns to the Kingdom, devastated, he retreats to his rooms and will see no one. He only reappears when the Saviors come to remove everyone from the Sanctuary, sacrificing himself as a distraction so his people could escape and padlocking the gates so the Saviors could not overrun their home.
Jadis, portrayed by Pollyanna McIntosh, is the oddly - spoken and enigmatic leader of the Scavengers. She is calm and collected, but also very cunning and sly. Her group kidnapped Gabriel and then ambushed Rick 's team as they searched for him. When asked by Rick to join forces to defeat the Saviors, Jadis is reluctant but takes it into consideration after being told that they could gain more supplies. Jadis tells Rick he needs to prove his worth and she pushes him down a trash heap into a pit of trash and metal. After watching Rick kill a heavily armored walker, she tells him that she and her people will help him, but that they need a lot of guns. When Rick 's group delivers 63 guns to her, she tells him that it is not enough, claiming they need nearly twice as many guns. Rick and Jadis renegotiate and agree that he will keep 20 of the guns while he searches for more. He finds the needed guns at Oceanside, seemingly clinching the Scavengers ' support. The day of the battle, she crudely propositions Rick upon arrival at Alexandria. Together, the Scavengers and the Alexandrians wire up bombs at the gates ready for the enemy. When the explosion fails as Negan and his men wait by the gates, Jadis pulls a gun on Rick and the Scavengers follow suit with the rest of the Alexandrians. She reveals that she told Negan of Rick 's plan and was offered a "better deal '' by the Saviors. When the Saviors get distracted by the re-animated Sasha, Rick attempts to make another deal with her, but Jadis refuses and shoots him in the abdomen; she pushes him off the platform. During the battle, she flees with her group through smoke bombs. After the war between the Saviors and the banded survivors has begun, Rick again attempts to get Jadis on his side. She imprisons him in a shipping container, only releasing him to fight with another armed walker. He decapitates the walker and disarms her men, giving her new terms which she appears to accept. In the episode "The Key '' Jadis captures Negan at gunpoint, in trying to take justice for the death of his camp at the hands of Simon. Jadis seeing the sincerity of Negan she decides to let him go.
Five inmates in the prison survived the apocalypse, locked up in the canteen for ten months. Until released from the canteen by Rick 's group, they were unaware of the walker plague that wiped out a large percentage of the population. Rick tells them they can live in a separate cellblock. Although two of them ultimately join Rick 's group, they all eventually die.
Woodbury is a town in Georgia, of which a few streets have been walled off to keep the town operating. It is led by Philip Blake, who has adopted the nickname "The Governor '' from the townspeople. Woodbury had a population of close to eighty people at the time of Andrea and Michonne 's arrival, but due to various factors (such as the prison group 's attack on the town and The Governor 's slaughter of nearly his entire army), the population dwindles dramatically throughout season three. Robert Kirkman later confirmed that any and all Woodbury characters, who were not brought to the prison are deceased. The remaining population of Woodbury at the Prison Community dwindles further throughout season four as a result of the spreading of the flu. As of the episode "Inmates, '' nearly every resident of Woodbury is confirmed to be deceased, as the bus is apparently overwhelmed and everyone on board becomes zombified (and later put down by Maggie Greene, Bob Stookey, and Sasha). It has been confirmed that any other Woodbury resident (except Jeanette) not seen dying either on the bus or at the prison is deceased nonetheless. Thus, the entire population of Woodbury is confirmed to be dead.
After The Governor executes most of the able - bodied Woodbury residents, who had been members of his army, only the children and elderly townspeople remain at Woodbury (under the watchful eye of Tyreese and Sasha). After Andrea 's suicide due to being bitten, Rick and his group return to the prison with the remaining Woodbury survivors (including Tyreese, Sasha, Karen, Eryn, Jeanette, and Ms. McLeod), swelling the prison 's population from the original ten to around 30. Six to seven months afterwards, numerous other survivors have joined the prison community, from various locations and backgrounds. Some of those people are Ryan Samuels, Mika Samuels, Patrick, Zach, Lizzie Samuels, Luke, Owen, Molly, Julio, and Charlie. The compound is initially peaceful and thriving, until a flu epidemic spreads throughout the community and infects numerous residents, killing many of those stricken. However, when the scouting group returns with medicine, the issue is resolved. Shortly afterwards, The Governor returns with a militia and executes the captive Hershel, igniting a firefight between the two groups. This battle leads to the fall of the prison community after The Governor tears down the fences. As a result of the flu and The Governor 's assault, the numbers dwindle significantly. The escaping newcomers are found dead on the public transport bus for the prison, while five other newcomers remain alive. Lizzie and Mika are later killed, as well as Bob and lastly Tyreese. Sasha is only prison newcomer still alive.
After wandering on his own for six to seven months alone, following the fall of Woodbury and the defections of Martinez and Shumpert, The Governor encounters the Chambler Family holed up in their apartment building. The surviving Chamblers later set off with The Governor (who has said his name is "Brian Hariot '') to seek shelter elsewhere following the death of David, but The Governor 's actions lead to Lilly and Meghan 's deaths.
A dangerous group of heavily armed men, who raid homes searching for supplies and weapons. The group first appeared in "Claimed. ''
Terminus is a sanctuary that is first mentioned in the last half of season four over a radio broadcast heard by Daryl, Bob, Michonne, and Tyreese while driving in Zach 's car. After the fall of the prison, the small factions of prison residents, who survive the assault find the signs directing survivors towards Terminus, and each group slowly begins to make its way there. The exact location of Terminus is finally revealed in "Us, '' where it appears to be a relatively vibrant, well - secured settlement, but in actuality hides a dark and brutal secret. After Terminus is destroyed by Carol 's siege in "No Sanctuary, '' only six residents of survive and escape, becoming known as The Hunters.
After Carol destroys Terminus, their leader, Gareth, began to harass the group Rick to find them, in order to take revenge.
Grady Memorial Hospital, first appearing in "Slabtown, '' is revealed to be the home of a sheltered group of survivors, who believe that military assistance will eventually come to them after a certain period of time. The hospital is run under a strict authoritarian regime by a group of corrupt police officers.
The Alexandria Safe - Zone is located near Alexandria, Virginia, and is a suburban community protected by large walls. It is a self - powered community, with solar panels to help power the homes and water system. When Rick 's group is invited to join Alexandria, they find that the Alexandrians have sheltered themselves from the real world outside their gates, leading to strive between the two groups.
The Wolves are a group of deranged people, who destroy camps and shelters, killing everyone. They are marked with a "W '' with blood on their foreheads -- the sign of a wolf. They steal the belongings of their victims, often dismembering their bodies, and cutting the "W '' sign onto these victims ' foreheads with knives. They usually leave their victims to become walkers.
The Hilltop Colony is a small group of survivors that have fortified the area around a large mansion atop a hill, near Alexandria.
The Sanctuary is a community of a massive group, some that reside are civilians that work for the community but in majority is conformed by bandits called "The Saviors, '' a group of pirates, gangsters and motorcyclists, who plunder people on the road around the Washington area. They are a subgroup under Negan.
The Scavengers are a large group that first appears in "Rock in the Road. '' They live in a junkyard and are led by a woman named Jadis. In the season seven finale, they betray Rick, and reveal their service and loyalty to Negan.
The Walking Dead comic book and the television series, based on it, are regarded as separate continuities. Therefore, regardless of any possible similarities between the two mediums, characters and events appearing in one have no effect on the continuity of the other.
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a wireless network that provides internet connections to mobile devices and computers | Wireless network - wikipedia
A wireless network is a computer network that uses wireless data connections between network nodes.
Wireless networking is a method by which homes, telecommunications networks and business installations avoid the costly process of introducing cables into a building, or as a connection between various equipment locations. Wireless telecommunications networks are generally implemented and administered using radio communication. This implementation takes place at the physical level (layer) of the OSI model network structure.
Examples of wireless networks include cell phone networks, wireless local area networks (WLANs), wireless sensor networks, satellite communication networks, and terrestrial microwave networks.
The first professional wireless network was developed under the brand ALOHAnet in 1969 at the University of Hawaii and became operational in June 1971. The first commercial wireless network was the WaveLAN product family, developed by NCR in 1986.
Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) connect devices within a relatively small area, that is generally within a person 's reach. For example, both Bluetooth radio and invisible infrared light provides a WPAN for interconnecting a headset to a laptop. ZigBee also supports WPAN applications. Wi - Fi PANs are becoming commonplace (2010) as equipment designers start to integrate Wi - Fi into a variety of consumer electronic devices. Intel "My WiFi '' and Windows 7 "virtual Wi - Fi '' capabilities have made Wi - Fi PANs simpler and easier to set up and configure.
A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices over a short distance using a wireless distribution method, usually providing a connection through an access point for internet access. The use of spread - spectrum or OFDM technologies may allow users to move around within a local coverage area, and still remain connected to the network.
Products using the IEEE 802.11 WLAN standards are marketed under the Wi - Fi brand name. Fixed wireless technology implements point - to - point links between computers or networks at two distant locations, often using dedicated microwave or modulated laser light beams over line of sight paths. It is often used in cities to connect networks in two or more buildings without installing a wired link.
A wireless ad hoc network, also known as a wireless mesh network or mobile ad hoc network (MANET), is a wireless network made up of radio nodes organized in a mesh topology. Each node forwards messages on behalf of the other nodes and each node performs routing. Ad hoc networks can "self - heal '', automatically re-routing around a node that has lost power. Various network layer protocols are needed to realize ad hoc mobile networks, such as Distance Sequenced Distance Vector routing, Associativity - Based Routing, Ad hoc on - demand Distance Vector routing, and Dynamic source routing.
Wireless metropolitan area networks are a type of wireless network that connects several wireless LANs.
Wireless wide area networks are wireless networks that typically cover large areas, such as between neighbouring towns and cities, or city and suburb. These networks can be used to connect branch offices of business or as a public Internet access system. The wireless connections between access points are usually point to point microwave links using parabolic dishes on the 2.4 GHz band, rather than omnidirectional antennas used with smaller networks. A typical system contains base station gateways, access points and wireless bridging relays. Other configurations are mesh systems where each access point acts as a relay also. When combined with renewable energy systems such as photovoltaic solar panels or wind systems they can be stand alone systems.
A cellular network or mobile network is a radio network distributed over land areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed - location transceiver, known as a cell site or base station. In a cellular network, each cell characteristically uses a different set of radio frequencies from all their immediate neighbouring cells to avoid any interference.
When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables a large number of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving through more than one cell during transmission.
Although originally intended for cell phones, with the development of smartphones, cellular telephone networks routinely carry data in addition to telephone conversations:
A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.
Space networks are networks used for communication between spacecraft, usually in the vicinity of the Earth. The example of this is NASA 's Space Network.
Some examples of usage include cellular phones which are part of everyday wireless networks, allowing easy personal communications. Another example, Intercontinental network systems, use radio satellites to communicate across the world. Emergency services such as the police utilize wireless networks to communicate effectively as well. Individuals and businesses use wireless networks to send and share data rapidly, whether it be in a small office building or across the world.
In a general sense, wireless networks offer a vast variety of uses by both business and home users.
"Now, the industry accepts a handful of different wireless technologies. Each wireless technology is defined by a standard that describes unique functions at both the Physical and the Data Link layers of the OSI model. These standards differ in their specified signaling methods, geographic ranges, and frequency usages, among other things. Such differences can make certain technologies better suited to home networks and others better suited to network larger organizations. ''
Each standard varies in geographical range, thus making one standard more ideal than the next depending on what it is one is trying to accomplish with a wireless network. The performance of wireless networks satisfies a variety of applications such as voice and video. The use of this technology also gives room for expansions, such as from 2G to 3G and, 4G and 5G technologies, which stand for the fourth and fifth generation of cell phone mobile communications standards. As wireless networking has become commonplace, sophistication increases through configuration of network hardware and software, and greater capacity to send and receive larger amounts of data, faster, is achieved. Now the wireless network has been running on LTE, which is a 4G mobile communication standard. Users of an LTE network should have data speeds that are 10x faster than a 3G network.
Space is another characteristic of wireless networking. Wireless networks offer many advantages when it comes to difficult - to - wire areas trying to communicate such as across a street or river, a warehouse on the other side of the premises or buildings that are physically separated but operate as one. Wireless networks allow for users to designate a certain space which the network will be able to communicate with other devices through that network.
Space is also created in homes as a result of eliminating clutters of wiring. This technology allows for an alternative to installing physical network mediums such as TPs, coaxes, or fiber - optics, which can also be expensive.
For homeowners, wireless technology is an effective option compared to Ethernet for sharing printers, scanners, and high - speed Internet connections. WLANs help save the cost of installation of cable mediums, save time from physical installation, and also creates mobility for devices connected to the network. Wireless networks are simple and require as few as one single wireless access point connected directly to the Internet via a router.
The telecommunications network at the physical layer also consists of many interconnected wireline network elements (NEs). These NEs can be stand - alone systems or products that are either supplied by a single manufacturer or are assembled by the service provider (user) or system integrator with parts from several different manufacturers.
Wireless NEs are the products and devices used by a wireless carrier to provide support for the backhaul network as well as a mobile switching center (MSC).
Reliable wireless service depends on the network elements at the physical layer to be protected against all operational environments and applications (see GR - 3171, Generic Requirements for Network Elements Used in Wireless Networks -- Physical Layer Criteria).
What are especially important are the NEs that are located on the cell tower to the base station (BS) cabinet. The attachment hardware and the positioning of the antenna and associated closures and cables are required to have adequate strength, robustness, corrosion resistance, and resistance against wind, storms, icing, and other weather conditions. Requirements for individual components, such as hardware, cables, connectors, and closures, shall take into consideration the structure to which they are attached.
Compared to wired systems, wireless networks are frequently subject to electromagnetic interference. This can be caused by other networks or other types of equipment that generate radio waves that are within, or close, to the radio bands used for communication. Interference can degrade the signal or cause the system to fail.
Some materials cause absorption of electromagnetic waves, preventing it from reaching the receiver, in other cases, particularly with metallic or conductive materials reflection occurs. This can cause dead zones where no reception is available. Aluminium foiled thermal isolation in modern homes can easily reduce indoor mobile signals by 10 dB frequently leading to complaints about the bad reception of long - distance rural cell signals.
In multipath fading two or more different routes taken by the signal, due to reflections, can cause the signal to cancel out at certain locations, and to be stronger in other places (upfade).
The hidden node problem occurs in some types of network when a node is visible from a wireless access point (AP), but not from other nodes communicating with that AP. This leads to difficulties in media access control.
The wireless spectrum is a limited resource and shared by all nodes in the range of its transmitters. Bandwidth allocation becomes complex with multiple participating users. Often users are not aware that advertised numbers (e.g., for IEEE 802.11 equipment or LTE networks) are not their capacity, but shared with all other users and thus the individual user rate is far lower. With increasing demand, the capacity crunch is more and more likely to happen. User - in - the - loop (UIL) may be an alternative solution to ever upgrading to newer technologies for over-provisioning.
Shannon 's theorem can describe the maximum data rate of any single wireless link, which relates to the bandwidth in hertz and to the noise on the channel.
One can greatly increase channel capacity by using MIMO techniques, where multiple aerials or multiple frequencies can exploit multiple paths to the receiver to achieve much higher throughput -- by a factor of the product of the frequency and aerial diversity at each end.
Under Linux, the Central Regulatory Domain Agent (CRDA) controls the setting of channels.
The total network bandwidth depends on how dispersive the medium is (more dispersive medium generally has better total bandwidth because it minimises interference), how many frequencies are available, how noisy those frequencies are, how many aerials are used and whether a directional antenna is in use, whether nodes employ power control and so on. there are two bands for now 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz. mostly 5 gigahertz band gives better connection and speed.
Cellular wireless networks generally have good capacity, due to their use of directional aerials, and their ability to reuse radio channels in non-adjacent cells. Additionally, cells can be made very small using low power transmitters this is used in cities to give network capacity that scales linearly with population density.
Wireless access points are also often close to humans, but the drop off in power over distance is fast, following the inverse - square law. The position of the United Kingdom 's Health Protection Agency (HPA) is that "... radio frequency (RF) exposures from WiFi are likely to be lower than those from mobile phones. '' It also saw "... no reason why schools and others should not use WiFi equipment. '' In October 2007, the HPA launched a new "systematic '' study into the effects of WiFi networks on behalf of the UK government, in order to calm fears that had appeared in the media in a recent period up to that time ". Dr Michael Clark, of the HPA, says published research on mobile phones and masts does not add up to an indictment of WiFi.
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who voiced prince eric in the little mermaid | Christopher Daniel Barnes - wikipedia
Christopher Daniel Barnes (born November 7, 1972), also known professionally as C.D. Barnes and C.B. Barnes, is an American actor and voice actor. He is best known for his voice role as the title superhero of the 1994 animated television series Spider - Man, Prince Eric from The Little Mermaid, as well as his on - screen portrayal of Greg Brady in the films The Brady Bunch Movie and A Very Brady Sequel.
He starred in 22 episodes of the science fiction series Starman (1986 -- 1987) as the 14 - year - old son of the title character played by Robert Hays. Barnes earned his BA in 2004 and his MA in 2009 and enjoys reading, writing short stories, playing the guitar, and practicing yoga.
Vocally, Barnes is best known for his lead role in the 1994 - 1998 Spider - Man cartoon series. He later provided the voice of Spider - Man Noir in the 2010 video game Spider - Man: Shattered Dimensions, Spider - Man 2099 in the 2011 video game Spider - Man: Edge of Time, Electro in the 2012 cartoon series Ultimate Spider - Man and also has voiced two special costumes; Symbiote Spider - Man and Superior Spider - Man 2.0 in the 2013 video game Marvel Heroes.
He has done voices for other animated series including several characters in Captain Planet and the Planeteers, Tagert McStone in Jackie Chan Adventures and Stripes the Tiger in Sonic Underground.
He has done voice acting in video games including Return to Krondor, as Scott Donovan in the Law & Order titles Law and Order: Dead on the Money and Law and Order: Double or Nothing. In Super Hero Squad Online, he does the voice of Daredevil 's nemesis Bullseye.
In the 1986 -- 87 TV series Starman, he played the teenage boy Scott, the son of the Starman. He starred in the short - lived NBC sitcom Day by Day. In one episode 's dream sequence which included many guest stars from The Brady Bunch, he played a fourth Brady son, "Chuck Brady ''. He later played Greg Brady in the Brady Bunch parody movies. He starred as Leonard Rickets in the sitcom Malcolm & Eddie.
He appeared in Beverly Hills, 90210, Clueless, Wings, Blossom, JAG, American Dreamer, The Golden Girls, Touched by an Angel, Herman 's Head, Time Trax, 7th Heaven, Empty Nest, Girlfriends, CBS Schoolbreak Special and ABC Weekend Specials. He had an uncredited cameo as one of John Jameson 's groomsmen in Spider - Man 2.
At age 16 in 1989, Barnes voiced Prince Eric in The Little Mermaid and he reprised the role of Eric in 2006 for Kingdom Hearts II. He was unable to reprise the role of Eric in The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea in 2000 and was replaced by Rob Paulsen. He voiced Prince Charming in the Cinderella sequels Cinderella II: Dreams Come True and Cinderella III: A Twist in Time.
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where does the atmosphere end and space begin | Kármán line - wikipedia
The Kármán line, or Karman line, lies at an altitude of 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft) above Earth 's sea level and commonly represents the boundary between Earth 's atmosphere and outer space. This definition is accepted by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), which is an international standard - setting and record - keeping body for aeronautics and astronautics.
The line is named after Theodore von Kármán (1881 -- 1963), a Hungarian American engineer and physicist, who was active primarily in aeronautics and astronautics. He was the first person to calculate that the atmosphere around this altitude becomes too thin to support aeronautical flight, since a vehicle at this altitude would have to travel faster than orbital velocity to derive sufficient aerodynamic lift to support itself. The line is approximately at the turbopause, above which atmospheric gasses are not well - mixed. The mesopause atmospheric temperature minimum has been measured to vary from 85 to 100 km, which places the line at or near the bottom of the thermosphere.
In the final chapter of his autobiography Kármán addresses the issue of the edge of outer space:
An atmosphere does not abruptly end at any given height, but becomes progressively thinner with altitude. Also, depending on how the various layers that make up the space around the Earth are defined (and depending on whether these layers are considered part of the actual atmosphere), the definition of the edge of space could vary considerably: If one were to consider the thermosphere and exosphere part of the atmosphere and not of space, one might have to extend the boundary to space to at least 10,000 km (6,200 mi) above sea level. The Kármán line thus is an arbitrary definition based on the following considerations:
An aircraft only stays aloft if it constantly travels forward relative to the air (airspeed is not dependent on speed relative to ground), so that the wings can generate lift. The thinner the air, the faster the plane must go to generate enough lift to stay up.
The amount of lift required at any given point can be calculated by the lift equation:
where
Lift (L) generated is directly proportional to the air density (ρ). All other factors remaining unchanged, true airspeed (v) must increase to compensate for less air density (ρ) at higher altitudes.
An orbiting spacecraft only stays in the sky if the centrifugal component of its movement around the Earth is enough to balance the downward pull of gravity. If it goes slower, the pull of gravity gradually makes its altitude decrease. The required speed is called orbital velocity, and it varies with the height of the orbit. For the International Space Station, or a space shuttle in low Earth orbit, the orbital velocity is about 27,000 km per hour (17,000 miles per hour).
For an airplane flying higher and higher, the increasingly thin air provides less and less lift, requiring increasingly higher speed to create enough lift to hold the airplane up. It eventually reaches an altitude where it must fly so fast to generate lift that it reaches orbital velocity. The Kármán line is the altitude where the speed necessary to aerodynamically support the airplane 's full weight equals orbital velocity (assuming wing loading of a typical airplane). In practice, supporting full weight would n't be necessary to maintain altitude because the curvature of the Earth adds centrifugal lift as the airplane reaches orbital speed. However, the Karman line definition ignores this effect because orbital velocity is implicitly sufficient to maintain any altitude regardless of atmospheric density. The Karman line is therefore the highest altitude at which orbital speed provides sufficient aerodynamic lift to fly in a straight line that does n't follow the curvature of the Earth 's surface.
Above 100 kilometers the air density is about 1 / 2,200,000 the density on the surface. At the Karman line, the air density ρ is such that
where
Although the calculated altitude was not exactly 100 km, Kármán proposed that 100 km be the designated boundary to space, because the round number is more memorable, and the calculated altitude varies minutely as certain parameters are varied. An international committee recommended the 100 km line to the FAI, and upon adoption, it became widely accepted as the boundary to space for many purposes. However, there is still no international legal definition of the demarcation between a country 's air space and outer space.
Another hurdle to strictly defining the boundary to space is the dynamic nature of Earth 's atmosphere. For example, at an altitude of 1,000 km (620 mi), the atmosphere 's density can vary by a factor of five, depending on the time of day, time of year, AP magnetic index, and recent solar flux.
The FAI uses the Kármán line to define the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics:
Some people (including the FAI in some of their publications) also use the expression "edge of space '' to refer to a region below the conventional 100 km boundary to space, which is often meant to include substantially lower regions as well. Thus, certain balloon or airplane flights might be described as "reaching the edge of space ''. In such statements, "reaching the edge of space '' merely refers to going higher than average aeronautical vehicles commonly would.
In 1963 Andrew G. Haley discussed the Kármán line in his book Space Law and Government. In a chapter on the limits of national sovereignty, he made a survey of major writers ' views. He indicated the inherent imprecision of the Line:
The U.S. Air Force definition of an astronaut is a person who has flown more than 50 miles (~ 80 km) above mean sea level, approximately the line between the mesosphere and the thermosphere. NASA uses the FAI 's 100 - kilometer figure. The United States does not officially define a boundary of space. In 2005, three veteran NASA X-15 pilots (John B. McKay, William H. Dana and Joseph Albert Walker) were retroactively (two posthumously) awarded their astronaut wings, as they had flown between 90 km (56 mi) and 108 km (67 mi) in the 1960s, but at the time had not been recognized as astronauts. The latter altitude exceeds the modern international definition of the boundary of space.
Another definition proposed in international law discussions defines the lower boundary of space as the lowest perigee attainable by an orbiting space vehicle, but does not specify an altitude. Due to atmospheric drag, the lowest altitude at which an object in a circular orbit can complete at least one full revolution without propulsion is approximately 150 km (90 mi), whereas an object can maintain an elliptical orbit with perigee as low as about 130 km (80 mi) without propulsion. Above altitudes of approximately 160 km (100 mi) the sky is completely black.
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who plays sonny's father on general hospital | Ron Hale - Wikipedia
Ron Hale (born January 2, 1946) is an American actor best known for his role as Dr. Roger Coleridge on the ABC soap opera Ryan 's Hope for its entire run (1975 -- 1989). He played the recurring role of Mike Corbin, the father of mobster Sonny Corinthos in the ABC soap opera General Hospital.
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what is the origin of rock a bye baby | Rock - a-bye baby - wikipedia
' Rock - a-bye Baby ' is a nursery rhyme and lullaby. The melody is a variant of the English satirical ballad Lillibullero. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 2768.
The first printed version from Mother Goose 's Melody (London, c. 1765), has the following lyrics:
The version from Songs for the Nursery (London, 1805), contains the wording:
Alternate Lyrics as shown in The Real Mother Goose published in 1916:
The most common version used today is:
The full versions lyrics are:
Various theories exist to explain the origins of the rhyme.
One theory suggests the rhyme narrates a mother gently rocking her baby to sleep, as if the baby were riding the treetops during a breeze; then, when the mother lowers the baby to her crib, the song says "down will come baby. ''
Another identifies the rhyme as the first poem written on American soil, suggesting it dates from the 17th century and that it may have been written by an English immigrant who observed the way native - American women rocked their babies in birch - bark cradles, which were suspended from the branches of trees, allowing the wind to rock the baby to sleep. The words appeared in print in England c. 1765.
In Derbyshire, England, local legend has it that the song relates to a local character in the late 18th century, Betty Kenny (Kate Kenyon), who lived with her husband, Luke, and their eight children in a huge yew tree in Shining Cliff Woods in the Derwent Valley, where a hollowed - out bough served as a cradle.
Yet another theory has it that the lyrics, like the tune "Lilliburlero '' it is sung to, refer to events immediately preceding the Glorious Revolution. The baby is supposed to be the son of James VII and II, who was widely believed to be someone else 's child smuggled into the birthing room in order to provide a Roman Catholic heir for James. The "wind '' may be that Protestant "wind '' or force "blowing '' or coming from the Netherlands bringing James ' nephew and son - in - law William of Orange, who would eventually depose King James II in the revolution (the same "Protestant Wind '' that had saved England from the Spanish Armada a century earlier). The "cradle '' is the royal House of Stuart. The earliest recorded version of the words in print appeared with a footnote, "This may serve as a warning to the Proud and Ambitious, who climb so high that they generally fall at last '', which may be read as supporting a satirical meaning. It would help to substantiate the suggestion of a specific political application for the words however if they and the ' Lilliburlero ' tune could be shown to have been always associated.
Yet another theory is that the song is based around a 17th century ritual that took place after a newborn baby had died. The mothers would hang the child from a basket on a branch in a tree and waited to see if they would come back to life. The line "when the bough breaks the baby will fall '' would suggest that the baby was dead weight so heavy enough to break the branch.
Another possibility is that the words began as a "dandling '' rhyme - one used while a baby is being swung about and sometimes tossed and caught. An early dandling rhyme is quoted in The Oxford Nursery Rhyme Book which has some similarity:
The words first appeared in print in Mother Goose 's Melody (London, c. 1765), possibly published by John Newbery (1713 -- 1767), and which was reprinted in Boston in 1785. Rock - a-bye as a phrase was first recorded in 1805 in Benjamin Tabart 's Songs for the Nursery, (London, 1805).
It is unclear though whether these early rhymes were sung to either of the now - familiar tunes. At some time, however, the Lilliburlero - based tune and the 1796 lyric, with the word "Hush - a-bye '' replaced by "Rock - a-bye '', must have come together and achieved a new popularity. A possible reference to this re-emergence is in an advertisement in The Times newspaper in 1887 for a performance in London by a minstrel group featuring a "new '' American song called ' Rock - a-bye ':
"Moore and Burgess Minstrels, St James 's - hall TODAY at 3, TONIGHT at 8, when the following new and charming songs will be sung... The great American song of ROCK - A-BYE... ''
This minstrel song, whether substantially the same as the nursery rhymes quoted above or not, was clearly an instant hit: a later advertisement for the same company in the paper 's October 13 edition promises that "The new and charming American ballad, called ROCK - A-BYE, which has achieved an extraordinary degree of popularity in all the cities of America will be SUNG at every performance. ''
If this is, in fact, the same song, then this implies that it was an American composition and already popular there. An article in the New York Times of August 1891 (p. 1) refers to the tune being played in a parade in Asbury Park, N.J. and clearly by this date the song was well established in America. Newspapers of the period, however, credit its composition to two separate persons, both resident in Boston: one is Effie Canning (later referred to as Mrs. Effie D. Canning Carlton and the other the composer Charles Dupee Blake.
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who is the actor who plays deacons dad on nashville | List of Nashville cast members - wikipedia
Nashville is an American musical drama television series. It was created by Academy Award winner Callie Khouri and produced by R.J. Cutler, Khouri, Steve Buchanan, Marshall Herskovitz, and Edward Zwick. The series stars Connie Britton as Rayna Jaymes, a legendary country music superstar whose stardom has begun to fade, and Hayden Panettiere as a rising younger star, Juliette Barnes. This is a list of cast members, as well as recurring and guest stars. A number of country musicians and celebrities also appear as themselves, including Brad Paisley, Katie Couric, Kelly Clarkson, Conan O'Brien, Luke Bryan, and Michelle Obama.
Notes:
Rayna Jaymes is a nine - time Grammy Award -- winner and fifteen - time CMA Award -- nominee, the daughter of the late Virginia Wyatt and her husband, corrupt, politically - connected Nashville businessman Lamar Wyatt. She grew up in a wealthy family where her father Lamar had years ago been mayor of Nashville. Her mom died when she was 12. She and her father have long been largely estranged. She loves country music, but her father never approved her involvement with it and kicked her out of the house at 16. She becomes the leading female star with major Nashville recording label Edgehill. Early in her career she dated songwriter, guitar player and her longtime intermittent musical collaborator Deacon Claybourne, who is an alcoholic. Soon after Rayna had sent Deacon off to rehab (for what would be his last time), she married Teddy Conrad. The couple had two daughters, Maddie and Daphne. Teddy is aware that he is not Maddie 's biological father (she was born very shortly after their marriage), and there are hints that this may be Deacon -- which is revealed to be true later in season one. Her relationship with Teddy continues to deteriorate even as he is serving as mayor of Nashville (a position which he achieves largely due to Lamar 's corrupt interference) and they eventually divorce. Rayna 's relationship with her longtime record label, Edgehill Records, is also completely broken and she leaves them to start her own label, Highway 65, despite threats from Edgehill 's management that they will destroy her if she goes through with it. After several false starts and a serious relationship with another major figure in the Nashville country music scene, and a long solo drive across the entire country in an old convertible, she marries Deacon in season four. Fighting to maintain control of her label and her career, she begins working on a "boxed set '' project consisting of a career retrospective centering around her longtime personal and professional relationship with Deacon. While this project is still in the works, she dies after a car accident in season five. A flashback in the series finale shows Rayna promising Deacon that they are meant for each other no matter what forever and ever.
Juliette Jolene Barnes, born July 31, 1989, originally from Alabama, was discovered singing at a country fair by the man who became her manager, Glenn Goodman, who believed he could turn her into one of America 's biggest country stars. Juliette, being young, beautiful and ambitious, had no qualms about leaving her dysfunctional home life and her drug - addicted mother behind. She quickly rose to become Edgehill Republic Records biggest star, a pop - country sensation, with legions of young teenage fans and sellout tours. Despite Juliette 's singing talent being questioned by several characters, including Rayna, she shows not only raw talent but has also proven herself to be a capable songwriter and works with talented musicians such as Deacon Clayborne and Avery Barkley. Juliette and Rayna, however, have two things in common, both of them had bad parents and both of them left home when they were 16 to escape bad home situations and went on to become famous country music stars. Juliette is initially played as a demanding, arrogant diva, but there is another side to her, the main reason why she was the main protagonist / antagonist in the series. She is a girl who has fought for everything she has and was prepared to do anything to get to the top. However, her hard exterior shields a world of pain that she rarely lets people see. She has no real friends, no one she can truly turn to, and she has seen the worst of people growing up, which has left her unable to connect with people emotionally on a stable, long - term basis. As a result, she shows a desperate desire to be loved by anyone who shows her the slightest bit of affection, such as when she falls in love with her mother 's drug counselor. It is very easy for her to attract the initial attention of men due to her great beauty. She becomes pregnant by Avery in season three and has a girl, Cadence. They marry, but their relationship remains intermittent and dysfunctional. (They eventually divorce, but remain in close contact due to their shared child.) After this she falls into postpartum depression and neglects her family until she inadvertently causes Jeff 's death. After this she goes to treatment and is then there for her family for a time. After surviving a plane crash, she is confined to a wheelchair and she finds God through the help of the woman who finds her in the wreckage, a talented gospel singer whom she encourages in commercializing her talent. She becomes obsessed with self - improvement and especially the work of a bestselling self - help author, Darius. She joins his "movement '', which is later revealed to be a mind - controlling cult. She soon becomes brainwashed by Darius ' cult and begins neglecting her family to do the movement 's work (and quits music). While in Bolivia, having been assigned by the movement to a remote compound there, Juliette discovers she is pregnant with another child, also by Avery. She meets another cult member whom she learns wants out but can not risk leaving her son behind. Juliette realizes this will eventually be her own fate as well if she remains in Bolivia and gives birth there. With this woman 's help she breaks out of the cult, despite their having confiscated her passport. Upon returning home, she attempts to take down the movement and announces that she is leaving the music business and retiring from the public eye and moves to a farm to raise Cadence, but promises Avery she 's not running away. She hides the pregnancy from him for a few weeks after she tells him she loves him but she wants him to really want to be with her for the rest of their lives, not influenced by any pressure their new baby would exert on him emotionally. A flashforward shows a visibly pregnant Juliette playing with Cadence, and Avery coming back to them, seemingly wanting to be with Juliette for the rest of their lives.
Scarlett O'Connor, born in Mississippi, is a poet and songwriter. She is also Deacon 's niece, and a talented singer and eventual relationship partner with Gunnar (they later perform as The Exes, even during a time when she is dating her dying mother 's physician). When the character is introduced she was dating Avery Barkley. She befriends Bluebird Café soundboard engineer Gunnar Scott who suggests putting her poetry to music. This leads to them being noticed by Rayna Jaymes who wants them to embark on a music career as a duo. The two also pursue a romantic relationship after she splits from Avery but she calls it off after rejecting his marriage proposal. When her best friend Zoey Dalton arrives in town and starts waitressing at the Bluebird she befriends Gunnar and the two start dating. Scarlett becomes jealous of their relationship and refuses to talk to Zoey. She continues on singing as a soloist and has a short relationship with producer Liam McGuinnis, who also supplies her with prescription medication to help combat tiredness when he has her working all night to get songs out of her, which results in her becoming dependent on the meds. Rayna tells him to break off the relationship when she catches them kissing and Liam departs for Tokyo, leaving Scarlett devastated. Scarlett eventually has a breakdown on stage and is hospitalized with severe depression. After she is released, Rayna agrees to let her go from her contract.
After Zoey breaks up with Gunnar since she thinks he still has feelings for Scarlett, the latter takes her place in the band she formed with Gunnar and Avery and their name is changed to the Triple X 's, apt due to her past relationship with each of them. Following the birth of his daughter with Juliette, Avery departs the band and Gunnar and Scarlett continue on as a duo. Gunnar also falls for a technician called Erin and has a short fling with her, as well as another with singer Autumn Chase, while Scarlett realizes she is still in love with Gunnar. They eventually get back together.
Their relationship lasts a few months until the arrival of Damien George, who has been hired to direct one of their music videos. He is exceptionally hard on Scarlett, which he says is to stretch her out of her comfort zone and get her best work out of her. Scarlett realizes she may have romantic feelings for him and breaks up with Gunnar again. She later discovers that she is pregnant but does not know who the father is. She requests a paternity test, which confirms that Gunnar is not the father of her baby. After being hit while being held at gunpoint with Gunnar during a holdup in East Nashville, she loses her baby. In season six, she quits music and joins work at a horse farm where work is done to assist victims of PTSD and other mental conditions.
A flashforward at the end of the series reveals Scarlett became an engaged to another man.
Teddy Conrad is Rayna 's husband who, after a business failure, is now living on his wife 's income. He runs for mayor with help from his father - in - law and wins election, in large measure due to the corruption of Lamar and his connections. His relationship with Rayna continues deteriorating during his time as mayor, and they eventually divorce and he moves out. He later is set up for blackmail with a beautiful paramour, and eventually is arrested for his involvement with some of Lamar 's shady dealings in the past at the end of season three, and sentenced to prison, where he is eventually visited by his former wife and their children. Later, the prison gives him a three - day pass to mourn his ex-wife and be there for his children at the time of their mother 's death. Before being returned to custody, he stops by to express appreciation to Deacon for the job that he is doing raising their shared daughters. He is scheduled to be released from prison in October 2016, but the character was written out of the series and never appeared again.
Deacon Claybourne was a loyal companion to Rayna Jaymes -- both onstage and off. The talented musician became Rayna 's band leader, guitar player, songwriter, and romantic partner when the duo paired up 20 years ago. And while things did n't exactly work out for the two stars in the romance department -- Deacon 's inner turmoil runs deep -- the pair has successfully carried on a loyal, professional partnership. He had been sober for thirteen years until he found out that Maddie was his biological daughter. He then relapsed and began drinking for a short amount of time, causing a serious vehicle accident in which he and Rayna are both badly injured, before getting sober again. He has had a brief fling with Rayna 's ontime labelmate and nemesis, Juliette. Once Teddy is out of the picture he is at first ambivalent about trying to resume their personal relationship, but is very uncomfortable with Rayna 's involvement with major country star Luke Wheeler, especially when this leads to Wheeler and Rayna 's getting engaged. After this engagement is broken off, he resumes his relationship with Rayna. When he was diagnosed with a cancerous tumor (likely due to his past heavy drinking), Rayna, Maddie, and Daphne stay by his side and he proposes to Rayna, which she accepts. They married during season four, and months later she dies (in June 2016) due to injuries sustained following a car crash in downtown Nashville. With their legal father Teddy (who is also the biological father of Daphne) in prison, he becomes legal guardian of Maddie Conrad and Daphne Conrad. He also takes over co-ownership of Highway 65 following his wife 's death, wondering how much of the label 's resources he owes to her career retrospective project in order to be true to her memory. He later finds short - term happiness with Jessie, overcoming much of the guilt he has about this relationship due to his memories of Rayna; however, the two break up later on, but remain strongly attracted to each other. Deacon eventually goes on his own tour and makes amends with his alcoholic father, who has recently appeared in Nashville after having been out of Deacon 's life for decades and who has been efforts to remain sober. A flashback in the series finale shows Rayna promising Deacon that they are meant for each other no matter what forever and ever.
Avery Aaron Barkley, born January 16, 1986, begins as an aspiring musician with a restless bad - boy streak. He and Scarlett are in a relationship when the series begins, but soon separate. In season two, he dates Juliette but breaks up with her after finding out that she cheated on him with Jeff Fordham. In season three, it is revealed that Avery is the father of Juliette 's baby, and Avery and Juliette marry later in the season, but divorce in season four after Juliette abandons him. However, they reunite, and put their wedding rings back on, but do not discuss their issues they had the past two seasons. Juliette survives a plane crash that leaves her as the sole survivor and debilitated not only physically but with survivor 's guilt; he takes care of her and their daughter during her long convalescence, eventually asking if they are back together or not. Juliette is unsure about where their relationship is at that particular time. In season five, when he gets an offer to go out on tour he turns it down due to Juliette needing his help as she continues to recover. After Juliette leaves Avery and Cadence again, this time for a cult, he decides he is done feeling for her and trying with her. In season six, Avery begins working in a band with Will and Gunnar, and has a short - lived romance with new band member Alannah. A flashforward reveals that their band, without Alannah, is a success. A flash forward shows a visibly pregnant Juliette playing with Cadence, and Avery coming back to them, wanting to be with Juliette, presumably for the rest of their lives.
Gunnar Scott, born in Austin, Texas, is a kind - hearted aspiring musician who dates Scarlett in season one, and dates Zoey in season two. He has an on - and - off again relationship with Scarlett for most of the rest of the series.
In season one, Gunnar and Scarlett O'Connor both work at the Bluebird Café, a showcase for many aspiring country artists. He encourages her to turn some poems she 's written into songs, and volunteers her to sing at an open mic night. She gets him to play with her on guitar. Watty White hears them singing and offers to cut a demo for them. He also calls Rayna Jaymes to give her a listen.
Sometime later, when Rayna is working to start her own record label, she remembers, and has Scarlett and Gunnar invited to audition for her. However, Gunnar is grieving for his brother, Jason Scott, and does n't make it to the audition. Scarlett auditions alone, with her banjo. Rayna leaves the audition early, but is impressed enough that Scarlett is offered a recording contract. However, she keeps the offer a secret from Gunnar, until their new upstairs neighbor, Will Lexington, hands them some mail that he says was misdirected. Will seems to be a good influence on Gunnar, getting him song - writing again. It is revealed that Will is gay when he makes a move on Gunnar. Gunnar turns him down, but after Gunnar 's original shock they remain close friends and he remains someone who Will can confide in, and who he can act himself around. Scarlett arranges for Gunnar to be given a chance to audition for Rayna, but he wants to sing a new type of music with Will, and wants time to figure out what kind of music he wants to play. He finds some lyrics written by his dead brother, Jason and, with some tips on performance from Will, Gunnar earns a business card from an agent, Jack Nelson, who offers to record a demo for him.
In the season one finale, Gunnar proposes to Scarlett but it is eventually revealed in season two that she turned it down and they break up. When her best friend from her hometown, Zoey Dalton, shows up in Nashville she and Gunnar soon develop a strong mutual attraction and start dating, which causes tension between the two best friends. Zoey starts to become jealous when Gunnar 's ex-girlfriend from his hometown, Kiley, shows up. She has a son named Micah, whom she says is Gunnar 's son. However, she later reveals that Jason raped her and Micah is actually his son. When Micah learns that Gunnar is not his father he wants to leave, but the two eventually make amends and promise to remain in touch.
In season three, Gunnar forms a new band with Zoey and Avery, called "ZAG '', but Zoey ends up becoming jealous when Gunnar starts reconnecting with Scarlett and they split with her leaving town when she sees Scarlett onstage with Gunnar and Avery at the Nashville winter music festival. The trio are renamed "The Triple Exes ''.
After Avery departs the band following Juliette giving birth to their daughter, Scarlett and Gunnar continue on as a duo called "The Exes ''. Gunnar and Scarlett, for a short time, reconnect during season four.
In season five, their relationship is tested once more by the arrival of music video director Damien George, hired to make a video for their new single. After Damien challenges her to let herself go, she realizes she may have feelings for him and she breaks up with Gunnar again. She eventually finds out that she is pregnant but is not sure who the father is. Gunnar is revealed not to be the father, but he says he wants to be there for Scarlett anyway. However, when he and Scarlett are held up outside a East Nashville grocery store, Scarlett miscarries from the trauma suffered in the event and Gunnar 's guilt over his failure to do anything to prevent their being robbed or Scarlett from being hurt poisons his feelings both about himself and anything that remained of their relationship. He goes on to form a band with Avery and Will, just as a lark at first, but they soon become serious about the project and start to get high - profile and lucrative bookings. He later has a relationship with new band member Alannah, a female singer who has previously been an aspiring Nashville solo artist, whom they invite to join the band, in part to break out of being typecast as a part of the "bro - county '' movement. Her style is neither precisely country or rock, and she soon leaves the group after having bedded both him and Avery, to further her solo career. He realizes that his greatest desire is to be part of his daughter 's -- her mother 's -- life.
Coleman Carlisle is a one - time mayoral candidate, and later Deputy Mayor. He is a close friend of Rayna, and serves as Deacon 's sobriety sponsor.
In Season 2, Coleman leaves Nashville, deciding to enjoy his life with his family away from the pressures of politics.
Lamar Wyatt is Rayna 's father and a wealthy, powerful, and controlling patriarch and politically - connected local real estate developer who disapproves of his daughter 's career as a country singer. He later dies of a heart attack while son - in - law Teddy watches and does nothing.
In season one, it was revealed that Lamar 's wife had long ago died, leaving him a widower and single father to his two daughters, Rayna and Tandy. Tandy worked at his side and is the heir apparent to Lamar 's fortune and business empire. She was his top aide. Rayna and Lamar had a strained relationship. It is at first implied, and later made explicit, that (as Raynna suspected) he was responsible for his wife 's death.
In season two, Lamar is arrested when his shady business dealings catch up with him. Lamar plans an assassination attempt against Teddy, whom he feels has betrayed him. Weeks after returning home from jail, he has a heart attack while alone with Teddy discussing their situation. Teddy lets him die, not calling for help until he knows it will arrive too late to do Lamar any good.
Will Lexington, an aspiring country singer from Texas, is introduced as Scarlett and Gunnar 's East Nashville neighbor and later becomes their friend. In season one, he is a closeted gay man trying to make a name for himself in a highly prejudiced business and society, and reveals his true nature to Gunnar when he tries to kiss him. They temporarily fall out and Will finds himself unable to accept who he truly is and attempts suicide by standing in front of a train, only to back out at the last moment.
He starts a relationship with talent show runner - up Layla Grant, which is merely a publicity stunt, but in spite of Gunnar 's attempts to get him to confess his true sexuality to her he proposes to her instead, and they marry. While filming a reality TV show they become the subjects of, Love & Country, Will confesses that he is gay to Layla while the cameras are rolling, having been hidden in their private bedroom which was supposed to have been off - limits to the show. After she attempts to commit suicide he agrees to grant her a divorce but they remain close friends afterwards, until she blackmails him in season three. Will falls for successful, established country songwriter Kevin Bicks, one of very few openly gay people in the country music industry, and they have an on - off relationship when Will is still unsure about coming out since it could harm him further with his fan base. When his father visits he has to hide his true nature since his father is homophobic but when Will holds a press conference he finally has the courage to come out, in the season three finale, as he wants to be open and with Kevin. Although his father initially disowns his son, they make up when Will 's mother dies. He continually has to defend himself in the media and resumes his relationship with Kevin Bicks, which ends once again when he does not want to move in with him, in season five, when the writers ended his relationship with Bicks in favor of a new character. He moves on when he meets Zach, a powerful West Coast internet multi-millionaire. They eventually start to date, but Zach may have ulterior motives. The two break up after Zach threatens Highway 65. In season six, Will joins a band with Gunnar, Avery, and then Alannah. He also falls to the overuse of prescription drugs and steroids, which causes him to collapse during the band 's late night talk show performance on national television; although his heart stops temporarily he is saved by CPR and he eventually recovers and rejoins the band. A flashfoward in the series finale reveals he and Zach got back together and that the boys ' band (minus Alannah) is a success.
Luke Wheeler is one of the biggest long - running male country music artists in Nashville, and a love interest for Rayna. He asks her to marry him in the season two finale. During the third season, Rayna breaks off her engagement to Luke, even as her daughter Maddie becomes increasingly involved with his son Colt, all of which makes him heartbroken and bitter about their breakup. After the split Luke begins to focus more on his music and creates his own label, Wheelin ' Dealin ' Records, signing Will and Juliette. He becomes Will 's advocate in season four, telling country fans it is long past time for many of them to overcome their anti-gay prejudices in a series of high - profile media appearances. He leaves town after successfully helping Will to take down conservative pundit Cynthia Davis and later reveals that his heart is no longer in promoting his label so he agrees to sell it to Rayna and Zach Welles, and leaves the series (at least in part due to the new writers ' lack of interest in writing for this character).
Jeff Fordham was the new label record executive in the second season, who clashes with Rayna and Juliette, and eventually has sex with Juliette, thus giving her opportunity to cheat on Avery. He was fired from his record company and began secretly dating Layla and managing her music career before being hired as Luke Wheeler 's label CEO just before he fell to his death trying to save Juliette Barnes from suicide. Jeff 's accomplishments include bringing country phenom Luke Wheeler over to Edgehill and signing up - and - coming artists Layla Grant and Will Lexington. However, these accomplishments pale in comparison to losing the company 's two top - grossing artists. In season three, with his job on the line, Jeff went to Teddy Conrad saying that he had to sign Maddie with Edgehill or Jeff would reveal that Teddy had used taxpayer money for sex, since the young woman Teddy had been involved with was in fact a high - end prostitute. Fordham was fired by Edgehill 's Board of Directors after Rayna revealed his wrongdoings at a corporate meeting, mostly concerning the near death of Layla Grant, at a local party. Shortly thereafter, Edgehill Republic Records was dissolved. He decided to help Layla Grant re-establish herself as a mature artist and she asked him to become her manager. Thanks to certain connections, he was able to get her signed to Highway 65 and secured her a spot opening for Jade St. John. He also wanted to be president of Luke Wheeler 's new label but Luke would not allow it. In season four, he became Juliette Barnes 's manager after she left Highway 65. Jeff had the CEO job of Wheelin ' Deelin ' Records and had asked Layla to move in with him. But, in the sixth episode of the fourth season, he saw Juliette stumbling around on the roof outside, and saw that she was trying to commit suicide, and he died saving her life.
The following characters of Nashville may or may not be particularly significant to the story of the series; each was introduced in one season and would usually appear in subsequent seasons to a greater or lesser extent.
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how did the gang meet phoebe in friends | Phoebe Buffay - wikipedia
Phoebe Buffay - Hannigan is a fictional character, portrayed by Lisa Kudrow, one of the six main characters from the American sitcom Friends. Created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, the show 's creators, she appeared in each of the show 's 236 episodes, from its premiere on September 24, 1994 to its finale on May 6, 2004. A masseuse and musician, notable for her offbeat and sometimes ditzy behavior. She was Monica 's roommate before Rachel. She plays guitar and sings at Central Perk. During the show 's ninth season, Phoebe is introduced to Mike Hannigan, played by actor Paul Rudd, by Joey, and the two begin a romantic relationship. The two later get engaged, then married.
For her portrayal of Phoebe Buffay, Kudrow received a Golden Globe Award nomination and won a Primetime Emmy Award, a Screen Actors Guild Award, a Satellite Award, and an American Comedy Award. She was the daughter of Frank Buffay and Lily Buffay and her birth - mother name was Phoebe Abbott. She has a twin sister named Ursula Buffay. She can speak several languages like French and Italian.
In the pilot episode, Phoebe is introduced as one of the five original friends, including neighbors Joey (Matt LeBlanc) and Chandler (Matthew Perry), former roommate Monica (Courteney Cox), and Monica 's brother, Ross (David Schwimmer). She is a musician at their typical meeting place, Central Perk, where she plays guitar and sings self - written songs. During the first season, she has a myriad of boyfriends, including Tony, a physicist named David, played by Hank Azaria, and a psychologist named Roger, played by Fisher Stevens. Phoebe 's twin sister, Ursula Buffay, a character originally created for and appearing in the American sitcom Mad About You as a waitress, is also introduced in the first season, in "The One With Two Parts ''. Ursula is also portrayed by Kudrow. Phoebe works as a temporary secretary for Chandler for a brief period of time in "The One With The Ick Factor ''. It is revealed that Phoebe 's believed mother, Lily Buffay, committed suicide when Phoebe was about 14, by means of carbon monoxide poisoning.
During the second season, it is revealed that Phoebe was married to a Canadian ice dancer, Duncan Sullivan, who was posing as gay, in order to allow him to get a green card, for six years. The two agree to get a divorce after he comes to the realization that he is, in fact, heterosexual, and wants to get married to another woman, in "The One With Phoebe 's Husband ''. Phoebe is also temporarily replaced as the primary singer for Central Perk by a professional singer named Stephanie Schiffer, played by singer Chrissie Hynde. Phoebe 's song "Smelly Cat '' is introduced in the same episode. "Smelly Cat '' is discovered by a record company, and Phoebe stars in a fictional music video for the track, in which her voice is dubbed over by another singer.
The show 's running gag and one of Phoebe 's trademark characteristics is her song "Smelly Cat, '' which she performs at Central Perk. The song is about a cat who is shunned by society because of its foul stench as a result of flatulence ("What are they feeding you? ''). However Phoebe sympathizes with it because she can relate to being an outcast. The verses consist of Phoebe rattling off a list of ways in which the cat is disliked ("They wo n't take you to the vet '', "you 're obviously not their favorite pet '', etc.) while the chorus ends with the uplifting message to anyone who is different or unique that "it 's not your fault ''. In the episode, "The One Where Eddie Moves In, '' Phoebe is discovered by a record producer who wants to make a music video for "Smelly Cat ''. After finding out that the voice used in the video belongs to another woman, however, she turns the idea down because she feels bad for the woman who will not get any recognition for her voice because she does not have the "right look. '' In the episode, "The One With Phoebe 's Ex-Partner, '' Phoebe 's former singing partner, Leslie, portrayed by E.G. Daily, wants them can get back together. The partnership fails again when Leslie sells the song "Smelly Cat '' to a commercial agency against Phoebe 's wishes. Phoebe teaches the song to Chrissie Hynde, who releases it in a 1999 album. On August 26, 2015, Kudrow performed the song as a duet with Taylor Swift during Swift 's concert in Los Angeles as a part of her 1989 World Tour.
Her age seemed to have differed throughout the series. In "The One with the Mugging '', it is implied that Phoebe is older than Ross, seeing as she was fourteen when he was 12. This episode made her possibly the oldest in the group. In "The One with the Jellyfish '' (Season 4), Phoebe states that she is twenty - nine, placing her birth in approximately 1968. However, in "The One Where They 're Going to Party, '' (Season 4), Ross states he is also 29, which does not work with the previously mentioned two - year age gap. According to "The One with Frank Jr. '', Phoebe was born on February 16; however, in Season 9 ("The One with Phoebe 's Birthday Dinner '') Phoebe 's birthday is sometime in early November, since they could not make the reservations and the dinner had to be moved back to October 31. In "The One Where They All Turn Thirty '' (Season 7), it is revealed that Phoebe was born a year earlier than she thought, believing she was 30 but was truly 31, which further adds to the inconsistency of her age throughout the show 's run. Phoebe also tries on at least one occasion to manipulate the other friends into celebrating her birthday again within months of a previous birthday party.
Phoebe occasionally uses the alter ego Regina Phalange. The first reference to Regina Phalange is during season 5, when she pretends to be "Doctor Phalange '', Ross ' brain doctor, claiming that names are interchangeable in his mind. When the friends go to Vegas, Phoebe introduces herself to the blackjack dealer as Regina Phalange. When Phoebe, Rachel, and Melissa go out to lunch (The One with Rachel 's Big Kiss), and Melissa asks if she was in a sorority, she pretends to be a member of "Thigh Mega Tampon '', a fictional sorority that was allegedly shut down when Regina Phalange died of alcohol poisoning. She also used her fake name to show Chandler and Monica how easily people lie about their names and to help Chandler with his interviewing skills in season 8 episode 4, when Joey says, "Hi, I 'm Ken Adams '' she replies, "Regina Phalange ''. In the season 10 episode "The One Where Joey Speaks French '', Phoebe attempts to spare Joey from humiliation by introducing herself as "Régine Philangè '' and stating that Joey is speaking an obscure regional dialect from her "hometown '' of "Estée Lauder ''. She immediately switches to French and claims that Joey is her younger brother who is "un peu retardé '' (a little retarded), and requesting that the casting director humor Joey 's French - speaking abilities. The last reference is in the series finale when Phoebe successfully stalls Rachel 's plane to Paris by saying there is a problem with the "left phalange '', causing everyone on the plane to evacuate. The passengers are eventually convinced to return to the plane. When a woman skeptically asks an airport employee if "the phalange '' was fixed, he replies, "Yes, the phalange is fixed! As a matter of fact, we put a whole lot of extra phalanges onboard, just in case! ''
Phoebe 's pregnancy during Season 4 was to account for Lisa Kudrow 's actual pregnancy.
Kathy Griffin, Jane Lynch, and Megan Mullally all auditioned for the role of Phoebe. Lisa Kudrow won the role because the producers liked her recurring role as Ursula, the waitress in Mad About You. The characters were connected to make them twin sisters. The producers said they liked the elements of Lisa in Ursula, but they needed Phoebe to be a lot more humorous.
Both the character and Kudrow 's performance received critical praise. TV Guide ranked her # 11 on their list of "TV 's Top 100 Characters ''. Entertainment Weekly voted Phoebe Buffay on Friends as Lisa Kudrow 's best performance.
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wizards of waverly place season 3 ep 5 | List of Wizards of Waverly Place episodes - wikipedia
The following is a list of episodes and film for the Disney Channel Original Series Wizards of Waverly Place. The series premiered from October 12, 2007 to January 6, 2012 spanning 4 seasons, and produced 106 episodes along with an hour - long "return '' episode that premiered on March 15, 2013.
The series revolves around Alex Russo (Selena Gomez), a teenage wizard who is competing with her fellow siblings Justin (David Henrie) and Max (Jake T. Austin) to become the sole wizard in their family to keep their powers. In 2009, the series won a Primetime Emmy Award for "Outstanding Children 's Program ''.
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what were the major effects of a dust storm | Dust storm - wikipedia
A dust storm is a meteorological phenomenon common in arid and semi-arid regions. Dust storms arise when a gust front or other strong wind blows loose sand and dirt from a dry surface. Fine particles are transported by saltation and suspension, a process that moves soil from one place and deposits it in another.
Drylands around North Africa and the Arabian peninsula are the main terrestrial sources of airborne dust. It has been argued that recently, poor management of the Earth 's drylands, such as neglecting the fallow system, are increasing dust storms size and frequency from desert margins and changing both the local and global climate, and also impacting local economies.
The term sandstorm is used most often in the context of desert sandstorms, especially in the Sahara Desert, or places where sand is a more prevalent soil type than dirt or rock, when, in addition to fine particles obscuring visibility, a considerable amount of larger sand particles are blown closer to the surface. The term dust storm is more likely to be used when finer particles are blown long distances, especially when the dust storm affects urban areas.
As the force of wind passing over loosely held particles increases, particles of sand first start to vibrate, then to saltate ("leaps ''). As they repeatedly strike the ground, they loosen and break off smaller particles of dust which then begin to travel in suspension. At wind speeds above that which causes the smallest to suspend, there will be a population of dust grains moving by a range of mechanisms: suspension, saltation and creep.
A study from 2008 finds that the initial saltation of sand particles induces a static electric field by friction. Saltating sand acquires a negative charge relative to the ground which in turn loosens more sand particles which then begin saltating. This process has been found to double the number of particles predicted by previous theories.
Particles become loosely held mainly due to a prolonged drought or arid conditions, and high wind speeds. Gust fronts may be produced by the outflow of rain - cooled air from an intense thunderstorm. Or, the wind gusts may be produced by a dry cold front, that is, a cold front that is moving into a dry air mass and is producing no precipitation -- the type of dust storm which was common during the Dust Bowl years in the U.S. Following the passage of a dry cold front, convective instability resulting from cooler air riding over heated ground can maintain the dust storm initiated at the front.
In desert areas, dust and sand storms are most commonly caused by either thunderstorm outflows, or by strong pressure gradients which cause an increase in wind velocity over a wide area. The vertical extent of the dust or sand that is raised is largely determined by the stability of the atmosphere above the ground as well as by the weight of the particulates. In some cases, dust and sand may be confined to a relatively shallow layer by a low - lying temperature inversion. In other instances, dust (but not sand) may be lifted as high as 20,000 feet (6,100 m) high.
Drought and wind contribute to the emergence of dust storms, as do poor farming and grazing practices by exposing the dust and sand to the wind.
One poor farming practice which contributes to dust storms is dryland farming. Particularly poor dryland farming techniques are intensive tillage or not having established crops or cover crops when storms strike at particularly vulnerable times prior to revegetation. In a semi-arid climate, these practices increase susceptibility to dust storms. However, soil conservation practices may be implemented to control wind erosion.
A sandstorm can transport and carry large volumes of sand unexpectedly. Dust storms can carry large amounts of dust, with the leading edge being composed of a wall of thick dust as much as 1.6 km (0.99 mi) high. Dust and sand storms which come off the Sahara Desert are locally known as a simoom or simoon (sîmūm, sîmūn). The haboob (həbūb) is a sandstorm prevalent in the region of Sudan around Khartoum, with occurrences being most common in the summer.
The Sahara desert is a key source of dust storms, particularly the Bodélé Depression and an area covering the confluence of Mauritania, Mali, and Algeria.
Saharan dust storms have increased approximately 10-fold during the half - century since the 1950s, causing topsoil loss in Niger, Chad, northern Nigeria, and Burkina Faso. In Mauritania there were just two dust storms a year in the early 1960s, but there are about 80 a year today, according to Andrew Goudie, a professor of geography at Oxford University. Levels of Saharan dust coming off the east coast of Africa in June 2007 were five times those observed in June 2006, and were the highest observed since at least 1999, which may have cooled Atlantic waters enough to slightly reduce hurricane activity in late 2007.
Dust storms have also been shown to increase the spread of disease across the globe. Virus spores in the ground are blown into the atmosphere by the storms with the minute particles and interact with urban air pollution.
Short - term effects of exposure to desert dust include immediate increased symptoms and worsening of the lung function in individuals with asthma, increased mortality and morbidity from long - transported dust from both Saharan and Asian dust storms suggesting that long - transported dust storm particles adversely affects the circulatory system. Dust pneumonia is the result of large amounts of dust being inhaled.
Prolonged and unprotected exposure of the respiratory system in a dust storm can also cause silicosis, which, if left untreated, will lead to asphyxiation; silicosis is an incurable condition that may also lead to lung cancer. There is also the danger of keratoconjunctivitis sicca ("dry eyes '') which, in severe cases without immediate and proper treatment, can lead to blindness.
Dust storms cause soil loss from the dry lands, and worse, they preferentially remove organic matter and the nutrient - rich lightest particles, thereby reducing agricultural productivity. Also the abrasive effect of the storm damages young crop plants. Dust storms also reduced visibility affecting aircraft and road transportation. In addition dust storms also create problems due to complications of breathing in dust.
Dust can also have beneficial effects where it deposits: Central and South American rain forests get most of their mineral nutrients from the Sahara; iron - poor ocean regions get iron; and dust in Hawaii increases plantain growth. In northern China as well as the mid-western U.S., ancient dust storm deposits known as loess are highly fertile soils, but they are also a significant source of contemporary dust storms when soil - securing vegetation is disturbed.
Dust storms are not limited to Earth and have been known to form on other planets such as Mars. These dust storms can extend over larger areas than those on Earth, sometimes encircling the planet, with wind speeds as high as 60 miles per hour (97 km / h). However, given Mars ' much lower atmospheric pressure (roughly 1 % that of Earth 's), the intensity of Mar 's storms could never reach the kind of hurricane - force winds that are experienced on Earth. Martian dust storms are formed when solar heating warms the Martian atmosphere and causes the air to move, lifting dust off the ground. The chance for storms is increased when there are great temperature variations like those seen at the equator during the Martian summer.
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primal scream i don't want to lose your love | Loaded (Primal Scream song) - Wikipedia
"Loaded '' is a song by Scottish rock band Primal Scream, released in February 1990 as the lead single from their third studio album Screamadelica (1991). It is a remix of an earlier song titled "I 'm Losing More Than I 'll Ever Have ''.
In 2014, NME placed the song at number 59 in its list of the 500 Greatest Songs Of All Time.
Primal Scream approached Andrew Weatherall after a favourable review of the second Primal Scream album in the ' Boys Own ' football fanzine. He was asked to remix "I 'm Losing More Than I 'll Ever Have '', a song from the band 's eponymous second album, Primal Scream and by the second or third attempt Loaded was born -- his first visit to a recording studio.
At the start of the song, Weatherall added an audio sample of Peter Fonda from the film The Wild Angels.
The rest of the song is constructed from parts of "I 'm Losing More Than I 'll Ever Have '', with a vocal sample from The Emotions ' "I Do n't Want to Lose Your Love, '' and a drum loop from an Italian bootleg remix of Edie Brickell 's song "What I Am, '' plus Bobby Gillespie singing a line from Robert Johnson 's "Terraplane Blues '' and Andie MacDowell from the film Sex, Lies, and Videotape saying "That 's beautiful... That 's really beautiful. ''
The single also included a remix by Terry Farley, who incorporated part of the original vocal from "I 'm Losing More Than I 'll Ever Have ''.
The single was released in February 1990, 18 months before the arrival of the album in October 1991. It was around 3 minutes shorter than the album version.
"Loaded '' reached number 16 on the UK Singles Chart, making it the group 's first UK top 40 hit and featured a remix from regular Weatherall collaborator Terry Farley. The 7 '' b - side was a Pat Collier remix of the source track, "I 'm Losing More Than I 'll Ever Have ''.
Muzik magazine listed the song as one of the 50 most influential dance records of all time, describing it as "unquestionably the finest indie dance record ever... something akin to "Sympathy for the Devil '' for the E generation ''
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when's the next time easter falls on april fools day | List of dates for Easter - wikipedia
This is a list of dates for Easter. The Easter dates also affect when Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, Holy Saturday, Maundy Thursday, the Ascension of the Lord and Pentecost occur. Easter may occur on different dates in the Gregorian Calendar and the Julian Calendar. The accompanying table provides both sets of dates, for recent decades and forthcoming years -- see the computus article for more details on the calculation.
In 1818 the Paschal Full Moon fell on Saturday, March 21 (the equinox). Therefore, the following day, March 22, was Easter. It will not fall as early again until 2285, a span of 467 years. The next earliest Easter between 1818 and 2285 (March 23) occurred in 1845, 1856, 1913 and 2008, and will occur again in 2160 -- an 11, 57, 95 and 152 - year gap, respectively.
The earliest dates for Easter in the Eastern Orthodox Church between 1875 and 2099 are April 4, 1915 and April 4, 2010 (Gregorian). Both dates are equivalent to March 22 in the Julian Calendar.
In 1943 Easter fell on Sunday, April 25. The ecclesiastical full moon did not occur until Saturday, March 20; because it came before the vernal equinox, the paschal full moon did not happen until Sunday, April 18. Consequently, Easter was the following Sunday (April 25). Easter will not fall as late again until 2038 -- a span of 95 years. The second latest date for Easter, April 24, occurred in 2011. The last time this occurred was in 1859 and will not happen again until 2095 -- spans of 152 and 84 years. However between years 5121 and 6482, Easter will be no later than April 24.
The latest dates for Orthodox Easter between 1875 and 2099 are May 8, 1983, and May 8, 2078 (Gregorian). Both dates are equivalent to April 25 in the Julian Calendar. Orthodox Easter has never fallen on Gregorian May 7 yet; it will happen in 2051 unless these churches change to another calendar.
Despite using calendars that are apart by 13 days, Easter 2014 fell on the same date. According to the Western (Gregorian) calendar, the first Paschal Full Moon after the Spring Equinox (March 20) fell on Monday, April 14, 2014. The following Sunday, April 20, was, therefore, Easter Day.
According to the Orthodox (Julian) calendar (which is 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar), the Spring Equinox also falls on March 21. However, in the Gregorian Calendar, this is April 3. The first Orthodox Full Moon after the Equinox falls on (Julian) Tuesday, April 2, 2014 (Gregorian April 15). The following Sunday, (Julian) April 7, is, therefore, Easter Day (Gregorian April 20).
Both calendars (Gregorian and Julian) calculate Easter as falling on dates between March 22 and April 25 on their calendars. However, because of the 13 - day difference, any member of an Orthodox church would observe that the Western Easter falls between March 10 and April 12 on the Julian calendar. Conversely, any member of a Western church would observe that Orthodox Easter falls between April 4 and May 8 on the Gregorian calendar.
Beginning March 14, 2100 (February 29, 2100, in the Julian Calendar), the difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendars will increase to 14 days.
In Hungary, the United Kingdom except Scotland, Australia, Canada, South Africa, Germany, Switzerland and New Zealand, Easter comprises two public holidays, Good Friday and Easter Monday, making a four - day weekend. The moveable date of Easter sometimes brings it into conflict with other, fixed, public holidays.
Easter is not a federal holiday in the United States. In North Carolina, however, it was a public holiday from 1935 to 1987.
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what are all the star wars characters names | List of Star Wars characters - wikipedia
This list of characters from the Star Wars franchise contains only those which are considered part of the official Star Wars canon. Some of these characters have additional and alternate plotlines in the Star Wars Legends continuity, and characters found in that body of works are compiled in the list of Star Wars Legends characters.
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midsomer murders last year model who did it | List of Midsomer murders episodes - wikipedia
Midsomer Murders is a British television detective drama that has aired on ITV since 1997. The show is based on Caroline Graham 's Chief Inspector Barnaby book series, as originally adapted by Anthony Horowitz. The current lead character is DCI John Barnaby (Neil Dudgeon), who works for Causton CID. Dudgeon 's character is the younger cousin of former lead character DCI Tom Barnaby (John Nettles). Dudgeon first appeared as randy gardener Daniel Bolt in the Series 4 episode "Garden of Death ''. Dudgeon permanently joined the show in 2011 following Nettles ' departure.
As of 18 January 2017, 114 episodes have aired over 19 series. Note that episodes 1 to 100 were originally released on DVD as 25 "sets, '' which are now discontinued, and have been re-released as "series '' 1 to 16 in redesigned packages.
Series 20 was announced by ITV in April 2017.
When DCI Barnaby and DS Troy arrive in the village of Badger 's Drift to investigate the sudden death of Emily Simpson, her next door neighbour insists that she had been murdered, after she had seen her return from a walk, unnerved and shocked by something she had witnessed. When the post mortem confirms her death was no accident, the pair discover that nothing is what it seems to be within the sleepy village as they try to find out what exactly she saw. Their investigation soon turns up a web of sex, blackmail and lies, and the possibility that the murder could be connected to a shooting accident two years ago, which claimed another woman 's life.
When a tunnel collapse on a canal project, near to Midsomer Worthy, turns up several skeletons, Barnaby investigates a possible murder when one skeleton is discovered to have teeth bearing modern dental work. Meanwhile, Troy, recently having earned a promotion to Inspector, tackles his last case in the county by visiting the village to investigate a more recent murder - that of a youth, one of several who had caused problems for the villagers, who had been shot with a gun he and his friends had been using the night before to shoot wild animals. Slowly but surely, both begin uncovering a web of lies, affairs and domestic arguments, alongside a mysterious recluse with a hidden past.
DS Dan Scott, Barnaby 's cocky new sergeant, is thrust into his first case when the two detectives look into the murder of a woman who had been stabbed to death after a Spanish themed evening in Midsomer Mallow, before being left in a field she hated, with a red rose in her mouth. Not long after their investigation begins, a retired doctor, whom she had worked for, is murdered in his home during the village 's open day with an apple left beside his body. It quickly becomes clear the two victims knew a secret about one of the villagers, something that they are prepared to silence by any means necessary.
Arthur Leggott, a retired music teacher, is bludgeoned to death in his home in Badger 's Drift, when he confronts an intruder who apparently came for a musical manuscript by the late composer, Joan Alder. It soon becomes clear the manuscript is the key to solving the murders, when a valuable one that had been sold cheaply at auction, shows signs it had been written by another hand, as more murders slowly follow the first.
Little Auburn, a village that has been abandoned since the second world war, is re-opened to the public for the first time in over seventy years. But on the night of opening, local youngster Finn Thornbury is found crushed to death with a tank. Suspicions falls on factions of rival bidders who are all trying to propose plans for redeveloping the village, including museum owner Sylvia Leonard (Caroline Blakiston) and property developers Blake and Lucy Keswick (Christopher Colquhoun and Sally Phillips). Finn 's girlfriend, Corina (Catherine Steadman), is left torn, as her father, Roderick (Hugh Dennis), is the head of the judging panel who will eventually decide who will take the rights to Little Auburn 's redevelopment. But when he is later found murdered, the identity of the latest beneficiary of the village comes as a shock to all of the villagers. Meanwhile, Barnaby 's new sidekick, DS Jamie Winter, arrives in Midsomer, and immediately strikes up a relationship with Kam. Barnaby also finds himself on the lookout for a new dog, following the unexpected passing of Sykes.
Tensions run high in Lower Pampling as a new type of cricket, the C - 10, threatens a century of tradition. When star cricketer Leo Henderson is found dead following the tournament quarter - final, Barnaby and Winter 's investigation leads them into the path of a surprise visitor from Barnaby 's past, one "Jack Morris '', who happens to be none other than an undercover Ben Jones, who is now a Detective Inspector. Suspicion immediately falls on local councillors Germaine (Susan Jameson) and St John Beechwood (John Bird), who are holding a local referendum in an attempt to get the tournament banned. Barnaby, however, suspects that Jones ' involvement in the investigation may suggest a more intricate motive for murder. When tournament organiser Elliott (Joe Dixon) confesses to being a compulsive gambler, Barnaby suspects that he could be the ringleader of a match - fixing operation. But a second murder, and the disappearance of a local girl twenty years previously, soon leads Barnaby and Winter into the path of another prime suspect.
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how old was the actor in harry potter | Daniel Radcliffe - wikipedia
Daniel Jacob Radcliffe (born 23 July 1989) is an English actor best known for his role as Harry Potter in the film series of the same name. He made his acting debut at 10 years of age in BBC One 's 1999 television film David Copperfield, followed by his cinematic debut in 2001 's The Tailor of Panama. At age 11, he was cast as Harry Potter in the first Harry Potter film, and starred in the series for 10 years until the release of the eighth and final film in 2011.
Radcliffe began to branch out to stage acting in 2007, starring in the London and New York productions of Equus, and in the 2011 Broadway revival of the musical How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying. His recent films include the horror film The Woman in Black (2012), playing beat poet Allen Ginsberg in the independent film Kill Your Darlings (2013), science fiction fantasy Victor Frankenstein (2015) and comedy - drama Swiss Army Man, heist thriller film Now You See Me 2 and thriller Imperium (all 2016).
He has contributed to many charities, including Demelza Hospice Care for Children, and The Trevor Project for suicide prevention among LGBTQ youth, which gave him its Hero Award in 2011.
Radcliffe was born in Queen Charlotte 's and Chelsea Hospital, Hammersmith, London, England. He is the only child of Marcia Jeannine Gresham (née Jacobson) and Alan George Radcliffe. His mother is Jewish and was born in South Africa and raised in Westcliff - on - Sea, Essex. His father was raised in Banbridge, County Down, Northern Ireland, in a "very working - class '' Protestant family. Radcliffe 's maternal ancestors were Jewish immigrants from Poland and Russia. Radcliffe 's parents had both acted as children. His father is a literary agent. His mother is a casting agent and was involved in several films for the BBC, including The Inspector Lynley Mysteries and Walk Away and I Stumble.
Radcliffe first expressed a desire to act at the age of five, and in December 1999, aged 10, he made his acting debut in BBC One 's televised two - part adaptation of the Charles Dickens novel David Copperfield, portraying the title character as a young boy. He was educated at three independent schools for boys: Redcliffe School, a day school in Chelsea 's Redcliffe Square, Sussex House School, a day school in Chelsea 's Cadogan Square, and the City of London School, a day school on the North Bank of the River Thames in London 's financial district (known as the City of London). Attending school became difficult for Radcliffe after the release of the first Harry Potter film, with some fellow pupils becoming hostile, though he says it was people just trying to "have a crack at the kid that plays Harry Potter '' rather than jealousy.
As his acting career began to consume his schedule, Radcliffe continued his education through on - set tutors. He admitted he was not very good at school, considering it useless and finding the work "really difficult. '' He achieved A grades in the three AS - level exams that he took in 2006, but decided to take a break from education and did not go to college or university. Part of his reasoning was that he already knew he wanted to act and write, and that it would be difficult to have a normal college experience. "The paparazzi, they 'd love it, '' he told Details magazine in 2007. "If there were any parties going on, they 'd be tipped off as to where they were. ''
In 2000, producer David Heyman asked Radcliffe to audition for the role of Harry Potter for the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, the best - selling book by British author J.K. Rowling. Rowling had been searching for an unknown British actor to personify the character, and the movie 's director Chris Columbus recalled thinking, "This is what I want. This is Harry Potter '', after he saw a video of the young actor in David Copperfield. Eight months later, and after several auditions, Radcliffe was selected to play the part. Rowling also endorsed the selection saying, "I do n't think Chris Columbus could have found a better Harry. '' Radcliffe 's parents originally turned down the offer, as they had been told that it would involve six films shot in Los Angeles. Warner Bros. instead offered Radcliffe a two - movie contract with shooting in the UK; Radcliffe was unsure at the time if he would do any more than that.
The release of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (released as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone in the United States) took place in 2001. Radcliffe received a seven figure salary for the lead role, but asserted that the fee was "not that important '' to him; his parents chose to invest the money for him. The film was highly popular and was met with positive reviews, and critics took notice of Radcliffe: "Radcliffe is the embodiment of every reader 's imagination. It is wonderful to see a young hero who is so scholarly looking and filled with curiosity and who connects with very real emotions, from solemn intelligence and the delight of discovery to deep family longing, '' wrote Bob Graham of the San Francisco Chronicle.
A year later Radcliffe starred in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, the second installment of the series. Reviewers were positive about the lead actors ' performances but had polarised opinions on the movie as a whole. The 2004 release Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was the third film in the series. Radcliffe 's performance was panned by New York Times journalist A.O. Scott, who wrote that Watson had to carry him with her performance. Next was Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire in 2005. The film was the second - highest grossing Harry Potter film at that point, and Radcliffe singled out the humour as being a reason for the movie 's creative success.
The future of the franchise was put into question when Radcliffe and his co-leads Emma Watson and Rupert Grint hesitated signing on to continue their roles for the final two episodes; however, by March 2007 Radcliffe had signed for the final films, which put an end to weeks of press "speculation that he would be denied the role due to his involvement in Equus '', in which he had performed nude on stage. Radcliffe reprised his role for the fourth time in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (2007). Radcliffe stated that director David Yates and actress Imelda Staunton made Order of the Phoenix the "most fun '' film in the series to work on. His performance earned several award nominations, and he received the 2008 National Movie Award for "Best Male Performance. '' As his fame and the series continued, Radcliffe, Grint, and Watson left imprints of their hands, feet, and wands in front of Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood. In July 2009 Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince was released, the series ' sixth instalment. Radcliffe received nominations for "Best Male Performance '' and "Global Superstar '' at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards.
For financial and scripting reasons the last book was divided into two films, shot back to back, which drew criticism from the series ' fanbase. Radcliffe defended the split, stating that it would have been impossible to properly adapt the final novel into a single film. He added that the last movie was going to be extremely fast - paced with a lot of action, while the first part would be far more sedate, focusing on character development; he added that, had they combined them, those things would not have made it to the final cut. Filming lasted for a year, concluding in June 2010 and on the last day of shooting, like most of the cast and crew, Radcliffe openly wept.
The final film, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2, was released in July 2011. Radcliffe, along with the film, was critically acclaimed: Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post asked, "Who could have predicted that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson would turn out to be good actors? ''; similarly, Rex Reed said: "Frankly, I 'm sorry to see (Radcliffe) go ''; while Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers commented on Radcliffe: "Well played, sir. '' Roger Ebert gave the film a highly positive review, but felt that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson were "upstaged by the supporting (actors). ''
Radcliffe admitted that some people would never be able to separate him from the character, but also said he is "proud to be associated with this film series forever. '' Despite positive feelings about the movies, he has no interest in doing more Harry Potter films. After Rowling hinted about writing an eighth book, Radcliffe was asked if he would do another film to which he replied: "(It is) very doubtful. I think 10 years is a long time to spend with one character. '' Despite devoting so much time to the series, Radcliffe has asserted that he did not miss out on a childhood like other child actors: "I 've been given a much better perspective on life by doing Potter. ''
Radcliffe made his film debut in The Tailor of Panama, an American 2001 film based on John le Carré 's 1996 spy novel, and a moderate commercial success. In 2002, he made his stage debut as a celebrity guest in a West End theatre production of The Play What I Wrote, directed by Kenneth Branagh -- who also appeared with him in the second Harry Potter film. In 2007, he appeared in the film December Boys, an Australian family drama about four orphans that was shot in 2005 and released to theatres in mid-September 2007. Also in 2007, Radcliffe co-starred with Carey Mulligan in My Boy Jack, a television drama film shown on ITV on Remembrance Day. The film received mostly positive reviews, with several critics praising Radcliffe 's performance as an 18 - year - old who goes missing in action during a battle. Radcliffe stated, "For many people my age, the First World War is just a topic in a history book. But I 've always been fascinated by the subject and think it 's as relevant today as it ever was. ''
At age 17, in a bid to show people he was prepared for adult roles, he performed onstage in Peter Shaffer 's play Equus, which had not been revived since its first run in 1973, at the Gielgud Theatre. Radcliffe took on the lead role as Alan Strang, a stable boy who has an obsession with horses. Advance sales topped £ 1.7 million, and the role generated significant pre-opening media interest, as Radcliffe appeared in a nude scene. Equus opened on 27 February 2007 and ran until 9 June 2007. Radcliffe 's performance received positive reviews as critics were impressed by the nuance and depth of his against - type role. Charles Spencer of The Daily Telegraph wrote that he "displays a dramatic power and an electrifying stage presence that marks a tremendous leap forward. '' He added: "I never thought I would find the diminutive (but perfectly formed) Radcliffe a sinister figure, but as Alan Strang... there are moments when he seems genuinely scary in his rage and confusion. '' The production then transferred to Broadway in September 2008, with Radcliffe still in the lead role. Radcliffe stated he was nervous about repeating the role on Broadway because he considered American audiences more discerning than those in London. Radcliffe 's performance was nominated for a Drama Desk Award.
After voicing a character in an episode of the animated television series The Simpsons in late 2010, Radcliffe debuted as J. Pierrepont Finch in the 2011 Broadway revival How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying, a role previously performed by Robert Morse and Matthew Broderick. Other cast members included John Larroquette, Rose Hemingway and Mary Faber. Both the actor and production received favourable reviews, with USA Today commenting: "Radcliffe ultimately succeeds not by overshadowing his fellow cast members, but by working in conscientious harmony with them -- and having a blast in the process. '' Radcliffe 's performance in the show earned him Drama Desk Award, Drama League Award and Outer Critics Circle Award nominations. The production itself later received nine Tony Award nominations. Radcliffe left the show on 1 January 2012.
His first post-Harry Potter project was the 2012 horror film The Woman in Black, adapted from the 1983 novel by Susan Hill. The film was released on 3 February 2012 in the United States and Canada, and was released on 10 February in the UK. Radcliffe portrays a man sent to deal with the legal matters of a mysterious woman who has just died, and soon after he begins to experience strange events and hauntings from the ghost of a woman dressed in black. He has said he was "incredibly excited '' to be part of the film and described the script as "beautifully written ''.
In 2013, he portrayed American poet Allen Ginsberg in the thriller drama Kill Your Darlings, directed by John Krokidas. He also starred in an Irish - Canadian romantic comedy film The F Word directed by Michael Dowseand written by Elan Mastai, based on TJ Dawe and Michael Rinaldi 's play Toothpaste and Cigars and then he starred in an American dark fantasy horror film directed by Alexandre Aja Horns. Both of the films premiered at the 38th Toronto International Film Festival.
Radcliffe also performed at the Noël Coward Theatre in the stage play revival of Martin McDonagh 's dark comedy The Cripple of Inishmaan as the lead, Billy Claven, for which he won the WhatsOnStage Award for Best Actor in a Play. In 2015, Radcliffe starred as Igor in a science fiction horror film Victor Frankenstein directed by Paul McGuigan and written by Max Landis, which was based on contemporary adaptations of Mary Shelley 's 1818 novel Frankenstein. He also starred as Sam House, one of the founder of Rockstar Games, in the biographical drama film The Gamechangers.
In 2016, Radcliffe portrayed Manny, a talkative corpse, in the indie film Swiss Army Man. That same year, he also starred as Walter Mabry in the action adventure film Now You See Me 2, ironically playing a technological prodigy who resents magic. He also starred off - Broadway at The Public Theater in a documentary theatre piece called Privacy, playing the role of The Writer. He starred in the 2016 release Imperium playing Nate Foster, an idealistic FBI agent who goes undercover to take down a radical white supremacy group.
In 2017, he starred as Yossi Ghinsberg, based on an internationally bestselling memoir of the same name by Yossi Ghinsberg and directed by Greg Mclean, in the thriller Jungle.
Radcliffe portrayed a pilot smuggling drugs across borders in the independent action - thriller Beast of Burden. He is set to star as American reporter Jake Adelstein in Tokyo Vice. In November 2015, he joined the ensemble cast of Shane Carruth 's third film, The Modern Ocean alongside Anne Hathaway, Keanu Reeves, Tom Holland, Chloë Grace Moretz, Asa Butterfield, Jeff Goldblum and Abraham Attah.
In 2008, Radcliffe revealed that he has a mild form of the neurological disorder developmental coordination disorder. The motor skill disorder sometimes prevents him from doing simple activities, such as writing or tying his own shoelaces. "I was having a hard time at school, in terms of being crap at everything, with no discernible talent, '' Radcliffe commented. In August 2010, he stopped drinking alcohol after finding himself becoming too reliant on it.
In November 2007, Radcliffe published several poems under the pen name Jacob Gershon -- a combination of his middle name and the Jewish version of his mother 's maiden name Gresham -- in Rubbish, an underground fashion magazine. He has a close friendship with his Harry Potter co-stars Tom Felton and Emma Watson, and is close to his family, whom he credits for keeping him grounded.
Sources disagree about Radcliffe 's personal wealth; he was reported to have earned £ 1 million for the first Harry Potter film and around £ 15 million for the sixth. Radcliffe appeared on the Sunday Times Rich List in 2006, which estimated his personal fortune to be £ 14 million, making him one of the richest young people in the UK. In March 2009 he was ranked number one on the Forbes "Most Valuable Young Stars '' list, and by April The Daily Telegraph measured his net worth at £ 30m, making him the 12th richest young person in the UK. Radcliffe was considered to be the richest teenager in England later that year. In February 2010, he was named the sixth highest paid Hollywood male star and placed at number five on Forbes 's December list of Hollywood 's highest - grossing actors with a film revenue of US $780 million, mainly due to Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows being released that year.
Radcliffe maintains a home in the West Village of Lower Manhattan in New York City. As of October 2012, Radcliffe has been dating American Erin Darke, whom he met on the set of Kill Your Darlings. There were rumours and stories of a possible engagement in mid-2014, but Darke 's father Ian Darke denied there were any such plans in December 2014.
