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where are the dead from the titanic buried | Fairview Cemetery, Halifax, Nova Scotia - wikipedia
Fairview Cemetery is a cemetery in Halifax, Nova Scotia. It is perhaps best known as the final resting place for over one hundred victims of the sinking of the RMS Titanic. Officially known as Fairview Lawn Cemetery, the non-denominational cemetery is run by the Parks Department of the Halifax Regional Municipality.
Fairview Lawn Cemetery is located in the North End of Halifax at the Northern End of Windsor Street. It is bordered by the Saint John Anglican cemetery on one side and the Baron de Hirsch Cemetery on another.
A blockhouse was built at the site in the 1750s to protect Halifax from attacks by the Mi'kmaq people. The land was subsequently developed as small farms. In 1893, the land was acquired by a private company, the Fairview Lawn Cemetery Limited, for a non-denominational cemetery because the Camp Hill Cemetery in the centre of the city was running out of room. The city of Halifax took over the cemetery in 1944. Fairview contains a cross section of Halifax 's 20th century residents including a Greek section and a Chinese section as well as a mass grave of victims from the Halifax Explosion and many other graves.
One hundred and twenty - one victims of the RMS Titanic sinking are interred at Fairview, more than any other cemetery in the world. Most of them are memorialized with small gray granite markers with the name and date of death. Some families paid for larger markers with more inscriptions. The occupants of a third of the graves, however, have never been identified and their markers contain just the date of death and marker number. Surveyor E.W. Christie laid out three long lines of graves in gentle curves following the contours of the sloping site. By co-incidence, the curved shape suggests the outline of the bow of a ship. A complete listing of those victims buried in Fairview can be found here.
One of the better - known Titanic markers is for an unidentified child victim, known for decades as The Unknown Child. No one claimed the body, so he was buried with funds provided by sailors of the CS Mackay - Bennett, the cable ship that recovered his body. The marker bears the inscription ' Erected to the memory of an unknown child whose remains were recovered after the disaster of the "Titanic '' April 15, 1912 '. In November 2002, the child was initially identified as 13 - month - old Eino Viljami Panula of Finland. Eino, his mother, and four brothers all died in the Titanic disaster. After additional forensic testing, the unknown child was re-identified as 19 - month - old Sidney Leslie Goodwin, an English child who perished with his entire family.
A grave marked "J. Dawson '' gained fame following the release of the 1997 film Titanic, since the name of Leonardo DiCaprio 's character in the film is Jack Dawson. Many filmgoers, moved by the story, left flowers and ticket stubs at Dawson 's grave when the film was first released, and flowers continue to be left today. Film director James Cameron has said the character 's name was not in fact inspired by the grave. More recent research has revealed that the grave actually belongs to Joseph Dawson, an Irishman who worked in Titanic 's boiler room as a coal trimmer.
The Fairview Titanic graves also include the burial place and marker of William Denton Cox, a heroic steward who died while escorting third class passengers to the lifeboats.
Twenty - nine other Titanic victims are buried elsewhere in Halifax; nineteen in the Roman Catholic Mount Olivet Cemetery and ten in the Jewish Baron de Hirsch Cemetery.
The cemetery also contains 29 war graves of Commonwealth service personnel, 20 from World War I and 9 from World War II.
Coordinates: 44 ° 39 ′ 35.9 '' N 63 ° 37 ′ 20.4 '' W / 44.659972 ° N 63.622333 ° W / 44.659972; - 63.622333
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how far is matthew's missouri from here | Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle (Washington, D.C.) - wikipedia
The Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle in Washington D.C., most commonly known as St. Matthew 's Cathedral, is the seat of the Archbishop (currently Donald Cardinal Wuerl) of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Washington. As St. Matthew 's Cathedral and Rectory, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.
The cathedral is in downtown Washington at 1725 Rhode Island Avenue NW between Connecticut Avenue and 17th Street. The closest Metrorail station is Farragut North, on the Red Line. It is seven blocks north and two blocks west of the White House.
St. Matthew 's is dedicated to the Apostle Matthew, who among other things is patron saint of civil servants, having himself been a tax collector. It was established 177 years ago in 1840 as the fourth Catholic parish in the District of Columbia. Originally located at 15th and H Streets, construction of the current church began in 1893, with the first Mass being celebrated June 2, 1895. Construction continued until 1913 when the church was dedicated. In 1939, it became the cathedral for the newly established Archdiocese of Washington.
The structure is constructed of red brick with sandstone and terra cotta trim in the Romanesque Revival style with Byzantine elements. Designed by architect C. Grant La Farge, it is in the shape of a Latin cross measuring 155 ft × 136 ft (47 m × 41 m) and seats about 1,200 persons. The interior is richly decorated in marble and semiprecious stones, notably a 35 ft (11 m) mosaic of Matthew behind the main altar by Edwin Blashfield. The cathedral is capped by an octagonal dome that extends 190 ft (58 m) above the nave and is capped by a cupola and crucifix that brings the total height to 200 ft (61 m). Both structural and decorative elements underwent extensive restoration between 2000 and September 21, 2003, the feast day of St. Matthew.
The first notable funeral Mass offered at St, Matthew 's was for Manuel L. Quezon, the president of the Philippines, who died August 1, 1944, and was interred at Arlington National Cemetery until the end of World War II. In 1957, a Solemn Requiem Mass was offered at the cathedral for the funeral of Senator Joseph McCarthy; the liturgy was attended by 70 senators and hundreds of clergymen and it was filled to capacity.
The cathedral drew worldwide attention following the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963. Richard Cardinal Cushing, Archbishop of Boston and a Kennedy family friend, offered a recited (not sung) Pontifical Requiem Low Mass during the state funeral on Monday, November 25, which was followed by the procession to Arlington.
Other notable events at the cathedral include a Mass celebrated by Pope John Paul II during his 1979 visit to Washington, D.C., and the 1997 funeral of U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice William J. Brennan, Jr.
The cathedral was the site of a Lutheran funeral service for Chief Justice William Rehnquist on September 7, 2005.
The funeral of television anchorman Frank Reynolds was held at the cathedral in 1983. President and Mrs. Reagan were among the 1,100 in attendance on Saturday, July 23, followed by burial at Arlington.
St. Matthew 's is the location for one of the most famous Red Masses in the world. Each year on the day before the term of the Supreme Court of the United States begins, Mass is celebrated to request guidance from the Holy Spirit for the legal profession. Owing to the Cathedral 's location in the nation 's capital, the Justices of the Supreme Court, members of Congress and the Cabinet, and many other dignitaries (including, at times, the President of the United States) attend the Mass. Dwight Eisenhower became the first to attend as president in 1954; Harry Truman attended nine years earlier, but as vice president.
Near the entry of the St. Francis Chapel is a burial crypt with eight tombs intended for Washington 's archbishops. Two former archbishops, Patrick Cardinal O'Boyle and James Cardinal Hickey, are interred here. Cardinal William Baum, a former archbishop of Washington, died on July 23, 2015 and is to be buried in that crypt.
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what countries does the orient express travel through | Orient Express - wikipedia
The Orient Express was a long - distance passenger train service created in 1883 by Compagnie Internationale des Wagons - Lits (CIWL).
The route and rolling stock of the Orient Express changed many times. Several routes in the past concurrently used the Orient Express name, or slight variations. Although the original Orient Express was simply a normal international railway service, the name became synonymous with intrigue and luxury travel. The two city names most prominently associated with the Orient Express are Paris and Constantinople (Istanbul), the original endpoints of the timetabled service. The Orient Express was a showcase of luxury and comfort at a time when travelling was still rough and dangerous.
In 1977, the Orient Express stopped serving Istanbul. Its immediate successor, a through overnight service from Paris to Bucharest -- since 1991 only to Budapest, and in 2001 again shortened to Vienna -- ran for the last time from Paris on Friday, June 8, 2007. After this, the route, still called the "Orient Express '', was shortened to start from Strasbourg instead, occasioned by the inauguration of the LGV Est which afforded much shorter travel times from Paris to Strasbourg. The new curtailed service left Strasbourg at 22: 20 daily, shortly after the arrival of a TGV from Paris, and was attached at Karlsruhe to the overnight sleeper service from Amsterdam to Vienna.
On 14 December 2009, the Orient Express ceased to operate and the route disappeared from European railway timetables, reportedly a "victim of high - speed trains and cut - rate airlines ''. The Venice - Simplon Orient Express train, a private venture by Orient - Express Hotels Ltd. using original CIWL carriages from the 1920s and 1930s, continues to run from London to Venice and to other destinations in Europe, including the original route from Paris to Istanbul. In March 2014 Orient - Express Hotels Ltd. was renamed Belmond.
In 1882, Georges Nagelmackers, a Belgian banker 's son, invited guests to a railway trip of 2,000 km (1,243 mi) on his "Train Eclair de luxe '' ("lightning luxury train ''). The train left Paris Gare de l'Est on Tuesday, October 10, 1882, just after 18: 30 and arrived in Vienna the next day at 23: 20. The return trip left Vienna on Friday, October 13, 1882, at 16: 40 and, as planned, re-entered the Gare de Strasbourg at 20: 00 on Saturday October 14, 1882.
Georges Nagelmackers was the founder of Compagnie Internationale des Wagons - Lits, which expanded its luxury trains, travel agencies and hotels all over Europe, Asia and North Africa. Its most famous train remains the Orient - Express.
The train was composed of:
The first menu on board (October 10, 1882): oysters, soup with Italian pasta, turbot with green sauce, chicken ' à la chasseur ', fillet of beef with ' château ' potatoes, ' chaud - froid ' of game animals, lettuce, chocolate pudding, buffet of desserts.
On June 5, 1883, the first Express d'Orient left Paris for Vienna. Vienna remained the terminus until October 4, 1883. The train was officially renamed Orient Express in 1891.
The original route, which first ran on October 4, 1883, was from Paris, Gare de l'Est, to Giurgiu in Romania via Munich and Vienna. At Giurgiu, passengers were ferried across the Danube to Ruse, Bulgaria, to pick up another train to Varna. They then completed their journey to Constantinople by ferry. In 1885, another route began operations, this time reaching Istanbul via rail from Vienna to Belgrade and Niš, carriage to Plovdiv and rail again to Istanbul.
In 1889, the train 's eastern terminus became Varna in Bulgaria, where passengers could take a ship to Constantinople. On June 1, 1889, the first direct train to Istanbul left Paris (Gare de l'Est). Istanbul remained its easternmost stop until May 19, 1977. The eastern terminus was the Sirkeci Terminal by the Golden Horn. Ferry service from piers next to the terminal would take passengers across the Bosphorus to Haydarpaşa Terminal, the terminus of the Asian lines of the Ottoman Railways.
The onset of World War I in 1914 saw Orient Express services suspended. They resumed at the end of hostilities in 1918, and in 1919 the opening of the Simplon Tunnel allowed the introduction of a more southerly route via Milan, Venice and Trieste. The service on this route was known as the Simplon Orient Express, and it ran in addition to continuing services on the old route. The Treaty of Saint - Germain contained a clause requiring Austria to accept this train: formerly, Austria allowed international services to pass through Austrian territory (which included Trieste at the time) only if they ran via Vienna. The Simplon Orient Express soon became the most important rail route between Paris and Istanbul.
The 1930s saw the Orient Express services at its most popular, with three parallel services running: the Orient Express, the Simplon Orient Express, and also the Arlberg Orient Express, which ran via Zürich and Innsbruck to Budapest, with sleeper cars running onwards from there to Bucharest and Athens. During this time, the Orient Express acquired its reputation for comfort and luxury, carrying sleeping - cars with permanent service and restaurant cars known for the quality of their cuisine. Royalty, nobles, diplomats, business people and the bourgeoisie in general patronized it. Each of the Orient Express services also incorporated sleeping cars which had run from Calais to Paris, thus extending the service right from one edge of continental Europe to the other.
The start of the Second World War in 1939 again interrupted the service, which did not resume until 1945. During the war, the German Mitropa company had run some services on the route through the Balkans, but Yugoslav Partisans frequently sabotaged the track, forcing a stop to this service.
Following the end of the war, normal services resumed except on the Athens leg, where the closure of the border between Yugoslavia and Greece prevented services from running. That border re-opened in 1951, but the closure of the Bulgarian -- Turkish border from 1951 to 1952 prevented services running to Istanbul during that time. As the Iron Curtain fell across Europe, the service continued to run, but the Communist nations increasingly replaced the Wagon - Lits cars with carriages run by their own railway services.
By 1962, the Orient Express and Arlberg Orient Express had stopped running, leaving only the Simplon Orient Express. This was replaced in 1962 by a slower service called the Direct Orient Express, which ran daily cars from Paris to Belgrade, and twice weekly services from Paris to Istanbul and Athens.
In 1971, the Wagon - Lits company stopped running carriages itself and making revenues from a ticket supplement. Instead, it sold or leased all its carriages to the various national railway companies, but continued to provide staff for the carriages. 1976 saw the withdrawal of the Paris -- Athens direct service, and in 1977, the Direct Orient Express was withdrawn completely, with the last Paris -- Istanbul service running on May 19 of that year.
The withdrawal of the Direct Orient Express was thought by many to signal the end of Orient Express as a whole, but in fact a service under this name continued to run from Paris to Bucharest as before (via Strasbourg, Munich, and Budapest). However, a through sleeping car from Paris to Bucharest -- and even eastwards from Vienna -- was only operated until 1982, and also a through seating car was only operated seasonally. This meant, that Paris -- Budapest and Vienna -- Bucharest coaches were running overlapped, so a journey was only possible with changing carriages -- despite the unchanged name and numbering of the train. In 1991 the Budapest - Bucharest leg of the train was canceled, the new final station has become Budapest. In the summer season of 1999 and 2000 a sleeping car from Bucharest to Paris reappeared twice a week -- now operated by CFR. This continued until 2001, when the service was cut back to just Paris -- Vienna, already in EuroNight quality -- but in both cases the coaches were in fact rather attached to a Paris -- Strasbourg express. This service continued daily, listed in the timetables under the name Orient Express, until June 8, 2007.
With the opening of the LGV Est Paris -- Strasbourg high speed rail line on June 10, 2007, the Orient Express service was further cut back to Strasbourg -- Vienna, departing nightly at 22: 20 from Strasbourg, and still bearing the name, but lost the number 262 / 263 which was owned since decades.
The remains of the train had a convenient connection from / to the Strasbourg - Paris TGV, but due to the less flexible prices the changing has become less attractive. In the last years through coaches between Vienna and Karlsruhe (continuing first to Dortmund, then to Amsterdam and finally -- partly from Budapest -- to Frankfurt) were attached. The very last train with the name Orient - Express (now with a hyphen) has departed from Vienna at the 10th December 2009, and one day later from Strasbourg.
Though the final service ran only from Strasbourg to Vienna, it was possible to retrace the entire original Orient Express route with four trains: Paris -- Strasbourg, Strasbourg -- Vienna, Vienna -- Belgrade and Belgrade - Istanbul, each of which were operated daily. Other routes from Paris to Istanbul exist even today, such as Paris -- Munich -- Budapest -- Bucharest -- Istanbul, or Paris -- Zürich -- Belgrade -- Istanbul, all of which have comparable travel times of approximately 60 hours without delays. Train services across the border to Turkey were stopped through several years due to construction works, but they were reintroduced in June 2017, however, ending in Istanbul 's suburb Halkali, from where a transfer bus is provided to the city centre.
The luxurious dining car, where scenes for Murder on the Orient Express and other movies were filmed, is now in the OSE museum of Thessalonica. The local authorities plan to refit the train to make it available for tourist use around the Balkans in the near future.
In 1976 the Swiss travel company "Intraflug AG '' has first hired, then also bought several CIWL - carriages, and operated them as Nostalgie Istanbul Orient Express from Zürich to Istanbul. In 1983 the 100. anniversary of the Orient - Express was celebrated by a trip of this train from Paris to Istanbul, and in 1988 it has run to Hong Kong via the Soviet Union and China. From there it was transferred by ferry to Japan, and used there for some excursions after regauging.
After the failure of the American European Express (see below) Intraflug has become bankrupt, and the carriages were taken over by the Reisebüro Mittelthurgau. The sleeping cars and some other coaches (Pullmans, dining cars, luggage vans) were transferred to Russia and used between Moscow and the Mongolian - Chinese border. (The adjacent Chinese train was also branded for a while as China Orient Express, nowadays it 's known as Shangri - La Express.) The remaining vehicles were used in Germany and Switzerland as diner trains until the company 's 2003 bankruptcy. Since then the trains are standing unused in different countries, as the new owners have got problems with operations due to a lawsuit about the usage rights of the name Orient Express.
In 1982, the Venice - Simplon Orient Express was established as a private venture, running restored 1920s and 1930s carriages from London to Venice. This service runs between March and November, and is firmly aimed at leisure travellers, with tickets costing over $3,120 per person from London to Venice (via Paris, Zürich, Innsbruck and Verona -- also despite its name the train is running via the Brenner Pass instead of the Simplon tunnel) including meals. Two or three times a year Prague or Vienna and Budapest is also accessed, starting from Venice, and returning to Paris and London. In every September the train also goes to from London and Paris to Istanbul via Budapest, Sinaia and Bucharest -- in the last three cities a sightseeing (and in the two capitals an overnight in hotel) also takes place -- the return trip on the same route ends up in Venice. While the above - mentioned routes are available in almost every years, some seasons have also included unique destinations, among them Cologne, Rome, Florence, Lucerne, the High Tatras, Cracow, Dresden, Copenhagen and Stockholm. Such a journey is provided currently to Berlin.
The company also offers a similarly themed luxury train in Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand called the Eastern and Oriental Express, and operates other luxury overnight trains in Scotland, Ireland and Peru.