In a 2012 interview, Radcliffe stated: "There was never (religious) faith in the house. I think of myself as being Jewish and Irish, despite the fact that I 'm English. '' He has stated: "We were Christmas tree Jews '', and that he is "very proud of being Jewish ''.
Radcliffe has also been quoted as saying: "I 'm an atheist, and a militant atheist when religion starts impacting on legislation '', but in a separate interview, he stated, "I 'm very relaxed about (being an atheist). I do n't preach my atheism, but I have a huge amount of respect for people like Richard Dawkins who do. Anything he does on television, I will watch ''.
Radcliffe is a supporter of the Labour Party. Until 2012, Radcliffe had publicly supported the Liberal Democrats, and before the 2010 general election Radcliffe endorsed Nick Clegg, the Lib Dem leader. In 2012, however, Radcliffe switched his allegiance to the Labour Party, citing disappointment with the performance of Nick Clegg and the Liberal Democrats in government, and approving of the Labour leader, Ed Miliband. In August 2015, Radcliffe endorsed Jeremy Corbyn 's campaign in the Labour Party leadership election. He told The Big Issue: "... I feel like this show of sincerity by a man who has been around long enough and stuck to his beliefs long enough that he knows them and does n't have to be scripted is what is making people sit up and get excited. It is great. ''
He is a supporter of a British republic.
On 13 April 2006, his portrait, drawn by Stuart Pearson Wright, was unveiled as part of a new exhibition opening at the Royal National Theatre; it was then moved to the National Portrait Gallery,.
Speaking out against homophobia, Radcliffe began filming public service announcements in 2009 for The Trevor Project, promoting awareness of gay teen suicide prevention. He first learned of the organisation while working on Equus on Broadway in 2008 and has contributed financially to it. "I have always hated anybody who is not tolerant of gay men or lesbians or bisexuals. Now I am in the very fortunate position where I can actually help or do something about it, '' he said in a 2010 interview. In the same interview, he spoke of the importance of public figures advocating for equal rights. Radcliffe received The Trevor Project 's Hero Award in 2011 for his contributions.
Radcliffe has supported various charities. He designed the Cu - Bed for Habitat 's VIP Kids range (a cube made of eight smaller ones which can be made into a bed, chaise - longue or chair) with all the royalties from the sale of the bed going directly to his favourite charity, Demelza House Children 's Hospice in Sittingbourne, Kent. Radcliffe has urged his fans to make donations, in lieu of Christmas presents to him, to the charity 's Candle for Care program. In 2008 he was among several celebrities who donated their old glasses to an exhibit honouring victims of the Holocaust. During the Broadway run of Equus he auctioned off a pair of jeans and other items worn in the show, for New - York - based Broadway Cares / Equity Fights AIDS. and presenting at the 2011 Gypsy of the Year competition. He has also donated money to Get Connected UK, a London - based free confidential national helpline for troubled youth.
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where is the little league world championship being played | Little League World Series - wikipedia
The Little League Baseball World Series is an annual baseball tournament in the eastern United States for children aged 10 to 12 years old. Originally called the National Little League Tournament, it was later renamed for the World Series in Major League Baseball. The Series was first held 71 years ago in 1947 and is held every August in South Williamsport, Pennsylvania. (Although the postal address of the organization is in Williamsport, the Series itself is played at Howard J. Lamade Stadium and Volunteer Stadium at the Little League headquarters complex in South Williamsport.)
Initially, only teams from the United States competed in the Series, but it has since become a worldwide tournament. The tournament has gained popular renown, especially in the United States, where games from the Series and even from regional tournaments are broadcast on ESPN. The United States collectively as a country has won majority of the series, although from 1969 to 1991 teams from Taiwan dominated the series, winning in 15 out of those 23 years. Taiwan 's dominance during those years has been attributed to a national effort to combat its perceived diplomatic isolation around the world. From 2010 to the present, teams from Tokyo, Japan, have similarly dominated the series, winning five of the last nine matchups.
While the Little League Baseball World Series is frequently referred to as just the Little League World Series, it is actually one of twelve tournaments sponsored by Little League International, in twelve different locations. Each of them brings community teams from different Little League International regions around the world together in baseball (five age divisions), girls ' softball (four age divisions), and boys ' softball (three divisions). The tournament structure described here is that used for the Little League Baseball World Series. The structure used for the other World Series is similar, but with different regions.
In the summer months leading up to the Little League World Series, held each year in August, Little Leagues around the world select and a All - Star team made up of players from its league. It is these All - Star teams that compete in district, sectional and / or divisional, and regional tournaments, hoping to advance to Williamsport for the Little League World Series. How many games a team has to play varies from region to region. In the United States, the tournaments at the lowest (district) level lack nationwide standardization. Some use pool play or double elimination, while others use single elimination.
In the United States, the fate of district winners varies widely from state to state. In some larger states such as Pennsylvania, New York, and California, the district winners advance to one of many sectional tournaments. The winners of each sectional tournament then advance to a state or divisional tournament, the latter only being held in Texas and California and are similar to the state tournaments held in less populous states. Most smaller states lack competition at the sectional level and go straight from district to state tournaments. A handful of states are composed of only one district, and the district champion is the automatic state champion.
With 4 exceptions, every state as well as the District of Columbia crowns a state champion, and sends that team to represent it to one of eight regional tournaments. The exceptions involve California, Texas, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Because of their large geographic and population sizes, California and Texas send two representatives to their regional tournament; Northern California and Southern California in the West region tournament and Texas East and Texas West (whose areas encompass more than the geographical areas of East Texas and West Texas, splitting roughly along the I - 35 / I - 37 corridor) compete in the Southwest region tournament. Conversely, North Dakota has only one city (Fargo) that operates Little League -- sponsored competitions; the Dakotas have one district spanning the two states, and its winner becomes the joint champion and advances to the Midwest region tournament.
The state champions (as well as the Northern California, Southern California, Texas East, Texas West, and Dakotas champions) compete in one of eight different regional tournaments. Each regional tournament winner then advances to the Little League World Series. See (4) for a comprehensive breakdown of current and historical US regional tournament locations, participants and results.
Other countries and regions pick their own way of crowning a champion. Little League Canada holds tournaments at the provincial and divisional level to field six champions (five provincial and one divisional) at the national tournament: Alberta, Ontario, Quebec, British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and the Atlantic Provinces. The host site of the national tournament varies from year to year, and the host team gets an automatic berth as the seventh team. The tournament is played as a round robin and uses the page playoff format. The winner of the national tournament earns the right to represent Canada at the Little League World Series.
The eight regional tournament winners which compete in the United States Bracket of the Little League World Series, as well as the states those regional champions could possibly hail from are as follows:
The eight divisions which compete in the International Bracket are as follows:
The eight divisions which compete in the United States bracket represent 96 % of the players in Little League with over 2.2 million players while the eight divisions in the International bracket represent 4 % of the Little League or less than 130 thousand players.
Prior to 2008, instead of two separate geographic regions, Europe, the Middle East, and Africa held two coterminous regions:
The Transatlantic and EMEA regions were geographically identical. Leagues from the Transatlantic region generally consisted of children and other dependents of American expatriates, typically Armed Forces personnel, international organization members, and oil company workers (such as the team representing the Saudi Aramco Residential Camp in Dhahran, which advanced to the World Series 19 times through 2007, including all the tournaments from 2001 through 2007). The leagues within the "EMEA '' region consisted of players native to the league 's own country. Representative teams for the Trans - Atlantic region had to have at least 51 % nationals of Canada, the U.S. or Japan, while teams for the EMEA region could have no more than three players from those three countries.
Teams in the reorganized Europe and MEA regions did not have nationality restrictions, as evidenced by the 2009 series. In that year, both regions were won by teams made up primarily of children of American expatriates. Europe was represented by a team from Ramstein Air Base, a United States Air Force base in Germany, while MEA was represented for the second time in its two - year existence by the team from the Saudi Aramco camp.
On August 29, 2012, Little League announced a significant realignment of the international regions, which took effect in 2013:
The Little League World Series currently consists of 16 teams; eight from the United States, and eight from other countries. From the inaugural 1947 tournament through 1956, there were predominantly U.S. - based teams, usually eight, competing in a single - elimination format. One Canadian team played in 1952, and one in 1953. Regions were introduced in 1957, and that tournament included the first non-U.S. champion, Monterrey, Mexico, although they represented the U.S. South region. International regions were added in 1958. From 1962 through 2000, the eight teams in the tournament came from four U.S and four international regions:
Through 1975, all teams competed in one bracket. That year, the tournament was held with only the teams from the U.S. regions. The international teams returned in 1976, when two brackets were established, one with U.S. teams, and the other with international teams. The U.S. bracket winner and the international bracket winner would then meet in the championship game, an arrangement that has continued to the present, independent of subsequent changes made to early rounds of the tournament.
In 2001, the number of regions was doubled to 16. The tournament started with eight U.S. teams, randomly assigned into two four - team pools; and eight international teams, also randomly assigned into two four - team pools. Teams competed round - robin within their own pool, with the top two teams of each pool advancing to single - elimination play for a spot in the U.S. final or international final, followed by the U.S champion and international champion meeting in the World Championship game.
In 2010, round - robin play was replaced by a double - elimination bracket in each four - team pool. The winners of each pool advanced to a single - elimination U.S. championship or international championship game, with those winners advancing to the World Championship game. Additionally, each team in the tournament played a minimum of three games, as any team that lost its first two games would play in a consolation U.S. vs. international game.
In 2011, pools were eliminated, with the eight U.S. teams continuing to compete in one bracket and the eight international teams in another bracket. The tournament is double - elimination until the U.S. championship and international championship games, which remain single - elimination, with those winners advancing to the World Championship game. Each team in the tournament still plays a minimum of three games, via consolation games as noted above.
Two venues host World Series games: Howard J. Lamade Stadium and Little League Volunteer Stadium. Lamade Stadium has hosted games since 1959, and added lights in 1992. Volunteer Stadium opened in 2001 when the field expanded to 16 teams. Prior to 1959, the Little League World Series was held at Original Little League on West Fourth Street in Williamsport.
Both fields have symmetrical fences, with a distance of 68.6 m (225 feet) from home plate to each of the outfield positions. That distance had been 62.5 m (205 feet) before 2006.
Admission to all LLWS games is free for all spectators. However, stadium seats for the championship game are distributed in a random drawing of all interested parties due to high demand. Some early round games, mostly games with Pennsylvania teams, will use first - come, first - served admission if a big crowd is to be expected. Lamade Stadium has a berm beyond the fences that has allowed the facility to hold up to 45,000 spectators.
From 1947 to 2005, the age limit for players was set at children who turned 13 on August 1 of that year or later. In 2006, the age limit was loosened to include players who turn 13 after April 30. As the Series takes place in August, this led to many of the players having already turned 13 before the Series started. In 2014 Little League voted to change the age cutoff from April 30 to December 31. However, this caused outrage by parents because the players born between May 1 and August 31, 2005 would have lost their 12 - year - old season because they would be considered to be 13 years old even though they have not reached their 13th birthday. Effective November 2015, a new implementation plan was established, which "grandfathered '' players born between May 1 and August 31, 2005 as 12 - year - olds for the 2018 season, using the current April 30 age determination date for the 2018 season. Beginning in 2019, a new determination date of August 31 will be used, which will effectively ban 13 - year - old players from participating in the Series.
Forfeits due to ineligible players:
The first broadcast of the Little League World Series on television was on ABC Sports (now ESPN on ABC) in 1963. For years, only the championship game was televised. Since the late 1980s, when the tournament was reorganized, both the U.S. and international championships, the "semifinals '', have been shown. As the years passed, more telecasts were added on ABC, ESPN, and ESPN2. In 2006, 28 of the 36 games were televised on the three networks.
The 2006 world championship game was to be the last telecast on ABC Sports before ESPN 's complete takeover of the sports division and name change. However, the final was postponed one day because of rain and was shown by ESPN2.
In January 2007, it was announced that ESPN, ESPN2, and ABC had extended their contract with the Little League organization through 2014. That year, every game of the LLWS was scheduled to be televised for the first time, with all but one game live on ESPN, ESPN2, or ABC. (The other game was to be available online at ESPN3 60, then shown on ESPN2 the next day.) In addition, a number of games were to be shown in high - definition on ESPN, ESPN2, and ABC. The championship games in all other divisions, as well as the semifinals and finals of the Little League Softball World Series, was scheduled for either ESPN, ESPN2 or ESPNU.
In June 2011, it was announced that ESPN would add 17 games to its schedule on ESPN 3D.
Coverage of the qualifying games has increased substantially in the US within the past decade: as of 2018, all regional group games (with the exception of the Southwest region) are available via subscription online through the ESPN+ platform, with the last three games of each regional tournament on an ESPN network. The aforementioned Southwest regional games are aired in full on the Longhorn Network (itself owned by ESPN). The increased level of participation, competition, and publicity of the Little League World Series in recent years has established a trend in the opposite direction of many other preteen sports.
Most LLWS games are broadcast live on local radio station WRAK 1400AM, which is owned by Clear Channel. The radio broadcasts are also streamed online at the LLWS page at littleleague.org.
Each of the other eleven divisions of Little League Baseball has its own World Series format (including three in boys ' softball).
Coordinates: 41 ° 14 ′ N 76 ° 59 ′ W / 41.23 ° N 76.98 ° W / 41.23; - 76.98
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when did the church of christ start in america | Churches of Christ - wikipedia
Churches of Christ are autonomous Christian congregations associated with one another through distinct beliefs and practices. Represented chiefly in the United States and one of several branches to develop out of the American Restoration Movement, they claim Biblical precedent for their doctrine and practice and trace their heritage back to the early Christian church as described in the New Testament.
More broadly, the Restoration Movement was an evangelistic and Bible - based effort launched in various places as several people sought a return to the original teachings and practices of the New Testament. Christian leaders including Robert Sandeman, Abner Jones, Elias Smith, James O'Kelly, Rice Haggard, Thomas Campbell, Alexander Campbell, Walter Scott, and Barton W. Stone were trailblazers of similar movements that impacted the eventual phenomenon known as the American Restoration Movement.
The Restoration ideal was also similar and somewhat connected to earlier restoration efforts in Europe (such as those of John Glas, Robert Haldane, and James Haldane), as well as Puritan movements in colonial America. Though differing somewhat in details, each group consisted of like - minded Christians who, although often independent of one another, had declared independence from their various denominations and the traditional creeds, seeking a fresh start to return to the doctrines and practices of the New Testament church. They did not see themselves as establishing a new church but rather sought "the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the original church of the New Testament. '' The names "Church of Christ, '' "Christian Church, '' and "Disciples of Christ '' were adopted by the movement because they believed these terms to be Biblical, rather than denominational.
Prior to the U.S. Religious Census of 1906, all congregations associated with the Restoration Movement had been reported together by the Census Bureau. But as the movement developed, tensions grew between those who emphasized unity and those who emphasized restoration, highlighting differences in the groups ' underlying approaches to Biblical interpretation. For the Churches of Christ, practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not permissible in the church. In contrast, the Christian Church may consider any practice not expressly forbidden.
For example, the Christian Church uses musical instruments in worship (known as the Christian Church), whereas the Churches of Christ believe a cappella singing to be proper. In addition, there was also disagreement over the appropriateness of organizational structures above the congregational level, such as those of missionary societies and funding orphanages.
Though not officially recognized as distinct movements until 1906, the separation of the Churches of Christ and the Christian Churches had been taking place gradually for decades.
The Restoration Movement was not a purely North American phenomenon, and active mission efforts began in the 18th century. There are now Churches of Christ in Africa, Asia, Australia, South America, Central America, and Europe.
Members of the church of Christ do not conceive of themselves as a new church started near the beginning of the 19th century. Rather, the whole movement is designed to reproduce in contemporary times the church originally established on Pentecost, A.D. 33. The strength of the appeal lies in the restoration of Christ 's original church.
Modern Churches of Christ have their historical roots in the Restoration Movement, which was a converging of Christians across denominational lines in search of a return to an original, "pre-denominational '' Christianity. Participants in this movement sought to base their doctrine and practice on the Bible alone, rather than recognizing the traditional councils and denominational hierarchies that had come to define Christianity since the first century A.D. Members of the Churches of Christ believe that Jesus founded only one church, that the current divisions among Christians do not express God 's will, and that the only basis for restoring Christian unity is the Bible. They simply identify themselves as "Christians '', without using any other forms of religious or denominational identification. They believe that they are recreating the New Testament church as established by Christ.
Churches of Christ generally share the following theological beliefs and practices:
In keeping with their history, the Churches of Christ claim the New Testament as their sole rule of faith and practice in deciding matters of doctrine and ecclesiastical structure. They view the Old Testament as divinely inspired and historically accurate, but they do not consider its laws to be binding under the New Covenant in Christ (unless they are repeated in the New Testament) (Hebrews 8: 7 - 13). They believe that the New Testament demonstrates how a person may become a Christian (and thus a part of the universal Church of Christ) and how a church should be collectively organized and carry out its scriptural purposes.
These churches comprise considerably more than 2,000,000 members in over 40,000 individual congregations worldwide. There are approximately 13,000 congregations in the United States. Overall U.S. membership was approximately 1.8 million in 1990 and 1.9 million in 2008. Estimates of the proportion of the US adult population associated with the Churches of Christ vary from 0.8 % to 1.5 %. Roughly 1,240 congregations, with 172,000 members, are predominantly African - American. 240 congregations with 10,000 members are Spanish - speaking. The average congregation size is approximately 100 members, with larger congregations reporting over 1,000 members. In 2000, the Churches of Christ were the 12th largest religious group in the U.S. based on the number of members, but the 4th largest in number of congregations.
Within the U.S., membership in the Churches of Christ has grown by approximately 2 % over the period from 1980 through 2007. Membership grew in 33 states and declined in 17. The current retention rate of young adults graduating from high school appears to be approximately 60 %. The percentage of members attending services appears to be high relative to that of other Christian groups. Membership is concentrated, with 70 % of the U.S. membership in 13 states. Churches of Christ had a presence in 2,429 counties, placing them fifth behind the United Methodist Church, Catholic Church, Southern Baptist Convention and Assemblies of God -- but the average number of adherents per county was low at 677. The divorce rate was 6.9 %, much lower than national averages.
"Church of Christ '' is the most common name used by this group. In keeping with their non-denominational focus, recently some congregations have identified themselves primarily as community churches and secondarily as Churches of Christ. A much earlier tradition is to identify a congregation as "the church '' at a particular location, with no other description or qualifiers. A primary motivation behind the name is the desire to use a scriptural or Biblical name -- to identify the church using a name that is found in the New Testament. Adherents are also referred to as Campbellites by academics and other denominations due to their following of the teachings of Alexander Campbell, similar to Lutherans or Calvinists, but the term is sometimes offensive.
Alexander Campbell said the goal was to "(c) all Bible things by Bible names, '' which became an early slogan of the Restorationist Movement. These congregations generally avoid names that associate the church with a particular man (other than Christ) or a particular doctrine or theological point of view (e.g., Lutheran, Wesleyan, Reformed). They believe that Christ established only one church, and that the use of denominational names serves to foster division among Christians. Thomas Campbell expressed an ideal of unity in his Declaration and Address: "The church of Jesus Christ on earth is essentially, intentionally, and constitutionally one. ''
Other terms have been recognized as scriptural, based on their use in the New Testament: "church of God '', "church of the Lord '', "churches of Christ '', "church of the first - born '', "church of the living God '', "the house of God '', and "the people of God ''. While recognized as scriptural, terms such as Church of God are avoided to avoid confusion or identification with other groups that use those designations. As a practical matter, use of a common term is seen as a way to help individual Christians find congregations with a similar approach to the scriptures. Members understand that a scriptural name can be used in a "denominational '' or "sectarian '' way. Trying to use the term "Church of Christ '' exclusively has been criticized as identifying a denomination. Many congregations and individuals do not capitalize the word "church '' in the phrases "church of Christ '' and "churches of Christ ''. This is based on the understanding that the term "church of Christ '' is used in the New Testament as a descriptive phrase, indicating that the church belongs to Christ, rather than as a proper name.
Church government is congregational rather than denominational. Churches of Christ purposefully have no central headquarters, councils, or other organizational structure above the local church level. Rather, the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations (see Sponsoring church (Churches of Christ)). Churches of Christ are linked by their shared commitment to restoration principles. Congregations which do not participate with other church congregations and which refuse to pool resources in order to support outside causes (such as mission work, orphan homes, Bible colleges, etc.) are sometimes called "non-institutional. ''
Congregations are generally overseen by a plurality of elders who are sometimes assisted in the administration of various works by deacons. Elders are generally seen as responsible for the spiritual welfare of the congregation, while deacons are seen as responsible for the non-spiritual needs of the church. Deacons serve under the supervision of the elders, and are often assigned to direct specific ministries. Successful service as a deacon is often seen as preparation for the eldership. Elders and deacons are appointed by the congregation based on the qualifications found in 1 Timothy 3 and Titus 1, including that the persons must be male (female elders and deaconesses are not recognized). Congregations look for elders who have a mature enough understanding of scripture to enable them to supervise the minister and to teach, as well as to perform "governance '' functions. In the absence of willing men who meet these qualifications, congregations are sometimes overseen by the congregation 's men in general.
While the early Restoration Movement had a tradition of itinerant preachers rather than "located Preachers '', during the 20th century a long - term, formally trained congregational minister became the norm among Churches of Christ. Ministers are understood to serve under the oversight of the elders and may or may not also be qualified as an elder. While the presence of a long - term professional minister has sometimes created "significant de facto ministerial authority '' and led to conflict between the minister and the elders, the eldership has remained the "ultimate locus of authority in the congregation ''. There is, however, a small segment of Churches of Christ who oppose the "located minister '' concept (see below).
Churches of Christ hold to the priesthood of all believers. No special titles are used for preachers or ministers that would identify them as "clergy ''. Many ministers have undergraduate or graduate education in religion, or specific training in preaching through a non-college school of preaching. Churches of Christ emphasize that there is no distinction between "clergy '' and "laity '' and that every member has a gift and a role to play in accomplishing the work of the church.
While there is an identifiable mainstream within the Churches of Christ, there are also significant variations within the fellowship. The approach taken to restoring the New Testament church has focused on "methods and procedures '' such as church organization, the form of worship, and how the church should function. As a result, most divisions among Churches of Christ have been the result of "methodological '' disputes. These are meaningful to members of this movement because of the seriousness with which they take the goal of "restoring the form and structure of the primitive church ''.
Three quarters of the congregations and 87 % of the membership are described by The Encyclopedia of the Stone - Campbell Movement as "mainstream '', sharing a general consensus on practice and theology.
Congregational a cappella music from hymnals (perhaps pitched from a pitch pipe), but directed by any capable song - leader motioning the time signature, is notably characteristic of the Churches of Christ. Few congregations clap hands and / or use musical instruments during "formal '' weekly convocations. Dancing is discouraged on all of life 's occasions.
The remaining congregations may be grouped into four categories which generally differ from the mainstream consensus in specific practices, rather than in theological perspectives, and tend to have smaller congregations on average.
The largest of these four categories is the "non-institutional '' Churches of Christ. This group is notable for opposing congregational support of institutions such as orphans homes and Bible colleges. Similarly, non-institutional congregations also oppose the use of church facilities for non-church activities (such as fellowship dinners or recreation); as such, they oppose the construction of "fellowship halls '', gymnasiums, and similar structures. In both cases, opposition is based on the belief that support of institutions and non-church activities are not proper functions of the local congregation. Approximately 2,055 congregations fall in this category.
The remaining three groups, whose congregations are generally considerably smaller than those of the mainstream or non-institutional groups, also oppose institutional support as well as "fellowship halls '' and similar structures (for the same reasons as the non-institutional groups), but differ by other beliefs and practices (the groups often overlap, but in all cases hold to more conservative views than even the non-institutional groups):
If it 's not in the Bible, then these folks are n't going to do it.
Churches of Christ seek to practice the principle of the Bible being the only source to find doctrine (known elsewhere as sola scriptura). The Bible is generally regarded as inspired and inerrant. Churches of Christ generally see the Bible as historically accurate and literal, unless scriptural context obviously indicates otherwise. Regarding church practices, worship, and doctrine, there is great liberty from congregation to congregation in interpreting what is Biblically permissible, as congregations are not controlled by a denominational hierarchy. Their approach to the Bible is driven by the "assumption that the Bible is sufficiently plain and simple to render its message obvious to any sincere believer ''. Related to this is an assumption that the Bible provides an understandable "blueprint '' or "constitution '' for the church.
Historically, three hermeneutic approaches have been used among Churches of Christ.
The relative importance given to each of these three strategies has varied over time and between different contexts. The general impression in the current Churches of Christ is that the group 's hermeneutics are entirely based on the command, example, inference approach. In practice, interpretation has been deductive, and heavily influenced by the group 's central commitment to ecclesiology and soteriology. Inductive reasoning has been used as well, as when all of the conversion accounts from the book of Acts are collated and analyzed to determine the steps necessary for salvation. One student of the movement summarized the traditional approach this way: "In most of their theologizing, however, my impression is that spokespersons in the Churches of Christ reason from Scripture in a deductive manner, arguing from one premise or hypothesis to another so as to arrive at a conclusion. In this regard the approach is much like that of science which, in practice moves deductively from one hypothesis to another, rather than in a Baconian inductive manner. '' In recent years, changes in the degree of emphasis placed on ecclesiology and soteriology has spurred a reexamination of the traditional hermeneutics among some associated with the Churches of Christ.
A debate arose during the 1980s over the use of the command, example, necessary inference model for identifying the "essentials '' of the New Testament faith. Some argued that it fostered legalism, and advocated instead a hermeneutic based on the character of God, Christ and the Holy Spirit. Traditionalists urged the rejection of this "new hermeneutic ''. Use of this tripartite formula has declined as congregations have shifted to an increased "focus on ' spiritual ' issues like discipleship, servanthood, family and praise ''. Relatively greater emphasis has been given to Old Testament studies in congregational Bible classes and at affiliated colleges in recent decades. While it is still not seen as authoritative for Christian worship, church organization, or regulating the Christian 's life, some have argued that it is theologically authoritative.
Many scholars associated with the Churches of Christ embrace the methods of modern Biblical criticism but not the associated anti-supernaturalistic views. More generally, the classical grammatico - historical method is prevalent, which provides a basis for some openness to alternative approaches to understanding the scriptures.
Churches of Christ are strongly anti-Calvinist in their understanding of salvation and generally present conversion as "obedience to the proclaimed facts of the gospel rather than as the result of an emotional, Spirit - initiated conversion ''. Churches of Christ hold the view that humans of accountable age are lost because they have committed sins. These lost souls can be redeemed because Jesus Christ, the Son of God, offered Himself as the atoning sacrifice. Children too young to understand right from wrong and make a conscious choice between the two, are believed to be innocent of sin. There is no set "age '' for this to occur; it is only when the child learns the difference between right and wrong that they are accountable (James 4: 17). Congregations differ in their interpretation of the age of accountability.
Churches of Christ generally teach that the process of salvation involves the following steps:
Beginning in the 1960s, many preachers began placing more emphasis on the role of grace in salvation, instead of focusing exclusively on implementing all of the New Testament commands and examples. This was not an entirely new approach, as others had actively "affirmed a theology of free and unmerited grace '', but it did represent a change of emphasis with grace becoming "a theme that would increasingly define this tradition ''.
Baptism has been recognized as an important rite throughout the history of the Christian Church, but Christian groups differ over the manner in which baptism is administered, the meaning and significance of baptism, its role in salvation, and who is a candidate for baptism.
Baptism in Churches of Christ is performed only by bodily immersion, based on the Koine Greek verb βαπτίζω (baptizō) which is understood to mean to dip, immerse, submerge or plunge. Immersion is seen as more closely conforming to the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus than other modes of baptism. Churches of Christ argue that historically immersion was the mode used in the first century, and that pouring and sprinkling emerged later. Over time these secondary modes came to replace immersion. Only those mentally capable of belief and repentance are baptized (i.e., infant baptism is not practiced because the New Testament has no precedent for it).
Churches of Christ have historically had the most conservative position on baptism among the various branches of the Restoration Movement, understanding baptism by immersion to be a necessary part of conversion. The most significant disagreements concerned the extent to which a correct understanding of the role of baptism is necessary for its validity. David Lipscomb consistently argued that if a believer was baptized out of a desire to obey God, the baptism was valid, even if the individual did not fully understand the role baptism plays in salvation. Austin McGary argued strongly that to be valid, the convert must also understand that baptism is for the forgiveness of sins. McGary 's view became the prevailing one in the early 20th century, but the approach advocated by Lipscomb never totally disappeared. More recently, the rise of the International Churches of Christ, who "reimmersed some who came into their fellowship, even those previously immersed ' for remission of sins ' in a Church of Christ, '' has caused some to reexamine the question of rebaptism.
Churches of Christ consistently teach that in baptism a believer surrenders his life in faith and obedience to God, and that God "by the merits of Christ 's blood, cleanses one from sin and truly changes the state of the person from an alien to a citizen of God 's kingdom. Baptism is not a human work; it is the place where God does the work that only God can do. '' Baptism is a passive act of faith rather than a meritorious work; it "is a confession that a person has nothing to offer God ''. While Churches of Christ do not describe baptism as a "sacrament '', their view of it can legitimately be described as "sacramental ''. They see the power of baptism coming from God, who chose to use baptism as a vehicle, rather than from the water or the act itself, and understand baptism to be an integral part of the conversion process, rather than as only a symbol of conversion. A recent trend is to emphasize the transformational aspect of baptism: instead of describing it as nothing more than a legal requirement or sign of something that happened in the past, it is seen as "the event that places the believer ' into Christ ' where God does the ongoing work of transformation ''. There is a minority that downplays the importance of baptism in order to avoid sectarianism, but the broader trend is to "reexamine the richness of the Biblical teaching of baptism and to reinforce its central and essential place in Christianity ''.
Because of the belief that baptism is a necessary part of salvation, some Baptists hold that the Churches of Christ endorse the doctrine of baptismal regeneration. However members of the Churches of Christ reject this, arguing that since faith and repentance are necessary, and that the cleansing of sins is by the blood of Christ through the grace of God, baptism is not an inherently redeeming ritual. One author describes the relationship between faith and baptism this way, "Faith is the reason why a person is a child of God; baptism is the time at which one is incorporated into Christ and so becomes a child of God '' (italics are in the source). Baptism is understood as a confessional expression of faith and repentance, rather than a "work '' that earns salvation.
The Churches of Christ generally combine the lack of any historical evidence that the early church used musical instruments in worship and the belief that there is no scriptural support for using instruments in the church 's worship service to decide that instruments should not be used today in worship. Churches of Christ have historically practiced a cappella music in worship services.
The use of musical instruments in worship was a divisive topic within the Stone - Campbell Movement from its earliest years, when some adherents opposed the practice on scriptural grounds, while others may have relied on a cappella simply because they lacked access to musical instruments. Alexander Campbell opposed the use of instruments in worship. As early as 1855, some Restoration Movement churches were using organs or pianos, ultimately leading the Churches of Christ to separate from the groups that condoned instrumental music.
Scriptural backing given by members for the practice of a cappella includes:
There are congregations that permit hand - clapping and a few that use musical instruments in worship. Some of the latter describe themselves as a "Church of Christ (Instrumental) ''.
Churches of Christ avoid the term "theology '', preferring instead the term "doctrine '': theology is what humans say about the Bible; doctrine is simply what the Bible says.
Many leaders argue that the Churches of Christ only follow the Bible and have no "theology ''. Christian theology as classically understood -- the systematic development of the classical doctrinal topics -- is relatively recent and rare among this movement. Because Churches of Christ reject all formalized creeds on the basis that they add to or detract from Scripture, they generally reject most conceptual doctrinal positions out of hand. Churches of Christ do tend to elaborate certain "driving motifs ''. These are scripture (hermeneutics), the church (ecclesiology) and the "plan of salvation '' (soteriology). The importance of theology, understood as teaching or "doctrine '', has been defended on the basis that an understanding of doctrine is necessary to respond intelligently to questions from others, to promote spiritual health, and to draw the believer closer to God.
Regarding eschatology (a branch of theology concerned with the final events in the history of the world or of humankind), Churches of Christ are generally amillennial, their originally prevalent postmillennialism (evident in Alexander Campbell 's Millennial Harbinger) having dissipated around the era of the First World War. Before then, many leaders were "moderate historical premillennialists '' who did not advocate specific historical interpretations. Churches of Christ have moved away from premillennialism as dispensational millennialism has come more to fore in Protestant evangelical circles. Amillennialism and postmillennialism are the prevailing views today.
Premillennialism was a focus of controversy during the first half of the 20th century. One of the most influential advocates for that point of view was Robert Henry Boll, whose eschatological views came to be most singularly opposed by Foy E. Wallace Jr. By the end of the 20th century, however, the divisions caused by the debate over premillennialism were diminishing, and in the 2000 edition of the directory Churches of Christ in the United States, published by Mac Lynn, congregations holding premillennial views were no longer listed separately.
During the late 19th century, the prevailing view in the Restoration Movement was that the Holy Spirit currently acts only through the influence of inspired scripture. This rationalist view was associated with Alexander Campbell, who was "greatly affected by what he viewed as the excesses of the emotional camp meetings and revivals of his day ''. He believed that the Spirit draws people towards salvation but understood the Spirit to do this "in the same way any person moves another -- by persuasion with words and ideas ''. This view came to prevail over that of Barton W. Stone, who believed the Spirit had a more direct role in the life of the Christian. Since the early 20th century, many, but not all, among the Churches of Christ have moved away from this "word - only '' theory of the operation of the Holy Spirit. As one scholar of the movement puts it, "(f) or better or worse, those who champion the so - called word - only theory no longer have a hold on the minds of the constituency of Churches of Christ. Though relatively few have adopted outright charismatic and third wave views and remained in the body, apparently the spiritual waves have begun to erode that rational rock. ''
The fundamental idea of "restoration '' or "Christian Primitivism '' is that problems or deficiencies in the church can be corrected by using the primitive church as a "normative model. '' The call for restoration is often justified on the basis of a "falling away '' that corrupted the original purity of the church. This falling away is identified with the development of Catholicism and denominationalism. New Testament verses that discuss future apostasy (2 Thessalonians 2: 3) and heresy (e.g., Acts 20: 29, 1 Timothy 4: 1, 2 Tim 4: l - 4: 4) are understood to predict this falling away. The logic of "restoration '' could imply that the "true '' church completely disappeared and thus lead towards exclusivism. Another view of restoration is that the "true Church... has always existed by grace and not by human engineering '' (italics in the original). In this view the goal is to "help Christians realize the ideal of the church in the New Testament -- to restore the church as conceived in the mind of Christ '' (italics in the original). Early Restoration Movement leaders did not believe that the church had ceased to exist, but instead sought to reform and reunite the church. A number of congregations ' web sites explicitly state that the true church never disappeared. The belief in a general falling away is not seen as inconsistent with the idea that a faithful remnant of the church never entirely disappeared. Some have attempted to trace this remnant through the intervening centuries between the New Testament and the beginning of the Restoration Movement in the early 1800s.
One effect of the emphasis placed on the New Testament church is a "sense of historylessness '' that sees the intervening history between the 1st century and the modern church as "irrelevant or even abhorrent. '' Authors within the brotherhood have recently argued that a greater attention to history can help guide the church through modern - day challenges.
The Restoration Movement originated with the convergence of several independent efforts to go back to apostolic Christianity. Two were of particular importance to the development of the movement. The first, led by Barton W. Stone began at Cane Ridge, Kentucky and called themselves simply "Christians ''. The second began in western Pennsylvania and was led by Thomas Campbell and his son, Alexander Campbell; they used the name "Disciples of Christ ''. Both groups sought to restore the whole Christian church on the pattern set forth in the New Testament, and both believed that creeds kept Christianity divided.
The Campbell movement was characterized by a "systematic and rational reconstruction '' of the early church, in contrast to the Stone movement which was characterized by radical freedom and lack of dogma. Despite their differences, the two movements agreed on several critical issues. Both saw restoring the early church as a route to Christian freedom, and both believed that unity among Christians could be achieved by using apostolic Christianity as a model. The commitment of both movements to restoring the early church and to uniting Christians was enough to motivate a union between many in the two movements. While emphasizing that the Bible is the only source to seek doctrine, an acceptance of Christians with diverse opinions was the norm in the quest for truth. "In essentials, unity; in non-essentials, liberty; in all things, love '' was an oft - quoted slogan of the period. The Stone and Campbell movements merged in 1832.
The Restoration Movement began during, and was greatly influenced by, the Second Great Awakening. While the Campbells resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings, the Southern phase of the Awakening "was an important matrix of Barton Stone 's reform movement '' and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells.
Nothing in life has given me more pain in heart than the separation from those I have heretofore worked with and loved
In 1906, the U.S. Religious Census listed the Christian Churches and the Churches of Christ as separate and distinct groups for the first time. This was the recognition of a division that had been growing for years under the influence of conservatives such as Daniel Sommer, with reports of the division having been published as early as 1883. The most visible distinction between the two groups was the rejection of musical instruments in the Churches of Christ. The controversy over musical instruments began in 1860 with the introduction of organs in some churches. More basic were differences in the underlying approach to Biblical interpretation. For the Churches of Christ, any practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not permissible in the church, and they could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in worship. For the Christian Churches, any practices not expressly forbidden could be considered. Another specific source of controversy was the role of missionary societies, the first of which was the American Christian Missionary Society, formed in October 1849. While there was no disagreement over the need for evangelism, many believed that missionary societies were not authorized by scripture and would compromise the autonomy of local congregations. This disagreement became another important factor leading to the separation of the Churches of Christ from the Christian Church. Cultural factors arising from the American Civil War also contributed to the division.
In 1968, at the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ), those Christian Churches that favored a denominational structure, wished to be more ecumenical, and also accepted more of the modern liberal theology of various denominations, adopted a new "provisional design '' for their work together, becoming the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Those congregations that chose not to be associated with the new denominational organization continued as undenominational Christian churches and churches of Christ, completing a separation that had begun decades before. The instrumental Christian Churches and Churches of Christ in some cases have both organizational and hermeneutical differences with the Churches of Christ discussed in this article. For example, they have a loosely organized convention and view scriptural silence on an issue more permissively, but they are more closely related to the Churches of Christ in their theology and ecclesiology than they are with the Disciples of Christ denomination. Some see divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism, with the a cappella Churches of Christ and Christian churches and churches of Christ resolving the tension by stressing Bible authority, while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism.
To object to any child of God participating in the service on account of his race, social or civil state, his color or race, is to object to Jesus Christ and to cast him from our association. It is a fearful thing to do. I have never attended a church that negroes did not attend.
Early Restoration Movement leaders varied in their views of slavery, reflecting the range of positions common in the antebellum U.S. Barton W. Stone was a strong opponent of slavery, arguing that there was no Biblical justification for the form of slavery then being practiced in the United States and calling for immediate emancipation. Alexander Campbell represented a more "Jeffersonian '' opposition to slavery, writing of it as more of a political problem than as a religious or moral one. Having seen Methodists and Baptists divide over the issue of slavery, Campbell argued that scripture regulated slavery rather than prohibited it, and that abolition should not be allowed to become an issue over which Christians would break fellowship with each other. Like the country as a whole, the assumption of white racial superiority was almost universal among those on all sides of the issue, and it was common for congregations to have separate seating for black members.
After the Civil War, black Christians who had been worshiping in mixed - race Restoration Movement congregations formed their own congregations. White members of Restoration Movement congregations shared many of the racial prejudices of the times. Among the Churches of Christ, Marshall Keeble became a prominent African - American evangelist. He estimated that by January 1919 he had "traveled 23,052 miles, preached 1,161 sermons, and baptized 457 converts ''.
During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s the Churches of Christ struggled with changing racial attitudes. Some leaders, such as Foy E. Wallace Jr., railed against racial integration. Others, including the influential evangelist, Jimmy Allen from Harding University, opposed segregation and encouraged those working with his evangelistic campaigns to "Treat them exactly the same way you treat white people. '' Schools and colleges associated with the movement were at the center of the debate. Abilene Christian College first admitted black undergraduate students in 1962 (graduate students had been admitted in 1961). Desegregation of other campuses followed.
Efforts to address racism continued through the following decades. A national meeting of prominent leaders from the Churches of Christ was held in June 1968. Thirty - two participants signed a set of proposals intended to address discrimination in local congregations, church affiliated activities and the lives of individual Christians. An important symbolic step was taken in 1999 when the president of Abilene Christian University "confessed the sin of racism in the school 's past segregationist policies '' and asked black Christians for forgiveness during a lectureship at Southwestern Christian College, a historically black school affiliated with the Churches of Christ.
The tradition of a capella congregational singing in the Churches of Christ has stimulated the creation of many new hymns. Notable Churches of Christ hymn writers have included Albert Brumley ("I 'll Fly Away '') and Tillit S. Teddlie ("Worthy Art Thou ''). Church of Christ hymns commonly are in the style of gospel hymnody. The hymnal Great Songs of the Church, which was first published in 1921 and has had many subsequent editions, is widely used. While most Churches of Christ do not use instruments, in recent years some have begun to do so.
After World War II, Churches of Christ began sending ministers and humanitarian relief to war - torn Europe and Asia.
Though there was agreement that separate para-church "missionary societies '' could not be established (on the belief that such work could only be performed through local congregations), a doctrinal conflict ensued about how this work was to be done. Eventually, the funding and control of outreach programs in the United States such as homes for orphans, nursing homes, mission work, setting up new congregations, Bible colleges or seminaries, and large - scale radio and television programs became part of the controversy.
Congregations which supported and participated in pooling funds for these institutional activities are said to be "sponsoring church '' congregations. Congregations which have traditionally opposed these organized sponsorship activities are said to be "non-institutional '' congregations. This "Institutional Controversy '' resulted in the largest division among Churches of Christ in the 20th century.
The International Churches of Christ had their roots in a "discipling '' movement that arose among the mainline Churches of Christ during the 1970s. This discipling movement developed in the campus ministry of Chuck Lucas.
In 1967, Chuck Lucas was minister of the 14th Street Church of Christ in Gainesville, Florida (later renamed the Crossroads Church of Christ). That year he started a new project known as Campus Advance (based on principles borrowed from the Campus Crusade and the Shepherding Movement). Centered on the University of Florida, the program called for a strong evangelical outreach and an intimate religious atmosphere in the form of soul talks and prayer partners. Soul talks were held in student residences and involved prayer and sharing overseen by a leader who delegated authority over group members. Prayer partners referred to the practice of pairing a new Christian with an older guide for personal assistance and direction. Both procedures led to "in - depth involvement of each member in one another 's lives '', and critics accused Lucas of fostering cultism.
The Crossroads Movement later spread into some other Churches of Christ. One of Lucas ' converts, Kip McKean, moved to the Boston area in 1979 and began working with "would - be disciples '' in the Lexington Church of Christ. He asked them to "redefine their commitment to Christ, '' and introduced the use of discipling partners. The congregation grew rapidly, and was renamed the Boston Church of Christ. In the early 1980s, the focus of the movement moved to Boston, Massachusetts where Kip McKean and the Boston Church of Christ became prominently associated with the trend. With the national leadership located in Boston, during the 1980s it commonly became known as the "Boston movement ''. A formal break was made from the mainline Churches of Christ in 1993 with the organization of the International Churches of Christ. This new designation formalized a division that was already in existence between those involved with the Crossroads / Boston Movement and "mainline '' Churches of Christ. Other names that have been used for this movement include the "Crossroads movement, '' "Multiplying Ministries, '' the "Discipling Movement '' and the "Boston Church of Christ ''.
Kip McKean resigned as the "World Mission Evangelist '' in November 2002. Some ICoC leaders began "tentative efforts '' at reconciliation with the Churches of Christ during the Abilene Christian University Lectureship in February 2004.
Most members of the Churches of Christ live outside the United States. There are more than 1,000,000 members of the Churches of Christ in Africa, approximately 1,000,000 in India, and 50,000 in Central and South America. Total worldwide membership is over 3,000,000, with approximately 1,300,000 in the U.S.
There are believed to be 1,000,000 or more members of the Churches of Christ in Africa. The total number of congregations is approximately 14,000. The most significant concentrations are in "Nigeria, Malawi, Ghana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, South Africa and Kenya ''.
Estimates are that there are 2,000 or more Restoration Movement congregations in India, with a membership of approximately 1,000,000. More than 100 congregations exist in the Philippines. Growth in other Asian countries has been smaller but is still significant.
Historically, Restoration Movement groups from Great Britain were more influential than those from the United States in the early development of the movement in Australia. Churches of Christ grew up independently in several locations. While early Churches of Christ in Australia saw creeds as divisive, towards the end of the 19th century they began viewing "summary statements of belief '' as useful in tutoring second generation members and converts from other religious groups. The period from 1875 through 1910 also saw debates over the use of musical instruments in worship, Christian Endeavor Societies and Sunday Schools. Ultimately, all three found general acceptance in the movement. Currently, the Restoration Movement is not as divided in Australia as it is in the United States. There have been strong ties with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), but many conservative ministers and congregations associate with the Christian churches and churches of Christ instead. Others have sought support from non-instrumental Churches of Christ, particularly those who felt that "conference '' congregations had "departed from the restoration ideal ''.
A relatively small proportion of total membership comes from Canada. A growing portion of the Canadian demographic is made up of immigrant members of the church. This is partly the result of Canadian demographics as a whole, and partly due to decreased interest amongst late generation Canadians. The largest concentration of active congregations in Canada are in Southern Ontario, with notable congregations gathering in Beamsville, Bramalea, Niagara Falls, Vineland, Toronto (several), and Waterloo. Although many congregations of various sizes (typically under 300 members) meet all across Canada.
In the early 1800s, Scottish Baptists were influenced by the writings of Alexander Campbell in the Christian Baptist and Millennial Harbinger. A group in Nottingham withdrew from the Scotch Baptist church in 1836 to form a Church of Christ. James Wallis, a member of that group, founded a magazine named The British Millennial Harbinger in 1837. In 1842 the first Cooperative Meeting of Churches of Christ in Great Britain was held in Edinburgh. Approximately 50 congregations were involved, representing a membership of 1,600. The name "Churches of Christ '' was formally adopted at an annual meeting in 1870. Alexander Campbell influenced the British Restoration Movement indirectly through his writings; he visited Britain for several months in 1847, and "presided at the Second Cooperative Meeting of the British Churches at Chester ''. At that time the movement had grown to encompass 80 congregations with a total membership of 2,300. Annual meetings were held after 1847.
The use of instrumental music in worship was not a source of division among the Churches of Christ in Great Britain before World War I. More significant was the issue of pacifism; a national conference was established in 1916 for congregations that opposed the war. A conference for "Old Paths '' congregations was first held in 1924. The issues involved included concern that the Christian Association was compromising traditional principles in seeking ecumenical ties with other organizations and a sense that it had abandoned Scripture as "an all - sufficient rule of faith and practice ''. Two "Old Paths '' congregations withdrew from the Association in 1931; an additional two withdrew in 1934, and nineteen more withdrew between 1943 and 1947.
Membership declined rapidly during and after the First World War. The Association of Churches of Christ in Britain disbanded in 1980. Most Association congregations (approximately 40) united with the United Reformed Church in 1981. In the same year, twenty - four other congregations formed a Fellowship of Churches of Christ. The Fellowship developed ties with the Christian churches and churches of Christ during the 1980s.
The Fellowship of Churches of Christ and some Australian and New Zealand Churches advocate a "missional '' emphasis with an ideal of "Five Fold Leadership ''. Many people in more traditional Churches of Christ see these groups as having more in common with Pentecostal churches. The main publishing organs of traditional Churches of Christ in Britain are The Christian Worker magazine and the Scripture Standard magazine. A history of the Association of Churches of Christ, Let Sects and Parties Fall, was written by David M Thompson. Further information can be found in the Historical Survey of Churches of Christ in the British Isles, edited by Joe Nisbet.
In Brazil there are above 600 congregations and 100,000 members from the Restoration Movement. Most of them were established by Lloyd David Sanders.
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how did the battle of the bulge get it's name | Battle of the Bulge (film) - wikipedia
Battle of the Bulge is a 1965 American widescreen epic war film produced in Spain, directed by Ken Annakin, and starring Henry Fonda, Robert Shaw, Telly Savalas, Robert Ryan, Dana Andrews and Charles Bronson. The feature was filmed in Ultra Panavision 70 and exhibited in 70 mm Cinerama. Battle of the Bulge had its world premiere on December 16, 1965, the 21st anniversary of the titular battle, at the Pacific Cinerama Dome Theatre in Hollywood, California.
The filmmakers attempted to condense the Ardennes Counteroffensive, a World War II battle that stretched across parts of Germany, Belgium and Luxembourg and lasted nearly a month, into under three hours. They also shot parts of the film on terrain that did not resemble actual battle locations. This left them open to criticism for lack of historical accuracy, but they claimed in the end credits that they had "re-organized '' the chronological order of events to maximize the dramatic story.
Unlike most World War II epics, Battle of the Bulge contains virtually no portrayals of actual senior Allied leaders, civilian or military. This is presumably because of controversies surrounding the battle, both during the war and after. Though Allied forces ultimately won the battle, the initial German counteroffensive caught them by surprise and caused many casualties.
It is December, 1944. Military Intelligence officer and former policeman Lt. Col. Daniel Kiley (Fonda) and his pilot, Joe, are flying a reconnaissance mission over the Ardennes forest. Spotting a German staff car the plane buzzes the car and photographs the officer. Alarmed, the chauffeur flees the car leaving the engine running. "Petrol is blood, '' rebukes the German officer, marking a theme of the film, the German shortage of fuel.
In a subterranean lair, it is revealed the officer is Col. Martin Hessler (Shaw), a fictional Panzer tank commander loosely based on SS - Standartenführer Jochen Peiper. Hessler is briefed by his superior, Gen. Kohler (Werner Peters), on a new German attack, piercing west against the American lines. Kohler points out a clock with a 50 - hour countdown, which is the time allotted for the operation, beyond which Germany has no resources for full - scale attack. At the same time German soldiers disguised as American troops, led by Lt. Schumacher (Ty Hardin), are tasked with seizing vital bridges and sowing confusion behind the Allied lines.
Meanwhile, Kiley returns to headquarters where he warns that the Germans are planning one more all - out offensive. His superiors, Gen. Grey (Robert Ryan) and Col. Pritchard (Dana Andrews), dismiss it out of hand: all available intelligence points to Germany not having the resources and manpower to launch another attack.
Hessler, having become concerned about the abilities of his tank commanders after his orderly, Conrad, (Hans Christian Blech) points out the staggering losses Germany has sustained since the war began, and reviews them, discovering they are all young and lacking in experience. Overhearing his criticism, the Commanders break into a chorus of Panzerlied restoring Hessler 's faith.
Hoping to uncover more proof, Kiley visits a US infantry position on the Siegfried Line under command of Maj. Wolenski (Charles Bronson). A patrol led by Lt. Weaver (James MacArthur) and Sgt. Duquesne (George Montgomery) capture some young and obviously inexperienced German soldiers. Kiley concludes that experienced German troops have been replaced by these men and withdrawn for an offensive, but Pritchard dismisses this as well, rebuking Kiley for "crackpot hunches '' and determining to relieve him of duty.
Hessler launches his attack the next day. Awakened by the noise of German tanks, Wolenski leads his men into the wooded area of the Schnee Eifel, where they try to fight them off but are overrun. A group of Allied tanks led by Sgt. Guffy (Telly Savalas) also attempts to slow the Panzers, but their tanks ' weak guns and thin armor make them ineffective, forcing him and his crew to retreat.
Lt. Schumacher and his disguised troops capture the only bridge over the Our River capable of carrying heavy tanks. Hessler continues his spearhead toward Ambleve, while being observed by Kiley, who also discovers that a German truck is carrying empty fuel drums.
Schumacher later takes control of a vital intersection of three roads connecting Ambleve, Malmedy and the Siegfried Line. He sabotages the road signs, and the rear echelon of Wolenski 's troops take the wrong road to Malmedy; almost the entire unit is captured and massacred. Lt. Weaver manages to escape, but Duquesne is killed. US soldiers become suspicious when they witness Schumacher 's "military police '' lay explosives incorrectly on the Our bridge, and his masquerade is revealed, though too late to stop Hessler.
When Kohler orders Hessler to bypass Ambleve, Hessler replies that the Americans have no concept of defeat, citing that they will ship things as trivial as a fresh chocolate cake to their front line troops. He feels he can break their will to fight, and Kohler gives him the night to achieve it.
Hessler 's tanks and infantry storm Ambleve, finally taking the town. Although many Americans, including Wolenski, are captured, Grey, Pritchard, Kiley and others escape to the River Meuse. American forces regroup and begin to reorganize for a counterattack.
Facing the dangers of a foggy night, Col. Kiley conducts an aerial reconnaissance in an attempt to locate the main German spearhead. He orders the pilot to shut off the engine and glide in an attempt to listen for enemy tanks. Suddenly, through a gap in the fog, he spots Hessler 's tank column heading toward American lines. Kiley radios in the coordinates, but his plane is hit by German fire and crashes near an American fuel depot.
In Hessler 's command vehicle, Conrad finally confronts the Colonel about his warmongering ways after Hessler boasts about the war going on forever, meaning Conrad 's sons will have to become soldiers and fight. Hessler is unmoved, transferring Conrad to the fuel battalion.
Meanwhile, Gen. Grey 's forces, with the Meuse at their back, prepare to fight off Hessler. The outgunned, outarmored American tanks are systematically destroyed, but at the cost of the Germans burning up much of their fuel. Guffy encounters Weaver, who has taken command of a small force of wounded men, and the surviving Americans head to the depot, the same one where the wounded Kiley is recovering.
Aware of the fuel shortages, Hessler leads a detachment toward the depot to capture its stocks, Conrad watching him go. Weaver and the stragglers arrive first. Weaver recognizes Lt. Schumacher, who is still posing as an American MP and whose men have taken control of the depot, but Schumacher does n't recognize him. At Weaver 's signal, he and his men open fire on the disguised Germans, killing them all. As Hessler 's column approaches, the US defenders flood the road with gasoline and set it ablaze. The young German crews abandon their machines in terror, only to be shot by the Americans or consumed by the flames. Abandoned by his Crew, Hessler goes it alone, only for his tank to be destroyed by a burning fuel drum. General Gray arrives in time to see the Panzers explode.
Out of Fuel, the remaining Germans give up the attack, marching back to Germany. Conrad, bringing up the rear, discards his rifle and cartridge belt, and confidently marches on, his personal war over.
The final tank battle is a rough depiction of the Battle of Celles on December 26, 1944, where the U.S. 2nd Armored Div. smashed the German 2nd Panzer Division. The film creates the false impression that large numbers of American tanks sacrificed themselves against the heavy Tiger IIs and in the process lured the enemy off course, which caused them to run out of gas. In reality, they were already stranded. The tanks used, despite the claims of the producer in an interview, which is one of the DVD extras, are not historically accurate. Although the M24 Chaffee light tanks used in the scene were World War II - era vehicles, they were not in use in the scale shown in the film and were relatively rare.
The US M47 Pattons as representing German King Tiger tanks and the M4 Shermans, as represented by the M24 Chaffees, contributed much to the myth or ' meme ' of the ' superior size and firepower which US armor had to contend with. ' However, in World War II, that was actually the task and work of the (mobile) artillery.
Aside from the initial American encounters with the German offensive is the absence of cold weather and snow, which were the conditions in which the real battle was fought. There is no trace of snow at all in the film 's major tank battle scene, and some battle scenes were fought in flat and bare territory, unlike the mountainous, forested and grassy nature of the Ardennes. The film was shot on location in the Sierra de Guadarrama mountain range and Madrid, Spain.
The sequence with Lt. Schumacher and his men was based on Operation Greif, the plan to parachute English - speaking Germans using American equipment behind American lines to sow confusion and capture the bridges.
Absent from this movie is the response by General Patton, whose Third Army relieved the siege of Bastogne. Also, there are no African - Americans in the movie even though the 761st Tank Battalion (The Black Panthers) played a role in Patton 's Third Army. Indeed, there is no reference to British forces in the area, but British troops were largely kept behind the Meuse River and thus almost entirely out of the fighting. Also not mentioned is General Eisenhower 's decision to split the Bulge front in two, ceding temporary command of two American armies to Field Marshal Montgomery in the northern half of the Bulge; the film implies a totally American operation.
There is also no mention of the role of Allied air power hitting the Germans hard at the first sign of clear weather.
The film 's opening narration, by William Conrad, mentions both Montgomery and Patton but is inaccurate: "to the north, stood Montgomery 's Eighth Army. To the south, Patton 's Third Army. ''
In fact, Montgomery 's northern command was actually the 21st Army Group. The Eighth Army, Montgomery 's previous command, was actually in Italy at the time of the Battle of the Bulge. Although Patton was actually in charge of Third Army during the battle, it was part of a much larger American force in the south and was one of four American armies of the 12th Army Group under General. Omar Bradley.
The film recaptures the major aspects of the battle, depicting how the inexperienced replacement American units stationed in the Ardennes were initially overwhelmed and how confused the situation became. It points out the superiority of heavy German tanks and their major weakness, a lack of fuel.
Some early scenes, showing discussions among German officers, accurately depict the Third Reich 's desperation to cut American - British supply lines to neutralize the Allies ' huge logistical advantage.
Screenwriter Bernard Gordon claims to have rewritten John Melson 's original screenplay. Some of the original choices for director were Richard Fleischer, who turned it down and Edward Dmytryk, with whom Jack L. Warner of Warner Bros. refused to work. Technical advisor on the film was Maj. Gen. (then Col.) Meinrad von Lauchert, who commanded the German tank division that made the most headway in the actual battle.
For an economical price and with no restrictions, the Spanish army provided an estimated 500 fully equipped soldiers and 75 tanks and vehicles, some of World War II vintage.
Eisenhower came out of retirement and held a press conference to denounce the film for what he considered its gross historical inaccuracy.
The film was one of the most popular movies at the British box office in 1966.
The original VHS release of the film for home video use was heavily edited to fit on one VHS tape and used a full screen "pan and scan '' technique often employed in network telecasts of widescreen motion pictures. The 1992 Laserdisc and 2005 DVD releases run at their full length and are presented letterboxed in the original 2.76: 1 aspect ratio. A Blu - ray release followed in 2007, also in the original 2.76: 1 aspect ratio.
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naga khasi and garo hills are located in which range | Garo Hills - wikipedia
The Garo Hills (Pron: ˈgɑ: rəʊ) are part of the Garo - Khasi range in Meghalaya, India. They are inhabited mainly by tribal dwellers, the majority of whom are Garo people. It is one of the wettest places in the world. The range is part of the Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion.
People who reside in the Garo Hills are known as the Garos. Besides the Garo hills, there are Garo settlements in the plains of Assam and Bangladesh. The Garos call themselves A chik (Locally used).
Garo Hills comprises five districts. Tura is the largest town with a population of about 70,000 located at the foothills of often cloud covered Tura peak. The town is centrally located to other popular game / wild life sanctuaries in the district such as Balpakram and Nokrek, natural caves (the Siju Cave being one of the longest in Asia). These places are rich reserves of natural flora and fauna.
The traditional Garo female dress is a piece of cloth around the waist and a blouse or vest. The men usually wear, in addition to cloth, a turban. Males and females both wear bangles and earrings. The chief meals of the Garos consist of rice with onions, capsicum and salt thrice a day. Practically all types of animal foods are taken. The liquor is not distilled, but prepared by brewing food grains.
The society is matrilineal like the Khasis and the Jaintias. Till death, the new - born baby belongs to the mother 's family, irrespective of sex, even after marriage. Marriage within the clan is completely prohibited and severely punishable for both the Khasis and the Garos. Till now, the institution of Bachelors Dormitories which is gradually disappearing amongst the tribes of North Eastern Region, are found in the Garo villages. In such dormitories young people stay and live together till they are married. They receive various training in the dormitories like making various A'chik music instruments, wrestling or traditional sports, making of traditional bamboo baskets. This institution is similar to ancient agoges of Sparta. The Khasis and Garos are now mostly Christians. But before that, they used to be nature - worshipers.
Garo Hills known for its abundance of wildlife attracts naturalists and photographers to capture the multifaceted sights of a unique range of flora and fauna. Two mountain ranges - the Arabella range and the Tura range, pass through the Garo Hills, forming the great Balpakram valley in between. The headquarters town of Tura is 323 km via Guwahati, at an altitude of 657 m. The highest point in the Garo Hills is Nokrek Peak with elevation of 1412 m.
Tura has an amazing landscape of hills against a backdrop of low - lying plains. A sunset view can be best seen from Tura Peak at 1,400 m and its summit can be reached by a 5 km trek, partly by hiking and also by rock - climbing.
These are locations in and around Garo Hills which are tourist spots. These include:
Coordinates: 25 ° 30 ′ N 90 ° 20 ′ E / 25.500 ° N 90.333 ° E / 25.500; 90.333
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what is the chemical formula of water glass | Sodium silicate - wikipedia
Sodium silicate is a generic name for chemical compounds with the formula Na SiO or (Na O) SiO, such as sodium metasilicate Na SiO, sodium orthosilicate Na SiO, and sodium pyrosilicate Na Si O. The anions are often polymeric. These compounds are generally colorless transparent solids or white powders, and soluble in water in various amounts.
Sodium silicate is also the technical and common name for a mixture of such compounds, chiefly the metasilicate, also called waterglass, water glass, or liquid glass. The product has a wide variety of uses, including the formulation of cements, passive fire protection, textile and lumber processing, manufacture of refractory ceramics, as adhesives, and in the production of silica gel. The commercial product, available in water solution or in solid form, is often greenish or blue owing to the presence of iron - containing impurities.
In industry, the various grades of sodium silicate are characterized by their SiO: Na O weight ratio (which can be converted to molar ratio by multiplication with 1.032). The ratio can vary between 2: 1 and 3.75: 1. Grades with ratio below 2.85: 1 are termed alkaline. Those with a higher SiO: Na O ratio are described as neutral.
Soluble silicates of alkali metals (sodium or potassium) were observed by European alchemists already in the 1500s. Giambattista della Porta observed in 1567 that tartari salis (cream of tartar, potassium hydrogen tartrate) caused powdered crystallum (quartz) to melt at a lower temperature. Other possible early references to alkali silicates were made by Basil Valentine in 1520, and by Agricola in 1550. Around 1640, Jean Baptist van Helmont reported the formation of alkali silicates as a soluble substance made by melting sand with excess alkali, and observed that the silica could be precipitated quantitatively by adding acid to the solution.
In 1646. Glauber made potassium silicate, that he termed liquor silicum by melting potassium carbonate (obtained by calcinating cream of tartar) and sand in a crucible, and keeping it molten until it ceased to bubble (due to the release of carbon dioxide). The mixture was allowed to cool and then was ground to a fine powder. When the powder was exposed to moist air, it gradually formed a viscous liquid, which Glauber called "Oleum oder Liquor Silicum, Arenæ, vel Crystallorum '' (i.e., oil or solution of silica, sand or quartz crystal).
However, it was later claimed that the substances prepared by those alchemists were not waterglass as it is understood today. That would have been prepared in 1818 by Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs, by treating silicic acid with an alkali; the result being soluble in water, "but not affected by atmospheric changes ''.
The terms "water glass '' and "soluble glass '' were used by Leopold Wolff in 1846,, by Émile Kopp in 1857, and by Hermann Krätzer in 1887.
In 1892, Rudolf Von Wagner distinguished soda, potash, double (soda and potash), and fixing (i.e., stabilizing) as types of water glass. The fixing type was "a mixture of silica well saturated with potash water glass and a sodium silicate '' used to stabilize inorganic water color pigments on cement work for outdoor signs and murals.
Sodium silicates are colorless glassy or crystalline solids, or white powders. Except for the most silicon - rich ones, they are readily soluble in water, producing alkaline solutions.
Sodium silicates are stable in neutral and alkaline solutions. In acidic solutions, the silicate ions react with hydrogen ions to form silicic acids, which tend to decompose into hydrated silicon dioxide gel. Heated to drive off the water, the result is a hard translucent substance called silica gel, widely used as a desiccant.
Solutions of sodium silicates can be produced by treating a mixture of silica (usually as quartz sand), caustic soda, and water, with hot steam in a reactor. The overall reaction is
Sodium silicates can also be obtained by dissolving silica SiO (whose melting point is 1713 ° C) in molten sodium carbonate (that melts with decomposition at 851 ° C):
The material can be obtained also from sodium sulfate (melting point 884 ° C) with carbon as a reducing agent:
In 1990, 4 million tons of alkali metal silicates were produced.
The main applications of sodium silicates are in detergents, paper, water treatment, and construction materials.
The largest application of sodium silicate solutions is a cement for producing cardboard. When used as a paper cement, the tendency is for the sodium silicate joint eventually to crack within a few years, at which point it no longer holds the paper surfaces cemented together.
Sodium silicate is frequently used in drilling fluids to stabilize borehole wells and to avoid the collapse of bore walls. It is particularly useful when drill holes pass through argillaceous formations containing swelling clay minerals such as smectite or montmorillonite.
Concrete treated with a sodium silicate solution helps to significantly reduce porosity in most masonry products such as concrete, stucco, and plasters. A chemical reaction occurs with the excess Ca (OH) (portlandite) present in the concrete that permanently binds the silicates with the surface, making them far more durable and water repellent. This treatment generally is applied only after the initial cure has taken place (7 days or so depending on conditions). These coatings are known as silicate mineral paint.
It is used in detergent auxiliaries such as complex sodium disilicate and modified sodium disilicate. The detergent granules gain their ruggedness from a coating of silicates.
Water glass is used as coagulant / deflocculant agent in waste water treatment plants. Waterglass binds to colloidal molecules, creating larger aggregates that sink to the bottom of the water column. The microscopic negatively charged particles suspended in water interact with sodium silicate. Their electrical double layer collapses due to the increase of ionic strength caused by the addition of sodium silicate (doubly negatively charged anion accompanied by two sodium cations) and they subsequently aggregate. This process is called coagulation / deflocculation.
Water glass is a useful binder of solids, such as vermiculite and perlite. When blended with the aforementioned lightweight aggregates, water glass can be used to make hard, high - temperature insulation boards used for refractories, passive fire protection and high temperature insulations, such as moulded pipe insulation applications. When mixed with finely divided mineral powders, such as vermiculite dust (which is common scrap from the exfoliation process), one can produce high temperature adhesives. The intumescence disappears in the presence of finely divided mineral dust, whereby the waterglass becomes a mere matrix. Waterglass is inexpensive and abundantly available, which makes its use popular in many refractory applications.
Sodium silicate solution is used as a fixative for hand dyeing with reactive dyes that require a high pH to react with the textile fiber. After the dye is applied to a cellulose - based fabric, such as cotton or rayon, or onto silk, it is allowed to dry, after which the sodium silicate is painted on to the dyed fabric, covered with plastic to retain moisture, and left to react for an hour at room temperature.
Sodium silicates are inherently intumescent. They come in prill (solid beads) form, as well as the liquid, water glass. The solid sheet form (Palusol) must be waterproofed to ensure long - term passive fire protection (PFP).
Standard, solid, bead - form sodium silicates have been used as aggregate within silicone rubber to manufacture plastic pipe firestop devices. The silicone rubber was insufficient waterproofing to preserve the intumescing function and the products had to be recalled, which is problematic for firestops concealed behind drywall in buildings.
Pastes for caulking purposes are similarly unstable. This, too, has resulted in recalls and even litigation. Only 3M 's "Expantrol '' version, which has an external heat treatment that helps to seal the outer surface, as part of its process standard, has achieved sufficient longevity to qualify for DIBt approvals in the US for use in firestopping.
Not unlike other intumescents, sodium silicate, both in bead form and in liquid form, are inherently endothermic, due to liquid water in the water glass and hydrates in the prill form. The absence in the US of mandatory aging tests, whereby PFP systems are made to undergo system performance tests after the aging and humidity exposures, are at the root of the continued availability, in North America, of PFP products that can become inoperable within weeks of installation. Indiscriminate use of sodium silicates without proper waterproofing measures are contributors to the problems and risk. When sodium silicates are adequately protected, they function extremely well and reliably for long periods. Evidence of this can be seen in the many DIBt approvals for plastic pipe firestop devices using Palusol (a product of BASF), which use waterproofed sodium silicate sheets.
Sodium silicate is used, along with magnesium silicate, in muffler repair and fitting paste. When dissolved in water, both sodium silicate and magnesium silicate form a thick paste that is easy to apply. When the exhaust system of an internal combustion engine heats up to its operating temperature, the heat drives out all of the excess water from the paste. The silicate compounds that are left over have glass - like properties, making a temporary, brittle repair.
Sodium silicate is also used currently as an exhaust system joint and crack sealer for repairing mufflers, resonators, tailpipes, and other exhaust components, with and without fiberglass reinforcing tapes. In this application, the sodium silicate (60 -- 70 %) is typically mixed with kaolin (40 - 30 %), an aluminium silicate mineral, to make the sodium silicate "glued '' joint opaque. The sodium silicate, however, is the high - temperature adhesive; the kaolin serves simply as a compatible high - temperature coloring agent. Some of these repair compounds also contain glass fibres to enhance their gap - filling abilities and reduce brittleness.
Sodium silicate can be used to fill gaps within the head gasket. Commonly used on aluminum alloy cylinder heads, which are sensitive to thermally induced surface deflection. This can be caused by many things including head - bolt stretching, deficient coolant delivery, high cylinder head pressure, overheating, etc.
"Liquid glass '' (sodium silicate) is added to the system through the radiator, and allowed to circulate. Sodium silicate is suspended in the coolant until it reaches the cylinder head. At 100 -- 105 ° C (212 - 221 ° F), sodium silicate loses water molecules to form a glass seal with a remelt temperature above 810 ° C (1,490 ° F).
A sodium silicate repair can last two years or longer. The repair occurs rapidly, and symptoms disappear instantly. This repair only works when the sodium silicate reaches its "conversion '' temperature at 100 -- 105 ° C. Contamination of engine oil is a serious possibility in situations in which a coolant - to - oil leak is present. Sodium silicate (glass particulate) contamination of lubricants is detrimental to their function.
Sodium silicate solution is used to inexpensively, quickly, and permanently disable automobile engines. Running an engine with about 2 liters of a sodium silicate solution instead of motor oil causes the solution to precipitate, catastrophically damaging the engine 's bearings and pistons within a few minutes. In the United States, this procedure was used to comply with requirements of the Car Allowance Rebate System (CARS) program.
A mixture of sodium silicate and sawdust has been used in between the double skin of certain safes. This not only makes them more fire resistant, but also makes cutting them open with an oxyacetylene torch extremely difficult due to the smoke emitted.
When crystals of a number of metallic salts are dropped into a solution of water glass, simple or branching stalagmites of coloured metal silicates are formed. This phenomenon has been used by manufacturers of toys and chemistry sets to provide instructive enjoyment to many generations of children from the early 20th century until the present. An early mention of crystals of metallic salts forming a "chemical garden '' in sodium silicate is found in the 1946 Modern Mechanix magazine. Metal salts used included the sulfates and / or chlorides of copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, and manganese.
Sodium silicate is used as a deflocculant in casting slips helping reduce viscosity and the need for large amounts of water to liquidize the clay body. It is also used to create a crackle effect in pottery, usually wheel - thrown. A vase or bottle is thrown on the wheel, fairly narrow and with thick walls. Sodium silicate is brushed on a section of the piece. After 5 minutes, the wall of the piece is stretched outward with a rib or hand. The result is a wrinkled or cracked look.
It is also the main agent in "magic water '', which is used when joining clay pieces, especially if the moisture level of the two differs.
Sodium silicate with additives was injected into the ground to harden it and thereby to prevent further leakage of highly radioactive water from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant in Japan in April, 2011. The residual heat carried by the water used for cooling the damaged reactors accelerated the setting of the injected mixture.
On June 3, 1958, the USS Nautilus, the world 's first nuclear submarine, visited Everett and Seattle. In Seattle, crewmen dressed in civilian clothing were sent in to secretly buy 140 quarts of an automotive product containing sodium silicate (originally identified as Stop Leak) to repair a leaking condenser system. The Nautilus was en route to the North Pole on a top secret mission to cross the North Pole submerged.
A historical use of the adhesive properties of sodium silicates is the production of paper cartridges for black powder revolvers produced by Colt 's Manufacturing Company during the period from 1851 until 1873, especially during the American Civil War. Sodium silicate was used to seal combustible nitrated paper together to form a conical paper cartridge to hold the black powder, as well as to cement the lead ball or conical bullet into the open end of the paper cartridge. Such sodium silicate cemented paper cartridges were inserted into the cylinders of revolvers, thereby speeding the reloading of cap - and - ball black powder revolvers. This use largely ended with the introduction of Colt revolvers employing brass - cased cartridges starting in 1873. Similarly, sodium silicate was also used to cement the top wad into brass shotgun shells, thereby eliminating any need for a crimp at the top of the brass shotgun shell to hold a shotgun shell together. Reloading brass shotgun shells was widely practiced by self - reliant American farmers during the 1870s, using the same waterglass material that was also used to preserve eggs. The cementing of the top wad on a shotgun shell consisted of applying from three to five drops of waterglass on the top wad to secure it to the brass hull. Brass hulls for shotgun shells were superseded by paper hulls starting around 1877. The newer paper - hulled shotgun shells used a roll crimp in place of a waterglass - cemented joint to hold the top wad in the shell. However, whereas brass shotshells with top wads cemented with waterglass could be reloaded nearly indefinitely (given powder, wad, and shot, of course), the paper hulls that replaced the brass hulls could be reloaded only a few times.
Sodium silicate was also used as an egg preservation agent through the early 20th century with large success. When fresh eggs are immersed in it, bacteria which cause the eggs to spoil are kept out and water is kept in. Eggs can be kept fresh using this method for up to five months. When boiling eggs preserved this way, it is well advised to pin - prick the egg to allow steam to escape because the shell is no longer porous.
Sodium silicate flocculant properties are also used to clarify wine and beer by precipitating colloidal particles. As a clearing agent, though, sodium silicate is sometimes confused with isinglass which is prepared from collagen extracted from the dried swim bladders of sturgeon and other fishes. Eggs preserved in a bucket of waterglass gel, and their shells are sometimes also used (baked and crushed) to clear wine.
Sodium silicate gel is also used as a substrate for algal growth in aquaculture hatcheries.
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whete is the i icon on my apple watch | Jesse Jackson - wikipedia
Jesse Louis Jackson Sr. (né Burns; born October 8, 1941) is an American civil rights activist, Baptist minister, and politician. He was a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1984 and 1988 and served as a shadow U.S. Senator for the District of Columbia from 1991 to 1997.
He is the founder of the organizations that merged to form Rainbow / PUSH. Former U.S. Representative Jesse Jackson Jr. is his eldest son. Jackson was also the host of Both Sides with Jesse Jackson on CNN from 1992 to 2000.
Jackson was born in Greenville, South Carolina, to Helen Burns (1924 -- 2015), a 16 - year - old high school student, and her 33 - year - old married neighbor, Noah Louis Robinson (1908 - 1997). The family has some Cherokee roots. Robinson was a former professional boxer who was an employee of a textile brokerage and a well - known figure in the black community. One year after Jesse 's birth, his mother married Charles Henry Jackson, a post office maintenance worker who later adopted the boy. Jesse was given his stepfather 's name in the adoption, but as he grew up, he also maintained a close relationship with Robinson. He considered both men to be his father.
As a young child, Jackson was taunted by the other children regarding his out - of - wedlock birth, and has said these experiences helped motivate him to succeed. Living under Jim Crow segregation laws, Jackson was taught to go to the back of the bus and use separate water fountains -- practices he accepted until the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955. He attended the racially segregated Sterling High School in Greenville, where he was elected student class president, finished tenth in his class, and earned letters in baseball, football and basketball.
Upon graduating from high school in 1959, he rejected a contract from a minor league professional baseball team so that he could attend the University of Illinois on a football scholarship. Following his second semester at the predominantly white University of Illinois, Jackson transferred to the North Carolina A&T, an historically black university located in Greensboro, North Carolina. There are differing accounts of the reasons behind this transfer. Jackson has claimed that he changed schools because racial prejudice prevented him from playing quarterback and limited his participation on a competitive public - speaking team.
Writing on ESPN.com in 2002, sociologist Harry Edwards noted that the University of Illinois had previously had a black quarterback, but also noted that black athletes attending traditionally white colleges during the 1950s and 1960s encountered a "combination of culture shock and discrimination ''. Edwards also suggested that Jackson had left the University of Illinois in 1960 because he had been placed on academic probation. However, the president of the University of Illinois reported in 1987 that Jackson 's 1960 freshman year transcript was clean, and said he would have been eligible to re-enroll at any time.
While attending A&T, Jackson played quarterback and was elected student body president. He became active in local civil rights protests against segregated libraries, theaters and restaurants. He graduated with a B.S. in sociology in 1964, then attended the Chicago Theological Seminary on a scholarship. He dropped out in 1966, three classes short of earning his master 's degree, to focus full - time on the Civil Rights Movement. He was ordained a minister in 1968, and in 2000, was awarded his Master of Divinity Degree based on his previous credits earned, plus his life experience and subsequent work.
Jackson has been known for commanding public attention since he first started working for Martin Luther King Jr. In 1965, Jackson participated in the Selma to Montgomery marches organized by James Bevel, King and other civil rights leaders in Alabama. Impressed by Jackson 's drive and organizational abilities, King soon began giving Jackson a role in the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), though he was concerned about Jackson 's apparent ambition and attention - seeking. When Jackson returned from Selma, he was charged with establishing a frontline office for the SCLC in Chicago.
In 1966, King and Bevel selected Jackson to head the Chicago branch of the SCLC 's economic arm, Operation Breadbasket and he was promoted to national director in 1967. Operation Breadbasket had been started by the Atlanta leadership of the SCLC as a job placement agency for blacks. Under Jackson 's leadership, a key goal was to encourage massive boycotts by black consumers as a means to pressure white - owned businesses to hire blacks and to purchase goods and services from black - owned firms.
T.R.M. Howard, a 1950s proponent of the consumer boycott tactic, soon became a major supporter of Jackson 's efforts -- donating and raising funds, and introducing Jackson to prominent members of the black business community in Chicago. Under Jackson 's direction, Operation Breadbasket held popular weekly workshops on Chicago 's South Side featuring white and black political and economic leaders, and religious services complete with a jazz band and choir.
Jackson became involved in SCLC leadership disputes following the assassination of King on April 4, 1968. When King was shot, Jackson was in the parking lot one floor below. Jackson told reporters he was the last person to speak to King, and that King died in his arms -- an account that several King aides disputed. In the wake of King 's death, Jackson worked on SCLC 's Poor People 's Crusade in Washington, D.C., and was credited with managing its 15 - acre tent city -- but he began to increasingly clash with Ralph Abernathy, King 's successor as chairman of the SCLC. In 1969, The New York Times reported that Jackson was being viewed as King 's successor by several black leaders and that Jackson was one of the few black activists who was preaching racial reconciliation.
Jackson was also reportedly seeking coalition with whites in order to approach what were considered racial problems as economic and class problems, "When we change the race problem into a class fight between the haves and the have - nots, then we are going to have a new ball game '', he said. In the 21st century, some public school systems are working on an approach for affirmative action that deals with family income rather than race, recognizing that some minority members have been very successful. The Times also indicated that Jackson was being criticized as too involved with middle - class blacks, and for having an unattainable goal of racial unity.
In the spring of 1971, Abernathy ordered Jackson to move the national office of Operation Breadbasket from Chicago to Atlanta and sought to place another person in charge of local Chicago activities, but Jackson refused to move. He organized the October 1971 Black Expo in Chicago, a trade and business fair to promote black capitalism and grass roots political power. The five - day event was attended by black businessmen from 40 states, as well as politicians such as Cleveland Mayor Carl Stokes, and Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley. Daley 's presence was seen as a testament to the growing political and economic power of blacks.
In December 1971, Jackson and Abernathy had a complete falling out, with the split described as part of a leadership struggle between Jackson, who had a national profile, and Abernathy, whose prominence from the Civil Rights Movement was beginning to wane. The break began when Abernathy questioned the handling of receipts from the Black Expo, and then suspended Jackson as leader of Operation Breadbasket for not obtaining permission to form non-profit corporations. Al Sharpton, then youth group leader of the SCLC, left the organization to protest Jackson 's treatment and formed the National Youth Movement. Jackson, his entire Breadbasket staff, and 30 of the 35 board members resigned from the SCLC and began planning a new organization. Time magazine quoted Jackson as saying at that time that the traditional civil rights movement had lost its "offensive thrust. ''
People United to Save Humanity (Operation PUSH) officially began operations on December 25, 1971; Jackson later changed the name to People United to Serve Humanity. T.R.M. Howard was installed as a member of the board of directors and chair of the finance committee. At its inception, Jackson planned to orient Operation PUSH toward politics and to pressure politicians to work to improve economic opportunities for blacks and poor people of all races. SCLC officials reportedly felt the new organization would help black businesses more than it would help the poor.
In 1978 Jackson called for a closer relationship between blacks and the Republican Party, telling the Party 's National Committee that "Black people need the Republican Party to compete for us so we can have real alternatives... The Republican Party needs black people if it is ever to compete for national office. ''
In 1983 Jackson and Operation PUSH led a boycott against beer giant Anheuser - Busch, criticizing the company 's level of minority employment in their distribution network. August Busch IV, Anheuser - Busch 's CEO was introduced in 1996 to Yusef Jackson, Jesse 's son, by Jackson family friend Ron Burkle. In 1998 Yusef and his brother Jonathan were chosen by Anheuser - Busch to head River North Sales, a Chicago beer distribution company, leading to controversy. "There is no causal connection between the boycott in 1983 and me meeting in the middle ' 90s and me buying this company in 1998, '' said Yusef.
In 1984, Jackson organized the Rainbow Coalition and resigned his post as president of Operation PUSH in 1984 to run for president of the United States, though he remained involved as chairman of the board. PUSH 's activities were described in 1987 as conducting boycotts of business to induce them to provide more jobs and business to blacks and as running programs for housing, social services and voter registration. The organization was funded by contributions from businesses and individuals. In early 1987 the continued existence of Operation PUSH was imperiled by debt, a fact that was used by Jackson 's political opponents during his race for the 1988 Democratic Party nomination. In 1996, the Operation PUSH and Rainbow Coalition organizations were merged.
Jackson 's influence extended to international matters in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1983, Jackson traveled to Syria to secure the release of a captured American pilot, Navy Lt. Robert Goodman who was being held by the Syrian government. Goodman had been shot down over Lebanon while on a mission to bomb Syrian positions in that country. After a dramatic personal appeal that Jackson made to Syrian President Hafez al - Assad, Goodman was released. Initially, the Reagan administration was skeptical about Jackson 's trip to Syria. However, after Jackson secured Goodman 's release, United States President Ronald Reagan welcomed both Jackson and Goodman to the White House on January 4, 1984. This helped to boost Jackson 's popularity as an American patriot and served as a springboard for his 1984 presidential run. In June 1984, Jackson negotiated the release of twenty - two Americans being held in Cuba after an invitation by Cuban president Fidel Castro.
On the eve of the 1991 Persian Gulf War, Jackson made a trip to Iraq, to plead to Saddam Hussein for the release of foreign nationals held there as a "human shield '', securing the release of several British and twenty American individuals.
He traveled to Kenya in 1997 to meet with Kenyan President Daniel arap Moi as United States President Bill Clinton 's special envoy for democracy to promote free and fair elections. In April 1999, during the Kosovo War, Jackson traveled to Belgrade to negotiate the release of three U.S. POWs captured on the Macedonian border while patrolling with a UN peacekeeping unit. He met with the then - Yugoslav president Slobodan Milošević, who later agreed to release the three men.
His international efforts continued into the 2000s. On February 15, 2003, Jackson spoke in front of over an estimated one million people in Hyde Park, London at the culmination of the anti-war demonstration against the imminent invasion of Iraq by the U.S. and the United Kingdom. In November 2004, Jackson visited senior politicians and community activists in Northern Ireland in an effort to encourage better cross-community relations and rebuild the peace process and restore the governmental institutions of the Belfast Agreement.
In August 2005, Jackson traveled to Venezuela to meet Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez, following controversial remarks by televangelist Pat Robertson in which he implied that Chávez should be assassinated. Jackson condemned Robertson 's remarks as immoral. After meeting with Chávez and addressing the Venezuelan Parliament, Jackson said that there was no evidence that Venezuela posed a threat to the U.S. Jackson also met representatives from the Afro Venezuela and indigenous communities.
In 2005, he was enlisted as part of the United Kingdom 's "Operation Black Vote '', a campaign run by Simon Woolley to encourage more of Britain 's ethnic minorities to vote in political elections ahead of the May 2005 General Election.
Jackson served as a speaker for The International Peace Foundation in 2009 on the topic "Building a culture of peace and development in a globalized world ''. He visited multiple locations in Malaysia, including the Institute of Diplomacy and Foreign Relations of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and in Thailand, including NIST International School in Bangkok.
During the 1980s, he achieved wide fame as a politician, as well as becoming a well - known spokesman for civil rights issues. In 1980 for example, Jackson mediated in a firefighters ' strike.
On November 3, 1983, Jackson announced his campaign for President of the United States in the 1984 election, becoming the second African American (after Shirley Chisholm) to mount a nationwide campaign for president.
In the Democratic Party primaries, Jackson, who had been written off by pundits as a fringe candidate with little chance at winning the nomination, surprised many when he took third place behind Senator Gary Hart and former Vice President Walter Mondale, who eventually won the nomination. Jackson garnered 3,282,431 primary votes, or 18.2 percent of the total, in 1984, and won three to five primaries and caucuses, including Louisiana, the District of Columbia, South Carolina, and one of two separate contests in Mississippi. More Virginia caucus - goers supported Jesse Jackson than any other candidate, but Walter Mondale won more Virginia delegates.
In May 1988, Jackson complained that he had won 21 % of the popular vote but was awarded only 9 % of the delegates. He afterwards stated that he had been handicapped by party rules. While Mondale (in the words of his aides) was determined to establish a precedent with his vice presidential candidate by picking a woman or visible minority, Jackson criticized the screening process as a "p.r. parade of personalities ''. He also mocked Mondale, saying that Hubert Humphrey was the "last significant politician out of the St. Paul -- Minneapolis '' area.
Jackson was criticized in the early 1980s for referring to Jews as "Hymies '' and New York City as "Hymietown '' in remarks to a black Washington Post reporter. (Hymie is a pejorative term for Jews.) Jackson mistakenly assumed the references would not be printed. Louis Farrakhan made the situation worse by issuing, in Jackson 's presence, a public warning to Jews that "If you harm this brother (Jackson), it will be the last one you harm. '' Jackson made a public apology to Jews for the pejorative remarks, but Jackson refused to denounce Farrakhan 's warning to Jews. Jackson apologized during a speech before national Jewish leaders in a Manchester, New Hampshire synagogue, but an enduring split between Jackson and many in the Jewish community continued at least through the 1990s.
Jackson also made other remarks evidencing a negative attitude toward Jews including saying that Richard Nixon was less attentive to poverty in the U.S. because "four out of five (of Nixon 's top advisers) are German Jews and their priorities are on Europe and Asia ''; that he was "sick and tired of hearing about the Holocaust ''; and that there are "very few Jewish reporters that have the capacity to be objective about Arab affairs ''.
Shortly after President Jimmy Carter fired U.N. Ambassador Andrew Young for meeting with Palestine Liberation Organization representatives, Jackson and other black leaders began publicly endorsing a Palestinian state, with Jackson calling Israel 's prime minister a "terrorist '', and then soliciting Arab - American financial support. Jackson has since apologized for some of these remarks, but they badly damaged his presidential campaign, as "Jackson was seen by many conservatives in the United States as hostile to Israel and far too close to Arab governments. ''
According to a 1987 New York Times article, Jackson began attempting to improve his relationship with the Jewish community after 1984. In 2000, he was invited to speak in support of Jewish Senator and Vice Presidential candidate Joe Lieberman at the Democratic National Convention.
In 1988, Jackson again sought the Democratic Party presidential nomination. According to a November 1987 article in The New York Times, "Most political analysts give him little chance of being nominated -- partly because he is black, partly because of his unretrenched liberalism. '' However, his successes in the past made him a more credible candidate, and he was both better financed and better organized than in 1984. Jackson once again exceeded expectations as he more than doubled his previous results, prompting R.W. Apple of The New York Times to call 1988 "the Year of Jackson ''.
In early 1988, Jackson organized a rally at the former American Motors assembly plant in Kenosha, Wisconsin, approximately two weeks after new owner Chrysler announced it would close the plant by the end of the year. In his speech, Jackson spoke out against Chrysler 's decision, stating "We have to put the focus on Kenosha, Wisconsin, as the place, here and now, where we draw the line to end economic violence! '' and compared the workers ' fight to that of the 1965 Voting Rights Movement in Selma, Alabama. As a result, the UAW Local 72 union voted to endorse his candidacy, even against the rules of the UAW.
Briefly, after he won 55 % of the vote in the Michigan Democratic caucus, he was considered the frontrunner for the nomination, as he surpassed all the other candidates in total number of pledged delegates. Jackson 's campaign suffered a significant setback less than two weeks after the UAW endorsement when he narrowly lost the Colorado primary to Michael Dukakis, and was defeated handily the following day in the Wisconsin primary by Dukakis. Jackson 's showing among white voters in Wisconsin was significantly higher than in his 1984 run, but was also noticeably lower than pre-primary polling had predicted. The back - to - back victories established Dukakis as the clear Democratic frontrunner, and he went on to claim the party 's nomination, but lost the general election in November.
Jackson 's campaign had also been interrupted by allegations regarding his half - brother Noah Robinson Jr. 's criminal activity. Jackson had to answer frequent questions about Noah, who was often referred to as "the Billy Carter of the Jackson campaign ''.
At the conclusion of the Democratic primary season, Jackson had captured 6.9 million votes and won 11 contests; seven primaries (Alabama, the District of Columbia, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Puerto Rico and Virginia) and four caucuses (Delaware, Michigan, South Carolina and Vermont). Jackson also scored March victories in Alaska 's caucuses and Texas 's local conventions, despite losing the Texas primary.
In both races, Jackson ran on what many considered to be a very liberal platform. In 1987, The New York Times described him as "a classic liberal in the tradition of the New Deal and the Great Society ''. Declaring that he wanted to create a "Rainbow Coalition '' of various minority groups, including African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Arab - Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans, family farmers, the poor and working class, and homosexuals, as well as European American progressives who fit into none of those categories, Jackson ran on a platform that included:
With the exception of a resolution to implement sanctions against South Africa for its apartheid policies, none of these positions made it into the party 's platform in either 1984 or 1988.
Although Jackson was one of the most liberal members of the Democratic Party, his position on abortion was originally more in line with pro-life views. Within one month after the 1973 Supreme Court decision, Roe v. Wade, legalized abortion, Jackson began a PUSH campaign against the decision, calling abortion murder and declaring that Jesus and Moses might not have been born if abortion had been available in ancient times. Jackson 's strong rhetoric on abortion temporarily alienated one of his major supporters, T.R. M Howard, a black physician who made a living from performing abortions.
In 1975, Jackson endorsed a plan for a constitutional amendment banning abortion. He also endorsed the Hyde Amendment, which bars the funding of abortions through the federal Medicaid program. Writing in a 1977 National Right to Life Committee News report, Jackson argued that the basis for Roe v. Wade -- the right to privacy -- was also a premise that had been used to justify slavery and the treatment of slaves on the plantations. Jackson decried what he believed was the casual taking of life, and the decline in society 's value system. However, Jackson later adopted a pro-abortion view that abortion is a right and that the government should not prevent a woman from having an abortion.
He ran for office as "shadow senator '' for the District of Columbia when the position was created in 1991, and served as such through 1997, when he did not run for re-election. This unpaid position was primarily a post to lobby for statehood for the District of Columbia.
In the mid-1990s, he was approached about being the United States Ambassador to South Africa but declined the opportunity in favor of helping his son Jesse Jackson Jr. run for the United States House of Representatives.
Jackson was initially critical of the "Third Way '' or more moderate policies of Bill Clinton, so much so that, according to journalist Peter Beinart, Clinton was "petrified about a primary challenge from '' Jackson in the 1996 election. However, he became a key ally in gaining African American support for Clinton and eventually became a close adviser and friend of the Clinton family. His son, Jesse Jackson Jr., also emerged as a political figure, becoming a member of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois.
On May 2, 1999, during the Kosovo war, three US soldiers who had been held captive were released as a result of talks with Jackson. Jackson 's negotiation was not sanctioned by the Clinton Administration.
On November 18, 1999, seven Decatur, Illinois high school students were expelled for two years after participating in a brawl at a football game. The incident was caught on home video and became a national media event when CNN ran pictures of the fight. After the students were expelled, Jackson spoke out arguing that the expulsions were unfair and racially biased. He called on the school board to reverse their decision.
On January 20, 2001, Bill Clinton 's final day in office, Jackson had petitioned Clinton for the pardons of Congressman Mel Reynolds, John Bustamante, and Dorothy Rivers, all of which were approved. Jesse requested a fourth pardon, for his half - brother Noah Robinson, who had been convicted of murdering Leroy Barber and sentenced to life imprisonment. This was the only pardon Clinton disapproved as Robinson had submitted three pardon appeals prior, all of which were denied by the Justice Department.
Jackson was a target of the 2002 white supremacist terror plot.
In early 2005, Jackson visited the parents in the Terri Schiavo case; he supported their unsuccessful bid to keep her alive.
In 2005, the Federal Election Commission ruled that Jackson and the Democratic National Committee had violated electoral law and levied on them a $200,000 fine.
In March 2006, an African - American woman accused three white members of the Duke University men 's lacrosse team of raping her. During the ensuing controversy, Jackson stated that his Rainbow / PUSH Coalition would pay for the rest of her college tuition regardless of the outcome of the case. The case against the three men was later thrown out and the players were declared innocent by the North Carolina Attorney General.
Jackson took a key role in the scandal caused by comedic actor Michael Richards ' racially charged comments in November 2006. Richards called Jackson a few days after the incident to apologize; Jackson accepted Richards ' apology and met with him publicly as a means of resolving the situation. Jackson also joined black leaders in a call for the elimination of the "N - word '' throughout the entertainment industry.
On June 23, 2007, Jackson was arrested in connection with a protest at a gun store in Riverdale, a poor suburb of Chicago, Illinois. Jackson and others were protesting due to allegations that the gun store had been selling firearms to local gang members and was contributing to the decay of the community. According to police reports, Jackson refused to stop blocking the front entrance of the store and let customers pass. He was charged with one count of criminal trespass to property.
In March 2007, Jackson declared his support for then - Senator Barack Obama in the 2008 democratic primaries. Jackson later criticized Obama in 2007 for "acting like he 's white, '' in response to the Jena 6 beating case.
On July 6, 2008, during an interview with Fox News, a microphone picked up Jackson whispering to fellow guest Reed Tuckson: "See, Barack 's been, ahh, talking down to black people on this faith - based... I want to cut his nuts off. '' Jackson was expressing his disappointment in Obama 's Father 's Day speech chastisement of black fathers. Subsequent to his Fox News interview, Jackson apologized and reiterated his support for Obama.
On November 4, 2008, Jackson attended the Obama victory rally in Chicago 's Grant Park. In the several moments before Obama spoke, Jackson was seen in tears.
Jackson has commended Obama 's 2012 decision to support gay marriage and has compared the fight for same - sex marriage to fight against slavery and the anti-miscegenation laws that once prevented interracial marriage. He would be in favor of federal legislation extending marriage rights to gays, because he feels that if this issue is left up to the states, some states will continue to deny gays equal protection and equal rights.
Ebony Magazine named Jackson to its "100 most influential black Americans '' list in 1971.
In 1979, Jackson received the Jefferson Award for Greatest Public Service Benefiting the Disadvantaged.
In 1989, he was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP.
In 1991, Jackson received the American Whig - Cliosophic Society 's James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service.
Clinton awarded Jackson the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation 's highest honor bestowed on civilians in August 2000.
In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante included Jackson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.
In 2008, Jackson was presented with an Honorary Fellowship from Edge Hill University.
In an AP - AOL "Black Voices '' poll in February 2006, Jackson was voted "the most important black leader ''.
Jackson inherited the title of the High Prince of the Agni people of Côte d'Ivoire from Michael Jackson. In August 2009, he was crowned Prince Côte Nana by Amon N'Douffou V, King of Krindjabo, who rules more than a million Agni tribespeople.
Jackson married Jacqueline Lavinia Brown (born 1944) on December 31, 1962, and together they have five children: Santita (1963), Jesse Jr. (1965), Jonathan Luther (1966), Yusef DuBois (1970), and Jacqueline Lavinia (1975).
Jackson 's younger brother, Charles "Chuck '' Jackson, was a singer with the vocal group The Independents and as a solo artist who issued two albums in the late 1970s. Along with his songwriting partner and fellow producer, Marvin Yancy, he was largely responsible for launching the career of Natalie Cole.
On Memorial Day, May 25, 1987, Jesse was made a Master Mason on Sight by Grand Master Senter of the Most Worshipful Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Illinois; thereby making him a Prince Hall Freemason.
In 2001, it was revealed Jackson had an affair with a staffer, Karin Stanford, that resulted in the birth of a daughter Ashley in May 1999. According to CNN, in August 1999, the Rainbow Push Coalition had paid Stanford $15,000 in moving expenses and $21,000 in payment for contracting work. A promised advance of an additional $40,000 against future contracting work was rescinded once the affair became public. This incident prompted Jackson to withdraw from activism for a short time. Jackson was paying $4,000 a month in child support as of 2001.
In November 2017, Jackson was diagnosed with Parkinson 's disease.
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who plays mayor hale on sons of anarchy | Jeff Kober - Wikipedia
Jeff Kober (born December 18, 1953) is an American actor.
Kober was born in Billings, Montana.
Kober may be best known as Dodger in China Beach and Daedalus in the short - lived cult horror series Kindred: The Embraced. He has made guest appearances on such television series as Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, ER, 24, The Closer, New Girl, and Criminal Minds. He played the character Julian Bradley in the two - part 1985 episode entitled "The Monster: Part 1&2 '' on Highway to Heaven. He plays Jacob Hale, Jr. in the FX series Sons of Anarchy and Joe in the AMC series The Walking Dead. He also featured as DJ Ray from Reef Radio in Bacardi Rum 's 1990s ' serve Chilled ' advertising campaign. In 2013, Kober reprised his role as Daedalus for the "Kindred: The Embraced '' DVD set in a special features segment called "Daedalus: The Last Will and Testament, '' which is meant for Abel (The boy Daedalus wanted to embrace in the episode, "Romeo and Juliet ''), whose now an adult and was embraced by Julian Luna as Kindred. This segment is dedicated to the memory of Mark Frankel.
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the child who was born on the sabbath day | Monday 's Child - wikipedia
"Monday 's Child '' is one of many fortune - telling songs, popular as nursery rhymes for children. It is supposed to tell a child 's character or future based on the day of birth and to help young children remember the seven days of the week. As with all nursery rhymes, there are many versions. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 19526.
Common modern versions include:
This rhyme was first recorded in A.E. Bray 's Traditions of Devonshire (Volume II, pp. 287 -- 288) in 1838 and was collected by James Orchard Halliwell in the mid-nineteenth century. The tradition of fortune telling by days of birth is much older. Thomas Nashe recalled stories told to "yong folks '' in Suffolk in the 1570s which included "tell (ing) what luck eurie one should have by the day of the weeke he was borne on ''. Nashe thus provides evidence for fortune telling rhymes of this type circulating in Suffolk in the 1570s.
There was considerable variation and debate about the exact attributes of each day and even over the days. Halliwell had ' Christmas Day ' instead of the Sabbath. Despite modern versions in which "Wednesday 's child is full of woe, '' an early incarnation of this rhyme appeared in a multi-part fictional story in a chapter appearing in Harper 's Weekly on September 17, 1887, in which "Friday 's child is full of woe '', perhaps reflecting traditional superstitions associated with bad luck on Friday -- as many Christians associated Friday with the Crucifixion. In addition to Wednesday 's and Friday 's children 's role reversal, the fates of Thursday 's and Saturday 's children were also exchanged and Sunday 's child is "happy and wise '' instead of "blithe and good ''.
The lyrics were set by John Rutter for choir a cappella in the collection Five Childhood Lyrics, first performed in 1973.
In 1982, songwriter Lindsey Buckingham quoted the first two lines in the song "Eyes Of The World '', on Fleetwood Mac 's Mirage album.
Vermillion Lies released "Wednesday 's Child '' off their 2008 album "What 's In The Box? ''. The song features a slightly modified version of the entire poem and is sung from the perspective of a woeful child born on a Wednesday.
Monday 's Child
Tuesday 's Child
Wednesday 's Child
Thursday 's Child
Friday 's Child
Saturday 's Child
Sunday 's Child
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when does serena find out that charlie is ivy | Ivy Dickens - wikipedia
Ivy Dickens (former alias: Charlotte "Charlie '' Rhodes) is a fictional character who exclusively appears in the Gossip Girl television adaptation, portrayed by Kaylee DeFer. She first appears in "The Kids Stay in the Picture, '' initially appearing as Serena 's estranged cousin, Charlie Rhodes, whom Serena takes under her wing and introduces to the Upper East Side. The fourth season finale "The Wrong Goodbye, '' reveals her true identity as Ivy Dickens, a struggling actress and con artist hired by Carol Rhodes to pose as her daughter in order to gain access to the real Charlie Rhodes ' trust fund.
DeFer was promoted to series regular for the fifth season in light of cast members Taylor Momsen and Jessica Szohr 's departure. She is the newest addition to the female cast of Gossip Girl villains, joining the likes of Georgina Sparks and Juliet Sharp.
Introduced in the fourth season, DeFer was set to join the cast as Carol 's daughter and Serena and Eric 's cousin, Charlie Rhodes. DeFer 's contract with the show also included the possibility of her becoming a series regular for the fifth season. She first auditioned for the role of Raina Thorpe. However, that role went to Tika Sumpter. DeFer was called back for the role of Charlie Rhodes, with the show 's writers stating that they were writing something new for her character. DeFer had also previously worked with Gossip Girl executive producers, Stephanie Savage and Joe Lazarov as well as Penn Badgley in The Mountain.
Executive producer Joshua Safran later commented on her introduction and the perception that the character brought to the show. "We always like it when we have new people who are witnessing this world for the first time... For Charlie, it 's like trial by fire. From reading Gossip Girl for the first time or going to your first event, all that stuff we get to do over again in a new way. ''
Charlie 's integration also made her a voice for the audience and critics of Gossip Girl. TV Fanatic warmly welcomed her character, stating that she "good - naturedly mocked the show and its often convoluted plot lines. '' DeFer would later reveal details behind her character 's involvement in the fourth season finale, "As far as I know I 'm just in the next five episodes until the season finale, and then I have no idea. But I really hope we get the opportunity to finish what Charlie started as I think it 's going to be a story - line that people will really want to follow. '' DeFer also states that Charlie is more relatable in comparison to other characters that have appeared in the show. "She is such a real person, not being from that life and what not... ''
The character is first introduced in the second half of season four as Charlotte "Charlie '' Rhodes, the estranged cousin of Serena and Eric van der Woodsen. Under the guise of Charlie Rhodes, she experiences the world of the Upper East Side, becoming particularly close with Dan Humphrey, though Dan puts a stop to the budding relationship because of his history with Serena. However, upon learning that Vanessa Abrams had intentionally sabotaged a meeting Charlie had organized, Dan allows himself to become closer to Charlie while severing his ties with Vanessa.
The two then begin an awkward relationship which concludes in the season 's penultimate episode when Charlie, dressed like Serena, demands that Dan call her by Serena 's name. It is later revealed that Charlie suffers from bi-polar disorder and she has stopped taking her medication. She leaves the Upper East Side and meets up with her mother, Carol. In the season 's final moments, "Charlie Rhodes '' is revealed to be Ivy Dickens, an aspiring actress that Carol hired to gain access to her daughter 's trust fund. In her final scene she puts a napkin with Georgina 's number in her bag which hints that the two will team up in the fifth season.
With regard to her involvement in the finale, DeFer discussed her character 's involvement. "Charlie has a great deal to do with the season finale... but what I am allowed to say is that Charlie does mix it up with every character. ''
In between the fourth and fifth seasons, after returning to Miami, Ivy moved to Los Angeles with her boyfriend, Max, in order to become an actress. Ivy later runs into Serena at a restaurant that she and her boyfriend both work at and Serena, under the impression that Ivy is Charlie, offers to have Ivy move in with her. Ivy declines, looking for several ways to get out of the situation, but Serena convinces her to move back to New York with her.
After she and Serena return to New York, Charlie overhears that Carol is returning to New York and that Lily refuses to deceive her and she tells Serena that she is leaving. Serena, however, has seen this coming and asks her to return her tickets to a fashion show. When Charlie arrives, she discovers that Serena actually had her take her place as a model. After a conversation with Blair, she decides to stay. Her excitement does not last as she runs into Carol with Lily and Rufus, who had no idea that she had returned. After a confrontation with Carol, Ivy states that the family that Carol hates has been kinder to her than her own and that everything in New York ' sparkles ' and she refuses to give that up and that the van der Woodsens would have a problem should it ever come out that Carol had hired her to impersonate Charlie in order to gain access to her trust fund. After this conversation, Carol tells Ivy that she is on her own and that Carol will not help Ivy any more should her real identity ever be discovered before returning to Miami.
Ivy later panics when she learns that she has left her cell phone at the fashion show, as she believes her true identity will be discovered. She is unaware, however, that her phone, along with several others, had been stolen by Nate Archibald and his shrewd boss Diana. After a conversation with Nate about the phone, she offers to help him find the owner in attempt to retrieve it. After she has accomplished this, however, Diana has discovered the connection between Ivy and Charlie and agrees to keep silent as long as Ivy works for her. Under Diana 's control, Ivy is forced to procure gossip for Diana 's use. She later finds the files that Bart Bass kept on Serena, Lily, Eric and himself, while Nate convinces her to leave them, she does not and in turn hands them over to Diana.
Ivy later competes to become a bridesmaid for Blair in order to get the scoop on her wedding for Diana, where her final task is to secure a kiss from Nate. They later attend the launch party of Diana 's revamped ' Spectator ' where they use each other to reach their own ends; Ivy to win Blair 's bridesmaid spot and Nate to make Diana jealous, unknown to the other. Diana later confronts Ivy and threatens to reveal her secret, while Ivy is adamant that she had no idea that she was the one Nate wanted to make jealous. Diana later reveals to Nate and Ivy that they had been deceiving each other, leaving them angry at one another.
Although Ivy has developed feelings for Nate, Diana has threatened her to stay away from him. This changes, however, when she finds out that Ivy 's ex-boyfriend, Max, is in town looking for her and sets up an elaborate plot that very nearly causes her secret to be revealed. Max finds Gossip Girl 's website, along with a picture of Ivy under ' Charlie Rhodes '. He tracks Ivy down at the Van der Woodsen loft and Ivy is backed into a corner where she tells Lily and Max that her mother made her change her name to Ivy in order to avoid being used for her money. While discussing this later, Ivy offers Max money to leave town and start his restaurant in Portland, Oregon. When he finds out that Ivy is actually impersonating Charlie Rhodes, he blackmails Ivy into giving him more money than she had originally offered before deciding to stay in town. When Carol and CeCe return to town however, Carol tries to help Ivy out of her trouble with Max by getting CeCe to unlock the rest of Charlie 's trust fund, which she does. After Ivy convinces Serena to drop her date with Max on Carol 's advice, Max shows up to the party and attempts to out Charlie as Ivy to the rest of the Rhodes / Van der Woodsen family. It is Carol, however, that convinces the family that Max is lying, later telling Ivy that if the family found out what has happened to the real Charlie Rhodes, Ivy would n't be the only one out. Carol tells Ivy that she may now leave New York and start a new life with the wealth she now possesses. Ivy, however, tells her that she does n't care about the wealth and luxury of being a part of the family, and that Carol can have the trust fund, since all she really wants is a family to call her own.
Max continues to threaten Ivy, taking her story to Nate, who has already been warned by the Van der Woodsens. When this fails, Max takes his story to Nate 's cousin Trip who is a congressman, on the eve of Charlie 's debut into the Upper East Side society. When Max shows up at her party, Ivy sends a blast to Gossip Girl about Blair and Chuck being there as well, sending the paparazzi into the party as well. When Blair and Chuck get into a life - threatening car accident after being tailed by the paparazzi, Ivy confesses to Rufus that she is a fraud, but before he can respond, Lily arrives with news that Blair is awake and responding, but Chuck is not. Overwhelmed with guilt, Ivy calls Carol and asks her to help her leave the Upper East Side for good.
A few weeks later, concerned by Charlie 's long absence, Lily hires a private investigator to find her, but the private investigator instead finds the real Charlie Rhodes, who is attending school at Juilliard. When Lily and the "real Charlie '' meet, they do not recognize each other and nor do they seem to be aware of each other 's existence.
Ivy returns briefly, looking for Lily. She finds Rufus instead, but is told where Lily can be found. Georgina discovers that Ivy is back and blackmails her into attending Nate 's party. While at Nate 's party, Ivy runs into the real Charlie Rhodes, who goes by the alias ' Lola ' and it is revealed that they took the same acting class where they grew up in Florida. Ivy attempts to leave again, but is spotted by Nate, still not knowing the truth about either of them. Nate makes a comment to Charlie about Ivy leading Charlie to get suspicious. When Ivy can finally leave, it is revealed that she has been visiting CeCe the whole time she was away.
CeCe 's condition worsens and Ivy is forced to take her to the hospital, where she has a run in with the Van der Woodsens and Carol. When Charlie arrives, Ivy and Carol finally tell the truth about Carol 's scheme and Ivy 's role in it. Ivy is turned away by the Van der Woodsens. Following this, Ivy turns to Georgina and the two later crash CeCe 's wake, during which, through the reading of CeCe 's will, Ivy is left everything under her legal name instead of her alias Charlie Rhodes, revealing that CeCe knew about the fact that Ivy is n't her real granddaughter. After this revelation, Ivy kicks Lily and Rufus out of the apartment as it had been paid for by CeCe and was now hers. Ivy throws a party to commemorate the Celia Rhodes Foundation and to gain acceptance in the Upper East Side. She believes she has found an ally in William van der Woodsen after he agrees to persuade people to attend the party in exchange for money, however, it is later revealed he is working with Lily to gather evidence against Ivy to take her to court and contest CeCe 's will.
After a courtroom hearing, Ivy loses all of her inheritance after Lily bribes CeCe 's nurse to testify against Ivy so she can re-claim Ivy 's share of the inheritance. Rufus takes pity on Ivy being without a home and family, and pays for her stay at a hotel. Lily finds this out later on and they fight, and Rufus returns to Brooklyn. Ivy later visits Lily and tries to seek her acceptance, confessing that she really wanted to be part of her family. Lily rejects her but offers her a cheque of 1 million dollars, asking her to leave and never return. Ivy leaves the apartment and tears up the cheque, revealing her confession was genuine. Later, Lily has Carol Rhodes arrested and charged with fraud in order to acquire her share of CeCe 's estate for herself. After William van der Woodsen takes pity on Charlie ' Lola ' Rhodes, he gives her Carol 's share of CeCe 's wealth so she can live on.
In the final episode of the season, Lola signs over her entire half of Cece 's estate to Ivy and asks her to do one favor in return: Take Lily down in revenge for Carol 's imprisonment and her manipulation of events. Ivy accepts, more than happy to help after her rejection.
Ivy looks in on Rufus after Lily annuls their marriage and the two soon become lovers. However, Ivy is actually sleeping with Lily 's ex-husband William and using Bart in a plot to take down Lily. When Rufus sees the two kissing (although not seeing William 's face), he breaks up with Ivy. Ivy helps Blair in her plans to try and take down Chuck 's father and when the man dies, she believes it 's finally time she and William come out in public as a couple. However, when she meets William, he is with Lily and claims to have never met Ivy before. Ivy tries to tell Lily of their relationship but Lily does n't believe her. After Lily leaves, William informs Ivy he was using her all along to break up Lily and Rufus so he could finally have Lily to himself. He coldly informs Ivy nobody wants her around and she should just take her money and leave. In the final scene (set five years later) Ivy has written a book about her experiences that 's being made into a movie.
The critical reception of the character had been positive until the start of Season 5. During the series fourth season, Charlie became the subject of praise with her successful integration into the Upper East Side. TV Fanatic praised and welcomed her presence on the show. In the episode The Princesses and the Frog, Steve Marsi praised her choice of confronting Vanessa alone, calling her "a natural '' at schemes and that "even an outsider can thoroughly outshine an outcast. '' TV Guide praised the ousting of Vanessa by Charlie, stating that "it did n't take her long to cross over to "the other side '' ".
Beginning in the fifth season, however, her character began to receive less than favorable reviews. NY Mag and The Baltimore Sun referred to the Charlie / Ivy plot as "ridiculous ''. The Wall Street Journal suggested that the storyline was repetitive, baring too much of a resemblance to the Juliet and Vanessa plot in the previous season. Sharon Tharp of Ology wrote that the Charlie / Ivy plot was predictable and earned "too much screentime ''.
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the maximum percentage of tribal population in india | Tribals in Madhya Pradesh - wikipedia
There are 46 recognized Scheduled Tribes in Madhya Pradesh, India, three of which have been identified as ' Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PTGs) (formerly known as ' Special Primitive Tribal Groups '). The population of Scheduled Tribals (ST) is 21.1 % of the state population (15.31 million out of 72.62 million), according to the 2011 census. Bounded by the Narmada River to the north and the Godavari River to the southeast, tribal peoples occupy the slopes of the region 's mountains.
The term "Scheduled Tribes '' refers to specific indigenous peoples whose status is acknowledged to by the Constitution of India. The term Adivasi also applies to indigenous peoples of this area.
The diversity in the tribes across the state comes from differences in heredity, lifestyle, cultural traditions, social structure, economic structure, religious beliefs and language and speech. Due to the different linguistic, cultural and geographical environments, the diverse tribal world of Madhya Pradesh has been largely cut off from the mainstream of development.
Madhya Pradesh holds 1st rank among all the States / Union Territories (UTs) in terms of Special Tribal population and 12th rank in respect of the proportion of ST population to total population.
The main tribal groups in Madhya Pradesh are Gond, Bhil, Baiga, Korku, Bhariya, Halba, Kaul, Mariya, and Sahariya.
Dhar, Jhabua and Mandla districts have a more than 50 percent tribal population. In Khargone, Chhindwara, Seoni, Sidhi and Shahdol districts, 30 to 50 percent of the population is of tribes. The largest population is that of the Bhil tribe.
According to the 2011 Census of India, Bhil is the most populous tribe with a total population of 4,618,068, constituting 37.7 per cent of the total ST population. Gond is the second largest tribe, with a population of 4,357,918 constituting 35.6 per cent. The next four populous tribes are: Kol, Korku, Sahariya and Baiga. These six tribes constitute 92.2 per cent of the total ST population of the State.
Pardhan, Saur and Bharia Bhumia have a population ranging from 105,692 to 2152, 472; together, they form 3.2 percent of state population. Four tribes, namely, Majhi, Khairwar, Mawasi and Panika have populations in the range of 47,806 to 81,335, and account for another 2.2 percent of the ST population.
The remaining thirty three tribes (out of the total of 46 tribes) along with the generic tribes constitute the residual 2.5 per cent of total ST population. Tribes having below 1000 population are twelve in number.
Bhils have the highest population in Jhabua district followed by Dhar, Barwani and Khargone districts.
Gonds have major concentrations in Dindori district, Chhindwara, Mandla, Betul, Seoni and Shahdol districts. Other four major groups Kol, Korku, Sahariya and Baiga have registered the highest population in Rewa, Khandwa, Shivpuri and Shahdol districts respectively.
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the majority of the electricity created in the state of georgia is derived from | Energy in Ireland - wikipedia
Energy in Ireland describes energy and electricity production, consumption and importing in the Republic of Ireland.
The Department of Communications, Climate Action and Environment is a department of the Government of Ireland that is responsible for the telecommunications and broadcasting sectors and regulates, protects and develops the natural resources of Ireland. The head of the department is the Minister for Communications, Climate Action and Environment who is assisted by one Minister of State.
The Department of Communications, Climate Action and Environment oversees the formulation and implementation of policies concerning Ireland 's coal, gas, peat, oil, electricity and renewable energy supply. The department strives to protect Ireland 's energy supply, generation, security, affordability and sustainability, and to ensure that Ireland complies with international energy and climate change policies.
Ireland is a net energy importer. Ireland 's import dependency decreased to 85 % in 2014 (from 89 % in 2013). The cost of all energy imports to Ireland was approximately € 5.7 billion, down from € 6.5 billion (revised) in 2013 due mainly to falling oil and, to a lesser extent, gas import prices.
Energy - related CO emissions decreased by 1.2 % in 2014 and now stand at 17 % above 1990 levels. When compared with 2005 energy - related CO emissions have fallen by 23 %.
60.1 % of Irish greenhouse gas emissions are caused by energy consumption.
Consumption of all fuels fell in 2014 with the exception of peat, renewables and non-renewable wastes.
2012R = CO2 calculation criteria changed, numbers updated
Final consumption of electricity in 2014 was 24 TWh. Electricity demand which peaked in 2008 has since returned to 2004 levels. Renewable electricity generation, consisting of wind, hydro, landfill gas, biomass and biogas, accounted for 22.7 % of gross electricity consumption.
The use of renewables in electricity generation in 2014 reduced CO emissions by 2.6 Mt. In 2014, wind generation accounted for 18.2 % of electricity generated and as such was the second largest source of electricity generation after natural gas.
The carbon intensity of electricity fell by 49 % since 1990 to a new low of 457 g CO2 / kWh in 2014.
Ireland is connected to the adjacent UK National Grid at an electricity interconnection level of 9 % (transmission capacity relative to production capacity). In 2016, Ireland and France agreed to advance the planning of the Celtic Interconnector, which if realized will provide the two countries with a 700 MW transmission capacity by 2025.
There have been four commercial natural gas discoveries since exploration began offshore Ireland in the early 1970s; namely the Kinsale Head, Ballycotton and Seven Heads producing gas fields off the coast of Cork and the Corrib gas field off the coast of Mayo.
The main natural gas / Fossil gas fields in Ireland are the Corrib gas project and Kinsale Head gas field. Neither field is a large contributor to Ireland 's supply requirements. In 2014 Ireland presently sources about 70 % of its electricity from fossil gas, with 95 % of the supply coming from overseas.
The Corrib Gas Field was discovered off the west coast of Ireland in 1996. Approximately 70 % of the size of the Kinsale Head field, it has an estimated producing life of just over 15 years. The Corrib Gas Field is operated by Shell Exploration & Production Ireland on behalf of the Corrib Partners (Shell Exploration & Production Ireland Limited, Statoil Exploration (Ireland) Limite and Vermilion Resources (Ireland) Limited).
Ireland uses peat, a fuel composed of decayed plants and other organic matter which is usually found in swampy lowlands known as bogs, as energy which is not common in Europe. Peat in Ireland is used for two main purposes -- to generate electricity and as a fuel for domestic heating. The raised bogs in Ireland are located mainly in the midlands.
Bord na Móna is a commercial semi-state company that was established under the Turf Development Act 1946. The company is responsible for the mechanised harvesting of peat in Ireland.
There are 3 peat fuelled power plants operational in Ireland -- these are Edenderry (operated by Bord na Móna), West Offaly and Lough Ree (both operated by ESB Power Generation). Bord na Móna has been co-firing peat with biomass at Edenderry for more than 5 years.
The National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS), under the remit of the Minister for Arts, Heritage & the Gaeltacht, deals with Special Areas of Conservation and Special Protection Areas under the Habitats Directive. Restrictions have been imposed on the harvesting of peat in certain areas under relevant designations.
Coal remains an important solid fuel that is still used in home heating by a certain portion of households. In order to improve air quality, certain areas are banned from burning so - called ' smoky coal. ' The regulations and policy relating to smoky fuel are dealt with by the Minister for Environment.
Ireland has a single coal - fired power plant at Moneypoint, Co. Clare which is operated by ESB Power Generation. At 915MW output, it is one of Ireland 's largest power stations. The station was originally built in the 1980s as part of a fuel diversity strategy and was significantly refurbished during the 2000s to make it fit for purpose in terms of environmental regulations and standards. Moneypoint is considered to have a useful life until at least 2025.
There have been no commercial discoveries of oil in Ireland to date.
One Irish oil explorer is Providence Resources, with CEO Tony O'Reilly, Junior and among the main owners Tony O'Reilly with a 40 % stake.
A Compressed air energy storage project in salt caverns near Larne has received € 15m of funding from EU. It is intended to provide a 250 - 330 MW buffer for 6 - 8 hours in the electricity system.
The Minister for Finance introduced, with effect from 1 May 2013, a solid fuel carbon tax (SFCT). The Revenue Commissioners have responsibility for administering the tax. It applies to coal and peat and is chargeable per tonne of product.
As of 2016, Ireland has around 3,000 MegaWatts of wind power, and 1 MW of solar power.
The Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine have responsibility for the Forest Service and forestry policy in Ireland. Coillte (a commercial state company operating in forestry, land based businesses, renewable energy and panel products) and Coford (the Council for Forest Research and Development) also fall under that Department 's remit.
Wood is used by households that rely on solid fuels for home heating. It is used in open fireplaces, stoves and biomass boilers.
In 2014, the Department produced a draft bioenergy strategy. In compiling the strategy, the Department worked closely with the Department of Agriculture in terms of the potential of sustainable wood biomass for energy purposes.
Ireland has set a national target to reduce energy demand by 20 % of the historic average energy use during the period 2000 -- 2005 through energy efficiency measures. The current suite of measures is described in detail in Ireland 's National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP) and annual reports. A binding EU target for renewable energy use is also established. 16 % of final energy use and 10 % of energy use in the transport sector must be derived from renewable sources by 2020. In order to achieve Ireland 's overall renewable energy target, national sub-targets have also been set in the end - use sectors of heat (12 %) and electricity (40 %). Ireland, along with Denmark and Luxembourg, has the most challenging target for greenhouse gas emissions reductions in the EU; Ireland 's target is to achieve 20 % lower than the 2005 greenhouse gas emissions levels by 2020. Achieving Ireland 's energy targets will help meet its binding EU greenhouse gas emissions target in heat and transport, but does not guarantee it. Emissions targets also include emissions from agriculture and waste disposal; such emissions currently account for 35 % of Ireland 's greenhouse gas emissions, with energy - related emissions accounting for the remainder.
Ireland is, on average, just over half way towards meeting its 2020 renewable energy target, with 8.6 % of gross final consumption derived from renewables in 2014.
The contribution of renewables to gross final consumption (GFC) was 8.6 % in 2014. This compares to a target of 16 % to be achieved by 2020. This avoided 3.3 million tonnes of CO2 emissions and € 346 million of fossil fuel imports.
The average emissions of new cars purchased in 2014 was 117.5 g CO / km, which is below the EU target for car manufacturers of 130 g CO2 / km to be reached by 2015.
Energy - related CO2 emissions in those sectors outside the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (which covers transport, heating in households, buildings and small industry) were 21 % below 2005 levels in 2014.
Since 2003 approximately 190 wind farms, connected across 24 counties, have been installed, equating to 2,375 MW of renewable electricity capacity. These wind farms have been instrumental in driving achievement of 22.7 % renewable penetration by end 2014.
Between 200 MW and 250 MW of additional wind capacity must be installed every year to 2020. Approximately 270 MW of wind capacity was installed in 2014. Average installed capacity over the last five years has been 177 MW.
The Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland was established as Ireland 's national energy authority under the Sustainable Energy Act 2002. SEAI 's mission is to play a leading role in transforming Ireland into a society based on sustainable energy structures, technologies and practices. To fulfil this mission SEAI aims to provide well - timed and informed advice to Government, and deliver a range of programmes efficiently and effectively, while engaging and motivating a wide range of stakeholders and showing continuing flexibility and innovation in all activities. SEAI 's actions will help advance Ireland to the vanguard of the global green technology movement, so that Ireland is recognised as a pioneer in the move to decarbonised energy systems.
While the production of electricity for the Irish national grid, by nuclear fission, is legally prohibited by Ireland under Electricity Regulation Act, 1999 (Section 18), the enforcement of this prohibition is naturally only possible within the borders of Ireland. Since 2012 and the completion of the electric grid interconnection between the island of Great Britain and Ireland, the Irish grid can now be partly powered by overseas nuclear fission stations.
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first phase of banking sector reforms in india | Narasimham Committee on banking sector reforms (1998) - wikipedia
From the 1991 India economic crisis to its status of third largest economy in the world by 2011, India has grown significantly in terms of economic development. So has its banking sector. During this period, recognising the evolving needs of the sector, the Finance Ministry of Government of India (GOI) set up various committees with the task of analysing India 's banking sector and recommending legislation and regulations to make it more effective, competitive and efficient. Two such expert Committees were set up under the chairmanship of M. Narasimham. They submitted their recommendations in the 1990s in reports widely known as the Narasimham Committee - I (1991) report and the Narasimham Committee - II (1998) Report. These recommendations not only helped unleash the potential of banking in India, they are also recognised as a factor towards minimising the impact of global financial crisis starting in 2007. Unlike the socialist - democratic era of the 1960s to 1980s, India is no longer insulated from the global economy and yet its banks survived the 2008 financial crisis relatively unscathed, a feat due in part to these Narasimham Committees.
During the decades of the 60s and the 70s, India nationalised most of its banks. This culminated with the balance of payments crisis of the Indian economy where India had to airlift gold to International Monetary Fund (IMF) to loan money to meet its financial obligations. This event called into question the previous banking policies of India and triggered the era of economic liberalisation in India in 1991. Given that rigidities and weaknesses had made serious inroads into the Indian banking system by the late 1980s, the Government of India (GOI), post-crisis, took several steps to remodel the country 's financial system. (Some claim that these reforms were influenced by the IMF and the World Bank as part of their loan conditionality to India in 1991). The banking sector, handling 80 % of the flow of money in the economy, needed serious reforms to make it internationally reputable, accelerate the pace of reforms and develop it into a constructive usher of an efficient, vibrant and competitive economy by adequately supporting the country 's financial needs. In the light of these requirements, two expert Committees were set up in 1990s under the chairmanship of M. Narasimham (an ex-RBI (Reserve Bank of India) governor) which are widely credited for spearheading the financial sector reform in India. The first Narasimhan Committee (Committee on the Financial System -- CFS) was appointed by Manmohan Singh as India 's Finance Minister on 14 August 1991, and the second one (Committee on Banking Sector Reforms) was appointed by P. Chidambaram as Finance Minister in December 1997. Subsequently, the first one widely came to be known as the Narasimham Committee - I (1991) and the second one as Narasimham - II Committee (1998). This article is about the recommendations of the Second Narasimham Committee, the Committee on Banking Sector Reforms.
The purpose of the Narasimham - I Committee was to study all aspects relating to the structure, organisation, functions and procedures of the financial systems and to recommend improvements in their efficiency and productivity. The Committee submitted its report to the Finance Minister in November 1991 which was tabled in Parliament on 17 December 1991.
The Narasimham - II Committee was tasked with the progress review of the implementation of the banking reforms since 1992 with the aim of further strengthening the financial institutions of India. It focussed on issues like size of banks and capital adequacy ratio among other things. M. Narasimham, Chairman, submitted the report of the Committee on Banking Sector Reforms (Committee - II) to the Finance Minister Yashwant Sinha in April 1998.
The 1998 report of the Committee to the GOI made the following major recommendations:
Greater autonomy was proposed for the public sector banks in order for them to function with equivalent professionalism as their international counterparts. For this the panel recommended that recruitment procedures, training and remuneration policies of public sector banks be brought in line with the best - market - practices of professional bank management. Secondly, the committee recommended GOI equity in nationalized banks be reduced to 33 % for increased autonomy. It also recommended the RBI relinquish its seats on the board of directors of these banks. The committee further added that given that the government nominees to the board of banks are often members of parliament, politicians, bureaucrats, etc., they often interfere in the day - to - day operations of the bank in the form of the behest - lending. As such the committee recommended a review of functions of banks boards with a view to make them responsible for enhancing shareholder value through formulation of corporate strategy and reduction of the government equity.
To implement this, criteria for autonomous status was identified by March 1999 (among other implementation measures) and 17 banks were considered eligible for autonomy. But some recommendations like reduction in Government 's equity to 33 %, the issue of greater professionalism and independence of the board of directors of public sector banks is still awaiting Government follow - through and implementation.
First, the committee recommended that the RBI withdraw from the 91 - day treasury bills market and that interbank call money and term money markets be restricted to banks and primary dealers. Second, the Committee proposed a segregation of the roles of RBI as a regulator of banks and owner of bank. It observed that "The Reserve Bank as a regulator of the monetary system should not be the owner of a bank in view of a possible conflict of interest ''. As such, it highlighted that RBI 's role of effective supervision was not adequate and wanted it to divest its holdings in banks and financial institutions.
Pursuant to the recommendations, the RBI introduced a Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF) operated through repo and reverse repos to set a corridor for money market interest rates. To begin with, in April 1999, an Interim Liquidity Adjustment Facility (ILAF) was introduced pending further upgradation in technology and legal / procedural changes to facilitate electronic transfer. As for the second recommendation, the RBI decided to transfer its respective shareholdings of public banks like State Bank of India (SBI), National Housing Bank (NHB) and National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) to GOI. Subsequently, in 2007 -- 08, GOI decided to acquire entire stake of RBI in SBI, NHB and NABARD. Of these, the terms of sale for SBI were finalised in 2007 -- 08 itself.
The Committee recommended for merger of large Indian banks to make them strong enough for supporting international trade. It recommended a three tier banking structure in India through establishment of three large banks with international presence, eight to ten national banks and a large number of regional and local banks. This proposal had been severely criticized by the RBI employees union. The Committee recommended the use of mergers to build the size and strength of operations for each bank. However, it cautioned that large banks should merge only with banks of equivalent size and not with weaker banks, which should be closed down if unable to revitalise themselves. Given the large percentage of non-performing assets for weaker banks, some as high as 20 % of their total assets, the concept of "narrow banking '' was proposed to assist in their rehabilitation.
There were a string of mergers in banks of India during the late 90s and early 2000s, encouraged strongly by the Government of India GOI in line with the Committee 's recommendations. However, the recommended degree of consolidation is still awaiting sufficient government impetus.
Non-performing assets had been the single largest cause of irritation of the banking sector of India. Earlier the Narasimham Committee - I had broadly concluded that the main reason for the reduced profitability of the commercial banks in India was the priority sector lending. The committee had highlighted that ' priority sector lending ' was leading to the buildup of non-performing assets of the banks and thus it recommended it to be phased out. Subsequently, the Narasimham Committee - II also highlighted the need for ' zero ' non-performing assets for all Indian banks with International presence. The 1998 report further blamed poor credit decisions, behest - lending and cyclical economic factors among other reasons for the buildup of the non-performing assets of these banks to uncomfortably high levels. The Committee recommended creation of Asset Reconstruction Funds or Asset Reconstruction Companies to take over the bad debts of banks, allowing them to start on a clean - slate. The option of recapitalisation through budgetary provisions was ruled out. Overall the committee wanted a proper system to identify and classify NPAs, NPAs to be brought down to 3 % by 2002 and for an independent loan review meachnism for improved management of loan portfolios. The committee 's recommendations let to introduction of a new legislation which was subsequently implemented as the Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act, 2002 and came into force with effect from 21 June 2002.
To improve the inherent strength of the Indian banking system the committee recommended that the Government should raise the prescribed capital adequacy norms. This would also improve their risk taking ability. The committee targeted raising the capital adequacy ratio to 9 % by 2000 and 10 % by 2002 and have penal provisions for banks that fail to meet these requirements. For asset classification, the Committee recommended a mandatory 1 % in case of standard assets and for the accrual of interest income to be done every 90 days instead of 180 days.
To implement these recommendations, the RBI in Oct 1998, initiated the second phase of financial sector reforms by raising the banks ' capital adequacy ratio by 1 % and tightening the prudential norms for provisioning and asset classification in a phased manner on the lines of the Narasimham Committee - II report. The RBI targeted to bring the capital adequacy ratio to 9 % by March 2001. The mid-term Review of the Monetary and Credit Policy of RBI announced another series of reforms, in line with the recommendations with the Committee, in October 1999.
The committee suggested that the foreign banks seeking to set up business in India should have a minimum start - up capital of $25 million as against the existing requirement of $10 million. It said that foreign banks can be allowed to set up subsidiaries and joint ventures that should be treated on a par with private banks.
In 1998, RBI Governor Bimal Jalan informed the banks that the RBI had a three to four - year perspective on the implementation of the Committee 's recommendations. Based on the other recommendations of the committee, the concept of a universal bank was discussed by the RBI and finally ICICI bank became the first universal bank of India. The RBI published an "Actions Taken on the Recommendations '' report on 31 October 2001 on its own website. Most of the recommendations of the Committee have been acted upon (as discussed above) although some major recommendations are still awaiting action from the Government of India.
There were protests by employee unions of banks in India against the report. The Union of RBI employees made a strong protest against the Narasimham II Report. There were other plans by the United Forum of Bank Unions (UFBU), representing about 1.3 million bank employees in India, to meet in Delhi and to work out a plan of action in the wake of the Narasimham Committee report on banking reforms. The committee was also criticised in some quarters as "anti-poor ''. According to some, the committees failed to recommend measures for faster alleviation of poverty in India by generating new employment. This caused some suffering to small borrowers (both individuals and businesses in tiny, micro and small sectors).
Initially, the recommendations were well received in all quarters, including the Planning Commission of India leading to successful implementation of most of its recommendations. Then it turned out that during the 2008 economic crisis of major economies worldwide, performance of Indian banking sector was far better than their international counterparts. This was also credited to the successful implementation of the recommendations of the Narasimham Committee - II with particular reference to the capital adequacy norms and the recapitalisation of the public sector banks. The impact of the two committees has been so significant that elite politicians and financial sectors professionals have been discussing these reports for more than a decade since their first submission applauding their positive contribution
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when is the new movie peter rabbit coming out | Peter Rabbit (film) - wikipedia
Peter Rabbit is a 2018 live - action / computer - animated comedy film directed by Will Gluck and written by Rob Lieber and Gluck, based on the stories of Peter Rabbit created by Beatrix Potter. The film stars the voice of James Corden as the title character, with Rose Byrne, Domhnall Gleeson, Sam Neill, Daisy Ridley, Elizabeth Debicki, and Margot Robbie also starring. The film was released on February 9, 2018, received mixed reviews from critics and has grossed over $341 million worldwide, making it the tenth highest - grossing film of 2018. A sequel is set for a February 7, 2020 release.
In England 's Lake District Peter Rabbit, his cousin Benjamin Bunny, and Peter 's triplet sisters (who can be distinguished by the colour of jackets they each wear) Flopsy (red), Mopsy (yellow), and Cottontail (teal), spend most of their days picking on Mr. Joe McGregor and stealing vegetables from his garden. They are friends with a local woman named Bea who spends her time painting pictures of the rabbits as well as the surrounding nature. Bea takes on a mother - like relationship with the rabbits due to the death of their mother and father. One day Peter is forced to leave his jacket in McGregor 's garden and goes back to retrieve it. McGregor spots and catches him, but suddenly dies of a heart attack, due to decades of unhealthy eating habits. Enthralled, Peter invites all of the woodland critters, and then takes over McGregor 's manor.
Meanwhile in London, McGregor 's grandnephew Thomas McGregor, an uptight, controlling workaholic, works at the toy department of Harrods department store where he waits for a promotion to associate general manager. He indifferently accepts the news about his great - uncle 's death, someone he was completely unaware of, but is infuriated over losing the promotion to a lazy nephew of the managing director and is fired for losing his temper. His now former manager encourages him to to get a hobby and spend some time in the country.
When Thomas learns that his great - uncle 's manor is valuable and that he 's inherited it, he decides to appraise and prepare it for resale in order to start his own toy store to rival Harrods. He kicks out Peter and his friends and begins to upgrade the security of the garden wall and gates, despite Bea 's objections. When Peter and Benjamin sneak back into the garden, Thomas catches the latter and attempts to drown Benjamin. His cousins rescue him; Thomas instead accidentally drops the binoculars that Bea had given him earlier, forcing him into the river to retrieve it.
Thomas and Peter start a war with each other by setting up traps and other offensive nuisances. Thomas and Bea end up falling in love with each other, which causes Peter to become jealous and wanting to separate them more. Thomas framed Peter for ruining Bea 's paintings and she sent Peter outside along with the other rabbits. Soon, Bea turns on Thomas when his violent tendencies begin to show. This all culminates when Thomas throws dynamite at Peter 's burrow, and uses it to attack Peter in the garden, before telling him that his antics caused him to become aggressive. When Peter detonates the dynamite to prove to Bea that Thomas was using it, he ends up knocking down the tree on top of the burrow, which crushes Bea 's art studio. Thinking that Thomas was responsible for the detonation, Bea breaks up with him, and he goes back to London to work at Harrods again.
Peter feels bad for what he has done, and upon learning that Bea intends to leave the neighborhood, he and Benjamin head to London to find Thomas at Harrods. Revealing they can talk, Peter apologizes for his part of the conflict and convinces Thomas to follow his heart. They rush back to the country where Peter reveals that he had activated the detonator, and he and Thomas apologize to Bea for their fighting. Thomas discovers that he can not go home because a snobbish couple, whom Thomas had an ugly encounter with prior, had just bought the house. Peter and his friends use their tricks to force the couple out of the house, allowing Thomas to move back in.
In a mid-credits scene, Thomas sets up his own toy shop in the village, and Bea begins to write and illustrate books based on Peter and his friends.
The Singing Sparrows were voiced by Jessica Freedman, Shana Halligan, Katharine Hoye, Chris Mann, Chad Reisser, and Fletcher Sheridan
The film was first revealed in April 2015 through email leaks as a result of the Sony Pictures hack. The official announcement of the film came that December.
On August 4, 2016, it was reported that Will Gluck would be directing the live - action / computer - animated film from a script by Gluck and Rob Lieber, with James Corden cast to voice Peter Rabbit and Rose Byrne to play one of the live - action roles. The report also said Gluck would produce the film along with Zareh Nalbandian of Animal Logic, which will be providing the visual effects and animation for the film.
On September 26, 2016, Daisy Ridley and Elizabeth Debicki had joined the cast, with the live action production scheduled to commence in Sydney, Australia in January 2017. On October 18, Domhnall Gleeson was cast as Thomas McGregor, the descendent of the original Mr. McGregor, and on October 24, Margot Robbie joined the cast, expected to voice a bunny. On November 7, Sia was cast to join the film as Mrs Tiggy - Winkle.
On December 18, 2016, a first image of the title character, along with the movie 's logo, had been revealed. Production began in December 2016. Live action scenes were filmed at Centennial Park in Sydney. In March 2017, filming took place at Central railway station, Sydney, which was depicted as London Paddington station.
In April 2017, a film crew were seen in Ambleside and Windermere in the Lake District. A local toy shop on Compston Road, Ambleside, was adapted to be Mr McGregor 's.
Peter Rabbit was originally scheduled to be released on March 23, 2018, but it was moved up to February 9, 2018.
The first trailer received negative feedback from critics and fans of the character, many of whom labelled the film as being too modern and insulting to Beatrix Potter 's works. Collider slammed the trailer as "garbage '' and a "low brow ' comedy ' cringe fest. ''
Stuart Heritage from The Guardian stated that "the Peter Rabbit film looks like the result of some blisteringly inept manhandling (...) there 's something genuinely harrowing about the sight of Peter Rabbit -- gentle, Edwardian Peter Rabbit -- thoughtlessly injuring some birds, or grabbing a pile of lettuce leaves and making it rain like a banker in a strip club, or literally twerking '' and argued "there is no way on Earth that (Beatrix Potter would) have ever given the green light to a slow motion car crash like this. ''
Metro writer James Baldock found that the trailer was "so gut wrenchingly bad '' and that "if the movie lives up to its two minute preview -- (it) is set to be the greatest abomination to grace the big screen since The Emoji Movie. '' He finished by writing "Listen carefully, and you can just about hear the sound of Beatrix Potter, turning furiously in her grave. '' On November 7, a new trailer for the United Kingdom was released.
The film was released on digital platforms on April 20, 2018. A Blu - ray and DVD and 4K followed on May 1, 2018.
As of May 28, 2018, Peter Rabbit has grossed $341.6 million worldwide, $115.1 million of that in the United States and Canada, against a production budget of $50 million.
In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside Fifty Shades Freed and The 15: 17 to Paris, and was projected to gross around $16 million from 3,725 theaters in its opening weekend, with some estimates as high as $25 million. It ended up making $25 million over the weekend, finishing second at the box office behind Fifty Shades ($38.8 million).
In the UK, Peter Rabbit became the biggest family film of 2018, overtaking Pixar 's Coco with $56.3 million. Totals from other markets include China ($26.5 million), Australia ($20.2 million), France ($12.3 million) and Germany ($12.1 million).
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 62 % based on 125 reviews and an average rating of 5.8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Peter Rabbit updates Beatrix Potter 's classic characters with colorfully agreeable results that should entertain younger viewers while admittedly risking the wrath of purists. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 51 out of 100 based on 26 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A − '' on an A+ to F scale.
In the first week after the film 's release, groups in multiple countries criticized it for "allergy bullying '' and called for an apology from Sony. The accusations focused on a scene where Thomas McGregor -- whose character has a known severe allergy to blackberries -- is pelted with the berries until one enters his mouth, causing him to enter anaphylactic shock and grab for his Epipen. In response, Sony published a statement saying "We sincerely regret not being more aware and sensitive to this issue, and we truly apologise ''.
Sony Pictures Animation is developing a sequel set to be released on February 7, 2020, with Gluck returning to write and direct the film.
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who sings surrey with the fringe on top | The Surrey with the Fringe on Top - Wikipedia
"The Surrey with the Fringe on Top '' is a show tune from the 1943 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical Oklahoma! It is the second song of the show, following the opening number, "Oh What a Beautiful Mornin '. ''
When Curly asks Laurey to go to the box social with him, he uses this song to persuade her by offering the prospect of taking her in a fancy rental carriage. In the movie version, the surrey (a four - wheel covered carriage, in this case pulled by two horses) is initially seen in a brief fantasy sequence, but appears for real at the end when Curly and Laurey ride off in it to their honeymoon.
Versions of the song were recorded by Bing Crosby with Helen O'Connell, Nat King Cole, Mel Tormé, Ahmad Jamal, Ellis Marsalis, Tori Amos, Marlene Dietrich, Joshua Redman, Miles Davis, Julian "Cannonball '' Adderley, Janis Siegel, Nancy LaMott, Sonny Rollins, Betty Carter, Blossom Dearie and McCoy Tyner, Wes Montgomery, Wynton Kelly, Johnny Smith, Peggy Lee, Julie Hamelin, Beverly Kenney, Mary Stallings, Stacey Kent, Vikki Carr, Ray Brown, Barney Kessel, Joe Brown, The Hi - Lo 's and the J.J. Johnson, Kai Winding Trombone Octet, Andy Williams, and King Crimson (as part of their track "Moonchild '').
In the film When Harry Met Sally..., Harry and Sally sing a karaoke version of "The Surrey with the Fringe on Top ''. In front of Ira.
Laura Love borrows a few of Hammerstein 's lyrics for her song "I Am Wondering ''.
In the West Wing episode 100,000 Airplanes, the lyrics of part of the song are mentioned by two of the main characters. As well, during the same episode, the song, as a jazz arrangement, is played on piano during a cocktail party.
A 1977 comedy routine by Andy Kaufman includes a joke with the punchline "furry with the fringe on top '' in a play - on - words reference to the song.
In Twin Peaks Episode 15, Leland Palmer sings the lyrics of "The Surrey with the Fringe on Top '' while wildly driving his convertible.
In ER season 6, episode 13, "Be Still My Heart '', Dr. Mark Greene listens to the song on the radio and sings the lyrics while shaving in front of a mirror.
Stan Ridgway recorded this song as an outtake, during the sessions for his album of standards, "The Way I Feel Today ''.
An arrangement of the song is used as a segment of the area music for Main Street U.S.A in the Magic Kingdom park of Walt Disney World in Orlando, Florida.
In the "Ducklahoma! '' segment of the Tiny Toon Adventures episode "Buster 's Directorial Debut '', there is a parody of this song called "Anvil With the Tablecloth ''.
In 1979, Frank Sinatra did a rehearsal of that song with Vinnie Falcone and his orchestra at Reprise Records.
The Kinks song Oklahoma U.S.A. from their 1971 album Muswell Hillbillies describes a downtrodden British worker who dreams of "walking on the surrey with the fringe on top '' and an idyllic life in the United States.
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when did they start putting strips in money | United States twenty - dollar bill - wikipedia
The United States twenty - dollar bill ($20) is a denomination of U.S. currency. The seventh U.S. President (1829 -- 1837), Andrew Jackson, has been featured on the front side of the bill since 1928; the White House is featured on the reverse.
As of December 2013, the average circulation life of a $20 bill is 7.9 years before it is replaced due to wear. About 11 % of all notes printed in 2009 were $20 bills. Twenty - dollar bills are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in violet straps.
Andrew Jackson first appeared on the $20 bill in 1928. Although 1928 coincides with the 100th anniversary of Jackson 's election as president, it is not clear why the portrait on the bill was switched from Grover Cleveland to Jackson. (Cleveland 's portrait was moved to the new $1000 bill the same year). According to the U.S. Treasury, "Treasury Department records do not reveal the reason that portraits of these particular statesmen were chosen in preference to those of other persons of equal importance and prominence. ''
The placement of Jackson on the $20 bill may be a historical irony; as president, he vehemently opposed both the National Bank and paper money and made the goal of his administration the destruction of the National Bank. In his farewell address to the nation, he cautioned the public about paper money.
In a campaign called "Women on 20s '', selected voters were asked to choose three of 15 female candidates to have a portrait on the $20 bill. The goal was to have a woman on the $20 bill by 2020, the centennial of the 19th Amendment which gave women the right to vote. Among the candidates on the petition were Harriet Tubman, Eleanor Roosevelt, Rosa Parks, and Wilma Mankiller, the first female chief of the Cherokee Nation.
On May 12, 2015, Tubman was announced as the winning candidate of that "grassroots '' poll with more than 600,000 people surveyed and more than 118,000 choosing Tubman, followed by Roosevelt, Parks and Mankiller.
On June 17, 2015, then - Treasury Secretary Jack Lew announced that a woman 's portrait would be featured on a redesigned $10 bill by 2020, replacing Alexander Hamilton. However, that decision was reversed, at least in part due to Hamilton 's surging popularity following the hit Broadway musical Hamilton.
On April 20, 2016, Lew officially announced that Alexander Hamilton would remain on the $10 bill, while Andrew Jackson would be replaced by Tubman on the front of the $20 bill, with Jackson appearing on the reverse. Lew simultaneously announced that the five - and ten - dollar bills would also be redesigned in the coming years and put into production in the next decade.
On August 31, 2017, Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin said that he would not commit to putting Tubman on the twenty - dollar bill, explaining "People have been on the bills for a long period of time. This is something we 'll consider; right now we have a lot more important issues to focus on. ''
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who sings in walk it like i talk it | Walk It Talk It - wikipedia
"Walk It Talk It '' is a song by American hip hop trio Migos with guest vocals from Canadian rapper Drake. It was included on the trio 's third studio album, Culture II (2018). After the album 's release, it debuted at number 18 and later peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 after its release as the third single. The song was produced by frequent collaborators OG Parker and Deko.
The song is the sixth track on Migos ' third studio album Culture II, which was released in January 2018. It has become one of the more popular songs on the album, being the third - highest charting of all the songs, following "Stir Fry '', which peaked at number eight on the Hot 100, and "MotorSport '', which reached number six. American pop - star Britney Spears, used elements of the song in a remix of her hit - single I 'm A Slave 4 U during her Piece of Me Tour.
The music video, directed by Daps and Quavo, debuted on Migos ' official Vevo channel on March 18, 2018. The video features guest appearances from Jamie Foxx and labelmate Lil Yachty. In the video, the trio and Drake perform on a fictional dance - themed show called Culture Ride (inspired by Soul Train), with Jamie Foxx playing fictional host Ron Delirious (based on the late Soul Train host Don Cornelius). In an interview conducted by Genius, Daps said that the whole video was shot on Beta Tape, which is why the highest quality is 480p on YouTube.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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tom petty don't come around here wiki | Do n't Come around Here No More - wikipedia
"Do n't Come Around Here No More '' is a song written by Tom Petty of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers and David A. Stewart of Eurythmics. It was released in February 1985 as the lead single from the band 's Southern Accents album.
The original inspiration was a romantic encounter that producer David A. Stewart of Eurythmics had with Stevie Nicks of Fleetwood Mac. On The Howard Stern Show, Stewart explained that the title 's phrase was actually uttered by Nicks. She had broken up with Eagles guitarist Joe Walsh the night before, and invited Stewart to her place for a party after an early Eurythmics show in Los Angeles. Stewart did not know who she was at the time, but went anyway. When the partygoers all disappeared to a bathroom for a couple of hours to snort cocaine, he decided to go upstairs to bed. He woke up at 5am to find Nicks in his room trying on Victorian clothing and described the entire scenario as very much reminiscent of Alice in Wonderland. Later that morning, she told Walsh, "Do n't come around here no more. ''
The music video is themed around Alice in Wonderland and was directed by Jeff Stein. Dave Stewart appears as the caterpillar at the beginning, sitting on a mushroom with a hookah water pipe while playing a sitar. Petty appears in the video dressed as The Mad Hatter, and actress Louise "Wish '' Foley played Alice. At the end of the video, Alice, who has been turned into a cake, is eaten by Petty and even friends of her own, and then a final shot of her being swallowed whole by Petty, after which he gives a small burp and pats his mouth dry.
Susanna of Susanna and the Magical Orchestra gives the song a low - key, piano - based cover on her 2008 album Flower of Evil. Indie band Vampire Weekend covers the song on a steady basis during live shows. British indie pop singer - songwriter Diana Vickers covered the song as a promotional track ahead of the release of her second album. The song was parodied by Bob Rivers.
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is shea butter the same as coconut oil | Shea butter - wikipedia
Shea butter (/ ʃiː /, / ˈʃiːə /, or / ʃeɪ /) is a fat extracted from the nut of the African shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa). It is usually yellow in color when raw, with more processed versions being ivory or white in color. Shea butter is a triglyceride (fat) derived mainly from stearic acid and oleic acid. It is widely used in cosmetics as a moisturizer, salve or lotion. Shea butter is edible and is used in food preparation in some African countries. Occasionally, shea butter is mixed with other oils as a substitute for cocoa butter, although the taste is noticeably different.
The English word "shea '' comes from s'í, the tree 's name in Bambara. It is known by many local names, e.g., Kpakahili in Dagbani, taama in Waala, kaɗe or kaɗanya in Hausa, karité in the Wolof language of Senegal, ori in some parts of West Africa, and many others.
The common name is shíyiri or shísu (lit. "shea tree '') in the Bambara language of Mali. This is the origin of the English word, the primary pronunciation of which is / ʃiː / (rhyming with "tea ''), although the pronunciation / ʃeɪ / (rhyming with "day '') is common and is listed second in major dictionaries. The tree is called ghariti in the Wolof language of Senegal, which is the origin of the French name of the tree and the butter, karité.
The shea tree grows naturally in the wild in the dry savannah belt of West Africa from Senegal in the west to Sudan in the east, and onto the foothills of the Ethiopian highlands. It occurs in 21 countries across the African continent, namely Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Sudan, Togo, Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya and Guinea.
A testa found at the site of the medieval village of Saouga is evidence of shea butter production by the 14th century.
Shea butter extract is a complex fat that in addition to many nonsaponifiable components (substances that can not be fully converted into soap by treatment with alkali) contains the following fatty acids: oleic acid (40 -- 60 %), stearic acid (20 -- 50 %), linoleic acid (3 -- 11 %), palmitic acid (2 -- 9 %), linolenic acid (< 1 %) and arachidic acid (< 1 %).
Shea butter melts at body temperature. Proponents of its use for skin care maintain that it absorbs rapidly into the skin, acts as a "refatting '' agent, and has good water - binding properties.
Shea butter is mainly used in the cosmetics industry for skin - and hair - related products (lip gloss, skin moisturizer creams and emulsions, and hair conditioners for dry and brittle hair). It is also used by soap makers, typically in small amounts (5 -- 7 % of the oils in the recipe), because it has plenty of unsaponifiables, and higher amounts result in softer soaps that have less cleaning abilities. Some artisan soap makers use shea butter in amounts to 25 % -- with the European Union regulating the maximum use around 28 %, but it is rarely the case in commercially produced soap due to its high cost compared to oils like palm oil or pomace (olive oil). It is an excellent emollient for dry skin. No evidence shows it is a cure, but it alleviates the pain associated with tightness and itching.
In some African countries such as Benin, shea butter is used for cooking oil, as a waterproofing wax, for hairdressing, for candle - making, and as an ingredient in medicinal ointments. It is used by makers of traditional African percussion instruments to increase the durability of wood (such as carved djembe shells), dried calabash gourds, and leather tuning straps.
Shea butter can be an ingredient of organic broth.
In the UK and other countries, it is incorporated into assorted tissue products, such as toilet paper.
Shea butter is sometimes used as a base for medicinal ointments. Some of the isolated chemical constituents are reported to have anti-inflammatory, emollient, and humectant properties. Shea butter has been used as a sunblocking lotion and some of its components "have limited capacity to absorb ultraviolet radiation ''.
In Ghana, shea butter locally known as Kpakahili (Eng. trans. raw cream) in Dagbani, nkuto (Akan) or nku (Ga), is either used as a food product or applied as lotion to protect the skin during the dry Harmattan season. The shea nut tree itself is called tááŋà (pl. táánsì) and the fruit is called táánì (pl. támá). The current northern regional capital Tamale, derives it names from a combination of the words "tama '' and "yili '', meaning "the town of shea fruits ''.
In Nigeria, shea butter is used for the management of sinusitis and relief of nasal congestion. It is massaged into joints and other parts of the body where pain occurs.
The United States Agency for International Development and other companies have suggested a classification system for shea butter separating it into five grades:
Commercial grades are A, B, and C. The color of raw (grade A) butter ranges from cream (like whipped butter) to grayish yellow. It has a nutty aroma which is removed in the other grades. Grade C is pure white. While the level of vitamin content can be affected by refining, up to 95 % of vitamin content can be removed from refined grades (i.e., grade C) of shea butter while reducing contamination levels to undetectable levels.
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keyes it was the walk of a dead man | Double Indemnity (film) - wikipedia
Double Indemnity is a 1944 film noir directed by Billy Wilder, co-written by Wilder and Raymond Chandler, and produced by Buddy DeSylva and Joseph Sistrom. The screenplay was based on James M. Cain 's 1943 novella of the same name, which originally appeared as an eight - part serial in Liberty magazine.
The film stars Fred MacMurray as an insurance salesman, Barbara Stanwyck as a provocative housewife who wishes her husband were dead, and Edward G. Robinson as a claims adjuster whose job is to find phony claims. The term "double indemnity '' refers to a clause in certain life insurance policies that doubles the payout in rare cases when death is caused accidentally, such as while riding a railway.
Praised by many critics when first released, Double Indemnity was nominated for seven Academy Awards but did not win any. Widely regarded as a classic, it is often cited as a paradigmatic film noir and as having set the standard for the films that followed in that genre.
Deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '' by the U.S. Library of Congress in 1992, Double Indemnity was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. In 1998, it was ranked # 38 on the American Film Institute 's list of the 100 best American films of all time, and in 2007 it placed 29th on their 10th Anniversary list.
Walter Neff (Fred MacMurray), a successful insurance salesman, returns to his office building in downtown Los Angeles late one night. Visibly in pain and sporting a gunshot wound on his shoulder, he begins dictating a confession into a Dictaphone for his friend and colleague, Barton Keyes (Edward G. Robinson), a brilliant claims adjuster. The story, told primarily in flashback, ensues.
Neff first meets the alluring Phyllis Dietrichson (Barbara Stanwyck) during a routine house call to remind her husband (Tom Powers) that his automobile insurance policy is up for renewal. They flirt, until Phyllis asks how she could take out an accident policy on her husband 's life without his knowledge. Neff deduces she is contemplating murder, and makes it clear he wants no part of it. However, he can not get her out of his mind, and when Phyllis shows up at his apartment, he can not resist her any longer. Neff knows all the tricks of his trade and devises a plan to make the murder of her husband appear to be an accidental fall from a train that will trigger the "double indemnity '' clause and pay out twice the policy 's face value.
After Dietrichson breaks his leg, Phyllis drives him to the train station for his trip to Palo Alto for a college reunion. Neff is hiding in the backseat and kills Dietrichson when Phyllis turns onto a deserted side street. Then, Neff boards the train posing as Dietrichson and using his crutches. He makes his way to the last car, the observation car, and steps outside to the open platform to supposedly smoke a cigarette. A complication ensues when he meets a passenger named Jackson (Porter Hall) there, but he manages to get the man to leave. Neff then throws the crutches on the railway tracks, jumps off at a prearranged meeting spot with Phyllis, and drags Dietrichson 's body onto the tracks.
Mr. Norton (Richard Gaines), the company 's chief, believes the death was suicide, but Keyes scoffs at the idea, quoting statistics indicating the improbability of suicide by jumping off a slow - moving train, to Neff 's hidden delight. Keyes does not suspect foul play at first, but his instincts, to which he refers as the "little man '', pointing to his stomach, starts nagging. He wonders why Dietrichson did not file a claim for his broken leg, and deduces he did not know about the policy. Keyes tells Neff of his theory outside Neff 's apartment, while Phyllis hides behind the door. Keyes soon concludes that Phyllis and some unknown accomplice murdered Dietrichson for the insurance money, but needs more proof.
Keyes, however, is not Neff 's only worry. The victim 's daughter, Lola (Jean Heather), comes to him, convinced that stepmother Phyllis is behind her father 's death. Lola 's mother also died under suspicious circumstances, when Phyllis was her nurse. Neff begins seeing Lola, at first to keep her from going to the police with her suspicions and then because he is plagued by guilt and a sense of responsibility for her.
Keyes brings Jackson to Los Angeles, suspecting that the man aboard the train had not been Dietrichson, but rather had been Phyllis ' accomplice in Dietrichson 's murder. After examining photographs of Dietrichson, Jackson is sure that the man he met was not that old, but at least ten years younger. Now certain that he can prove murder, Keyes is eager to reject the claim and force Phyllis to sue. Neff warns Phyllis not to pursue the insurance claim in court and admits that he has been talking to Lola about her past. Phyllis, however, insists on filing suit to pursue the claim despite the risk to both her and Neff. Lola eventually tells Neff that she has discovered that her boyfriend, the hotheaded Nino Zachetti (Byron Barr), has been seeing Phyllis behind her (and Neff 's) back.
When Neff learns that Keyes suspects Nino of being Phyllis ' accomplice, Neff sees a way out of his predicament. He arranges to meet Phyllis at her house. He informs her that he knows about her involvement with Nino, and guesses that she is planning to have Nino kill him. He tells her that he intends to kill her and put the blame on Nino. She is prepared, however, and shoots him in the shoulder. Seriously wounded but still standing, he slowly comes closer and dares her to shoot again. She does not, and he takes the gun from her. She says she never loved him "until a minute ago, when I could n't fire that second shot. '' Neff does not believe a word she says, and as she hugs him tightly, Neff says, "Goodbye, baby, '' and shoots twice, killing her.
Outside, Neff waits for Nino to arrive (something Neff had orchestrated). Neff advises him not to enter the house and instead go to Lola, the woman who loves him. Nino is reluctantly convinced and leaves as told. Neff drives to his office and starts speaking into his Dictaphone, as seen at the film 's opening. Keyes arrives unnoticed and hears enough to know the truth. Keyes sadly tells him, "Walter, you 're all washed up. '' Neff tells Keyes he is going to Mexico rather than face the gas chamber, but sags to the floor from his injury and blood loss before he can reach the elevator. A weakened Neff tells Keyes that the reason why he could not figure the case out was that the guy whom he was looking for was "too close, right across the desk from you. '' When Keyes replies "closer than that, Walter. '' Neff replies that he loves Keyes too. As Neff had done, lighting Keyes ' cigars for him throughout the film, Keyes lights Neff 's cigarette as they await the police and an ambulance.
Uncredited
James M. Cain based his novella on a 1927 murder perpetrated by a married Queens, New York woman and her lover whose trial he attended while working as a journalist in New York. In that crime, Ruth Snyder persuaded her boyfriend, Judd Gray, to kill her husband Albert after having him take out a big insurance policy -- with a double - indemnity clause. The murderers were quickly identified, arrested and convicted. The front page photo of Snyder 's execution in the electric chair at Sing Sing has been called the most famous newsphoto of the 1920s.
Double Indemnity began making the rounds in Hollywood shortly after it was published in Liberty magazine in 1935. Cain had already made a name for himself the year before with The Postman Always Rings Twice, a story of murder and passion between a migrant worker and the unhappy wife of a café owner. Cain 's agent sent copies of the novella to all the major studios and within days, MGM, Warner Bros., Paramount, 20th Century - Fox, and Columbia were all competing to buy the rights for $25,000. Then a letter went out from Joseph Breen at the Hays Office, and the studios withdrew their bids at once. In it Breen warned:
The general low tone and sordid flavor of this story makes it, in our judgment, thoroughly unacceptable for screen presentation before mixed audiences in the theater. I am sure you will agree that it is most important... to avoid what the code calls "the hardening of audiences, '' especially those who are young and impressionable, to the thought and fact of crime.
Eight years later Double Indemnity was included in a collection of Cain 's works entitled Three of a Kind. Paramount executive Joseph Sistrom thought the material would be perfect for Wilder and they bought the rights for $15,000. Paramount resubmitted the script to the Hays Office, but the response was nearly identical to the one eight years earlier. Wilder, Paramount executive William Dozier, and Sistrom decided to move forward anyway. They submitted a film treatment crafted by Wilder and his writing partner Charles Brackett, and this time the Hays Office approved the project with only a few objections: the portrayal of the disposal of the body, a proposed gas - chamber execution scene, and the skimpiness of the towel worn by the female lead in her first scene.
Cain forever after maintained that Joseph Breen owed him $10,000 for vetoing the property back in 1935 when he would have received $25,000.
After Paramount purchased the rights to the novella for Wilder, the next step was a screenplay. The material was widely regarded around Hollywood as unfilmable due to its iniquitous characters and the restrictions imposed by the Motion Picture Production Code. Although he had worked on the treatment, Charles Brackett decided it was too sordid and bowed out of the project, leaving Wilder to find another collaborator. His first choice, James M. Cain himself, was already working for another studio and unavailable (although Cain claimed he was never asked). Producer Joseph Sistrom, an avid reader and an admirer of The Big Sleep, then suggested Raymond Chandler.
Wilder would later recall with disappointment his first meeting with Chandler. Envisioning a former private detective who had worked his own experiences into gritty prose, he instead met a man he would later describe as looking like an accountant. Chandler was new to Hollywood, but saw it as a golden opportunity. Not realizing that he would be collaborating with Wilder, he demanded $1,000 and said he would need at least a week to complete the screenplay, to which Wilder and Sistrom simply looked at one another in amazement. To help guide him in writing a screenplay, Wilder gave Chandler a copy of his own screenplay for the 1941 Hold Back the Dawn to study. After the first weekend, Chandler presented eighty pages that Wilder characterized as "useless camera instruction ''; Wilder quickly put it aside and informed Chandler that they would be working together, slowly and meticulously. By all accounts, the pair did not get along during their four months together. At one point Chandler even quit, submitting a long list of grievances to Paramount as to why he could no longer work with Wilder. Wilder, however, stuck it out, admiring Chandler 's gift with words and knowing that his dialogue would translate very well to the screen.
Chandler and Wilder made considerable changes to Cain 's story. For one thing, the ending was overhauled. And the character of Barton Keyes was transformed from Walter Neff 's fairly clueless co-worker into his mentor and eventual nemesis.
Initially, Wilder and Chandler had intended to retain as much of Cain 's original dialogue as possible. It was Chandler who first realized that the dialogue from the novella would not translate well to the screen. Wilder disagreed and was annoyed that Chandler was not putting more of it into the script. To settle it, Wilder hired a couple of contract players from the studio to read passages of Cain 's original dialogue aloud. To Wilder 's astonishment, Chandler was right and, in the end, the movie 's cynical and provocative dialogue was more Chandler and Wilder than it was Cain. Chandler also did a lot of fieldwork while working on the script and took large volumes of notes. By visiting various locations that figured into the film, he was able to bring a sense of realism about Los Angeles that seeped into the script. For example, he hung around Jerry 's Market on Melrose Avenue in preparation for the scene where Phyllis and Walter would discreetly meet to plan the murder.
The tumultuous relationship between Wilder and Chandler only enhanced the product of their collaboration. Wilder, in fact, believed that discord, a tug - of - war, was a vital ingredient necessary for a fruitful collaboration: "If two people think alike, '' he once said, "it 's like two men pulling at one end of a rope. If you are going to collaborate, you need an opponent to bounce things off of. '' His tugging with Chandler did have a softer side, it seems: over 60 years after the film 's initial release, it was discovered that Chandler had agreed to appear in a fleeting cameo at 16 minutes 12 seconds into the film, glancing up from a book as Neff walks past in the hallway. This is notable because, other than a snippet from a home movie, there is no other footage of Chandler known anywhere.
When Chandler came to work with Wilder he was already a recovering alcoholic. As Wilder noted, "He was in Alcoholics Anonymous, and I think he had a tough time with me -- I drove him back into drinking... '' By the time the picture was released, Chandler was thoroughly disillusioned with the writers ' lot in Hollywood; he published an angry piece titled "Writers in Hollywood '' for The Atlantic Monthly in November 1945 in which he complained: "The first picture I worked on was nominated for an Academy Award (if that means anything), but I was not even invited to the press review held right in the studio. '' He neglected, however, to mention that the studio had kept him on salary during the eight - week shooting schedule and that no changes to the script were allowed without his approval -- a very rare accommodation for screenwriters, particularly newcomers, in those days. Offended, Wilder responded by saying, "We did n't invite him? How could we? He was under the table drunk at Lucy 's, '' a nearby watering hole for Paramount employees. This relationship with Chandler is what drew Wilder to his next project, the Best Picture - winning The Lost Weekend, about an alcoholic writer. Wilder made the film, in part, "to explain Chandler to himself. ''
Cain himself was very pleased with the way his book turned out on the screen. After seeing the picture half a dozen times he was quoted as saying, "... It 's the only picture I ever saw made from my books that had things in it I wish I had thought of. Wilder 's ending was much better than my ending, and his device for letting the guy tell the story by taking out the office dictating machine -- I would have done it if I had thought of it. ''
Wilder 's and Brackett 's estrangement during Double Indemnity was not a permanent one. Years later Wilder would characterize their time apart as just another kind of adultery: "1944 was ' The Year of Infidelities, ' '' he said. "Charlie produced The Uninvited... I wrote Double Indemnity with Raymond Chandler... I do n't think he ever forgave me. He always thought I cheated on him with Raymond Chandler. '' Brackett spun the breakup in a decidedly different light, saying, "Billy got so despondent at being without me that we did The Lost Weekend, a depressing film about a writer who has trouble writing. '' Lost Weekend was a distinguished offspring for the reconciled couple -- they left Oscar night with three Awards: Best Picture for producer Brackett, Best Director for Wilder, and a shared pair of statuettes for both for Best Screenplay. They worked together through Sunset Boulevard in 1950, then split for good.
Wilder and Chandler 's Double Indemnity screenplay was included in Library of America 's second volume of Chandler 's work, Later Novels and Other Writings (1995). This volume also includes the aforementioned "Writers in Hollywood '' piece by Chandler.
Having the two protagonists mortally wound each other was one of the key factors in gaining Hays Office approval for the script: the Production Code demanded that criminals pay, on screen, for their transgressions. In addition, Double Indemnity broke new cinematic ground on several fronts, one of those being the first time a Hollywood film explicitly explored the means, motives, and opportunity of committing a murder. It would take skillful performers to bring nuance to these treacherous characters, and casting the roles of Walter Neff and Phyllis Dietrichson would be a challenge for Wilder.
Sistrom and Wilder 's first choice for the role of Phyllis Dietrichson was Barbara Stanwyck. At the time, Stanwyck was not only the highest paid actress in Hollywood, but the highest paid woman in America. (Her eventual co-star MacMurray matched Stanwyck 's prominence at the pay window: in 1943, he was the highest paid actor in Hollywood, and the fourth highest - paid American.) Given the nature of the role, Stanwyck was reluctant to take the part, fearing it would have an adverse effect on her career. According to Stanwyck,
I said, "I love the script and I love you, but I am a little afraid after all these years of playing heroines to go into an out - and - out killer. '' And Mr. Wilder -- and rightly so -- looked at me and he said, "Well, are you a mouse or an actress? '' And I said, "Well, I hope I 'm an actress. '' He said, "Then do the part ''. And I did and I 'm very grateful to him.
The character of Walter Neff was not only a heel, he was a weak and malleable heel -- many Hollywood actors including Alan Ladd, James Cagney, Spencer Tracy, Gregory Peck, and Fredric March passed on it. Wilder even recalls "scraping the bottom of the barrel '' and approaching George Raft. Raft was illiterate, so Wilder had to tell him the plot. About halfway through, Raft interrupted him with, "Let 's get to the lapel bit. '' "What lapel bit? '' a bewildered Wilder replied. "The lapel, '' the actor said, annoyed by such stupidity. "You know, when the guy flashes his lapel, you see his badge, you know he 's a detective. '' This was his vision of the film, and since it was n't part of the story, Raft turned the part down. Wilder finally realized that the part should be played by someone who could not only be a cynic, but a nice guy as well.
Fred MacMurray was accustomed to playing "happy - go - lucky good guys '' in light comedies, and when Wilder first approached him about the Neff role, MacMurray said, "You 're making the mistake of your life! '' Playing a serious role required acting, he said, "and I ca n't do it. '' But Wilder pestered him about it every single day -- at home, in the studio commissary, in his dressing room, on the sidewalk -- until he simply wore the actor down. MacMurray felt safe about his acquiescence since Paramount, who had him under contract and had carefully crafted his good guy image, would never let him play a "wrong '' role. His trust, however, was misplaced: his contract was up for renewal at the time, and ever since his friend and co-star, Carole Lombard, had shrewdly and successfully taught him how to play hardball with the studio bosses, he was n't the pliable pushover of old. Paramount executives decided to let him play the unsavory role to teach him a lesson. A lesson was indeed taught, but not the one Paramount had in mind. MacMurray made a great heel and his performance demonstrated new breadths of his acting talent. "I never dreamed it would be the best picture I ever made, '' he said.
Edward G. Robinson was also reluctant to sign on for the role of Barton Keyes, but not for the same reasons as MacMurray and Stanwyck. Having been a star since Little Caesar in 1930, this role represented a step downward to the third lead. Robinson would later admit, "At my age, it was time to begin thinking of character roles, to slide into middle and old age with the same grace as that marvelous actor Lewis Stone ''. It also helped, as he freely admitted, that he would draw the same salary as the two leads, for fewer shooting days. The notable Broadway actor Tom Powers was invited to Hollywood for the role of Mr. Dietrichson. It was Powers ' first film role since 1917 and his start to a "second film career '' with many supporting roles until his death in 1955.
The original ending to the Cain novella called for the characters to commit double suicide. Suicide, however, was strictly forbidden at the time by the Hays Production Code as a way to resolve a plot, so Wilder wrote and filmed a different ending in which Neff goes to the gas chamber while Keyes watches. This scene was shot before the scenes that eventually became the film 's familiar ending, and once that final intimate exchange between Neff and Keyes revealed its power to Wilder, he began to wonder if the gas chamber ending was needed at all. "You could n't have a more meaningful scene between two men '', Wilder said. As he would later recount, "The story was between the two guys. I knew it, even though I had already filmed the gas chamber scene... So we just took out the scene in the gas chamber, '' despite its $150,000 cost to the studio. Removal of the scene, over Chandler 's objection, also removed the Hays Office 's single biggest remaining objection to the picture, since they regarded it as "unduly gruesome '' and predicted that it would never be approved by local and regional censor boards. The footage and sound elements are lost, but production stills of the scene still exist.
The look of the film was achieved through the work of cinematographer John F. Seitz. At the time, Seitz was the premiere director of photography on the Paramount lot; his work extended all the way back to the silent era. Wilder had worked with Seitz on his previous film, Five Graves to Cairo, in which Seitz was nominated for an Academy Award and Wilder praised Seitz 's willingness to experiment and fail. Here Wilder taps into his 1920s Berlin roots, and he and Seitz give the film a look subtly reminiscent of German expressionism, with dramatic deployment of light and shadows. "He was ready for anything, '' Wilder said. "Sometimes the rushes were so dark that you could n't see anything. He went to the limits of what could be done. '' They would contrast the bright sunny Southern California exteriors, shot on location, with dark, gloomy, rotten interiors shot on soundstages to give the audience a sense of what lurks just beneath the facade -- and just who is capable of murder. The contrast was heightened, in Wilder 's words, by "dirtying up '' the sets. Once the set was ready for filming, Wilder would go around and overturn a few ashtrays to give the house an appropriately grubby look. Wilder and Seitz also blew aluminum particles into the air so that, as they floated down, they looked just like dust.