The Pullman Orient Express was established by the CIWL in 1994. This train has only Pullman and dining cars, but no sleepers. It 's used for gourmet trips in France. After the legal disputes about the name it was taken over by the SNCF and operated since then as Pullman Orient - Express.
In North America, the American Orient Express, formerly the American European Express and later GrandLuxe Express, operated several train sets in charter service between 1989 and 2008.
The CIWL archives contain more than 100 years of posters, photos, plans and communication material that represents a tremendous interest for cultural, academic or commercial projects. Creators and artists have been hired by CIWL since 1883 in order to create luxury conditions and comfort in travel, as well as a particular graphic style that is now recognized worldwide by its quality. Great efforts have been made to digitalize images (photos, plans and posters), although vast paper archives remain preserved, waiting to be sorted and classified in the future. As of today, available digital archives consist of more than 250 CIWL posters, 800 PLM posters and more than 6,000 archive photos, representing probably one of the most extensive poster collections in the world with works dating from the end of the 19th century to the late 1950s. These archives are regularly used for all types of publishing and media projects, all over the world, as well as cultural events (see below: Exhibition).
The glamour and rich history of the Orient Express has frequently lent itself to the plot of books and films and as the subject of television documentaries.
Sources:
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who is the renowned biographer of holy prophet | List of biographies of Muhammad - wikipedia
This is a chronological listing of biographies of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, ranging from the earliest traditional writers to modern times.
The following is a list of the earliest known Hadith collectors who specialized in collecting Sīra and Maghāzī reports.
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largest banks in north america by market cap | List of largest banks - wikipedia
These are a list of the banks in the world, as measured by total assets.
The list is based on the S&P Global Market Intelligence report 2017 of the 100 largest banks in the world. Accounting treatment affects the assets reported. For example, the United States uses US GAAP (as opposed to IFRS), which only reports the net derivative position in most cases, leading to US banks having fewer derivative assets than comparable non-US banks.
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which discipline of neuroscience studies nervous system disorders | Clinical neuroscience - wikipedia
Clinical neuroscience is a branch of neuroscience that focuses on the scientific study of fundamental mechanisms that underlie diseases and disorders of the brain and central nervous system. It seeks to develop new ways of diagnosing such disorders and ultimately of developing novel treatments.
A clinical neuroscientist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field. Not all clinicians are clinical neuroscientists. Clinicians - including psychiatrists, neurologists, clinical psychologists, and other medical specialists -- use basic research findings from neuroscience in general and clinical neuroscience in particular to develop diagnostic methods and ways to prevent and treat neurological disorders. Such disorders include addiction, Alzheimer 's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, anxiety disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism, bipolar disorder, brain tumors, depression, Down syndrome, dyslexia, epilepsy, Huntington 's disease, multiple sclerosis, neurological AIDS, neurological trauma, pain, obsessive - compulsive disorder, Parkinson 's disease, schizophrenia, sleep disorders, stroke and Tourette syndrome.
While neurology, neurosurgery and psychiatry are the main medical specialties that use neuroscientific information, other medical specialties such as neuroradiology, neuropathology, ophthalmology, otorhinolaryngology, anesthesiology and rehabilitation medicine can contribute to the discipline. Integration of the neuroscience perspective alongside other traditions like psychotherapy, social psychiatry or social psychology will become increasingly important.
The "One Mind for Research '' forum was a convention held in Boston, Massachusetts on May 23 -- 25, 2011 that produced the blueprint document A Ten - Year Plan for Neuroscience: From Molecules to Brain Health. Leading neuroscience researchers and practitioners in the United States contributed to the creation of this document, in which 17 key areas of opportunities are listed under the Clinical Neuroscience section. These include the following:
In particular, it advocates for better integrated and scientifically driven curricula for practitioners, and it recommends that such curricula be shared among neurologists, psychiatrists, psychologists, neurosurgeons and neuroradiologists.
Given the various ethical, legal and societal implications for healthcare practitioners arising from advances in neuroscience, the University of Pennsylvania inaugurated the Penn Conference on Clinical Neuroscience and Society in July 2011.
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what is the first file used in the boot process of windows vista | Windows Vista startup process - wikipedia
The startup process of Windows Vista, Windows Server 2008 and their successors differs from the startup process part of previous versions of Windows.
In this article, unless otherwise specified, what is said about "Windows Vista '' also applies to all later NT operating systems. For Windows Vista, the boot sector loads the Windows Boot Manager (a file named BOOTMGR on either the system or the boot partition), accesses the Boot Configuration Data store and uses the information to load the operating system. Then, the BCD invokes the boot loader and in turn proceeds to initiate the Windows kernel.
Windows Vista introduces a complete overhaul of the Windows operating system loader architecture. The earliest known reference to this revised architecture is included within PowerPoint slides distributed by Microsoft during the Windows Hardware Engineering Conference of 2004 when the operating system was codenamed "Longhorn. '' This documentation mentions that the Windows operating system loader would be undergoing a significant restructuring in order to support EFI and to "do some major overhaul of legacy code. '' The new boot architecture completely replaces the NTLDR architecture used in previous versions of Windows NT.
Boot Configuration Data (BCD) is a firmware - independent database for boot - time configuration data. It is used by Microsoft 's new Windows Boot Manager and replaces the boot. ini that was used by NTLDR.
Boot Configuration Data are stored in a data file that has the same format as Windows Registry hives and is eventually mounted at registry key (HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE \ BCD00000) (with restricted permissions). For UEFI boot, the file is located at \ EFI \ Microsoft \ Boot \ BCD on the EFI System Partition. For traditional BIOS boot, the file is at \ boot \ BCD on the active partition.
Boot Configuration Data may be altered using a command - line tool (bcdedit. exe), using Registry Editor (regedit. exe), using Windows Management Instrumentation, or with third - party tools such as EasyBCD, BOOTICE, or Visual BCD Editor.
Boot Configuration Data contain the menu entries that are presented by the Windows Boot Manager, just as boot. ini contained the menu entries that were presented by NTLDR. These menu entries can include:
Boot Configuration Data allows for third - party integration, so anyone can implement tools like diagnostics or recovery options.
The Windows Boot Manager invokes winload. exe -- the operating system boot loader -- to load the operating system kernel executive (ntoskrnl. exe) and core device drivers. In that respect, winload. exe is functionally equivalent to the operating system loader function of NTLDR in prior versions of Windows NT. In UEFI systems, the file is called winload. efi and the file is always located at \ windows \ system32 \ boot.
If the computer has recently hibernated, then bootmgr will instead invoke winresume. exe. The only difference is the alternate boot mode and the splash screen displaying "Resuming Windows ''. In UEFI systems, the file is called winresume. efi and is always located at \ windows \ system32 \ boot.
With the advent of the new boot manager in Windows Vista, many components have been changed; one is the Advanced Boot Options menu that provides options for advanced boot modes (i.e. Safe Mode). Due to the implementation of Hybrid Boot in Windows 8 and up, access to the Advanced Boot Options menu has been disabled by default. However, access is still possible with a BCD modification. These are the possible boot modes:
The ABO menu is accessible by pressing rapidly or holding the F8 key before Windows boots.
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why are the ganesh statues immersed in water at the end of the festival | Ganesh Chaturthi - wikipedia
Ganesh Chaturthi (IAST: Gaṇēśa Chaturthī), also known as Vinayaka Chaturthi (Vināyaka Chaturthī) is the Hindu festival that reveres god Ganesha. A ten - day festival, it starts on the fourth day of Hindu luni - solar calendar month Bhadrapada, which typically falls in Gregorian months of August or September. The festival is marked with installation of Ganesha clay idols privately in homes, or publicly on elaborate pandals (temporary stage). Observations include chanting of Vedic hymns and Hindu texts such as Ganapati Upanishad, prayers and vrata (fasting). Offerings and prasada from the daily prayers, that is distributed from the pandal to the community, include sweets such as modaka believed to be a favorite of the elephant - headed deity. The festival ends on the tenth day after start, wherein the idol is carried in a public procession with music and group chanting, then immersed in nearby water body such as a river or ocean, thereafter the clay idol dissolves and Ganesha is believed to return to Mount Kailash to Parvati and Shiva.
The festival celebrates Lord Ganesha as the God of New Beginnings and the Remover of Obstacles and is observed throughout India, especially in the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Telangana, Gujarat and Chhattisgarh, and is usually celebrated privately at home in states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Ganesh Chaturthi is also observed in Nepal and by the Hindu diaspora elsewhere such as in the Trinidad, Suriname, Fiji, Mauritius, United States and in Europe (in Tenerife).
At public venues, along with the reading of texts and group feasting, athletic and martial arts competitions are also held.
It is unclear when the festival started, it may have South Indian origins, but historical evidence suggests it became a major social and public event with sponsorship of Shivaji after Mughal - Maratha wars, and again in the 19th century after public appeal by Indian freedom fighter Lokmanya Tilak, who championed it as a means to circumvent the colonial British government ban on Hindu gatherings through its anti-public assembly legislation in 1892.