Another technique Seitz used was "venetian blind '' lighting which almost gives the illusion of prison bars trapping the characters. Barbara Stanwyck later reflected, "... and for an actress, let me tell you the way those sets were lit, the house, Walter 's apartment, those dark shadows, those slices of harsh light at strange angles -- all that helped my performance. The way Billy staged it and John Seitz lit it, it was all one sensational mood. ''
For Neff 's office at Pacific All Risk, Wilder and set designer Hal Pereira conspired to create a little in - house joke, typical of Billy Wilder. In the opening scenes, as Walter Neff stumbles off the elevator on his way to his office to record his confession, the vast two - tiered office is empty and dark. With the camera following him, Neff lurches towards the balcony railing overlooking rows and rows of uniform corporate desks. Neff turns left, but the camera continues forward until it reaches the brink and stares down for an anxious moment into a colorless American business purgatory. Here, Pereira is said to have copied an existing office: the corporate headquarters of Paramount Pictures in New York City.
Wilder also decked Stanwyck out in the blonde wig "to complement her anklet... and to make her look as sleazy as possible. '' This wig has been cited by some as being the picture 's biggest flaw claiming that it looks too "fake ''. According to Wilder, this was exactly what he was going for when he chose the wig wanting to project, "the phoniness of the girl -- Bad taste, phony wig, '' with cheap perfume to match. Unconvinced, Paramount production head Buddy DeSylva was overheard to say, "We hired Barbara Stanwyck, and here we get George Washington. ''
The production was not without its lucky accidents: The company had just finished shooting the final segment of the sequence where Phyllis and Walter make their getaway after dumping their victim 's body on the tracks. The crew was breaking for lunch before striking the set. In the script, the pair get in their car and simply drive away. But as Wilder got into his own car to leave, it would n't start. Inspired, he ran back and ordered the crew back. Wilder reshot the scene, only this time as Phyllis starts the car, the motor stalls and wo n't turn over. She tries several more times, but the car wo n't start and the two look at each other in growing panic. Walter desperately reaches over, turns the key and guns the motor, finally starting the car. Only then do they speed away from the crime scene. The result was one of the most suspenseful scenes in the film, but was not in the original script. MacMurray was surprised when he first saw it onscreen: "... When I... turned the key I remember I was doing it fast and Billy kept saying, ' Make it longer, make it longer, ' and finally I yelled, ' For Chrissake Billy, it 's not going to hold that long, ' and he said, ' Make it longer, ' and he was right. ''
Wilder managed to bring the whole production in under budget at $927,262 despite $370,000 in salaries for just four people ($100,000 each for MacMurray, Stanwyck, and Robinson, and $70,000 -- $44,000 for writing and $26,000 for directing -- for himself).
The score to Double Indemnity was composed by Miklós Rózsa, whose work on Wilder 's previous film, Five Graves to Cairo, had been his first real Hollywood engagement for a major studio. Wilder had praised that work and promised to use Rózsa on his next film. Wilder had the idea of using a restless string fugue (like the opening to Franz Schubert 's Unfinished Symphony) to reflect the conspiratorial activities of Walter and Phyllis against her husband which Rózsa felt was a good one (and the Symphony is actually used with a very melodramatic effect in the scene with Lola and Walter in the hill above Hollywood Bowl, 1: 23 -- 1: 26). As work progressed, Wilder 's enthusiasm about Rózsa 's score only grew, but the studio 's Musical Director, Louis Lipstone, was of a different mind; he and Wilder had previously clashed over some post-production cuts he had made to the Five Graves score which created problems with the music 's continuity and logic. Now the two were coming to loggerheads again.
When it came time to record the score for Double Indemnity, Lipstone made no secret that he despised what Rózsa had done, to which Wilder finally turned to him and snapped, "You may be surprised to hear that I love it. Okay? '' Lipstone then disappeared and was not seen at the sessions again. He later summoned Rózsa to his office and reprimanded him for writing "Carnegie Hall music '' which had no place in a film. Rózsa took this as a compliment, but Lipstone assured him it was not -- and suggested he listen to the music from Madame Curie to learn how to write a proper film score. When Rózsa pointed out that Double Indemnity was a love story, Lipstone suggested his music was more appropriate to The Battle of Russia. Lipstone was convinced that as soon as the studio 's Artistic Director, Buddy DeSylva, heard the music he would throw it out. At a screening soon after, DeSylva called him over: expecting heads to roll, Lipstone eagerly huddled with his chief -- only to have DeSylva praise the music, saying it was exactly the dissonant, hard - hitting score the film needed. The boss 's only criticism: there was not enough of it. By this time Lipstone had an arm around DeSylva, asking unctuously, "I always find you the right guy for the job, Buddy, do n't I? ''
The score would go on to be nominated for an Academy Award, and the success brought Rózsa offers to do as many films as he had time for.
Exteriors of the Dietrichson house in the film were shot at a 3,200 - square - foot (300 m), Spanish Colonial Revival house built in 1927. The house can still be seen today and is located at 6301 Quebec Drive in the Beachwood Canyon neighborhood of Los Angeles. The production team copied the interior of the house, including the spiral staircase, almost exactly on a soundstage at Paramount.
The exterior of the train station in the film was the Mission Revival Style Southern Pacific Railroad Depot in Glendale, California built in 1923. The station can now be seen as part of the Glendale Transportation Center and was added to the National Register of Historic Places on May 2, 1997.
Other locations around Los Angeles used in the film were an apartment building at 1825 N. Kingsley Drive in Hollywood where Walter Neff lived and the building on the southwest corner of Hollywood Blvd. and Western. That building still stands, but the Newman Drug Store originally on the ground floor is no longer there.
The film was re-released on July 19 & 20, 2015, as part of the "TCM Presents '' series by Turner Classic Movies.
Double Indemnity 's first theatrical engagement was at the Keith 's in Baltimore, on July 3, 1944. The film then opened nationwide on July 6, 1944, and was an immediate hit with audiences -- despite a campaign by singer Kate Smith imploring the public to stay away on moral grounds. As James M. Cain recalled, "there was a little trouble caused by this fat girl, Kate Smith, who carried on a propaganda asking people to stay away from the picture. Her advertisement probably put a million dollars on its gross. ''
Reviews from the critics were largely positive, though the content of the story made some uncomfortable. While some reviewers found the story implausible and disturbing, others praised it as an original thriller. In his mixed review of the film in The New York Times, film critic Bosley Crowther called the picture "Steadily diverting, despite its monotonous pace and length. '' He complained that the two lead characters "lack the attractiveness to render their fate of emotional consequence '', but also felt the movie possessed a "realism reminiscent of the bite of past French films ''.
Howard Barnes at the New York Herald Tribune was much more enthusiastic, calling Double Indemnity "one of the most vital and arresting films of the year '', and praising Wilder 's "magnificent direction and a whale of a script ''. The trade paper Variety, meanwhile, said the film "sets a new standard for screen treatment in its category ''.
Influential radio host and Hearst paper columnist Louella Parsons would go even further, saying, "Double Indemnity is the finest picture of its kind ever made, and I make that flat statement without any fear of getting indigestion later from eating my words. ''
Philip K. Scheur, the Los Angeles Times movie critic, ranked it with The Human Comedy, The Maltese Falcon, and Citizen Kane as Hollywood trailblazers, while Alfred Hitchcock wrote to Wilder saying that "Since Double Indemnity, the two most important words in motion pictures are ' Billy ' and ' Wilder ' ''.
The film 's critical reputation has only grown over the years. In 1977, notably terse critic - historian Leslie Halliwell gave it an unusual 4 - star (top) rating, and wrote: "Brilliantly filmed and incisively written, perfectly capturing the decayed Los Angeles atmosphere of a Chandler novel, but using a simpler story and more substantial characters. '' In his 1998 review, film critic Roger Ebert praised director Wilder and cinematographer Seitz. He wrote, "The photography by John F. Seitz helped develop the noir style of sharp - edged shadows and shots, strange angles and lonely Edward Hopper settings. ''
Double Indemnity is an important (and some say the first) example of a genre of films called film noir. According to Robert Sklar, a former chairperson of the Department of Cinema Studies at New York University, classic film noir is marked by major thematic elements: a plot about how a crime told from the point of view of the criminal, psychosexual themes are explored, and a visually "dark and claustrophobic framing, with key lighting from sources within the mise - en - scène casting strong shadows that both conceal and project characters ' feelings ''. Double Indemnity includes all of these traits.
Double Indemnity has been compared with Wilder 's other acclaimed film noir, Sunset Boulevard. The narrative structure in both films begin and end in the present, but the bulk of the plot is told in flashback narrated by their protagonists. Sklar explains, "(T) he unusual juxtaposition of temporalities gives the spectator a premonition of what will occur / has occurred in the flashback story... Besides Double Indemnity and Detour, voice - over is a key aspect of Mildred Pierce, Gilda, The Lady from Shanghai, and Out of the Past... as well as many others. '' Wendy Lesser notes that the narrator of Sunset Boulevard is dead before he begins narrating, but in Double Indemnity, "the voice - over has a different meaning. It is not the voice of a dead man... it is... the voice of an already doomed man. ''
At the 17th Academy Awards on March 15, 1945, Double Indemnity was nominated for seven Oscars, but did not win any.
Wilder went to the awards ceremony expecting to win even though the studio had been backing their other big hit of the year, Leo McCarey 's Going My Way, and studio employees were expected to vote for the studio favorite. As the awards show wore on and Double Indemnity lost in category after category, it became evident that there would be a Going My Way sweep. McCarey beamed as his picture won award after award and when he was named Best Director, Wilder could no longer take it. When McCarey got up to make his way to the stage to accept the award for best picture, Wilder, sitting on the aisle, stuck out his foot and tripped him. "Mr. McCarey... stumbled perceptibly, '' he gleefully recalled. After the ceremony while he and his wife Judith were waiting for his limousine to arrive, he yelled out so loudly that everybody could hear him, "What the hell does the Academy Award mean, for God 's sake? After all -- Luise Rainer won it two times. Luise Rainer! ''
American Film Institute included the film on these lists:
The Writers Guild of America ranked the film 's screenplay as the 26th greatest ever written.
Double Indemnity was adapted as a radio play on two broadcasts of The Screen Guild Theater, first on March 5, 1945 with Fred MacMurray and Barbara Stanwyck, then five years later on February 16, 1950 with Stanwyck and Robert Taylor. It was also adapted to the October 15, 1948 broadcast of the Ford Theatre with Burt Lancaster and Joan Bennett and the October 30, 1950 broadcast of Lux Radio Theater with MacMurray and Stanwyck.
Other films inspired by the Snyder - Gray murder include The Postman Always Rings Twice (also based on a Cain novel) and Body Heat (1981). Both Postman and Double Indemnity were remade: Double Indemnity was a telemovie in 1973 starring Richard Crenna (who also starred in Body Heat), Lee J. Cobb, and Samantha Eggar; and is included on a bonus disc in the American DVD release of the original film. The Postman Rings remake was a 1981 theatrical release directed by Bob Rafelson and starring Jack Nicholson and Jessica Lange. An Indian film, Jism (2003), was also inspired by the film.
Double Indemnity is one of the films parodied in the 1993 film Fatal Instinct; the hero 's wife conspires to have him shot on a moving train and fall into a lake so that she can collect on his insurance, which has a "triple indemnity '' rider. Carol Burnett parodied the film as "Double Calamity '' on her TV show.
After the success of Double Indemnity, imitators of the film 's plot and style were rampant. In 1945, Producers Releasing Corporation, one of the B movie studios of Hollywood 's Poverty Row, was set to release a blatant rip - off titled Single Indemnity starring Ann Savage and Hugh Beaumont. Paramount quickly slapped an injunction on the cut - rate potboiler that remains in force to this day. PRC eventually edited its film down to 67 minutes, re-titled it Apology for Murder, and sold it to television in the early 1950s as part of a syndicated half - hour mystery show.
So many imitations flooded the market, in fact, that James M. Cain believed he deserved credit and remuneration. Instead he led a movement within the Screen Writers Guild to create the American Author 's Authority, a union that would own its members ' works, negotiate better subsidiary deals, and protect against copyright infringement on behalf of its members. This was, however, the depth of the Red Scare in Hollywood and Guild members rejected the socialist notion and ran from the attempt.
It was not uncommon at the time for studios to take out ads in trade journals promoting the virtues of their own films. David O. Selznick, no stranger to self - aggrandizement, frequently sought to put a high - culture patina on his pictures with "trade - book '' ads. At just the time Double Indemnity was released, Selznick 's latest tearjerker, Since You Went Away, was enjoying some box office success. In his ads, Selznick quoted various dignitaries claiming it was the finest picture they had ever seen, how it served such a noble purpose, how it elevated humanity to new levels -- no high - toned platitude was too lofty to invoke. Indeed, the ad averred, the words Since You Went Away had become "the four most important words uttered in motion picture history since Gone with the Wind. '' The petulant Wilder despised such ostentation, so he placed an ad of his own: Double Indemnity, it claimed, were the two most important words uttered in motion picture history since Broken Blossoms, thus comparing D.W. Griffith 's artistic 1919 classic with his own sordid story of iniquitous murder. Selznick was not amused and threatened to stop advertising in any of the trades if they continued to run Wilder 's ads.
Wilder himself considered Double Indemnity his best film in terms of having the fewest scripting and shooting mistakes and always maintained that the two things he was proudest of in his career were the compliments he received from Cain about Double Indemnity and from Agatha Christie for his handling of her Witness for the Prosecution.
Wilder was not only proud of his film, he was plainly fond of it as well: "I never heard that expression, film noir, when I made Double Indemnity... I just made pictures I would have liked to see. When I was lucky, it coincided with the taste of the audience. With Double Indemnity, I was lucky. ''
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what is the movie kung fu panda about | Kung Fu Panda - Wikipedia
Kung Fu Panda is a 2008 American computer - animated action comedy martial arts film produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures. It was directed by John Stevenson and Mark Osborne and produced by Melissa Cobb, and stars the voices of Jack Black, Dustin Hoffman, Angelina Jolie, Ian McShane, Seth Rogen, Lucy Liu, David Cross, Randall Duk Kim, James Hong, and Jackie Chan. Set in a version of ancient China populated by anthropomorphic talking animals, the plot revolves around a bumbling panda named Po who aspires to be a kung fu master. When an evil kung fu warrior named Tai Lung is foretold to escape after twenty years in prison, Po is unwittingly named the chosen one destined to defeat him and bring peace to the land, much to the chagrin of the resident kung fu warriors.
The idea for the film was conceived by Michael Lachance, a DreamWorks Animation executive. The film was originally intended to be a parody, but director Stevenson decided instead, to shoot an action comedy wuxia film that incorporates the hero 's journey narrative archetype for the lead character. The computer animation in the film was more complex than anything DreamWorks had done before. As with most DreamWorks animated films, Hans Zimmer (collaborating with John Powell this time) scored Kung Fu Panda. He visited China to absorb the culture and get to know the China National Symphony Orchestra as part of his preparation. A sequel, Kung Fu Panda 2, was released on May 26, 2011, along with a television series, Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness later that same year as a part of a franchise. A second sequel called Kung Fu Panda 3 was released on January 29, 2016.
Kung Fu Panda premiered in the United States on June 6, 2008. The film received positive reviews upon release. Kung Fu Panda opened in 4,114 theaters, grossing $20.3 million on its opening day and $60.2 million on its opening weekend, resulting in the number one position at the box office. The film became DreamWorks ' biggest opening for a non-sequel film, the highest grossing animated film of the year worldwide, and also had the fourth - largest opening weekend for a DreamWorks animated film at the American and Canadian box office, behind Shrek 2, Shrek the Third, and Shrek Forever After.
In the Valley of Peace, a land in ancient China inhabited by anthropomorphic animals, a giant panda Po is a kung fu fanatic who idolizes the Furious Five -- Tigress, Monkey, Mantis, Viper, and Crane -- a quintet of kung fu students trained by the red panda Master Shifu at the Jade Palace. As he helps his adoptive goose father Mr. Ping in his noodle restaurant, Po is unable to pursue his dream of becoming a kung fu master himself.
Grand Master Oogway, an old tortoise and Shifu 's mentor, has a vision that Shifu 's former student, the evil snow leopard Tai Lung, will escape from prison and return to the Valley of Peace to take revenge. Shifu starts panicking and sends his messenger, Zeng the goose, with a request for the prison to heighten security in order to prevent Tai Lung 's escape. He then holds a kung fu tournament for the Furious Five so that Oogway may identify the Dragon Warrior, the one kung fu master worthy of receiving the Dragon Scroll, which is said to hold the secret to limitless power and be capable of defeating Tai Lung. Po arrives as the arena doors close and is unable to enter. Desperate to see the Dragon Warrior chosen, Po straps himself to a set of fireworks, rockets into the sky, and crashes into the middle of the arena. He opens his eyes to see Oogway pointing his finger at him, and to the shock of everyone present (and Po 's huge surprise), Oogway proclaims Po as the Dragon Warrior.
Unwilling to accept that Oogway 's decision was intentional, Shifu tries to make Po quit through a torturous and agonizing training regime coupled with constant ridicule of his physique and personality. The Furious Five also recognize Po as simply a low - life kung fu enthusiast with no prerequisite or potential in the martial art. Po considers quitting, but after receiving encouragement from Oogway, he endures his training and slowly begins to befriend the Five with his tenacity, culinary skill, resilience, and good humor, though Tigress remains reluctant and hesitant to embrace him as the Dragon Warrior. Tigress reveals to Po that long ago Shifu found the infant Tai Lung on the steps of the palace and raised him as his son and taught him kung fu. When Oogway refused to give Tai Lung the Dragon Scroll he attacked the valley and tried to take the scroll by force. Oogway stopped him, but Shifu, filled with guilt and sorrow over his son 's betrayal, became cold and distant to his later students. Meanwhile, Tai Lung escapes from prison as foreseen by Oogway, ironically picking his locks with one of Zeng 's fallen feathers. Shifu learns of Tai Lung 's escape from Zeng and informs Oogway, who extracts a promise from Shifu to believe in Po, and then passes on to the heavens in a stream of peach blossoms. Still unable to grasp the basics of kung fu, Po despairingly admits that he has no chance of defeating Tai Lung. Shifu, however, discovers that Po is capable of impressive physical feats when motivated by food, and using this as positive reinforcement, he successfully trains Po to incorporate these feats into an effective kung fu style.
Meanwhile, the Furious Five set out to stop Tai Lung themselves, only to be overwhelmed and defeated by his nerve strikes. Following their return, Shifu decides that Po is ready to receive the Dragon Scroll, but the scroll reveals nothing but a blank reflective surface. Unable to understand the message of the scroll, Shifu orders Po and the Five to evacuate the valley while he holds off Tai Lung, accepting that this will most likely cost him his life. As Tai Lung arrives and fights Shifu, the distraught Po finds Mr. Ping who, in an attempt to console him, reveals that the long - withheld secret ingredient to his famous "secret ingredient soup '' is "nothing '', explaining that "to make something special you just have to believe it is ''. Po realizes that this is the message of the Dragon Scroll, and goes back to confront Tai Lung.
Po becomes a formidable challenge for Tai Lung, frustrating him with confusing fighting techniques on top of a physique that renders him immune to Tai Lung 's nerve strikes. Tai Lung momentarily bests Po and retrieves the scroll, but is unable to understand its symbolic meaning. When Po explains to Tai Lung that the true secret to become the Dragon Warrior is to just believe in yourself, he refuses to accept it and continues attacking Po. Eventually, Po defeats Tai Lung in combat before using the mysterious Wuxi Finger Hold to vanquish him. Po is praised by the Valley of Peace and earns the respect of the Furious Five, who fully acknowledge him as a true kung fu master. Po then finds Shifu, who finally attains inner peace with the valley safe once more.
-- co-director John Stevenson on the comedic approach to the martial arts film.
Publicized work on the film began in October 2004. In September 2005, DreamWorks Animation announced the film alongside Jack Black, who was selected to be the main voice star.
In November 2005, DreamWorks Animation announced that Dustin Hoffman, Jackie Chan, Lucy Liu and Ian McShane would join Jack Black in the cast. This is also the second DreamWorks Animation film in which Black and Angelina Jolie have co-starred together, the first being 2004 's Shark Tale.
The idea for the film was conceived by Michael Lachance, a DreamWorks Animation executive. Initially, the idea was to make it a spoof, but co-director John Stevenson was not particularly keen on it so instead chose the direction of a character based wuxia comedy.
Reportedly inspired by Stephen Chow 's 2004 martial arts action comedy, Kung Fu Hustle, the co-directors wanted to make sure the film also had an authentic Chinese and kung fu feel to it. Production designer Raymond Zibach and art director Tang Heng spent years researching Chinese painting, sculpture, architecture and kung fu films to help create the look of the film. Zibach said some of the biggest influences for him are the more artful martial arts films such as Hero, House of Flying Daggers and Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. Stevenson 's aim for the film, which took four years to make, was to make "the best looking film DreamWorks has ever made ''.
-- Dan Wagner, Head of Character Animation.
The hand - drawn animation sequence at the beginning of the film was made to resemble Chinese shadow puppetry. The opening, which was directed by Jennifer Yuh Nelson and produced by James Baxter, was praised by The New York Times reviewer Manohla Dargis as "striking '' and "visually different from most mainstream American animations ''.
Other reviewers have compared the opening to the evocative style of Genndy Tartakovsky 's Samurai Jack. The rest of the film is modern computer animation, which uses bright, offbeat colors to evoke the natural landscape of China. The end credit sequence also features hand - drawn characters and still paintings in the background.
The computer animation used throughout the film was more complex than anything DreamWorks had done before. When the head of production handed the script to VFX Supervisor Markus Manninen, she reportedly laughed and wished him "good luck ''. "When we started talking, '' said Manninen, "the movie was still a high concept. But for everyone that looked at it, it screamed complexity. We launched off saying, how can you make this movie tangible? How can you find smart ways to bring this world to life in a way that makes it a great movie and not feel like the complexity becomes the driver of the story, but the story and the emotion being the driver? '' In preparation, the animators took a six - hour kung fu class.
Producer Melissa Cobb said that originally Po was "more of a jerk, '' but that the character changed after they heard Jack Black. According to Jack Black, he mostly worked "in isolation '', although he and Dustin Hoffman did spend a day together, which Cobb said helped with the scene where their characters face off. Lucy Liu said that the film "was quite different because it was such a long process. '' Liu said that when she was presented with the project they already had artwork of her character as well as a "short computerized video version of what she would look like when she moved. ''
The film held its worldwide premiere at the 61st Cannes Film Festival on May 15, 2008, where it received massive and sustained applause at the end of the film 's screening. Kung Fu Panda later had national premieres in the US on June 1, 2008 at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles, California, and on June 26, 2008 at Leicester Square in London, for the UK.
Kung Fu Panda was released on DVD and Blu - ray on November 9, 2008, and on 3D Blu - ray on December 6, 2011 as a Best Buy exclusive. The DVD double pack release of Kung Fu Panda also includes a short animated film Secrets of the Furious Five. With 7,486,642 DVD units sold in 2008, Kung Fu Panda was the fourth highest - selling film and the first highest - selling animated film of 2008, right before WALL - E, which sold 7,413,548 units.
Rotten Tomatoes reported that 87 % of 183 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 7.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Kung Fu Panda has a familiar message, but the pleasing mix of humor, swift martial arts action, and colorful animation makes for winning summer entertainment. '' Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 73 out of 100, based on 33 reviews. Audience gave the film an average A - grade on CinemaScore.
Richard Corliss of Time Magazine gave Kung Fu Panda a positive review, stating the picture "provides a master course in cunning visual art and ultra-satisfying entertainment ''. The New York Times said, "At once fuzzy - wuzzy and industrial strength, the tacky - sounding Kung Fu Panda is high concept with a heart, '' and the review called the film "consistently diverting '' and "visually arresting ''. Chris Barsanti of Filmcritic.com commented, "Blazing across the screen with eye - popping, sublime artwork, Kung Fu Panda sets itself apart from the modern domestic animation trend with its sheer beauty (...) the film enters instant classic status as some of the most gorgeous animation Hollywood has produced since the golden age of Disney. '' Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune called the film "one of the few comedies of 2008 in any style or genre that knows what it 's doing ''. However, Tom Charity of CNN criticized the action for "(tending) to blur into a whirlwind of slapstick chaos '' and considered the character of Po similar to others played by Black. Peter Howell of The Toronto Star awarded the film two and a half stars, considering it to have a "lack of story '' that "frequently manages to amuse, if not entirely to delight ''.
The film topped the box office in its opening weekend, grossing $60.2 million for a $14,642 average from 4,114 theaters and performing much better than analysts had been expecting. It also was the highest - grossing opening for a non-sequel DreamWorks Animation film at the time. In its second weekend, the film retreated 44 % to second place behind The Incredible Hulk grossing $33.6 million for a $8,127 average from expanding to 4,136 theaters. It closed on October 9, 2008 after 125 days of release, grossing $215.4 million in the United States and Canada and $416.3 million overseas for a worldwide total of $631.7 million. Kung Fu Panda was the highest - grossing non-Shrek film from DreamWorks Animation in the United States and Canada, before being surpassed by How to Train Your Dragon in 2010.
Kung Fu Panda was also well received in China. It made nearly 110 million Yuan by July 2, 2008, becoming the first animated film to earn more than 100 million Yuan in China. The Chinese director Lu Chuan commented, "From a production standpoint, the movie is nearly perfect. Its American creators showed a very sincere attitude about Chinese culture. '' The film 's critical and commercial success in China led to some local introspection about why no film like Kung Fu Panda had been produced in China, with commentators attributing the problem variously to lower film budgets in China, too much government oversight, a dearth of national imagination, and an overly reverent attitude to China 's history and cultural icons.
Kung Fu Panda was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature and the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film, but both awards were won by Pixar 's WALL - E. Jack Black joked about his film 's underdog status at the 81st Academy Awards, saying "Each year, I do one DreamWorks project, then I take all the money to the Oscars and bet it on Pixar. ''
By contrast, Kung Fu Panda won 10 Annie Awards (including Best Picture) out of 16 nominations, although this created controversy, with some accusing DreamWorks head Jeffrey Katzenberg of rigging the vote by buying ASIFA - Hollywood memberships (with voting power) for everyone at DreamWorks Animation.
As with most DreamWorks animated movies, composer Hans Zimmer scored Kung Fu Panda. Zimmer visited China to absorb the culture and got to know the Chinese National Symphony as part of his preparation; in addition, Timbaland also contributed to the soundtrack. The soundtrack also includes a partially rewritten version of the classic song, "Kung Fu Fighting '', performed by Cee - Lo Green and Jack Black for the end credits. Furthermore, in some versions, the ending credit was sung by Rain. Although Zimmer was originally announced as the main composer of the film, during a test screening, CEO of DreamWorks Animation SKG Jeffrey Katzenberg announced that composer John Powell would also be contributing to the score. This marked the first collaboration in eight years for the two, who had previously worked together on DreamWorks ' The Road to El Dorado and the action thriller Chill Factor. A soundtrack album was released by Interscope Records on June 3, 2008.
A sequel, Kung Fu Panda 2, was released on Thursday, May 26, 2011, to good reviews (Rotten Tomatoes rating of 81 %). It was released in 3 - D and was directed by Jennifer Yuh Nelson (who directed the 2 - D opening sequence of the first film) with the original cast returning. The story features a new villain with a mysterious weapon so powerful it threatens the existence of kung fu, and Po must additionally confront his past.
A second sequel, Kung Fu Panda 3 was announced as a co-production between DreamWorks Animation and Shanghai - based Oriental DreamWorks. Kung Fu Panda 3 was released on January 29, 2016. DreamWorks Animation CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg has said that perhaps the series could see 3 more sequels after Kung Fu Panda 3, bringing it to a six - film series.
A manga based on the film was released in Japan in Kerokero Ace magazine 's September 2008 issue. It is written by Hanten Okuma and illustrated by Takafumi Adachi.
A television series titled Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness aired on Nickelodeon with its premiere on September 19, 2011. From the cast of Kung Fu Panda, only Lucy Liu and James Hong reprised their roles, of Master Viper and Mr. Ping respectively. In the series, Po continues to defend the Valley of Peace from all kinds of villains, while making mistakes, learning about the history of kung fu, and meeting other kung fu masters. In the United States, the series ended its run on June 29, 2016, with a total of three seasons and 80 episodes. However, prior to premiering in the U.S., the final few episodes first premiered in Germany from December 30, 2014 to January 7, 2015.
The Kung Fu Panda Holiday Special was aired on NBC Wednesday, November 24, 2010.
A video game adaptation of the film was published by Activision on June 3, 2008. The game was released for PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, PlayStation 2, Nintendo DS and PC platforms. The plot follows the same basic plot as the film, but with Tai Lung portrayed as the leader of various gangs that surround the Valley of Peace, which Po, who possesses some basic martial art skills which can be upgraded as the game progresses, must defeat. The game was released on Microsoft Windows, as well as multiple consoles. However the Windows version has been discontinued. The game received mostly positive reviews; it scored a Metacritic rating of 76 % from critics and a 7.5 out of 10 from IGN. In 2009, it won the International Animated Film Society 's Annie Award for Best Animated Video Game, "in recognition of creative excellence in the art of animation. ''
DreamWorks Animation was sued in 2011 by a writer, Terence Dunn, for allegedly stealing the idea for Kung Fu Panda from him. Dunn alleged that DreamWorks Animation had stolen his pitch for a "spiritual kung - fu fighting panda bear '' which he sent to a DreamWorks executive in 2001. DreamWorks Animation denied any wrongdoing and after a two - week trial the jurors found in favor of DreamWorks.
In 2011, another lawsuit was brought against the studio by an illustrator named Jayme Gordon. Gordon had created characters under the name "Kung Fu Panda Power '' and registered them with the U.S. Copyright Office in 2000. He had pitched this concept work to Disney while Jeffrey Katzenberg, who later left Disney and formed DreamWorks Animation in 1994, was working there. Gordon withdrew his claim just before the trial was due to take place. On December 20, 2015, federal prosecutors charged Gordon with four counts of wire fraud and three counts of perjury for allegedly fabricating and backdating drawings to support the claims in his lawsuit, and for allegedly tracing some of his drawings from a Disney Lion King coloring book. On November 18, 2016, Gordon was convicted for wire fraud and perjury, facing a sentence of up to 25 years in prison.
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vijayawada is situated on the bank of the river | Vijayawada - Wikipedia
Vijayawada is a city in the Andhra Pradesh Capital Region, on the banks of River Krishna in Krishna district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. The city is the third most densely populated in the urban population of built - up areas in the world. Vijayawada is classified as a Y - grade city as per the Sixth Central Pay Commission. Vijayawada is the commercial headquarters of Andhra Pradesh. It was recognised as a "Global City of the Future '' by McKinsey Quarterly, which expected an increase to GDP of $17 billion by 2025.
The city is known for its landmarks such as Prakasham Barrage across the Krishna river; Krishnaveni Mandapam (River Museum) depicting the history of Krishna river and a nearby idol of the river known as Krishnaveni statue; Gandhi Hill, the first Mahatma Gandhi Memorial in the country, an elevation of 500 ft on the on a hill; Bhavani Island, one of the largest river island amidst Krishna River. The Kanaka Durga Temple is a Hindu temple of Goddess Durga on the Indrakeeladri hill, on the banks of Krishna River. The deity is described as Swayambhu (self - manifested) in Triteeya kalpa.
There are many legends behind the origin of the name Vijayawada. Goddess Durga killed the demon and relaxed in this place for some time. As she was victorious (vijaya), the place came to be known as Vijayawada (vijaya translates to victory and wada as place / location, literally "The Place of Victory '').
The epic Mahabharata refers to the Indrakiladri hills as the place where Arjuna secured Pashupatastra from Lord Shiva. The city thereafter came to be known as Vijayavatika and later as Vijayawada.
In some legends, Vijayawada was referred to as ' Rajendracholapura '. A tale behind its acquiring the name Bezawada is that Goddess Krishnaveni (River Krishna) requested Arjuna to make a passage for her to merge into the Bay of Bengal. Hence, Arjuna made a bejjam (hole) through the mountains and the place came to be known as Bejjamwada which later changed to Bezawada.
There is a rational reason behind the name change. At the time the Odisha (Gajaptis) kings ruled this area, they wrote and pronounced Vijayawada as Bizayawada, because they do not have the letter V in Odisha Lipi. Then at the time of British rule, the Bengali scholars who helped the British rulers in ruling, wrote and pronounced Vijayawada as Bizayawada. Gradually Bizayawada became Bizawada and Bezawada in Britishers calling.
Bezwada (as Vijayawada was known then) was founded around 626 A.D. by Paricchedi Kings (ancestors of Pusapati Kings of Vizianagaram).
Vijayawada history reveals that Bezawada (Vijayawada) was ruled by King Madhava Varma (one of the kings of Vishnukundina dynasty). Chinese Buddhist scholar Xuanzang stayed few years in Bezawada (Vijayawada) in around 640 A.D. to copy and study the Abhidhamma Pitaka, the last of the three pitakas (Pali for baskets) constituting the Pali canon, the scriptures of Theravada Buddhism.
Mogalrajapuram hills have five rock - cut temples, built during the 4th -- 9th centuries. Some of the caves can be attributed to Vishnukundina dynasty. Akkana Madanna Caves, at the foot of Indrakeeladri Hill, is a monument of national importance.
At the foot of Indrakeeladri hills is the temple of Malleswara. The temple has inscriptions dating back to 9th century AD to 16th century AD by various kings. There are ten pillars and a mutilated slab (recognized as monuments by Archaeological Survey of India) with inscriptions in Telugu language. Of them, the inscriptions issued by Yudhamalla I and II of Eastern Chalukyas are important.
In the early 16th century, during the reign of Qutb Shahi dynasty (also known as Golconda Sultanate), diamond mines were found near Vijayawada on the banks of Krishna River.
Vijayawada lies on the banks of Krishna River, covered by hills and canals. It is 18.5 km (11.5 mi) from the state capital, Amaravati. and at an altitude of 11 m (36 ft) above sea level. Three canals originating from the north side of the Prakasham barrage reservoir -- Eluru, Bandar, and Ryves -- flow through the city.
Vijayawada has a tropical climate (Köppen Aw). The annual mean temperatures ranges between 23.4 -- 34 ° C (74 -- 93 ° F); with the maximum temperatures often crosses 40 ° C (104 ° F) in the month of May and the minimum in December and January. The highest maximum temperature ever recorded was 48.8 ° C (119.8 ° F) in May 2002, and the lowest was 12.4 ° C (54 ° F) on January 1997. May is the hottest and January is the coldest month of the year. The city with its hot and humid conditions is often referred as Blazewada. It receives rainfall from the South - west and North - east monsoons and the average annual rainfall recorded is 977.9 mm (38.50 in).
As of 2011 Census of India, the city had a population of 1,476,931. The total population constituted 524,918 males and 523,322 females -- for a sex ratio of 997 females per 1000 males -- higher than the national average of 940 per 1000. 92,848 children were in the age group of 0 -- 6 years, of which 47,582 were boys and 45,266 were girls: a ratio of 951 per 1000. The average literacy rate stood at 82.59 % (male 86.25 %; female 78.94 %) with 789,038 literates, significantly higher than the national average of 73.00 %. Vijayawada is one of the most densely populated city with approximately 31,200 people per square km.
The predominant language spoken by the city residents is Telugu.
Vijayawada Municipal Corporation is the civic governing body of the city and was the first ISO 9001 certified urban local body in the country.
It was constituted on 1 April 1888 and was upgraded to selection grade municipality in 1960, and, to corporation in 1981. The jurisdictional area of the corporation is spread over an area of 61.8 km (23.9 sq mi) with 59 wards. The present municipal commissioner of the city is J. Nivas and the present mayor is Koneru Sridhar. Vijayawada is the headquarters of Andhra Pradesh Capital Region Development Authority.
As per the G.O. 104 (dated: 23 - 03 - 2017), the state government had declared Vijayawada Municipal Corporation and its contiguous areas as metropolitan area of Vijayawada. Its jurisdiction is spread over an area of 160 km (62 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 18 lakhs. The metropolitan area covers Vijayawada municipal corporation and merged villages of Ambapuram, Buddavaram, Done Atkuru, Enikepadu, Ganguru, Gannavaram, Gollapudi, Gudavalli, Jakkampudi, Kanuru, Kesarapalle, Nidamanuru, Nunna, Pathapadu, Penamaluru, Phiryadi Nainavaram, Poranki, Prasadampadu, Ramavarappadu, Tadigadapa, and Yanamalakuduru. The urban agglomeration spread in Guntur district covers Tadepalle Municipality and its out growth of Undavalli; Mangalagiri Municipality and its out growths of Navuluru and Atmakur.
Water supply from the 59 water reservoirs, maintenance of roads, sewerage, underground drainage, environment protection programs, recycling of solid waste and producing power are the services are provided by the Vijayawada Municipal Corporation. There has been an underground drainage system in the city since 1967 -- 68. Many green parks are maintained by the corporation to protect the environment such as, Raghavaiah park, Rajiv Gandhi park, Dr. B.R Ambedkar park, Mahatma Gandhi park etc. The corporation won many awards and achievements such as National Urban Water Award (2009), Siti e-Governance Project, ISO 9001 certification for Quality Management System.
The Andhra Pradesh State Disaster and Fire Response Department with its headquarters in the city is responsible for protecting from fire accidents that occur during summers on the hill slope areas of the city.
Vijayawada is one of the cities to be covered under the Solar / Green Cities scheme launched by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy and is one of the 15 cities in the country listed in Pilot Solar Cities. The city is promoting the use of environmental friendly transport supported by biodiesel, CNG in auto rickshaws and electric ' E-rickshaws ' were introduced.
The Vijayawada City Police has its own Police Commissionerate, which is responsible for an area of 1211.16 sq.km., is headed by a Police Commissioner, who is an Indian Police Service officer of Additional Director General of Police rank along with one joint commissioner of police and four Deputy Commissioners of Police who are also IPS officers. The present Police commissioner is Goutham Savangh.
Vijayawada is one of the rapidly growing urban markets of the country. The sectors that contribute to the city economy are construction, education, entertainment, food processing, hospitality, registrations, transport, etc. Based on the recommendations of Sixth Central Pay Commission, it is classified as one of the Y - grade cities of India. The GDP of Vijayawada in 2010 was $3 billion and is estimated to touch $17 billion by 2025.
Andhra Cements (1937) was the first cement factory in Andhra Pradesh. Siris Pharmaceuticals was the first pharma company in Andhra Pradesh, and was established in 1950.
The city has trading and exporting markets for agriculture and industrial goods. The Nunna Mango Market is one of the largest mango markets in Asia, exporting to major cities in the country. It is also a hub for storage, bottling, and transportation of petroleum products of all major companies like BPCL, HPCL, and IOC.
The growing population and economy have resulted in rising real estate prices.
The city is known in the state for its cultural history, whose residents are more often referred as ' Vijayawadian '. There are many religions, languages, traditions and festivals. Durga Pooja and a special Theppotsavam in Krishna river are important events of Hindu festival of Dussera in the city, mainly due to the existence of self manifested Kanaka Durga Temple. Hazarat Bal Mosque is a Muslim shrine housing the holy relic of the Prophet Mohammed. The Gunadala Mary Matha Church is an important shrine for Christians and illuminates during Christmas eve.
The city corporation organizes "Happy Sunday, '' an event organized on the first Sunday of every month at M.G. Road for promoting activities such as sports, games, cultural events, and yoga. The clothing of the locals include traditional men wearing dhoti and women wearing saree and salwar kameez. Western clothing is also predominant.
The Vijayawada Art Society promotes Telugu arts. The city hosted Poetic Prism 2015, a multilingual poet 's meet on September 19, 2015. All these activities are organized in collaboration with the Cultural Centre of Vijayawada. Kondapalli Toys -- which were granted geographical indication in 2007 -- are handmade by the artisans of Kondapalli, a suburb of Vijayawada. Victoria Jubilee Museum is an archaeological museum in the city, which houses sculptures, paintings and artifacts of Buddhist and Hindu relics, dating back to the 2nd and 3rd centuries.
The city of Vijayawada has old and new town areas. The One Town area of the city is known as old city area, comprising areas such as Islampet, Jendachettu Centre, Kamsalipet, Rajarajeswaripet, Kothapet, Ajithsinghnagar and Winchipet. The new city areas includes areas such as, Autonagar, Benz circle, Chuttugunta, Labbipet, Machavaram Down, Mogalrajapuram, NTR circle, Tikkle Road, Governorpet, Pinnamaneni Polyclinic Road and Suryaraopet.
Brindavan Colony, Commercial Taxes Colony, Gunadala, Veterinary Colony are some of the residential areas. Bank Colony, Bharati Nagar, Currency Nagar, Satyanarayana Puram, Gurunanak Colony, LIC Colony, Patamata and MG Road are the upscale residential areas. The major commercial areas include the stretch of MG Road and from Benz Circle to Ramavarappadu Ring. Other commercial centres are Besant Road, Rajagopalachari street, One Town market area covering Kaleswara Rao Market, and Vastralatha.
The primary modes of intra-city public transport are city buses and auto rickshaws. Apart from these, other means of transport are motorcycles, cycle rickshaws and bicycles. The Pandit Nehru Bus Station and the Vijayawada railway station are the major transport infrastructure in the city for road and rail transport. Besides those two there are another modes of transport infrastructures i.e., Autonagar bus terminal and city busport. Another nearest railway station to Vijayawada is Krishna canal Jn. The Pandit Nehru bus station is the administrative headquarters of APSRTC, which is ranked as the fourth largest and busiest bus terminals in the country. The Vijayawada City Division of APSRTC operates close to 450 buses for an average of 300,000 daily commuting passengers and is supported by BRTS corridors. The two major National Highways of NH16 (Old NH5) connecting Kolkata -- Chennai and NH65 (Old NH9) connecting Pune -- Hyderabad - Suryapet - Machilipatnam provides access to other states. National Highway 30 from Jagdalpur of Chhattisgarh terminates near the city suburb of Ibrahimpatnam. The Inner Ring Road connects NH 16 and 65 to serve the main purpose of easing traffic congestion.
The city has a total road length of 1,264.24 km (785.56 mi), covering 1,230.00 km (764.29 mi) of municipal roads, 22.74 km (14.13 mi) of R&B (Roads & Buildings) department roads, 11.50 km (7.15 mi) of National Highways. M.G. Road and Eluru road are the main arterial roads of the city. Benz Circle is one of the busiest road junctions in the city with an average of 57,000 vehicles crossing daily, The junction has the intersection of two national highways of NH 16 and NH 65.
Vijayawada railway station is classified as an A1 category station and is one of the busiest of Indian Railways. Suburban rail services are operated from the railway station to the nearby cities of Guntur and Tenali, Gudivada, machlipatnam, Bhimavaram, Narasapuram. The city houses the headquarters of Vijayawada railway division, one of the six railway divisions of South Central Railway zone.. The station has also a diesel and electric loco sheds which has a capacity of helding 220 locos by both the sheds. Also this station connects to the mao = in cities of India such as Mumbai, Secunderabad, Chennai, Delhi and Howrah by train. This is also a junction for Howrah - Chennai, Howrah - Banglore and Delhi - Chennai main lines. These city has also the satellite stations to serve the city in busy times such as Krishna canal Jn. etc.,. A new circular railway project proposed would extend up to the state capital, Amaravati. The Vijayawada Metro is a planned rapid transit system that would be constructed in two corridors.
The city of Vijayawada has several satellite stations such as, Gannavaram, Gunadala, Krishna Canal, Ramavarappadu, Kondapalli, Rayanapadu, Madhura Nagar, Nidamanuru
A proposed circular train connectivity would connect Vijayawada with neighbouring cities of Guntur, Tenali, Mangalagiri and the state capital, Amaravati.. Vijayawada is the first Indian city to plan a Light rail in it. A new metro rail route is also sanctioned for the city and yet to be planned. A suburban railway network is also proposed in the city
The seamless commuting in the city is supported by the presence of 16 bridges across the three canals of Bandar, Eluru and Ryves. MG Road and Eluru Road are the major arterial roads of the city, with as many as 90,000 vehicles plying M.G. Road (Bandar Road) itself. The city has a total road length of 1,264.24 km (785.56 mi), used by 678,004 non-transport and 94,937 transport vehicles. The heavy vehicles like lorries are used for freight transport and holds a share of 18 % in the country. Short distance commuting is served by 27,296 auto rickshaws plying the city roads every day, which include the women - driven ' She Autos '.
The Vijayawada Airport at Gannavaram provides air connectivity to major metropolitan cities of the country. On 3 May 2017, Vijayawada Airport was upgraded from domestic to international. During the 2016 -- 17 fiscal year, it registered domestic passenger movement growth rate of 56.1 % with a total passenger count of 622,354 and aircraft movement recorded a growth of 54.8 % with 10,333 aircraft.
The primary and secondary school education is imparted by government, aided and private schools, under the state School Education Department. As per the school information report for academic year 2015 -- 16, the city limits have 133,837 students enrolled in 529 schools. The state and CBSE syllabus are followed by schools for the Secondary School Certificate. The languages of instruction are English, Telugu, and Urdu.
For 10 + 2 education, there are two government junior colleges, namely, SRR and CVR Government Junior College and Government Junior College (at Vinchipeta); a Railway Junior college; three co-operative, 12 private aided, including the oldest, S.R.R & C.V.R College (established in 1937), Andhra Loyola College (established in December 1953), Maria Stella College for Girls (established in 1962); V.R Siddhartha Engineering College (established in 1977) the oldest Engineering College in Andhra Pradesh, and many private unaided colleges. School of Planning and Architecture, Vijayawada (SPAV) was established in 2008, a higher education institute in Vijayawada. It is one of the three Schools of Planning and Architecture (SPAs) established by the Ministry of Human Resource Development in 2008 as an autonomous institute and a fully central funded institution.
The Sarvotthama Grandhalaya is a city library established on 30 March 1987. It serves an average daily readership of 200, equipped with 22,000 books related to many fields. VMC & VBFS Research and Reference Library is a reader 's room / library maintained by Vijayawada Book Festival Society.
Visalaandhra was the first newspaper in the state, started from Vijayawada. As per the 58th annual report of Press India 2013 -- 14, the large and medium Telugu daily publications from Vijayawada include Andhra Jyothy, Eenadu, Sakshi, Suryaa, Telugu Jatiya Dinapatrika Vaartha, Praja Sakti, and Udaya Bharatam. The English publications are Deccan Chronicle, The Hindu, News Boom, The Fourth Voice, and Views Observer.
The All India Radio Vijayawada was commissioned on 1 December 1948. Its building was named after Pingali Venkaiah, the designer of the Indian flag. The channels broadcast by All India Radio are Rainbow Krishnaveni FM, Vividh Bharati. Telugu DooraDarshan saptagiri is located here.
Indira Gandhi Stadium in the city is the headquarters of the Sports Authority of Andhra Pradesh. It has hosted the only Men 's ODI on 24 November 2002, played between India and West Indies.
The only women 's ODI was hosted on 12 December 1997, played as a group match of 1997 Women 's Cricket World Cup between England women 's and Pakistan women 's teams. Makineni Basavapunnaiah Stadium at Ajit Singh Nagar is another stadium that caters the sporting needs of northern part of the city. Indoor stadiums include Dandamudi Rajagopala Rao Indoor Stadium (DRRIS) at M.G. Road and Chennupati Ramakotaiah Indoor Stadium (CRIS) at Patamatalanka. The DRRIS was named after the former weightlifter, Dandamudi Rajagopala Rao, who participated in the 1951 Asian Games and the 1956 Olympics. The DRRIS hosted several national and international sporting events, such as the 79th Senior Badminton Champions.
Spoorthy is the first paddler from the city to have represented at international level. Andhra Cricket Assosiation (ACA) International Cricket Stadium is being built on a 30 - acre (12 ha) site at Novlur Village, Mangalagiri Mandal of Guntur district, t 15 km from the city of Vijayawada. It will serve as the Andhra Cricket Association stadium. Vijaya Madhavi Tennis Academy is in Loyola College; Loyola College Grounds hosted many national - level events which includes a Ranji match.
The railway sports stadium, near the railway station, hosted several national level railway and a few non-railway events. This stadium has a gallery facility of over 10,000 people. Makineni Basava Punnaiah stadium is another open stadium in the city. Dandamudi Raja Gopal Rao indoor stadium is one of the noted badminton stadiums in AP. It hosted several national level badminton and table tennis championships.
Prakasham barage
Mogalrajpuramcaves
Lenin statue
Bhavani island
Bapu museum
Kondapalli killa
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who is the us general of the army | General of the Army (United States) - wikipedia
General of the Army (abbreviated as GA) is a five - star general officer and the second highest possible rank in the United States Army. A General of the Army ranks immediately above a general and is equivalent to a Fleet Admiral and a General of the Air Force. There is no established equivalent five - star rank in the other federal uniformed services (Marine Corps, Coast Guard, United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Corps). Often called a "five - star general '', the rank of General of the Army has historically been reserved for wartime use and is not currently active in the U.S. military. The General of the Army insignia consisted of five 3 / 8th inch stars in a pentagonal pattern, with points touching. The insignia is paired with the gold and enameled United States Coat of Arms on service coat shoulder loops. The silver colored five - star metal insignia alone would be worn for use as a collar insignia of grade and on the garrison cap. Soft shoulder epaulettes with five 7 / 16th inch stars in silver thread and gold - threaded United States Coat of Arms on green cloth were worn with shirts and sweaters.
A special rank of General of the Armies, which ranks above General of the Army, exists but has been conferred only twice, to John J. Pershing and posthumously to George Washington.
On July 25, 1866, the U.S. Congress established the rank of "General of the Army of the United States '' for General Ulysses S. Grant. His pay was "four hundred dollars per month, and his allowance for fuel and quarters '' except "when his headquarters are in Washington, shall be at the rate of three hundred dollars per month. '' When appointed General of the Army, Grant wore the rank insignia of four stars and coat buttons arranged in three groups of four.
Unlike the World War II rank with a similar title, the 1866 rank of General of the Army was a four - star rank. This rank held all the authority and power of a 1799 proposal for a rank of "General of the Armies '' even though Grant was never called by this title.
In contrast to the modern four - star rank of general, only one officer at a time could hold the 1866 -- 1888 rank of General of the Army. (For a few months in 1885 as he was dying, Grant was accorded a special honor and his rank was restored by Congressional legislation).
After Grant became the U.S. president, he was succeeded as General of the Army by William T. Sherman, effective March 4, 1869. In 1872, Sherman ordered the insignia changed to two stars with the coat of arms of the United States in between.
By an Act of Congress, on June 1, 1888, the grade was conferred upon Philip Sheridan, who by then was in failing health. The rank of General of the Army ceased to exist with Sheridan 's death on August 5, 1888.
As the logistics and military leadership requirements of World War II escalated after the June 1944 Normandy Landings, the United States government created a new version of General of the Army. The five - star rank and authority of General of the Army and equivalent naval fleet admiral was created by an Act of Congress on a temporary basis when Pub. L. 78 -- 482 was passed on 14 December 1944, as a temporary rank, subject to reversion to permanent rank six months after the end of the war. The temporary rank was then declared permanent 23 March 1946 by Pub. L. 79 -- 333, which also awarded full pay and allowances in the grade to those on the retired list. It was created to give the most senior American commanders parity of rank with their British counterparts holding the ranks of field marshal and admiral of the fleet. This second General of the Army rank is not the same as the post-Civil War era version because of its purpose and five stars.
The insignia for General of the Army, created in 1944, consists of five stars in a pentagonal pattern, with points touching. The five officers who have held the 1944 version of General of the Army are:
The timing of the first four appointments was coordinated with the appointments of the U.S. Navy 's first three five - star fleet admirals (William D. Leahy on December 15, 1944, Ernest J. King on December 17, 1944, and Chester W. Nimitz on December 19, 1944) to establish both an order of seniority among the generals and a near - equivalence between the services. The final naval appointment of five - star rank was that of William Halsey Jr. on December 11, 1945.
Although briefly considered, the U.S. Army did not introduce a rank of field marshal. In the United States, the term "Marshal '' has traditionally been used for civilian law enforcement officers, particularly the U.S. Marshals, as well as formerly for state and local police chiefs. In addition, giving the rank the name "marshal '' would have resulted in George Marshall being designated as "Field Marshal Marshall '', which was considered undignified.
Eisenhower resigned his army commission on May 31, 1952 to run for the U.S. presidency. After Eisenhower served two terms, President John F. Kennedy signed Pub. L. 87 -- 3 on March 22, 1961, which authorized reappointing Eisenhower "to the active list of the Regular Army in his former grade, of General of the Army with his former date of rank in such grade ''. This rank is today commemorated on the signs denoting Interstate Highways as part of the Eisenhower Interstate System, which display five silver stars on a light blue background.
Arnold, a general in the Army, was the Commanding General of the Army Air Forces when he was promoted to the rank of General of the Army. After the United States Air Force became a separate service on September 18, 1947, Arnold 's rank was carried over to the Air Force, as all Army Air Force personnel, equipment, etc. also carried over. Arnold was the first and, to date, only General of the Air Force. He is also the only person to hold a five - star rank in two branches of the U.S. Armed Forces.
These officers who held the rank of General of the Army remained officers of the United States Army for life with an annual $20,000 (equivalent to $180,000 in 2016) pay and allowances. They were entitled to an office maintained by the Army along with an aide (of the rank of colonel), a secretary and an orderly.
No officers have been appointed to the rank of General of the Army since Omar Bradley. The rank of General of the Army is still maintained as a rank of the U.S. military, and could again be bestowed, most likely during a time of major war, pending approval of the United States Senate. United States military policy since the creation of a fifth star in World War II has been to award it only when a commander of U.S. forces must be equal to or of higher rank than commanders of armies from another nation under his control. However, the President with consent from the Senate may award a fifth star at any time they see fit.
Although the first Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Omar Bradley, was eventually awarded a fifth star, such a promotion does not come with the office; Bradley 's elevation was a political move so that he would not be outranked by his subordinate, Douglas MacArthur.
In the 1990s, there were proposals in U.S. Department of Defense academic circles to bestow a five - star rank on the office of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
After the conclusion of the Persian Gulf War but before his tenure as Secretary of State, there was talk of awarding a fifth star to General Colin Powell, who had served as CJCS during the conflict. But even in the face of public and Congressional pressure to do so, Clinton presidential transition team staffers decided against it for political reasons, fearing that a fifth star may have assisted Powell had he decided to run for office. An effort was also made to promote General Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. to General of the Army, although it was not carried out.
As recently as the late 2000s, some commentators proposed that the military leader in the Global War on Terrorism be promoted to a five - star rank. In January 2011, the founders of the Vets for Freedom political advocacy group published an op - ed in the Wall Street Journal calling for David Petraeus to be awarded a fifth star in recognition of his work and the importance of his mission. Earlier, in July 2010, D.B. Grady wrote an article in The Atlantic supporting the same promotion.
The rank of General of the Armies is senior to General of the Army, and this rank has been bestowed on only two officers in U.S. history. In 1919 John J. Pershing was promoted to General of the Armies for his services in World War I. In 1976 George Washington was posthumously promoted to this rank for his service as the first commanding general of the United States Army. In 1903, retroactive to 1899, George Dewey was promoted to Admiral of the Navy, a rank equivalent to General of the Armies.
When the five - star rank of General of the Army was introduced, it was decided that General Pershing, who was still living, would be superior in rank to all the newly appointed Generals of the Army. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson was asked whether Pershing was therefore a five - star general (at that time the highest rank was a four - star general). Stimson stated:
It appears the intent of the Army was to make the General of the Armies senior in grade to the General of the Army. I have advised Congress that the War Department concurs in such proposed action.
Section 7 of Public Law 78 - 482 read: "Nothing in this Act shall affect the provisions of the Act of September 3, 1919 (41 Stat. 283: 10 U.S.C. 671a), or any other law relating to the office of General of the Armies of the United States. ''
George Washington was posthumously promoted to the rank of General of Armies on March 15, 1978 by Secretary of the Army Clifford Alexander. In relation to America 's Bicentennial celebration, Congress passed legislation on January 19, 1976 urging Washington 's promotion and President Gerald Ford approved it in October, 1976, but historians found that Congressional and Presidential actions were not enough and that the Army had to issue orders to make the promotion official. According to Public Law 94 - 479, General of the Armies of the United States is established as having "rank and precedence over all other grades of the Army, past or present '', clearly making it superior in grade to General of the Army. Washington will always be the most senior general of the United States. During his lifetime, Washington was appointed a general in the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War, and a three - star lieutenant general in the Regular Army during the Quasi-War with France.
The rank of General of the Army is equivalent to the U.S. Air Force 's rank of General of the Air Force and the U.S. Navy 's rank of fleet admiral. The other uniformed services of the United States, such as the U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Coast Guard, and the commissioned corps of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the U.S. Public Health Service, do not have an equivalent rank.
In foreign militaries, the equivalent rank is typically Marshal or Field Marshal. In the British Army, Field Marshal was traditionally the highest rank a general officer could be promoted to, but is now a ceremonial rank. Russia uses the rank of Marshal of the Russian Federation.
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which of the state capital in farthest east in india | Northeast India - Wikipedia
Northeast India (officially North Eastern Region, NER) is the easternmost region of India representing both a geographic and political administrative division of the country. It comprises eight states -- Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. The Siliguri Corridor in West Bengal, with a width of 21 to 40 kilometres (13 to 25 mi), connects the North Eastern Region with East India. The region shares an international border of 5,182 kilometres (3,220 mi) (about 99 percent of its total geographical boundary) with the neighbouring countries -- 1,395 kilometres (867 mi) with Tibet Autonomous Region, China in the north, 1,640 kilometres (1,020 mi) with Myanmar in the east, 1,596 kilometres (992 mi) with Bangladesh in the south - west, 97 kilometres (60 mi) with Nepal in the west and 455 kilometres (283 mi) with Bhutan in the north - west. It comprises an area of 262,230 square kilometres (101,250 sq mi), almost 8 percent of that of India, and is one of the largest salients (panhandles) in the world.
The states of North Eastern Region are officially recognised under the North Eastern Council (NEC), constituted in 1971 as the acting agency for the development of the north eastern states. Long after induction of NEC, Sikkim formed part of the North Eastern Region as the eighth state in 2002. India 's Look - East connectivity projects connect Northeast India to China and ASEAN.
The earliest settlers may have been Austro - Asiatic speakers from Southeast Asia, followed by Tibeto - Burmese from China and by 500 B.C. Indo - Aryans speakers from Gangetic Plains. Due to the bio - and crop diversity of the region, archaeological researchers believe that early settlers of Northeast India had domesticated several important plants. Writers believe that the 100 BC writings of Chinese explorer, Zhang Qian indicate an early trade route via Northeast India. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mention a people called Sêsatai in the region, who produced malabathron, so prized in the old world.
In the early historical period (most of first millennium), Kamarupa straddled most of present - day Northeast India, besides Bhutan and Sylhet in Bangladesh. Xuanzang, a travelling Chinese Buddhist monk, visited Kamarupa in the 7th century. He described the people as "short in stature and black - looking '', whose speech differed a little from mid-India and who were of simple but violent disposition. He wrote that the people in Kamarupa knew of Sichuan, which lay to the kingdom 's east beyond a treacherous mountain. For many of the tribal peoples, their primary identification is with subtribes and villages, which have distinct dialects and cultures.
The northeastern states were established during the British Raj of the 19th and early 20th centuries, when they became relatively isolated from traditional trading partners such as Bhutan and Myanmar. Many of the peoples in present - day Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland converted to Christianity under the influence of British (Welsh) missionaries.
In the early 19th century, both the Ahom and the Manipur kingdoms fell to a Burmese invasion. The ensuing First Anglo - Burmese War resulted in the entire region coming under British control. In the colonial period (1826 -- 1947), North East India was made a part of Bengal Province from 1839 to 1873, when Assam became its own province.
After Indian Independence from British Rule in 1947, the Northeastern region of British India consisted of Assam and the princely states of Manipur and Tripura. Subsequently, Nagaland in 1963, Meghalaya in 1972, Arunachal Pradesh in 1975 (capital changed to Itanagar) (formed on 20 February 1987) and Mizoram in 1987 were formed out of the large territory of Assam. Manipur and Tripura remained as Union Territories of India between 1956 until 1972, when they attained fully - fledged statehood. Sikkim was integrated as the eighth North Eastern Council state in 2002.
The city of Shillong served as the capital of the Assam province created during British Rule. It remained as the capital of undivided Assam until formation of the state of Meghalaya in 1972. The capital of Assam was shifted to Dispur, a part of Guwahati, and Shillong was designated as the capital of Meghalaya.
The Seven Sister States is a popular term for the contiguous states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura prior to inclusion of the state of Sikkim into the North Eastern Region of India. The sobriquet ' Land of the Seven Sisters ' was coined to coincide with the inauguration of the new states in January 1972 by Jyoti Prasad Saikia, a journalist in Tripura, in the course of a radio talk show. He later compiled a book on the interdependence and commonness of the Seven Sister States, and named it the Land of Seven Sisters. It has been primarily because of this publication that the nickname has caught on.
In 1944, the Japanese planned a daring attack on India. Traveling through Burma, its forces were stopped at Kohima and Imphal by British and Indian troops. This marked the furthest western expansion of the Japanese Empire; its defeat in this area presaged Allied victory.
Arunachal Pradesh, a state in the Northeastern tip of India, is claimed by China as South Tibet. Sino - Indian relations degraded, resulting in the Sino - Indian War of 1962. The cause of the escalation into war is still disputed by both Chinese and Indian sources. During the war in 1962, the PRC (China) captured much of the NEFA (North - East Frontier Agency) created by India in 1954. But on 21 November 1962, China declared a unilateral ceasefire, and withdrew its troops 20 kilometres (12 mi) behind the McMahon Line. It returned Indian prisoners of war in 1963.
The Northeast region can be physiographically categorised into the Eastern Himalaya, the Patkai and the Brahmaputra and the Barak valley plains. Northeast India (at the confluence of Indo - Malayan, Indo - Chinese, and Indian biogeographical realms) has a predominantly humid sub-tropical climate with hot, humid summers, severe monsoons, and mild winters. Along with the west coast of India, this region has some of the Indian sub-continent's last remaining rain forests, which support diverse flora and fauna and several crop species. Reserves of petroleum and natural gas in the region are estimated to constitute a fifth of India 's total potential.
The region is covered by the mighty Brahmaputra - Barak river systems and their tributaries. Geographically, apart from the Brahmaputra, Barak and Imphal valleys and some flat lands in between the hills of Meghalaya and Tripura, the remaining two - thirds of the area is hilly terrain interspersed with valleys and plains; the altitude varies from almost sea - level to over 7,000 metres (23,000 ft) above MSL. The region 's high rainfall, averaging around 10,000 millimetres (390 in) and above, creates problems of ecosystem, high seismic activity, and floods. The states of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim have a montane climate with cold, snowy winters and mild summers.
Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain peak in the world rising to an altitude of 8,586 m (28,169 ft), lies in - between the state Sikkim and adjacent country Nepal.
Tributaries of the Brahmaputra River in Northeast India:
Northeast India has a subtropical climate that is influenced by its relief and influences from the southwest and northeast monsoons. The Himalayas to the north, the Meghalaya plateau to the south and the hills of Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur to the east influences the climate. Since monsoon winds originating from the Bay of Bengal move northeast, these mountains force the moist winds upwards, causing them to cool adiabatically and condense into clouds, releasing heavy precipitation on these slopes. It is the rainiest region in the country, with many places receiving an average annual precipitation of 2,000 mm (79 in), which is mostly concentrated in summer during the monsoon season. Cherrapunji, located on the Meghalaya plateau is one of the rainiest place in the world with an annual precipitation of 11,777 mm (463.7 in). Temperatures are moderate in the Brahmaputra and Barak valley river plains which decreases with altitude in the hilly areas. At the highest altitudes, there is permanent snow cover.
Temperature Temperatures vary by altitude with the warmest places being in the Brahmaputra and Barak River plains and the coldest at the highest altitudes. It is also influenced by proximity to the sea with the valleys and western areas being close to the sea, which moderates temperatures. Generally, temperatures in the hilly and mountainous areas are generally lower than the plains which lie at a lower altitude. Summer temperatures tend to be more uniform than winter temperatures due to high cloud cover and humidity.
In the Brahmaputra and Barak valley river plains, mean winter temperatures vary between 16 to 17 ° C (61 to 63 ° F) while mean summer temperatures are around 28 ° C (82 ° F). The highest summer temperatures occur in the West Tripura plain with Agartala, the capital of Tripura having mean maximum summer temperatures ranging between 33 to 35 ° C (91 to 95 ° F) in April. The highest temperatures in summer occur before the arrival of monsoons and thus eastern areas have the highest temperatures in June and July where the monsoon arrives later than western areas. In the Cachar Plain, located south of the Brahmaputra plain, temperatures are higher than the Brahmaputra plain although the temperature range is smaller owing to higher cloud cover and the monsoons that moderate night temperatures year round.
In the mountainous areas of Arunachal Pradesh, the Himalayan ranges in the northern border with India and China experience the lowest temperatures with heavy snow during winter and temperatures that drop below freezing. Areas with altitudes exceeding 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) receive snowfall during winters and have cool summers. Below 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) above sea level, winter temperatures reach up to 15 ° C (59 ° F) during the day with nights dropping to zero while summers are cool, with a mean maximum of 25 ° C (77 ° F) and a mean minimum of 15 ° C (59 ° F). In the hilly areas of Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram, winters are cold while summers are cool.
The plains in Manipur has colder winter minimums than what is warranted by its elevation owing to being surrounded by hills on all sides. This is due to temperature inversions during winter nights when cold air descends from the hills into the valleys below and its geographic location which prevents winds that bring hot temperatures and humidity from coming into the Manipur plain.
Rainfall The southwest monsoon is responsible for bringing 90 % of the annual rainfall to the region. April to late October are the months where most of the rainfall in Northeast India occurs with June and July being the rainiest months. Southern areas are the first to receive the monsoon (May or June) with the Brahmaputra valley and the mountainous north receiving later (later May or June). In the hilly parts of Mizoram, the closer proximity to the Bay of Bengal causes it to experience early monsoons with June being the wettest season.
The North Eastern Region of India is a mega-earthquake prone zone caused by active fault planes beneath formed by the convergence of three tectonic plates viz. India Plate, Eurasian Plate and Burma Plate. Historically the region has suffered from two great earthquakes (M > 8.0) -- 1897 Assam earthquake and 1950 Assam - Tibet earthquake -- and about 20 large earthquakes (8.0 > M > 7.0) since 1897. The 1950 Assam - Tibet earthquake is still the largest earthquake in India.
WWF has identified the entire Eastern Himalayas as a priority Global 200 Ecoregion. Conservation International has upscaled the Eastern Himalaya hotspot to include all the eight states of Northeast India, along with the neighbouring countries of Bhutan, southern China and Myanmar.
The region has been identified by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research as a centre of rice germplasm. The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), India, has highlighted the region as being rich in wild relatives of crop plants. It is the centre of origin of citrus fruits. Two primitive variety of maize, Sikkim Primitive 1 and 2, have been reported from Sikkim (Dhawan, 1964). Although jhum cultivation, a traditional system of agriculture, is often cited as a reason for the loss of forest cover of the region, this primary agricultural economic activity practised by local tribes supported the cultivation of 35 varieties of crops. The region is rich in medicinal plants and many other rare and endangered taxa. Its high endemism in both higher plants, vertebrates, and avian diversity has qualified it as a biodiversity hotspot.
The following figures highlight the biodiversity significance of the region:
The International Council for Bird Preservation, UK identified the Assam plains and the Eastern Himalaya as an Endemic Bird Area (EBA). The EBA has an area of 220,000 km following the Himalayan range in the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Nepal, Myanmar and the Indian states of Sikkim, northern West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, southern Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya and Mizoram. Because of a southward occurrence of this mountain range in comparison to other Himalayan ranges, this region has a distinctly different climate, with warmer mean temperatures and fewer days with frost, and much higher rainfall. This has resulted in the occurrence of a rich array of restricted - range bird species. More than two critically endangered species, three endangered species, and 14 vulnerable species of birds are in this EBA. Stattersfield et al. (1998) identified 22 restricted range species, out of which 19 are confined to this region and the remaining three are present in other endemic and secondary areas. Eleven of the 22 restricted - range species found in this region are considered as threatened (Birdlife International 2001), a number greater than in any other EBA of India.
WWF has identified the following priority ecoregions in North - East India:
The total population of Northeast India is 46 million with 68 percent of that living in Assam alone. Assam also has a higher population density of 397 persons per km2 than the national average of 382 persons per km2. The literacy rates in the states of the Northeastern region, except those in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, are higher than the national average of 74 percent. As per 2011 census, Meghalaya recorded the highest population growth of 27.8 percent among all the states of the region, higher than the national average at 17.64 percent; while Nagaland recorded the lowest in the entire country with a negative 0.5 percent.
According to 2011 Census of India, the largest cities in Northeast India are
UA: Urban Agglomeration
Northeast India constitutes a single linguistic region within the Indian national context, with about 220 languages in multiple language families (Indo - European, Trans - Himalayan / Sino - Tibetan, Kra -- Dai, Austroasiatic, as well as some creole languages) that share a number of features that set them apart from most other areas of the Indian subcontinent (such as alveolar consonants rather than the more typical dental / retroflex distinction). Assamese, an Indo - Aryan language spoken mostly in the Brahmaputra Valley, developed as a lingua franca for many speech communities. Assamese - based pidgin / creoles have developed in Nagaland (Nagamese) and Arunachal (Nefamese), though their use has been on a decline in recent times. The Austro - Asiatic family is represented by the Khasi, Jaintia and War languages of Meghalaya. A small number of Tai -- Kadai languages (Ahom, Tai Phake, Khamti, etc.) are also spoken. Trans - Himalayan / Sino - Tibetan is represented by a number of languages that differ significantly from each other, some of which are: Bodo, Rabha, Karbi, Mising, Tiwa, Deori, Biate etc. (Assam); Garo, Hajong, Biate (Meghalaya) Ao, Angami, Sema, Lotha, Konyak etc. (Nagaland); Mizo, Hmar, Chakma (Mizoram); Hrusso, Tanee, Nisi, Adi, Abor, Nocte, Apatani, Misimi etc. (Arunachal). Meitei is the official language in Manipur, the dominant language of the Imphal Valley; while "Naga '' languages such as Poumai, Mao, Maram, Rongmei (Kabui) and Tangkul, and Kuki - Chin languages such as Thadou, Hmar, Simte and Paite predominate in individual hill areas of the state.
Among other Indo - Aryan languages, Bengali is spoken in South Assam in the Barak Valley. Besides the Sino - Tibetan Tripuri language, Bengali is a majority language in Tripura. Nepali, an Indo - Aryan language, is dominant in Sikkim, besides the Sino - Tibetan languages Limbu, Bhutia and Lepcha. Bengali was the official language of Colonial Assam for about forty years from the 1830s.
Given the diverse population in the region with only a few widely spoken ones recognised as the official languages by both the state and central governments, a large number of languages from the North Eastern Region of India have become vulnerable. Without proper teaching and preservation efforts, the already underdeveloped literature of the endangered languages are on the verge of extinction. Additionally, the younger generation are rapidly adopting the widely spoken languages to secure employment and livelihood.
Religion in Northeast India (2011)
Northeast India has over 220 ethnic groups and equal number of dialects in which Bodo form the largest indegenous ethnic group. The hills states in the region like Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland are predominantly inhabited by tribal people with a degree of diversity even within the tribal groups. The region 's population results from ancient and continuous flows of migrations from Tibet, Indo - Gangetic India, the Himalayas, present Bangladesh and Myanmar.
Sattriya (from Assam) and Manipuri dance (from Manipur) have been listed as classical dances of India. Besides these, all tribes in the Northeast India have their own folk dances associated with their religion and festivals. The tribal heritage in the region is rich with the practice of hunting, land cultivation and indigenous crafts. The rich culture is vibrant and visible with the traditional attires of each community.
All states in Northeast India share the handicrafts of bamboo and cane, wood carving, making traditional weapons and musical instruments, pottery and handloom weaving. Traditional tribal attires are made of thick fabrics primarily with cotton. Assam silk is a famous industry in the region.
The northeastern states, having 3.8 % of India 's total population, are allotted 25 out of a total of 543 seats in the Lok Sabha. This is 4.6 % of the total number of seats.
In 1947 Indian independence and partition resulted in the North East becoming a landlocked region. This exacerbated the isolation that has been recognised, but not studied. East Pakistan controlled access to the Indian Ocean. The mountainous terrain has hampered the construction of road and railways connections in the region.
The militant groups have formed an alliance to fight against the governments of India, Bhutan, and Myanmar, and now use the term "Western Southeast Asia '' (WESEA) to refer to the region. The separatist groups include the Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP), Kanglei Yawol Kanna Lup (KYKL), People 's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK), People 's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak - Pro (PREPAK - Pro), Revolutionary People 's Front (RPF) and United National Liberation Front (UNLF) of Manipur, Hynniewtrep National Liberation Council (HNLC) of Meghalaya, Kamatapur Liberation Organization (KLO), which operates in Assam and North Bengal, National Democratic Front of Bodoland and ULFA of Assam and the National Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT).
The Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region (MDoNER) is the deciding body under Government of India for socio - economic development in the region. The North Eastern Council under MDoNER serves as the regional governing body for Northeast India. The North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Ltd. (NEDFi) is a Public Limited Company providing assistance to micro, small, medium and large enterprises within the north eastern region (NER). Other organisations under MDoNER include North Eastern Regional Agricultural Marketing Corporation Limited (NERAMAC), Sikkim Mining Corporation Limited (SMC) and North Eastern Handlooms and Handicrafts Development Corporation (NEHHDC).
The economy is agrarian. Little land is available for settled agriculture. Along with settled agriculture, jhum (slash - and - burn) cultivation is still practised by a few indigenous groups of people. The inaccessible terrain and internal disturbances has made rapid industrialisation difficult in the region.
Living Root Bridges
Northeast India is also the home of many Living root bridges. In Meghalaya, these can be found in the southern Khasi and Jaintia Hills. They are still widespread in the region, though as a practice they are fading out, with many examples having been destroyed in floods or replaced by more standard structures in recent years. Living root bridges have also been observed in the state of Nagaland, near the Indo - Myanmar border.
Northeast India has several newspapers in both English and regional languages. The largest circulated English daily in Assam is The Assam Tribune. In Meghalaya, The Shillong Times is the highest circulated newspaper. In Nagaland, Nagaland Post has the highest number of readers. Northeast Now is a digital news portal from Guwahati. In Manipur, Imphal Free Press is a highly respected newspaper. in Arunachal Pradesh, The Arunachal Times is the highest circulated newspaper in Arunachal Pradesh.
States in the North Eastern Region are well connected by air - transport conducting regular flights to all major cities in the country. The states also own several small airstrips for military and private purposes which may be accessed using Pawan Hans helicopter services. The region currently has two international airpots viz. Lokapriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport and Bir Tikendrajit International Airport conducting flights to Thailand, Myanmar, Nepal and Bhutan. While the airport in Sikkim is under - construction, Bagdogra Airport (IATA: IXB, ICAO: VEBD) remains the closest domestic airport to the state.
Railway in Northeast India is delineated as Northeast Frontier Railway zone of Indian Railways. The regional network is underdeveloped with the states of Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Sikkim remaining almost disconnected till date (11 June 2017). However, projects are underway to extend the network and connect all the capital cities in the region.
In the 21st century, there has been recognition among policy makers and economists of the region that the main stumbling block for economic development of the Northeastern region is the disadvantageous geographical location. It was argued that globalisation propagates deterritorialisation and a borderless world which is often associated with economic integration. With 98 percent of its borders with China, Myanmar, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Nepal, Northeast India appears to have a better scope for development in the era of globalisation. As a result, a new policy developed among intellectuals and politicians that one direction the Northeastern region must be looking to as a new way of development lies with political integration with the rest of India and economic integration with the rest of Asia, with East and Southeast Asia in particular, as the policy of economic integration with the rest of India did not yield much dividends. With the development of this new policy the Government of India directed its Look East policy towards developing the Northeastern region. This policy is reflected in the Year End Review 2004 of the Ministry of External Affairs, which stated that: "India 's Look East Policy has now been given a new dimension by the UPA Government. India is now looking towards a partnership with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEAN countries, both within BIMSTEC and the India - ASEAN Summit dialogue as integrally linked to economic and security interests, particularly for India 's East and North East region. ''
Northeast India travel guide from Wikivoyage
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when does the week start sunday or monday | Sunday - wikipedia
Sunday is the day of the week between Saturday and Monday. Sunday is a day of rest in most Western countries, as a part of the weekend and weeknight.
For most observant Christians, Sunday is observed as a day of worship and rest, holding it as the Lord 's Day and the day of Christ 's resurrection. In some Muslim countries and Israel, Sunday is the first work day of the week. According to the Hebrew calendar and traditional Christian calendars, Sunday is the first day of the week. But according to the International Organization for Standardization ISO 8601, Sunday is the seventh day of the week.
The name "Sunday '', the day of the Sun, is derived from Hellenistic astrology, where the seven planets, known in English as Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury and the Moon, each had an hour of the day assigned to them, and the planet which was regent during the first hour of any day of the week gave its name to that day. During the 1st and 2nd century, the week of seven days was introduced into Rome from Egypt, and the Roman names of the planets were given to each successive day.
Germanic peoples seem to have adopted the week as a division of time from the Romans, but they changed the Roman names into those of corresponding Teutonic deities. Hence, the dies Solis became Sunday (German, Sonntag).
The English noun Sunday derived sometime before 1250 from sunedai, which itself developed from Old English (before 700) Sunnandæg (literally meaning "sun 's day ''), which is cognate to other Germanic languages, including Old Frisian sunnandei, Old Saxon sunnundag, Middle Dutch sonnendach (modern Dutch zondag), Old High German sunnun tag (modern German Sonntag), and Old Norse sunnudagr (Danish and Norwegian søndag, Icelandic sunnudagur and Swedish söndag). The Germanic term is a Germanic interpretation of Latin dies solis ("day of the sun ''), which is a translation of the Ancient Greek heméra helíou. The p - Celtic Welsh language also translates the Latin "day of the sun '' as dydd Sul.
In most Indian languages, the word for Sunday is Ravivāra or Adityavāra or its derived forms -- vāra meaning day, Aditya and Ravi both being a style (manner of address) for Surya i.e. the Sun and Suryadeva the chief solar deity and one of the Adityas. Ravivāra is first day cited in Jyotisha, which provides logical reason for giving the name of each week day. In the Thai solar calendar of Thailand, the name ("Waan Arthit '') is derived from Aditya, and the associated colour is red.
In Russian the word for Sunday is Воскресенье (Voskreseniye) meaning "Resurrection ''. In other Slavic languages the word means "no work '', for example Polish: Niedziela, Ukrainian: Недiля, Belorussian: Нядзеля, Croatian: nedjelja, Serbian and Slovenian: Nedelja, Czech: Neděle, and Bulgarian: Неделя.
The Modern Greek word for Sunday, Greek: Κυριακή, is derived from Greek: Κύριος (Kyrios, Lord) also, due to its liturgical significance as the day commemorating the resurrection of Jesus Christ, i.e. The Lord 's Day.
In Korean, Sunday is called 일요일 Il - yo - Il, meaning "day of sun ''.
The international standard ISO 8601 for representation of dates and times, states that Sunday is the seventh and last day of the week. This method of representing dates and times unambiguously was first published in 1988.
In the Judaic, some Christian, as well as in some Islamic tradition, Sunday has been considered the first day of the week. A number of languages express this position either by the name for the day or by the naming of the other days. In Hebrew it is called יום ראשון yom rishon, in Arabic الأحد al - ahad, in Persian and related languages یکشنبه yek - shanbe, all meaning "first ''.
In Greek, the names of the days Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday ("Δευτέρα '', "Τρίτη '', "Τετάρτη '' and "Πέμπτη '') mean "second '', "third '', "fourth '', and "fifth '' respectively. This leaves Sunday in the first position of the week count. The current Greek name for Sunday, Κυριακή (Kyriake), means "Lord 's Day '' coming from the word Κύριος (Kyrios), which is the Greek word for "Lord ''. Similarly in Portuguese, where the days from Monday to Friday are counted as "segunda - feira '', "terça - feira '', "quarta - feira '', "quinta - feira '' and "sexta - feira '', while Sunday itself similar to Greek has the name of "Lord 's Day '' ("domingo ''). In Vietnamese, the working days in the week are named as: "Thứ Hai '' (second day), "Thứ Ba '' (third day), "Thứ Tư '' (fourth day), "Thứ Năm '' (fifth day), "Thứ Sáu '' (sixth day), "Thứ Bảy '' (seventh day). Sunday is called "Chủ Nhật '', a corrupted form of "Chúa Nhật '' meaning "Lord 's Day ''. Some colloquial text in the south of Vietnam and from the church may still use the old form to mean Sunday. In German, Wednesday is called "Mittwoch '', literally "mid-week '', implying that weeks run from Sunday to Saturday.
In Italian, Sunday is called "domenica '', which also means "Lord 's Day '' (from Latin "Dies Dominica ''). One finds similar cognates in French, where the name is "dimanche '', as well as Romanian ("duminică '') and Spanish and Portuguese ("domingo '').
Slavic languages implicitly number Monday as day number one, not two.
Russian воскресение (Sunday) means "resurrection (of Jesus) '' (that is the day of a week which commemorates it). In Old Russian Sunday was also called неделя "free day '' or "day with no work '', but in the contemporary language this word means "week ''. Hungarian péntek (Friday) is a Slavic loanword, so the correlation with "five '' is not evident to Hungarians. Hungarians use Vasárnap for Sunday, which means "market day ''.
In the Maltese language, due to its Siculo - Arabic origin, Sunday is called "Il - Ħadd '', a corruption of "wieħed '' meaning "one ''. Monday is "It - Tnejn '' meaning "two ''. Similarly Tuesday is "It - Tlieta '' (three), Wednesday is "L - Erbgħa '' (four) and Thursday is "Il - Ħamis '' (five).
In Armenian, Monday is (Yerkoushabti) literally meaning 2nd day of the week, Tuesday (Yerekshabti) 3rd day, Wednesday (Chorekshabti) 4th day, Thursday (Hingshabti) 5th day. Saturday is (Shabat) coming from the word Sabbath or Shabbath in Hebrew, and "Kiraki '' coming from the word "Krak '' meaning "fire '' is Sunday, "Krak '' describing the sun by fire. Apostle John also refers to the "Lord 's Day '' (in Greek, Κυριακή ἡμέρα, "kyriake hemera '' i.e. the day of the Lord) in Rev. 1: 10, which is another possible origin of the Armenian word for Sunday.
However, in many European countries calendars almost always show Monday as the first day of the week, which follows the ISO 8601 standard.
In the Persian calendar, Sunday is the second day of the week. However, it is called "number one '' as counting starts from zero; the first day - Saturday - is denoted as 00.
In Roman culture, Sunday was the day of the Sun god. In paganism, the sun was a source of life, giving warmth and illumination to mankind. It was the center of a popular cult among Romans, who would stand at dawn to catch the first rays of sunshine as they prayed.
The opportunity to spot in the nature - worship of their heathen neighbors a symbolism valid to their own faith was not lost on the Christians. One of the Church fathers, St. Jerome, would declare: "If pagans call (the Lord 's Day) (...) the ' day of the sun, ' we willingly agree, for today the light of the world is raised, today is revealed the sun of justice with healing in his rays. ''
A similar consideration may have influenced the choice of the Christmas date on the day of the winter solstice, whose celebration was part of the Roman cult of the sun. In the same vein, Christian churches have been built and are still being built (as far as possible) with an orientation so that the congregation faced toward the sunrise in the East. Much later, St. Francis would sing in his famous canticle: "Be praised, my Lord, through all your creatures, especially through my lord Brother Sun, who brings the day; and you give light through him. And he is beautiful and radiant in all his splendor! Of you, Most High, he bears the likeness. ''
The ancient Romans traditionally used the eight - day nundinal cycle, a market week, but in the time of Augustus in the 1st century AD, a seven - day week also came into use.
Justin Martyr, in the mid 2nd century, mentions "memoirs of the apostles '' as being read on "the day called that of the sun '' (Sunday) alongside the "writings of the prophets. ''
On 7 March 321, Constantine I, Rome 's first Christian Emperor (see Constantine I and Christianity), decreed that Sunday would be observed as the Roman day of rest:
On the venerable Day of the Sun let the magistrates and people residing in cities rest, and let all workshops be closed. In the country, however, persons engaged in agriculture may freely and lawfully continue their pursuits; because it often happens that another day is not so suitable for grain - sowing or vine - planting; lest by neglecting the proper moment for such operations the bounty of heaven should be lost.
Despite the official adoption of Sunday as a day of rest by Constantine, the seven - day week and the nundial cycle continued to be used side - by - side until at least the Calendar of 354 and probably later.
In 363, Canon 29 of the Council of Laodicea prohibited observance of the Jewish Sabbath (Saturday), and encouraged Christians to work on the Saturday and rest on the Lord 's Day (Sunday). The fact that the canon had to be issued at all is an indication that adoption of Constantine 's decree of 321 was still not universal, not even among Christians. It also indicates that Jews were observing the Sabbath on the Saturday.
Some Christian denominations, called "Sabbatarians '', observe a Saturday Sabbath. The name "Sabbatarian '' has also been claimed by Christians, especially Protestants, who believe Sunday must be observed with just the sort of rigorous abstinence from work associated with "Shabbat ''. Christians in the Seventh - day Adventist, Seventh Day Baptist, and Church of God (Seventh - Day) denominations, as well as many Messianic Jews, have maintained the practice of abstaining from work and gathering for worship on Saturdays (sunset to sunset) as did all of the followers of God in the Bible.
For most Christians the custom and obligation of Sunday rest is not as strict. A minority of Christians do not regard the day they attend church as important, so long as they attend. There is considerable variation in the observance of Sabbath rituals and restrictions, but some cessation of normal weekday activities is customary. Many Christians today observe Sunday as a day of church - attendance.
In Roman Catholic liturgy, Sunday begins on Saturday evening. The evening Mass on Saturday is liturgically a full Sunday Mass and fulfills the obligation of Sunday Mass attendance, and Vespers (evening prayer) on Saturday night is liturgically "first Vespers '' of the Sunday. The same evening anticipation applies to other major solemnities and feasts, and is an echo of the Jewish practice of starting the new day at sunset. Those who work in the medical field, in law enforcement, and soldiers in a war zone are dispensed from the usual obligation to attend Church on Sunday. They are encouraged to combine their work with attending religious services if possible.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Sunday begins at the Little Entrance of Vespers (or All - Night Vigil) on Saturday evening and runs until "Vouchsafe, O Lord '' (after the "prokeimenon '') of Vespers on Sunday night. During this time, the dismissal at all services begin with the words, "May Christ our True God, who rose from the dead... '' Anyone who wishes to receive Holy Communion at Divine Liturgy on Sunday morning is required to attend Vespers the night before (see Eucharistic discipline). Among Orthodox Christians, Sunday is considered to be a "Little Pascha '' (Easter), and because of the Paschal joy, the making of prostrations is forbidden, except in certain circumstances. Leisure activities and idleness, being secular and offensive to Christ as it is time - wasting, is prohibited.
Some languages lack separate words for "Saturday '' and "Sabbath '' (e.g. Italian, Portuguese). Outside the English - speaking world, Sabbath as a word, if it is used, refers to the Saturday (or the specific Jewish practices on it); Sunday is called the Lord 's Day e.g. in Romance languages and Modern Greek. On the other hand, English - speaking Christians often refer to the Sunday as the Sabbath (other than Seventh - day Sabbatarians); a practice which, probably due to the international connections and the Latin tradition of the Roman Catholic Church, is more widespread among (but not limited to) Protestants. Quakers traditionally referred to Sunday as "First Day '' eschewing the pagan origin of the English name, while referring to Saturday as the "Seventh day ''.
The Russian word for Sunday is "Voskresenie, '' meaning "Resurrection day. '' The Greek word for Sunday is "Kyriake '' (the "Lord 's Day ''). The Czech, Polish, Slovenian, Croatian, Serbian, Ukrainian and Belarusian words for Sunday ("neděle, '' "niedziela, '' "nedelja '', "nedjelja, '' "недеља '', "неділя '' and "нядзеля '' respectively) can be translated as "without acts (no work). ''
In the United States and Canada, most government offices are closed on both Saturday and Sunday. The practice of offices closing on Sunday in government and in some rural areas of the United States stem from a system of blue laws. Blue laws were established in the early puritan days which forbade secular activities on Sunday and were rigidly enforced. Some public activities are still regulated by these blue laws in the 21st century. In 1985 twenty - two states in which religious fundamentalism remained strong maintained general restrictions on Sunday behavior. In Oklahoma, for example, it is stated: "Oklahoma 's statutes state that "acts deemed useless and serious interruptions of the repose and religious liberty of the community, '' such as trades, manufacturing, mechanical employment, horse racing, and gaming are forbidden. Public selling of commodities other than necessary foods and drinks, medicine, ice, and surgical and burial equipment, and other necessities can legally be prohibited on Sunday. In Oklahoma a fine not to exceed twenty - five dollars may be imposed on individuals for each offense. '' Because of these blue laws, many private sector retail businesses open later and close earlier on Sunday or do n't open at all.
Many countries, particularly in Europe such as Sweden, France, Germany and Belgium, but also in other countries such as Peru, hold their national and local elections on a Sunday, either by law or by tradition.
Many American and British daily newspapers publish a larger edition on Sundays, which often includes color comic strips, a magazine, and a coupon section; may only publish on a Sunday, or may have a "sister - paper '' with a different masthead that only publishes on a Sunday.
North American Radio stations often play specialty radio shows such as Casey Kasem 's countdown or other nationally syndicated radio shows that may differ from their regular weekly music patterns on Sunday morning or Sunday evening. In the United Kingdom, there is a Sunday tradition of chart shows on BBC Radio 1 and commercial radio; this originates in the broadcast of chart shows and other populist material on Sundays by Radio Luxembourg when the Reithian BBC 's Sunday output consisted largely of solemn and religious programmes. However, BBC Radio 1 's chart show moved to Fridays in July 2015.
Period or older - skewing television dramas, such as Downton Abbey, Call the Midwife, Lark Rise to Candleford and Heartbeat are commonly shown on Sunday evenings in the UK; the first of these was Dr Finlay 's Casebook in the 1960s. Similarly, Antiques Roadshow has been shown on Sundays on BBC1 since 1979 and Last of the Summer Wine was shown on Sundays for many years until it ended in 2010.
Many American, Australian and British television networks and stations also broadcast their political interview shows on Sunday mornings.
Major League Baseball usually schedules all Sunday games in the daytime except for the nationally televised Sunday Night Baseball matchup. Certain historically religious cities such as Boston and Baltimore among others will schedule games no earlier than 1: 35 PM to ensure time for people who go to religious service in the morning can get to the game in time.
In the United States, professional American football is usually played on Sunday, although Saturday (via Saturday Night Football), Monday (via Monday Night Football), and Thursday (via Thursday Night Football or Thanksgiving) see some professional games. College football usually occurs on Saturday, and high - school football tends to take place on Friday night or Saturday afternoon.
In the UK, some club and Premier League football matches and tournaments usually take place on Sundays. Rugby matches and tournaments usually take place in club grounds or parks on Sunday mornings. It is not uncommon for church attendance to shift on days when a late morning or early afternoon game is anticipated by a local community.
One of the remains of religious segregation in the Netherlands is seen in amateur football: The Saturday - clubs are by and large Protestant Christian clubs, who were not allowed to play on Sunday. The Sunday - clubs were in general Catholic and working class clubs, whose players had to work on Saturday and therefore could only play on Sunday.
In Ireland, Gaelic football and hurling matches are predominantly played on Sundays, with the first (used to be second) and fourth (used to be third) Sundays in September always playing host to the All - Ireland hurling and football championship finals, respectively.
Professional golf tournaments traditionally end on Sunday.
In the United States and Canada, National Basketball Association and National Hockey League games, which are usually played at night during the week, are frequently played during daytime hours - often broadcast on national television.
Most NASCAR Sprint Cup and IndyCar events are held on Sundays. Formula One World Championship races are always held on Sundays regardless of timezone / country, while MotoGP holds most races on Sundays, with Middle Eastern races being the exception on Saturday. All Formula One events and MotoGP events with Sunday races involve qualifying taking place on Saturday.
Sunday is associated with the Sun and is symbolized by ☉.
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who tried to invade britain 100 years before claudius | Caesar 's invasions of Britain - wikipedia
In the course of his Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar invaded Britain twice: in 55 and 54 BC. The first invasion, in late summer, was unsuccessful, gaining the Romans little else besides a beachhead on the coast of Kent. The second invasion achieved more: the Romans installed a king, Mandubracius, who was friendly to Rome, and they forced the submission of Mandubracius 's rival, Cassivellaunus. No territory was conquered and held for Rome; instead, all Roman - occupied territory was restored to the allied Trinovantes, along with the promised tribute of the other tribes in what is now eastern England.
Britain had long been known to the classical world as a source of tin. The coastline had been explored by the Greek geographer Pytheas in the 4th century BC, and may have been explored even earlier, in the 5th, by the Carthaginian sailor Himilco. But to many Romans, the island, lying as it did beyond the Ocean at what was to them the edge of the "known world, '' was a land of great mystery. Some Roman writers even insisted that it did not exist, and dismissed reports of Pytheas 's voyage as a hoax.
Britain during the reign of Julius Caesar had an Iron Age culture, with an estimated population of between one and four million. Archaeological research shows that its economy was broadly divided into lowland and highland zones. In the lowland southeast, large areas of fertile soil made possible extensive arable farming, and communication developed along trackways, such as the Icknield Way, the Pilgrims ' Way and the Jurassic Way, and navigable rivers such as the Thames. In the highlands, north of the line between Gloucester and Lincoln, arable land was available in only isolated pockets, so pastoralism, supported by garden cultivation, was more common than settled farming, and communication was more difficult. Settlements were generally built on high ground and fortified, but in the southeast, oppida had begun to be established on lower ground, often at river crossings, suggesting that trade was becoming more important. Commercial contact between Britain and the continent had increased since the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul in 124 BC, and Italian wine was being imported via the Armorican peninsula, much of it arriving at Hengistbury Head in Dorset.
Caesar 's written account of Britain says that the Belgae of northeastern Gaul had previously conducted raids on Britain, establishing settlements in some of its coastal areas, and that within living memory Diviciacus, king of the Suessiones, had held power in Britain as well as Gaul. British coinage from this period shows a complicated pattern of intrusion. The earliest Gallo - Belgic coins that have been found in Britain date to before 100 BC, perhaps as early as 150 BC, were struck in Gaul, and have been found mainly in Kent. Later coins of a similar type were struck in Britain and are found all along the south coast as far west as Dorset. It appears that Belgic power was concentrated on the southeastern coast, although their influence spread further west and inland, perhaps through chieftains establishing political control over the native population.
Caesar claimed that, in the course of his conquest of Gaul, the Britons had supported the campaigns of the mainland Gauls against him, with fugitives from among the Gallic Belgae fleeing to Belgic settlements in Britain, and the Veneti of Armorica, who controlled seaborne trade to the island, calling in aid from their British allies to fight for them against Caesar in 56 BC. Strabo says that the Venetic rebellion in 56 BC had been intended to prevent Caesar from travelling to Britain and disrupting their commercial activity, suggesting that the possibility of a British expedition had already been considered by then.
In late summer, 55 BC, even though it was late in the campaigning season, Caesar decided to make an expedition to Britain. He summoned merchants who traded with the island, but they were unable or unwilling to give him any useful information about the inhabitants and their military tactics, or about harbours he could use, presumably not wanting to lose their monopoly on cross-channel trade. He sent a tribune, Gaius Volusenus, to scout the coast in a single warship. He probably examined the Kent coast between Hythe and Sandwich, but was unable to land, since he "did not dare leave his ship and entrust himself to the barbarians '', and after five days returned to give Caesar what intelligence he had managed to gather.
By then, ambassadors from some of the British states, warned by merchants of the impending invasion, had arrived promising their submission. Caesar sent them back, along with his ally Commius, king of the Gallic Atrebates, to use their influence to win over as many other states as possible.
He gathered a fleet consisting of eighty transport ships, sufficient to carry two legions (Legio VII and Legio X), and an unknown number of warships under a quaestor, at an unnamed port in the territory of the Morini, almost certainly Portus Itius (Boulogne). Another eighteen transports of cavalry were to sail from a different port, probably Ambleteuse. These ships may have been triremes or biremes, or may have been adapted from Venetic designs Caesar had seen previously, or may even have been requisitioned from the Veneti and other coastal tribes. Clearly in a hurry, Caesar himself left a garrison at the port and set out "at the third watch '' -- well after midnight -- on 23 August with the legions, leaving the cavalry to march to their ships, embark, and join him as soon as possible. In light of later events, this was either a tactical mistake or (along with the fact that the legions came over without baggage or heavy siege gear) confirms the invasion was not intended for complete conquest.
Caesar initially tried to land at Dubris (Dover), whose natural harbour had presumably been identified by Volusenus as a suitable landing place. However, when he came in sight of shore, the massed forces of the Britons gathered on the overlooking hills and cliffs dissuaded him from landing there, since the cliffs were so close to the shore that javelins could be thrown down from them onto anyone landing there. After waiting there at anchor "until the ninth hour '' (about 3pm) waiting for his supply ships from the second port to come up and meanwhile convening a council of war, he ordered his subordinates to act on their own initiative and then sailed the fleet about 7 miles (11 kilometres) along the coast to an open beach. The first level beach area after Dover is at Walmer where a memorial is placed. Recent archaeology by the University of Leicester indicates that the possible landing beach was in Pegwell Bay on the Isle of Thanet, Kent, where artefacts and massive earthworks dating from this period have been exposed, although this area would not have been the first easy landing site seen after Dover. If Caesar had as large a fleet with him as has been suggested, then it is possible that the beaching of ships would have been spread out over a number of miles stretching from Walmer towards Pegwell Bay.
Having been tracked all the way along the coast by the British cavalry and chariots, the landing was opposed. To make matters worse, the loaded Romans ship were too low in the water to go close inshore and the troops had to disembark in deep water, all the while attacked by the enemy from the shallows. The troops were reluctant, but according to Caesar 's account were led by the aquilifer (standard - bearer, whose name is not provided by Caesar) of the 10th legion who jumped in first as an example, shouting:
The British were eventually driven back with catapultae and slings fired from the warships into the exposed flank of their formation and the Romans managed to land and drive them off. The cavalry, delayed by adverse winds, still had not arrived, so the Britons could not be pursued and finished off, and Caesar could not enjoy what he calls, in his usual self - promoting style, his "accustomed success ''.
The Romans established a camp of which archaeological traces have been found, received ambassadors and had Commius, who had been arrested as soon as he had arrived in Britain, returned to them. Caesar claims he was negotiating from a position of strength and that the British leaders, blaming their attacks on him on the common people, were in only four days awed into giving hostages, some immediately, some as soon as they could be brought from inland, and disbanding their army. However, after his cavalry had come within sight of the beachhead but then been scattered and turned back to Gaul by storms, and with food running short, Caesar, a native of the Mediterranean, was taken by surprise by high British tides and a storm. His beached warships filled with water, and his transports, riding at anchor, were driven against each other. Some ships were wrecked, and many others were rendered unseaworthy by the loss of rigging or other vital equipment, threatening the return journey.
Realising this and hoping to keep Caesar in Britain over the winter and thus starve him into submission, the Britons renewed the attack, ambushing one of the legions as it foraged near the Roman camp. The foraging party was relieved by the remainder of the Roman force and the Britons were again driven off, only to regroup after several days of storms with a larger force to attack the Roman camp. This attack was driven off fully, in a bloody rout, with improvised cavalry that Commius had gathered from pro-Roman Britons and a Roman scorched earth policy.
The British once again sent ambassadors and Caesar, although he doubled the number of hostages, realised he could not hold out any longer and dared not risk a stormy winter crossing. Caesar had set out late in the campaigning season and the winter was approaching, and so he allowed them to be delivered to him in Gaul, to which he returned with as many of the ships as could be repaired with flotsam from the wrecked ships. Even then, only two tribes felt sufficiently threatened by Caesar to actually send the hostages, and two of his transports were separated from the main body and made landfall elsewhere.
If the invasion was intended as a full - scale campaign, invasion or occupation, it had failed, and if it is seen as a reconnaissance - in - force or a show of strength to deter further British aid to the Gauls, it had fallen short. Nonetheless, going to Britain beyond the "known world '' carried such kudos for a Roman that the Senate decreed a supplicatio (thanksgiving) of twenty days when they received Caesar 's report. It is also suggested that this invasion established alliances with British kings in the area which smoothed the later invasion of AD 43.
Caesar 's pretext for the invasion was that "in almost all the ((wars with the Gauls succours had been furnished to our enemy from that country ''. This is plausible, although it may also have been a cover for investigating Britain 's mineral resources and economic potential: afterwards, Cicero refers to the disappointing discovery that there was no gold or silver in the island; and Suetonius reports that Caesar was said to have gone to Britain in search of pearls.
A second invasion was planned in the winter of 55 -- 54 for the summer of 54 BC. Cicero wrote letters to his friend Gaius Trebatius Testa and his brother Quintus, both of whom were serving in Caesar 's army, expressing his excitement at the prospect. He urged Trebatius to capture him a war chariot, and asked Quintus to write him a description of the island. Trebatius, as it turned out, did not go to Britain, but Quintus did, and wrote him several letters from there -- as did Caesar himself.
Determined not to make the same mistakes as the previous year, Caesar gathered a larger force than on his previous expedition with five legions as opposed to two, plus two - thousand cavalry, carried in ships which he designed, with experience of Venetic shipbuilding technology, to be more suitable to a beach landing than those used in 55 BC being broader and lower for easier beaching. This time he names Portus Itius as the departure point.
Labienus was left at Portus Itius to oversee regular food transports from there to the British beachhead. The military ships were joined by a flotilla of trading ships captained by Romans and provincials from across the empire, and local Gauls, hoping to cash in on the trading opportunities. It seems more likely that the figure Caesar quotes for the fleet (800 ships) include these traders and the troop - transports, rather than the troop - transports alone.
Caesar landed at the place he had identified as the best landing - place the previous year. The Britons did not oppose the landing, apparently, as Caesar states, intimidated by the size of the fleet, but equally this may have been a strategic ploy to give them time to gather their forces, or may reflect their lack of concern.
Upon landing, Caesar left Quintus Atrius in charge of the beach - head and made an immediate night march 12 mi (19 km) inland, where he encountered the British forces at a river crossing, probably somewhere on the River Stour. The Britons attacked but were repulsed, and attempted to regroup at a fortified place in the forests, possibly the hillfort at Bigbury Wood, Kent, but were again defeated and scattered. As it was late in the day and Caesar was unsure of the territory, he called off the pursuit and made camp.
However, the next morning, as he prepared to advance further, Caesar received word from Atrius that, once again, his ships at anchor had been dashed against each other in a storm and suffered considerable damage. About forty, he says, were lost. The Romans were unused to Atlantic and Channel tides and storms, but nevertheless, considering the damage he had sustained the previous year, this was poor planning on Caesar 's part. However, Caesar may have exaggerated the number of ships wrecked to magnify his own achievement in rescuing the situation. He returned to the coast, recalling the legions that had gone ahead, and immediately set about repairing his fleet. His men worked day and night for approximately ten days, beaching and repairing the ships, and building a fortified camp around them. Word was sent to Labienus to send more ships.
Caesar was on the coast on 1 September, from where he wrote a letter to Cicero. News must have reached him at this point of the death of his daughter Julia, as Cicero refrained from replying "on account of his mourning ''.
Caesar then returned to the Stour crossing and found the Britons had massed their forces there. Cassivellaunus, a warlord from north of the Thames, had previously been at war with most of the British tribes. He had recently overthrown the king of the powerful Trinovantes and forced his son, Mandubracius, into exile, but now the Britons had appointed him to lead their combined forces. After several indecisive skirmishes, during which a Roman tribune, Quintus Laberius Durus, was killed, the Britons attacked a foraging party of three legions under Gaius Trebonius, but were repulsed and routed by the pursuing Roman cavalry.
Cassivellaunus realised he could not defeat Caesar in a pitched battle. Disbanding the majority of his force and relying on the mobility of his 4,000 chariots and superior knowledge of the terrain, he used guerrilla tactics to slow the Roman advance. By the time Caesar reached the Thames, the one fordable place available to him had been fortified with sharpened stakes, both on the shore and under the water, and the far bank was defended. Second Century sources state that Caesar used a large war elephant, which was equipped with armour and carried archers and slingers in its tower, to put the defenders to flight. When this unknown creature entered the river, the Britons and their horses fled and the Roman army crossed over and entered Cassivellaunus ' territory.
The Trinovantes, whom Caesar describes as the most powerful tribe in the region, and who had recently suffered at Cassivellaunus ' hands, sent ambassadors, promising him aid and provisions. Mandubracius, who had accompanied Caesar, was restored as their king, and the Trinovantes provided grain and hostages. Five further tribes, the Cenimagni, Segontiaci, Ancalites, Bibroci and Cassi, surrendered to Caesar, and revealed to him the location of Cassivellaunus ' stronghold, possibly the hill fort at Wheathampstead, which he proceeded to put under siege.
Cassivellaunus sent word to his allies in Kent, Cingetorix, Carvilius, Taximagulus and Segovax, described as the "four kings of Cantium '', to stage a diversionary attack on the Roman beach - head to draw Caesar off, but this attack failed, and Cassivellaunus sent ambassadors to negotiate a surrender. Caesar was eager to return to Gaul for the winter due to growing unrest there, and an agreement was mediated by Commius. Cassivellaunus gave hostages, agreed an annual tribute, and undertook not to make war against Mandubracius or the Trinovantes. Caesar wrote to Cicero on 26 September, confirming the result of the campaign, with hostages but no booty taken, and that his army was about to return to Gaul. He then left, leaving not a single Roman soldier in Britain to enforce his settlement. Whether the tribute was ever paid is unknown.
Commius, Caesar 's Atrebatian ally, later switched sides, fighting in Vercingetorix 's rebellion. After a number of unsuccessful engagements with Caesar 's forces, he cut his losses and fled to Britain. Sextus Julius Frontinus, in his Strategemata, describes how Commius and his followers, with Caesar in pursuit, boarded their ships. Although the tide was out and the ships still beached, Commius ordered the sails raised. Caesar, still some distance away, assumed the ships were afloat and called off the pursuit. Archaeologist John Creighton believes that this anecdote was a legend, and that Commius was sent to Britain as a friendly king as part of his truce with Mark Antony. Commius established a dynasty in the Hampshire area, known from coins of Gallo - Belgic type. Verica, the king whose exile prompted Claudius 's conquest of AD 43, styled himself a son of Commius.
As well as noting elements of British warfare, particularly the use of chariots, which were unfamiliar to his Roman audience, Caesar also aimed to impress them by making further geographical, meteorological and ethnographic investigations of Britain. He probably gained these by enquiry and hearsay rather than direct experience, as he did not penetrate that far into the interior, and most historians would be wary of applying them beyond the tribes with whom he came into direct contact.
Caesar 's first - hand discoveries were limited to east Kent and the Thames Valley, but he was able to provide a description of the island 's geography and meteorology. Though his measurements are not wholly accurate, and may owe something to Pytheas, his general conclusions even now seem valid:
No information about harbours or other landing - places was available to the Romans before Caesar 's expeditions, so Caesar was able to make discoveries of benefit to Roman military and trading interests. Volusenus 's reconnaissance voyage before the first expedition apparently identified the natural harbour at Dubris (Dover), although Caesar was prevented from landing there and forced to land on an open beach, as he did again the following year, perhaps because Dover was too small for his much larger forces. The great natural harbours further up the coast at Rutupiae (Richborough), which were used by Claudius for his invasion 100 years later, were not used on either occasion. Caesar may have been unaware of them, may have chosen not to use them, or they may not have existed in a form suitable for sheltering and landing such a large force at that time. Present knowledge of the period geomorphology of the Wantsum Channel that created that haven is limited.
By Claudius ' time Roman knowledge of the island would have been considerably increased by a century of trade and diplomacy, and four abortive invasion attempts. However, it is likely that the intelligence gathered in 55 and 54 BC would have been retained in the now - lost state records in Rome, and been used by Claudius in the planning of his landings.
The Britons are defined as typical barbarians, with polygamy and other exotic social habits, similar in many ways to the Gauls, yet as brave adversaries whose crushing can bring glory to a Roman:
In addition to infantry and cavalry, the Britons employed chariots, a novelty to the Romans, in warfare. Caesar describes their use as follows:
During the civil war, Caesar made use of a kind of boat he had seen used in Britain, similar to the Irish currach or Welsh coracle. He describes them thus:
Caesar not only investigates this for the sake of it, but also to justify Britain as a rich source of tribute and trade:
This reference to the ' midland ' is inaccurate as tin production and trade occurred in the southwest of England, in Cornwall and Devon, and was what drew Pytheas and other traders. However, Caesar only penetrated to Essex and so, receiving reports of the trade whilst there, it would have been easy to perceive the trade as coming from the interior.
Caesar made no conquests in Britain, but his enthroning of Mandubracius marked the beginnings of a system of client kingdoms there, thus bringing the island into Rome 's sphere of political influence. Diplomatic and trading links developed further over the next century, opening up the possibility of permanent conquest, which was finally begun by Claudius in AD 43. In the words of Tacitus:
Lucan 's Pharsalia (II, 572) makes the jibe that Caesar had:
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when will more episodes of steven universe air | List of Steven Universe episodes - Wikipedia
Steven Universe is an American animated television series created by Rebecca Sugar for Cartoon Network. The series revolves around Steven Universe (voiced by Zach Callison), who protects his hometown of Beach City alongside Garnet (voiced by Estelle), Amethyst (voiced by Michaela Dietz) and Pearl (voiced by Deedee Magno), three magical alien guardians known as the Crystal Gems. The series was renewed for a fourth and fifth season in March 2016.
As of May 29, 2017, 128 regular 11 - minute episodes of Steven Universe have aired over the course of the series, plus two special double - length 22 - minute episodes. Episodes have variously been broadcast once a week (most recently on Friday nights), or in blocks of five new episodes in the course of a week, which are marketed as "Stevenbombs '', the latest of which aired from May 8 -- 11, 2017.
The following lists are ordered according to the list on the official website of the series, which reflects the intended watching order of the creators. While similar to the original broadcast order, three episodes from the first season were not broadcast until the second season.
The supervising director for this season is Ian Jones - Quartey.
All six digital shorts combined make up one full production code of season 2 (1031 - 058).
All five of these shorts combined make up one full production code of season 4.
Depending on the customer 's region, Steven Universe is available through various video on demand services such as Hulu, Google Play, iTunes, Amazon Video, and Microsoft Movies & TV.
Episodes on the Steven Universe DVDs are not in original broadcast order. In the table below, the episodes are listed in the order they appear on the DVD, and are numbered according to the order in which they were originally broadcast. A new Steven Universe DVD titled "The Return '' was announced to be released on June 7, 2016, as well as having cover art shown. The Australian company, Madman Entertainment, has released both a Blu - ray and DVD collection of Season 1 in Region 4, however, the series has yet to see any Blu - ray releases in the North American market.
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who played richie in from dusk till dawn | Richie Gecko - Wikipedia
Richard "Richie '' Gecko is the name of two fictional characters in the From Dusk till Dawn film series. The original Richie Gecko is one of the protagonists in the 1996 film From Dusk Till Dawn. He is a nerdy, short - fused, rapist psychopath that only his brother, Seth Gecko (a cool, suave, short - fused, sociopathic anti-hero), could stand. He was portrayed by Quentin Tarantino on film, and an alternate version of the character is portrayed by Zane Holtz on TV.
There is not much information regarding Richie 's back story, although a news report about the robbery that is seen during the film states that he holds prior convictions for robbery and sex crimes. From Dusk till Dawn tells the story of the Greek Gecko Brothers right after their latest botched bank - robbery / kidnapping attempt. He rapes and murders their hostage, a bank teller, for which Seth scolds him. After fleeing to Mexico, they unexpectedly cross paths with a sect of vampires using a strip club as a feeding ground. Richie has a chance to bond with his brother, before his insane antics catch up with him and results in an untimely "death ''. Richie returns to life as an undead zombie - like blood sucker. Seth is then left with the task of putting his brother 's evil - possessed carcass out of its misery. The Gecko brothers are mentioned in From Dusk Till Dawn 2: Texas Blood Money. Bo Hopkins references Edgar McGraw 's cold demeanor and distracted nature: "Oh, them Gecko brothers killed his daddy. '' The Gecko brothers briefly appear in a photo cameo in the black comedy Curdled. In additional, Katie Houge, news reporter from the first film, appears, again portrayed by Kelly Preston.
In late 2013, it was reported that a parallel universe TV series had begun production. This incarnation of Richie will be played by Zane Holtz. Mixing ideas from the original first and third films, the show pits the humans, led by Seth, who will be played by D.J. Cotrona against the vampires, led by the wicked Santanico Pandemonium, played by Eiza Gonzalez and Sheriff McGraw, played by Don Johnson. This series stars Robert Patrick, as Jacob Fuller.
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i still know what you did last summer deaths | I Still Know What You Did Last Summer - Wikipedia
I Still Know What You Did Last Summer is a 1998 American slasher film and a sequel to the 1997 film I Know What You Did Last Summer. Directed by Danny Cannon, the film was written by Trey Callaway, and features characters originally created in Lois Duncan 's 1973 novel I Know What You Did Last Summer. Jennifer Love Hewitt, Freddie Prinze, Jr. and Muse Watson reprise their roles, with Brandy, Mekhi Phifer, Jennifer Esposito, and Matthew Settle joining the cast. I Still Know What You Did Last Summer continues after the events of the first film.
Callaway 's script was published in an edited "young adult '' format, leaving in all descriptions of violence but omitting the harsher language. Filming took place in Mexico and California. I Still Know What You Did Last Summer was released to negative reviews, but was a box office success, grossing $84 million worldwide. On August 22, 2006, Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released I 'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer as a straight - to - video sequel to the film which features no returning cast members. The film was released on Blu - ray on July 14, 2009.
One year after the events of the first film, Julie James is attending summer classes in Boston, to avoid returning to her hometown of Southport, North Carolina. She suffers from memories and nightmares of the accident and brutal murders of her friends by the vengeful fisherman, Ben Willis, from the summer before.
Julie 's friend and roommate Karla Wilson receives a phone call from a local radio station, then winning an all - expenses - paid vacation to the Bahamas for the Fourth of July weekend. Julie invites her boyfriend, Ray Bronson, but he declines. He is hurt by her earlier refusal to visit him in Southport. Ray, intending to propose to Julie, changes his mind about the trip, planning to show up as a surprise.
That evening, Ray and his co-worker Dave drive to Boston to meet Julie. They stop due to a BMW and body in the middle of the road. Ray gets out to inspect the scene, only to find the body to be a mannequin dressed in fisherman 's clothing. Suddenly, Ben Willis appears and kills Dave with his hook. Ben takes Ray 's truck and chases him down the road. Ray gets away, but he is injured from falling down a hill.
The next morning, Julie and Karla depart on the trip with Karla 's boyfriend Tyrell and their friend, Will Benson. Knowing that Will has a crush on Julie, Karla invited him as a replacement for Ray, much to Julie 's discomfort. The group arrives hotel in Tower Bay, only to find that other guests are leaving due to the imminent hurricane season. To her surprise, Julie is sharing a hotel room with Will. That evening at the hotel 's bar, Julie is talked into singing karaoke. She stops when the words "I STILL KNOW WHAT YOU DID LAST SUMMER '' roll onto the screen. Terrified, she runs back to her room and is met by Will, who laid out for her flowers and a love note. Julie sidesteps Will 's affection for her, while Tyrell and Karla (and later Will) get into the hot tub.
Julie notices her toothbrush is missing. Feeling something is wrong, she searches the room and finds Darick, the dockhand, hanging dead in the closet. She finds Tyrell, Karla, and Will, but when they return there is no sign of Darick 's body. The hotel manager refuses to believe her story and Julie tries to call the police, but the phone lines are dead due to an incoming hurricane. The group and the hotel staff prepare for the storm. Meanwhile, Ben arrives at the hotel and kills the employees. Olga, the maid, is stabbed in the back while the pool boy, Titus, is impaled with a pair of garden shears.
The following day, the group finds that the hotel staff and the manager have been murdered, and the two - way radio, their only way of contact, has been destroyed. Isolated, Julie tells the others about the previous summer. Tyrell suspects that Estes, the boat hand porter, is the killer, since he is the only one who can not be found. The group goes to Estes ' apartment, searching for clues. They find Julie 's toothbrush and Karla 's hair tie, concluding Estes has been using voodoo to protect them. Estes appears and states the capital of Brazil is not Rio, meaning the trip was a set - up. He leads them to a graveyard in the forest with the graves of Ben 's wife and daughter, and an empty grave and tombstone with Julie 's name. Estes explains that Ben and his wife Sarah had two children: son Will and daughter Susie. Ben murdered Sarah in the hotel room that Julie is staying in when he found out about her affair and her plans to leave him with their children. In anger, Julie shouts that she will not be killed by Ben and that they will fight against him.
Estes goes missing, and Will volunteers to find him. Julie, Karla, and Tyrell return to the hotel and gather supplies to defend themselves. They head to the hotel kitchen for something to eat, and find Nancy, the bartender, hiding in the freezer. Will finds Estes, but he attacks Will while Ray takes a boat to the island. Ben appears and stabs Tyrell in the throat with his hook, killing him. The girls retreat to the attic, where Karla is attacked by Ben. They both fall through to the hotel bedroom below. Karla runs from the room and jumps onto the greenhouse. Julie and Nancy rescue Karla and run to the storm cellar to take refuge. They find that the storm cellar stores Ben 's victims. Will bursts in and convinces the girls to head back to the hotel, stating that he saw Ben on the beach.
Back at the hotel, Julie sees Will is bleeding from his stomach, so Nancy takes Karla to find a first aid kit. While retrieving the kit, Nancy and Karla find Estes has been impaled with a harpoon. Ben appears and kills Nancy. Back in the lobby, Julie is tending to Will, unable to find a wound. Will admits this is because it is not his blood. He asks Julie what her favorite radio station is, revealing he was the radio host and killed Estes. Will drags Julie to the graveyard, and tells her he is Ben 's son, explaining his actions. Ben appears and attacks Julie. Ray arrives, and a fight ensues between him and Will. When Ben tries to stab Ray, he accidentally kills Will instead. While Ben is distraught from killing his son, Julie takes a gun and shoots him in the chest. Ben falls dead into the grave made for Julie. Ray comforts Julie. Back at the hotel, Karla is found alive. The three are rescued by the coast guard.
Sometime later, Ray and Julie have married and are in their new home. Ray is brushing his teeth before bed and Julie is in their bedroom. The bathroom door is quietly shut and locked while Ray is occupied. Julie sits down on her bed, looks in the mirror, and sees Ben under the bed. She screams as Ben grabs her feet with his hook and hand and pulls her under.
While the film is set in The Bahamas, it was actually shot at El Tecuan Marina Resort Costalagree, in Jalisco, Mexico; Los Angeles, California; and Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City, California.
The sequel made a gross $16.5 million at 2,443 theaters during its opening weekend. Unlike the original, the sequel opened at number two at the box office and dropped to number five only a week later. At the end of its fifteen - week run, the film grossed $40,020,622 in the United States. It grossed $44 million internationally, bringing the total worldwide gross to $84 million.
The film received highly negative reviews, with an overall rating of 7 % on Rotten Tomatoes with critics consensus being "Boring; predictable. '' It also has a 21 score on Metacritic compared to 52 for the original. The highest review score on Metacritic was 60 which came from Variety, who said "Purists will find the pic 's obviousness disappointing, but there 's no question that the film delivers a sufficient shock quotient to satisfy its youthful target audience ''. The film, much like the original, has obtained a "cult following ''.
Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
The soundtrack was released on November 17, 1998 by Warner Bros. Records. On January 19, 1999, "How Do I Deal '' was released a single, backed by Jory Eve 's "Try to Say Goodbye ''. A music video for "How Do I Deal '' was made available to music television networks.
On August 22, 2006, a straight - to - DVD sequel titled I 'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer was released. The film is unrelated to the two previous films, and features no returning cast members. It was originally proposed to continue where I Still Know What You Did Last Summer left off. Instead, the film features an unrelated plot with a brief mention of the first two films.
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who plays the leprechaun in the leprechaun movie | Leprechaun (film) - wikipedia
Leprechaun is a 1993 American comedy horror film written and directed by Mark Jones. It stars Warwick Davis in the title role and Jennifer Aniston in her film debut. Davis plays a vengeful leprechaun who believes a family has stolen his pot of gold. As he hunts them, they attempt to locate his gold to vanquish him. The film was originally meant to be more of a straight horror film, but Davis injected humor into his role. Re-shoots also added increased gore to appeal to older audiences.
It was the first film produced in - house by Trimark to be theatrically released and grossed $8.6 million in North America against a budget of less than $1 million. Reviews on release were negative and focused on the film 's acting, humor, and directing, all of which were criticized; it has also been called Aniston 's worst film. It is the first entry in the Leprechaun horror film series and was followed by five sequels and a remake. Leprechaun is often broadcast on Saint Patrick 's Day.
In 1983, Dan O'Grady returns to his home in North Dakota from a trip to his native Ireland, where he stole the pot of gold from a leprechaun. After burying the gold, O'Grady discovers that the evil leprechaun has followed him home and murdered his wife. O'Grady uses a four - leaf clover to suppress the leprechaun 's powers and trap it inside a crate. Before he can burn it, he suffers a stroke.
Ten years later, J.D. Redding and his teenage daughter Tory rent the O'Grady farmhouse for the summer. Contract workers Nathan Murphy, his 10 - year - old brother Alex, and their dimwitted friend Ozzie Jones help re-paint the farmhouse. While looking around the basement, Ozzie hears the leprechaun 's cry for help and mistakes him for a little child. He brushes the old four - leaf clover off the crate, freeing the leprechaun. After failing to convince the others that he met a leprechaun, Ozzie spots a rainbow and chases it, believing that he will find a pot of gold at the end. Alex accompanies him for fear that Ozzie might hurt himself. A bag of one hundred gold pieces magically appears before Ozzie. After Ozzie tests the gold and accidentally swallows a piece, they stash it in an old well and plot to keep it for themselves, hoping to fix Ozzie 's brain.
At the farm, the leprechaun lures J.D. into a trap by imitating a cat, biting and injuring his hand. Tory and the others rush him to the hospital, and the leprechaun follows on a tricycle. Alex and Ozzie visit a pawn shop to see if the gold is pure, and the leprechaun kills Joe the shop owner for stealing his gold. The leprechaun returns to the farmhouse, where he searches for his gold and shines every shoe that he finds. After leaving J.D. at the hospital, the group drives back to the farmhouse. Finding it ransacked, Nathan checks outside, where he is injured by a bear trap set by the leprechaun.
After finding a shotgun in the farmhouse, they shoot the leprechaun several times. When this has no effect, they attempt to flee the farm, but their truck 's engine has been sabotaged by the leprechaun. After ramming the truck with a go - kart, the leprechaun terrorizes the group until Ozzie reveals that he and Alex found the pot of gold. Tory recovers the bag from the well and gives it to the leprechaun. Believing the worst to be over, they leave for the hospital. While counting his gold, the leprechaun discovers that he is missing the piece that Ozzie swallowed. Thinking that they have tricked him, he menaces them until Ozzie tells them about O'Grady, who was taken to a nursing home after his stroke. Tory visits the home to learn how to kill the leprechaun.
At the nursing home, the leprechaun pretends to be O'Grady. After he chases Tory to an elevator, the leprechaun throws O'Grady's bloodied body down the shaft as Tory flees. Before dying, O'Grady tells her that the only way to kill the leprechaun is with a four - leaf clover. Tory returns to the farmhouse, where she searches for a clover until she is attacked by the leprechaun; Nathan and Ozzie save her. Alex sets a trap near the well, but the leprechaun almost kills him. Ozzie reveals that he swallowed the last gold coin, and the leprechaun critically wounds him trying to get it. Before the leprechaun can kill Ozzie, Alex takes a four - leaf clover Tory has found, sticks it to a wad of gum, and shoots it into the leprechaun 's mouth, taking away his power. The leprechaun falls into the well, but his skeleton climbs out. Nathan pushes the leprechaun back into the well and blows up both the well and the leprechaun with gasoline. The police arrive, and Tory is reunited with her father. As the police investigate the remains of the well, the leprechaun vows he will not rest until he recovers every last piece of his gold.
Mark Jones, the writer - director, had a career in American television shows. Desiring to make a film, he decided that a low budget horror film was his best opportunity. Jones was inspired by the Lucky Charms commercials to create a leprechaun character, only his twist was to turn the character into an antagonist. Jones was further influenced by the film Critters, which featured a small antagonist. Jones brought the concept to Trimark, who were looking to get into film production and distribution. Leprechaun became the first film produced in - house by Trimark to be theatrically released. Entertainment Weekly quoted the budget at "just under $1 million ''. Warwick Davis, who had experienced a dry spell after playing the protagonist in Willow, liked the script and was excited to play against type. Jennifer Aniston, who was an unknown at the time, impressed Jones, and he fought to have her cast.
Shooting occurred over three weeks, beginning at Valencia Studios, where Terminator 2: Judgment Day had recently finished production. Several violent scenes were filmed at Big Sky Ranch, where Little House on the Prairie and The Waltons were shot. Davis later said it felt "a little blasphemous ''. Davis performed most of his own stunts. For the scene where Davis chases Aniston in a wheelchair, Aniston had to run in slow motion so that Davis could keep up with her, as he had trouble manipulating the wheels. The film was initially more of a straightforward horror film, but Davis sought to add more comedic elements. Jones agreed with this tonal shift, and they shot it as a horror comedy. Several scenes had to be re-shot after the producers insisted that the film be made gorier to appeal to older audiences.
Gabe Bartalos performed the make - up effects. Trimark contacted Bartalos to produce a sample. Bartalos 's early efforts were not to his liking, and he pushed the design in a more grotesque direction, as that was what he wanted to see on the screen as a horror fan. Bartalos 's design impressed Trimark, and he got the account. Applying the make - up took three hours, and taking it off took another 40 minutes. Davis described the experience as "not a pleasant sensation ''. To pass the time while the make - up was being applied, Davis said he had bizarre conversations with Bartalos, with whom he got along well. Davis was conscious of the need to stay relaxed and not move, and he channelled his confidence that the make - up effects were properly applied into his acting.
Leading up to the film 's release, Trimark engaged in an aggressive marketing campaign, partnering with the National Basketball Association, American Stock Exchange, and, after failing to secure deals with either corporate headquarters, individual franchisees of Domino 's Pizza and Subway. Leprechaun opened on January 8, 1993, in 620 theatres and took in $2,493,020 its opening week, ultimately earning $8,556,940 in the United States. Vidmark released it on VHS in April 1993, and it sold over 100,000 copies. The film score was released on March 9, 1993, by Intrada Records. The film was released on DVD in August 1998. Lionsgate released a triple feature collection on March 11, 2008. All seven films in the series were released on Blu - ray in a collection in September 2014. The film is often broadcast on cable channels such as Syfy on Saint Patrick 's Day.
Leprechaun was followed by five sequels: Leprechaun 2 (1994), Leprechaun 3 (1995), Leprechaun 4: In Space (1997), Leprechaun in the Hood (2000), and Leprechaun: Back 2 tha Hood (2003). In 2014, a reboot, Leprechaun: Origins was released. After Leprechaun 2 's theatrical gross disappointed Trimark, Leprechaun 3 was released direct - to - video. Origins was theatrically released. Leprechaun Returns will be premiere on Syfy in 2019, the film serves as a direct sequel to the original film, ignoring the subsequent installments. The film stars Linden Porco as the Leprechaun and Mark Holton as Ozzie Jones, who reprise his role from the first film and directed by Steven Kostanski.
On release, critical reception for the film was negative. Writing for The Deseret News, Chris Hicks said that the film should have been released direct - to - video. Also criticizing Trimark 's release of the film, The Austin Chronicle 's Marc Savlov called it cliched, uninteresting, and an "utter waste of perfectly good Kodak film stock ''. Internet - based critic James Berardinelli called it "unwatchable '' and not even enjoyably bad, and Matt Bourjaily of the Chicago Tribune wrote that the film "has brought new meaning to the term ' bad ' ''. At the Los Angeles Daily News, Robert Strauss called it "as witless and worthless a horror film as could possibly be conjured ''. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette critic Ron Weiskind called the film incompetent and criticized the film 's acting, lack of suspense, and production values. Weiskind concluded, "Forget about the proverbial pot of gold. The movie Leprechaun is a crock. ''
Michael Wilmington of the Los Angeles Times called the cast "the usual all - formula grab - bag '', and The Washington Post 's Richard Harrington said the human actors are all bland. Berardinelli described the characters as "a group of morons who act like they flunked kindergarten '' but said Aniston "might be competent '' in a better film. Weiskind instead called Aniston 's character a "Beverly Hills brat '' who audiences will want to die. Of Davis, Harrington wrote that he "imbues a weak character with a strong presence '', saying the film is only interesting while Davis is on - screen. Harrington concludes that the film is notable only for Davis ' performance. Vincent Canby of The New York Times called the leprechaun "no more than dangerously cranky '' and reminiscent of Chucky from Child 's Play; Hicks also described the leprechaun as similar to Chucky. Wilmington wrote that while a killer Leprechaun logically follows a trend of gimmicky antagonists, it is still a bad idea.
Of the film 's humor, Wilmington wrote that Leprechaun "is n't dumb enough to be fun ''. Hicks described the film 's humor as "ill - advised slapstick '', and Canby wrote that it is "neither scary nor funny ''. Berardinelli called the leprechaun 's one - liners "more idiotic than pithy ''. Writing in the Chicago Sun - Times, critic Jeff Makos unfavorably compared the film 's tone to that of Tremors, which he posited as an influence. Makos said Davis does his best to be funny, but the film has no funny jokes, making audience feedback probably more entertaining than the film itself. The use of Lucky Charms as humor also received commentary. Harrington wrote that Jones is "so bereft of inventive ideas that he refers to Lucky Charms cereal not once but three times '', and Bourjaily criticized the Lucky Charms jokes as unfunny.
Berardinelli said director Mark Jones has no style evident in the film. Wilmington described it as a "dingy, drab, pointless little movie... made without flair or imagination, seemingly enervated by its own bad taste and low intentions ''. Canby called the screenplay and direction amateurish, and Hicks wrote that Jones is bereft of ideas and should go back to his day job, describing the plot as "by - the - numbers killings with no rhyme or reason ''. Harrington wrote that the film "has major continuity and credibility problems ''. Strauss identified the theme as anti-greed but said the writing is "simultaneously prosaic and murky '', causing Jones to miss his mark. Wilmington wrote that the leprechaun 's cries for his gold reflects the filmmakers ' cynical desire for box office success. Sight & Sound described Leprechaun as a film which seems to have no concept of a target audience, stating, "Jones wants this to be a lively romp for older kids in the mould of Time Bandits... but also wants to corner the lucrative horror market. '' The review concluded, "Unsuitable for adults or kids, this is ultimately for completists. '' Harrington called the make - up "quite evil - looking '', though Strauss wrote that "effects are strictly so - so ''.
Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 23 % of 13 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 4 / 10. A 2014 retrospective from Entertainment Weekly identified it as Aniston 's worst role to date, and Aniston herself has expressed embarrassment over the film. In 2009, Tanya Gold of The Guardian selected it as one of her ten favorite scary films to watch on Halloween.
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which emperor built the colosseum 70 ce in rome | Colosseum - wikipedia
The Colosseum or Coliseum (/ kɒləˈsiːəm / kol - ə - SEE - əm), also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium; Italian: Anfiteatro Flavio (aŋfiteˈaːtro ˈflaːvjo) or Colosseo (kolosˈsɛːo)), is an oval amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy. Built of travertine, tuff, and brick - faced concrete, it is the largest amphitheatre ever built. The Colosseum is situated just east of the Roman Forum. Construction began under the emperor Vespasian in AD 72, and was completed in AD 80 under his successor and heir Titus. Further modifications were made during the reign of Domitian (81 -- 96). These three emperors are known as the Flavian dynasty, and the amphitheatre was named in Latin for its association with their family name (Flavius).
The Colosseum could hold, it is estimated, between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators, having an average audience of some 65,000; it was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles (for only a short time as the hypogeum was soon filled in with mechanisms to support the other activities), animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although partially ruined because of damage caused by earthquakes and stone - robbers, the Colosseum is still an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome 's most popular tourist attractions and also has links to the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross '' procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five - cent euro coin.
The Colosseum 's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheatre. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, following the reign of Nero. This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum (with Caesareum an adjective pertaining to the title Caesar), but this name may have been strictly poetic as it was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby (the statue of Nero was named after the Colossus of Rhodes). This statue was later remodeled by Nero 's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero 's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world ''). This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron 's poem Childe Harold 's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum '' had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as Coloseumul (Romanian), le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).
The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. Vespasian 's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero 's lake can be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both symbolically and precisely at the heart of Rome.
Construction was funded by the opulent spoils taken from the Jewish Temple after the Great Jewish Revolt in 70 AD led to the Siege of Jerusalem. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general 's share of the booty. '' Along with the spoils, estimated 100,000 Jewish prisoners were brought back to Rome after the war, and many contributed to the massive workforce needed for construction. The slaves undertook manual labor such as working in the quarries at Tivoli where the travertine was quarried, along with lifting and transporting the quarried stones 20 miles from Tivoli to Rome. Along with this free source of unskilled labor, teams of professional Roman builders, engineers, artists, painters and decorators undertook the more specialized tasks necessary for building the Colosseum.
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of Vespasian in around 70 -- 72 AD (73 - 75 AD according to some sources) The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian 's death in 79. The top level was finished by his son, Titus, in 80, and the inaugural games were held in A.D. 80 or 81. Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. Commemorative coinage was issued celebrating the inauguration. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian 's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre 's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. Gladiatorial fights are last mentioned around 435. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425 -- 455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484 and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small chapel had been built into the structure of the amphitheater, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvial terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheater was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime. The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585 -- 1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome 's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death. In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Significance in Christianity). However, there is no historical evidence to support Benedict 's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone before the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition, other than the reasonably plausible conjecture that some of the many martyrs may well have been.
Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810 -- 1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.
The Colosseum is today one of Rome 's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3 m / € 20.6 m at 2000 prices).
In recent years the Colosseum has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti -- death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum 's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released, or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold in November 2012 following the abolishment of capital punishment in the American state of Connecticut in April 2012.
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002), Paul McCartney (May 2003), Elton John (September 2005), and Billy Joel (July 2006).
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free - standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 24,000 square metres (6 acres). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic metres (3,531,467 cubic feet) of travertine stone which were set without mortar; they were held together by 300 tons of iron clamps. However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present - day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.
The surviving part of the outer wall 's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half - columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters. Each of the arches in the second - and third - floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas - covered, net - like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. It covered two - thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.
The Colosseum 's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) survive.
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.
According to the Codex - Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebeians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet). It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground ''). The hypogeum was not part of the original construction but was ordered to be built by Emperor Domitian. Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two - level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators ' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct. However, the construction of the hypogeum at Domitian 's behest put an end to the practise of flooding, and thus also to naval battles, early in the Colosseum 's existence.
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, Barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, Caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days. During lunch intervals, executions ad bestias would be staged. Those condemned to death would be sent into the arena, naked and unarmed, to face the beasts of death which would literally tear them to pieces. Other performances would also take place by acrobats and magicians, typically during the intervals.
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena 's floor, and animals would then be introduced. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story -- played by a condemned person -- was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year entering to view the interior arena. There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.
The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI led the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum on Good Fridays.
In 2011 Diego Della Valle, head of the shoe firm Tod 's, entered into an agreement with local officials to sponsor a € 25 million restoration of the Colosseum. Work was planned to begin at the end of 2011, taking up to two and a half years. Due to the controversial nature of using a public -- private partnership to fund the restoration, work was delayed and began in 2013. The restoration is the first full cleaning and repair in the Colosseum 's history. The first stage is to clean and restore the Colosseum 's arcaded façade and replace the metal enclosures that block the ground - level arches. Taking three years, the final product of this work was unveiled July 1, 2016, when the Italian minister of culture, Dario Franceschini, also announced that the funds have been committed to replace the floors by the end of 2018. These will provide a stage that Franceschini says will be used for "cultural events of the highest level. '' The project also plans to create a services center and to restore the galleries and underground spaces inside the Colosseum.. New to tours of the restored marvel beginning November 1, 2017, the top two levels have been opened for guided visits. The fourth level held the marketplace, and the top fifth tier is where the poorest citizens, the plebians, gathered and watched the show, bringing picnics for the day - long event.
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The Colosseum is generally regarded by Christians as a site of the martyrdom of large numbers of believers during the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, as evidenced by Church history and tradition. On the other hand, other scholars believe that the majority of martyrdoms may have occurred at other venues within the city of Rome, rather than at the Colosseum, citing a lack of still - intact physical evidence or historical records. These scholars assert that "some Christians were executed as common criminals in the Colosseum -- their crime being refusal to reverence the Roman gods '', but most Christian martyrs of the early Church were executed for their faith at the Circus Maximus. According to Irenæus (died about 202), Ignatius of Antioch was fed to the lions in Rome around 107 A.D and although Irenaeus says nothing about this happening at the Colosseum, tradition ascribes it to that place.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was not regarded as a monument, and was used as what some modern sources label a "quarry, '' which is to say that stones from the Colosseum were taken for the building of other sacred sites. This fact is used to support the idea that, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated the Colosseum was not being treated as a sacred site. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome ''), which claims the Circus Flaminius -- but not the Colosseum -- as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian religious order, but it is not known whether this was for any particular religious reason.
Pope Pius V (1566 -- 1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs, although some of his contemporaries did not share his conviction. A century later Fioravante Martinelli listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra. Martinelli 's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri 's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum 's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary.
At the insistence of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740 -- 1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, before he died in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains its Christian connection today. A Christian cross stands in the Colosseum, with a plaque, stating:
The amphitheater, one consecrated to triumphs, entertainments, and the impious worship of pagan gods, is now dedicated to the sufferings of the martyrs purified from impious superstitions.
Other Christian crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheater.
The Colosseum has a wide and well - documented history of flora ever since Domenico Panaroli made the first catalogue of its plants in 1643. Since then, 684 species have been identified there. The peak was in 1855 (420 species). Attempts were made in 1871 to eradicate the vegetation, because of concerns over the damage that was being caused to the masonry, but much of it has returned. 242 species have been counted today and of the species first identified by Panaroli, 200 remain.
The variation of plants can be explained by the change of climate in Rome through the centuries. Additionally, bird migration, flower blooming, and the growth of Rome that caused the Colosseum to become embedded within the modern city centre rather than on the outskirts of the ancient city, as well as deliberate transport of species, are also contributing causes. Another reason often given is their seeds being unwittingly transported either on the fur or in the feces of animals brought there from all corners of the empire.
Coordinates: 41 ° 53 ′ 24.61 '' N 12 ° 29 ′ 32.17 '' E / 41.8901694 ° N 12.4922694 ° E / 41.8901694; 12.4922694
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where are the noahide laws in the bible | Seven laws of Noah - wikipedia
The Seven Laws of Noah (Hebrew: שבע מצוות בני נח Sheva Mitzvot B'nei Noah), also referred to as the Noahide Laws or the Noachide Laws (from the English transliteration of the Hebrew pronunciation of "Noah ''), are a set of imperatives which, according to the Talmud, were given by God as a binding set of laws for the "children of Noah '' -- that is, to all of Humanity.
Accordingly, any non-Jew who adheres to these laws because they were given by Moses is regarded as a righteous gentile, and is assured of a place in the world to come (Hebrew: עולם הבא Olam Haba), the final reward of the righteous.
The seven Noahide laws as traditionally enumerated are the following:
According to the Talmud, the rabbis agree that the seven laws were given to the sons of Noah. However, they disagree on precisely which laws were given to Adam and Eve. Six of the seven laws are exegetically derived from passages in Genesis, with the seventh being the establishing of courts.
According to the Genesis flood narrative, a deluge covered the whole world, killing every surface - dwelling creature except Noah, his wife, his sons and their wives, and the animals taken aboard Noah 's Ark. According to this, all modern humans are descendants of Noah, thus the name Noahide Laws in reference to laws that apply to all of humanity. After the flood, God sealed a covenant with Noah with the following admonitions (Genesis 9):
The Book of Jubilees, generally dated to the 2nd century BCE, may include an early reference to Noahide Law at verses 7: 20 -- 28:
And in the twenty - eighth jubilee Noah began to enjoin upon his sons ' sons the ordinances and commandments, and all the judgments that he knew, and he exhorted his sons to observe righteousness, and to cover the shame of their flesh, and to bless their Creator, and honour father and mother, and love their neighbour, and guard their souls from fornication and uncleanness and all iniquity. For owing to these three things came the flood upon the earth... For whoso sheddeth man 's blood, and whoso eateth the blood of any flesh, shall all be destroyed from the earth.
The Jewish Encyclopedia article on Saul of Tarsus states:
According to Acts, Paul began working along the traditional Jewish line of proselytizing in the various synagogues where the proselytes of the gate (e.g., Exodus 20: 9) and the Jews met; and only because he failed to win the Jews to his views, encountering strong opposition and persecution from them, did he turn to the Gentile world after he had agreed at a convention with the apostles at Jerusalem to admit the Gentiles into the Church only as proselytes of the gate, that is, after their acceptance of the Noachian laws (Acts 15: 1 -- 31) ".
The article "New Testament '' states:
For great as was the success of Barnabas and Paul in the heathen world, the authorities in Jerusalem insisted upon circumcision as the condition of admission of members into the church, until, on the initiative of Peter, and of James, the head of the Jerusalem church, it was agreed that acceptance of the Noachian Laws -- namely, regarding avoidance of idolatry, fornication, and the eating of flesh cut from a living animal -- should be demanded of the heathen desirous of entering the Church.
The earliest complete rabbinic version of the seven laws can be found in the Tosefta where they are listed as follows.
Seven commandments were commanded of the sons of Noah:
According to the Talmud, the Noahide Laws apply to all humanity. In Judaism, בני נח B'nei Noah (Hebrew, "Descendants of Noah '', "Children of Noah '') refers to all of humankind. The Talmud also states: "Righteous people of all nations have a share in the world to come ''. Any non-Jew who lives according to these laws is regarded as one of "the righteous among the gentiles ''.
The rabbis agree that the seven laws were given to the sons of Noah. However, they disagree on precisely which laws were given to Adam and Eve. Six of the seven laws are exegetically derived from passages in Genesis. The Talmud adds extra laws beyond the seven listed in the Tosefta which are attributed to different rabbis, such as the grafting of trees and sorcery among others, Ulla going so far as to make a list of 30 laws. The Talmud expands the scope of the seven laws to cover about 100 of the 613 mitzvoth.
In practice Jewish law makes it very difficult to apply the death penalty. No record exists of a gentile having been put to death for violating the seven laws. Some of the categories of capital punishment recorded in the Talmud are recorded as having never have been carried out. It is thought that the rabbis included discussion of them in anticipation of the coming messianic age.
The Talmud lists the punishment for blaspheming the Ineffable Name of God as death. The sons of Noah are to be executed by decapitation for most crimes, considered one of the lightest capital punishments, by stoning if he has intercourse with a Jewish betrothed woman, or by strangulation if the Jewish woman has completed the marriage ceremonies, but had not yet consummated the marriage. In Jewish law the only form of blasphemy which is punishable by death is blaspheming the Ineffable Name Leviticus 24: 16. Some Talmudic rabbis held that only those offences for which a Jew would be executed, are forbidden to gentiles. The Talmudic rabbis discuss which offences and sub-offences are capital offences and which are merely forbidden.
Maimonides states that anyone who does not accept the seven laws is to be executed, as God compelled the world to follow these laws. However, for the other prohibitions such as the grafting of trees and bestiality he holds that the sons of Noah are not to be executed. Maimonides adds a universalism lacking from earlier Jewish sources. The Talmud differs from Maimonides in that it handles the seven laws as enforceable by Jewish authorities on non-Jews living within a Jewish nation. Nahmanides disagrees with Maimonides reasoning. He limits the obligation of enforcing the seven laws to non-Jewish authorities taking the matter out of Jewish hands. The Tosafot seems to agree with Nahmanides reasoning. According to some opinions, punishment is the same whether the individual transgresses with knowledge of the law or is ignorant of the law.
Various rabbinic sources have different positions on the way the seven laws are to be subdivided in categories. Maimonides ', in his Mishneh Torah, included the grafting of trees. Like the Talmud, he interpreted the prohibition against homicide as including a prohibition against abortion. David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra, a commentator on Maimonides, expressed surprise that he left out castration and sorcery which were also listed in the Talmud.
In Chullin 92a - b Ulla says that here are 30 laws which the sons of Noah took upon themselves. However he only lists three, namely the three that the Gentiles follow: not to create a Ketubah between males, not to sell carrion in the market and to respect the Torah. The rest of the laws are not listed. Talmud commentator Rashi remarks on this that he does not know the other Commandments that are referred to. Though the authorities seem to take it for granted that Ulla 's thirty commandments included the original seven, an additional thirty laws is also possible from the reading. Two different lists of the 30 laws exist. Both lists include an additional twenty - three mitzvot which are subdivisions or extensions of the seven laws. One from the 16th - century work Asarah Maamarot by Rabbi Menahem Azariah da Fano and a second from the 10th century Samuel ben Hofni which was recently published from his Judeo - Arabic writings after having been found in the Cairo Geniza. Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Chajes suggests Menahem Azariah of Fano enumerated commandments are not related to the first seven, nor based on Scripture, but instead were passed down by oral tradition.
The 10th - century Rabbi Saadia Gaon added tithes and levirate marriage. The 11th - century Rav Nissim Gaon included "listening to God 's Voice '', "knowing God '' and "serving God '' besides going on to say that all religious acts which can be understood through human reasoning are obligatory upon Jew and Gentile alike. The 14th - century Rabbi Nissim ben Reuben Gerondi added the commandment of charity.
In earlier times, a Gentile living in the Land of Israel who accepted the Seven Laws in front of a rabbinical court was known as a ger toshav (literally stranger / resident). The regulations regarding Jewish - Gentile relations are modified in the case of a ger toshav.
Historically, some rabbinic opinions consider non-Jews not only not obliged to adhere to all the remaining laws of the Torah, but actually forbidden to observe them.
Noahide law differs radically from Roman law for gentiles (Jus Gentium), if only because the latter was enforceable judicial policy. Rabbinic Judaism has never adjudicated any cases under Noahide law, Jewish scholars disagree about whether Noahide law is a functional part of Halakha ("Jewish law '').
Some modern views hold that penalties are a detail of the Noahide Laws and that Noahides themselves must determine the details of their own laws for themselves. According to this school of thought -- see N. Rakover, Law and the Noahides (1998); M. Dallen, The Rainbow Covenant (2003) -- the Noahide Laws offer mankind a set of absolute values and a framework for righteousness and justice, while the detailed laws that are currently on the books of the world 's states and nations are presumptively valid.
In recent years, the term "Noahide '' has come to refer to non-Jews who strive to live in accord with the seven Noahide Laws; the terms "observant Noahide '' or "Torah - centered Noahides '' would be more precise but these are infrequently used. Support for the use of "Noahide '' in this sense can be found with the Ritva, who uses the term Son of Noah to refer to a Gentile who keeps the seven laws, but is not a Ger Toshav. The rainbow, referring to the Noahide or First Covenant (Genesis 9), is the symbol of many organized Noahide groups, following Genesis 9: 12 -- 17.
The Jewish scholar Maimonides (12th century) held that Gentiles may have a part in the world to come just by observing Noahide law and accepts them as given by Moses. Such children of Noah become the status of Chasidei Umot HaOlam - Pious People of the World, and are different from children of Noah who only keep the seven laws out of moral / ethical reasoning alone. He writes in his book of laws: ''
Anyone who accepts upon himself and carefully observes the Seven Commandments is of the Righteous of the Nations of the World and has a portion in the World to Come. This is as long as he accepts and performs them because (he truly believes that) it was the Holy One, Blessed Be He, Who commanded them in the Torah, and that it was through Moses our Teacher we were informed that the Sons of Noah had already been commanded to observe them. But if he observes them because he convinced himself, then he is not considered a Resident Convert and is not of the Righteous of the Nations of the World, but merely one of their wise.
Some later editions of the Mishneh Torah differ by one letter and read "Nor one of their wise men. '' The later reading is narrower. Spinoza read Maimonides as using nor and accused him of being narrow and particularistic. Other philosophers such as Hermann Cohen and Moses Mendelssohn have used more inclusive interpretations of the passage by Maimonides. In either reading, Maimonides appears to exclude philosophical Noahides from being Righteous Gentiles. Thus Maimonides wants to emphasis that a truly Righteous Gentile follows the seven laws because they are divinely revealed and thus are followed out of obedience to God.
The Apostolic Decree recorded in Acts 15 is commonly seen as a parallel to Noahide Law; however, some modern scholars dispute the connection between Acts 15 and Noahide Law, the content of Noahide Law, the historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles, and the nature of Biblical law in Christianity. The Apostolic Decree is still observed by Eastern Orthodoxy and includes some food restrictions.
The 18th - century rabbi Jacob Emden proposed that Jesus, and Paul after him, intended to convert the gentiles to the Noahide laws while calling on the Jews to keep the full Law of Moses.
Maimonides stated that God commanded Moses to compel the world to accept these seven commandments. In 1983 Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson urged his followers to actively engage in activities to inform non-Jews about these seven commandments, which had not been done in previous generations.
After Rabbi Schneerson started his Noahide Campaign in the 1980s, a codification of the exact obligations of the Gentiles in the spirit of the classical Shulchan Aruch was needed. In 2005, Rabbi Moshe Weiner of Jerusalem accepted to produce an in - depth codification of the Noahide precepts. The work is called Sefer Sheva Mitzvot HaShem, (The Book of Seven Divine Commandments) published 2008 / 2009. As it was approved by both of the then presiding chief rabbis of Israel (Rabbi Shlomo Moshe Amar and Rabbi Yonah Metzger) as well as by other Hasidic and non-Hasidic halachic authorities, it can claim an authoritative character and is referred as a Shulchan Aruch for Gentiles at many places.
In 1987 President Ronald Reagan signed a proclamation speaking of "the historical tradition of ethical values and principles, which have been the bedrock of society from the dawn of civilization when they were known as the Seven Noahide Laws, transmitted through God to Moses on Mount Sinai '', and in 1991, Congress stated in the preamble to the 1991 bill that established Education Day in honor of the birthday of Menachem Mendel Schneerson, the leader of the Chabad movement:
Whereas Congress recognizes the historical tradition of ethical values and principles which are the basis of civilized society and upon which our great Nation was founded; Whereas these ethical values and principles have been the bedrock of society from the dawn of civilization, when they were known as the Seven Noahide Laws (...)
In January 2004, Sheikh Mowafak Tarif, the spiritual leader of Israeli Druze, signed a declaration, which called on non-Jews living in Israel to observe the Noahide Laws. He was joined by the mayor of Shefa - ' Amr.
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who won the battle of shiloh in the civil war | Battle of Shiloh - Wikipedia
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The Battle of Shiloh (also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing) was a major battle in the Western Theater of the American Civil War, fought April 6 -- 7, 1862, in southwestern Tennessee. A Union force known as the Army of the Tennessee under Major General Ulysses S. Grant had moved via the Tennessee River deep into Tennessee and was encamped principally at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee on the west bank of the Tennessee River, where the Confederate Army of Mississippi, under General Albert Sidney Johnston and second - in - command P.G.T. Beauregard, launched a surprise attack on Grant 's army from its base in Corinth, Mississippi. Johnston was mortally wounded during the fighting; Beauregard, who thus succeeded to command of the army, decided against pressing the attack late in the evening. Overnight Grant was reinforced by one of his own divisions stationed further north and was joined by three divisions from another Union army under Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell. This allowed them to launch an unexpected counterattack the next morning which completely reversed the Confederate gains of the previous day.
On April 6, the first day of the battle, the Confederates struck with the intention of driving the Union defenders away from the river and into the swamps of Owl Creek to the west. Johnston hoped to defeat Grant 's army before the anticipated arrival of General Buell 's Army of the Ohio. The Confederate battle lines became confused during the fierce fighting, and Grant 's men instead fell back to the northeast, in the direction of Pittsburg Landing. A Union position on a slightly sunken road, nicknamed the "Hornet 's Nest, '' defended by the men of Brig. Gens. Benjamin Prentiss 's and William H.L. Wallace 's divisions, provided critical time for the remainder of the Union line to stabilize under the protection of numerous artillery batteries. Wallace was mortally wounded when the position collapsed, while several regiments from the two divisions were eventually surrounded and surrendered. General Johnston was shot in the leg and bled to death while personally leading an attack. Beauregard, his second in command, acknowledged how tired the army was from the day 's exertions and decided against assaulting the final Union position that night.
Tired but unfought and well - organized men from Buell 's army and a division of Grant 's army arrived in the evening of April 6 and helped turn the tide the next morning, when the Union commanders launched a counterattack along the entire line. Confederate forces were forced to retreat from the area, ending their hopes of blocking the Union advance into northern Mississippi. The Battle of Shiloh was the bloodiest battle in American history up to that time. It was eventually superseded that coming September by the Battle of Antietam (an overall bloodier battle, and still the bloodiest single - day in American military history), then the next year by the Battle of Chancellorsville, and, soon after, the three - day Battle of Gettysburg, which would prove to be the bloodiest overall battle of the war.
After the losses of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in February 1862, Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston withdrew his forces into western Tennessee, northern Mississippi, and Alabama to reorganize. Johnston established his base at Corinth, Mississippi, the site of a major railroad junction and strategic transportation link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mississippi River, but left the Union troops with access into southern Tennessee and points farther south via the Tennessee River.
In early March, Union Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck, then commander of the Department of the Missouri, ordered Grant to remain at Fort Henry, and on March 4 turned field command of the expedition over to a subordinate, Brig. Gen. C.F. Smith, who had recently been nominated as a major general. (Various writers assert that Halleck took this step because of professional and personal animosity toward Grant; however, Halleck shortly restored Grant to full command, perhaps influenced by an inquiry from President Abraham Lincoln.) Smith 's orders were to lead raids intended to capture or damage the railroads in southwestern Tennessee. Brig. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman 's troops arrived from Paducah, Kentucky, to conduct a similar mission to break the railroads near Eastport, Mississippi. Halleck also ordered Grant to advance his Army of West Tennessee (soon to be known by its more famous name, the Army of the Tennessee) on an invasion up the Tennessee River. Grant left Fort Henry and headed upriver (south), arriving at Savannah, Tennessee, on March 14, and established his headquarters on the east bank of the river. Grant 's troops set up camp farther upriver: five divisions at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee, and a sixth at Crump 's Landing, four miles from Grant 's headquarters.
Meanwhile, Halleck 's command was enlarged through consolidation of Grant 's and Buell 's armies and renamed the Department of the Mississippi. With Buell 's Army of the Ohio under his command, Halleck ordered Buell to concentrate with Grant at Savannah. Buell began a march with much of his army from Nashville, Tennessee, and headed southwest toward Savannah. Halleck intended to take the field in person and lead both armies in an advance south to seize Corinth, Mississippi, where the Mobile and Ohio Railroad linking Mobile, Alabama, to the Ohio River intersected the Memphis and Charleston Railroad. The railroad was a vital supply line connecting the Mississippi River at Memphis, Tennessee to Richmond, Virginia.
Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, USA
Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell, USA
Brig. Gen. William T. Sherman, USA
Maj. Gen. John A. McClernand, USA
Brig. Gen. W.H.L. Wallace, USA
Brig. Gen. Benjamin Prentiss, USA
Maj. Gen. Lew Wallace, USA
Brig. Gen. Stephen A. Hurlbut, USA
Brig. Gen. Alexander M. McCook, USA
Brig. Gen. William Nelson, USA
Brig. Gen. Thomas L. Crittenden, USA
Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Wood, USA
Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant 's Army of the Tennessee of 44,895 men consisted of six divisions:
Of the six divisions encamped on the western side of the Tennessee River in early April, only Lew Wallace 's 3rd Division was at Crump 's Landing; the remainder were farther south (upriver) at Pittsburg Landing. Grant developed a reputation during the war for being more concerned with his own plans than with those of the enemy. His encampment at Pittsburg Landing displayed his most consequential lack of such concern -- his army was spread out in bivouac style, with many of his men surrounding a small, log meetinghouse named Shiloh Church (Shiloh was a biblical city that served as the capital of the Kingdom of Israel), passing the time waiting for Buell 's army with drills for his many raw troops without establishing entrenchments or other significant defensive measures.
In his memoirs, Grant reacted to criticism of his lack of entrenchments: "Besides this, the troops with me, officers and men, needed discipline and drill more than they did experience with the pick, shovel and axe... under all these circumstances I concluded that drill and discipline were worth more to our men than fortifications. '' Lew Wallace 's division was 5 miles (8.0 km) downstream (north) from Pittsburg Landing, at Crump 's Landing, a position intended to prevent the placement of Confederate river batteries, to protect the road connecting Crump 's Landing to Bethel Station, Tennessee, and to guard the Union army 's right flank. In addition, Wallace 's troops could strike the railroad line connecting Bethel Station to Corinth, about 20 miles (32 km) to the south.
The portion of Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell 's Army of the Ohio that was engaged in the battle consisted of four divisions:
On April 5, the eve of battle, the first of Buell 's divisions, under the command of Brig. Gen. William "Bull '' Nelson, reached Savannah. Grant instructed Nelson to encamp there instead of immediately crossing the river. The remainder of Buell 's army, still marching toward Savannah with only portions of four of his divisions, totaling 17,918 men, did not reach the area in time to have a significant role in the battle until its second day. Buell 's three other divisions were led by Brig. Gens. Alexander M. McCook, Thomas L. Crittenden, and Thomas J. Wood. (Wood 's division appeared too late even to be of much service on the second day.)
Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston, CSA
Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard, CSA
Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk, CSA
Maj. Gen. Braxton Bragg, CSA
Maj. Gen. William J. Hardee, CSA
Brig. Gen. John C. Breckinridge, CSA
On the Confederate side, Albert S. Johnston named his newly assembled force the Army of Mississippi. The 59 - year old Johnston was one of the most experienced officers on either side at this point in the war, having participated in five different wars for three different nations during a military career that covered 34 years. Jefferson Davis once said "If Johnston is not a general, then we have no general. '' He concentrated almost 55,000 men around Corinth, Mississippi, about 20 miles (32 km) southwest of Grant 's troops at Pittsburg Landing. Of these men, 40,335 departed from Corinth on April 3, hoping to surprise Grant before Buell arrived to join forces. They were organized into four large corps, commanded by:
On the eve of battle, Grant 's and Johnston 's armies were of comparable size, but the Confederates were poorly armed with antique weapons, including shotguns, hunting rifles, pistols, flintlock muskets, and even a few pikes; however, some regiments, such as the 6th and 7th Kentucky Infantry, had Enfield rifles. The troops approached the battle with very little combat experience; Braxton Bragg 's men from Pensacola and Mobile were the best trained. Grant 's army included 32 out of 62 infantry regiments who had combat experience at Fort Donelson. One half of his artillery batteries and most of his cavalry were also combat veterans.
Johnston 's plan was to attack Grant 's left, separate the Union army from its gunboat support and avenue of retreat on the Tennessee River, and drive it west into the swamps of Snake and Owl Creeks, where it could be destroyed. The attack on Grant was originally planned for April 4, but it was delayed forty - eight hours due to a heavy rain storm that turned roads into seas of mud, causing some units to get lost in the woods and others to grind to a halt faced with heavy traffic jams. It ended up taking Johnston 3 days to move his army just 23 miles. This was a significant setback for the Confederate Army, as the originally scheduled attack would have commenced when Buell 's Army of the Ohio was too far away to be of any aid to Grant. Instead, it would happen on the 6th with Buell 's army close at hand and able to reinforce Grant on the second day. Furthermore, the delay left the Confederate Army desperately short of rations. They had issued their troops 5 days of rations just before leaving Corinth, but failure to properly conserve their food intake and the 2 - day delay left most troops completely out of rations by the time the battle commenced.
During the Confederate march, there were several minor skirmishes with Union scouts and both sides had taken prisoners. Furthermore, many Confederate troops failed to maintain proper noise discipline as the army prepared for the attack. Positioned only a few miles from the Union Army, the rebel soldiers routinely played their bugles, pounded their drums, and even discharged their muskets hunting for game. As a result, Johnston 's second in command, P.G.T. Beauregard, feared that the element of surprise had been lost and recommended withdrawing to Corinth, believing that by the time the battle commenced, they would be facing an enemy "entrenched up to the eyes ''. He was also concerned about the lack of rations, fearing that if the army got into prolonged engagement, their meager remaining food supplies would not be able to sustain them. But Johnston once more refused to consider retreat.
Johnston made the decision to attack, stating "I would fight them if they were a million. '' Despite Beauregard 's well - founded concern, most of the Union forces did not hear the marching army approach and were unaware of the enemy camps less than 3 miles (4.8 km) away.
Before 6 a.m. on Sunday, April 6, Johnston 's army was deployed for battle, straddling the Corinth Road. The army had spent the entire night bivouacking in order of battle within 2 miles (3.2 km) of the Union camp near Sherman 's headquarters at Shiloh Church. Despite several contacts, a few minor skirmishes with Union forces, and the failure of the army to maintain proper noise discipline in the days leading up to the 6th, their approach and dawn assault achieved a strategic and tactical surprise. Grant wanted to avoid provoking any major battles until the linkup with Buell 's Army of the Ohio was complete. Thus the Union army had sent out no scouts or regular patrols and did not have any vedettes in place for early warning, concerned that scouts and patrols might provoke a major battle before the Army of the Ohio finished crossing the river. Grant telegraphed a message to Halleck on the night of April 5, "I have scarcely the faintest idea of an attack (general one) being made upon us, but will be prepared should such a thing take place. '' Grant 's declaration proved to be overstated. Sherman, the informal camp commander at Pittsburg Landing, did not believe the Confederates had a major assault force nearby; he discounted the possibility of an attack from the south. Sherman expected that Johnston would eventually attack from the direction of Purdy, Tennessee, to the west. When Col. Jesse Appler, 53rd Ohio Infantry, warned Sherman that an attack was imminent, the general angrily replied, "Take your damned regiment back to Ohio. There are no Confederates closer than Corinth. ''
Around 3 a.m., Col. Everett Peabody, commanding Brig. Gen. Benjamin Prentiss 's 1st Brigade, sent a patrol of 250 infantry men from the 25th Missouri and the 12th Michigan out on reconnaissance patrol, convinced that the constant reports of Confederate contacts over the last few days meant there was a strong possibility of a large confederate force in the area. The patrol, under the command of Maj. James E. Powell, met fire from Confederates who then fled into the woods. A short time later, 5: 15 a.m., they encountered Confederate outposts manned by the 3rd Mississippi Battalion, and a spirited fight lasted about an hour. Arriving messengers and sounds of gunfire from the skirmish alerted the nearest Union troops, who formed battle line positions before the Confederates were able to reach them; however, the Union army command had not adequately prepared for an attack on their camps. When Prentiss learned that Peabody had sent out a patrol without his authorization he was outraged and accused the Colonel of provoking a major engagement in violation of Grant 's orders, but he soon realized he was facing an assault by an entire Confederate army and rushed to prepare his men for defense. By 9 a.m. Union forces at Pittsburg Landing were either engaged or moving toward the front line. Both Peabody and Powell were soon killed in the subsequent fighting.
The confusing alignment of the Confederate troops helped reduce the effectiveness of the attack, since Johnston and Beauregard had no unified battle plan. Earlier, Johnston had telegraphed Confederate President Jefferson Davis his plan for the attack: "Polk the left, Bragg the center, Hardee the right, Breckinridge in reserve. '' His strategy was to emphasize the attack on his right flank to prevent the Union army from reaching the Tennessee River, its supply line and avenue of retreat. Johnston instructed Beauregard to stay in the rear and direct men and supplies as needed, while he rode to the front to lead the men on the battle line. This effectively ceded control of the battle to Beauregard, who had a different concept, which was simply to attack in three waves and push the Union army eastward to the river. The corps of Hardee and Bragg began the assault with their divisions in one line, nearly 3 miles (4.8 km) wide and about 2 miles (3.2 km) from its front to its rear column. As these units advanced, they became intermingled and difficult to control. Corps commanders attacked in line without reserves, and artillery could not be concentrated to effect a breakthrough. At about 7: 30 a.m., from his position in the rear, Beauregard ordered the corps of Polk and Breckinridge forward on the left and right of the line, diluting their effectiveness. The attack therefore went forward as a frontal assault conducted by a single linear formation, which lacked both the depth and weight needed for success. Units marching through rough uneven terrain were unable to maintain formation integrity and ended up mixing together with regiments from other commands. Generals ended up having to take command of zones of the battlefield rather than their own assigned divisions. Command and control, in the modern sense, were lost from the onset of the first assault.
The Confederate assault, despite its shortcomings, was ferocious, causing some of the numerous inexperienced Union soldiers in Grant 's new army to flee to the river for safety. Others fought well, but were forced to withdraw under strong pressure from the Confederates, and attempted to form new defensive lines. Many Union regiments fragmented entirely; the companies and sections that remained on the field attached themselves to other commands. Sherman, who had been negligent in preparing for an attack, became one of its most important elements. He appeared everywhere along his lines, inspiring his raw recruits to resist the initial assaults, despite the staggering losses on both sides. Sherman received two minor wounds and had three horses shot out from under him. Historian James M. McPherson cites the battle as the turning point of Sherman 's life, helping him to become one of the North 's premier generals. Sherman 's division bore the brunt of the initial attack. Despite heavy fire on their position and their left flank crumbling, Sherman 's men fought stubbornly, but the Union troops slowly lost ground and fell back to a position behind Shiloh Church. McClernand 's division temporarily stabilized the position. Overall, however, Johnston 's forces made steady progress until noon, rolling up Union positions one by one. As the Confederates advanced, many threw away their flintlock muskets and grabbed rifles dropped by the fleeing Union troops.
By 11: 00 am, the Confederate advance began to slow down, due to stiff Union resistance, but also due to disciplinary problems as the army overran the Federal camps. The sight of fresh food still burning on camp fires proved too tempting for many hungry Confederates, and many broke ranks to pillage and loot the camps, putting the army on hold until their officers could get them back into line. Johnston himself ended up personally intervening to help prevent the looting and get his army back on track. Riding into the Union camp, he took a single tin cup and announced "Let this be my share of the spoils today, '' before directing his army onward.
Grant was about 10 miles (16 km) downriver at Savannah, Tennessee, when he heard the sound of artillery fire. (On April 4, he had been injured when his horse fell and pinned him underneath. He was convalescing and unable to move without crutches.) Before leaving Savannah, Grant ordered Bull Nelson 's division to march along the east side of the river, to a point opposite Pittsburg Landing, where it could be ferried over to the battlefield. Grant then took his steamboat, Tigress, to Crump 's Landing, where he gave Lew Wallace his first orders, which were to wait in reserve and be ready to move. Grant proceeded to Pittsburg Landing, arriving about 8: 30 a.m.; most of the day went by before the first of these reinforcements arrived. (Nelson 's division arrived around 5 p.m.; Wallace 's appeared about 7 p.m.) Wallace 's slow movement to the battlefield would become particularly controversial.
On the morning of April 6, around 8: 00 or 8: 30 a.m., Grant 's flagship stopped alongside Wallace 's boat moored at Crump 's Landing and gave orders for the 3rd Division to be held ready to move in any direction. Wallace concentrated his troops at Stoney Lonesome, although his westernmost brigade remained at Adamsville. He then waited for further orders, which arrived between 11 and 11: 30 a.m. Grant ordered Wallace to move his unit up to join the Union right, a move that would have been in support of Sherman 's 5th Division, which was encamped around Shiloh Church when the battle began. The written orders, transcribed from verbal orders that Grant gave to an aide, were lost during the battle and controversy remains over their wording. Wallace maintained that he was not ordered to Pittsburg Landing, which was to the left rear of the army, or told which road to use. Grant later claimed that he ordered Wallace to Pittsburg Landing by way of the River Road (also called the Hamburg -- Savannah Road).
Around noon, Wallace began the journey along the Shunpike, a route familiar to his men. A member of Grant 's staff, William R. Rowley, found Wallace between 2 and 2: 30 p.m. on the Shunpike, after Grant wondered where Wallace was and why he had not arrived on the battlefield, while the main Union force was being slowly pressed backward. Rowley told Wallace that the Union army had retreated, Sherman was no longer fighting at Shiloh Church, and the battle line had moved northeast toward Pittsburg Landing. If Wallace continued in the same direction, he would have found himself in the rear of the advancing Confederate troops.
Wallace had to make a choice: he could launch an attack and fight through the Confederate rear to reach Grant 's forces closer to Pittsburg Landing, or reverse his direction and march toward Pittsburg Landing via a crossroads to the River Road. Wallace chose the second option. (After the war, Wallace claimed that his division might have attacked and defeated the Confederates if his advance had not been interrupted, but later conceded that the move would not have been successful.) Rather than realign his troops so the rear guard would be in the front, Wallace made a controversial decision to countermarch his troops to maintain the original order, only facing in the other direction. The move further delayed Wallace 's troops as they marched north along the Shunpike road, then took a crossover to reach the River Road to the east, and headed south toward the battlefield.
Wallace 's division began arriving at Grant 's position about 6: 30 p.m., after a march of about 14 miles (23 km) in seven hours over poor and muddy roads. It formed line on the battlefield about 7 p.m., when the fighting was nearly over for the day. Although Grant showed no disapproval at the time, his later endorsement of Wallace 's battle report was negative enough to severely damage Wallace 's military career. Today, Wallace is better remembered as the author of Ben - Hur.
On the main Union defensive line, starting around 9 a.m., Prentiss 's and W.H.L. Wallace 's divisions established and held a position nicknamed the "Hornet 's Nest '', in a field along a road, now popularly called the "Sunken Road, '' although there is little physical justification for that name. The Confederates assaulted the position for several hours rather than simply bypassing it, and suffered heavy casualties. Historians ' estimates of the number of separate charges range from 8 to 14. The Union forces to the left and right of the Nest were forced back, making Prentiss 's position a prominent point in the line. Coordination within the Nest was poor, and units withdrew based solely on their individual commanders ' decisions. The pressure increased when W.H.L. Wallace, commander of the largest concentration of troops in the position, was mortally wounded while attempting to lead a breakout from the Confederate encirclement. Union regiments became disorganized and companies disintegrated as the Confederates, led by Brig. Gen. Daniel Ruggles, assembled more than 50 cannons into "Ruggles 's Battery '', the largest concentration of artillery ever assembled in North America, to blast the line at close range. Confederates surrounded the Hornet 's Nest, and it fell after holding out for seven hours. Prentiss surrendered himself and the remains of his division to the Confederates. A large portion of the Union survivors, an estimated 2,200 to 2,400 men, were captured, but their sacrifice bought time for Grant to establish a final defense line near Pittsburg Landing.
While dealing with the Hornet 's Nest, the South suffered a serious setback with the death of their commanding general. Albert Sidney Johnston had received a report from Breckenridge that one of his brigades was refusing orders to advance against a Union force in a peach orchard as he had ordered. Quickly rushing to the scene, Johnston was able to rally the men to make the charge by leading it personally, and was mortally wounded at about 2: 30 p.m. as he led the attacks on the Union left through the Widow Bell 's cotton field against the Peach Orchard. Johnston was shot in his right leg, behind the knee. Deeming the wound insignificant (possibly due to a wound he received 25 years earlier that had inflicted permanent nerve damage preventing him from feeling how bad his injury was), Johnston continued on leading the battle.
Eventually, Johnston 's staff members noticed him slumping in his saddle. One of them, Tennessee governor Isham Harris, asked Johnston if he was wounded, and the general replied "Yes, and I fear seriously. '' Earlier in the battle, Johnston had sent his personal surgeon to care for the wounded Confederate troops and Yankee prisoners, and there was no medical staff at his current location. An aide helped him off his horse and laid him down under a tree, then went to fetch his surgeon, but did not apply a tourniquet to Johnston 's wounded leg. Before a doctor could be found, Johnston bled to death from a torn popliteal artery that caused internal bleeding and blood to collect unnoticed in his riding boot. Jefferson Davis considered Johnston to be the most effective general they had (this was two months before Robert E. Lee emerged as the preeminent Confederate general). Johnston was the highest - ranking officer from either side to be killed in combat during the Civil War. Beauregard assumed command, but his position in the rear, where he relied on field reports from his subordinates, may have given him only a vague idea of the disposition of forces at the front. Beauregard ordered Johnston 's body shrouded for secrecy to avoid lowering morale and resumed attacks against the Hornet 's Nest. This was likely a tactical error, because the Union flanks were slowly pulling back to form a semicircular line around Pittsburg Landing. If Beauregard had concentrated his forces against the flanks, he might have defeated the Union army at the landing, and then reduced the Hornet 's Nest position at his leisure.