The earliest mention of Ganapati, now considered equivalent to Ganesha or Vinayaka, is found in the Rigveda. It appears twice in the Rigveda, once in hymn 2.23. 1, as well as in hymn 10.112. 9. Both of these hymns imply a role of Ganapati as "the seer among the seers, abounding beyond measure in food presiding among the elders and being the lord of invocation '', while the hymn in mandala 10 states that without Ganapati "nothing nearby or afar is performed without thee '', according to Michael. However, it is uncertain that the Vedic term Ganapati which literally means "guardian of the multitudes '', referred specifically to later era Ganesha, nor do the Vedic texts mention Ganesha Chaturthi.
Ganapati appears in post-Vedic texts such as the Grhya Sutras and thereafter ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Vajasaneyi Samhita, the Yajnavalkya Smriti and the Mahabharata mention Ganapati as Ganesvaras and Vinayakas. Ganesha appears in the medieval Puranas in the form of "god of success, obstacle remover ''. The Skanda Purana, Narada Purana and the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, in particular, profusely praise him. Beyond textual interpretations, archeological and epigraphical evidence suggest Ganesha had become popular, was revered before the 8th century CE and numerous images of him are traceable to 7th century or earlier. For example, carvings at Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples such as at the Ellora Caves, dated between the 5th and 8th century show Ganesha reverentially seated with major Hindu goddesses (Shakti).
Although it is unknown when (or how) Ganesha Chaturthi was first observed, the festival has been publicly celebrated in Pune since the era of Shivaji (1630 -- 1680, founder of the Maratha Empire). After the start of the British Raj, the Ganesha festival lost state patronage and became a private family celebration in Maharashtra until its revival by Indian freedom fighter and social reformer Lokmanya Tilak. The festival, along with processions, was already in vogue as a public and a private celebration in Mumbai (then called Bombay) in 1885, according to the eyewitness account by a visiting Italian Sanskrit professor Angelo de Gubernatis:
I followed with the greatest curiosity crowds who carried in procession an infinite number of idols of the god Ganesh. Each little quarter of the town, each family with its adherents, each little street corner I may almost say, organizes a procession of its own, and the poorest may be seen carrying on a simple plank their little idol or of papier mâché... A crowd, more or less numerous, accompanies the idol, clapping hands and raises cries of joy, while a little orchestra generally precedes the idol. -- Angelo de Gubernatis, Bombay Gazette (1886)
According to others such as Kaur, the festival became a public event later, in 1892 when Bhausaheb Laxman Javale (also known as Bhau Rangari), installed the first sarvajanik (public) Ganesha idol in Pune. In 1893, the Indian freedom fighter Lokmanya Tilak praised the celebration of sarvajanik Ganesha utsav in his newspaper, Kesari, and dedicated his efforts to launch the annual domestic festival into a large, well - organised public event. Tilak recognized Ganesha 's appeal as "the god for everybody '', and according to Robert Brown, he chose Ganesha as the god that bridged "the gap between Brahmins and non-Brahmins '', thereby building a grassroots unity across them to oppose British colonial rule.
Other scholars state that the British Empire, after 1870 out of fear of seditious assemblies, had passed a series of ordinances that banned public assembly for social and political purposes of more than 20 people in British India, but exempted religious assembly for Friday mosque prayers under pressure from the Indian Muslim community. Tilak believed that this effectively blocked the public assembly of Hindus whose religion did not mandate daily prayers or weekly gatherings, and he leveraged this religious exemption to make Ganesh Chaturthi to circumvent the British colonial law on large public assembly. He was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions in Bombay Presidency, and other celebratory events at the festival.
Why should n't we convert the large religious festivals into mass political rallies?
According to Richard Cashman, Tilak recruited and passionately committed himself to god Ganesha after the 1893 Hindu - Muslim communal violence in Bombay and the Deccan riots, when he felt that the British India government under Lord Harris had repeatedly taken sides and not treated Hindus fairly because Hindus were not well organized. In Tilak 's estimate, Ganesha worship and processions were already popular in rural and urban Hindu populations, across social castes and classes in Baroda, Gwalior, Pune and most of the Maratha region in the 18th century. In 1893, Tilak helped expand Ganesh Chaturthi festival into a mass community event and a hidden means for political activism, intellectual discourse, poetry recitals, plays, concerts, and folk dances.
In Goa, Ganesha Chaturthi predates the Kadamba era. The Goa Inquisition had banned Hindu festivals, and Hindus who did not convert to Christianity were severely restricted. However, Hindu Goans continued to practice their religion despite the restrictions. Many families worship Ganesha in the form of patri (leaves used for worshiping Ganesha or other gods), a picture drawn on paper or small silver idols. In some households Ganesha idols are hidden, a feature unique to Ganesh Chaturthi in Goa due to a ban on clay Ganesha idols and festivals by the Jesuits as part of the Inquisition.
Public preparations for the festivities begin months in advance. Local Mandapa or Pandal 's are usually funded either from donations by local residents or hosted by businesses or community organizations. The making of the Murti in Maharashtra usually begins with "Padya pooja '' or worshipping the feet of Lord Ganesh. The Murti 's are brought to "pandals '' on the day or a day before the festival begins. The pandals have elaborate decoration and lighting.
At home, the festival preparation includes purchases such as puja items or accessories a few days in advance and booking the ganesh murti as early as a month beforehand (from local artisans). The murti is brought home either a day before or on the day of the ganesh chaturthi itself. Families decorate a small, clean portion of the house with flowers and other colourful items before installing the idol. When the Murti is installed, it and its shrine are decorated with flowers and other materials. On the day of the festival, The ceremonial installation of the clay murti (idol) is done along with chans of holy mantras and pooja including bhajans during a certain auspicious period of the day.
In preparation for the festival, artisans create clay models of Ganesha for sale. The Murti 's range in size from ⁄ inch (1.9 cm) for homes to over 70 ft (21 m) for large community celebrations.
The date for the festival is usually decided by the presence of Chaturthi Thithi. The festival is held during "Bhadrapada Madyahanaa Purvabaddha ''. If the chaturthi thiti begins at night on previous day and gets over by morning on next day then the next day is observed as vinayaka chaturthi. In the consecration ceremony, a priest performs a Prana Pratishtha to invite Ganesha like a guest. This is followed by the 16 - step Shodashopachara ritual, (Sanskrit: Shodash, 16; Upachara, process) during which coconut, jaggery, modaks, durva grass and red hibiscus (Jaswand) flowers are offered to the idol. Depending on the region and timezone, the ceremony commences with hymns from the Rigveda, the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, the Upanishads, and the Ganesha stotra (prayer) from the Narada Purana are chanted. In Maharashtra as well as Goa, Aartis are performed with friends and family, typically in the morning and evening.
In India, Ganesha Chaturthi is primarily celebrated at home and in public by local community groups in the central and western states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Goa and the southern states of Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu and Eastern states of Odisha.
At homes in Maharashtra, families install small clay statues for worship during the festival. The Murti is worshiped in the morning and evening with offerings of flowers, durva (strands of young grass), karanji and modaks (jaggery and coconut flakes wrapped in rice flour dumplings). The worship ends with the singing of an aarti in honour of Ganesha, other Gods and Saints. In Maharashtra the Marathi aarti "Sukhakarta Dukhaharta '', composed by the 17th century saint, Samarth Ramdas is sung. Family traditions differ about when to end the celebration. Domestic celebrations end after 1 ⁄, 3, 5, 7 or 11 days. At that time the Murti is ceremoniously brought to a body of water (such as a lake, river or the sea) for immersion. In Maharashtra, Ganeshotsav also incorporates other festivals, namely Hartalika and the Gauri festival, the former is observed with a fast by women on the day before Ganesh Chaturthi whilst the latter by the installation of Murti 's of Gauris.
In Goa, Ganesh Chaturthi is known as Chavath in Konkani and Parab or Parva ("auspicious celebration ''); it begins on the third day of the lunar month of Bhadrapada. On this day Parvati and Shiva are worshiped by women, who fast. Instruments such as ghumots, Crash cymbals (ताळ (taal) in Konkani) and pakhavaj (an Indian barrel - shaped, two - headed drum) are played during the rituals. The harvest festival, Navyachi Pancham, is celebrated the next day; freshly - harvested paddy is brought home from the fields (or temples) and a puja is conducted. Communities who ordinarily eat seafood refrain from doing so during the festival.
In Karnataka the Gowri festival precedes Ganesha Chaturthi, and people across the state wish each other well. In Andhra Pradesh, Ganesha Murti'so of clay (Matti Vinayakudu) and turmeric (Siddhi Vinayakudu) are usually worshiped at home with plaster of Paris Murti 's
Public celebrations of the festival are popular, and are organised by local youth groups, neighborhood associations or groups of tradespeople. Funds for the public festival are collected from members of the association arranging the celebration, local residents and businesses. The Ganesha idols and accompanying statues are installed in temporary shelters, known as mandaps or pandals. The festival features cultural activities such as singing, theater and orchestral performances and community activities such as free medical checkups, blood - donation sites and donations to the poor. Ganesh Chaturthi, in addition to its religious aspects, is an important economic activity in Mumbai, Surat, Pune, Hyderabad, Bangalore and Chennai. Many artists, industries, and businesses earn a significant amount of their living from the festival, which is a stage for budding artists. Members of other religions also participate in the celebration.