The Union flanks were being pushed back, but not decisively. Hardee and Polk caused Sherman and McClernand on the Union right to retreat in the direction of Pittsburg Landing, leaving the right flank of the Hornet 's Nest exposed. Just after Johnston 's death, Breckinridge, whose corps had been in reserve, attacked on the extreme left of the Union line, driving off the understrength brigade of Col. David Stuart and potentially opening a path into the Union rear and the Tennessee River. However, the Confederates paused to regroup and recover from exhaustion and disorganization, then followed the sounds of the guns toward the Hornet 's Nest, and an opportunity was lost. After the Hornet 's Nest fell, the remnants of the Union line established a solid three - mile (5 km) front around Pittsburg Landing, extending west from the river and then north, up the River Road, keeping the approach open for the expected, although belated, arrival of Lew Wallace 's division. Sherman commanded the right of the line, McClernand took the center, and on the left, the remnants of W.H.L. Wallace 's, Hurlbut 's, and Stuart 's men mixed with thousands of stragglers who were crowding on the bluff over the landing. The advance of Buell 's army, Col. Jacob Ammen 's brigade of Bull Nelson 's division, arrived in time to be ferried over and join the left end of the line. The defensive line included a ring of more than 50 cannons and naval guns from the river (the gunboats USS Lexington and USS Tyler). A final Confederate charge of two brigades, led by Brig. Gen. Withers, attempted to break through the line but was repulsed. Beauregard called off a second attempt after 6 p.m., as the sun set. The Confederate plan had failed; they had pushed Grant east to a defensible position on the river, not forced him west into the swamps.
The evening of April 6 was a dispiriting end to the first day of one of the bloodiest battles in American history. The cries of wounded and dying men on the fields between the armies could be heard in the Union and Confederate camps throughout the night. Exhausted Confederate soldiers bedded down in the abandoned Union camps. The Union troops were pushed back to the river and the junction of the River (Hamburg -- Savannah Road) and the Corinth - Pittsburg Landing Roads. Around 10 p.m. a thunderstorm passed through the area. Coupled with the continuous shelling from the Union gunboats Lexington and Tyler, it made the night a miserable experience for both sides.
In his 1885 memoirs, Grant described his experience that night:
During the night rain fell in torrents and our troops were exposed to the storm without shelter. I made my headquarters under a tree a few hundred yards back from the river bank. My ankle was so much swollen from the fall of my horse the Friday night preceding, and the bruise was so painful, that I could get no rest. The drenching rain would have precluded the possibility of sleep without this additional cause. Some time after midnight, growing restive under the storm and the continuous pain, I moved back to the loghouse under the bank. This had been taken as a hospital, and all night wounded men were being brought in, their wounds dressed, a leg or an arm amputated as the case might require, and everything being done to save life or alleviate suffering. The sight was more unendurable than encountering the enemy 's fire, and I returned to my tree in the rain.
A famous anecdote encapsulates Grant 's unflinching attitude to temporary setbacks and his tendency for offensive action. Sometime after midnight, Sherman encountered Grant standing under a tree, sheltering himself from the pouring rain and smoking one of his cigars, while considering his losses and planning for the next day. Sherman remarked, "Well, Grant, we 've had the devil 's own day, have n't we? '' Grant looked up. "Yes, '' he replied, followed by a puff. "Yes. Lick ' em tomorrow, though. ''
Beauregard sent a telegram to President Davis announcing a complete victory. He later admitted, "I thought I had Grant just where I wanted him and could finish him up in the morning. '' Many of his men were jubilant, having overrun the Union camps and taken thousands of prisoners and tons of supplies. Grant still had reason to be optimistic: Lew Wallace 's 5,800 men (minus the two regiments guarding the supplies at Crump 's Landing) and 15,000 of Don Carlos Buell 's army began to arrive that evening. Wallace 's division took up a position on the right of the Union line and was in place by 1 a.m.; Buell 's men were fully on the scene by 4 a.m., in time to turn the tide the next day.
Beauregard caused considerable historical controversy with his decision to halt the assault at dusk. Braxton Bragg and Albert Sidney Johnston 's son, Col. William Preston Johnston, were among those who bemoaned the so - called "lost opportunity at Shiloh. '' Beauregard did not come to the front to inspect the strength of the Union lines; he remained at Shiloh Church. He also discounted intelligence reports from Col. Nathan Bedford Forrest (and bluster from prisoner of war General Prentiss) that Buell 's men were crossing the river to reinforce Grant. In defense of his decision, Beauregard 's troops were simply exhausted, there was less than an hour of daylight left, and Grant 's artillery advantage was formidable. In addition, he had received a dispatch from Brig. Gen. Benjamin Hardin Helm in northern Alabama that indicated Buell was marching toward Decatur and not Pittsburg Landing.
On Monday morning, April 7, the combined Union armies numbered 45,000 men; the Confederates suffered as many as 8,500 casualties the first day and their commanders reported no more than 20,000 effectives due to stragglers and deserters. (Buell disputed that figure after the war, stating that there were 28,000). The Confederates had withdrawn south into Prentiss 's and Sherman 's former camps, while Polk 's corps retired to the Confederate bivouac established on April 5, which was 4 miles (6.4 km) southwest of Pittsburg Landing. No line of battle was formed, and few if any commands were resupplied with ammunition. The soldiers were consumed by the need to locate food, water, and shelter for a much - needed night 's rest.
Beauregard, unaware that he was now outnumbered, planned to continue the attack and drive Grant into the river. To his surprise, Union forces started moving forward in a massive counterattack at dawn. Grant and Buell launched their attacks separately; coordination occurred only at the division level. Lew Wallace 's division was the first to see action, about 5: 30 a.m., at the extreme right of the Union line. Wallace continued the advance, crossing Tilghman Branch around 7 a.m. and met little resistance. Changing direction and moving to the southwest, Wallace 's men drove back the brigade of Col. Preston Pond. On Wallace 's left were the survivors of Sherman 's division, then McClernand 's, and W.H.L. Wallace 's (now under the command of Col. James M. Tuttle). Buell 's army continued to the left with Bull Nelson 's, Crittenden 's, and McCook 's divisions. The Confederate defenders were so badly commingled that little unit cohesion existed above the brigade level. It required more than two hours to locate Gen. Polk and bring up his division from its bivouac to the southwest. By 10 a.m., Beauregard had stabilized his front with his corps commanders from left to right: Bragg, Polk, Breckinridge, and Hardee. In a thicket near the Hamburg - Purdy Road, the fighting was so intense that Sherman described in his report of the battle "the severest musketry fire I ever heard. ''
On the Union left, Nelson 's division led the advance, followed closely by Crittenden 's and McCook 's men, down the Corinth and Hamburg - Savannah roads. After heavy fighting, Crittenden 's division recaptured the Hornet 's Nest area by late morning, but the Crittenden and Nelson forces were repulsed by determined counterattacks from Breckinridge. Wallace 's and Sherman 's men on the Union right made steady progress, driving Bragg and Polk to the south. As Crittenden and McCook resumed their attacks, Breckinridge was forced to retire. By noon Beauregard 's line paralleled the Hamburg - Purdy Road.
In early afternoon, Beauregard launched a series of counterattacks from the Shiloh Church area, aiming to control the Corinth Road. The Union right was temporarily driven back by these assaults at Water Oaks Pond. Crittenden, reinforced by Tuttle, seized the junction of the Hamburg - Purdy and East Corinth roads, driving the Confederates into Prentiss 's old camps. Nelson resumed his attack and seized the heights overlooking Locust Grove Branch by late afternoon. Beauregard 's final counterattack was flanked and repulsed when Grant moved Col. James C. Veatch 's brigade forward.
Realizing that he had lost the initiative, was low on ammunition and food, and had more than 10,000 of his men killed, wounded, or missing, Beauregard could go no further. He withdrew beyond Shiloh Church, leaving 5,000 men under Breckinridge as a covering force, and massed Confederate batteries at the church and on the ridge south of Shiloh Branch. Confederate forces kept the Union men in position on the Corinth Road until 5 p.m., then began an orderly withdrawal southwest to Corinth. The exhausted Union soldiers did not pursue much farther than the original Sherman and Prentiss encampments. Lew Wallace 's division crossed Shiloh Branch and advanced nearly 2 miles (3.2 km), but received no support from other units and was recalled. They returned to Sherman 's camps at dark. The battle was over.
For long afterwards, Grant and Buell quarreled over Grant 's decision not to mount an immediate pursuit with another hour of daylight remaining. Grant cited the exhaustion of his troops, although the Confederates were certainly just as exhausted. Part of Grant 's reluctance to act could have been the unusual command relationship he had with Buell. Although Grant was the senior officer and technically was in command of both armies, Buell made it quite clear throughout the two days that he was acting independently.
On April 8, Grant sent Sherman south along the Corinth Road on a reconnaissance in force to confirm that the Confederates had retreated, or if they were regrouping to resume their attacks. Grant 's army lacked the large organized cavalry units that would have been better suited for reconnaissance and vigorous pursuit of a retreating enemy. Sherman marched with two infantry brigades from his division, along with two battalions of cavalry, and met Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Wood 's division of Buell 's army. Six miles (10 km) southwest of Pittsburg Landing, Sherman 's men came upon a clear field in which an extensive camp was erected, including a Confederate field hospital. The camp was protected by 300 troopers of Confederate cavalry, commanded by Col. Nathan Bedford Forrest. The road approaching the field was covered by fallen trees for more than 200 yards (180 m).
As skirmishers from the 77th Ohio Infantry approached, having difficulty clearing the fallen timber, Forrest ordered a charge. The wild melee, with Confederate troops firing shotguns and revolvers and brandishing sabers, nearly resulted in Forrest 's capture. As Col. Jesse Hildebrand 's brigade began forming in line of battle, the Southern troopers started to retreat at the sight of the strong force, and Forrest, who was well in advance of his men, came within a few yards of the Union soldiers before realizing he was all alone. Sherman 's men yelled out, "Kill him! Kill him and his horse! '' A Union soldier shoved his musket into Forrest 's side and fired, striking him above the hip, penetrating to near the spine. Although he was seriously wounded, Forrest was able to stay on horseback and escape; he survived both the wound and the war. The Union lost about 100 men, most of them captured during Forrest 's charge, in an incident that has been remembered with the name "Fallen Timbers ''. After capturing the Confederate field hospital, Sherman encountered the rear of Breckinridge 's covering force, but determined the enemy was making no signs of renewing its attack and withdrew back to the Union camps.
In his Memoirs Grant intimated that,
The battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg landing, has been perhaps less understood, or, to state the case more accurately, more persistently misunderstood, than any other engagement between National and Confederate troops during the entire rebellion. Correct reports of the battle have been published, notably by Sherman, Badeau and, in a speech before a meeting of veterans, by General Prentiss; but all of these appeared long subsequent to the close of the rebellion and after public opinion had been most erroneously formed
In the immediate aftermath of the battle, Northern newspapers vilified Grant for his performance during the battle on April 6, especially for being surprised and unprepared. Reporters, many far from the battle, spread the story that Grant had been drunk, falsely alleging that this had resulted in many of his men being bayoneted in their tents because of a lack of defensive preparedness. Despite the Union victory, Grant 's reputation suffered in Northern public opinion. Many credited Buell with taking control of the broken Union forces and leading them to victory on April 7. Calls for Grant 's removal overwhelmed the White House. President Lincoln replied with one of his most famous quotations about Grant: "I ca n't spare this man; he fights. '' Although all of the Union division commanders fought well, Sherman emerged as an immediate hero after Grant and Halleck commended him especially. His steadfastness under fire and amid chaos atoned for his previous melancholy and his defensive lapses preceding the battle.
Army officers that were with Grant gave a starkly different account of his capacity, and performance, than those of enterprising newspaper reporters far away from Grant during the battle. One such officer, Colonel William R. Rowley, answering a letter of inquiry about allegations aimed at Grant, maintained:
I pronounce it an unmitigated slander. I have been on his Staff ever since the Donelson affair (and saw him frequently during that) and necessary in close contact with him every day, and I have never seen him take even a glass of liquor more than two or three times in my life and then only a single at a time. And I have never seen him intoxicated or even approximate to it. As to the story that he was intoxicated at the Battle of Pittsburg, I have only to say that the man who fabricated the story is an infamous liar, and you are at liberty to say to him that I say so...
In retrospect, however, Grant is recognized positively for the clear judgment he was able to retain under the strenuous circumstances, and his ability to perceive the larger tactical picture that ultimately resulted in victory on the second day. For the rest of his life, Grant would insist he always had the battle well under control and rejected claims from critics that only the death of Johnston and arrival of Buell 's Army prevented his defeat. In his 1885 memoirs, he wrote:
Some of these critics claim that Shiloh was won when Johnston fell, and that if he had not fallen the army under me would have been annihilated or captured. Ifs defeated the Confederates at Shiloh. There is little doubt that we would have been disgracefully beaten if all the shells and bullets fired by us had passed harmlessly over the enemy and if all of theirs had taken effect. Commanding generals are liable to be killed during engagements; and the fact that when he was shot Johnston was leading a brigade to induce it to make a charge which had been repeatedly ordered, is evidence that there was neither the universal demoralization on our side nor the unbounded confidence on theirs which has been claimed. There was, in fact, no hour during the day when I doubted the eventual defeat of the enemy, although I was disappointed that reinforcements so near at hand did not arrive at an earlier hour.
Nevertheless, Grant 's career suffered temporarily in the aftermath of Shiloh. Halleck combined and reorganized his armies, relegating Grant to the powerless position of second - in - command. Meanwhile, Beauregard remained in command of the Army of Mississippi and led it back to Corinth. In late April and May, the Union armies, under Halleck 's personal command, advanced slowly toward Corinth and captured it, while an amphibious force on the Mississippi River destroyed the Confederates ' River Defense Fleet and captured Memphis, Tennessee. Halleck was promoted to be general in chief of all the Union armies. With Halleck 's departure to the East, Grant was restored to command and eventually pushed down the Mississippi River to besiege Vicksburg, Mississippi. After the surrender of Vicksburg and the fall of Port Hudson in the summer of 1863, the Mississippi River was under Union control and the Confederacy was cut in two.
Davis was outraged at Beauregard for withdrawing from Corinth without a fight, even though he faced an army nearly twice his size and his water supplies in the city had become contaminated. Shortly after the fall of Corinth, Beauregard took medical leave without receiving authorization from Davis. This was the final straw for Davis, who quickly reassigned him to oversee the coastal defenses in South Carolina. Command of the Army of Mississippi fell to Braxton Bragg, who was promoted to full general on April 6, and during the fall of 1862, he led it on an unsuccessful invasion of Kentucky, culminating in his retreat from the Battle of Perryville.
Union General Lew Wallace was heavily criticized for failing to get his division into the battle until 1830 hours, near the end of combat on the first day. He was removed from the Army of the Tennessee and would never again get a front line command or take part in a major offensive operation, though his backwater assignments would still place him in important battles. Shortly after Shiloh, he was sent to the War Department in Ohio where he led the successful Defense of Cincinnati during Bragg 's invasion of Kentucky. In 1864, at the Battle of Monocacy, Wallace commanded a 5,800 man force tasked with opposing Jubal Early 's 14,000 man invasion of Maryland. Faced against an army more than twice his size, Wallace was eventually forced to retreat to Baltimore, but his men delayed Early 's advance for a full day, enabling Union re-enforcement to be brought up to secure Washington D.C. from Early 's further incursion. Despite this success, and later fame for writing the book Ben Hur, criticism of Wallace 's conduct at Shiloh would haunt him for the rest of his life and he would spend much of it trying to defend his actions there.
The two - day battle of Shiloh, the costliest in American history up to that time, resulted in the defeat of the Confederate army and frustration of Johnston 's plans to prevent the two Union armies in Tennessee from joining together. Union casualties were 13,047 (1,754 killed, 8,408 wounded, and 2,885 missing); Grant 's army bore the brunt of the fighting over the two days, with casualties of 1,513 killed, 6,601 wounded, and 2,830 missing or captured. Confederate casualties were 10,699 (1,728 killed, 8,012 wounded, and 959 missing or captured). The dead included the Confederate army 's commander, Albert Sidney Johnston, as well as Brigadier General Adley H. Gladden. The highest ranking Union general killed was W.H.L. Wallace. Union Colonel Everett Peabody, whose decision to send out a patrol the morning of the battle may have saved the Union from disaster, was also among the dead. Both sides were shocked at the carnage, which resulted in more than four times as many casualties as the Battle of Bull Run that had horrified the nation 10 months earlier.
I saw an open field, in our possession on the second day, over which the Confederates had made repeated charges the day before, so covered with dead that it would have been possible to walk across the clearing, in any direction, stepping on dead bodies, without a foot touching the ground.
Three more years of such bloodshed remained and eight larger and bloodier battles were yet to come. Grant later came to realize that his prediction of one great battle bringing the war to a close would probably not occur. The war would continue, at great cost in casualties and resources, until the Confederacy succumbed or the Union was divided. Grant also learned a valuable personal lesson on preparedness that (mostly) served him well for the rest of the war.
The loss of Albert Johnston was a particularly severe blow to the Confederacy. President Jefferson Davis called it "the turning point of our fate. '' For the remainder of the war, the Confederate armies in the West would go through a long string of commanders, much like the Union in the east, as Davis searched for a leader who was the caliber of Robert E. Lee.
In addition to those already mentioned, several other famous people participated in the Battle of Shiloh
Shiloh 's importance as a Civil War battle, coupled with the lack of widespread agricultural or industrial development in the battle area after the war, led to its development as one of the first five battlefields restored by the federal government in the 1890s. Government involvement eventually proved insufficient to preserve the land on which the battle took place. (The federal government had saved just over 2,000 acres at Shiloh by 1897, and consolidated those gains by adding another 1,700 acres by 1954.) Preservation eventually slowed. Since 1954, only 300 additional acres of the saved land had been preserved. Private preservation organizations stepped in to fill the void. The Civil War Trust became the primary agent of these efforts, preserving 1,158 acres at Shiloh since its inception. The land preserved by the Trust at Shiloh included tracts over which Confederate divisions passed as they fought Grant 's men on the battle 's first day and their retreat during the Union counteroffensive on day two. A 2012 campaign focused in particular on a section of land which was part of the Confederate right flank on day one and on several tracts which were part of the Battle of Fallen Timbers.
Shiloh National Military Park is managed by the National Park Service.
The United States Postal Service released a commemorative stamp on the 100th anniversary of the Battle of Shiloh, first issued through the Shiloh, Tennessee, Post Office on April 7, 1962. It was the second in a series of five stamps marking the Civil War Centennial.
The writer Ambrose Bierce was at Shiloh as a First Lieutenant on Gen. William B. Hazen 's staff, serving as a topographical engineer. He recalled his experiences in the short story "What I Saw of Shiloh '', written in 1874 and twice revised in the following 35 years. He describes Pittsburg Landing as follows: "Here in 1862 were some fields and a house or two; now there are a national cemetery and other improvements. '' Some scholars think ' What I Saw of Shiloh ' is Bierce 's best work.
The song "Shiloh 's Hill '' was written shortly after the battle and soon became a popular civil war tune.
The Battle of Shiloh was depicted in the 1962 film How the West Was Won, directed by John Ford.
Shel Silverstein wrote "In the Hills of Shiloh '', a poignant song about widowed bride forever awaiting the return of a man killed in the battle of Shiloh. The song was recorded by The New Christy Minstrels, Judy Collins, and others.
Bobbie Ann Mason 's short story "Shiloh '', which appeared in The New Yorker on October 20, 1980, describes a visit to the site of the battle by a modern couple whose marriage is about to collapse. The context gives the mundane events depicted in the story layer on layer of broad significance.
In Frederick Forsyth 's 1999 novel The Phantom of Manhattan, one of the main plots is of the Phantom composing an opera set during the battle called The Angel of Shiloh.
In 2011, the American Celtic punk band Dropkick Murphys included a song lamenting the heavy casualties taken by Irish units at Shiloh on their album Going Out in Style entitled "Broken Hymns. ''
The Battle of Shiloh was depicted in the wargame Bloody April: The Battle of Shiloh, 1862, published in 1979 by Simulation Publications Inc. (SPI).
In May 2016, Bloody April, a computer game based on the SPI title was released by HexWar Games, Ltd. (Scotland), for iPhone / iPad / Mac platforms. This single - player game (with a computer opponent) presents several scenarios covering the two - day battle.
The battle is also depicted on in Ultimate General: Civil War (released November 2016 by Game Labs), a computer game that presents various battles of the civil war in a realistic and tactical manner.
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who win in bigg boss 2 in tamil | Bigg Boss Tamil 2 - Wikipedia
Bigg Boss Tamil 2 was the second season of the reality TV game show Bigg Boss Tamil, hosted by Kamal Haasan. This season had 17 housemates (inclusive of wildcard entries) with 60 cameras. The season commenced on 17 June 2018 and ended on 30 September 2018 after 105 days. The show aired on Star Vijay from 9 - 10: 30 PM on weekdays and 9 - 11 PM on weekends. From Season 2, Hotstar also provided content not aired on television, through segments such as Morning Masala, Midnight Masala, Unseen on TV and What 's Cooking and also a parallel weekly programme Fun Unlimited hosted by actor Rio Raj, which described the events in the Bigg Boss house in a humourous manner.
A lavish house set, which was used in the first season was renovated just prior to the commencement of the programme. The set is located on the outskirts of the Chennai city in the EVP Film City at Chembarambakkam. The renovated house for the second season included special features including a jail room to increase the level of punishments to the contestants who commits mistakes.
The winner of the second season of Bigg Boss Tamil was character actress Riythvika, who took home a trophy and a cash prize of ₹ 50, 00,000 for her victory. Actress Aishwarya Dutta was the runner - up, while the other finalists included actresses Vijayalakshmi Feroz and Janani Iyer.
The housemates, in order of their entry to the house, are as follows:
During the final week the public vote for who they want to win Bigg Boss. The finalists for the title are as following:
̈ * Bigg Boss Tamil season 2 (Star Vijay)
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how many extinct volcanoes are in el salvador | List of volcanoes in El Salvador - wikipedia
This is a list of active and extinct volcanoes in El Salvador.
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what is a local area network (lan) give an example | Local area network - wikipedia
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers within a limited area such as a residence, school, laboratory, university campus or office building. By contrast, a wide area network (WAN) not only covers a larger geographic distance, but also generally involves leased telecommunication circuits.
Ethernet and Wi - Fi are the two most common technologies in use for local area networks. Historical technologies include ARCNET, Token ring, and AppleTalk.
The increasing demand and use of computers in universities and research labs in the late 1960s generated the need to provide high - speed interconnections between computer systems. A 1970 report from the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory detailing the growth of their "Octopus '' network gave a good indication of the situation.
A number of experimental and early commercial LAN technologies were developed in the 1970s. Cambridge Ring was developed at Cambridge University starting in 1974. Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC in 1973 -- 1975, and filed as U.S. Patent 4,063,220. In 1976, after the system was deployed at PARC, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs published a seminal paper, "Ethernet: Distributed Packet - Switching for Local Computer Networks ''. ARCNET was developed by Datapoint Corporation in 1976 and announced in 1977. It had the first commercial installation in December 1977 at Chase Manhattan Bank in New York.
The development and proliferation of personal computers using the CP / M operating system in the late 1970s, and later DOS - based systems starting in 1981, meant that many sites grew to dozens or even hundreds of computers. The initial driving force for networking was generally to share storage and printers, which were both expensive at the time. There was much enthusiasm for the concept and for several years, from about 1983 onward, computer industry pundits would regularly declare the coming year to be, "The year of the LAN ''.
In practice, the concept was marred by proliferation of incompatible physical layer and network protocol implementations, and a plethora of methods of sharing resources. Typically, each vendor would have its own type of network card, cabling, protocol, and network operating system. A solution appeared with the advent of Novell NetWare which provided even - handed support for dozens of competing card / cable types, and a much more sophisticated operating system than most of its competitors. Netware dominated the personal computer LAN business from early after its introduction in 1983 until the mid-1990s when Microsoft introduced Windows NT Advanced Server and Windows for Workgroups.
Of the competitors to NetWare, only Banyan Vines had comparable technical strengths, but Banyan never gained a secure base. Microsoft and 3Com worked together to create a simple network operating system which formed the base of 3Com 's 3 + Share, Microsoft 's LAN Manager and IBM 's LAN Server - but none of these was particularly successful.
During the same period, Unix workstations were using TCP / IP networking. Although this market segment is now much reduced, the technologies developed in this area continue to be influential on the Internet and in both Linux and Apple Mac OS X networking -- and the TCP / IP protocol has replaced IPX, AppleTalk, NBF, and other protocols used by the early PC LANs.
Early LAN cabling had generally been based on various grades of coaxial cable. Shielded twisted pair was used in IBM 's Token Ring LAN implementation, but in 1984, StarLAN showed the potential of simple unshielded twisted pair by using Cat3 cable -- the same simple cable used for telephone systems. This led to the development of 10BASE - T (and its successors) and structured cabling which is still the basis of most commercial LANs today.
While fiber - optic cabling is common for links between switches, use of fiber to the desktop is rare.
Many LANs use wireless technologies that are built into Smartphones, tablet computers and laptops. In a wireless local area network, users may move unrestricted in the coverage area. Wireless networks have become popular in residences and small businesses, because of their ease of installation. Guests are often offered Internet access via a hotspot service.
Network topology describes the layout of interconnections between devices and network segments. At the data link layer and physical layer, a wide variety of LAN topologies have been used, including ring, bus, mesh and star. At the higher layers, NetBEUI, IPX / SPX, AppleTalk and others were once common, but the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP / IP) has prevailed as a standard of choice.
Simple LANs generally consist of cabling and one or more switches. A switch can be connected to a router, cable modem, or ADSL modem for Internet access. A LAN can include a wide variety of other network devices such as firewalls, load balancers, and network intrusion detection. Advanced LANs are characterized by their use of redundant links with switches using the spanning tree protocol to prevent loops, their ability to manage differing traffic types via quality of service (QoS), and to segregate traffic with VLANs.
LANs can maintain connections with other LANs via leased lines, leased services, or across the Internet using virtual private network technologies. Depending on how the connections are established and secured, and the distance involved, such linked LANs may also be classified as a metropolitan area network (MAN) or a wide area network (WAN).
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what is the technical name of the sixth degree of a major | Degree (music) - wikipedia
In music theory, scale degree refers to the position of a particular note on a scale relative to the tonic, the first and main note of the scale from which each octave is assumed to begin. Degrees are useful for indicating the size of intervals and chords, and whether they are major or minor.
In the most general sense, the scale degree merely is the number given to each step of the scale, usually starting with 1 = tonic. Defining it like this implies that a tonic is specified. For instance the 7 - tone diatonic scale may become the major scale once the proper degree has been chosen as tonic (e.g. the C - major scale C -- D -- E -- F -- G -- A -- B, in which C is the tonic). If the scale has no tonic, the starting degree must be chosen arbitrarily. In set theory, for instance, the 12 degrees of the chromatic scale usually are numbered starting from C = 0, the twelve pitch classes being numbered from 0 to 11.
In a more specific sense, scale degrees are given names that indicate their particular function within the scale. This definition implies a functional scale, as is the case in tonal music.
The expression scale step is sometimes used synonymously with scale degree, but it may alternatively refer to the distance between two successive and adjacent scale degrees (see Steps and skips). The terms "whole step '' and "half step '' are commonly used as interval names (though "whole scale step '' or "half scale step '' are not used). The number of scale degrees and the distance between them together define the scale they are in.
The degrees of the traditional major and minor scales may be identified several ways:
Tonic
Supertonic Sp
Mediant Dp, Tkp, tP, (D) (Sp)
Subdominant
Dominant or Dominant seventh
Submediant Tp, sP, tCp
Subtonic dP
Leading D̸
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what does the un charter establish in relation to the international use of military force | Use of force by states - wikipedia
The use of force by states is controlled by both customary international law and by treaty law. The UN Charter reads in article 2 (4):
All members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations.
This rule was "enshrined in the United Nations Charter in 1945 for a good reason: to prevent states from using force as they felt so inclined '', said Louise Doswald - Beck, Secretary - General International Commission of Jurists.
Although some commentators interpret Article 2 (4) as banning only the use of force directed at the territorial integrity or political independence of a state, the more widely held opinion is that these are merely intensifiers, and that the article constitutes a general prohibition, subject only to the exceptions stated in the Charter (self - defence and Chapter VII action by the Security Council). The latter interpretation is also supported by the historic context in which the Charter was drafted, the preamble specifically states that "to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind '' is a principal aim of the UN as such. This principle is now considered to be a part of customary international law, and has the effect of banning the use of armed force except for two situations authorized by the UN Charter. Firstly, the Security Council, under powers granted in articles 24 and 25, and Chapter VII of the Charter, may authorize collective action to maintain or enforce international peace and security. Secondly, Article 51 also states that: "Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right to individual or collective self - defence if an armed attack occurs against a state. '' There are also more controversial claims by some states of a right of humanitarian intervention, reprisals and the protection of nationals abroad.
Article 2 (4) does not use the term "war '' but rather refers to "the threat or use of force. '' Although clearly encompassed by the article, it is ambiguous whether the article only refers to military force or economic, political, ideological or psychological force. The Preamble to the Charter declares that the "armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest... '' Article 51 preserves the "right of individual or collective self defence if an armed attack occurs... ''. In 1970 the General Assembly adopted the Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation Among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations. This resolution was adopted without vote by consensus but is considered an authoritative statement on the interpretation of certain provisions of the Charter. The Declaration reiterates article 2 (4) and elaborates upon the occasions when the threat or use of force is prohibited but it does not address the question of whether force includes non-military force within the scope of the Charter. The Declaration also states that: "Nothing in the foregoing paragraphs shall be the construed as enlarging or diminishing in any way the scope of the provisions of the Charter concerning cases in which the use of force is lawful. '' Certain types of armed and non-armed intervention are prohibited by the Declaration: "No State or group of States has the right to intervene, directly or indirectly, for any reason whatever, in the internal or external affairs of any other State. Consequently, armed intervention and all against its political, economic and cultural elements, are in violation of international law. '' The Declaration addresses the use of non-military force in the context of other international obligations such as the obligation not to intervene in the affairs of another state.
A number of developing nations have maintained that "force '' includes non-military force but the developed states have resisted this view while conceding that non-military force of various kinds may be outlawed by other principles of international law.
The Security Council is authorized to determine the existence of, and take action to address, any threat to international peace and security. In practice this power has been relatively little - used because of the presence of five veto - wielding permanent members with interests in a given issue. Typically measures short of armed force are taken before armed force, such as the imposition of sanctions. The first time the Security Council authorized the use of force was in 1950 to secure a North Korean withdrawal from South Korea. Although it was originally envisaged by the framers of the UN Charter that the UN would have its own designated forces to use for enforcement, the intervention was effectively controlled by forces under United States command. The weaknesses of the system are also notable in that the fact that the resolution was only passed because of a Soviet boycott and the occupation of China 's seat by the Nationalist Chinese of Taiwan.
The Security Council did not authorize the use of significant armed force again until the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq in 1990. After passing resolutions demanding a withdrawal, the Council passed Resolution 678, which authorized the use of force and requested all member states to provide the necessary support to a force operating in cooperation with Kuwait to ensure the withdrawal of Iraqi forces. This resolution was never revoked.
On 8 November 2002, the Security Council passed Resolution 1441, by a unanimous 15 -- 0 vote: Russia, China, France, and Arab states such as Syria voted in favor. It has been argued that 1441 impliedly authorized UN member states to wage war against Iraq without any further decision by the UN Security Council. The representatives in the meeting were clear that this was not the case. The United States Ambassador to the United Nations, John Negroponte, said: "(T) his resolution contains no "hidden triggers '' and no "automaticity '' with respect to the use of force. If there is a further Iraqi breach, reported to the Council by UNMOVIC, the IAEA or a Member State, the matter will return to the Council for discussions as required in paragraph 12. The resolution makes clear that any Iraqi failure to comply is unacceptable and that Iraq must be disarmed. And, one way or another, Iraq will be disarmed. If the Security Council fails to act decisively in the event of further Iraqi violations, this resolution does not constrain any Member State from acting to defend itself against the threat posed by Iraq or to enforce relevant United Nations resolutions and protect world peace and security. "The ambassador for the United Kingdom, the co-sponsor of the resolution, said: '' We heard loud and clear during the negotiations the concerns about "automaticity '' and "hidden triggers '' -- the concern that on a decision so crucial we should not rush into military action; that on a decision so crucial any Iraqi violations should be discussed by the Council. Let me be equally clear in response... There is no "automaticity '' in this resolution. If there is a further Iraqi breach of its disarmament obligations, the matter will return to the Council for discussion as required in paragraph 12. We would expect the Security Council then to meet its responsibilities. '' The message was further confirmed by the ambassador for Syria: "Syria voted in favour of the resolution, having received reassurances from its sponsors, the United States of America and the United Kingdom, and from France and Russia through high - level contacts, that it would not be used as a pretext for striking against Iraq and does not constitute a basis for any automatic strikes against Iraq. The resolution should not be interpreted, through certain paragraphs, as authorizing any State to use force. It reaffirms the central role of the Security Council in addressing all phases of the Iraqi issue.
The UN has also authorized the use of force in peacekeeping or humanitarian interventions, notably in the former Yugoslavia, Somalia, and Sierra Leone.
Article 51:
Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of collective or individual self - defence if an armed attack occurs against a member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken the measures necessary to maintain international peace and security. Measures taken by members in exercise of this right of self - defence shall be immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and responsibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore international peace and security.
Thus there is still a right of self - defence under customary international law, as the International Court of Justice (ICJ) affirmed in the Nicaragua Case on the use of force. Some commentators believe that the effect of Article 51 is only to preserve this right when an armed attack occurs, and that other acts of self - defence are banned by article 2 (4). The more widely held opinion is that article 51 acknowledges this general right, and proceeds to lay down procedures for the specific situation when an armed attack does occur. Under the latter interpretation, the legitimate use of self - defence in situations when an armed attack has not actually occurred is still permitted. It is also to be noted that not every act of violence will constitute an armed attack. The ICJ has tried to clarify, in the Nicaragua case, what level of force is necessary to qualify as an armed attack.
The traditional customary rules on self - defence derive from an early diplomatic incident between the United States and the United Kingdom over the killing on some US citizens engaged in an attack on Canada, then a British colony. The so - called Caroline case established that there had to exist "a necessity of self - defence, instant, overwhelming, leaving no choice of means, and no moment of deliberation, ' and furthermore that any action taken must be proportionate, "since the act justified by the necessity of self - defence, must be limited by that necessity, and kept clearly within it. '' These statements by the US Secretary of State to the British authorities are accepted as an accurate description of the customary right of self - defence.
There is a limited right of pre-emptive self - defence under customary law. Its continuing permissibility under the Charter hinges on the interpretation of article 51. If it permits self - defence only when an armed attack has occurred, then there can be no right to pre-emptive self - defence. However, few observers really think that a state must wait for an armed attack to actually begin before taking action. A distinction can be drawn between "preventive '' self - defence, which takes place when an attack is merely possible or foreseeable, and a permitted "interventionary '' or "anticipatory '' self - defence, which takes place when an armed attack is imminent and inevitable. The right to use interventionary, pre-emptive armed force in the face of an imminent attack has not been ruled out by the ICJ. But state practice and opinio juris overwhelmingly suggests that there is no right of preventive self - defence under international law.
The controversial claim to a right to use force in order to protect nationals abroad has been asserted by some States. Examples include intervention by the UK in Suez (1956), Israel in Entebbe (1976) and the USA in the Dominican Republic (1965), Grenada (1983) and Panama (1989). The majority of States are doubtful about the existence of such a right. It is often claimed alongside other rights and reasons for using force. For example, the USA intervention in Grenada was widely considered to be in response to the rise to power of a socialist government. The danger that this posed to US nationals was doubtful and resulted in condemnation by the General Assembly. As with the above examples (except the Entebbe incident), the protection of nationals is often used as an excuse for other political objectives.
In recent years several countries have begun to argue for the existence of a right of humanitarian intervention without Security Council authorization. In the aftermath of the Kosovo crisis in 1999, the UK Foreign Secretary asserted that, "In international law, in exceptional circumstances and to avoid a humanitarian catastrophe, military action can be taken and it is on that legal basis that military action was taken. '' It is very difficult to reconcile this statement with the UN Charter. When NATO used military force against the Yugoslav state, it did not have authorization from the Security Council, but it was not condemned either. This is because veto - wielding countries held strong positions on both sides of the dispute.
Many countries oppose such unauthorized humanitarian interventions on the formal ground that they are simply illegal, or on the practical ground that such a right would only be ever used against weaker states by stronger states. This was specifically shown in the Ministerial Declaration of G - 77 countries, in which 134 states condemned such intervention. Proponents have typically resorted to a claim that the right has developed as a new part of customary law.
There has been widespread debate about the significance of the phrasing of article 2 (4), specifically about the use of the solitary word "force. '' There is a strain of opinion holding that whereas "armed attack '' is referred to in article 51, the use of the word "force '' in 2 (4) holds a wider meaning, encompassing economic force or other methods of non-military coercion. Cyber-attacks, according to some frameworks such as the Schmitt analysis, could be seen in some cases as being a use of force. Although such measures may be banned by certain other provisions of the Charter, it does not seem possible to justify such a wide non-military interpretation of 2 (4) in the light of subsequent state practice. It must also be noted that this article covers the threat of force, which is not permissible in a situation where the use of actual armed force would not be.
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parts of the circulatory system and its function | Circulatory system - wikipedia
The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis.
The circulatory system includes the lymphatic system, which circulates lymph. The passage of lymph for example takes much longer than that of blood. Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets that is circulated by the heart through the vertebrate vascular system, carrying oxygen and nutrients to and waste materials away from all body tissues. Lymph is essentially recycled excess blood plasma after it has been filtered from the interstitial fluid (between cells) and returned to the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular (from Latin words meaning "heart '' and "vessel '') system comprises the blood, heart, and blood vessels. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system, which returns filtered blood plasma from the interstitial fluid (between cells) as lymph.
The circulatory system of the blood is seen as having two components, a systemic circulation and a pulmonary circulation.
While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries), some invertebrate groups have an open cardiovascular system. The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system providing an accessory route for excess interstitial fluid to be returned to the blood. The more primitive, diploblastic animal phyla lack circulatory systems.
Many diseases affect the circulatory system. This includes cardiovascular disease, affecting the cardiovascular system, and lymphatic disease affecting the lymphatic system. Cardiologists are medical professionals which specialise in the heart, and cardiothoracic surgeons specialise in operating on the heart and its surrounding areas. Vascular surgeons focus on other parts of the circulatory system.
The essential components of the human cardiovascular system are the heart, blood and blood vessels. It includes the pulmonary circulation, a "loop '' through the lungs where blood is oxygenated; and the systemic circulation, a "loop '' through the rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood. The systemic circulation can also be seen to function in two parts -- a macrocirculation and a microcirculation. An average adult contains five to six quarts (roughly 4.7 to 5.7 liters) of blood, accounting for approximately 7 % of their total body weight. Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Also, the digestive system works with the circulatory system to provide the nutrients the system needs to keep the heart pumping.
The cardiovascular systems of humans are closed, meaning that the blood never leaves the network of blood vessels. In contrast, oxygen and nutrients diffuse across the blood vessel layers and enter interstitial fluid, which carries oxygen and nutrients to the target cells, and carbon dioxide and wastes in the opposite direction. The other component of the circulatory system, the lymphatic system, is open.
Oxygenated blood enters the systemic circulation when leaving the left ventricle, through the aortic semilunar valve. The first part of the systemic circulation is the aorta, a massive and thick - walled artery. The aorta arches and gives branches supplying the upper part of the body after passing through the aortic opening of the diaphragm at the level of thoracic ten vertebra, it enters the abdomen. Later it descends down and supplies branches to abdomen, pelvis, perineum and the lower limbs. The walls of aorta are elastic. This elasticity helps to maintain the blood pressure throughout the body. When the aorta receives almost five litres of blood from the heart, it recoils and is responsible for pulsating blood pressure. Moreover, as aorta branches into smaller arteries, their elasticity goes on decreasing and their compliance goes on increasing.
Arteries branch into small passages called arterioles and then into the capillaries. The capillaries merge to bring blood into the venous system.
After their passage through body tissues, capillaries merge once again into venules, which continue to merge into veins. The venous system finally coalesces into two major veins: the superior vena cava (roughly speaking draining the areas above the heart) and the inferior vena cava (roughly speaking from areas below the heart). These two great vessels empty into the right atrium of the heart.
The heart itself is supplied with oxygen and nutrients through a small "loop '' of the systemic circulation and derives very little from the blood contained within the four chambers.
The general rule is that arteries from the heart branch out into capillaries, which collect into veins leading back to the heart. Portal veins are a slight exception to this. In humans the only significant example is the hepatic portal vein which combines from capillaries around the gastrointestinal tract where the blood absorbs the various products of digestion; rather than leading directly back to the heart, the hepatic portal vein branches into a second capillary system in the liver.
The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In the human heart there is one atrium and one ventricle for each circulation, and with both a systemic and a pulmonary circulation there are four chambers in total: left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium and right ventricle. The right atrium is the upper chamber of the right side of the heart. The blood that is returned to the right atrium is deoxygenated (poor in oxygen) and passed into the right ventricle to be pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs for re-oxygenation and removal of carbon dioxide. The left atrium receives newly oxygenated blood from the lungs as well as the pulmonary vein which is passed into the strong left ventricle to be pumped through the aorta to the different organs of the body.
The coronary circulation system provides a blood supply to the heart muscle itself. The coronary circulation begins near the origin of the aorta by two coronary arteries: the right coronary artery and the left coronary artery. After nourishing the heart muscle, blood returns through the coronary veins into the coronary sinus and from this one into the right atrium. Back flow of blood through its opening during atrial systole is prevented by the Thebesian valve. The smallest cardiac veins drain directly into the heart chambers.
The circulatory system of the lungs is the portion of the cardiovascular system in which oxygen - depleted blood is pumped away from the heart, via the pulmonary artery, to the lungs and returned, oxygenated, to the heart via the pulmonary vein.
Oxygen deprived blood from the superior and inferior vena cava enters the right atrium of the heart and flows through the tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve) into the right ventricle, from which it is then pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Gas exchange occurs in the lungs, whereby CO is released from the blood, and oxygen is absorbed. The pulmonary vein returns the now oxygen - rich blood to the left atrium.
A separate system known as the bronchial circulation supplies blood to the tissue of the larger airways of the lung.
Systemic circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which transports oxygenated blood away from the heart through the aorta from the left ventricle where the blood has been previously deposited from pulmonary circulation, to the rest of the body, and returns oxygen - depleted blood back to the heart.
The brain has a dual blood supply that comes from arteries at its front and back. These are called the "anterior '' and "posterior '' circulation respectively. The anterior circulation arises from the internal carotid arteries and supplies the front of the brain. The posterior circulation arises from the vertebral arteries, and supplies the back of the brain and brainstem. The circulation from the front and the back join together (anastomise) at the Circle of Willis.
The renal circulation receives around 20 % of the cardiac output. It branches from the abdominal aorta and returns blood to the ascending vena cava. It is the blood supply to the kidneys, and contains many specialized blood vessels.
The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system. It is a network of lymphatic vessels and lymph capillaries, lymph nodes and organs, and lymphatic tissues and circulating lymph. One of its major functions is to carry the lymph, draining and returning interstitial fluid back towards the heart for return to the cardiovascular system, by emptying into the lymphatic ducts. Its other main function is in the adaptive immune system.
The development of the circulatory system starts with vasculogenesis in the embryo. The human arterial and venous systems develop from different areas in the embryo. The arterial system develops mainly from the aortic arches, six pairs of arches which develop on the upper part of the embryo. The venous system arises from three bilateral veins during weeks 4 -- 8 of embryogenesis. Fetal circulation begins within the 8th week of development. Fetal circulation does not include the lungs, which are bypassed via the truncus arteriosus. Before birth the fetus obtains oxygen (and nutrients) from the mother through the placenta and the umbilical cord.
The human arterial system originates from the aortic arches and from the dorsal aortae starting from week 4 of embryonic life. The first and second aortic arches regress and forms only the maxillary arteries and stapedial arteries respectively. The arterial system itself arises from aortic arches 3, 4 and 6 (aortic arch 5 completely regresses).
The dorsal aortae, present on the dorsal side of the embryo, are initially present on both sides of the embryo. They later fuse to form the basis for the aorta itself. Approximately thirty smaller arteries branch from this at the back and sides. These branches form the intercostal arteries, arteries of the arms and legs, lumbar arteries and the lateral sacral arteries. Branches to the sides of the aorta will form the definitive renal, suprarenal and gonadal arteries. Finally, branches at the front of the aorta consist of the vitelline arteries and umbilical arteries. The vitelline arteries form the celiac, superior and inferior mesenteric arteries of the gastrointestinal tract. After birth, the umbilical arteries will form the internal iliac arteries.
The human venous system develops mainly from the vitelline veins, the umbilical veins and the cardinal veins, all of which empty into the sinus venosus.
About 98.5 % of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthy human, breathing air at sea - level pressure, is chemically combined with hemoglobin molecules. About 1.5 % is physically dissolved in the other blood liquids and not connected to hemoglobin. The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species.
Many diseases affect the circulatory system. This includes cardiovascular disease, affecting the cardiovascular system, and lymphatic disease affecting the lymphatic system. Cardiologists are medical professionals which specialise in the heart, and cardiothoracic surgeons specialise in operating on the heart and its surrounding areas. Vascular surgeons focus on other parts of the circulatory system.
Diseases affecting the cardiovascular system are called cardiovascular disease.
Many of these diseases are called "lifestyle diseases '' because they develop over time and are related to a person 's exercise habits, diet, whether they smoke, and other lifestyle choices a person makes. Atherosclerosis is the precursor to many of these diseases. It is where small atheromatous plaques build up in the walls of medium and large arteries. This may eventually grow or rupture to occlude the arteries. It is also a risk factor for acute coronary syndromes, which are diseases which are characterised by a sudden deficit of oxygenated blood to the heart tissue. Atherosclerosis is also associated with problems such as aneurysm formation or splitting ("dissection '') of arteries.
Another major cardiovascular disease involves the creation of a clot, called a "thrombus ''. These can originate in veins or arteries. Deep venous thrombosis, which mostly occurs in the legs, is one cause of clots in the veins of the legs, particularly when a person has been stationary for a long time. These clots may embolise, meaning travel to another location in the body. The results of this may include pulmonary embolus, transient ischaemic attacks, or stroke.
Cardiovascular diseases may also be congenital in nature, such as heart defects or persistent fetal circulation, where the circulatory changes that are supposed to happen after birth do not. Not all congenital changes to the circulatory system are associated with diseases, a large number are anatomical variations.
The function and health of the circulatory system and its parts are measured in a variety of manual and automated ways. These include simple methods such as those that are part of the cardiovascular examination, including the taking of a person 's pulse as an indicator of a person 's heart rate, the taking of blood pressure through a sphygmomanometer or the use of a stethoscope to listen to the heart for murmurs which may indicate problems with the heart 's valves. An electrocardiogram can also be used to evaluate the way in which electricity is conducted through the heart.
Other more invasive means can also be used. A cannula or catheter inserted into an artery may be used to measure pulse pressure or pulmonary wedge pressures. Angiography, which involves injecting a dye into an artery to visualise an arterial tree, can be used in the heart (coronary angiography) or brain. At the same time as the arteries are visualised, blockages or narrowings may be fixed through the insertion of stents, and active bleeds may be managed by the insertion of coils. An MRI may be used to image arteries, called an MRI angiogram. For evaluation of the blood supply to the lungs a CT pulmonary angiogram may be used.
Vascular ultrasonography include for example:
There are a number of surgical procedures performed on the circulatory system:
Cardiovascular procedures are more likely to be performed in an inpatient setting than in an ambulatory care setting; in the United States, only 28 % of cardiovascular surgeries were performed in the ambulatory care setting.
While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries), some invertebrate groups have an open cardiovascular system. The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system providing an accessory route for excess interstitial fluid to be returned to the blood. The more primitive, diploblastic animal phyla lack circulatory systems.
The blood vascular system first appeared probably in an ancestor of the triploblasts over 600 million years ago, overcoming the time - distance constraints of diffusion, while endothelium evolved in an ancestral vertebrate some 540 -- 510 million years ago.
In arthropods, the open circulatory system is a system in which a fluid in a cavity called the hemocoel bathes the organs directly with oxygen and nutrients and there is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid; this combined fluid is called hemolymph or haemolymph. Muscular movements by the animal during locomotion can facilitate hemolymph movement, but diverting flow from one area to another is limited. When the heart relaxes, blood is drawn back toward the heart through open - ended pores (ostia).
Hemolymph fills all of the interior hemocoel of the body and surrounds all cells. Hemolymph is composed of water, inorganic salts (mostly sodium, chlorine, potassium, magnesium, and calcium), and organic compounds (mostly carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids). The primary oxygen transporter molecule is hemocyanin.
There are free - floating cells, the hemocytes, within the hemolymph. They play a role in the arthropod immune system.
The circulatory systems of all vertebrates, as well as of annelids (for example, earthworms) and cephalopods (squids, octopuses and relatives) are closed, just as in humans. Still, the systems of fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds show various stages of the evolution of the circulatory system.
In fish, the system has only one circuit, with the blood being pumped through the capillaries of the gills and on to the capillaries of the body tissues. This is known as single cycle circulation. The heart of fish is, therefore, only a single pump (consisting of two chambers).
In amphibians and most reptiles, a double circulatory system is used, but the heart is not always completely separated into two pumps. Amphibians have a three - chambered heart.
In reptiles, the ventricular septum of the heart is incomplete and the pulmonary artery is equipped with a sphincter muscle. This allows a second possible route of blood flow. Instead of blood flowing through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, the sphincter may be contracted to divert this blood flow through the incomplete ventricular septum into the left ventricle and out through the aorta. This means the blood flows from the capillaries to the heart and back to the capillaries instead of to the lungs. This process is useful to ectothermic (cold - blooded) animals in the regulation of their body temperature.
Birds, mammals, and crocodilians show complete separation of the heart into two pumps, for a total of four heart chambers; it is thought that the four - chambered heart of birds and crocodilians evolved independently from that of mammals.
Circulatory systems are absent in some animals, including flatworms. Their body cavity has no lining or enclosed fluid. Instead a muscular pharynx leads to an extensively branched digestive system that facilitates direct diffusion of nutrients to all cells. The flatworm 's dorso - ventrally flattened body shape also restricts the distance of any cell from the digestive system or the exterior of the organism. Oxygen can diffuse from the surrounding water into the cells, and carbon dioxide can diffuse out. Consequently, every cell is able to obtain nutrients, water and oxygen without the need of a transport system.
Some animals, such as jellyfish, have more extensive branching from their gastrovascular cavity (which functions as both a place of digestion and a form of circulation), this branching allows for bodily fluids to reach the outer layers, since the digestion begins in the inner layers.
The earliest known writings on the circulatory system are found in the Ebers Papyrus (16th century BCE), an ancient Egyptian medical papyrus containing over 700 prescriptions and remedies, both physical and spiritual. In the papyrus, it acknowledges the connection of the heart to the arteries. The Egyptians thought air came in through the mouth and into the lungs and heart. From the heart, the air travelled to every member through the arteries. Although this concept of the circulatory system is only partially correct, it represents one of the earliest accounts of scientific thought.
In the 6th century BCE, the knowledge of circulation of vital fluids through the body was known to the Ayurvedic physician Sushruta in ancient India. He also seems to have possessed knowledge of the arteries, described as ' channels ' by Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007). The valves of the heart were discovered by a physician of the Hippocratean school around the 4th century BCE. However their function was not properly understood then. Because blood pools in the veins after death, arteries look empty. Ancient anatomists assumed they were filled with air and that they were for transport of air.
The Greek physician, Herophilus, distinguished veins from arteries but thought that the pulse was a property of arteries themselves. Greek anatomist Erasistratus observed that arteries that were cut during life bleed. He ascribed the fact to the phenomenon that air escaping from an artery is replaced with blood that entered by very small vessels between veins and arteries. Thus he apparently postulated capillaries but with reversed flow of blood.
In 2nd century AD Rome, the Greek physician Galen knew that blood vessels carried blood and identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions. Growth and energy were derived from venous blood created in the liver from chyle, while arterial blood gave vitality by containing pneuma (air) and originated in the heart. Blood flowed from both creating organs to all parts of the body where it was consumed and there was no return of blood to the heart or liver. The heart did not pump blood around, the heart 's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves.
Galen believed that the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right by passing through ' pores ' in the interventricular septum, air passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart. As the arterial blood was created ' sooty ' vapors were created and passed to the lungs also via the pulmonary artery to be exhaled.
In 1025, The Canon of Medicine by the Persian physician, Avicenna, "erroneously accepted the Greek notion regarding the existence of a hole in the ventricular septum by which the blood traveled between the ventricles. '' Despite this, Avicenna "correctly wrote on the cardiac cycles and valvular function '', and "had a vision of blood circulation '' in his Treatise on Pulse. While also refining Galen 's erroneous theory of the pulse, Avicenna provided the first correct explanation of pulsation: "Every beat of the pulse comprises two movements and two pauses. Thus, expansion: pause: contraction: pause. (...) The pulse is a movement in the heart and arteries... which takes the form of alternate expansion and contraction. ''
In 1242, the Arabian physician, Ibn al - Nafis, became the first person to accurately describe the process of pulmonary circulation, for which he is sometimes considered the father of circulatory physiology. Ibn al - Nafis stated in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna 's Canon:
"... the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct pathway between them. The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there with air, pass through the arteria venosa (pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there form the vital spirit... ''
In addition, Ibn al - Nafis had an insight into what would become a larger theory of the capillary circulation. He stated that "there must be small communications or pores (manafidh in Arabic) between the pulmonary artery and vein, '' a prediction that preceded the discovery of the capillary system by more than 400 years. Ibn al - Nafis ' theory, however, was confined to blood transit in the lungs and did not extend to the entire body.
Michael Servetus was the first European to describe the function of pulmonary circulation, although his achievement was not widely recognized at the time, for a few reasons. He firstly described it in the "Manuscript of Paris '' (near 1546), but this work was never published. And later he published this description, but in a theological treatise, Christianismi Restitutio, not in a book on medicine. Only three copies of the book survived but these remained hidden for decades, the rest were burned shortly after its publication in 1553 because of persecution of Servetus by religious authorities.
Better known discovery of pulmonary circulation was by Vesalius 's successor at Padua, Realdo Colombo, in 1559.
Finally, William Harvey, a pupil of Hieronymus Fabricius (who had earlier described the valves of the veins without recognizing their function), performed a sequence of experiments, and published Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus in 1628, which "demonstrated that there had to be a direct connection between the venous and arterial systems throughout the body, and not just the lungs. Most importantly, he argued that the beat of the heart produced a continuous circulation of blood through minute connections at the extremities of the body. This is a conceptual leap that was quite different from Ibn al - Nafis ' refinement of the anatomy and bloodflow in the heart and lungs. '' This work, with its essentially correct exposition, slowly convinced the medical world. However, Harvey was not able to identify the capillary system connecting arteries and veins; these were later discovered by Marcello Malpighi in 1661.
In 1956, André Frédéric Cournand, Werner Forssmann and Dickinson W. Richards were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine "for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system. '' In his Nobel lecture, Forssmann credits Harvey as birthing cardiology with the publication of his book in 1628.
In the 1970s, Diana McSherry developed computer - based systems to create images of the circulatory system and heart without the need for surgery.
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when was the last time a us navy ship sank | List of shipwrecks in 2017 - wikipedia
The list of shipwrecks in 2017 includes ships sunk, foundered, grounded, or otherwise lost during 2017.
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who painted a mustache on the mona lisa | L.H.O.O.Q. - Wikipedia
L.H.O.O.Q. (French pronunciation: (ɛl aʃ oo ky)) is a work of art by Marcel Duchamp. First conceived in 1919, the work is one of what Duchamp referred to as readymades, or more specifically a rectified ready - made. The readymade involves taking mundane, often utilitarian objects not generally considered to be art and transforming them, by adding to them, changing them, or (as in the case of his most famous work Fountain) simply renaming them and placing them in a gallery setting. In L.H.O.O.Q. the objet trouvé ("found object '') is a cheap postcard reproduction of Leonardo da Vinci 's Mona Lisa onto which Duchamp drew a moustache and beard in pencil and appended the title.
The subject of the Mona Lisa treated satirically had already been explored in 1887 by Eugène Bataille (aka Sapeck) when he created Mona Lisa smoking a pipe, published in Le Rire. It is not clear, however, if Duchamp was familiar with Sapeck 's work.
The name of the piece, L.H.O.O.Q., is a pun; the letters pronounced in French sound like "Elle a chaud au cul '', "She is hot in the arse ''; "avoir chaud au cul '' is a vulgar expression implying that a woman has sexual restlessness. In a late interview (Schwarz 203), Duchamp gives a loose translation of L.H.O.O.Q. as "there is fire down below ''.
As was the case with a number of his readymades, Duchamp made multiple versions of L.H.O.O.Q. of differing sizes and in different media throughout his career, one of which, an unmodified black and white reproduction of the Mona Lisa mounted on card, is called L.H.O.O.Q. Shaved. The masculinized female introduces the theme of gender reversal, which was popular with Duchamp, who adopted his own female pseudonym, Rrose Sélavy, pronounced "Eros, c'est la vie '' ("Eros, that 's life '').
Primary responses to L.H.O.O.Q. interpreted its meaning as being an attack on the iconic Mona Lisa and traditional art, a stroke of épater le bourgeois promoting the Dadaist ideals. According to one commentator:
The creation of L.H.O.O.Q. profoundly transformed the perception of La Joconde (what the French call the painting, in contrast with the Americans and Germans, who call it the Mona Lisa). In 1919 the cult of Jocondisme was practically a secular religion of the French bourgeoisie and an important part of their self image as patrons of the arts. They regarded the painting with reverence, and Duchamp 's salacious comment and defacement was a major stroke of epater le bourgeois ("freaking out '' or substantially offending the bourgeois).
According to Rhonda R. Shearer the apparent reproduction is in fact a copy partly modelled on Duchamp 's own face.
The use of computers permitted new forms of parodies of L.H.O.O.Q., including interactive ones.
One form of computerized parody using the Internet juxtaposes layers over the original, on a webpage. In one example, the original layer is Mona Lisa. The second layer is transparent in the main, but is opaque and obscures the original layer in some places (for example, where Duchamp located the moustache). This technology is described at the George Washington University Law School website. An example of this technology is a copy of Mona Lisa with a series of different superpositions -- first Duchamp 's moustache, then an eye patch, then a hat, a hamburger, and so on. This is a link to the graphic. The point of this technology (which is explained on the foregoing website for a copyright law class) is that it permits making a parody that need not involve making an infringing copy of the original work if it simply uses an inline link to the original, which is presumably on an authorized webpage. According to the website at which the material is located:
The layers paradigm is significant in a computer - related or Internet context because it readily describes a system in which the person ultimately responsible for creating the composite (here, corresponding to (a modern - day) Duchamp) does not make a physical copy of the original work in the sense of storing it in permanent form (fixed as a copy) distributed to the end user. Rather, the person distributes only the material of the subsequent layers, (so that) the aggrieved copyright owner (here, corresponding to Leonardo da Vinci) distributes the material of the underlying (original Mona Lisa) layer, and the end user 's system receives both. The end user 's system then causes a temporary combination, in its computer RAM and the user 's brain. The combination is a composite of the layers. Framing and superimposition of popup windows exemplify this paradigm.
Other computer - implemented distortions of L.H.O.O.Q. or Mona Lisa reproduce the elements of the original, thereby creating an infringing reproduction, if the underlying work is protected by copyright. (Leonardo 's rights in Mona Lisa would, of course, have long expired had such rights existed in his age.) This is a link to examples of the foregoing parodies, together with an explanation of the technology. (These animations were originally prepared by the late Professor Ed Stephan of Western Washington University.)
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who persuaded the pope it was time for a change in france | Louis XVI of France - wikipedia
Louis XVI (French pronunciation: (lwi sɛːz); 23 August 1754 -- 21 January 1793), born Louis - Auguste, was the last King of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. He was referred to as Citizen Louis Capet during the final four months of his life. In 1765, at the death of his father, Louis, son and heir apparent of Louis XV, Louis - Auguste became the new Dauphin of France. Upon his grandfather 's death on 10 May 1774, he assumed the title "King of France and Navarre '', which he used until 4 September 1791, when he received the title of "King of the French '' until the monarchy was abolished on 21 September 1792. Louis XVI was guillotined on 21 January 1793.
The first part of his reign was marked by attempts to reform France in accordance with Enlightenment ideas. These included efforts to abolish serfdom, remove the taille, and increase tolerance toward non-Catholics. The French nobility reacted to the proposed reforms with hostility, and successfully opposed their implementation. Louis implemented deregulation of the grain market, advocated by his liberal minister Turgot, but it resulted in an increase in bread prices. In periods of bad harvests, it would lead to food scarcity which would prompt the masses to revolt. From 1776, Louis XVI actively supported the North American colonists, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain, which was realised in the 1783 Treaty of Paris.
The ensuing debt and financial crisis contributed to the unpopularity of the Ancien Régime. This led to the convening of the Estates - General of 1789. Discontent among the members of France 's middle and lower classes resulted in strengthened opposition to the French aristocracy and to the absolute monarchy, of which Louis and his wife, Queen Marie Antoinette, were viewed as representatives. Increasing tensions and violence marked by events such as the storming of the Bastille during which riots in Paris forced Louis to definitively recognize the legislative authority of the National Assembly.
Louis 's indecisiveness and conservatism led some elements of the people of France to view him as a symbol of the perceived tyranny of the Ancien Régime, and his popularity deteriorated progressively. His disastrous flight to Varennes in June 1791, four months before the constitutional monarchy was declared, seemed to justify the rumors that the king tied his hopes of political salvation to the prospects of foreign invasion. The credibility of the king was deeply undermined, and the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic became an ever - increasing possibility. Despite his lack of popular approbation, Louis XVI did abolish the death penalty for deserters, as well as the labor tax, which had compelled the French lower classes to spend two weeks out of the year working on buildings and roads.
In a context of civil and international war, Louis XVI was suspended and arrested at the time of the insurrection of 10 August 1792; one month later, the absolute monarchy was abolished; the First French Republic was proclaimed on 21 September 1792. He was tried by the National Convention (self - instituted as a tribunal for the occasion), found guilty of high treason, and executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793, as a desacralized French citizen under the name of "Citizen Louis Capet, '' in reference to Hugh Capet, the founder of the Capetian dynasty -- which the revolutionaries interpreted as Louis 's family name. Louis XVI was the only King of France ever to be executed, and his death brought an end to more than a thousand years of continuous French monarchy. Both of his sons died in childhood, before the Bourbon Restoration; his only child to reach adulthood, Marie Therese, was given over to the Austrians in exchange for French prisoners of war, eventually dying childless in 1851.
Louis - Auguste de France, who was given the title Duc de Berry at birth, was born in the Palace of Versailles. One of seven children, he was the second son of Louis, the Dauphin of France, and thus the grandson of Louis XV of France and of his consort, Maria Leszczyńska. His mother was Marie - Josèphe of Saxony, the daughter of Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, Prince - Elector of Saxony and King of Poland.
Louis - Auguste was overlooked by his parents who favored his older brother, Louis, duc de Bourgogne, who was regarded as bright and handsome but who died at the age of nine in 1761. Louis - Auguste, a strong and healthy boy but very shy, excelled in his studies and had a strong taste for Latin, history, geography, and astronomy and became fluent in Italian and English. He enjoyed physical activities such as hunting with his grandfather and rough play with his younger brothers, Louis - Stanislas, comte de Provence, and Charles - Philippe, comte d'Artois. From an early age, Louis - Auguste was encouraged in another of his interests, locksmithing, which was seen as a useful pursuit for a child.
Upon the death of his father, who died of tuberculosis on 20 December 1765, the eleven - year - old Louis - Auguste became the new Dauphin. His mother never recovered from the loss of her husband and died on 13 March 1767, also from tuberculosis. The strict and conservative education he received from the Duc de La Vauguyon, "gouverneur des Enfants de France '' (governor of the Children of France), from 1760 until his marriage in 1770, did not prepare him for the throne that he was to inherit in 1774 after the death of his grandfather, Louis XV. Throughout his education, Louis - Auguste received a mixture of studies particular to religion, morality, and humanities. His instructors may have also had a good hand in shaping Louis - Auguste into the indecisive king that he became. Abbé Berthier, his instructor, taught him that timidity was a value in strong monarchs, and Abbé Soldini, his confessor, instructed him not to let people read his mind.
On 16 May 1770, at the age of fifteen, Louis - Auguste married the fourteen - year - old Habsburg Archduchess Maria Antonia (better known by the French form of her name, Marie Antoinette), his second cousin once removed and the youngest daughter of the Holy Roman Emperor Francis I and his wife, the formidable Empress Maria Theresa.
This marriage was met with hostility from the French public. France 's alliance with Austria had pulled the country into the disastrous Seven Years ' War, in which it was defeated by the British and the Prussians, both in Europe and in North America. By the time that Louis - Auguste and Marie - Antoinette were married, the French people generally disliked the Austrian alliance, and Marie - Antoinette was seen as an unwelcome foreigner. For the young couple, the marriage was initially amiable but distant. Louis - Auguste 's shyness and, among other factors, the young age and inexperience of the newlyweds (who were near total strangers to each other: they had met only two days before their wedding) meant that the 15 - year - old bridegroom failed to consummate the union with his 14 - year - old bride. His fear of being manipulated by her for imperial purposes caused him to behave coldly towards her in public. Over time, the couple became closer, though while their marriage was reportedly consummated in July 1773, it did not actually happen until 1777.
The couple 's failure to produce any children for several years placed a strain upon their marriage, exacerbated by the publication of obscene pamphlets (libelles) mocking their infertility. One questioned, "Can the King do it? Ca n't the King do it? ''
The reasons for the couple 's initial failure to have children were debated at that time, and they have continued to be debated since. One suggestion is that Louis - Auguste suffered from a physiological dysfunction, most often thought to be phimosis, a suggestion first made in late 1772 by the royal doctors. Historians adhering to this view suggest that he was circumcised (a common treatment for phimosis) to relieve the condition seven years after their marriage. Louis 's doctors were not in favour of the surgery -- the operation was delicate and traumatic, and capable of doing "as much harm as good '' to an adult male. The argument for phimosis and a resulting operation is mostly seen to originate from Stefan Zweig.
Most modern historians agree that Louis had no surgery -- for instance, as late as 1777, the Prussian envoy, Baron Goltz, reported that the King of France had definitely declined the operation. Louis was frequently declared to be perfectly capable of sexual intercourse, as confirmed by Joseph II, and during the time he was supposed to have had the operation, he went out hunting almost every day, according to his journal. This would not have been possible if he had undergone a circumcision; at the very least, he would have been unable to ride to the hunt for a few weeks afterwards. The couple 's sexual problems are now attributed to other factors. Antonia Fraser 's biography of the queen discusses Joseph II 's letter on the matter to one of his brothers after he visited Versailles in 1777. In the letter, Joseph describes in astonishingly frank detail Louis ' inadequate performance in the marriage bed and Antoinette 's lack of interest in conjugal activity. Joseph described the couple as "complete fumblers ''; however, with his advice, Louis began to apply himself more effectively to his marital duties, and in the third week of March 1777 Marie Antoinette became pregnant.
Eventually, the royal couple became the parents of four children. According to Madame Campan, Marie Antoinette 's lady - in - waiting, the queen also suffered two miscarriages. The first one, in 1779, a few months after the birth of her first child, is mentioned in a letter to her daughter, written in July by empress Maria Theresa. Madame Campan states that Louis spent an entire morning consoling his wife at her bedside, and swore to secrecy everyone who knew of the occurrence. Marie Antoinette suffered a second miscarriage on the night of 2 -- 3 November 1783.
Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were the parents of four live - born children:
In addition to his biological children, Louis XVI also adopted four children: "Armand '' Francois - Michel Gagné (c. 1771 - 1792), a poor orphan adopted in 1776; Jean Amilcar (c. 1781 - 1793), a Senegalese slave boy given to the queen as a present by Chevalier de Boufflers in 1787, but whom she instead had freed, baptized, adopted and placed in a pension; Ernestine Lambriquet (1778 - 1813), daughter of two servants at the palace, who was raised as the playmate of his daughter and whom he adopted after the death of her mother in 1788; and finally "Zoe '' Jeanne Louise Victoire (born in 1787), who was adopted in 1790 along with her two older sisters when her parents, an usher and his wife in service of the king, had died. Of these, only Armand, Ernestine and Zoe actually lived with the royal family: Jean Amilcar, along with the elder siblings of Zoe and Armand who were also formally foster children of the royal couple, simply lived on the queen 's expense until her imprisonment, which proved fatal for at least Amilcar, as he was evicted from the boarding school when the fee was no longer paid, and reportedly starved to death on the street. Armand and Zoe had a position which was more similar to that of Ernestine: Armand lived at court with the king and queen until he left them at the outbreak of the revolution because of his republican sympathies, and Zoe was chosen to be the playmate of the Dauphin, just as Ernestine had once been selected as the playmate of Marie - Therese, and sent away to her sisters in a convent boarding school before the Flight to Varennes in 1791.
When Louis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774, he was nineteen years old. He had an enormous responsibility, as the government was deeply in debt, and resentment of "despotic '' monarchy was on the rise. He himself felt woefully unqualified to resolve the situation.
As king, Louis XVI focused primarily on religious freedom and foreign policy. While none doubted his intellectual ability to rule France, it was quite clear that, although raised as the Dauphin since 1765, he lacked firmness and decisiveness. His desire to be loved by his people is evident in the prefaces of many of his edicts that would often explain the nature and good intention of his actions as benefiting the people, such as reinstating the parlements. When questioned about his decision, he said, "It may be considered politically unwise, but it seems to me to be the general wish and I want to be loved. '' In spite of his indecisiveness, Louis XVI was determined to be a good king, stating that he "must always consult public opinion; it is never wrong. '' He, therefore, appointed an experienced advisor, Jean - Frédéric Phélypeaux, Comte de Maurepas who, until his death in 1781, would take charge of many important ministerial functions.
Among the major events of Louis XVI 's reign was his signing of the Edict of Versailles, also known as the Edict of Tolerance, on 7 November 1787, which was registered in the parlement on 29 January 1788. Granting non-Roman Catholics -- Huguenots and Lutherans, as well as Jews -- civil and legal status in France and the legal right to practice their faiths, this edict effectively nullified the Edict of Fontainebleau that had been law for 102 years. The Edict of Versailles did not legally proclaim freedom of religion in France -- this took two more years, with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789 -- however, it was an important step in eliminating religious tensions and it officially ended religious persecution within his realm.
Radical financial reforms by Turgot and Malesherbes angered the nobles and were blocked by the parlements who insisted that the King did not have the legal right to levy new taxes. So, in 1776, Turgot was dismissed and Malesherbes resigned, to be replaced by Jacques Necker. Necker supported the American Revolution, and he carried out a policy of taking out large international loans instead of raising taxes. He attempted to gain public favor in 1781 when he had published the first ever statement of the French Crown 's expenses and accounts, the Compte - rendu au Roi. This allowed the people of France to view the king 's accounts in modest surplus. When this policy failed miserably, Louis dismissed him, and then replaced him in 1783 with Charles Alexandre de Calonne, who increased public spending to "buy '' the country 's way out of debt. Again this failed, so Louis convoked the Assembly of Notables in 1787 to discuss a revolutionary new fiscal reform proposed by Calonne. When the nobles were informed of the extent of the debt, they were shocked into rejecting the plan. After this, Louis XVI tried, along with his new Controller - General des finances, Étienne - Charles de Loménie de Brienne, to force the Parlement de Paris to register the new laws and fiscal reforms. Upon the denial of the members of the Parlement, Louis XVI tried to use his absolute power to subjugate them by every means: enforcing in many occasions the registration of his reforms (6 August 1787, 19 November 1787, and 8 May 1788), exiling all Parlement magistrates to Troyes as a punishment on 15 August 1787, prohibiting six members from attending parliamentary sessions on 19 November, arresting two very important members of the Parlement, who opposed his reforms, on 6 May 1788, and even dissolving and depriving of all power the "Parlement, '' replacing it with a plenary court, on 8 May 1788. The failure of these measures and displays of royal power is attributable to three decisive factors. First, the majority of the population stood in favor of the Parlement against the King, and thus continuously rebelled against him. Second, the royal treasury suffered crippling financial destitution, in which it was incapable of sustaining its own imposed reforms. Third, although the King enjoyed as much absolute power as his predecessors, he lacked the personal authority crucial for absolutism to function properly. Having become unpopular to both the commoners and the aristocracy, Louis XVI was, therefore, able to impose his decisions and reforms only for very short periods of time, ranging from 2 to 4 months, before revoking them.
As authority drifted from him and reforms were becoming necessary, there were increasingly loud calls for him to convoke the Estates - General, which had not met since 1614, at the beginning of the reign of Louis XIII. As a last - ditch attempt to get new monetary reforms approved, Louis XVI convoked the Estates - General on 8 August 1788, setting the date of their opening on 1 May 1789. With the convocation of the Estates - General, as in many other instances during his reign, Louis XVI placed his reputation and public image in the hands of those who were perhaps not as sensitive to the desires of the French population as he was. Because it had been so long since the Estates - General had been convened, there was some debate as to which procedures should be followed. Ultimately, the Parlement de Paris agreed that "all traditional observances should be carefully maintained to avoid the impression that the Estates - General could make things up as it went along. '' Under this decision, the king agreed to retain many of the divisive customs which had been the norm in 1614 and before, but which was intolerable to a Third Estate buoyed by the recent proclamations of equality. For example, the First and Second Estates proceeded into the assembly wearing their finest garments, while the Third Estate was required to wear plain, oppressively somber black, an act of alienation that Louis XVI would likely have not condoned. He seemed to regard the deputies of the Estates - General with at least respect: in a wave of self - important patriotism, members of the Estates refused to remove their hats in the King 's presence, so Louis removed his to them. This convocation was one of the events that transformed the general economic and political malaise of the country into the French Revolution. In June 1789, the Third Estate unilaterally declared itself the National Assembly. Louis XVI 's attempts to control it resulted in the Tennis Court Oath (serment du jeu de paume), on 20 June, the declaration of the National Constituent Assembly on 9 July, and eventually led to the storming of the Bastille on 14 July, which started the French Revolution. (Louis ' "diary '' entry for 14 July, the single word rien (nothing) has been used to show how out of touch with reality he was, but the document was a hunting log, not a personal journal. When he did not go hunting, he wrote "rien, '' which did not mean that nothing important had happened that day). Within three short months, the majority of the king 's executive authority had been transferred to the elected representatives of the Nation.
French involvement in the Seven Years ' War had left Louis XVI a disastrous inheritance. Britain 's victories had seen them capture most of France 's colonial territories. While some were returned to France at the 1763 Treaty of Paris a vast swath of North America was ceded to the British.
This had led to a strategy amongst the French leadership of seeking to rebuild the French military in order to fight a war of revenge against Britain, in which it was hoped the lost colonies could be recovered. France still maintained a strong influence in the West Indies, and in India maintained five trading posts, leaving opportunities for disputes and power - play with Great Britain.
In the spring of 1776, Vergennes, the Foreign Secretary, saw an opportunity to humiliate France 's long - standing enemy, Great Britain, and to recover territory lost during the Seven Years ' War, by supporting the American Revolution. In the same year Louis was persuaded by Pierre Beaumarchais to send supplies, ammunition, and guns to the rebels secretly. Early in 1778 he signed a formal Treaty of Alliance, and later that year France went to war with Britain. In deciding in favor of war, despite France 's large financial problems, the King was materially influenced by alarmist reports after the Battle of Saratoga, which suggested that Britain was preparing to make huge concessions to the thirteen colonies and then, allied with them, to strike at French and Spanish possessions in the West Indies. Spain and the Netherlands soon joined the French in an anti-British coalition. After 1778, Great Britain switched its focus to the West Indies, as defending the sugar islands was considered more important than trying to recover the thirteen colonies. France and Spain planned to invade the British Isles themselves with the Armada of 1779, but the operation never went ahead.
France 's initial military assistance to the American rebels was a disappointment, with defeats at Rhode Island and Savannah. In 1780, France sent Rochambeau and Grasse to help the Americans, along with large land and naval forces. The French expeditionary force arrived in North America in July 1780. The appearance of French fleets in the Caribbean was followed by the capture of a number of the sugar islands, including Tobago and Grenada. In October 1781, the French naval blockade was instrumental in forcing a British army under Cornwallis to surrender at the Siege of Yorktown. When news of this reached London in March 1782, the government of Lord North fell and Great Britain immediately sued for peace terms; however, France delayed the end of the war until September 1783 in the hope of overrunning more British colonies in India and the West Indies.
Great Britain recognised the independence of the thirteen colonies as the United States of America, and the French war ministry rebuilt its army. However, the British defeated the main French fleet in 1782 and successfully defended Jamaica and Gibraltar. France gained little from the 1783 Treaty of Paris that ended the war, except the colonies of Tobago and Senegal. Louis XVI was wholly disappointed in his aims of recovering Canada, India, and other islands in the West Indies from Britain, as they were too well defended and the Royal Navy made any attempted invasion of Britain impossible. The war cost 1,066 million livres, financed by new loans at high interest (with no new taxes). Necker concealed the crisis from the public by explaining only that ordinary revenues exceeded ordinary expenses, and not mentioning the loans. After he was forced from office in 1781, new taxes were levied.
This intervention in America was not possible without France adopting a neutral position in European affairs in order not to be drawn into a continental war which would be simply a repetition of the French policy mistakes in the Seven Years ' War. Vergennes supported by King Louis refused to go to War to support Austria in the Bavarian Succession crisis in 1778, when Austrian Holy Roman Emperor, Joseph, tried to control parts of Bavaria. Vergennes and Maurepas refused to support the Austrian position, but the intervention of Marie Antoinette in favor of Austria obliged France to adopt a position more favorable to Austria, which in the treaty of Teschen was able to get in compensation a territory whose population numbered around 100,000 persons. However, this intervention was a disaster for the image of the Queen, who was named "l'Autrichienne '' (a pun in French meaning "Austrian '', but the "chienne '' suffix can mean "bitch '') on account of it.
Louis XVI hoped to use the American Revolutionary War as an opportunity to expel the British from India. In 1782, he sealed an alliance with the Peshwa Madhu Rao Narayan. As a consequence, Bussy moved his troops to the Isle de France (now Mauritius) and later contributed to the French effort in India in 1783. Suffren became the ally of Hyder Ali in the Second Anglo - Mysore War against British rule in India, in 1782 -- 1783, fighting the British fleet along the coasts of India and Ceylon.
France also intervened in Cochinchina following Mgr Pigneau de Béhaine 's intervention to obtain military aid. A France - Cochinchina alliance was signed through the Treaty of Versailles of 1787, between Louis XVI and Prince Nguyễn Ánh.
Louis XVI also encouraged major voyages of exploration. In 1785, he appointed La Pérouse to lead a sailing expedition around the world.
There is a lack of scholarship on the subject of Louis XVI 's time as a constitutional monarch, though it was a significant length of time. The reason as to why many biographers have not elaborated extensively on this time in the king 's life is due to the uncertainty surrounding his actions during this period, as Louis XVI 's declaration that was left behind in the Tuileries stated that he regarded his actions during constitutional reign provisional; he reflected that his "palace was a prison ''. This time period was exemplary in its demonstration of an institution 's deliberation while in their last standing moments.
Louis XVI 's time in his previous palace came to an end on 5 October 1789, when an angry mob of Parisian working women was incited by revolutionaries and marched on the Palace of Versailles, where the royal family lived. At dawn, they infiltrated the palace and attempted to kill the queen, who was associated with a frivolous lifestyle that symbolized much that was despised about the Ancien Régime. After the situation had been defused by Lafayette, head of the Garde nationale, the king and his family were brought by the crowd to the Tuileries Palace in Paris, the reasoning being that the king would be more accountable to the people if he lived among them in Paris.
The Revolution 's principles of popular sovereignty, though central to democratic principles of later eras, marked a decisive break from the centuries - old principle of divine right that was at the heart of the French monarchy. As a result, the Revolution was opposed by many of the rural people of France and by all the governments of France 's neighbors. Still, within the city of Paris and amongst the philosophers of the time, many of which sat in the National Assembly, the monarchy had next to no support. As the Revolution became more radical and the masses more uncontrollable, several of its leading figures began to doubt its benefits. Some, like Honoré Mirabeau, secretly plotted with the Crown to restore its power in a new constitutional form.
Beginning in 1791, Montmorin, Minister of Foreign Affairs, started to organize covert resistance to the revolutionary forces. Thus, the funds of the Liste Civile, voted annually by the National Assembly, were partially assigned to secret expenses in order to preserve the monarchy. Arnault Laporte, who was in charge of the Civil list, collaborated with both Montmorin and Mirabeau. After the sudden death of Mirabeau, Maximilien Radix de Sainte - Foix, a noted financier, took his place. In effect, he headed a secret council of advisers to Louis XVI, which tried to preserve the monarchy; these schemes proved unsuccessful, and were exposed later when the armoire de fer was discovered. Regarding the financial difficulties facing France, the Assembly created the Comité des Finances, and while Louis XVI attempted to declare his concern and interest in remedying the economic situations, inclusively offering to melt crown silver as a dramatic measure, it appeared to the public that the king did not understand that such statements no longer held the same meaning as they did before and that doing such a thing could not restore the economy of a country.
Mirabeau 's death on 7 April, and Louis XVI 's indecision, fatally weakened negotiations between the Crown and moderate politicians. The Third Estate leaders also had no desire in turning back or remaining moderate after their hard efforts to change the politics of the time, and so the plans for a constitutional monarchy did not last long. On one hand, Louis was nowhere near as reactionary as his brothers, the comte de Provence and the comte d'Artois, and he repeatedly sent messages to them requesting a halt to their attempts to launch counter-coups. This was often done through his secretly nominated regent, the Cardinal Loménie de Brienne. On the other hand, Louis was alienated from the new democratic government both by its negative reaction to the traditional role of the monarch and in its treatment of him and his family. He was particularly irked by being kept essentially as a prisoner in the Tuileries, and by the refusal of the new regime to allow him to have confessors and priests of his choice rather than ' constitutional priests ' pledged to the state and not the Roman Catholic Church.
On 21 June 1791, Louis XVI attempted to flee secretly with his family from Paris to the royalist fortress town of Montmédy on the northeastern border of France, where he would join the émigrés and be protected by Austria. The voyage was planned by the Swedish nobleman, and often assumed secret lover of Queen Marie - Antoinette, Axel von Fersen.
While the National Assembly worked painstakingly towards a constitution, Louis and Marie - Antoinette were involved in plans of their own. Louis had appointed Breteuil to act as plenipotentiary, dealing with other foreign heads of state in an attempt to bring about a counter-revolution. Louis himself held reservations against depending on foreign assistance. Like his mother and father, he thought that the Austrians were treacherous and the Prussians were overly ambitious. As tensions in Paris rose and he was pressured to accept measures from the Assembly against his will, Louis XVI and the queen plotted to secretly escape from France. Beyond escape, they hoped to raise an "armed congress '' with the help of the émigrés, as well as assistance from other nations with which they could return and, in essence, recapture France. This degree of planning reveals Louis ' political determination, but it was for this determined plot that he was eventually convicted of high treason. He left behind (on his bed) a 16 - page written manifesto, Déclaration du roi, adressée à tous les François, à sa sortie de Paris, traditionally known as the Testament politique de Louis XVI ("Political Testament of Louis XVI ''), explaining his rejection of the constitutional system as illegitimate; it was printed in the newspapers. However, his indecision, many delays, and misunderstanding of France were responsible for the failure of the escape. Within 24 hours, the royal family was arrested at Varennes - en - Argonne shortly after Jean - Baptiste Drouet, who recognised the king from his profile on a 50 livres assignat (paper money), had given the alert. Louis XVI and his family were taken back to Paris where they arrived on 25 June. Viewed suspiciously as traitors, they were placed under tight house arrest upon their return to the Tuileries.
At the individual level, the failure of the escape plans was due to a series of misadventures, delays, misinterpretations, and poor judgments. In a wider perspective, the failure was attributable to the king 's indecision -- he repeatedly postponed the schedule, allowing for smaller problems to become severe. Furthermore, he totally misunderstood the political situation. He thought only a small number of radicals in Paris were promoting a revolution that the people as a whole rejected. He thought, mistakenly, that he was beloved by the peasants and the common folk. The king 's flight in the short term was traumatic for France, inciting a wave of emotions that ranged from anxiety to violence to panic. Everyone realized that war was imminent. The deeper realization, that the king had in fact repudiated the Revolution, was an even greater shock for people who until then had seen him as a good king who governed as a manifestation of God 's will. They felt betrayed, and as a result, Republicanism now burst out of the coffee houses and became a dominating philosophy of the rapidly radicalized French Revolution.
The other monarchies of Europe looked with concern upon the developments in France, and considered whether they should intervene, either in support of Louis or to take advantage of the chaos in France. The key figure was Marie Antoinette 's brother, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II. Initially, he had looked on the Revolution with equanimity. However, he became more and more disturbed as it became more and more radical. Despite this, he still hoped to avoid war.
On 27 August, Leopold and Frederick William II of Prussia, in consultation with émigrés French nobles, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe in the well - being of Louis and his family, and threatened vague but severe consequences if anything should befall them. Although Leopold saw the Pillnitz Declaration as an easy way to appear concerned about the developments in France without committing any soldiers or finances to change them, the revolutionary leaders in Paris viewed it fearfully as a dangerous foreign attempt to undermine France 's sovereignty.
In addition to the ideological differences between France and the monarchical powers of Europe, there were continuing disputes over the status of Austrian estates in Alsace, and the concern of members of the National Constituent Assembly about the agitation of émigrés nobles abroad, especially in the Austrian Netherlands and the minor states of Germany.
In the end, the Legislative Assembly, supported by Louis XVI, declared war on Austria ("the King of Bohemia and Hungary '') first, voting for war on 20 April 1792, after a long list of grievances was presented to it by the foreign minister, Charles François Dumouriez. Dumouriez prepared an immediate invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, where he expected the local population to rise against Austrian rule. However, the Revolution had thoroughly disorganised the army, and the forces raised were insufficient for the invasion. The soldiers fled at the first sign of battle and, in one case, on 28 April 1792, murdered their general, Irish - born comte Théobald de Dillon, whom they accused of treason.