In Tamil Nadu the festival, also known as Vinayaka Chaturthi or Pillayar Chaturthi, falls on the fourth day after the new moon in the month of Āvaṇi in the Tamil calendar. The idols are usually made of clay or papier - mâché, since plaster of Paris idols have been banned by the state government.. Idols are also made of coconuts and other organic products. They are worshiped for several days in pandals, and immersed in the Bay of Bengal the following Sunday. In Kerala the festival is also known as Lamboodhara Piranalu, which falls in the month of Chingam. In Thiruvananthapuram a procession marches from the Pazhavangadi Ganapathi Temple to Shankumugham Beach, with tall statues of Ganesha made from organic items and milk immersed in the sea.
Ganesha Chaturthi is celebrated in the UK by British Hindu population living there. The Hindu Culture and Heritage Society, a Southall - based organisation, celebrated Ganesha Chaturthi for the first time in London in 2005 at the Vishwa Hindu Temple; the idol was immersed in the River Thames at Putney Pier. Another celebration, organised by a Gujarati group, has been celebrated in Southend - on - Sea and attracted an estimated 18,000 devotees. Annual celebrations are also held on the River Mersey in Liverpool.
The Philadelphia Ganesha Festival is one of the most popular celebrations of Ganesha Chaturthi in North America, and it is also celebrated in Canada, Mauritius, Malaysia and Singapore. The Mauritius festival dates back to 1896, and the Mauritian government has made it a public holiday. In Malaysia and Singapore, the festival is more commonly known as Vinayagar Chaturthi because of the large Tamil - speaking Hindu minority.
In Metropolitan France, Ganesh Chaturthee remains the main Hindu religious festival. The first Hindu Temple dedicated to Ganesh on Continental France opened in 1985 and the first procession took place in 1995. Since then, every year, the La Chapelle Quarters of Paris are the sight of a major procession with thousands of pilgrims and visitors. The organisation is mainly conducted by the Tamil speaking Sri Lanka community and the pilgrims are mostly Tamil Hindus from Sri Lanka and to a lesser extent Hindi - speaking Hindus from ((Mauritius)).
The primary sweet dish during the festival is modak (modak in Marathi and Konkani, modakam or kudumu in Telugu, modaka or kadubu in Kannada, kozhakatta or modakkam in Malayalam and kozhukattai or modagam in Tamil). A modak is a dumpling made from rice or wheat flour, stuffed with grated coconut, jaggery, dried fruits and other condiments and steamed or fried. Another popular sweet dish is the karanji (karjikai in Kannada), similar to modak in composition and taste but in a semicircular shape. This sweet meal is called Nevri in Goa and is synonymous with Ganesh festival amongst the Goans and the Konkani diaspora.
In Andhra Pradesh and Telangana modak, laddu, vundrallu (steamed, coarsely - ground rice - flour balls), panakam (a jaggery -, black pepper - and cardamom - flavored drink), vadapappu (soaked moong lentils) and chalividi (a cooked rice flour and jaggery mixture) are offered to Ganesha. These offerings are known as naivedya, and a plate of modak traditionally holds 21 pieces of the sweet. In Goa, modak and a Goan version of idli (sanna) is popular.
Panchakajjaya is an offering made to Lord Ganesha during this festival in parts of Karnataka.It is a mixture of desiccated coconut, roasted bengal gram powder, sugar, ghee and sesame. Different versions of panchakajjaya are made. Roasted bengal gram, green gram, roasted chana dal (putani) or aval can be used 17)).
The Madras High Court ruled in 2004 that immersion of Ganesh idols is unlawful because it incorporates chemicals that pollute the sea water. In Goa the sale of plaster - of Paris Ganesha idols has been banned by the state government and celebrants are encouraged to buy traditional, artisan - made clay idols. Recent initiatives to produce traditional clay Ganesha idols in Hyderabad have been sponsored by the Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board.
Due to environmental concerns, a number of families now avoid bodies of water and let the clay statue disintegrate in a barrel of water at home. After a few days, the clay is spread in the home garden. In some cities a public, eco-friendly process is used for the immersion.
Ganesh idol at a public pandal in Hyderabad
A Ganesha idol in a home during the festival
Procession in Mumbai
Procession in Pune
Procession in Surat
Immersion in sea, Chennai
Immersion of idol in Bangalore
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what accounts for more years of potential life lost than any other cause of death quizlet | Years of potential life lost - Wikipedia
Years of potential life lost (YPLL) or potential years of life lost (PYLL), is an estimate of the average years a person would have lived if he or she had not died prematurely. It is, therefore, a measure of premature mortality. As an alternative to death rates, it is a method that gives more weight to deaths that occur among younger people. An alternative is to consider the effects of both disability and premature death using disability adjusted life years.
To calculate the years of potential life lost, the analyst has to set an upper reference age. The reference age should correspond roughly to the life expectancy of the population under study. In the developed world, this is commonly set at age 75, but it is essentially arbitrary. Thus, PYLL should be written with respect to the reference age used in the calculation: e.g., PYLL (75).
PYLL can be calculated using individual level data or using age grouped data.
Briefly, for the individual method, each person 's PYLL is calculated by subtracting the person 's age at death from the reference age. If a person is older than the reference age when he or she dies, that person 's PYLL is set to zero (i.e., there are no "negative '' PYLLs). In effect, only those who die before the reference age are included in the calculation. Some examples:
To calculate the PYLL for a particular population in a particular year, the analyst sums the individual PYLLs for all individuals in that population who died in that year. This can be done for all - cause mortality or for cause - specific mortality.
In the developed world, mortality counts and rates tend to emphasize the most common causes of death in older people because the risk of death increases with age. Because PYLL gives more weight to deaths among younger individuals, it is the favoured metric among those who wish to draw attention to those causes of death that are more common in younger people. Some researchers say that this measurement should be considered by governments when they decide how best to divide up scarce resources for research.
For example, in most of the developed world, heart disease and cancer are the leading causes of death, as measured by the number (or rate) of deaths. For this reason, heart disease and cancer tend to get a lot of attention (and research funding). However, one might argue that everyone has to die of something eventually, and so public health efforts should be more explicitly directed at preventing premature death. When PYLL is used as an explicit measure of premature death, then injuries and infectious diseases, become more important. While the most common cause of death of young people aged 5 to 40 is injury and poisoning in the developed world, because relatively few young people die, the principal causes of lost years remain cardiovascular disease and cancer.
Here is a table of YPLL for all causes (ages 0 -- 69, per 100,000) with the most recent available data from the OECD:
The report of the NSW Chief Medical Officer in 2002 indicates that cardiovascular disease (32.7 % (of total Males Years of Life Lost due to premature mortality) and 36.6 % of females YLL) and malignant neoplasms (27.5 % of Males YLL and 31.2 % of Females YLL) are the main causes of lost years
When disability adjusted life years are considered, cancer (25.1 / 1,000), cardiovascular disease (23.8 / 1,000), mental health issues (17.6 / 1,000), neurological disorders (15.7 / 1,000), chronic respiratory disease (9.4 / 1,000) and diabetes (7.2 / 1,000) are the main causes of good years of expected life lost to disease or premature death. The dramatic difference is in the greater number of years of disability caused mental illness and neurological issues and by diabetes.
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full summary of twist of fate on zee world | Kumkum Bhagya - Wikipedia
Kumkum Bhagya (Vermilion in my Fate) (International title: Twist of Fate) is a Hindi - language Indian soap opera which premiered on April 15, 2014 and is broadcast on weeknights on Zee TV. The show is loosely based on the novel Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen.
Kumkum Bhagya follows the love story of a famous musician Abhi who married Pragya, initially thought to be the love interest of the person who was the crush of Abhi 's sister, but ends up knowing the truth and falls in love with her. The pivotal characters of this show are strong, feisty women, living together in an all - female matriarchal family. The series stars Sriti Jha, Shabbir Ahluwalia, Mrunal Thakur, Arjit Taneja / Vin Rana as lead roles. The series is produced by Ekta Kapoor under the banner Balaji Telefilms. Continuing her tradition, Ekta Kapoor has named the series starting with the letter "K '' because she feels it is lucky. The show is directed by Sameer Kulkarni and developed by Ekta Kapoor.
The series started as the story of Pragya and Bulbul and their mother Sarla 's hope to see them married, but as time went by, the show is about Abhi and Pragya.
Due to Kumkum Bhagya 's popularity, a spinoff series has been made titled Kundali Bhagya, which portrays the life of Pragya 's long lost two sisters Preeta and Srishti.