While the revolutionary government frantically raised fresh troops and reorganised its armies, a Prussian - Austrian army under Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick assembled at Coblenz on the Rhine. In July, the invasion began, with Brunswick 's army easily taking the fortresses of Longwy and Verdun. The duke then issued on 25 July a proclamation called the Brunswick Manifesto, written by Louis 's émigré cousin, the Prince de Condé, declaring the intent of the Austrians and Prussians to restore the king to his full powers and to treat any person or town who opposed them as rebels to be condemned to death by martial law.
Contrary to its intended purpose of strengthening Louis XVI 's position against the revolutionaries, the Brunswick Manifesto had the opposite effect of greatly undermining his already highly tenuous position. It was taken by many to be the final proof of collusion between the king and foreign powers in a conspiracy against his own country. The anger of the populace boiled over on 10 August when an armed mob -- with the backing of a new municipal government of Paris that came to be known as the Insurrectional Paris Commune -- marched upon and invaded the Tuileries Palace. The royal family took shelter with the Legislative Assembly.
Louis was officially arrested on 13 August 1792 and sent to the Temple, an ancient fortress in Paris that was used as a prison. On 21 September, the National Assembly declared France to be a Republic and abolished the monarchy. Louis was stripped of all of his titles and honours, and from this date was known as Citoyen Louis Capet.
The Girondins were partial to keeping the deposed king under arrest, both as a hostage and a guarantee for the future. Members of the Commune and the most radical deputies, who would soon form the group known as the Mountain, argued for Louis 's immediate execution. The legal background of many of the deputies made it difficult for a great number of them to accept an execution without the due process of law, and it was voted that the deposed monarch be tried before the National Convention, the organ that housed the representatives of the sovereign people. In many ways, the former king 's trial represented the trial of the monarchy by the revolution. It was seen as if with the death of one came the life of the other. Michelet argued that the death of the former king would lead to the acceptance of violence as a tool for happiness. He said, "If we accept the proposition that one person can be sacrificed for the happiness of the many, it will soon be demonstrated that two or three or more could also be sacrificed for the happiness of the many. Little by little, we will find reasons for sacrificing the many for the happiness of the many, and we will think it was a bargain. ''
There were two events that led up to the trial for Louis XVI. First, after the Battle of Valmy on 22 September 1792, General Dumouriez negotiated with the Prussians who evacuated France. Louis could no longer be considered a hostage or as leverage in negotiations with the invading forces. Second, in November 1792, the armoire de fer (iron chest) incident took place at the Tuileries Palace, when the existence, in the king 's bedroom, of the hidden safe containing compromising documents and correspondence, was revealed by François Gamain, the Versailles locksmith who had installed it. Gamain went to Paris on 20 November and told Jean - Marie Roland, Girondinist Minister of the Interior, who ordered it opened. The resulting scandal served to discredit the king. Following these two events the Girondins could no longer keep the king from trial.
On 11 December, among crowded and silent streets, the deposed king was brought from the Temple to stand before the Convention and hear his indictment, an accusation of high treason and crimes against the State. On 26 December, his counsel, Raymond Desèze, delivered Louis ' response to the charges, with the assistance of François Tronchet and Malesherbes. Before the trial started and Louis mounted his defense to the Convention, he told his lawyers that he knew he would be found guilty and be killed, but to prepare and act as though they could win. He was resigned to and accepted his fate before the verdict was determined, but he was willing to fight to be remembered as a good king for his people.
The Convention would be voting on three questions: first, Is Louis guilty; second, whatever the decision, should there be an appeal to the people; and third, if found guilty, what punishment should Louis suffer? The order of the voting on each question was a compromise within the Jacobin movement between the Girondins and Mountain; neither were satisfied but both accepted.
On 15 January 1793, the Convention, composed of 721 deputies, voted on the verdict. Given overwhelming evidence of Louis 's collusion with the invaders, the verdict was a foregone conclusion -- with 693 deputies voting guilty, none for acquittal, with 23 abstaining. The next day, a roll - call vote was carried out to decide upon the fate of the former king, and the result was uncomfortably close for such a dramatic decision. 288 of the deputies voted against death and for some other alternative, mainly some means of imprisonment or exile. 72 of the deputies voted for the death penalty, but subject to a number of delaying conditions and reservations. The voting took a total of 36 hours. 361 of the deputies voted for Louis 's immediate execution. Louis was condemned to death by a majority of one vote. Philippe Égalité, formerly the duke of Orléans and Louis ' cousin, voted for Louis ' execution, a cause of much future bitterness among French monarchists; he would himself be guillotined on the same scaffold, Place de la Révolution, before the end of the same year, on 6 November 1793.
The next day, a motion to grant Louis XVI reprieve from the death sentence was voted down: 310 of the deputies requested mercy, but 380 voted for the immediate execution of the death penalty. This decision would be final. Malesherbes wanted to break the news to Louis and bitterly lamented the verdict, but Louis told him he would see him again in a happier life and he would regret leaving a friend like Malesherbes behind. The last thing Louis said to him was that he needed to control his tears because all eyes would be upon him.
On Monday, 21 January 1793, Louis XVI was beheaded by guillotine on the Place de la Révolution. As Louis XVI mounted the scaffold, he appeared dignified and resigned. He delivered a short speech in which he pardoned "... those who are the cause of my death... ". He then declared himself innocent of the crimes of which he was accused, praying that his blood would not fall back on France. Many accounts suggest Louis XVI 's desire to say more, but Antoine - Joseph Santerre, a general in the National Guard, halted the speech by ordering a drum roll. The former king was then quickly beheaded. Some accounts of Louis 's beheading indicate that the blade did not sever his neck entirely the first time. There are also accounts of a blood - curdling scream issuing from Louis after the blade fell but this is unlikely, since the blade severed Louis 's spine. The executioner, Charles Henri Sanson, testified that the former king had bravely met his fate.
Immediately after his execution, Louis XVI 's corpse was transported in a cart to the nearby Madeleine cemetery, located rue d'Anjou, where those guillotined at the Place de la Révolution were buried in mass graves. Before his burial, a short religious service was held in the Madeleine church (destroyed in 1799) by two priests who had sworn allegiance to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Afterwards, Louis XVI, his severed head placed between his feet, was buried in an unmarked grave, with quicklime spread over his body. The Madeleine cemetery was closed in 1794. In 1815 Louis XVIII had the remains of his brother Louis XVI and of his sister - in - law Marie - Antoinette transferred and buried in the Basilica of St Denis, the Royal necropolis of the Kings and Queens of France. Between 1816 and 1826, a commemorative monument, the Chapelle expiatoire, was erected at the location of the former cemetery and church.
While Louis 's blood dripped to the ground, several onlookers ran forward to dip their handkerchiefs in it. This account was proven true in 2012, after a DNA comparison linked blood thought to be from Louis XVI 's beheading to DNA taken from tissue samples originating from what was long thought to be the mummified head of Henry IV of France. The blood sample was taken from a squash gourd carved to commemorate the heroes of the French Revolution that had, according to legend, been used to house one of the handkerchiefs dipped in Louis 's blood.
The 19th - century historian Jules Michelet attributed the restoration of the French monarchy to the sympathy that had been engendered by the execution of Louis XVI. Michelet 's Histoire de la Révolution Française and Alphonse de Lamartine 's Histoire des Girondins, in particular, showed the marks of the feelings aroused by the revolution 's regicide. The two writers did not share the same sociopolitical vision, but they agreed that, even though the monarchy was rightly ended in 1792, the lives of the royal family should have been spared. Lack of compassion at that moment contributed to a radicalization of revolutionary violence and to greater divisiveness among Frenchmen. For the 20th century novelist Albert Camus the execution signaled the end of the role of God in history, for which he mourned. For the 20th century philosopher Jean - François Lyotard the regicide was the starting point of all French thought, the memory of which acts as a reminder that French modernity began under the sign of a crime.
Louis ' daughter, Marie - Thérèse - Charlotte, the future Duchess of Angoulême, survived the French Revolution, and she lobbied in Rome energetically for the canonization of her father as a saint of the Catholic Church. Despite his signing of the "Civil Constitution of the Clergy '', Louis had been described as a martyr by Pope Pius VI in 1793. In 1820, however, a memorandum of the Congregation of Rites in Rome, declaring the impossibility of proving that Louis had been executed for religious rather than political reasons, put an end to hopes of canonization.
King Louis XVI has been portrayed in numerous films. In Marie Antoinette (1938), he was played by Robert Morley. Jean - François Balmer portrayed him in the 1989 two - part miniseries La Révolution française. More recently, he was depicted in the 2006 film Marie Antoinette by Jason Schwartzman. In Sacha Guitry 's Si Versailles m'était conté, Louis was portrayed by one of the film 's producers, Gilbert Bokanowski, using the alias Gilbert Boka. Several portrayals have upheld the image of a bumbling, almost foolish king, such as that by Jacques Morel in the 1956 French film Marie - Antoinette reine de France and that by Terence Budd in the Lady Oscar live action film. In Start the Revolution Without Me, Louis XVI is portrayed by Hugh Griffith as a laughable cuckold. Mel Brooks played a comic version of Louis XVI in The History of the World Part 1, portraying him as a libertine who has such distaste for the peasantry he uses them as targets in skeet shooting. In the 1996 film Ridicule; Urbain Cancelier plays Louis.
Louis XVI has been the subject of novels as well, including two of the alternate histories anthologized in If It Had Happened Otherwise (1931): "If Drouet 's Cart Had Stuck '' by Hilaire Belloc and "If Louis XVI Had Had an Atom of Firmness '' by André Maurois, which tell very different stories but both imagine Louis surviving and still reigning in the early 19th century. Louis appears in the children 's book Ben and Me by Robert Lawson but does not appear in the 1953 animated short film based on the same book.
Louis 's formal style before the revolution was "Louis XVI, par la grâce de Dieu, roi de France et de Navarre '', or "Louis XVI, by the Grace of God, King of France and of Navarre ''.
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molecular motion is independent of temperature and is unaffected by a change in temperature | Thermodynamic temperature - wikipedia
Thermodynamic temperature is the absolute measure of temperature and is one of the principal parameters of thermodynamics.
Thermodynamic temperature is defined by the third law of thermodynamics in which the theoretically lowest temperature is the null or zero point. At this point, absolute zero, the particle constituents of matter have minimal motion and can become no colder. In the quantum - mechanical description, matter at absolute zero is in its ground state, which is its state of lowest energy. Thermodynamic temperature is often also called absolute temperature, for two reasons: one, proposed by Kelvin, that it does not depend on the properties of a particular material; two that it refers to an absolute zero according to the properties of the ideal gas.
The International System of Units specifies a particular scale for thermodynamic temperature. It uses the kelvin scale for measurement and selects the triple point of water at 273.16 K as the fundamental fixing point. Other scales have been in use historically. The Rankine scale, using the degree Fahrenheit as its unit interval, is still in use as part of the English Engineering Units in the United States in some engineering fields. ITS - 90 gives a practical means of estimating the thermodynamic temperature to a very high degree of accuracy.
Roughly, the temperature of a body at rest is a measure of the mean of the energy of the translational, vibrational and rotational motions of matter 's particle constituents, such as molecules, atoms, and subatomic particles. The full variety of these kinetic motions, along with potential energies of particles, and also occasionally certain other types of particle energy in equilibrium with these, make up the total internal energy of a substance. Internal energy is loosely called the heat energy or thermal energy in conditions when no work is done upon the substance by its surroundings, or by the substance upon the surroundings. Internal energy may be stored in a number of ways within a substance, each way constituting a "degree of freedom ''. At equilibrium, each degree of freedom will have on average the same energy: k B T / 2 (\ displaystyle k_ (B) T / 2) where k B (\ displaystyle k_ (B)) is the Boltzmann constant, unless that degree of freedom is in the quantum regime. The internal degrees of freedom (rotation, vibration, etc.) may be in the quantum regime at room temperature, but the translational degrees of freedom will be in the classical regime except at extremely low temperatures (fractions of kelvins) and it may be said that, for most situations, the thermodynamic temperature is specified by the average translational kinetic energy of the particles.
Temperature is a measure of the random submicroscopic motions and vibrations of the particle constituents of matter. These motions comprise the internal energy of a substance. More specifically, the thermodynamic temperature of any bulk quantity of matter is the measure of the average kinetic energy per classical (i.e., non-quantum) degree of freedom of its constituent particles. "Translational motions '' are almost always in the classical regime. Translational motions are ordinary, whole - body movements in three - dimensional space in which particles move about and exchange energy in collisions. Figure 1 below shows translational motion in gases; Figure 4 below shows translational motion in solids. Thermodynamic temperature 's null point, absolute zero, is the temperature at which the particle constituents of matter are as close as possible to complete rest; that is, they have minimal motion, retaining only quantum mechanical motion. Zero kinetic energy remains in a substance at absolute zero (see Thermal energy at absolute zero, below).
Throughout the scientific world where measurements are made in SI units, thermodynamic temperature is measured in kelvins (symbol: K). Many engineering fields in the U.S. however, measure thermodynamic temperature using the Rankine scale.
By international agreement, the unit kelvin and its scale are defined by two points: absolute zero, and the triple point of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (water with a specified blend of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes). Absolute zero, the lowest possible temperature, is defined as being precisely 0 K and − 273.15 ° C. The triple point of water is defined as being precisely 273.16 K and 0.01 ° C. This definition does three things:
Temperatures expressed in kelvins (T) are converted to degrees Rankine (T) simply by multiplying by 1.8 (T = 1.8 × T). Temperatures expressed in degrees Rankine are converted to kelvins by dividing by 1.8 (T = T ÷ 1.8).
Although the kelvin and Celsius scales are defined using absolute zero (0 K) and the triple point of water (273.16 K and 0.01 ° C), it is impractical to use this definition at temperatures that are very different from the triple point of water. ITS - 90 is then designed to represent the thermodynamic temperature as closely as possible throughout its range. Many different thermometer designs are required to cover the entire range. These include helium vapor pressure thermometers, helium gas thermometers, standard platinum resistance thermometers (known as SPRTs, PRTs or Platinum RTDs) and monochromatic radiation thermometers.
For some types of thermometer the relationship between the property observed (e.g., length of a mercury column) and temperature, is close to linear, so for most purposes a linear scale is sufficient, without point - by - point calibration. For others a calibration curve or equation is required. The mercury thermometer, invented before the thermodynamic temperature was understood, originally defined the temperature scale; its linearity made readings correlate well with true temperature, i.e. the "mercury '' temperature scale was a close fit to the true scale.
The thermodynamic temperature is a measure of the average energy of the translational, vibrational, and rotational motions of matter 's particle constituents (molecules, atoms, and subatomic particles). The full variety of these kinetic motions, along with potential energies of particles, and also occasionally certain other types of particle energy in equilibrium with these, contribute the total internal energy (loosely, the thermal energy) of a substance. Thus, internal energy may be stored in a number of ways (degrees of freedom) within a substance. When the degrees of freedom are in the classical regime ("unfrozen '') the temperature is very simply related to the average energy of those degrees of freedom at equilibrium. The three translational degrees of freedom are unfrozen except for the very lowest temperatures, and their kinetic energy is simply related to the thermodynamic temperature over the widest range. The heat capacity, which relates heat input and temperature change, is discussed below.
The relationship of kinetic energy, mass, and velocity is given by the formula E = ⁄ mv. Accordingly, particles with one unit of mass moving at one unit of velocity have precisely the same kinetic energy, and precisely the same temperature, as those with four times the mass but half the velocity.
Except in the quantum regime at extremely low temperatures, the thermodynamic temperature of any bulk quantity of a substance (a statistically significant quantity of particles) is directly proportional to the mean average kinetic energy of a specific kind of particle motion known as translational motion. These simple movements in the three x, y, and z -- axis dimensions of space means the particles move in the three spatial degrees of freedom. The temperature derived from this translational kinetic energy is sometimes referred to as kinetic temperature and is equal to the thermodynamic temperature over a very wide range of temperatures. Since there are three translational degrees of freedom (e.g., motion along the x, y, and z axes), the translational kinetic energy is related to the kinetic temperature by:
where:
While the Boltzmann constant is useful for finding the mean kinetic energy of a particle, it 's important to note that even when a substance is isolated and in thermodynamic equilibrium (all parts are at a uniform temperature and no heat is going into or out of it), the translational motions of individual atoms and molecules occur across a wide range of speeds (see animation in Figure 1 above). At any one instant, the proportion of particles moving at a given speed within this range is determined by probability as described by the Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution. The graph shown here in Fig. 2 shows the speed distribution of 5500 K helium atoms. They have a most probable speed of 4.780 km / s. However, a certain proportion of atoms at any given instant are moving faster while others are moving relatively slowly; some are momentarily at a virtual standstill (off the x -- axis to the right). This graph uses inverse speed for its x -- axis so the shape of the curve can easily be compared to the curves in Figure 5 below. In both graphs, zero on the x -- axis represents infinite temperature. Additionally, the x and y -- axis on both graphs are scaled proportionally.
Although very specialized laboratory equipment is required to directly detect translational motions, the resultant collisions by atoms or molecules with small particles suspended in a fluid produces Brownian motion that can be seen with an ordinary microscope. The translational motions of elementary particles are very fast and temperatures close to absolute zero are required to directly observe them. For instance, when scientists at the NIST achieved a record - setting cold temperature of 700 nK (billionths of a kelvin) in 1994, they used optical lattice laser equipment to adiabatically cool caesium atoms. They then turned off the entrapment lasers and directly measured atom velocities of 7 mm per second in order to calculate their temperature. Formulas for calculating the velocity and speed of translational motion are given in the following footnote.
There are other forms of internal energy besides the kinetic energy of translational motion. As can be seen in the animation at right, molecules are complex objects; they are a population of atoms and thermal agitation can strain their internal chemical bonds in three different ways: via rotation, bond length, and bond angle movements. These are all types of internal degrees of freedom. This makes molecules distinct from monatomic substances (consisting of individual atoms) like the noble gases helium and argon, which have only the three translational degrees of freedom. Kinetic energy is stored in molecules ' internal degrees of freedom, which gives them an internal temperature. Even though these motions are called internal, the external portions of molecules still move -- rather like the jiggling of a stationary water balloon. This permits the two - way exchange of kinetic energy between internal motions and translational motions with each molecular collision. Accordingly, as energy is removed from molecules, both their kinetic temperature (the temperature derived from the kinetic energy of translational motion) and their internal temperature simultaneously diminish in equal proportions. This phenomenon is described by the equipartition theorem, which states that for any bulk quantity of a substance in equilibrium, the kinetic energy of particle motion is evenly distributed among all the active (i.e. unfrozen) degrees of freedom available to the particles. Since the internal temperature of molecules are usually equal to their kinetic temperature, the distinction is usually of interest only in the detailed study of non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) phenomena such as combustion, the sublimation of solids, and the diffusion of hot gases in a partial vacuum.
The kinetic energy stored internally in molecules causes substances to contain more internal energy at any given temperature and to absorb additional internal energy for a given temperature increase. This is because any kinetic energy that is, at a given instant, bound in internal motions is not at that same instant contributing to the molecules ' translational motions. This extra thermal energy simply increases the amount of energy a substance absorbs for a given temperature rise. This property is known as a substance 's specific heat capacity.
Different molecules absorb different amounts of thermal energy for each incremental increase in temperature; that is, they have different specific heat capacities. High specific heat capacity arises, in part, because certain substances ' molecules possess more internal degrees of freedom than others do. For instance, nitrogen, which is a diatomic molecule, has five active degrees of freedom at room temperature: the three comprising translational motion plus two rotational degrees of freedom internally. Since the two internal degrees of freedom are essentially unfrozen, in accordance with the equipartition theorem, nitrogen has five - thirds the specific heat capacity per mole (a specific number of molecules) as do the monatomic gases. Another example is gasoline (see table showing its specific heat capacity). Gasoline can absorb a large amount of thermal energy per mole with only a modest temperature change because each molecule comprises an average of 21 atoms and therefore has many internal degrees of freedom. Even larger, more complex molecules can have dozens of internal degrees of freedom.
Heat conduction is the diffusion of thermal energy from hot parts of a system to cold. A system can be either a single bulk entity or a plurality of discrete bulk entities. The term bulk in this context means a statistically significant quantity of particles (which can be a microscopic amount). Whenever thermal energy diffuses within an isolated system, temperature differences within the system decrease (and entropy increases).
One particular heat conduction mechanism occurs when translational motion, the particle motion underlying temperature, transfers momentum from particle to particle in collisions. In gases, these translational motions are of the nature shown above in Fig. 1. As can be seen in that animation, not only does momentum (heat) diffuse throughout the volume of the gas through serial collisions, but entire molecules or atoms can move forward into new territory, bringing their kinetic energy with them. Consequently, temperature differences equalize throughout gases very quickly -- especially for light atoms or molecules; convection speeds this process even more.
Translational motion in solids, however, takes the form of phonons (see Fig. 4 at right). Phonons are constrained, quantized wave packets that travel at a given substance 's speed of sound. The manner in which phonons interact within a solid determines a variety of its properties, including its thermal conductivity. In electrically insulating solids, phonon - based heat conduction is usually inefficient and such solids are considered thermal insulators (such as glass, plastic, rubber, ceramic, and rock). This is because in solids, atoms and molecules are locked into place relative to their neighbors and are not free to roam.
Metals however, are not restricted to only phonon - based heat conduction. Thermal energy conducts through metals extraordinarily quickly because instead of direct molecule - to - molecule collisions, the vast majority of thermal energy is mediated via very light, mobile conduction electrons. This is why there is a near - perfect correlation between metals ' thermal conductivity and their electrical conductivity. Conduction electrons imbue metals with their extraordinary conductivity because they are delocalized (i.e., not tied to a specific atom) and behave rather like a sort of quantum gas due to the effects of zero - point energy (for more on ZPE, see Note 1 below). Furthermore, electrons are relatively light with a rest mass only ⁄ th that of a proton. This is about the same ratio as a. 22 Short bullet (29 grains or 1.88 g) compared to the rifle that shoots it. As Isaac Newton wrote with his third law of motion,
Law # 3: All forces occur in pairs, and these two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
However, a bullet accelerates faster than a rifle given an equal force. Since kinetic energy increases as the square of velocity, nearly all the kinetic energy goes into the bullet, not the rifle, even though both experience the same force from the expanding propellant gases. In the same manner, because they are much less massive, thermal energy is readily borne by mobile conduction electrons. Additionally, because they 're delocalized and very fast, kinetic thermal energy conducts extremely quickly through metals with abundant conduction electrons.
Thermal radiation is a byproduct of the collisions arising from various vibrational motions of atoms. These collisions cause the electrons of the atoms to emit thermal photons (known as black - body radiation). Photons are emitted anytime an electric charge is accelerated (as happens when electron clouds of two atoms collide). Even individual molecules with internal temperatures greater than absolute zero also emit black - body radiation from their atoms. In any bulk quantity of a substance at equilibrium, black - body photons are emitted across a range of wavelengths in a spectrum that has a bell curve - like shape called a Planck curve (see graph in Fig. 5 at right). The top of a Planck curve (the peak emittance wavelength) is located in a particular part of the electromagnetic spectrum depending on the temperature of the black - body. Substances at extreme cryogenic temperatures emit at long radio wavelengths whereas extremely hot temperatures produce short gamma rays (see Table of common temperatures).
Black - body radiation diffuses thermal energy throughout a substance as the photons are absorbed by neighboring atoms, transferring momentum in the process. Black - body photons also easily escape from a substance and can be absorbed by the ambient environment; kinetic energy is lost in the process.
As established by the Stefan -- Boltzmann law, the intensity of black - body radiation increases as the fourth power of absolute temperature. Thus, a black - body at 824 K (just short of glowing dull red) emits 60 times the radiant power as it does at 296 K (room temperature). This is why one can so easily feel the radiant heat from hot objects at a distance. At higher temperatures, such as those found in an incandescent lamp, black - body radiation can be the principal mechanism by which thermal energy escapes a system.
The full range of the thermodynamic temperature scale, from absolute zero to absolute hot, and some notable points between them are shown in the table below.
(precisely by definition)
(precisely by definition)
(precisely by definition)
The 2500 K value is approximate. For a true blackbody (which tungsten filaments are not). Tungsten filaments ' emissivity is greater at shorter wavelengths, which makes them appear whiter. Effective photosphere temperature. For a true blackbody (which the plasma was not). The Z machine 's dominant emission originated from 40 MK electrons (soft x -- ray emissions) within the plasma.
The kinetic energy of particle motion is just one contributor to the total thermal energy in a substance; another is phase transitions, which are the potential energy of molecular bonds that can form in a substance as it cools (such as during condensing and freezing). The thermal energy required for a phase transition is called latent heat. This phenomenon may more easily be grasped by considering it in the reverse direction: latent heat is the energy required to break chemical bonds (such as during evaporation and melting). Almost everyone is familiar with the effects of phase transitions; for instance, steam at 100 ° C can cause severe burns much faster than the 100 ° C air from a hair dryer. This occurs because a large amount of latent heat is liberated as steam condenses into liquid water on the skin.
Even though thermal energy is liberated or absorbed during phase transitions, pure chemical elements, compounds, and eutectic alloys exhibit no temperature change whatsoever while they undergo them (see Fig. 7, below right). Consider one particular type of phase transition: melting. When a solid is melting, crystal lattice chemical bonds are being broken apart; the substance is transitioning from what is known as a more ordered state to a less ordered state. In Fig. 7, the melting of ice is shown within the lower left box heading from blue to green.
At one specific thermodynamic point, the melting point (which is 0 ° C across a wide pressure range in the case of water), all the atoms or molecules are, on average, at the maximum energy threshold their chemical bonds can withstand without breaking away from the lattice. Chemical bonds are all - or - nothing forces: they either hold fast, or break; there is no in - between state. Consequently, when a substance is at its melting point, every joule of added thermal energy only breaks the bonds of a specific quantity of its atoms or molecules, converting them into a liquid of precisely the same temperature; no kinetic energy is added to translational motion (which is what gives substances their temperature). The effect is rather like popcorn: at a certain temperature, additional thermal energy ca n't make the kernels any hotter until the transition (popping) is complete. If the process is reversed (as in the freezing of a liquid), thermal energy must be removed from a substance.
As stated above, the thermal energy required for a phase transition is called latent heat. In the specific cases of melting and freezing, it 's called enthalpy of fusion or heat of fusion. If the molecular bonds in a crystal lattice are strong, the heat of fusion can be relatively great, typically in the range of 6 to 30 kJ per mole for water and most of the metallic elements. If the substance is one of the monatomic gases, (which have little tendency to form molecular bonds) the heat of fusion is more modest, ranging from 0.021 to 2.3 kJ per mole. Relatively speaking, phase transitions can be truly energetic events. To completely melt ice at 0 ° C into water at 0 ° C, one must add roughly 80 times the thermal energy as is required to increase the temperature of the same mass of liquid water by one degree Celsius. The metals ' ratios are even greater, typically in the range of 400 to 1200 times. And the phase transition of boiling is much more energetic than freezing. For instance, the energy required to completely boil or vaporize water (what is known as enthalpy of vaporization) is roughly 540 times that required for a one - degree increase.
Water 's sizable enthalpy of vaporization is why one 's skin can be burned so quickly as steam condenses on it (heading from red to green in Fig. 7 above). In the opposite direction, this is why one 's skin feels cool as liquid water on it evaporates (a process that occurs at a sub-ambient wet - bulb temperature that is dependent on relative humidity). Water 's highly energetic enthalpy of vaporization is also an important factor underlying why solar pool covers (floating, insulated blankets that cover swimming pools when not in use) are so effective at reducing heating costs: they prevent evaporation. For instance, the evaporation of just 20 mm of water from a 1.29 - meter - deep pool chills its water 8.4 degrees Celsius (15.1 ° F).
The total energy of all particle motion translational and internal, including that of conduction electrons, plus the potential energy of phase changes, plus zero - point energy comprise the internal energy of a substance.
As a substance cools, different forms of internal energy and their related effects simultaneously decrease in magnitude: the latent heat of available phase transitions is liberated as a substance changes from a less ordered state to a more ordered state; the translational motions of atoms and molecules diminish (their kinetic temperature decreases); the internal motions of molecules diminish (their internal temperature decreases); conduction electrons (if the substance is an electrical conductor) travel somewhat slower; and black - body radiation 's peak emittance wavelength increases (the photons ' energy decreases). When the particles of a substance are as close as possible to complete rest and retain only ZPE - induced quantum mechanical motion, the substance is at the temperature of absolute zero (T = 0).
Note that whereas absolute zero is the point of zero thermodynamic temperature and is also the point at which the particle constituents of matter have minimal motion, absolute zero is not necessarily the point at which a substance contains zero thermal energy; one must be very precise with what one means by internal energy. Often, all the phase changes that can occur in a substance, will have occurred by the time it reaches absolute zero. However, this is not always the case. Notably, T = 0 helium remains liquid at room pressure and must be under a pressure of at least 25 bar (2.5 MPa) to crystallize. This is because helium 's heat of fusion (the energy required to melt helium ice) is so low (only 21 joules per mole) that the motion - inducing effect of zero - point energy is sufficient to prevent it from freezing at lower pressures. Only if under at least 25 bar (2.5 MPa) of pressure will this latent thermal energy be liberated as helium freezes while approaching absolute zero. A further complication is that many solids change their crystal structure to more compact arrangements at extremely high pressures (up to millions of bars, or hundreds of gigapascals). These are known as solid - solid phase transitions wherein latent heat is liberated as a crystal lattice changes to a more thermodynamically favorable, compact one.
The above complexities make for rather cumbersome blanket statements regarding the internal energy in T = 0 substances. Regardless of pressure though, what can be said is that at absolute zero, all solids with a lowest - energy crystal lattice such those with a closest - packed arrangement (see Fig. 8, above left) contain minimal internal energy, retaining only that due to the ever - present background of zero - point energy. One can also say that for a given substance at constant pressure, absolute zero is the point of lowest enthalpy (a measure of work potential that takes internal energy, pressure, and volume into consideration). Lastly, it is always true to say that all T = 0 substances contain zero kinetic thermal energy.
Thermodynamic temperature is useful not only for scientists, it can also be useful for lay - people in many disciplines involving gases. By expressing variables in absolute terms and applying Gay -- Lussac 's law of temperature / pressure proportionality, solutions to everyday problems are straightforward; for instance, calculating how a temperature change affects the pressure inside an automobile tire. If the tire has a relatively cold pressure of 200 kPa - gage, then in absolute terms (relative to a vacuum), its pressure is 300 kPa - absolute. Room temperature ("cold '' in tire terms) is 296 K. If the tire pressure is 20 ° C hotter (20 kelvins), the solution is calculated as ⁄ = 6.8 % greater thermodynamic temperature and absolute pressure; that is, a pressure of 320 kPa - absolute, which is 220 kPa - gage.
The thermodynamic temperature is defined by the second law of thermodynamics and its consequences. The thermodynamic temperature can be shown to have special properties, and in particular can be seen to be uniquely defined (up to some constant multiplicative factor) by considering the efficiency of idealized heat engines. Thus the ratio T / T of two temperaturesT andT is the same in all absolute scales.
Strictly speaking, the temperature of a system is well - defined only if it is at thermal equilibrium. From a microscopic viewpoint, a material is at thermal equilibrium if the quantity of heat between its individual particles cancel out. There are many possible scales of temperature, derived from a variety of observations of physical phenomena.
Loosely stated, temperature differences dictate the direction of heat between two systems such that their combined energy is maximally distributed among their lowest possible states. We call this distribution "entropy ''. To better understand the relationship between temperature and entropy, consider the relationship between heat, work and temperature illustrated in the Carnot heat engine. The engine converts heat into work by directing a temperature gradient between a higher temperature heat source, T, and a lower temperature heat sync, T, through a gas filled piston. The work done per cycle is equal to the difference between the heat supplied to the engine by T, q, and the heat supplied to T by the engine, q. The efficiency of the engine is the work divided by the heat put into the system or
where w is the work done per cycle. Thus the efficiency depends only on q / q.
Carnot 's theorem states that all reversible engines operating between the same heat reservoirs are equally efficient. Thus, any reversible heat engine operating between temperatures T and T must have the same efficiency, that is to say, the efficiency is the function of only temperatures
In addition, a reversible heat engine operating between temperatures T and T must have the same efficiency as one consisting of two cycles, one between T and another (intermediate) temperature T, and the second between T andT. If this were not the case, then energy (in the form of Q) will be wasted or gained, resulting in different overall efficiencies every time a cycle is split into component cycles; clearly a cycle can be composed of any number of smaller cycles.
With this understanding of Q, Q and Q, we note also that mathematically,
But the first function is NOT a function of T, therefore the product of the final two functions MUST result in the removal of T as a variable. The only way is therefore to define the function f as follows:
and
so that
i.e. The ratio of heat exchanged is a function of the respective temperatures at which they occur. We can choose any monotonic function for our g (T) (\ displaystyle g (T)); it is a matter of convenience and convention that we choose g (T) = T (\ displaystyle g (T) = T). Choosing then one fixed reference temperature (i.e. triple point of water), we establish the thermodynamic temperature scale.
It is to be noted that such a definition coincides with that of the ideal gas derivation; also it is this definition of the thermodynamic temperature that enables us to represent the Carnot efficiency in terms of T and T, and hence derive that the (complete) Carnot cycle is isentropic:
Substituting this back into our first formula for efficiency yields a relationship in terms of temperature:
Notice that for T = 0 the efficiency is 100 % and that efficiency becomes greater than 100 % for T < 0, which cases are unrealistic. Subtracting the right hand side of Equation 4 from the middle portion and rearranging gives
where the negative sign indicates heat ejected from the system. The generalization of this equation is Clausius theorem, which suggests the existence of a state function S (i.e., a function which depends only on the state of the system, not on how it reached that state) defined (up to an additive constant) by
where the subscript indicates heat transfer in a reversible process. The function S corresponds to the entropy of the system, mentioned previously, and the change of S around any cycle is zero (as is necessary for any state function). Equation 5 can be rearranged to get an alternative definition for temperature in terms of entropy and heat (to avoid logic loop, we should first define entropy through statistical mechanics):
For a system in which the entropy S is a function S (E) of its energy E, the thermodynamic temperature T is therefore given by
so that the reciprocal of the thermodynamic temperature is the rate of increase of entropy with energy.
Although absolute zero (T = 0) is not a state of zero molecular motion, it is the point of zero temperature and, in accordance with the Boltzmann constant, is also the point of zero particle kinetic energy and zero kinetic velocity. To understand how atoms can have zero kinetic velocity and simultaneously be vibrating due to ZPE, consider the following thought experiment: two T = 0 helium atoms in zero gravity are carefully positioned and observed to have an average separation of 620 pm between them (a gap of ten atomic diameters). It 's an "average '' separation because ZPE causes them to jostle about their fixed positions. Then one atom is given a kinetic kick of precisely 83 yoctokelvins (1 yK = 6976099999999999999 ♠ 1 × 10 K). This is done in a way that directs this atom 's velocity vector at the other atom. With 83 yK of kinetic energy between them, the 620 pm gap through their common barycenter would close at a rate of 719 pm / s and they would collide after 0.862 second. This is the same speed as shown in the Fig. 1 animation above. Before being given the kinetic kick, both T = 0 atoms had zero kinetic energy and zero kinetic velocity because they could persist indefinitely in that state and relative orientation even though both were being jostled by ZPE. At T = 0, no kinetic energy is available for transfer to other systems. The Boltzmann constant and its related formulas describe the realm of particle kinetics and velocity vectors whereas ZPE is an energy field that jostles particles in ways described by the mathematics of quantum mechanics. In atomic and molecular collisions in gases, ZPE introduces a degree of chaos, i.e., unpredictability, to rebound kinetics; it is as likely that there will be less ZPE - induced particle motion after a given collision as more. This random nature of ZPE is why it has no net effect upon either the pressure or volume of any bulk quantity (a statistically significant quantity of particles) of T > 0 K gases. However, in T = 0 condensed matter; e.g., solids and liquids, ZPE causes inter-atomic jostling where atoms would otherwise be perfectly stationary. Inasmuch as the real - world effects that ZPE has on substances can vary as one alters a thermodynamic system (for example, due to ZPE, helium wo n't freeze unless under a pressure of at least 25 bar or 2.5 MPa), ZPE is very much a form of thermal energy and may properly be included when tallying a substance 's internal energy.
Note too that absolute zero serves as the baseline atop which thermodynamics and its equations are founded because they deal with the exchange of thermal energy between "systems '' (a plurality of particles and fields modeled as an average). Accordingly, one may examine ZPE - induced particle motion within a system that is at absolute zero but there can never be a net outflow of thermal energy from such a system. Also, the peak emittance wavelength of black - body radiation shifts to infinity at absolute zero; indeed, a peak no longer exists and black - body photons can no longer escape. Because of ZPE, however, virtual photons are still emitted at T = 0. Such photons are called "virtual '' because they ca n't be intercepted and observed. Furthermore, this zero - point radiation has a unique zero - point spectrum. However, even though a T = 0 system emits zero - point radiation, no net heat flow Q out of such a system can occur because if the surrounding environment is at a temperature greater than T = 0, heat will flow inward, and if the surrounding environment is at T = 0, there will be an equal flux of ZP radiation both inward and outward. A similar Q equilibrium exists at T = 0 with the ZPE - induced spontaneous emission of photons (which is more properly called a stimulated emission in this context). The graph at upper right illustrates the relationship of absolute zero to zero - point energy. The graph also helps in the understanding of how zero - point energy got its name: it is the vibrational energy matter retains at the zero - kelvin point. Derivation of the classical electromagnetic zero - point radiation spectrum via a classical thermodynamic operation involving van der Waals forces, Daniel C. Cole, Physical Review A, 42 (1990) 1847.
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where was stephen king's it filmed at | It (2017 film) - Wikipedia
It: Chapter One, commonly known as It, is a 2017 American supernatural horror film directed by Andy Muschietti, based on the 1986 novel of the same name by Stephen King. The screenplay is written by Chase Palmer, Cary Fukunaga and Gary Dauberman. The first of a planned duology, the film tells the story of seven children in Derry, Maine, who are terrorized by the eponymous being, only to face their own personal demons in the process. The novel was previously adapted into a 1990 miniseries.
The film stars Jaeden Lieberher and Bill Skarsgård as Bill Denbrough and Pennywise the Dancing Clown, respectively, with Jeremy Ray Taylor, Sophia Lillis, Finn Wolfhard, Wyatt Oleff, Chosen Jacobs, Jack Dylan Grazer, Nicholas Hamilton, and Jackson Robert Scott in supporting roles. Principal photography began in the Riverdale neighborhood of Toronto on June 27, 2016, and ended on September 21, 2016. Other Ontario locations included Port Hope and Oshawa.
It premiered in Los Angeles on September 5, 2017, and was theatrically released in the United States on September 8, 2017. Upon release, the film set numerous box office records and has grossed over $666 million worldwide. Unadjusted for inflation, it is the highest - grossing R - rated horror film of all - time, the highest - grossing horror film internationally, the second highest - grossing horror film overall after The Sixth Sense and the second highest - grossing R - rated film of all time (after Deadpool). It is also the highest - grossing horror film of 2017, the highest - grossing R - rated film of 2017 and the 9th highest - grossing film overall of 2017. It received positive reviews, with critics praising the performances, direction, cinematography and musical score, and many calling it one of the best Stephen King adaptations.
A sequel, It: Chapter Two, is scheduled to be released on September 6, 2019.
In October 1988, stuttering teenager Bill Denbrough gives his seven - year - old brother, Georgie, a paper sailboat. Georgie sails the boat along the rainy streets of small town Derry, and is disappointed when it falls down a storm drain. As he attempts to retrieve it Georgie sees a clown in the sewer, who introduces himself as "Pennywise the Dancing Clown ''. The clown entices Georgie to come closer, then severs his arm and drags him into the sewer.
The following summer, Bill and his friends (loudmouth Richie Tozier, hypochondriac Eddie Kaspbrak, and timid Stan Uris) run afoul of bully Henry Bowers and his gang. Bill, still haunted by Georgie 's disappearance and the resulting neglect from his grief - stricken parents, discovers that his brother 's body may have washed up in a marshy wasteland called the Barrens. He recruits his friends to check it out, believing his brother may still be alive.
"New kid '' Ben Hanscom learns that the town has been plagued by unexplained tragedies and child disappearances for centuries. He is targeted by Bowers ' gang for being fat, after which he flees into the Barrens and meets Bill 's group. They find the sneaker of a missing girl, while a member of the pursuing Bowers Gang, Patrick Hockstetter, is killed by Pennywise.
Beverly Marsh, a girl ostracized over rumors of promiscuity, also joins the group; both Bill and Ben develop feelings for her. Later, the group befriends homeschool student Mike Hanlon after defending him from Bowers. All the while each member of the group has encountered terrifying phenomena in various forms; these include a menacing clown, a headless boy, a fountain of blood, a diseased and rotting man, a creepy painting come to life, Mike 's parents burning alive, and a phantom Georgie.
Now calling themselves "The Losers Club '', they realize they are all being terrorized by the same entity. They determine that Pennywise (or "It '') assumes the appearance of what they fear, awakens every 27 years to feed on the children of Derry before returning to hibernation, and moves about by using sewer lines -- which all lead to a well currently under the creepy, abandoned house at 29 Neibolt Street. After an attack by Pennywise, the group ventures to the house to confront him, only to be separated and terrorized. Eddie breaks his arm, while Pennywise gloats to Bill about Georgie. As they regroup, Beverly impales Pennywise through the head, forcing the clown to retreat. However, after the encounter the group begins to splinter, with only Bill and Beverly resolute in fighting It.
Weeks later, after Beverly confronts and incapacitates her sexually abusive father, she is abducted by Pennywise. The Losers Club reassembles and travels back to the Neibolt house to rescue her. Henry Bowers, who has killed his father after being compelled into madness by It, attacks the group. Mike fights back and pushes Bowers down the well to his apparent death. The Losers descend into the sewers and find It 's underground lair, which contains a mountain of decayed circus props and children 's belongings, around which the bodies of missing children float in mid-air. Beverly, now catatonic after being exposed to It 's true form, is restored to consciousness as Ben kisses her. Bill encounters Georgie, but recognizes that he is Pennywise in disguise. Pennywise attacks the group and takes Bill hostage, offering to spare the others if they let It keep Bill. The Losers reject this and reaffirm their friendship, overcoming their various fears. After a brutal battle they defeat Pennywise and he retreats, with Bill declaring that It will starve during its hibernation. Their victory is bittersweet, as Bill finally accepts his brother 's death and is comforted by his friends.
As summer ends, Beverly informs the group of a vision she had while catatonic, where she saw them fighting the creature as adults. The Losers swear a blood oath that they will return to Derry as adults if It returns and destroy the creature once and for all. Stanley, Eddie, Richie, Mike, and Ben make their goodbyes as the group disperses. Beverly tells Bill she is leaving the next day to live with her aunt in Portland. Before she leaves, Bill reveals his feelings and they kiss.
Additionally, Owen Teague is introduced as Patrick Hockstetter, a psychopathic bully of the Bowers Gang who encounters Pennywise; Logan Thompson appears as Victor "Vic '' Criss, a bully and friend of Henry Bowers who is reluctant to engage in their most sadistic acts; Jake Sim appears as Reginald "Belch '' Huggins, another bully and friend of Henry Bowers who is known for his ability to belch on command; Javier Botet appears as The Leper, a diseased and rotting man that encounters Eddie Kaspbrak at the house on 29 Neibolt Street; Tatum Lee appears as Judith, one of It 's horrifying creations; Steven Williams appears as Leroy Hanlon, the stern grandfather of Mike Hanlon, who runs a nearby abattoir; Stephen Bogaert appears as Alvin Marsh, the abusive father of Beverly Marsh; Geoffrey Pounsett appears as Zack Denbrough, the father of Bill and George Denbrough; Pip Dwyer appears as Sharon Denbrough, the mother of Bill and George Denbrough; Ari Cohen appears as Rabbi Uris, the father of Stanley Uris; Stuart Hughes appears as Oscar "Butch '' Bowers, a police officer and abusive father of Henry Bowers; Megan Charpentier appears as Greta Keene, the pharmacist 's daughter who targets Beverly for ridicule.
The project first entered development in 2009. The proposed film adaptation went through three phases of planning: initially a single film with screenwriter David Kajganich; then the dual film project, first with Cary Fukunaga attached as director and co-writer, then with Andy Muschietti.
On March 12, 2009, Variety reported that Warner Bros. would bring Stephen King 's novel to the big screen, with David Kajganich adapting the novel, and Dan Lin, Roy Lee and Doug Davison producing the piece. When Kajganich learnt of Warner Bros. ' plans to adapt King 's novel, he went after the job. Knowing that Warner Bros. was committed to adapting It as a single feature film, Kajganich began to reread the novel in an attempt to try to find a structure that would accommodate such a large number of characters in two different time periods, around 120 pages, which was one of Warner Bros. ' stipulations. Kajganich worked with Lin, Lee, and Davison on The Invasion (2007), and he knew they would champion good storytelling, and allow him the time to work out a solid first draft of the screenplay. Kajganich spoke of the remake being set in the, "mid-1980s and in the present... mirroring the twenty - odd - year gap King uses in the book... and with a great deal of care and attention paid to the backstories of all the characters ''.
Kajganich also mentioned that Warner Bros. wished for the adaptation to be rated R, saying, "... we can really honor the book and engage with the traumas (both the paranormal ones and those they deal with at home and school) that these characters endure ''. He said that his dream choice for Pennywise would be Buster Keaton if he were still alive, and that the Pennywise that he scripted is "less self - conscious of his own irony and surreality ''. As of June 29, 2010, Kajganich was re-writing his screenplay.
On June 7, 2012, The Hollywood Reporter revealed that Cary Fukunaga was boarding the project as director, and would co-write the script with Chase Palmer. The producers were now Roy Lee of Vertigo Entertainment, Dan Lin of Lin Pictures, and Seth Grahame - Smith and David Katzenberg of KatzSmith Productions. On May 21, 2014, Warner Bros. was announced to have moved the film to its New Line Cinema division, with overseer duties conducting by New Line 's Walter Hamada and Dave Neustadter, along with Vice President of Production at Warner Bros., Niija Kuykendall. On December 5, 2014, in an interview with Vulture, Dan Lin announced that the first film would be a coming - of - age story about the children tormented by It, and the second will skip ahead in time as those same characters band together to continue the fight as adults. Lin also stated that Fukunaga was then only committed to directing the first film, though was currently closing a deal to co-write the second. Lin concluded by mentioning King, to which he remarked, "The most important thing is that (King) gave us his blessing. We did n't want to make this unless he felt it was the right way to go, and when we sent him the script, the response that Cary got back was, ' Go with God, please! This is the version the studio should make. ' So that was really gratifying. '' Lin confirmed that Fukunaga was set to begin principal photography in the summer of 2016.
On February 3, 2015, Fukunaga was interviewed by Slate, and spoke about It, mentioning that he has someone in mind for the role of Pennywise. On March 3, 2015, Fukunaga noted his goal to find the "perfect guy to play Pennywise ''. Fukunaga also revealed that he, Kajganich and Palmer had changed the names and dates in the script, adding, "... the spirit is similar to what he 'd like to see in cinemas ''. On May 4, 2015, it was officially announced that Will Poulter had been cast to play Pennywise, after Fukunaga was "blown away '' by his audition. Ty Simpkins was then considered to play one of The Losers ' Club members.
On May 25, 2015, it was reported that Fukunaga had dropped out as the director of It. According to TheWrap, Fukunaga clashed with the studio and did not want to compromise his artistic vision in the wake of budget cuts by New Line, which greenlit the first film at $30 million. However, Fukunaga maintained that was not the case, stating he had bigger disagreements with New Line over the direction of the story, "I was trying to make an unconventional horror film. It did n't fit into the algorithm of what they knew they could spend and make money back on based on not offending their standard genre audience. '' He made mention that the budget was fine, as well as his desire to make Pennywise more than just the clown. Fukunaga concluded by stating, "We invested years and so much anecdotal storytelling in it. Chase and I both put our childhood in that story. So our biggest fear was they were going to take our script and bastardize it... So I 'm actually thankful that they are going to rewrite the script. I would n't want them to stealing our childhood memories and using that... I was honoring King 's spirit of it, but I needed to update it. King saw an earlier draft and liked it. '' On Fukunaga 's departure, King wrote, "The remake of IT may be dead -- or undead -- but we 'll always have Tim Curry. He 's still floating down in the sewers of Derry. ''
On July 16, 2015, it was announced that Andy Muschietti was in negotiations to direct It, with New Line beginning a search for a new writer to tailor a script to Muschietti 's vision. The announcement also confirmed the possible participation of Muschietti 's sister, Barbara Muschietti, as a producer, and Richard Brener joining Hamada, Neustadter and Kuykendall to oversee the project. On April 22, 2016, it was indicated that Will Poulter, who had been cast to portray Pennywise in Fukunaga 's version, had dropped out of the film due to a scheduling conflict and that executives were meeting with actors to portray the antagonist. Also that day, New Line Cinema set the film for a release of September 8, 2017.
On October 30, 2015, Muschietti was interviewed by Variety wherein he spoke about his vision of It, while mentioning Poulter was still in the mix for the role of Pennywise: "(Poulter) would be a great option. For me he is at the top of my list... '' He confirmed that next summer is the time for them to start shooting. It was decided to shoot It during the summer months to give the filmmakers time to work with the children who have the main roles in the first part of the film. Muschietti went on to say that "King described 50s ' terror iconography '', adding that he feels there is a whole world now to "rediscover, to update ''. He said there would not be any mummies or werewolves and that the "terrors are going to be a lot more surprising ''. On February 19, 2016, at the D.I.C.E. Summit 2016, producer Roy Lee confirmed that Fukunaga and Chase Palmer 's original script had been rewritten, remarking, "It will hopefully be shooting later this year. We just got the California tax credit... (Dauberman) wrote the most recent draft working with (Muscetti), so it 's being envisioned as two movies. ''
On May 5, 2016, in an interview with Collider.com, David Kajganich expressed uncertainty as to whether drafts of his original screenplay would be used by Dauberman and Muschietti, with the writer stating, "We know there 's a new director, I do n't know myself whether he 's going back to any of the previous drafts or writing from scratch. I may not know until the film comes out. I do n't know how it works! If you find out let me know. ''
On June 2, 2016, Jaeden Lieberher was confirmed as portraying lead protagonist Bill Denbrough, while The Hollywood Reporter reported that Bill Skarsgård was in final negotiations to star as Pennywise, with a cast also including Finn Wolfhard, Jack Dylan Grazer, Wyatt Oleff, Chosen Jacobs and Jeremy Ray Taylor. Also that day, there was a call for 100 background performers, with the background actor call going from 3 p.m. to 7 p.m.; by 4 p.m., more than 300 people had gone through. The casting call also asked for a marching band and period cars between 1970 and 1989. On June 9, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Owen Teague was set to portray Patrick Hocksetter. On June 21, 2016, it was officially announced that Nicholas Hamilton had been cast to play Henry Bowers, and Bloody Disgusting reported that Javier Botet had been added to the cast shortly before filming commenced. On June 22, 2016, Deadline.com reported that Muschietti had chosen Sophia Lillis to portray Beverly Marsh, and on June 24, 2016, Moviepilot wrote that Stephen Bogaert had been added to the cast shortly before filming commenced, portraying Al Marsh, the abusive father of Beverly Marsh.
On July 22, 2016, Barbara Muschietti was interviewed by Northumberland News ' Karen Longwell, wherein she spoke about the filming locations on It, while mentioning the beauty of Port Hope being one of the reasons as to why it was chosen. Muschietti added, "We were looking for an idyllic town, one that would be a strong contrast to the story. Port Hope is the kind of place we all wish we had grown up in: long summers riding bicycles, walks by the lake, a lovely main street, charming homes with green lawns, warm people. '' Muschietti also mentioned that 360 extras from the area, from adults to small children, had been involved.
On August 11, 2016, at The CW TCA presentation for the series Frequency, producer Dan Lin spoke of the piece 's comparison to Netflix 's Stranger Things, describing It being an "homage to 80s movies '', while remarking: "I think a great analogy is actually Stranger Things, and we 're seeing it on Netflix right now. It 's very much an homage to ' 80s movies, whether it 's classic Stephen King or even Spielberg. Think about Stand by Me (1986) as far as the bonding amongst the kids. But there is a really scary element in Pennywise. '' Lin continued, speaking of how well the young cast had bonded in the first weeks of shooting, "We clearly had a great dynamic amongst the kids. Really great chemistry is always a challenging thing with a movie like It because you 're casting kids who do n't have a ton of experience, but it ended up being really natural. Each kid, like a The Goonies (1985) or Stand by Me (1986), has a very specific personality and they 're forming the loser 's club obviously... We 've spent a few months getting the kids to bond and now they 're going to fight this evil, scary clown. ''
On February 9, 2017, at the press day for The Lego Batman Movie (2017), Lin confirmed that It would be rated R by the MPAA, and stated to Collider.com 's Steve Weintraub, "If you 're going to make a "Rated - R movie '', you have to fully embrace what it is, and you have to embrace the source material. It is a scary clown that 's trying to kill kids... They do have a scary clown that 's taken over the town of Derry, so it 's going to be rated R. '' On March 11, 2017, Muschietti, at the SXSW festival, spoke of an element of the pre-production phase in his attempt to keep Skarsgård separated from the film 's child actors, wherein the actor was not introduced to the young cast until Pennywise 's first encounter with the children: "It was something that we agreed on, and that 's how it happened... The day that he showed up on the stage, they f * cking freaked out. Bill is like, seven - foot high, and I ca n't describe how scary he looks in person. He 's a wiry man, crouching, making sounds, snotting, drooling, speaking in Swedish sometimes. Terrifying. '' Muschietti stated that the story had been moved forward, with the scenes with the young Losers Club shifting from the 1950s to the 1980s, while also describing the plot as "getting much wider '', with new material not in the novel or the 1990 miniseries. However, Muschietti said he hoped the material would still strike the same emotional resonance that the book did for him when he first read it: "It 's all about trying to hit the core and the heart. ''
On July 12, 2017, Muschietti, in an interview with French magazine Mad Movies, spoke of the R rating allowing him to go into adult themes, which was championed from the people at New Line Cinema. He also stated that, "... if you aimed for a PG - 13 movie, you had nothing at the end. So we were very lucky that the producers did n't try to stop us. In fact it 's more our own moral compass that sometimes showed us that some things lead us in places where we did n't want to go. '' In the same interview, on July 12, 2017, producer Barbara Muschietti added that there was only one scene that was deemed to be too horrific to feature in the new adaptation, stating, "... you wo n't find the scene where a kid has his back broken and is thrown in the toilets. We thought that the visual translation of that scene had something that was really too much. '' Muschietti concluded by emphasizing that nothing was removed from the original vision, nor was the violence of any event watered down.
On July 19, 2017, in an interview with Variety 's Brent Lang, director Muschietti commented of the monstrous forms that It will be taking, as well as noting the fact that they are very different from the incarnations present in King 's story, "The story is the same, but there are changes in the things the kids are scared of. In the book they 're children in the ' 50s, so the incarnations of the monsters are mainly from movies, so it 's Wolf Man, the Mummy, Frankenstein, (and) Dracula. I had a different approach. I wanted to bring out deeper fears, based not only on movie monsters but on childhood traumas. '' While on the topic of the key to a successful horror film, Muschietti concluded by remarking that "Stay true to what scares you. If you do n't respect that, you ca n't scare anyone. '' Muschietti explained how Skarsgård caught his attention to embody Pennywise, while pointing out that he did not want the young cast to spend too much time with the actor when not shooting, and encouraged them to "maintain distance '', wherein Muschietti detailed: "We wanted to carry the impact of the encounters to when the cameras were rolling. The first scene where Bill interacted with the children, it was fun to see how the plan worked. The kids were really, really creeped out by Bill. He 's pretty intimidating because he 's six - four and has all this makeup. ''
Production designer Mara LePere - Schloop went to Bangor, Maine, to scope out locations, including the Thomas Hill Standpipe, the land running alongside the Kenduskeag Stream that in It is called The Barrens, and the Waterworks on the Penobscot River. LePere - Schloop said that they were hoping to shoot some scenes in the city, and possibly take some aerial shots. On May 31, 2016, Third Act Productions was confirmed to have applied to film interior and exterior scenes for It in the municipality of Port Hope, with filming slated for various locations around the municipality from July 11, 2016 to July 18, 2016. Principal photography begun in Toronto, with an original shooting schedule from June 27 to September 6, 2016.
By July 8, 2016, Port Hope had undergone changes to transform it into Derry; Port Hope Municipal hall was the Derry Public Library, The Port Hope Tourism Centre became the City of Derry office, Ganaraska Financial was remade as Montgomery Financial, Gould 's Shoes store front on Walton Street changed to a butcher shop, The Avanti Hair Design store front changed to Tony 's Barber Shop, an empty storefront at 36 Walton Street changed to Reliance Cleaners, Queen Street Tattoo store front changed to Derry Scoop, a statue of Paul Bunyan was erected in Memorial Park, US flags hung in place of Canadian flags downtown, and Port Hope Capitol Theatre had appeared to be showing Batman (1989) and Lethal Weapon 2 (1989), thus confirming the film 's 1989 setting.
On July 11, 2016, preliminary shooting took place in Port Hope Town Hall, Memorial Park cenotaph, Queen Street, between Walton and Robertson streets and the Capitol Theatre. On July 12, 2016, filming occurred between the intersection of Mill and Walton street, Walton Street bridge, and in front and behind 16 -- 22 Walton Street and Port Hope Town Hall. Other shooting locations included Queen Street between Walton and Roberston street, and Memorial Park, on July 13. It was also reported, on July 14, that filming had been set up on the alley between Gould 's Shoe 's and Avanti Hair Design, and John and Hayward streets. Filming moved to Cavan Street, between Highland Drive and Ravine Drive, and Victoria Street South, between Trafalgar Street and Sullivan Street, on July 15. Filming in Port Hope ended on July 18, at Watson 's Guardian Drugs.
Oshawa had been chosen by producers of It as the next filming location, and on July 20, 2016, filming notices were sent out to homes in the area of Eulalie Avenue and James Street, near downtown Oshawa, advising residents that filming would take place in the area from August 5 to August 8, 2016. On July 29, 2016, it was announced the crew had worked on the formerly vacant lot at the dead end of James Street constructing the set, in the form of a dilapidated old house. It was also remarked that the structure is a facade built around scaffolding that would be used for exterior shots. The set was composed of pre-fabricated modules that were trucked in and put into place by IATSE carpenters.
On July 18, 2016, production crews had arrived in Riverdale, Toronto, with filming beginning at 450 Pape Ave, which is home to a circa 1902 heritage - designated building called Cranfield House, up until August 19, 2016. It was reported on September 4 that filming had wrapped in Oshawa, which included the haunted house location, as well as on Court and Fisher streets. Principal photography was confirmed to have ended in Toronto on September 21, 2016, with an altered shooting schedule occurring from June 27 to September 21, 2016, and post-production initially beginning on September 14, 2016.
On August 16, 2016, in an interview with Entertainment Weekly, costume designer Janie Bryant spoke of crafting Pennywise 's form - fitting suit and the inspirations it drew from -- involving a number of eras -- among them Medieval, Renaissance, Elizabethan, and Victorian. Bryant explained that the costume incorporates all these otherworldly past lives, highlighting the point that Pennywise is a clown from a different time. In designing Pennywise 's costume, Bryant included a Fortuny pleating, which gives the costume an almost crepe - like effect, to which Bryant remarked, "It 's a different technique than what the Elizabethans would do. It 's more organic, it 's more sheer. It has a whimsical, floppy quality to it. It 's not a direct translation of a ruff or a whisk, which were two of the collars popular during the Elizabethan period. ''
Bryant played with multiple eras as a way of reflecting Pennywise 's immortality, and added a "doll - like quality to the costume ''. She further stated, "The pants being short, the high waistline of the jacket, and the fit of the costume is a very important element. It gives the character a child - like quality. '' Bryant spoke of the two puffs off the shoulder, sleeves and again on the bloomers, with her desire to create an "organic, gourd or pumpkin kind of effect '', which includes the peplum at the waist, and the flared, skirt - like fabric blossoming from below his doublet. She explains, "It helps exaggerate certain parts of the body. The costume is very nipped in the waist and with the peplum and bloomers it has an expansive silhouette. '' The main color of his costume is a dusky gray, but with a few splashes of colour. She concludes the interview by stating, "The pompoms are orange, and then with the trim around the cuffs and the ankles, it 's basically a ball fringe that 's a combination of orange, red, and cinnamon. It 's almost like Pennywise fades into his environment. But there are accents to pull out the definition of the gray silk. ''
Judith, the woman in the portrait whose form It assumes to terrify Stan, did not appear in the novel. Muschietti based this sequence on the paintings of Amedeo Modigliani, one of which hung in his childhood home, and which he found frightening, interpreting Modigliani 's stylisation as monstrosity. The eponymous creature in Muschietti 's previous film, Mama, was also based on Modigliani 's work.
Nicholas Brooks was the overall visual effects supervisor, and visual effects company Rodeo FX worked on most of the visual effects on It. Amalgamated Dynamics worked on the special makeup effects.
The film has been described as a loss of innocence story, with fear, mortality and survivalist themes. Muschietti remarked of the film 's elements of coming of age and issues of mortality, adding that such themes are prevalent in King 's book, though in reality they occur in a more progressive way, "There 's a passage (in It) that reads, ' Being a kid is learning how to live and being an adult is learning how to die. ' There 's a bit of a metaphor of that and it just happens in a very brutal way, of course. ''
He also mentioned the characterization of Pennywise 's survivalist attitude, and a passage in the novel which inspired Muschietti was when Bill wonders if Pennywise is eating children simply because that is what people are told monsters do, "It 's a tiny bit of information, but that sticks with you so much. Maybe it is real as long as children believe in it. And in a way, Pennywise 's character is motivated by survival. In order to be alive in the imagination of children, he has to keep killing. '' While Muschietti acknowledged It being a horror film, he felt that it is not simply that, "It 's a story of love and friendship and a lot of other beautiful emotions. ''
The graphic sexual content that was in the novel and Fukunaga 's original script was not included in the film.
On March 23, 2017, Benjamin Wallfisch was announced as the composer of It 's score.
The soundtrack album was released in preview on August 2017.
All tracks written by Benjamin Wallfisch.
It was released in North America on September 8, 2017. In Europe, the film was released in Belgium on September 6, 2017, Denmark and the Netherlands on September 7, 2017, and Norway and Finland on September 8, 2017. On March 7, 2017, the alternate title of the film was announced by Stephen King as Part 1 -- The Losers ' Club. In addition to the conventional 2D format, It was also released across 615 IMAX screens globally, including 389 domestically.
On January 31, 2016, Muschietti, on his Instagram, posted a sketch that was thought to be the precursor to Pennywise 's final look, to celebrate pre-production getting underway. Beginning from July 11, 2016, Muschietti posted a variety of missing person posters of children within the Derry area, including Betty Ripsom, Richie Tozier, Paul Greenberg, Jonathan Chan, and Tania McGowan.
The first official image for It debuted on July 13, 2016, introducing the first look at Skarsgård 's Pennywise The Dancing Clown, as well as an interview with Skarsgård, conducted by Anthony Breznican. Thomas Freeman of Maxim wrote "... Skarsgard in full, terrifying costume,... he 's clearly got what it takes to fill King 's most macabre, nightmare - inducing creation. '' Chris Eggertsen of HitFix responded positively, stating the image to be "... an appropriately macabre look that does n't deviate too radically from the aesthetic of Curry 's Pennywise... dare I say, a more creepily seductive look to Skarsgard 's version that was absent from Curry 's interpretation. ''
On July 30, 2016, Muschietti released three storyboard images, up until the date of August 22, 2016, with the first featuring Bill Denbrough making a paper boat for his younger brother George. The second storyboard features Bill leading his bike, nicknamed Silver, across a lawn with the included phrase: "He thrusts his fists against the posts but still insists he sees the ghosts ''. The third and final storyboard features Bill asleep next to a sketch of Beverly Marsh.
On August 16, 2016, Entertainment Weekly released the full costume image of Skarsgård 's Pennywise to promote It, including an interview with costume designer Janie Bryant. JoBlo.com 's Damion Damaske was fond of the new design, though was understanding of others being dismissive of it. Damaske also stated, "One of the chief complaints is that it looked too automatically scary, and that one of the reasons Pennywise chooses his guise is to trick and lure children. '' Dave Trumbore of Collider.com noted that "This one 's going to divide some folks. It 's nowhere near as baggy or colorful as the one Tim Curry... donned..., but the new version certainly seems to have a lot more thought and intent behind its creation. '' Jonathan Barkan of Bloody Disgusting called the image one of "... (drawing) attention and curiosity ''. Barkan then stated "I do n't know if it 's morbid curiosity or hopeful wishes but the overall response to his face and makeup seemed to be quite positive! ''
On March 9, 2017, Neha Aziz of SXSW announced that Muschietti would appear at a screening event titled, Face Your Fears, to share footage from It, while discussing his inspirations and influences. On March 11, 2017, New Line Cinema showcased its promotion of It by releasing a teaser trailer and a scene at the South by Southwest festival. Trace Thurman of Bloody Disgusting heralded the trailer: "It was maybe 90 seconds of footage, but it was a damn impressive 90 seconds of footage... As far as teasers go, it 's one of the best that I 've ever seen. '' Dread Central 's Jonathan Barkan praised the scene, and stated, "The kids are clearly very adept at working off one another. There was a chemistry between the four that was wonderful to see and it 's obvious that Muschietti worked very hard to ensure they were believable. '' Eric Vespe of Ai n't It Cool News remarked that "... this one scene shows us the key traits of the bulk of the members of the Losers Club within one sequence. I loved it for that reason. ''
On March 28, 2017, New Line released a 139 - second teaser trailer to promote It, following a 19 - second trailer and the official teaser poster the prior day, and for exhibitors at CinemaCon. Tom Philip of GQ heralded the trailer and its tonality by stating: "Dark corners everywhere and a pervading sense of absolute doom, even in the scenes where the creature is n't looming. That projector scene! Christ! '' Michael Gold of The New York Times praised the trailer, and stated: "There 's always tension in the sustained string chords of the soundtrack, and it imbues everything with suspense and darkness. '' Wired 's Brian Raftery spoke most highly of the trailer, to which he stated, "The teaser 's scariest moment features no gore or gotcha - ness; instead, it involves a misfiring slide - projector and a barely discernible clown - grin. Nothing in the It trailer feels like a cheap thrill, which is all the more thrilling. '' IndieWire 's William Earl reacted positively to the "top - notch '' production design of Derry, Maine within the trailer. The trailer reached 197 million views in its first 24 hours, setting a new record as the trailer with the most views in one day. In addition to dethroning The Fate of the Furious (2017), the trailer numbers surpassed previous records held by Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015), Fifty Shades Darker (2017), and Beauty and the Beast (2017).
On May 7, 2017, a second teaser trailer, this one lasting 137 seconds, was shown at the MTV Movie & TV Awards in Los Angeles, California, with the new preview showcasing a snippet of the film where the "Losers ' Club '' search for Pennywise 's many victims. Daniel Kreps of Rolling Stone felt snippet of the film "was initially... similar to Stand by Me (1986), with the Losers ' Club playfully bantering about "gray water ''... A series of scary images soon follow before the trailer ends on Pennywise doing unimaginable balloon tricks to lure a victim. '' Matt Goldberg of Collider.com praised the trailer, and stated: "This new trailer really plays up the kids ' role and their fears. It 's a smart move, because if a sequel does come along, it 's going to be looking at the kids as adults, so that aspect will be lost. '' Digital Spy 's Jack Tomlin spoke of the clarity in that director Muschietti 's film will carry on down the "creepy as hell '' vibe he gave the first trailer. On July 13, 2017, Entertainment Weekly released a collection of new images and concept art such as Pennywise 's lair to promote It, including commentary from director Andrés Muschietti. On July 19, 2017, New Line Cinema showcased its promotion of It, by releasing three reels of footage at San Diego Comic - Con, before an advanced screening of Annabelle: Creation (2017).
As of October 29, 2017, It has grossed $323.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $342.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $666.6 million, against a production budget of $35 million.
In North America, initial opening weekend projections had the film grossing $50 -- 60 million. By the week of its release, estimates were raised to $60 -- 70 million, with a chance to go higher if word of mouth was strong. It opened in 4,103 theaters, setting the record for most venues for an R - rated film (beating Logan 's 4,071 from the past March). A few days before its release, the film became Fandango 's top horror pre-seller of all - time, eclipsing Paranormal Activity 3 (2011), as well as setting the record as the site 's top pre-seller among September releases, beating Sully (2016). The film made $13.5 million from Thursday night previews, setting the record for highest amount by both an R - rated (besting Deadpool 's $12.6 million) and a horror film. Due to the high Thursday gross, Deadline.com noted some industry trackers upped weekend projections to $90 million. It went on to have an opening day of $50.2 million (including previews), increasing weekend projections to over $100 million. The film 's Friday gross not only set a record for biggest single - day amount by an R - rated film (beating Deadpool 's $47.3 million) but nearly eclipsed Paranormal Activity 3 's entire weekend gross of $52.6 million, which was the highest opening weekend gross for a horror film.
It went on to open to $123.1 million, setting the records for largest opening weekend for both a September release and a horror film, and was the second - biggest debut for an R - rated film behind Deadpool ($132.4 million). Variety and Deadline both noted that the film 's opening weekend could have been even greater if not for Hurricane Irma shutting down nearly 50 % of Florida 's theaters, a state that typically accounts for 5 % of the country 's box office grosses. During its first full week, the film made $8.8 million on Monday, $11.4 million on Tuesday, $7.9 million on Wednesday and $7.2 million on Thursday, each setting September records for their respective days. In its second weekend the film grossed $60.1 million (a better - than - average for horror films drop of 51 %), making more in its second weekend than previous opening record holder Paranormal Activity 3 made in its first, and again topped the box office. It also pushed the domestic total to $218.7 million, overtaking Crocodile Dundee for highest - grossing September film ($174.8 million in 1984).
In its third week the film was dethroned by newcomer Kingsman: The Golden Circle, finishing second at the box office with $29.7 million. In its fourth week, the film initially made a projected gross of $17.3 million, apparently retaking its top spot at the box office ahead of Kingsman ($17 million). However the following day, actual results had the film finishing in second by a gross of $16.93 million to $16.90 million, while beating out newcomer American Made ($16.8 million). The film continued to hold well in the following weeks, making $10 million and $6.1 million in its fifth and sixth weeks, finishing a respective 3rd and 4th at the box office.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 84 % based on 283 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Well - acted and fiendishly frightening with an emotionally affecting story at its core, It amplifies the horror in Stephen King 's classic story without losing touch with its heart. '' Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted average score of 70 out of 100, based on 48 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 4 out of 4 stars, saying: "What will REALLY put a chill down your spine and raise the hairs on the back of your neck are the moments when an adolescent character is isolated from friends, all alone in the cellar or the bathroom or the alley or a dark office, and something they 've long feared springs to ' life ' in a certain fashion, confirming their worst sense of dread and doom. '' Andrew Barker of Variety praised the visuals and cast, while acknowledging the familiarities, calling the film "a collection of alternately terrifying, hallucinatory, and ludicrous nightmare imagery... a series of well - crafted yet decreasingly effective suspense setpieces; and a series of well - acted coming - of - age sequences that do n't quite fully mature. '' Mark Kermode of The Guardian gave the film 4 out of 5 stars, writing that the film "is an energetic romp with crowd - pleasing appeal that is n't afraid to bare its gory teeth ''. Christopher Orr of The Atlantic gave the film a mixed review, calling it "a solid but relatively conventional horror movie '' and writing that it "privileges CGI scares over dread and nuance ''.
Some critics were disappointed with the film 's implementation of jump scares. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune noted the film 's "diminishing returns of one jump scare after another '', writing that "nearly every scene begins and ends the same way, with a slow build... leading up to a KAAA - WHUMMMMMM!!!! sound effect ''. Eric Kohn of IndieWire praised the film 's visuals but wrote that it "simplifies its appeal with jump scares '', and Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly lauded the child actors but wrote that "the more we see of Pennywise, the less scary he becomes ''.
It received a 2017 Golden Trailer Awards nomination for Best Horror, which it subsequently won.
On February 16, 2016, producer Roy Lee, in an interview with Collider.com, mentioned the final film of the planned It duology, remarking that: "(Dauberman) wrote the most recent draft working with (Muschietti), so it 's being envisioned as two movies. '' On July 19, 2017, Muschietti revealed that the plan is to get production underway for the sequel to It next spring, adding, "We 'll probably have a script for the second part in January (2018). Ideally, we would start prep in March. Part one is only about the kids. Part two is about these characters 30 years later as adults, with flashbacks to 1989 when they were kids. '' On July 21, 2017, Muschietti spoke of looking forward to having a dialogue in the second film that does not exist within the first, stating, "... it seems like we 're going to do it. It 's the second half, it 's not a sequel. It 's the second half and it 's very connected to the first one. '' Muschietti confirmed that two cut scenes from the film will hopefully be included in the second, one of which being the fire at the Black Spot from the book.
On September 25, 2017, New Line Cinema announced that a sequel would be released on September 6, 2019, with co-scriptwriter Gary Dauberman returning to write the script.
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who was the first sufi saint to have come to india | Sufism in India - wikipedia
Sufism has a history in India evolving for over 1,000 years. The presence of Sufism has been a leading entity increasing the reaches of Islam throughout South Asia. Following the entrance of Islam in the early 8th century, Sufi mystic traditions became more visible during the 10th and 11th centuries of the Delhi Sultanate. A conglomeration of four chronologically separate dynasties, the early Delhi Sultanate consisted of rulers from Turkic and Afghan lands. This Persian influence flooded South Asia with Islam, Sufi thought, syncretic values, literature, education, and entertainment that has created an enduring impact on the presence of Islam in India today. Sufi preachers, merchants and missionaries also settled in coastal Bengal and Gujarat through maritime voyages and trade.
Various leaders of Sufi orders, Tariqa, chartered the first organized activities to introduce localities to Islam through Sufism. Saint figures and mythical stories provided solace and inspiration to Hindu caste communities often in rural villages of India. The Sufi teachings of divine spirituality, cosmic harmony, love, and humanity resonated with the common people and still does so today. The following content will take a thematic approach to discuss a myriad of influences that helped spread Sufism and a mystical understanding of Islam, making India a contemporary epicenter for Sufi culture today.
Muslims entered India in 711 under the Arab commander Muhammad bin Qasim, by conquering the regions of Sindh and Multan. This historical achievement connected South Asia to the Muslim empire. Simultaneously, Arab Muslims were welcomed along the Hindustani (India) sea ports for trade and business ventures. The Muslim culture of the caliphate began to permeate through India.
This trade route linking India to the Mediterranean world and even Southeast Asia lasted peacefully until 900. During this period, the Abbasid Caliphate (750 -- 1258) was seated in Baghdad; this city is also the birthplace of Sufism with notable figures such as Ali ibn Abi Talib, Hasan al Basri, and Rabiah.
The mystic tradition of Islam gained significant ground spreading from Baghdad (Iraq) into Persia, commonly known today as Iran and Afghanistan. In 901, a Turkic military leader, Sabuktigin, established an Afghan kingdom in the city of Ghaznah. His son, Mahmud, expanded their territories into the Indian Punjab region during 1027 The resources and riches annexed from Punjab went into the Ghazni coffers to expand further into India 's northwest areas. During the early 11th century, the Ghaznavids brought a wealth of scholars into India 's borders, establishing the first Persian - inspired Muslim culture succeeding prior Arab influences.
In 1151, another Central Asian group, called the Ghurids, overtook the lands of the Ghaznavids -- who did very little to monitor their lands in India. Mu'izz al - Din Ghuri, a governor of Turkic origin, initiated a major invasion of India, extending the previous Ghazni territories into Delhi and Ajmer. By 1186, northern India was indistinguishable; a combination of Baghdad 's cosmopolitan culture mixed with Persian - Turkic traditions of the Ghaznah court accelerated Sufi intellectualism in India. Scholars, poets, and mystics from Central Asia and Iran became integrated within India. By 1204, the Ghurids established rule in the following cities: Benaras (Varanasi), Kanaug, Rajasthan, and Bihar, which introduced Muslim rule into the Bengal region.
An emphasis on translation of Arabic and Persian texts (Qu'ran, Hadith corpus, Sufi literature) into vernacular languages helped the momentum of Islamization in India. Particularly in rural areas, Sufis helped Islam spread generously into prior polytheistic populations. Subsequently, the general consensus among scholars remains that there were never any forced mass conversions recorded during this early history time period. Between the late 12th century and 13th century, Sufi brotherhoods became firmly consolidated in northern India. Sufism came to Kashmir when Sufi Saint, Shai Karman, from the Iranian city of Karman, took up residence in a small village called Sharakaware (baramulla). From Sharakawara, the religion spread to other villages like Pangipora and nawshere. they took initiative to spread the Islamic teaching among common people.
The period of 1206 -- 1526 is labeled as the Delhi Sultanate of Raftaar. This time frame consists of five separate dynasties that ruled territorial parts of India: the Mamluk or slave, Khaljis, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi dynasty. In history, the Delhi Sultanate is usually given marginal attention compared to the succeeding Mughal Dynasty. At its peak, the Delhi Sultanate controlled all of North India, Afghan frontier, and Bengal. The security of their lands protected India from the Mongol Conquests terrorizing the rest of Asia between 1206 and 1294. The Mongols also succeeded in destroying Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, proving that this reign of violence was no minor feat. When the Mongol invasion penetrated Central Asia, fleeing refugees chose India as a safe destination. This historical move can be deemed a significant catalyst of Sufi thought in India. Scholars, students, artisans, and common people arrived into the protection of Mamluk rulers, the first dynasty in the Delhi Sultanate. Soon the court had an immense influx of diverse cultures, religiosity, and literature from Persia and Central Asia; Sufism was the main ingredient in all mediums. During this medieval period, Sufism spread through various regions, expanding to the Deccan plateau with the succession of the Tughlaq dynasty of 1290 -- 1388. During this time, the Muslim rulers of the Sultanate dynasties were not necessarily of orthodox Islam; yet, they were still deemed powerful. Advisors of the dynastic sultans included Muslim religious scholars (ulama) and notably, Muslim mystics (mashai'kh). Although practicing Sufis rarely had political aspirations, the declining ethical reign of the Sayyid and Lodi dynasty (1414 -- 1517) required renewed leadership.
During 901 - 1151, the Ghaznawids began to build numerous schools called madrasa that were attached and affiliated with masjids (mosque). This mass movement established stability in India 's educational systems. Existing scholars promoted the study of the Qu'ran and hadith, beginning in North West India. During the Delhi Sultanate, the intellectual caliber of India 's residents increased multiple - fold due to the Mongol invasions. Various intellectuals hailing from regions such as Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia began to enrich the cultural and literary life of the Delhi capital. Among the religious elite existing during the Sultanate time period, two major classifications existed. The ulama were noted exclusive religious scholars who had mastered certain Islamic legal branches of study. They were sharia oriented and tended to be more orthodox about Muslim practices. The other group of religious elites were the Sufi mystics, or fakir. This was a more inclusive group that was often more tolerant of non-Muslim traditions. Although the commitment to practice sharia remains a Sufi foundation, early Sufis in India focused on proselytizing through service work and helping the poor. During the Delhi Sultanate, the rise prevailing mystical approach to Islam was not a substitute for madrasa education nor traditional scholarship. The teachings of sufism only built upon the foundations of a madrasa education. The spiritual orientation of Sufism only sought to refine the "consciousness of the divine, intensify piety, and inculcate a humanistic attitude. ''
One reason why Islam became more favorable in India was due to the establishment of khanqah. A khanqah is commonly defined as a hospice, lodge, community center, or dormitory ran by Sufis. Khanqahs were also known as Jama'at Khana, large gathering halls. Structurally, a khanqah could be one large room or have additional dwelling space. Although some khanqah establishments were independent of royal funding or patronage, many received fiscal grants (waqf) and donations from benefactors for continuing services. Over time, the function of traditional Sufi khanqahs evolved as Sufism solidified in India.
Initially, the Sufi khanqah life emphasized a close and fruitful relationship between the master - teacher (sheikh) and their students. For example, students in khanqahs would pray, worship, study, and read works together. Sufi literature had more academic concerns besides just the jurisprudential and theological works seen in madrasa. There were three major categories of mystical works studied in South Asia: hagiographical writing, discourses of the teacher, and letters of the master. Sufis also studied various other manuals describing code of conduct, adab (Islam). In fact, the text (trans.) "Path of God 's Bondsmen from Origin to Return '' written by a Persian Sufi saint, Najm al - Din Razi, spread throughout India during the authors ' lifetime. Sharing that Sufi thought was becoming increasingly favorable to study in India. Even today, preserved mystical literature has proved invaluable as a source of religious and social history of Sufi Muslims in India.
The other major function of a khanqah was of a community shelter. Many of these facilities were built in low caste, rural, Hindu vicinities. The Chishti Order Sufis in India, especially, crystallized khanqahs with the highest form of modest hospitality and generosity. Keeping a "visitors welcome '' policy, khanqahs in India offered spiritual guidance, psychological support, and counseling that was free and open to all people. The spiritually hungry and depressed caste members were both fed with a free kitchen service and provided basic education. By creating egalitarian communities within stratified caste systems, Sufis successfully spread their teachings of love, spirituality, and harmony. It was this example of Sufi brotherhood and equity that drew people to the religion of Islam. Soon these khanqahs became social, cultural, and theological epicenters for people of all ethnic and religious backgrounds and both genders. Through a khanqah 's humble services, Sufis presented the true form of Islam and forged a way for voluntary large scale conversions of lower class Hindustanis.
The Madariyya are members of a Sufi order (tariqa) popular in North India, especially in Uttar Pradesh, the Mewat region, Bihar and Bengal, as well as in Nepal and Bangladesh. Known for its syncretic aspects, lack of emphasis on external religious practice and focus on internal dhikr, it was initiated by the Sufi saint ' Sayed Badiuddin Zinda Shah Madar ' (d. 1434 CE), called "Qutb - ul - Madar '', and is centered on his shrine (dargah) at Makanpur, Kanpur district, Uttar Pradesh.
Shadhiliyya was founded by Imam Nooruddeen Abu Al Hasan Ali Ash Sadhili Razi. Fassiya branch of Shadhiliyya was flourished by Qutbul Ujood Imam Fassi at Masjid al Haram Makkah as its base and was brought to India by Sheikh Aboobakkar Miskeen sahib Radiyallah of Kayalpatnam and Sheikh Mir Ahmad Ibrahim Raziyallah of Madurai. Mir Ahmad Ibrahim is the first of the three Sufi saints revered at the Madurai Maqbara in Tamil Nadu. There are more than 70 branches of Shadhiliyya and in India. Of these, the Fassiyatush Shadhiliyya is the most widely practised order.
The Chishtiyya order emerged from Central Asia and Persia. The first saint was Abu Ishaq Shami (d. 940 -- 41) establishing the Chishti order in Chisht - i - Sharif within Afghanistan Furthermore, Chishtiyya took root with the notable saint Moinuddin Chishti (d. 1236) who championed the order within India, making it one of the largest orders in India today. Scholars also mentioned that he had been a part - time disciple of Abu Najib Suhrawardi. Khwaja Moiuddin Chishti was originally from Sistan (eastern Iran, southwest Afghanistan) and grew up as a well traveled scholar to Central Asia, Middle East, and South Asia. He reached Delhi in 1193 during the end of Ghurid reign, then shortly settled in Ajmer - Rajasthan when the Delhi Sultanate formed. Moinuddin Chishti 's Sufi and social welfare activities dubbed Ajmer the "nucleus for the Islamization of central and southern India. '' The Chishti order formed khanqah to reach the local communities, thus helping Islam spread with charity work. Islam in India grew with the efforts of dervishes, not with violent bloodshed or forced conversion. Chishtis were famous for establishing khanqahs and for their simple teachings of humanity, peace, and generosity. This group drew an unprecedented amount of Hindus of lower and higher castes within the vicinity. Until this day, both Muslims and non-Muslims visit the famous tomb of Moinuddin Chishti; it has become even a popular tourist and pilgrimage destination. Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (d. 1605), the 3rd Mughal ruler frequented Ajmer as a pilgrim, setting a tradition for his constituents. Successors of Khwaja Moinudden Chishti include eight additional saints; together, these names are considered the big eight of the medieval Chishtiyya order. Moinuddin Chishti (d. 1233 in Ajmer, India) Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki (d. 1236 in Delhi, India) Fariduddin Ganjshakar (d. 1265 in Pakpattan, Pakistan) Nizamuddin Auliya (d. 1335 in Delhi). Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlavi Bande Nawaz (d. 1422 in Gulbarga, India) Syed baqaullah shah kareemi safipur, unnao (1269H1362H) Akhi Siraj Aainae Hind (d. 1357 in Bengal, India Alaul Haq Pandavi Ashraf Jahangir Semnani (d. 1386, Kichaucha India)
The founder of this order was Abdul - Wahid Abu Najib as - Suhrawardi (d. 1168). He was actually a disciple of Ahmad Ghazali, who is also the younger brother of Abu Hamid Ghazali. The teachings of Ahmad Ghazali led to the formation of this order. This order was prominent in medieval Iran prior to Persian migrations into India during the Mongol Invasion Consequently, it was Abu Najib as - Suhrawardi 's nephew that helped bring the Suhrawardiyyah to mainstream awareness. Abu Hafs Umar as - Suhrawardi (d. 1243) wrote numerous treatises on Sufi theories. Most notably, the text trans. "Gift of Deep Knowledge: Awa'rif al - Mar'if '' was so widely read that it became a standard book of teaching in Indian madrasas. This helped spread the Sufi teachings of the Suhrawardiyya. Abu Hafs was a global ambassador of his time. From teaching in Baghdad to diplomacy between the Ayyubid rulers in Egypt and Syria, Abu Hafs was a politically involved Sufi leader. By keeping cordial relations with the Islamic empire, Abu Hafs 's followers in India continued to approve of his leadership and approve political participation of Sufi orders.
This order was founded by Abu'l Jannab Ahmad, nicknamed Najmuddin Kubra (d. 1221) who was from the border between Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan This Sufi saint was a widely acclaimed teacher with travels to Turkey, Iran, and Kashmir. His education also fostering generations of students who became saints themselves. This order became important in Kashmir during the late 14th century. Kubra and his students made significant contributions to Sufi literature with mystical treatises, mystical psychology, and instructional literature such as text "al - Usul al - Ashara '' and "Mirsad ul Ibad. '' These popular texts regarding are still mystic favorites in India and in frequent study. The Kubrawiya remains in Kashmir - India and within Huayy populations in China.
The origin of this order can be traced back to Khwaja Ya'qub Yusuf al - Hamadani (d. 1390), who lived in Central Asia. It was later organized by Baha'uddin Naqshband (b. 1318 -- 1389) of Tajik and Turkic background. He is widely referred to as the founder of the Naqshbandi order. Khwaja Muhammad al - Baqi Billah Berang (d. 1603) introduced the Naqshbandiyyah to India. This order was particularly popular Mughal elites due to ancestral links to the founder, Khawja al - Hamadani Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty in 1526, was already initiated in the Naqshbandi order prior to conquering India. This royal affiliation gave considerable impetus to the order. This order has been considered as most orthodox among all sufi orders.
The Qadiriyyah order was founded by Abdul - Qadir Gilani who was originally from Iran (d. 1166) It is popular among the Muslims of South India.
Less accurate information is known about the following other orders within India: Mujahhidiyyah.
The Sarwari Qadri order was founded by Sultan Bahu which branched out of the Qadiriyyah order. Hence, it follows the same approach of the order but unlike most Sufi orders, it does not follow a specific dress code, seclusion, or other lengthy exercises. Its mainstream philosophy is related directly to the heart and contemplating on the name of Allah, i.e., the word الله (allāh) as written on own heart.
Islam was not the only religion in India contributing the mystical aspects of Sufism. The Bhakti movement also gained respect due mysticism popularity spreading through India. The Bhakti movement was a regional revival of Hinduism linking language, geography, and cultural identities through devotional deity worship. This concept of "Bhakti '' appeared in the Bhagavad Gita and the first sects emerged from south India between the 7th and 10th century. The practices and theological standpoints were very similar to Sufism, often blurring the distinction between Hindus and Muslims. Bhakti devotees linked puja (Hinduism) to songs about saints and theories of life; they would meet often to sing and worship. The Brahman Bhaktis developed mystical philosophies similar to those advocated by Sufi saints. For example, the Bhaktis believed that there is a special reality beneath the illusion of life; this reality needs to be recognized to escape the cycle of reincarnation. Moreover, moksha, liberation from Earth is the ultimate goal in Hinduism. These teachings run nearly parallel to Sufi concepts of dunya, tariqa, and akhirah.
Sufism helped the assimilation of the Afghani Delhi Sultanate rulers within mainstream society. By building a syncretic medieval culture tolerant and appreciative of non-Muslims, Sufi saints contributed to a growth of stability, vernacular literature, and devotional music in India. One Sufi mystic, Saiyid Muhammad Ghaus Gwaliori popularized yogic practices among Sufi circles. Literature related to monotheism and the Bhakti movement also formed sycretic influences in history during the Sultanate period. Despite the camaraderie between Sufi saints, yogis, and Bhakti Brahmans, medieval religious existed and continue to splinter peaceful living in parts of India today.
One of the most popular rituals in Sufism is the visiting of grave - tombs of Sufi saints. These have evolved into Sufi shrines and are seen among cultural and religious landscape of India. The ritual of visiting any place of significance is called ziyarat; the most common example is a visit to Prophet Muhammad 's Masjid Nabawi and grave in Medina, Saudi Arabia. A saint 's tomb is a site of great veneration where blessings or baraka continue to reach the deceased holy person and are deemed (by some) to benefit visiting devotees and pilgrims. In order to show reverence to Sufi saints, kings and nobles provided large donations or waqf to preserve the tombs and renovate them architecturally. Over time, these donation, rituals, annual commemorations formed into an elaborate system of accepted norms. These forms of Sufi practise created an aura of spiritual and religious traditions around prescribed dates. Many orthodox or Islamic purists denounce these visiting grave rituals, especially the expectation of receiving blessings from the venerated saints. Nevertheless, these rituals have survived generations and seem adamant to remain.
Music has always been present as a rich tradition among all Indian religions. As an influential medium to disperse ideas, music has appealed to people for generations. The audience in India was already familiar with hymns in local languages. Thus Sufi devotional singing was instantly successful among the populations. Music transmitted Sufi ideals seamlessly. In Sufism, the term music is called "sa'ma '' or literary audition. This is where poetry would be sung to instrumental music; this ritual would often put Sufis into spiritual ecstasy. The common depiction of whirling dervishes dressed in white cloaks come to picture when paired with "sa'ma. '' Many Sufi traditions encouraged poetry and music as part of education. Sufism spread widely with their teachings packaged in popular songs accessing mass demographics. Women were especially affected; often used to sing Sufi songs during the day and in female gatherings. Sufi gatherings today are known as qawwali. One of the biggest contributors to the musical Sufi tradition was Amir Khusro (d. 1325). Known as a disciple of Nizamuddin Chishti, Amir was known as the most talented musical poet in the early Muslim period of India. He is considered the founder of Indo - Muslim devotional music traditions. Nicknamed "Parrot of India, '' Amir Khusro furthered the Chishti affiliation through this rising Sufi pop culture within India.
The massive geographic presence of Islam in India can be explained by the tireless activity of Sufi preachers. Sufism had left a prevailing impact on religious, cultural, and social life in South Asia. The mystical form of Islam was introduced by Sufi saints. Sufi scholars traveling from all over continental Asia were instrumental in the social, economic, and philosophic development of India. Besides preaching in major cities and centers of intellectual thought, Sufis reached out to poor and marginalized rural communities and preached in local dialects such as Urdu, Sindhi, Panjabi versus Persian, Turkish, and Arabic. Sufism emerged as a "moral and comprehensive socio - religious force '' that even influenced other religious traditions such as Hinduism., Their traditions of devotional practices and modest living attracted all people. Their teachings of humanity, love for God and Prophet continue to be surrounded by mystical tales and folk songs today. Sufis were firm in abstaining from religious and communal conflict and strived to be peaceful elements of civil society. Furthermore, it is the attitude of accommodation, adaptation, piety, and charisma that continues to help Sufism remain as a pillar of mystical Islam in India.
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who argued that criminals are by birth a distinct type | Cesare Lombroso - wikipedia
Cesare Lombroso (/ lɒmˈbroʊsoʊ /; Italian: (ˈtʃeːzare lomˈbroːzo, - so); born Ezechia Marco Lombroso; 6 November 1835 -- 19 October 1909), was an Italian criminologist and physician, founder of the Italian School of Positivist Criminology. Lombroso rejected the established classical school, which held that crime was a characteristic trait of human nature. Instead, using concepts drawn from physiognomy, degeneration theory, psychiatry and Social Darwinism, Lombroso 's theory of anthropological criminology essentially stated that criminality was inherited, and that someone "born criminal '' could be identified by physical (congenital) defects, which confirmed a criminal as savage or atavistic. These theories do not have widespread support by scientists in Western countries.
Lombroso was born in Verona, Kingdom of Lombardy -- Venetia, on 6 November 1835 to a wealthy Jewish family. His father was Aronne Lombroso, a tradesman from Verona, and his mother was Zeffora (or Zefira) Levi from Chieri near Turin. Cesare Lombroso descended from a line of rabbis, which led him to study a wide range of topics in university. Despite pursuing these studies in university, Lombroso eventually settled on pursuing a degree in medicine, which he graduated with from the University of Turin. After leaving the military, Lombroso operated and oversaw an insane asylum in Pesaro. Lombroso married a woman named Nina de Benedetti on April 10, 1870. They had five children together, one of whom -- Gina -- would go on to edit Lombroso 's work after his death. Later in life Lombroso came to be influenced by his son - in - law, Guglielmo Ferrero, who led him to believe that not all criminality comes from one 's inborn factors and that social factors also played a significant role in the process of shaping a criminal. He studied literature, linguistics, and archæology at the universities of Padua, Vienna, and Paris, but changed his plans and became an army surgeon in 1859. In 1866 he was appointed visiting lecturer at Pavia, and later took charge of the insane asylum at Pesaro in 1871. He became professor of forensic medicine and hygiene at Turin in 1878. That year he wrote his most important and influential work, L'uomo delinquente, which went through five editions in Italian and was published in various European languages. However, it was not until 1900 that his work was published in English. Lombroso later became professor of psychiatry (1896) and criminal anthropology (1906) at the same university. He died in Turin in 1909.
Lombroso 's general theory suggested that criminals are distinguished from noncriminals by multiple physical anomalies. He postulated that criminals represented a reversion to a primitive or subhuman type of person characterized by physical features reminiscent of apes, lower primates, and early humans and to some extent preserved, he said, in modern "savages ''. The behavior of these biological "throwbacks '' will inevitably be contrary to the rules and expectations of modern civilized society.
Through years of postmortem examinations and anthropometric studies of criminals, the insane, and normal individuals, Lombroso became convinced that the "born criminal '' (reo nato, a term given by Ferri) could be anatomically identified by such items as a sloping forehead, ears of unusual size, asymmetry of the face, prognathism, excessive length of arms, asymmetry of the cranium, and other "physical stigmata ''. Specific criminals, such as thieves, rapists, and murderers, could be distinguished by specific characteristics, he believed. Lombroso also maintained that criminals had less sensitivity to pain and touch; more acute sight; a lack of moral sense, including an absence of remorse; more vanity, impulsiveness, vindictiveness, and cruelty; and other manifestations, such as a special criminal argot and the excessive use of tattooing.
Besides the "born criminal '', Lombroso also described "criminaloids '', or occasional criminals, criminals by passion, moral imbeciles, and criminal epileptics. He recognized the diminished role of organic factors in many habitual offenders and referred to the delicate balance between predisposing factors (organic, genetic) and precipitating factors such as one 's environment, opportunity, or poverty.
In Criminal Woman, as introduced in an English translation by Nicole Hahn Rafter and Mary Gibson, Lombroso used his theory of atavism to explain women 's criminal offending. In the text, Lombroso outlines a comparative analysis of "normal women '' opposed to "criminal women '' such as "the prostitute. '' However, Lombroso 's "obdurate beliefs '' about women presented an "intractable problem '' for this theory: "Because he was convinced that women are inferior to men Lombroso was unable to argue, based on his theory of the born criminal, that women 's lesser involvement in crime reflected their comparatively lower levels of atavism. ''
Lombroso 's research methods were clinical and descriptive, with precise details of skull dimension and other measurements. He did not engage in rigorous statistical comparisons of criminals and non-criminals. Although he gave some recognition in his later years to psychological and sociological factors in the etiology of crime, he remained convinced of, and identified with, criminal anthropometry. After he died, his skull and brain were measured according to his own theories by a colleague as he requested in his will; his head was preserved in a jar and is still displayed with his collection at the Museum of Psychiatry and Criminology in Turin.
Lombroso 's theories were disapproved throughout Europe, especially in schools of medicine, with Alexandre Lacassagne in France, but not in the United States, where sociological studies of crime and the criminal predominated.Cd His notions of physical differentiation between criminals and non-criminals were seriously challenged by Charles Goring (The English Convict, 1913), who made elaborate comparisons and found insignificant statistical differences.
Self - proclaimed the founder of modern scientific psychiatry, Lombroso is purported to have coined the term criminology. He institutionalized the science of psychiatry in universities. His graduating thesis from the University of Pavia dealt with "endemic cretinism ''. In the next several years, Lombroso 's fascination with criminal behavior and society began, and he gained experience managing a mental institution. After a brief stint in the Italian army, Lombroso returned to the University of Pavia and became the first professor specializing in mental health. By the 1880s, his theories had reached the pinnacle of their fame, and his accolades championed them throughout the fields dedicated to examining mental illness. Lombroso differentiated himself from his predecessor and rival, Cesare Beccaria, through depicting his positivist school in opposition to Beccaria 's classist one (which centered around the idea that criminal behavior is born out of free will rather than inherited physical traits). Lombroso 's psychiatric theories were conglomerated and collectively called the positivist school by his followers. His school of thought was only truly abandoned in Italian universities ' curriculum after World War II.
Through his various publications, Lombroso established a school of psychiatry based on biological determinism and the idea that mental illness was via genetic factors. A person 's predisposition to mental illness was determinable through his appearance, as explained in the aforementioned criminal atavism segment. Lombroso 's theory has been cited as possibly "the most influential doctrine '' in all areas studying human behavior, and indeed, its impact extended far and wide. According to Lombroso, criminal appearance was not just based on inherited physiognomy such as nose or skull shape, but also could be judged through superficial features like tattoos on the body. In particular, Lombroso began searching for a relationship between tattoos and an agglomeration of symptoms (which are currently diagnosed as borderline personality disorder). He also believed that tattoos indicated a certain type of criminal.
Through his observations of sex workers and criminals, Lombroso hypothesized a correlation between left - handedness, criminality, and degenerate behavior. He also propagated the idea that left - handedness lead to other disabilities, by linking left - handedness with neurodegeneration and alcoholism. Lombroso 's theories were likely accepted due to the pre-existing regional stigma against left - handedness, and greatly influenced the reception of left - handedness in the 20th century. His hypothesis even manifested in a new way during the 1980s and 1990s with a series of research studies grouping left - handedness with psychiatric disorders and autoimmune diseases.
Despite his stance on inherited immorality and biologically - destined criminal behavior, Lombroso believed in socialism and supposedly sympathized with stigmatization of lower socioeconomic statuses, placing him at odds with the biological determinism he espoused. His work stereotyping degenerates can even be seen as an influence behind Benito Mussolini 's movement to clean the streets of Italy. Many adherents to Lombroso 's positivist school stayed powerful during Mussolini 's rule, because of the seamless way criminal atavism and biological determinism justified fascism. However, certain legal institutions did press back against the idea that criminal behavior is biologically determined.
Within the penal system, Lombroso 's work led to new forms of punishment, where occasionally punishment varied based on the defendant 's biological background. There are a few instances in which case the physiognomy of the defendant actually mattered more than witness testimony and the defendant was subjected to harsher sentences.
During the period in Italy between the 1850s and 1880s, the Italian government debated legislation for the insanity plea. Judges and lawyers backed Beccaria 's classist school, tending to favor the idea that wrongdoers are breaking a societal contract with the option to exercise free will, tying into Beccaria 's classist school of social misbehavior. Lombroso and his followers argued for a criminal code, in which the criminal understood as unable to act with free will due to their biological predisposition to crime.
Since his research tied criminal behavior together with the insane, Lombroso is closely credited with the genesis of the criminal insane asylum and forensic psychiatry. His work sponsored the creation of institutions where the criminally insane would be treated for mental illness, rather than placed in jails with their saner counterparts. One example of an asylum for the criminally insane is Bridgewater State Hospital, which is located in the United States. Other examples of these institutions are Matteawan State Hospital and Danvers State Hospital. Most have closed down, but the concept is kept alive with modern correctional facilities like Cook County Jail. This facility houses the largest population of prisoners with mental illness in the United States. However, criminal insane asylums did exist outside of Italy while Lombroso was establishing them within the country. His influence on the asylum was at first regional, but eventually percolated to other countries who adopted some of Lombroso 's measures for treating the criminally insane.
In addition to influencing criminal atavisim, Lombroso wrote a book called Genio e Follia, in which he discussed the link between genius and insanity. He believed that genius was an evolutionarily beneficial form of insanity, stemming from the same root as other mental illnesses. This hypothesis led to his request to examine Leo Tolstoy for degenerate qualities during his attendance at the 12th International Medical Congress in Moscow in 1897. The meeting went poorly, and Tolstoy 's novel Resurrection shows great disdain for Lombroso 's methodology.
Towards the end of his life, Lombroso began to study pellagra, a disease which Joseph Goldberger simultaneously was researching, in rural Italy. He postulated that pellagra came from a nutrition deficit, officially proven by Goldberger. This disease also found its roots in the same poverty that caused cretinism, which Lombroso studied at the start of his medical career. Furthermore, before Lombroso 's death the Italian government passed a law in 1904 standardizing treatment in mental asylums and codifying procedural admittance for mentally ill criminals. This law gave psychiatrists free rein within the criminal insane asylum, validating the field of psychiatry through giving the psychiatrists the sole authority to define and treat the causes of criminal behavior (a position which Lombroso argued for from his early teaching days to his death).
Cesare Lombroso, in addition to his contributions towards criminality and his notion of ' degeneration ', believed that genius was closely related to madness. In his attempts to develop these notions, Lombroso traveled to Moscow and met with Lev Tolstoy in hopes of elucidating and providing evidence for his theory of genius reverting or degenerating into insanity.
Lombroso published The Man of Genius in 1889, a book which argued that artistic genius was a form of hereditary insanity. In order to support this assertion, he began assembling a large collection of "psychiatric art ''. He published an article on the subject in 1880 in which he isolated thirteen typical features of the "art of the insane. '' Although his criteria are generally regarded as outdated today, his work inspired later writers on the subject, particularly Hans Prinzhorn.
Lombroso 's The Man of Genius provided inspiration for Max Nordau 's work, as evidenced by his dedication of Degeneration to Lombroso, whom he considered to be his "dear and honored master ''. In his exploration of geniuses descending into madness, Lombroso stated that he could only find six men who did not exhibit symptoms of "degeneration '' or madness; Galileo, Da Vinci, Voltaire, Machiavelli, Michelangelo, and Darwin. On the other hand, Lombroso cited that men such as Shakespeare, Plato, Aristotle, Mozart and Dante all displayed "degenerate symptoms ''. In order to justify which geniuses were ' degenerate ' or insane, Lombroso judged each genius by whether or not they displayed "degenerate symptoms '', which included precocity, longevity, versatility, and inspiration. Lombroso supplemented these personal observations with measurements including facial angles, "abnormalities '' in bone structure, and volumes of brain fluid. Measurements of skulls taken included those from Kant, Volta, Foscolo, and Fusinieri. Lombroso 's approach in using skull measurements was inspired by the work and research in the field of phrenology by German doctor Franz Joseph Gall. In commenting on skull measurements, Lombroso would make observations such as "I have noted several characters which anthropologists consider to belong to the lower races, such as prominence of the styloid apophyses ''. This observation was recorded in response to his analysis of Alessandro Volta 's skull. Lombroso connected geniuses to various health disorders as well, by listing signs of degeneration in chapter two of his work -- some of which include abnormalities and discrepancies in height and pallor. Lombroso listed the following geniuses, among others, as "sickly and weak during childhood ''; Demosthenes, Bacon, Descartes, Newton, Locke, Adam Smith, Boyle, Pope, Flaxman, Nelson, Haller, Korner, and Pascal. Other physical afflictions that Lombroso connected with degeneracy included rickets, emaciation, sterility, lefthandedness, unconsciousness, stupidity, somnambulism, smallness or disproportionality of the body, and amnesia. In his explanation of the connection between genius and the "degenerative marker '' of height, Lombroso cites the following people: Owning, Ibsen, George Eliot, Thiers, Browning, Louis Blanc, and Swinburne among others. He continues by listing the only "great men of tall stature '' that he knows of, including Petrarch, Schiller, Foscolo, Bismarck, Charlemagne, Dumas, Peter the Great, and Voltaire. Lombroso further cited certain personality traits as markers of degeneracy, such as "a fondness for special words '' and "the inspiration of genius ''.
Lombroso 's methods and explanations in The Man of Genius were rebutted and questioned by the American Journal of Psychiatry. In a review of The Man of Genius they stated, "here we have hypothesis claiming to be the result of strict scientific investigation and reluctant conviction, bolstered up by half - told truths, misrepresentations and assumptions. Lombroso 's work was also criticized by Italian anthropologist Giuseppe Sergi who, in his review of Lombroso 's The Man of Genius -- and specifically his classifications and definitions of "the genius '' -- stated "by creating a genius according to his own fancy, an ideal and abstract being, and not by examining the personality of a real living genius, he naturally arrives at the conclusion that all theories by which the origin of genius is sought to be explained on a basis of observation, and especially that particular one which finds in degeneration the cause or one of the causes of genius, are erroneous. '' Sergi continued by stating that such theorists are "like the worshippers of the saints or of fetishes, who do not recognize the material from which the fetish is made, or the human origin from which the saint has sprung ''.
Later in his life Lombroso began investigating mediumship. Although originally skeptical, he later became a believer in spiritualism. As an atheist Lombroso discusses his views on the paranormal and spiritualism in his book After Death -- What? (1909) which he believed the existence of spirits and claimed the medium Eusapia Palladino was genuine. In the British Medical Journal on November 9, 1895 an article was published titled Exit Eusapia!. The article questioned the scientific legitimacy of the Society for Psychical Research for investigating Palladino a medium who had a reputation of being a fraud and imposter and was surprised that Lombroso had been deceived by Palladino.
The anthropologist Edward Clodd wrote "(Lombroso) swallowed the lot at a gulp, from table raps to materialisation of the departed, spirit photographs and spirit voices; every story, old or new, alike from savage and civilised sources, confirming his will to believe. '' Lombroso 's daughter Gina Ferrero wrote that during the later years of his life Lombroso suffered from arteriosclerosis and his mental and physical health was wrecked. The skeptic Joseph McCabe wrote that because of this it was not surprising that Palladino managed to fool Lombroso into believing spiritualism by her tricks.
Historian Daniel Pick argues that Lombroso serves "as a curious footnote to late - nineteenth - century literary studies, '' due to his referencing in famous books of the time. Jacques in Émile Zola 's The Beast Within is described as having a jaw that juts forward on the bottom. It is emphasized especially at the end of the book when he is overwhelmed by the desire to kill. The anarchist Karl Yundt in Joseph Conrad 's The Secret Agent, delivers a speech denouncing Lombroso. The assistant prosecutor in Leo Tolstoy 's Resurrection uses Lombroso 's theories to accuse Maslova of being a congenital criminal. In Bram Stoker 's Dracula, Count Dracula is described as having a physical appearance Lombroso would describe as criminal.
Lombroso was used for the name of the institute in Philip Kerr 's techno - thriller A Philosophical Investigation.
In 1906, a collection of papers on Lombroso was published in Turin under the title L'opera di Cesare Lombroso nella scienza e nelle sue applicazioni.
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what type of bank is bank of america | Bank of America - Wikipedia
Bank of America Corporation (abbreviated as BOFA) is a multinational banking and financial services corporation headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina. It is ranked 2nd on the list of largest banks in the United States by assets. As of 2016, Bank of America was the 26th largest company in the United States by total revenue. In 2016, it was ranked # 11 on the Forbes Magazine Global 2000 list of largest companies in the world.
Its acquisition of Merrill Lynch in 2008 made it the world 's largest wealth management corporation and a major player in the investment banking market. As of December 31, 2016, it had US $ 886.148 billion in assets under management (AUM).
As of December 31, 2016, the company held 10.73 % of all bank deposits in the United States. It is one of the Big Four banks in the United States, along with Citigroup, JPMorgan Chase and Wells Fargo -- its main competitors. Bank of America operates -- but does not necessarily maintain retail branches -- in all 50 states of the United States, the District of Columbia and more than 40 other countries. It has a retail banking footprint that serves approximately 46 million consumer and small business relationships at 4,600 banking centers and 15,900 automated teller machines (ATMs).
Bank of America provides its products and services through 4,600 retail financial centers, approximately 15,900 automated teller machines, call centers, and online and mobile banking platforms. Its Consumer Real Estate Services segment offers consumer real estate products comprising both fixed and adjustable - rate first - lien mortgage loans for home purchase and refinancing needs, home equity lines of credit, and home equity loans.
Bank of America has been the subject of many lawsuits and investigations regarding both mortgages and financial disclosures dating back to the financial crisis, including a record settlement of $16.65 billion on August 21, 2014.
The history of Bank of America dates back to October 17, 1904, when Amadeo Pietro Giannini founded the Bank of Italy in San Francisco. The Bank of Italy served the needs of many immigrants settling in the United States at that time, providing services denied to them by the existing American banks which typically discriminated against them and often denied service to all but the wealthiest. Giannini was raised by his mother and stepfather Lorenzo Scatena, as his father was fatally shot over a pay dispute with an employee. When the 1906 San Francisco earthquake struck, Giannini was able to save all deposits out of the bank building and away from the fires. Because San Francisco 's banks were in smoldering ruins and unable to open their vaults, Giannini was able to use the rescued funds to commence lending within a few days of the disaster. From a makeshift desk consisting of a few planks over two barrels, he lent money to those who wished to rebuild.
In 1922, Giannini established Bank of America and Italy. In 1986, Deutsche Bank AG acquired 100 % of Banca d'America e d'Italia, a bank established in Naples in 1917 following the name - change of Banca dell'Italia Meridionale with the latter established in 1918. In 1918 another corporation, Bancitaly Corporation, was organized by A.P. Giannini, the largest stockholder of which was Stockholders Auxiliary Corporation. This company acquired the stocks of various banks located in New York City and certain foreign countries.
In 1928 Giannini merged his bank with Bank of America, Los Angeles, headed by Orra E. Monnette and consolidated it with other bank holdings to create what would become the largest banking institution in the country. Bank of Italy was renamed on November 3, 1930 to Bank of America National Trust and Savings Association, which was the only such designated bank in the United States of America at that time. Giannini and Monnette headed the resulting company, serving as co-chairs.
Branch banking was introduced by Giannini shortly after 1909 legislation in California that allowed for branch banking in the state. Its first branch outside San Francisco was established in 1909 in San Jose. By 1929, the bank had 453 banking offices in California with aggregate resources of over US $1.4 billion. There is a replica of the 1909 Bank of Italy branch bank in History Park in San Jose, and the 1925 Bank of Italy Building is an important downtown landmark. Giannini sought to build a national bank, expanding into most of the western states as well as into the insurance industry, under the aegis of his holding company, Transamerica Corporation. In 1953, regulators succeeded in forcing the separation of Transamerica Corporation and Bank of America under the Clayton Antitrust Act. The passage of the Bank Holding Company Act of 1956 prohibited banks from owning non-banking subsidiaries such as insurance companies. Bank of America and Transamerica were separated, with the latter company continuing in the insurance business. However, federal banking regulators prohibited Bank of America 's interstate banking activity, and Bank of America 's domestic banks outside California were forced into a separate company that eventually became First Interstate Bancorp, later acquired by Wells Fargo and Company in 1996. It was not until the 1980s with a change in federal banking legislation and regulation that Bank of America was again able to expand its domestic consumer banking activity outside California.
New technologies also allowed credit cards to be linked directly to individual bank accounts. In 1958, the bank introduced the BankAmericard, which changed its name to Visa in 1977. A consortium of other California banks introduced Master Charge (now MasterCard) to compete with BankAmericard.
Following the passage of the Bank Holding Company Act of 1956, BankAmerica Corporation was established for the purpose of owning and operation of Bank of America and its subsidiaries.
Bank of America expanded outside California in 1983 with its acquisition, orchestrated in part by Stephen McLin, of Seafirst Corporation of Seattle, Washington, and its wholly owned banking subsidiary, Seattle - First National Bank. Seafirst was at risk of seizure by the federal government after becoming insolvent due to a series of bad loans to the oil industry. BankAmerica continued to operate its new subsidiary as Seafirst rather than Bank of America until the 1998 merger with NationsBank.
BankAmerica experienced huge losses in 1986 and 1987 by the placement of a series of bad loans in the Third World, particularly in Latin America. The company fired its CEO, Sam Armacost. Though Armacost blamed the problems on his predecessor, A.W. (Tom) Clausen, Clausen was appointed to replace Armacost. The losses resulted in a huge decline of BankAmerica stock, making it vulnerable to a hostile takeover. First Interstate Bancorp of Los Angeles (which had originated from banks once owned by BankAmerica), launched such a bid in the fall of 1986, although BankAmerica rebuffed it, mostly by selling operations. It sold its FinanceAmerica subsidiary to Chrysler and the brokerage firm Charles Schwab and Co. back to Mr. Schwab. It also sold Bank of America and Italy to Deutsche Bank. By the time of the 1987 stock market crash, BankAmerica 's share price had fallen to $8, but by 1992 it had rebounded mightily to become one of the biggest gainers of that half - decade.
BankAmerica 's next big acquisition came in 1992. The company acquired its California rival, Security Pacific Corporation and its subsidiary Security Pacific National Bank in California and other banks in Arizona, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington (which Security Pacific had acquired in a series of acquisitions in the late 1980s). This was, at the time, the largest bank acquisition in history. Federal regulators, however, forced the sale of roughly half of Security Pacific 's Washington subsidiary, the former Rainier Bank, as the combination of Seafirst and Security Pacific Washington would have given BankAmerica too large a share of the market in that state. The Washington branches were divided and sold to West One Bancorp (now U.S. Bancorp) and KeyBank. Later that year, BankAmerica expanded into Nevada by acquiring Valley Bank of Nevada.
In 1994, BankAmerica acquired the Continental Illinois National Bank and Trust Co. of Chicago, which had become federally owned as part of the same oil industry debacle emanating from Oklahoma City 's Penn Square Bank, that had brought down numerous financial institutions including Seafirst. At the time, no bank possessed the resources to bail out Continental, so the federal government operated the bank for nearly a decade. Illinois at that time regulated branch banking extremely heavily, so Bank of America Illinois was a single - unit bank until the 21st century. BankAmerica moved its national lending department to Chicago in an effort to establish a financial beachhead in the region.
These mergers helped BankAmerica Corporation to once again become the largest U.S. bank holding company in terms of deposits, but the company fell to second place in 1997 behind North Carolina 's fast - growing NationsBank Corporation, and to third in 1998 First Union Corp.
On the capital markets side, the acquisition of Continental Illinois helped BankAmerica to build a leveraged finance origination and distribution business (Continental Illinois had extensive leveraged lending relationships) which allowed the firm 's existing broker - dealer, BancAmerica Securities (originally named BA Securities), to become a full - service franchise. In addition, in 1997, BankAmerica acquired Robertson Stephens, a San Francisco -- based investment bank specializing in high technology for $540 million. Robertson Stephens was integrated into BancAmerica Securities and the combined subsidiary was renamed BancAmerica Robertson Stephens.
In 1997, Bank of America lent D.E. Shaw & Co., a large hedge fund, $1.4 billion in order to run various businesses for the bank. However, D.E. Shaw suffered significant loss after the 1998 Russia bond default. BankAmerica was acquired by NationsBank of Charlotte in October 1998 in what was the largest bank acquisition in history at that time.
While NationsBank was the nominal survivor, the merged bank took the better - known name of Bank of America. Hence, the holding company was renamed Bank of America Corporation, while NationsBank, N.A. merged with Bank of America NT&SA to form Bank of America, N.A. as the remaining legal bank entity. The combined bank still operates under Federal Charter 13044, which was granted to Giannini 's Bank of Italy on March 1, 1927. However, the merged company is headquartered in Charlotte and retains NationsBank 's pre-1998 stock price history. Additionally, all U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) filings before 1998 are listed under NationsBank, not Bank of America. NationsBank president, chairman and CEO Hugh McColl took on the same roles with the merged company.
Bank of America possessed combined assets of $570 billion, as well as 4,800 branches in 22 states. Despite the mammoth size of the two companies, federal regulators insisted only upon the divestiture of 13 branches in New Mexico, in towns that would be left with only a single bank following the combination. (Branch divestitures are only required if the combined company will have a larger than 25 % Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) deposit market share in a particular state or 10 % deposit market share overall.) In addition, the combined broker - dealer, created from the integration of BancAmerica Robertson Stephens and NationsBanc Montgomery Securities, was named Banc of America Securities in 1998.
In 2001, McColl stepped down and named Ken Lewis as his successor.
In 2004, Bank of America announced it would purchase Boston - based bank FleetBoston Financial for $47 billion in cash and stock. By merging with Bank of America, all of its banks and branches were given the Bank of America logo. At the time of merger, FleetBoston was the seventh largest bank in United States with $197 billion in assets, over 20 million customers and revenue of $12 billion. Hundreds of FleetBoston workers lost their jobs or were demoted, according to The Boston Globe.
On June 30, 2005, Bank of America announced it would purchase credit card giant MBNA for $35 billion in cash and stock. The Federal Reserve Board gave final approval to the merger on December 15, 2005, and the merger closed on January 1, 2006. The acquisition of MBNA provided Bank of America a leading domestic and foreign credit card issuer. The combined Bank of America Card Services organization, including the former MBNA, had more than 40 million U.S. accounts and nearly $140 billion in outstanding balances. Under Bank of America the operation was renamed FIA Card Services.
Bank of America operated under the name BankBoston in many other Latin American countries, including Brazil. In 2006, Bank of America sold BankBoston 's operations to Brazilian bank Banco Itaú, in exchange for Itaú shares. The BankBoston name and trademarks were not part of the transaction and, as part of the sale agreement, can not be used by Bank of America (ending the BankBoston brand).
In May 2006, Bank of America and Banco Itaú (Investimentos Itaú S.A.) entered into an acquisition agreement through which Itaú agreed to acquire BankBoston 's operations in Brazil and was granted an exclusive right to purchase Bank of America 's operations in Chile and Uruguay. The deal was signed in August 2006 under which Itaú agreed to purchase Bank of America 's operations in Chile and Uruguay. Prior to the transaction, BankBoston 's Brazilian operations included asset management, private banking, a credit card portfolio, and small, middle - market, and large corporate segments. It had 66 branches and 203,000 clients in Brazil. BankBoston in Chile had 44 branches and 58,000 clients and in Uruguay it had 15 branches. In addition, there was a credit card company, OCA, in Uruguay, which had 23 branches. BankBoston N.A. in Uruguay, together with OCA, jointly served 372,000 clients. While the BankBoston name and trademarks were not part of the transaction, as part of the sale agreement, they can not be used by Bank of America in Brazil, Chile or Uruguay following the transactions. Hence, the BankBoston name has disappeared from Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. The Itaú stock received by Bank of America in the transactions has allowed Bank of America 's stake in Itaú to reach 11.51 %. Banco de Boston de Brazil had been founded in 1947.
On November 20, 2006, Bank of America announced the purchase of The United States Trust Company for $3.3 billion, from the Charles Schwab Corporation. US Trust had about $100 billion of assets under management and over 150 years of experience. The deal closed July 1, 2007.
On September 14, 2007, Bank of America won approval from the Federal Reserve to acquire LaSalle Bank Corporation from ABN AMRO for $21 billion. With this purchase, Bank of America possessed $1.7 trillion in assets. A Dutch court blocked the sale until it was later approved in July. The acquisition was completed on October 1, 2007. Many of LaSalle 's branches and offices had already taken over smaller regional banks within the previous decade, such as Lansing and Detroit based Michigan National Bank.
The deal increased Bank of America 's presence in Illinois, Michigan, and Indiana by 411 branches, 17,000 commercial bank clients, 1.4 million retail customers, and 1,500 ATMs. Bank of America became the largest bank in the Chicago market with 197 offices and 14 % of the deposit share, surpassing JPMorgan Chase.
LaSalle Bank and LaSalle Bank Midwest branches adopted the Bank of America name on May 5, 2008.
Ken Lewis, who had lost the title of Chairman of the Board, announced that he would retire as CEO effective December 31, 2009, in part due to controversy and legal investigations concerning the purchase of Merrill Lynch. Brian Moynihan became President and CEO effective January 1, 2010, and afterward credit card charge offs and delinquencies declined in January. Bank of America also repaid the $45 billion it had received from the Troubled Assets Relief Program.
On August 23, 2007, the company announced a $2 billion repurchase agreement for Countrywide Financial. This purchase of preferred stock was arranged to provide a return on investment of 7.25 % per annum and provided the option to purchase common stock at a price of $18 per share.
On January 11, 2008, Bank of America announced that it would buy Countrywide Financial for $4.1 billion. In March 2008, it was reported that the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) was investigating Countrywide for possible fraud relating to home loans and mortgages. This news did not hinder the acquisition, which was completed in July 2008, giving the bank a substantial market share of the mortgage business, and access to Countrywide 's resources for servicing mortgages. The acquisition was seen as preventing a potential bankruptcy for Countrywide. Countrywide, however, denied that it was close to bankruptcy. Countrywide provided mortgage servicing for nine million mortgages valued at $1.4 trillion as of December 31, 2007.
This purchase made Bank of America Corporation the leading mortgage originator and servicer in the U.S., controlling 20 -- 25 % of the home loan market. The deal was structured to merge Countrywide with the Red Oak Merger Corporation, which Bank of America created as an independent subsidiary. It has been suggested that the deal was structured this way to prevent a potential bankruptcy stemming from large losses in Countrywide hurting the parent organization by keeping Countrywide bankruptcy remote. Countrywide Financial has changed its name to Bank of America Home Loans.
In December 2011, the Justice Department announced a $335 million settlement with Bank of America over discriminatory lending practice at Countrywide Financial. Attorney General Eric Holder said a federal probe found discrimination against qualified African - American and Latino borrowers from 2004 to 2008. He said that minority borrowers who qualified for prime loans were steered into higher - interest - rate subprime loans.
On September 14, 2008, Bank of America announced its intention to purchase Merrill Lynch & Co., Inc. in an all - stock deal worth approximately $50 billion. Merrill Lynch was at the time within days of collapse, and the acquisition effectively saved Merrill from bankruptcy. Around the same time Bank of America was reportedly also in talks to purchase Lehman Brothers, however a lack of government guarantees caused the bank to abandon talks with Lehman. Lehman Brothers filed for bankruptcy the same day Bank of America announced its plans to acquire Merrill Lynch. This acquisition made Bank of America the largest financial services company in the world. Temasek Holdings, the largest shareholder of Merrill Lynch & Co., Inc., briefly became one of the largest shareholders of Bank of America, with a 3 % stake. However, taking a loss Reuters estimated at $3 billion, the Singapore sovereign wealth fund sold its whole stake in Bank of America in the first quarter of 2009.
Shareholders of both companies approved the acquisition on December 5, 2008, and the deal closed January 1, 2009. Bank of America had planned to retain various members of the then Merrill Lynch 's CEO, John Thain 's management team after the merger. However, after Thain was removed from his position, most of his allies left. The departure of Nelson Chai, who had been named Asia - Pacific president, left just one of Thain 's hires in place: Tom Montag, head of sales and trading.
The bank, in its January 16, 2009 earnings release, revealed massive losses at Merrill Lynch in the fourth quarter, which necessitated an infusion of money that had previously been negotiated with the government as part of the government - persuaded deal for the bank to acquire Merrill. Merrill recorded an operating loss of $21.5 billion in the quarter, mainly in its sales and trading operations, led by Tom Montag. The bank also disclosed it tried to abandon the deal in December after the extent of Merrill 's trading losses surfaced, but was compelled to complete the merger by the U.S. government. The bank 's stock price sank to $7.18, its lowest level in 17 years, after announcing earnings and the Merrill mishap. The market capitalization of Bank of America, including Merrill Lynch, was then $45 billion, less than the $50 billion it offered for Merrill just four months earlier, and down $108 billion from the merger announcement.
Bank of America CEO Kenneth Lewis testified before Congress that he had some misgivings about the acquisition of Merrill Lynch, and that federal officials pressured him to proceed with the deal or face losing his job and endangering the bank 's relationship with federal regulators.
Lewis ' statement is backed up by internal emails subpoenaed by Republican lawmakers on the House Oversight Committee. In one of the emails, Richmond Federal Reserve President Jeffrey Lacker threatened that if the acquisition did not go through, and later Bank of America were forced to request federal assistance, the management of Bank of America would be "gone ''. Other emails, read by Congressman Dennis Kucinich during the course of Lewis ' testimony, state that Mr. Lewis had foreseen the outrage from his shareholders that the purchase of Merrill would cause, and asked government regulators to issue a letter stating that the government had ordered him to complete the deal to acquire Merrill. Lewis, for his part, states he did n't recall requesting such a letter.
The acquisition made Bank of America the number one underwriter of global high - yield debt, the third largest underwriter of global equity and the ninth largest adviser on global mergers and acquisitions. As the credit crisis eased, losses at Merrill Lynch subsided, and the subsidiary generated $3.7 billion of Bank of America 's $4.2 billion in profit by the end of quarter one in 2009, and over 25 % in quarter 3 2009.
On September 28, 2012, Bank of America settled the class action lawsuit over the Merrill Lynch acquisition and will pay $2.43 billion. This was one of the first major securities class action lawsuits stemming from the financial crisis of 2007 - 2008 to settle. Many major financial institutions had a stake in this lawsuit, including Chicago Clearing Corporation, hedge funds, and bank trusts, due to the belief that Bank of America stock was a sure investment.
Bank of America received $20 billion in the federal bailout from the U.S. government through the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) on January 16, 2009, and a guarantee of $118 billion in potential losses at the company. This was in addition to the $25 billion given to them in the fall of 2008 through TARP. The additional payment was part of a deal with the U.S. government to preserve Bank of America 's merger with the troubled investment firm Merrill Lynch. Since then, members of the U.S. Congress have expressed considerable concern about how this money has been spent, especially since some of the recipients have been accused of misusing the bailout money. Then CEO Ken Lewis was quoted as claiming "We are still lending, and we are lending far more because of the TARP program. '' Members of the U.S. House of Representatives, however, were skeptical and quoted many anecdotes about loan applicants (particularly small business owners) being denied loans and credit card holders facing stiffer terms on the debt in their card accounts.
According to a March 15, 2009, article in The New York Times, Bank of America received an additional $5.2 billion in government bailout money, channeled through American International Group.
As a result of its federal bailout and management problems, The Wall Street Journal reported that the Bank of America was operating under a secret "memorandum of understanding '' (MOU) from the U.S. government that requires it to "overhaul its board and address perceived problems with risk and liquidity management ''. With the federal action, the institution has taken several steps, including arranging for six of its directors to resign and forming a Regulatory Impact Office. Bank of America faces several deadlines in July and August and if not met, could face harsher penalties by federal regulators. Bank of America did not respond to The Wall Street Journal story.
On December 2, 2009, Bank of America announced it would repay the entire $45 billion it received in TARP and exit the program, using $26.2 billion of excess liquidity along with $18.6 billion to be gained in "common equivalent securities '' (Tier 1 capital). The bank announced it had completed the repayment on December 9. Bank of America 's Ken Lewis said during the announcement, "We appreciate the critical role that the U.S. government played last fall in helping to stabilize financial markets, and we are pleased to be able to fully repay the investment, with interest... As America 's largest bank, we have a responsibility to make good on the taxpayers ' investment, and our record shows that we have been able to fulfill that commitment while continuing to lend. ''
On August 3, 2009, Bank of America agreed to pay a $33 million fine, without admission or denial of charges, to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) over the non-disclosure of an agreement to pay up to $5.8 billion of bonuses at Merrill. The bank approved the bonuses before the merger but did not disclose them to its shareholders when the shareholders were considering approving the Merrill acquisition, in December 2008. The issue was originally investigated by New York State Attorney General Andrew Cuomo, who commented after the suit and announced settlement that "the timing of the bonuses, as well as the disclosures relating to them, constituted a ' surprising fit of corporate irresponsibility ' '' and "our investigation of these and other matters pursuant to New York 's Martin Act will continue. '' Congressman Kucinich commented at the same time that "This may not be the last fine that Bank of America pays for how it handled its merger of Merrill Lynch. '' A federal judge, Jed Rakoff, in an unusual action, refused to approve the settlement on August 5. A first hearing before the judge on August 10 was at times heated, and he was "sharply critic (al) '' of the bonuses. David Rosenfeld represented the SEC, and Lewis J. Liman, son of Arthur L. Liman, represented the bank. The actual amount of bonuses paid was $3.6 billion, of which $850 million was "guaranteed '' and the rest was shared amongst 39,000 workers who received average payments of $91,000; 696 people received more than $1 million in bonuses; at least one person received a more than $33 million bonus.
On September 14, the judge rejected the settlement and told the parties to prepare for trial to begin no later than February 1, 2010. The judge focused much of his criticism on the fact that the fine in the case would be paid by the bank 's shareholders, who were the ones that were supposed to have been injured by the lack of disclosure. He wrote, "It is quite something else for the very management that is accused of having lied to its shareholders to determine how much of those victims ' money should be used to make the case against the management go away, ''... "The proposed settlement, '' the judge continued, "suggests a rather cynical relationship between the parties: the S.E.C. gets to claim that it is exposing wrongdoing on the part of the Bank of America in a high - profile merger; the bank 's management gets to claim that they have been coerced into an onerous settlement by overzealous regulators. And all this is done at the expense, not only of the shareholders, but also of the truth. ''
While ultimately deferring to the SEC, in February 2010, Judge Rakoff approved a revised settlement with a $150 million fine "reluctantly '', calling the accord "half - baked justice at best '' and "inadequate and misguided ''. Addressing one of the concerns he raised in September, the fine will be "distributed only to Bank of America shareholders harmed by the non-disclosures, or ' legacy shareholders ', an improvement on the prior $33 million while still "paltry '', according to the judge. Case: SEC v. Bank of America Corp., 09 - cv - 06829, United States District Court for the Southern District of New York.
Investigations also were held on this issue in the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, under chairman Edolphus Towns (D - NY) and in its investigative Domestic Policy Subcommittee under Kucinich.
In 2010, the bank was accused by the U.S. government of defrauding schools, hospitals, and dozens of state and local government organizations via misconduct and illegal activities involving the investment of proceeds from municipal bond sales. As a result, the bank agreed to pay $137.7 million, including $25 million to the Internal Revenue service and $4.5 million to state attorney general, to the affected organizations to settle the allegations.
Former bank official Douglas Campbell pleaded guilty to antitrust, conspiracy and wire fraud charges. As of January 2011, other bankers and brokers are under indictment or investigation.
On October 24, 2012, the top federal prosecutor in Manhattan filed a lawsuit alleging that Bank of America fraudulently cost American taxpayers more than $1 billion when Countrywide Financial sold toxic mortgages to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. The scheme was called ' Hustle ', or High Speed Swim Lane. On May 23, 2016 the Second U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the finding of fact by the jury that low quality mortgages were supplied by Countrywide to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac in the "Hustle '' case supported only "intentional breach of contract, '' not fraud. The action, for civil fraud, relied on provisions of the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act. The decision turned on lack of intent to defraud at the time the contract to supply mortgages was made.
During 2011, Bank of America began conducting personnel reductions of an estimated 36,000 people, contributing to intended savings of $5 billion per year by 2014.
In December 2011, Forbes ranked Bank of America 's financial health 91st out of the nation 's largest 100 banks and thrift institutions.
Bank of America cut around 16,000 jobs in a quicker fashion by the end of 2012 as revenue continued to decline because of new regulations and a slow economy. This put a plan one year ahead of time to eliminate 30,000 jobs under a cost - cutting program, called Project New BAC. In the first quarter of 2014 Berkshire bank purchased 20 Bank of America branches in Central and eastern New York for 14.4 million dollars. The branches were from Utica / Rome region and down the Mohawk Valley east to the capital region.
In April and May 2014, Bank of America sold two dozen branches in Michigan to Huntington Bancshares. The locations were converted to Huntington National Bank branches in September.
As part of its new strategy Bank of America is focused on growing its mobile banking platform. As of 2014, Bank of America has 31 million active online users and 16 million mobile users. Its retail banking branches have decreased to 4,900 as a result of increased mobile banking use and a decline in customer branch visits.
In 2005, Bank of America acquired a 9 % stake in China Construction Bank, one of the Big Four banks in China, for $3 billion. It represented the company 's largest foray into China 's growing banking sector. Bank of America has offices in Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Guangzhou and was looking to greatly expand its Chinese business as a result of this deal. In 2008, Bank of America was awarded Project Finance Deal of the Year at the 2008 ALB Hong Kong Law Awards. In November 2011, Bank of America announced plans to divest most of its stake in the China Construction Bank.
In September 2013, Bank of America sold its remaining stake in the China Construction Bank for as much as $1.5 billion, marking the firm 's full exit from the country.
In August 2014, Bank of America agreed to a near - $17 billion deal to settle claims against it relating to the sale of toxic mortgage - linked securities including subprime home loans, in what was believed to be the largest settlement in U.S. corporate history. The bank agreed with the U.S. Justice Department to pay $9.65 billion in fines, and $7 billion in relief to the victims of the faulty loans which included homeowners, borrowers, pension funds and municipalities. Real estate economist Jed Kolko said the settlement is a "drop in the bucket '' compared to the $700 billion in damages done to 11 million homeowners. Since the settlement covered such a substantial portion of the market, he said for most consumers "you 're out of luck. ''
Much of the government 's prosecution was based on information provided by three whistleblowers - Shareef Abdou (a senior vice president at the bank), Robert Madsen (a professional appraiser employed by a bank subsidiary) and Edward O'Donnell (a Fannie Mae official). The three men received $170 million in whistleblower awards.
Bank of America has formed a partnership with the United States Department of Defense creating a newly chartered bank DOD Community Bank ("Community Bank '') providing full banking services to military personnel at 68 branches and ATM locations on U.S. military installations in Guantanamo Bay Naval Base Cuba, Diego Garcia, Germany, Japan, Italy, Kwajalein Atoll, South Korea, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. It should be noted that even though Bank of America operates Community Bank customer services are not interchangeable between the two financial institutions, meaning a Community Bank customer can not go to a Bank of America branch and withdraw from their account and vice versa. Deposits made into checking and savings accounts are insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation up to $250,000 despite the fact that none of Community 's operating branches are located within the jurisdictional borders of the United States.
At the Money 20 / 20 conference in October 2016, retail banking president Thong Nguyen introduced a digital assistant called Erica, whose name comes from the bank name. Starting in 2017, customers will be able to use voice or text to communicate with Erica and get advice, check balances and pay bills. Unlike the people who work for the bank, Erica will be available 24 / 7. Digital banking head Michelle Moore said the technology was designed to help customers do a better job of managing money.
Forrester analyst Peter Wannemacher says bank customer experiences with the technology have been "uneven or poor, '' but Bank of America intends to adapt Erica as needed.
Bank of America generates 90 % of its revenues in its domestic market. The core of Bank of America 's strategy is to be the number one bank in its domestic market. It has achieved this through key acquisitions.
Consumer Banking, the largest division in the company, provides financial services to consumers and small businesses including, banking, investments and lending products including business loans, mortgages, and credit cards. It provides for investing online through its electronic trading platform, Merrill Edge. The consumer banking division represented 38 % of the company 's total revenue in 2016. The company earns revenue from interest income, service charges, and fees. The company is also a mortgage servicer. It competes primarily with the retail banking arms of America 's three other megabanks: Citigroup, JPMorgan Chase, and Wells Fargo. The Consumer Banking organization includes over 4,600 retail financial centers and approximately 15,900 automated teller machines.
Bank of America is a member of the Global ATM Alliance, a joint venture of several major international banks that provides for reduced fees for consumers using their ATM card or check card at another bank within the Global ATM Alliance when traveling internationally. This feature is restricted to withdrawals using a debit card and users are still subject to foreign currency conversion fees, credit card withdrawals are still subject to cash advance fees and foreign currency conversion fees.
The Global Banking division provides banking services, including investment banking and lending products to businesses. It includes the businesses of Global Corporate Banking, Global Commercial Banking, Business Banking, and Global Investment Banking. The division represented 22 % of the company 's revenue in 2016.
Before Bank of America 's acquisition of Merrill Lynch, the Global Corporate and Investment Banking (GCIB) business operated as Banc of America Securities LLC. The bank 's investment banking activities operate under the Merrill Lynch subsidiary and provided mergers and acquisitions advisory, underwriting, capital markets, as well as sales & trading in fixed income and equities markets. Its strongest groups include Leveraged Finance, Syndicated Loans, and mortgage - backed securities. It also has one of the largest research teams on Wall Street. Bank of America Merrill Lynch is headquartered in New York City.
The Global Wealth and Investment Management (GWIM) division manages investment assets of institutions and individuals. It includes the businesses of Merrill Lynch Global Wealth Management and U.S. Trust and represented 21 % of the company 's total revenue in 2016. It is among the 10 largest U.S. wealth managers. It has over $2.5 trillion in client balances. GWIM has five primary lines of business: Premier Banking & Investments (including Bank of America Investment Services, Inc.), The Private Bank, Family Wealth Advisors, and Bank of America Specialist.
The Global Markets division offers services to institutional clients, including trading in financial securities. The division provides research and other services such as market maker and risk management using derivatives. The division represented 19 % of the company 's total revenues in 2016.
The Bank of America headquarters for its operations is in the Bank of America Tower, New York City, which opened in 2009. The skyscraper is located on 42nd Street and Avenue of the Americas, at Bryant Park, and features state - of - the - art, environmentally friendly technology throughout its 2.1 million square feet (195,096 m2) of office space. The building is the headquarters for the company 's investment banking division, and also hosts most of Bank of America 's New York -- based staff.
In 2012, Bank of America cut ties to the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC).
Bank of America 's Global Corporate and Investment Banking has its U.S. headquarters in New York, European headquarters in London, and Asian headquarters in Hong Kong and Singapore.
In 2007, the bank offered employees a $3,000 rebate for the purchase of hybrid vehicles. The company also provided a $1,000 rebate or a lower interest rate for customers whose homes qualified as energy efficient. In 2007, Bank of America partnered with Brighter Planet to offer an eco-friendly credit card, and later a debit card, which help build renewable energy projects with each purchase. In 2010, the bank completed construction of the 1 Bank of America Center in Charlotte center city. The tower, and accompanying hotel, is a LEED - certified building.
Bank of America has also donated money to help health centers in Massachusetts and made a $1 million donation in 2007 to help homeless shelters in Miami.
In 1998, the bank made a ten - year commitment of $350 billion to provide affordable mortgage, build affordable housing, support small business and create jobs in disadvantaged neighborhoods.
In 2004, the bank pledged $750 billion over a ten - year period for community development lending and affordable housing programs.
In August 2011, Bank of America was sued for $10 billion by American International Group. Another lawsuit filed in September 2011 pertained to $57.5 billion in mortgage - backed securities Bank of America sold to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. That December, Bank of America agreed to pay $335 million to settle a federal government claim that Countrywide Financial had discriminated against Hispanic and African - American homebuyers from 2004 to 2008, prior to being acquired by BofA. In September 2012, BofA settled out of court for $2.4 billion in a class action lawsuit filed by BofA shareholders who felt they were misled about the purchase of Merrill Lynch.
On February 9, 2012, it was announced that the five largest mortgage servicers (Ally / GMAC, Bank of America, Citi, JPMorgan Chase, and Wells Fargo) agreed to a historic settlement with the federal government and 49 states. The settlement, known as the National Mortgage Settlement (NMS), required the servicers to provide about $26 billion in relief to distressed homeowners and in direct payments to the states and federal government. This settlement amount makes the NMS the second largest civil settlement in U.S. history, only trailing the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement. The five banks were also required to comply with 305 new mortgage servicing standards. Oklahoma held out and agreed to settle with the banks separately.
On October 24, 2012, American federal prosecutors filed a $1 billion civil lawsuit against Bank of America for mortgage fraud under the False Claims Act, which provides for possible penalties of triple the damages suffered. The government asserted that Countrywide, which was acquired by Bank of America, rubber - stamped mortgage loans to risky borrowers and forced taxpayers to guarantee billions of bad loans through Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. The suit was filed by Preet Bharara, the United States attorney in Manhattan, the inspector general of FHFA and the special inspector for the Troubled Asset Relief Program. In March 2014, Bank of America settled the suit by agreeing to pay $6.3 billion to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac and to buy back around $3.2 billion worth of mortgage bonds.
In April 2014, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) ordered Bank of America to provide and estimated $727 million in relief to consumers harmed by practices related to credit card add - on products. According to the Bureau, roughly 1.4 million customers were affected by deceptive marketing of add - on products and 1.9 million customers were illegally charged for credit monitoring and reporting services they were not receiving. The deceptive marketing misconduct involved telemarketing scripts containing misstatements and off - script sales pitches made by telemarketers that were misleading and omitted pertinent information. The unfair billing practices involved billing customers for privacy related products without having the authorization necessary to perform the credit monitoring and credit report retrieval services. As a result, the company billed customers for services they did not receive, unfairly charged consumers for interest and fees, illegally charged approximately 1.9 million accounts, and failed to provide the product benefit.
A $7.5 million settlement was reached in April 2014 with former chief financial officer for Bank of America, Joe L. Price, over allegations that the bank 's management withheld material information related to its 2008 merger with Merrill Lynch. In August 2014, the United States Department of Justice and the bank agreed to a $16.65 billion agreement over the sale of risky, mortgage - backed securities before the Great Recession; the loans behind the securities were transferred to the company when it acquired banks such as Merrill Lynch and Countrywide in 2008. As a whole, the three firms provided $965 billion of mortgage - backed securities from 2004 -- 2008. The settlement was structured to give $7 billion in consumer relief and $9.65 billion in penalty payments to the federal government and state governments; California, for instance, received $300 million to recompense public pension funds. The settlement was the largest in United States history between a single company and the federal government.
Parmalat SpA is a multinational Italian dairy and food corporation. Following Parmalat 's 2003 bankruptcy, the company sued Bank of America for $10 billion, alleging the bank profited from its knowledge of Parmalat 's financial difficulties. The parties announced a settlement in July 2009, resulting in Bank of America paying Parmalat $98.5 million in October 2009. In a related case, on April 18, 2011, an Italian court acquitted Bank of America and three other large banks, along with their employees, of charges they assisted Parmalat in concealing its fraud, and of lacking sufficient internal controls to prevent such frauds. Prosecutors did not immediately say whether they would appeal the rulings. In Parma, the banks were still charged with covering up the fraud.
In January 2008, Bank of America began notifying some customers without payment problems that their interest rates were more than doubled, up to 28 %. The bank was criticized for raising rates on customers in good standing, and for declining to explain why it had done so. In September 2009, a Bank of America credit card customer, Ann Minch, posted a video on YouTube criticizing the bank for raising her interest rate. After the video went viral, she was contacted by a Bank of America representative who lowered her rate. The story attracted national attention from television and internet commentators. More recently, the bank has been criticized for allegedly seizing three properties that were not under their ownership, apparently due to incorrect addresses on their legal documents.
In October 2009, WikiLeaks representative Julian Assange reported that his organization possessed a 5 gigabyte hard drive formerly used by a Bank of America executive and that Wikileaks intended to publish its contents.
In November 2010, Forbes magazine published an interview with Assange in which he stated his intent to publish information which would turn a major U.S. bank "inside out ''. In response to this announcement, Bank of America stock dropped 3.2 %.
In December 2010, Bank of America announced that it would no longer service requests to transfer funds to WikiLeaks, stating that "Bank of America joins in the actions previously announced by MasterCard, PayPal, Visa Europe and others and will not process transactions of any type that we have reason to believe are intended for WikiLeaks... This decision is based upon our reasonable belief that WikiLeaks may be engaged in activities that are, among other things, inconsistent with our internal policies for processing payments. ''
In late December it was announced that Bank of America had bought up more than 300 Internet domain names in an attempt to preempt bad publicity that might be forthcoming in the anticipated WikiLeaks release. The domain names included as BrianMoynihanBlows.com, BrianMoynihanSucks.com and similar names for other top executives of the bank. Nick Baumann of Mother Jones ridiculed this effort, stating: "If I owned stock in Bank of America, this would not give me confidence that the bank is prepared for whatever Julian Assange is planning to throw at it. ''
Sometime before August 2011, it is claimed by WikiLeaks that 5 GB of Bank of America leaks was part of the deletion of over 3500 communications by Daniel Domscheit - Berg, a now ex-WikiLeaks volunteer.
On March 14, 2011, one or more members of the decentralized collective Anonymous began releasing emails it said were obtained from Bank of America. According to the group, the emails documented "corruption and fraud '', and relate to the issue of improper foreclosures. The source, identified publicly as Brian Penny, was a former LPI Specialist from Balboa Insurance, a firm which used to be owned by the bank, but was sold to Australian Reinsurance Company QBE.
The state of Arizona has investigated Bank of America for misleading homeowners who sought to modify their mortgage loans. According to the attorney general of Arizona, the bank "repeatedly has deceived '' such mortgagors. In response to the investigation, the bank has given some modifications on the condition that the homeowners refrain from criticizing the bank.
In May 2014 many Iranian students in the U.S. and some American - Iranian citizens realized their accounts have been frozen by Bank of America. Although Bank of America denied to reveal any information or reason regarding this, some Iranians believe that it is related to sanctions against Iran. Betty Riess, a spokeswoman for Bank of America, told MintPress News via email, "We do not close accounts on the basis of nationality, nor do we close accounts without notice to customers. '' However, account holders believe there could be a relationship between this action and their national origin. Although most account holders say they did not receive any notification prior their accounts being frozen, Bank of America insists that they do not freeze any account without prior notification. When it was reported that Bank of America was closing the accounts of Iranians living in the U.S. and Iranian - Americans, there was speculation that the bank did so on the basis of discriminatory ideology, since Bank of America did not give these individuals any reason why their accounts were being closed. The bank responded to these accusations, arguing that it was only following the rules put forth by the U.S. federal government regarding economic relations between the U.S. and Iran.
Bank of America has been criticized for its heavy investment in the environmentally damaging processes of coal mining, especially through mountaintop removal (MTR). On May 6, 2015, the company announced that it would "reduce (its) credit exposure... to the coal mining industry, '' i.e. reduce its financing of companies engaging in MTR, coal mining, and coal power production. The company stated that pressure to divest from universities and environmental groups led to this policy change.
Notable buildings which Bank of America currently occupies include:
The Robert B. Atwood Building in Anchorage, Alaska was at one time named the Bank of America Center, renamed in conjunction with the bank 's acquisition of building tenant Security Pacific Bank. This particular branch was later acquired by Alaska - based Northrim Bank and moved across the street to the Linny Pacillo Parking Garage.
The Bank of America Building (Providence) was opened in 1928 as the Industrial Trust Building. It was, and is, the tallest building in Rhode Island. Through a number of mergers it was later known as the Industrial National Bank building and the Fleet Bank building. The building was leased by Bank of America from 2004 to 2012 and has been vacant since March 2013. The building is commonly known as the Superman Building based on a popular belief that it was the model for the Daily Planet building in the Superman comic books.
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where did the name teddy bear originate from | Teddy bear - wikipedia
A teddy bear is a soft toy in the form of a bear. Developed apparently simultaneously by toymakers Morris Michtom in the U.S. and Richard Steiff in Germany in the early years of the 20th century, and named after President Theodore "Teddy '' Roosevelt, the teddy bear became an iconic children 's toy, celebrated in story, song, and film. Since the creation of the first teddy bears which sought to imitate the form of real bear cubs, "teddies '' have greatly varied in form, style, color, and material. They have become collector 's items, with older and rarer "teddies '' appearing at public auctions. Teddy bears are among the most popular gifts for children and are often given to adults to signify love, congratulations, or sympathy.
The name teddy bear comes from former United States President Theodore Roosevelt, who was commonly known as "Teddy '' (though he loathed being referred to as such). The name originated from an incident on a bear hunting trip in Mississippi in November 1902, to which Roosevelt was invited by Mississippi Governor Andrew H. Longino. There were several other hunters competing, and most of them had already killed an animal. A suite of Roosevelt 's attendants, led by Holt Collier, cornered, clubbed, and tied an American black bear to a willow tree after a long exhausting chase with hounds. They called Roosevelt to the site and suggested that he should shoot it. He refused to shoot the bear himself, deeming this unsportsmanlike, but instructed that the bear be killed to put it out of its misery, and it became the topic of a political cartoon by Clifford Berryman in The Washington Post on November 16, 1902. While the initial cartoon of an adult black bear lassoed by a handler and a disgusted Roosevelt had symbolic overtones, later issues of that and other Berryman cartoons made the bear smaller and cuter.
Morris Michtom saw the drawing of Roosevelt and was inspired to create a teddy bear. He created a tiny soft bear cub and put it in the shop window with a sign "Teddy 's bear, '' after sending a bear to Roosevelt and receiving permission to use his name. The toys were an immediate success and Michtom founded the Ideal Novelty and Toy Co.
At the same time in Germany, the Steiff firm, unaware of Michtom 's bear, produced a stuffed bear from Richard Steiff 's designs. Steiff exhibited the toy at the Leipzig Toy Fair in March 1903, where it was seen by Hermann Berg, a buyer for George Borgfeldt & Company in New York (and the brother of composer Alban Berg). He ordered 3000 to be sent to the United States. Although Steiff 's records show that the bears were produced, they are not recorded as arriving in the U.S., and no example of the type, "55 PB '', has ever been seen, leading to the story that the bears were shipwrecked. However, the story is disputed - Gunther Pfieffer notes that it was only recorded in 1953 and says it is more likely that the 55 PB was not sufficiently durable to survive until the present day. Although Steiff and Michtom were both making teddy bears at around the same time, neither would have known of the other 's creation due to poor transatlantic communication.
North American educator Seymour Eaton wrote the children 's book series The Roosevelt Bears, while composer John Walter Bratton wrote an instrumental "The Teddy Bears ' Picnic '', a "characteristic two - step '', in 1907, which later had words written to it by lyricist Jimmy Kennedy in 1932.
Early teddy bears were made to look like real bears, with extended snouts and beady eyes. Modern teddy bears tend to have larger eyes and foreheads and smaller noses, babylike features that enhance the toy 's cuteness. Teddy bears are also manufactured to represent different species of bear, such as polar bears and grizzly bears, as well as pandas.
While early teddy bears were covered in tawny mohair fur, modern teddy bears are manufactured in a wide variety of commercially available fabrics, most commonly synthetic fur, but also velour, denim, cotton, satin, and canvas.
Commercially made, mass - produced teddy bears are predominantly made as toys for children. These bears either have safety joints for attaching arms, legs, and heads, or else the joints are sewn and not articulated. They must have securely fastened eyes that do not pose a choking hazard for small children. These "plush '' bears must meet a rigid standard of construction in order to be marketed to children in the United States and in the European Union.
There are also companies, like Steiff, that sell handmade collectible bears that can be purchased in stores or over the Internet. The majority of teddy bears are manufactured in countries such as China and Indonesia. A few small, single - person producers in the United States make unique, non-mass - produced teddy bears. In the United Kingdom one small, traditional teddy bear company remains, Merrythought, which was established in 1930. Mohair, the fur shorn or combed from a breed of long haired goats, is woven into cloth, dyed and trimmed. Alpaca teddy bears are made from the pelt of an alpaca because the fiber is too soft to weave. In addition to mohair and alpaca, there is a huge selection of "plush '' or synthetic fur made for the teddy bear market. Both these types of fur are commercially produced.
1: Cutting
2: Sewing and turning
3: Filling
4: Assembling
Teddy bears are a favourite form of soft toy for amateur toy makers, with many patterns commercially produced or available online. Many "teddies '' are home - made as gifts or for charity, while "teddy bear artists '' often create "teddies '' for retail, decorating them individually with commercial and recycled ornaments such as sequins, beads and ribbons. Sewn teddy bears are made from a wide range of materials including felt, cotton and velour. While many are stitched, others are made from yarn, either knitted or crocheted. Teddy bears are also made of plywood and a range of other craft materials.
Michtom 's jointed mohair "Teddy 's bear '' was very popular when first designed and remains so with collectors today. Fake bears look suspiciously new and unhandled: their noses are unworn, and their seams may be thick and uneven. All Ideal bears have jointed hips, necks, and shoulders. Early examples have a characteristic "American football '' shape and are mostly made of short gold or beige mohair plush with matching felt paws, and distinctive, sharply pointed foot pads. They have shoe - button or glass eyes, and the fur around the muzzle may be shorn. Later bears were made in a large variety of colours and types -- for example, pandas -- and had longer fur.
Other collectible bears include ones by the Knickerbocker Toy Co. (active 1924 -- 1925) in New York, which are clearly marked with a label in the front seam. Similar to many early American bears, Knickerbocker bears usually have long bodies, small feet, and short, straight arms and legs. Their later bears can be recognized by their large inverted ears and big noses. Other collectible bears include Gund Manufacturing Co. (est. 1898), now in New York, and "Hershey 's bears '', which were designed to promote The Hershey Company 's chocolate bars.
Retail sales of stuffed plush animals including teddy bears totaled $1.3 billion in 2006. The most commonly sold brands include Gund and Ty Inc. Brands associated with teddy bears that enjoyed strong popularity in the 1980s and 1990s are Teddy Ruxpin and Care Bears. Various TV shows and movies have a teddy bear depicted, such as Super Ted and Mr. Bean.
Teddy bears have seen a resurgence in popularity as international "do - it - yourself '' chains have opened. Among the largest and best - known are Build - A-Bear Workshop and Vermont Teddy Bear Company.
Some popular mass - marketed teddy bears made today include Rupert, Sooty, Paddington, and Pudsey Bear. Books have also been written with the teddy bear featured as their main character. These include Winnie - the - Pooh, Corduroy, Teddy Tells Time, Tristan the Teddy Bear (from the Teddy Bear Tales) and Teddy Dressing.
The popularity of the toy inspired John Walter Bratton to compose the melody "The Teddy Bears ' Picnic '' (1907). The lyrics were added in 1932 by Jimmy Kennedy.
The world 's first teddy bear museum was set up in Petersfield, Hampshire, England, in 1984. In 1990, a similar foundation was set up in Naples, Florida, United States. These were closed in 2006 and 2005 respectively, and the bears were sold in auctions, but there are many teddy bear museums around the world today.
Because police, fire and emergency officials found that giving a teddy bear to a child during a crisis stabilized and calmed them, NAPLC created the Teddy Bear Cops program to distribute teddy bears to police, fire, and emergency officials throughout the United States, for their use in providing teddy bears to children in emergencies.
On April Fools ' Day 1972, issue 90 of The Veterinary Record published a paper on the diseases of Brunus edwardii detailing common afflictions of teddy bears.
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proceedings of the institution of mechanical engineers part k journal of multi-body dynamics | Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part K - Wikipedia
The Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part K: Journal of Multi-body Dynamics is a quarterly peer - reviewed scientific journal that covers mechanical design and dynamic analysis of multi-body systems. The journal was established in 1999 and is published by Sage Publications on behalf of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.
The journal is abstracted and indexed in Scopus and the Science Citation Index Expanded. According to the Journal Citation Reports, its 2013 impact factor is 0.415.
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bhatkhande music institute (deemed university) lucknow uttar pradesh | Bhatkhande music institute deemed University - Wikipedia
Bhatkhande Music Institute Deemed University, formerly Bhatkhande Music Institute, is a music institute in Lucknow. Established in 1926 by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, it was declared a deemed university by University Grants Commission (UGC) in 2000, and offers music education in Vocal Music, Instrumental, Rhythms, Dance, Musicology and Research and Applied Music.
The Institute finds its origin in the Marris College of Music, established in 1926 by renowned classical singer and musicologist, Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande and Rai Umanath Bali with the help of Dr. Rai Rajeshwar Bali, then Education minister of the United Provinces, the institution was formally inaugurated by then Governor of United Provinces, Sir William Sinclair Marris, and was also named after him.
Later, on 26 March 1966, the Government of Uttar Pradesh took over the college and renamed it after its founder as Bhatkhande Music College of Hindustani Music, later and now Bhatkhande Music Institute University, after Government of India through a notification on 24 October 2000, declared the institute a deemed university.
During the 1970s & 1980s, the institute organized annual festivals in which the most eminent of the country 's musicians performed. Some of the memorable concerts, that included performances by stars like Pd. Ravishanker, Amjad Ali Khan, Zakir Hussain, N Rajam, VJ Jog, Sitara Devi, etc. were part of the Lucknow Festival in the 1970s. During the same period various new courses, like "Thumri '' (singer Mrs. Begum Akhtar was the honorary faculty), were introduced.
In 2005, it organised a three - day classical music festival part of the Lucknow Mahotsav.
Primarily teaching vocal, dance, musicology and applied music in Hindustani classical music, the institute also started teaching western classical music in 2009, a move that did n't go well with some chauvinists (not musicians or affiliated to the Institute), who feared that addition of Western classical music could later lead to replacement of Bharatnatyam courses by ' belly dancing. '
The institute offers courses in Vocal Music, Instrumental, Rhythms, Dance, Musicology & Research and Applied Music leading up to: Diploma in Music - 2 years, Bachelor of Performing Arts (B.P.A.) - 3 years, Master of Performing Arts (M.P.A.) - 2 years and Ph. D... Apart from this there are special for the training in Dhrupad - Dhamar, Thumri singing and Light classical music which includes music composition and direction.
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who has been appointed as the new special director in enforcement directorate | Central Bureau of Investigation - Wikipedia
The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) is the premier investigating agency of India. Operating under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions, the CBI is headed by the Director. The agency has been known to investigate several economic crimes, special crimes, cases of corruption and other high - profile cases.
The CBI headquarters are located at Lodhi Road in New Delhi.
The Bureau of Investigation traces its origins to the Special Police Establishment, a Central Government Police force, which was set up in 1941 by the Government of India to investigate bribery and corruption in transactions with the War and Supply Department of India. It had its headquarters in Lahore. The Superintendent of the SPE was Khan Qurban Ali Khan, who later opted for Pakistan during the Partition of India. The first legal adviser of the War Department was Rai Sahib Karam Chand Jain. After the end of the war, there was a continued need for a central governmental agency to investigate bribery and corruption by central - government employees. Sahib Karam Chand Jain remained its legal advisor when the department was transferred to the Home Department by the 1946 Delhi Special Police Establishment Act.
This is DSPE 's scope was enlarged to cover all departments of the Government of India. Its jurisdiction extended to the Union Territories, and could be further extended to the states with the consent of the state governments involved. Sardar Patel, first Deputy Prime Minister of free India and head of the Home Department, desired to weed out corruption in erstwhile princely states such as Jodhpur, Rewa and Tonk. Patel directed Legal Advisor Karam Chand Jain to monitor criminal proceedings against the dewans and chief ministers of those states.
Th DSPE acquired its popular current name, Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), through a Home Ministry resolution dated 1.4. 1963.
The CBI established a reputation as India 's foremost investigative agency with the resources for complicated cases, and it was requested to assist the investigation of crimes such as murder, kidnapping and terrorism. The Supreme Court and a number of high courts in the country also began assigning such investigations to the CBI on the basis of petitions filed by aggrieved parties. In 1987, the CBI was divided into two divisions: the Anti-Corruption Division and the Special Crimes Division.
The founding director of the CBI was D.P. Kohli, who held the office from 1 April 1963 to 31 May 1968. Before this, Kohli was Inspector - general of police for the Special Police Establishment from 1955 to 1963 and held law - enforcement positions in Madhya Bharat (as chief of police), Uttar Pradesh and local central - government offices. For distinguished service, Kohli was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1967.
Kohli saw in the Special Police Establishment the potential to growing into a National Investigative Agency. He nurtured the organisation during his long career as inspector general and director and laid the foundation on which the agency grew.
The CBI is headed by a Director, an IPS (Indian Police Service) officer with a rank of Director General of Police. The director is selected based on the CVC Act 2003, and has a two - year term. Other ranks in the CBI which may be staffed by the IRS (Indian Revenue Service) officer and the IPS are Special Director, Additional Director, Joint Director, Deputy Inspector General of Police, Senior Superintendent of Police, Superintendent of Police, Additional Superintendent of Police, Deputy Superintendent of Police. Inspector, Sub-Inspector, Assistant Sub-Inspector, Head constable, Constable which are recruited through SSC or through deputation from Police, Income Tax Department and Customs Department.
The amended Delhi Special Police Establishment Act empowers a committee to appoint the director of CBI. The committee consists the following people:
When making recommendations, the committee considers the views of the outgoing director.
Above Selection committee was constituted under The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013. Before this central vigilance commissioner, under CVC act, had this power.
NDA government, on 25 November 2014, moved an amendment bill to do away with the requirement of quorum in high - profile committee while recommending the names, for the post of director CBI, to the central government by introducing the clause "no appointment of a (CBI) director shall be invalid merely by reason of any vacancy or absence of members in the panel ''. and to replace the LOP with Leader of single largest opposition party or pre-election coalition as at present there is no Leader of opposition in the Loksabha.
CBI headquarters is a ₹ 186 crore (US $28 million), state - of - the - art 11 - story building in New Delhi, housing all branches of the agency. The 7,000 - square - metre (75,000 sq ft) building is equipped with a modern communications system, an advanced record - maintenance system, storage space, computerised access control and an additional facility for new technology. Interrogation rooms, cells, dormitories and conference halls are provided. The building has a staff cafeteria with a capacity of 500, men 's and women 's gyms, a terrace garden, and bi-level basement parking for 470 vehicles. Advanced fire - control and power - backup systems are provided, in addition to a press briefing room and media lounge.
The CBI Academy in Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh (east of Delhi) began in 1996. It is about 40 kilometres (25 mi) from the New Delhi railway station and about 65 km (40 mi) from Indira Gandhi International Airport. The 26.5 - acre (10.7 ha) campus, with fields and plantations, houses the administrative, academic, hostel and residential buildings. Before the academy was built a small training centre at Lok Nayak Bhawan, New Delhi, conducted short - term in - service courses. The CBI then relied on state police - training institutions and the Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Police Academy in Hyderabad for basic training courses for deputy superintendents of police, sub-inspectors and constables.
The Academy accommodates the training needs of all CBI ranks. Facilities for specialised courses are also made available to the officials of the state police, central police organisations (CPOs), public - sector vigilance organisations, bank and government departments and the Indian Armed Forces.
The legal powers of investigation of the CBI are derived from the DSPE Act 1946, which confers powers, duties, privileges and liabilities on the Delhi Special Police Establishment (CBI) and officers of the Union Territories. The central government may extend to any area (except Union Territories) the powers and jurisdiction of the CBI for investigation, subject to the consent of the government of the concerned state. Members of the CBI at or above the rank of sub-inspector may be considered officers in charge of police stations. Under the act, the CBI can investigate only with notification by the central government.
Maintaining law and order is a state responsibility as "police '' is a State subject, and the jurisdiction to investigate crime lies with the state police exclusively. The CBI being a Union subject may investigate:
The High Courts and the Supreme Court have the jurisdiction to order a CBI investigation into an offence alleged to have been committed in a state without the state 's consent, according to a five - judge constitutional bench of the Supreme Court (in Civil Appeals 6249 and 6250 of 2001) on 17 Feb 2010. The bench ruled:
Being the protectors of civil liberties of the citizens, this Court and the High Courts have not only the power and jurisdiction but also an obligation to protect the fundamental rights, guaranteed by Part III in general and under Article 21 of the Constitution in particular, zealously and vigilantly.
The court clarified this is an extraordinary power which must be exercised sparingly, cautiously and only in exceptional situations.
CBI is exempted from the provisions of the Right to Information Act. This exemption was granted by the government on 9 June 2011 (with similar exemptions to the National Investigating Agency (NIA), the Directorate General of Income Tax Investigation and the National Intelligence Grid (Natgrid)) on the basis of national security. It was criticized by the Central Information Commission and RTI activists, who said the blanket exemption violated the letter and intent of the RTI Act. The exemption was upheld in Madras High Court.
According to Supreme Court of India, the CBI has been criticized for being a "caged parrot speaking in its master 's voice '', due to its excessive political interference irrespective of which party happened to be in power at the time.
Because of the CBI 's political overtones, it has been exposed by former officials such as Joginder Singh and B.R. Lall (director and joint director, respectively) as engaging in nepotism, wrongful prosecution and corruption. In Lall 's book, Who Owns CBI, he details how investigations are manipulated and derailed. Corruption within the organisation has been revealed in information obtained under the RTI Act, and RTI activist Krishnanand Tripathi has alleged harassment from the CBI to save itself from exposure via RTI.
Normally, cases assigned to the CBI are sensitive and of national importance. It is standard practice for state police departments to register cases under its jurisdiction; if necessary, the central government may transfer a case to the CBI. The agency has been criticised for its mishandling of several scams. It has also been criticized for dragging its feet investigating prominent politicians, such as P.V. Narasimha Rao, Jayalalithaa, Lalu Prasad Yadav, Mayawati and Mulayam Singh Yadav; this tactic leads to their acquittal or non-prosecution.
In January 2006 it was discovered that the CBI had quietly unfrozen bank accounts belonging to Italian businessman Ottavio Quattrocchi, one of those accused in the 1986 Bofors scandal which tainted the government of Rajiv Gandhi. The CBI was responsible for the inquiry into the Bofors case. Associates of then - prime minister Rajiv Gandhi were linked to alleged payoffs made during the mid-1980s by Swedish arms firm AB Bofors, with US $40 million in kickbacks moved from Britain and Panama to secret Swiss banks. The 410 howitzers purchased in the US $1,300 million arms sale were reported to be inferior to those offered by a French competitor.
The CBI, which unfroze ₹ 21 crore (US $3.1 million) in a London bank in accounts held by Bofors, accused Quattrocchi and his wife Maria in 2006 but facilitated his travel by asking Interpol to take him off its wanted list on 29 April 2009. After communications from the CBI, Interpol withdrew the red corner notice on Quattrocchi.
A 1991 arrest of militants in Kashmir led to a raid on hawala brokers, revealing evidence of large - scale payments to national politicians. The Jain hawala case encompassed former Union ministers Ajit Kumar Panja and P. Shiv Shankar, former Uttar Pradesh governor Motilal Vora, Bharatiya Janata Party leader Yashwant Sinha. The 20 defendants were discharged by Special Judge V.B. Gupta in the ₹ 650 - million case, heard in New Delhi.
The judge ruled that there was no prima facie evidence against the accused which could be converted into legal evidence. Those freed included Bharatiya Janata Party president L.K. Advani; former Union ministers V.C. Shukla, Arjun Singh, Madhavrao Scindia, N.D. Tiwari and R.K. Dhawan, and former Delhi chief minister Madan Lal Khurana. In 1997 a ruling by late Chief Justice of India J.S. Verma listed about two dozen guidelines which, if followed, would have ensured the independence of the investigating agency. Sixteen years later, successive governments circumvent the guidelines and treat the CBI as another wing of the government. Although the prosecution was prompted by a public - interest petition, the cases concluded with no convictions. In Vineet Narain & Othrs v Union of India AIR 1996 SC 3386, the Supreme Court ruled that the Central Vigilance Commission should have a supervisory role over the CBI.
In this case Santosh Kumar Singh, the alleged murderer of a 25 - year - old law student, was acquitted for what the judge called "deliberate inaction '' by the investigating team. The accused was the son of a high - ranking officer in the Indian Police Service, the reason for the CBI 's involvement. The 1999 judgment noted that "the influence of the father of the accused has been there ''.
Embarrassed by the judgment, CBI Director R.K. Raghavan appointed two special directors (P.C. Sharma and Gopal Achari) to study the judgement. The CBI appealed the verdict in Delhi High Court in 2000, and the court issued a warrant for the accused. The CBI applied for an early hearing in July 2006; in October the High Court found Singh guilty of rape and murder, sentencing him to death.
This case concerns 27 March 1992 death of a nun who was found in a water well in the Saint Pius X convent hostel in Kottayam, Kerala. Five CBI investigations have failed to yield any suspects.
The CBI has been accused of supporting the ruling Congress Party against its opposition, the BJP. The CBI is investigating the Sohrabuddin case in Gujarat; Geeta Johri, also investigating the case, claimed that the CBI is pressuring her to falsely implicate former Gujarat minister Amit Shah.
Sant Singh Chatwal was a suspect in CBI records for 14 years. The agency had filed two charge sheets, sent letters rogatory abroad and sent a team to the United States to imprison Chatwal and his wife from 2 -- 5 February 1997. On 30 May 2007 and 10 August 2008 former CBI directors Vijay Shankar and Ashwani Kumar, respectively, signed no - challenge orders on the imprisonment. Later, it was decided not to appeal their release.
This closed a case of bank fraud in which Chatwal had been embroiled for over a decade. Along with four others, Chatwal was charged with being part of a "criminal conspiracy '' to defraud the Bank of India 's New York branch of ₹ 28.32 crore (US $4.2 million). Four charges were filed by the CBI, with Chatwal named a defendant in two. The other two trials are still in progress. RTI applicant Krishnanand Tripathi was denied access to public information concerning the closed cases. The Central Information Commission later ordered the CBI to disclose the information; however, the CBI is exempt from the RTI Act (see above). Chatwal is a recipient of the Padma Bhushan.
This case concerns 5 December 2002 death of T.M. Varghese (also known as Malankara Varghese), a member of the Malankara Orthodox Church managing committee and a timber merchant. Varghese Thekkekara, a priest and manager of the Angamali diocese of the rival Jacobite Syrian Christian Church (part of the Syriac Orthodox Church), was charged with murder and conspiracy on 9 May 2010. Thekkekara was not arrested after he was charged, for which the CBI was criticised by the Kerala High Court and the media.
The CBI was publicly seen as ineffective in trying the 1984 Bhopal disaster case. Former CBI joint director B.R. Lall has said that he was asked to remain soft on extradition for Union Carbide CEO Warren Anderson and drop the charges (which included culpable homicide). Those accused received two - year sentences.
The UPA government has been accused of allocating 2G spectrum to corporations at very low prices through corrupt and illegal means. The Supreme Court cited the CBI many times for its tardiness in the investigations; only after the court began monitoring its investigations were high - profile arrests made.
This is a political scandal concerning the Indian government 's allocation of the nation 's coal deposits to private companies by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, which cost the government ₹ 10,673.03 billion (US $160 billion). CBI director Ranjit Sinha submitted an affidavit in the Supreme Court that the coal - scam status report prepared by the agency was shared with Congress Party law minister Ashwani Kumar "as desired by him '' and with secretary - level officers from the prime minister 's office (PMO) and the coal ministry before presenting it to the court.
This is a double murder case of 14 - year - old girl Aarushi Talwar and 45 - year - old Hemraj Banjade from Noida, India. On 26 November 2013, Parents of girl named Rajesh and Nupur Talwar were sentenced to life imprisonment for the twin murders. In January 2014, the Talwars challenged the decision in the Allahabad High Court. The High Court 's acquitted them of all charges on 12 October 2017 because of the lack of ' irresistible proof '. The Allahabad HC in its verdict said that there were loopholes in the evidence which found the parents not guilty. Court also said that CBI tampered evidences and tutored witnesses. Questions arose by nation on investigation and judgement given by CBI court.
Demanding independent investigations, the CBI said that although it deferred to the government 's authority in non-corruption cases the agency felt that sufficient financial and administrative powers (including a minimum three - year tenure to ensure "functional autonomy '') were required by the director.
"As such, it is necessary that the director, CBI, should be vested with ex-officio powers of the Secretary to the Government of India, reporting directly to the minister, without having to go through the DoPT '', the agency said, adding that financial powers were not enough and it wanted a separate budget allocation.
Some form of autonomy has been granted by the Supreme Court of India to CBI when it held that CBI can prosecute senior bureaucrats without central government 's permission. Indian Supreme Court also held that Section 6A of DSPE Act is unconstitutional.
Assam High Court had given a verdict on 6 November 2013, that CBI is unconstitutional and does not hold a legal status. However, the Supreme Court of India stayed this verdict when challenged by the central government and next hearing on this is fixed on 6 December 2013. Some legal experts believe that the ultimate solution for Indian government is to formulate a law for CBI as sooner or later the Supreme Court may hold the constitution of CBI unconstitutional.
The CBI has a high conviction rate:
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