Kumkum Bhagya is the love story of Abhishek Mehra and Pragya Arora. Sarla Arora, who runs a marriage hall, lived with the hope of seeing her two daughters happily married. Pragya, the elder daughter, is practical, hard working and teaches at a college. Bulbul, the younger daughter, has her head in the clouds, has a job but hates her boss Purab. The show follows the lives of the two sisters and their hopes, dreams and aspirations. Initially, the series followed a love triangle between Pragya, Bulbul and Suresh, where Pragya loved Suresh, who had feelings for Bulbul, leading to Pragya and Suresh 's engagement getting cancelled. Simultaneously, Abhishek (Abhi) is a rock star who was in a relationship with a supermodel called Tanushree (Tanu) and Purab happened to be Abhi 's best friend, who was engaged to his sister Aliya. Purab and Bulbul initially had hatred feelings for each other, but the story took a turn when the two fell in love. Aliya misunderstood his affair with Bulbul thinking that he loved Pragya. As a result, Aliya, Tanu together with Abhi planned to get Abhi married to Pragya out of revenge. After the marriage, Pragya got to know the whole situation and for her sister 's protection, lied to Abhi that she indeed was in a relationship with Purab and eventually asked Bulbul to forget Purab, which Bulbul agreed to.
Purab agreed to get married to Aliya as he got to know the whole situation as well, but was unable to forget Bulbul. He escaped on his marriage day with Aliya to marry Bulbul where she revealed to Abhi that she was the girl Purab loved, in order to save her sister from misery. A complicated relation started in everyone 's life. Aliya and Tanu planned conspiracies against Pragya but their plans failed and brought her more close to Abhi, leading them to develop feelings for one another. Abhi got to know Aliya and Tanu 's true intentions, slapped Aliya for her wrongdoings, lead by her developing a grudge for her brother, he eventually improved his relation with Purab and Bulbul. Tanu on the other hand, accidentally got pregnant after a one - night stand with a man called Nikhil. She faked her DNA reports and declared that Abhi was the father in order to get him back, leading to Abhi and Pragya 's separation. Tanu was supported by Nikhil himself who wanted Abhi 's wealth, Aliya who wanted exact revenge against him and Abhi 's cousin brother Raj, who blamed Abhi for his misfortune. Pragya overheard Aliya and Tanu 's conversation but before telling Abhi, suffered an accident and was declared dead.
After one month, Pragya returned with a bold and arrogant appearance, having a new motive of revealing her enemies and getting Abhi back. In the same arc, Bulbul and Purab got married where a sequence of love and jealousy started between Bulbul, Purab and Aliya. Furthermore, to save her sister from Aliya, Bulbul risked her life and died. An infuriated Pragya finally revealed the truth about Aliya, who was then banished from the family. Raj, whose misunderstanding about Abhi was cleared by Pragya, turned positive and complicated his relationship with his wife Mitali for actually being responsible for his problems. Pragya finally discovered Tanu and Nikhil 's relation, decided to expose Tanu, but however failed to do so, but on the other Tanu got a miscarriage in an accident and blamed Pragya. Facing Abhi 's anger, Pragya still proved herself right and finally revealed the truth about Tanu, having gained back his trust. The two proposed to each other in Abhi 's mansion in Lonavla, after which Abhi lost his memory in a car accident meant for Pragya, getting amnesia and forgetting two - and - a-half years of his life, including Pragya. For his protection, Pragya decided to leave him, however did not divorce him.
The show roughly took a two month leap and continued with Pragya overhearing her mother saying that she had lost the Kumkum Bhagya Marriage Hall. Determined to help her family, she enrolled as a receptionist at Love Life Music Company, where she met Abhi who came to record his new album. From there on they slowly became friends where Abhi hired her as his personal assistant. Aliya who took advantage of Abhi 's amnesia returned back and wanted Abhi to marry Tanu in order to keep him away from Pragya. Abhi and Pragya 's boss - employee relationship bloomed into something more and Abhi saw Pragya as his best friend and even something more. After much conspiracies, Pragya challenged Aliya and Tanu that she will bring back Abhi 's memory before his marriage with Tanu, she was supported by Dadi and Purab. Abhi has some unclear flashbacks of his past in his dreams. Purab makes Abhi realize his feelings for Pragya. He later confesses his love to Pragya and she also confesses her love to him.
The show premiered at 09: 00 pm (IST) on Tuesday on April 15, 2014 and airs episodes from Monday to Friday.
Talking about introducing a fresh concept on primetime, Zee TV Programming Head, Namit Sharma said, "It takes one epic show to replace another, so you can imagine. It is a passionate drama of love, a far cry from regular saas - bahu soaps and has an ensemble cast of some very talented actors. ''
On this, Ekta Kapoor from Balaji Telefilms added, "While two of my shows (Pavitra Rishta and Jodha Akbar) are already on - air and doing immensely well on Zee TV, it 's a pleasure to extend my partnership with Zee to a third show. Pavitra Rishta has had a run of over Five years now and the journey has been most gratifying for me as a producer. While the audiences who are hooked on to Pavitra Rishta will continue to enjoy the show at 6: 30 PM, Kumkum Bhagya will open at 9 PM, drawing maximum eyeballs. It is so contemporary in its treatment that viewers will be able to instantly spot characters out of their own lives in the show. It 's a story of passionate love that anyone with a soul would be able to easily relate to. ''
Speaking of his comeback as an actor, Shabbir Ahluwalia, the protagonist of the show says, "With me producing shows, it was getting very difficult to manage time for acting assignments. But now, I have decided to concentrate on acting. You ca n't be away from what you love doing for long. The role appealed to me a great deal. This is the first time that I will be playing a rockstar on television and in order to look my part, I had to ensure that I did not just get my costume and look right, but also get that attitude right that is required to portray a rockstar onscreen. ''
The series is a love story produced by Ekta Kapoor and Shobha Kapoor under the banner Balaji Telefilms that airs on Zee TV. Ekta Kapoor considers the letter K to be lucky and has named many of her productions starting with K. Shabbir Ahluwalia, who was also cast in Ekta 's TV Series Kayamath, was selected to portray the lead role of Abhishek Prem Mehra. Ahluwalia made his comeback after Zee 20 Cricket League. Actress Sriti Jha landed in lead role opposite Shabbir Ahluwalia in the show. Mrunal Thakur was selected to portray the second leading role of Bulbul while Arjit Taneja was cast opposite her. In May 2014, Shikha Singh entered the show as the main antagonist Aliya Mehra, while Madhurima Tuli was cast to portray the negative role of Tanu. Later, tuli has to shoot for her film Baby (2015 Hindi film) so, this role was later played by Leena Jumani in September 2014. Actor Faisal Rashid was selected to portray the role of Suresh (Pragya 's fiance) who played an important role in April -- May 2014, but in May 2015 he quit the series. Actress Supriya Shukla was cast to play the role of Sarla Arora, while Madhu Raja played the role of Daljeet Arora. Other supporting cast include Samiksha Bhatnagar, Ankit Mohan and Charu Mehra and Amit Dhawan. Bhatnagar, who portrayed the supporting role of Mitali was replaced by Swati Anand within the month of launch while Anurag Sharma, who also appeared in Ekta Kapoor 's Pavitra Rishta, Bade Achhe Lagte Hain, Yeh Hai Mohabbatein and Itna Karo Na Mujhe Pyaar replaced Amit. In 2015, Neel Motawani (who was also cast in other shows of Ekta) was selected to play the negative role of Neel; while in June 2015 Nikhil Arya entered the series playing the role of main male antagonist Nikhil Sood.
In December 2015, Actress Mrunal Thakur who played the role of Bulbul opted out from the show and was to be replaced by Kajol Shrivastava, however the replacement never occurred and the character of Bulbul was phased out of the series after Mrunal 's departure. In August 2016, Ankit Mohan quit the show and therefore, his character left as well. In September 2016, Arjit Taneja quit the show and was replaced by Vin Rana. In October 2016, Nikhil Arya was replaced by Rujut Dahiya. In July 2017, actress Ruchi Savarn entered the show as Purab 's new love - mate.
Series was released on April 15, 2014 on Zee TV, the series also airs on Zee TV HD and Zee TV Asia. Show was also broadcast internationally on Channel 's international distribution. It airs in U.K., U.S., Malaysia, Canada, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, Ireland, South Africa, Indonesia, Chile, Philippines, Ghana (Adom TV) (where it is very popular) and Singapore on Zee TV and also airs in Pakistan being a part of channel Geo Kahani 's contract with ZEEL, the series airs a 60 - minute episode plus commercials starting from Mondays through Fridays at 22: 30 (PST) and tops rating chart, after Uri - Attack Geo network terminated the broadcast of Kumkum Bhagya along with all Indian shows. From April 2014, show 's episodes were released on YouTube, in mid 2015, the channel stopped its full length episodes and released its episodes on their app DittoTV, a live TV feature was introduced on Ditto where Zee TV 's Live streaming was available on subscription, the show also aired its live episodes in Ditto.
In late 2015, the app introduced their Before TV service where they launched Kumkum Bhagya 's episodes before airing on TV, new episodes where released during 5: 30am (IST), the service was available on a subscription plan. Though YouTube service was terminated, the channel still release their episodes on the Zee TV website and Zee TV app.
It was dubbed in Tamil as Iru Malargal on Polimer TV, which is well known for dubbing serials and gained high TRP Ratings. After that, ZEE Network stopped providing the dubbing rights to Polimer TV and now they are continuing it in Zee Tamizh as Iniya Iru Malrgal. It was also dubbed in Telugu as kumkuma bhagyam in Zee Telugu.
In Sri Lanka it is currently airing on Hiru TV in every week day from 7.30 to 8.00.pm titled as Adarei Man Adarei which is sinhala dubbed. In Mauritius, it is currently airing on Zee TV Africa and on MBC Digital 4 (Mauritius). In Indonesia, it is currently airing on Antv since 5 September 2016 and dubbed in Bahasa Indonesia as Lonceng Cinta (Bells of Love). In Indonesian, it began airing on ANTV from 5 September 2016 under the title Lonceng Cinta.
In Africa, the series is dubbed in English airs as Twist of Fate on Zee World (Zee Africa).
In the Arab world, the series is dubbed in Arabic and airs under the name مكانك في القلب هو القلب كله on Zee Alwan.
Initially started with low ratings, the show climbed to Top 5 most watched shows across all GEC 's and second most watched show of Zee TV after only a few weeks of its launch and was touted as the biggest fiction launch of 2014. The serial is very popular among Indian and Pakistani women.
Launched in Week 16, Kumkum Bhagya opened with 4.9 TVR and averaged to 3.3 TVR. In week 17, It fell further and averaged to 2.7 TVR. In Week 18, It improved and averaged to 3.2 TVR. In the fourth week of its launch i.e., in Week 19, it fell further and averaged to 2.8 TVR. For The Week 21, it improved a bit and averaged to 3.0 TVR but was among top 5 low rated shows on the channel. In Week 22, the show improved its ratings and rated 3.3 TVR. In Week 23, the show maintained its stability and averaged 3.2 TVR.
In Week 24, the show increased from 3.2 TVR to 3.5 TVR. In Week 25, the show jumped from 3.5 TVR to 4.9 TVR thereby being the second most watched show of the channel for the week behind Jodha Akbar. In the Week 26, the show improved its ratings further and averaged 5.7 TVR its highest ever since its launch and was again second most watched show of Zee TV. For the Week 27, the show improved further and averaged to 6.3 TVR and was amongst Top 6 Shows across all GEC 's. It was constistent in Week 28 with 6.3 TVR. In Week 29, it averaged to 6.6 TVR and was amongst Top 10 Shows across all GEC 's.
In week 30, the show broke all its previous records with an average ratings of 7.4 TVR and was touted as the biggest fiction launch of the year. The show also gave tough fight to GEC leader Diya Aur Baati Hum that airs at same slot on Star Plus. On the reception of the show in such a short span of time, Zee TV business head Pradeep Hejmadi announced that he considered the ' wedding track ' a very important inflection point for people to gravitate to the series, believing it to be attracting increasing interest in all parameters. He also added "Each story has its own promise and people who tune in are people who are bought into those promises or are keen to explore the relationships or the characters that stand out speaking to them. We concentrated on bringing out the key inflection points for the show and it was important because it is the core promise of Kumkum Bhagya. In the thirty - first week, Kumkum Bhagya averaged to 7.5 TVR up from 7.4 TVR, taking fourth place across all GEC 's and second among Zee TV shows behind the channel leader Jodha Akbar. One week later, it jumped from 415 GVMs to 453 GVMs. In the February 2015 ratings, Kumkum Bhagya entered the # 1 position with Diya Aur Baati in # 2.
21 August 2014 ratings showed that the channel 's four shows ' Kumkum Bhagya ', ' Jodha Akbar ', ' Qubool Hai ' and ' Doli Armaanon Ki ' did exceptionally well that week. Three of them appeared inside the Top 10 as the most watched shows in India.
In August 2014, BARC ratings stated that ZEE TV was next adding 38 GVMs. It was up from 415 GVMs to 453 GVMs that week. The channel 's four shows ' Kumkum Bhagya ', ' Jodha Akbar ', ' Qubool Hai ' and ' Doli Armaanon Ki ' did exceptionally well this week. Three of them appeared inside the Top 10 as the most watched shows in India. On 12 September 2014, BARC stated that ' Kumkum Bhagya ' topped the ratings in India for the first time scoring 9.4, while ' Saathiya ' on Star Plus and ' Jodha Akbar ' on ZEE TV both recorded 8.8 and ' Diya Aur Baati Hum ' was next with 7.6.
In March 2015, it was declared that the series bought highest ratings to the channel with new year, the channel scored 442 GVMs As of 17 March 2015, Barc stated that Zee TV was scored with 403GVMs As of April 2015, Kumkum Bhagya became India 's most watched Hindi entertainment show with 9.5 TVT In July, the top three Shows based on Ratings were Saath Nibhana Saathiya, Kumkum Bhagya and Yeh Hai Mohabbatein series scored 5537 TVTs According to BARC ratings of September 2015, It was announced that Zee TV 's two series were placed in Top 10 most watched shows list. ' Jodha Akbar ' and ' Kumkum Bhagya ' topped the ratings overall with 8.9 and 8.6 TVMs.
According to BARC Ratings of August 2015, Star Plus ' show Saath Nibhaana Saathiya and ZEE TV 's Kumkum Bhagya tie at the first slot with 3.8 TRPs. while on 6 August 2015 Kumkum Bhagya ranked with 5351 TVTs. According to Barc, show had dominated second position in November and dominated third position in December 2015 with 13.8 and 15.9 TVM respectively. On 11 December 2015, BARC ratings showed that the TV series Naagin (produced by same production) rejuvenated the channel 's weekend slot while Star Plus) series Saath Nibhana Saathiya was at No. 2 with 17.2 TVM, while ' Kumkum Bhagya ' on ZEE TV was in third with 13.8 TVM. While on 17 December 2015, similar listing took place where most watched show on Indian television remained Naagin on Colors with 17819TVM (last week 19576TVM), followed by Saath Nibhana Saathiya on Star Plus with 15344 (last week 17293), ' Kumkum Bhagya ' on ZEE TV was at third position with 13811TVM In the second week in 2016, ratings showed that the series has now dominated 4th Rank
For the whole of January, Kumkum Bhagya was the second most watched series in India after Colors 's Balaji Production TV Series Naagin. According to 14 January 2016 ratings it was seen that Kumkum Bhagya had jumped to the 2nd Rank once again, the top 2 shows were Naagin and Kumkum Bhagya, Naagin pulled 19824 viewers (last week 19847), followed by Kumkum Bhagya ' with 13692 viewers. Again on 21 January 2016, the top 2 Indian TV Shows were Naagin and Kumkum Bhagya. Naagin with 18125 viewers (previous week 19824), fand ' Kumkum Bhagya ' with 14852 viewers (previous week 13692). Next week, it was again announced that Kumkum Bhagya, the No # 2 Positioned show gained 14,244 viewers while Naagin was on Top with 17,199 viewers. With the entire month, Kumkum Bhagya was viewers second choice.
In February 2016, the top two positions were again taken by ' Naagin ' (with 19133 viewers), and Kumkum Bhagya (with 15554 viewers). With February 's second week, Kumkum bhagya became the third most choice with 14.2 viewers Next week, It was shown that the series took Third position lead interns of viewers due to T20 matches, It had a viewer range of 15.7 Million viewers. In The last week of February, Series registered 14.1 Million viewers
In March, three most watched series were Naagin, Kumkum Bhagya and Yeh hai mohabatein respectively. Star plus series Yeh Hai Mohabatein dominated the 3rd Position with 11.8 million viewers, Kumkum Bhagya registered 14.4 million viewers. In second week of March it registered 12.5 million viewers. In second and third weeks it registered a viewership of 12.07 million and 13.1 million impressions. The entire month Kumkum Bhagya dominated the second spot on Top ten shows of 2016. The Next month Ye Hai Mohabbatein dominated the second spot, Kumkum Bhagya took the third place scoring viewership of 10.6 million impressions followed by 11.0 million. With last of July, the viewership raised to 11.5 million impressions (urban + rural), next month the series further raised to 13.5 million impressions (urban + rural) when the production decided to introduce Tannu 's DNA report storyline. Later in the month of August, makers introduced Abhi 's memory loss storyline and dominated the first spot till October. In the month of October, Naagin 2 took the first spot, pushed Kumkum Bhagya to second spot. Recently in the month of May 2017, kumkum Bhagya backed to its first spot continuously for past three week, dethroning the mega success of 2017 Naagin 2.
On October 2015, it was also shown in Ghana - Africa as Kumkum Bhagya and it has been translated in the Akan Language. It won an award for the Best Foreign TV Series at the 2016 Ghana Movie Awards.
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how many bones are in your arms and legs | List of bones of the human skeleton - wikipedia
The skeleton of an adult human consists of 206 bones. It is composed of 300 bones at birth, which decreases to 80 bones in the axial skeleton (29 in the skull and 52 in the torso) and 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton (32 × 2 in the upper extremities including both arms and 31 × 2 in the lower extremities including both legs). Many small and variable supernumerary bones, such as some sesamoid bones, are not included in this count.
The bones in a human skeleton will be less as the age will be more, as multiple bones fuse, a process which typically reaches completion in the third decade of life. In addition, the bones of the skull and face are counted as separate bones, despite being fused naturally. Some reliable sesamoid bones such as the pisiform are counted, while others, such as the hallux sesamoids, are not.
Individuals may have more or fewer bones than this owing to anatomical variations. The most common variations include sutural (wormian) bones, which are located along the sutural lines on the back of the skull, and sesamoid bones which develop within some tendons, mainly in the hands and feet. Some individuals may also have additional (i.e., supernumerary) cervical ribs or lumbar vertebrae.
A fully grown adult features 26 bones in the spine, whereas a child can have 34.
There are usually 25 bones in the chest but sometimes there can be additional cervical ribs in humans. Cervical ribs occur naturally in other animals such as reptiles.
There are 22 bones in the skull. Including the hyoid and the bones of the middle ear, the head contains 29 bones.
There are a total of 64 bones in the arm.
The hip bone has three regions: ilium, ischium, and pubis (2)
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now you see me now you don't ozzy | Now You See It, Now You Do n't - wikipedia
Now You See It, Now You Do n't may refer to:
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who answers to the white house chief of staff | White House chief of staff - wikipedia
The White House Chief of Staff has traditionally been the highest - ranking employee of the White House. The chief of staff 's position is a modern successor to the earlier role of the president 's private secretary. The role was formalized as the Assistant to the President in 1946 and acquired its current name in 1961.
The Chief of Staff is appointed by and serves at the pleasure of the President; it does not require Senate confirmation.
John F. Kelly is the current Chief of Staff, succeeding Reince Priebus on July 31, 2017.
The duties of the White House chief of staff vary greatly from one administration to another and, in fact, there is no legal requirement that the president even fill the position. However, since at least 1979, all presidents have found the need for a chief of staff, who typically oversees the actions of the White House staff, manages the president 's schedule, and decides who is allowed to meet with the president. Because of these duties, the chief of staff has at various times been labeled "The Gatekeeper '', or "the power behind the throne ''.
Originally, the duties now performed by the chief of staff belonged to the president 's private secretary and were fulfilled by crucial confidants and advisers such as George B. Cortelyou, Joseph Tumulty, and Louis McHenry Howe to Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and Franklin Roosevelt, respectively. The private secretary served as the president 's de facto chief aide in a role that combined personal and professional assignments of highly delicate and demanding natures, requiring great skill and discretion. The job of gatekeeper and overseeing the president 's schedule was separately delegated to the appointments secretary, as with FDR 's aide Edwin "Pa '' Watson.
From 1933 to 1939, as he greatly expanded the scope of the federal government 's policies and powers in response to the Great Depression, Roosevelt relied on his "Brain Trust '' of top advisers. Although working directly for the president, they were often appointed to vacant positions in agencies and departments, from whence they drew their salaries since the White House lacked statutory or budgetary authority to create new staff positions. It was not until 1939, during Franklin D. Roosevelt 's second term in office, that the foundations of the modern White House staff were created using a formal structure. Roosevelt was able to get Congress to approve the creation of the Executive Office of the President, which would report directly to the president.
In 1946, in response to the rapid growth of the U.S. government 's executive branch, the position of "Assistant to the President of the United States '' was established. Charged with the affairs of the White House, it was the immediate predecessor to the modern chief of staff. It was in 1953, under Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower, that the president 's preeminent assistant was designated the "White House Chief of Staff ''.
Assistant to the president became a rank generally shared by the chief of staff with such senior aides as deputy chiefs of staff, the White House counsel, the White House press secretary, and others. This new system did not catch on immediately. Democrats Kennedy and Johnson still relied on their appointments secretaries instead, and it was not until the Nixon administration that the chief of staff took over maintenance of the President 's schedule. This concentration of power in the Nixon and Ford White House (whose last chief of staff was Dick Cheney) led presidential candidate Jimmy Carter to campaign in 1976 with the promise that he would not appoint a chief of staff. And indeed, for the first two and a half years of his presidency, he appointed no one to the post.
The average tenure for a White House chief of staff is a little more than 18 months. John R. Steelman, under Harry S. Truman, was the last chief of staff to serve for an entire presidential administration. Steelman also holds the record for longest - serving chief of staff (six years). Most White House chiefs of staff are former politicians, and many continue their political careers in other senior roles. Lyndon Johnson 's chief of staff W. Marvin Watson became postmaster general later in LBJ 's term. Richard Nixon 's Chief of Staff Alexander Haig became secretary of state under Ronald Reagan. Cheney later became a Congressman for Wyoming, secretary of defense under George H.W. Bush and vice president in the George W. Bush administration. Donald Rumsfeld was another chief of staff for Ford and subsequently served as secretary of defense both in the Ford administration and decades later, also in the George W. Bush administration. Rahm Emanuel left the House of Representatives to become Barack Obama 's chief of staff and subsequently became mayor of Chicago. Jack Lew, President Obama 's fourth chief of staff, was later appointed Secretary of the Treasury.
Chris Whipple, author of The Gatekeepers: How the White House Chiefs of Staff Define Every Presidency, loosely describes the role of a White House chief of staff through his interview with former President Barack Obama: "During the last days of his presidency, Barack Obama observed: ' One of the things I 've learned is that the big breakthroughs are typically the result of a lot of grunt work -- just a whole lot of blocking and tackling. ' Grunt work is what chiefs of staff do. ''
The responsibilities of the chief of staff are both managerial and advisory and can include the following:
Richard Nixon 's first chief of staff, H.R. Haldeman, garnered a reputation in Washington for the iron hand he wielded in the position -- famously referring to himself as "the president 's son - of - a-bitch '', he was a rigid gatekeeper who would frequently meet with administration officials in place of the president, then report himself to Nixon on the officials ' talking points. Journalist Bob Woodward, in his books All the President 's Men and The Secret Man, wrote that many of his sources, including the famous Deep Throat, displayed a genuine fear of Haldeman.
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when did the open last take place at carnousti | Carnoustie Golf Links - wikipedia
The Carnoustie Golf Links are in Carnoustie, Angus, Scotland. Its historic championship golf course is one of the venues in the Open Championship rotation.
Golf is recorded as having been played at Carnoustie in the early 16th century. In 1890, the 14th Earl of Dalhousie, who owned the land, sold the links to the local authority. It had no funds to acquire the property, and public fundraising was undertaken and donated to the council. The original course was of ten holes, crossing and recrossing the Barry Burn; it was designed by Allan Robertson, assisted by Old Tom Morris, and opened in 1842. The opening of the coastal railway from Dundee to Arbroath in 1838 brought an influx of golfers from as far afield as Edinburgh, anxious to tackle the ancient links. This led to a complete restructuring of the course, extended in 1867 by Old Tom Morris to the 18 holes which had meanwhile become standardized. Young Tom Morris won a major open event there that same year. Two additional courses have since been added: the Burnside Course and the shorter though equally testing Buddon Links.
Carnoustie first played host to The Open Championship in 1931, after modifications to the course by James Braid in 1926. The winner then was Tommy Armour, from Edinburgh.
Later Open winners at Carnoustie include Henry Cotton of England in 1937, Ben Hogan of the USA in 1953, Gary Player of South Africa in 1968, Tom Watson of the USA in 1975, Paul Lawrie of Scotland in 1999 and Pádraig Harrington of Ireland in 2007. The last three championships were all won in playoffs.
The Championship course was modified significantly (but kept its routing used since 1926) prior to the 1999 Open, with all bunkers being rebuilt, many bunkers both added and eliminated, many green complexes expanded and enhanced, and several new tees being built. A large hotel was also built behind the 18th green of the Championship course.
The Amateur Championship was first hosted by Carnoustie in 1947; the winner was Willie Turnesa. The world 's oldest amateur event has returned three times since: 1966 (won by Bobby Cole), 1971 (won by Steve Melnyk), and 1992 (won by Stephen Dundas).
The British Ladies Amateur was first hosted by Carnoustie in 1973, and also in 2012.
The Senior Open Championship was held at Carnoustie for the first time in 2010, with Germany 's Bernhard Langer winning. The Women 's British Open was held here for the first time in 2011; the winner was Yani Tseng.
Carnoustie is one of the three courses hosting the Alfred Dunhill Links Championship, an autumn event on the European Tour; the others are the Old Course at St Andrews and Kingsbarns.
The Golf Channel 's reality series The Big Break, in which aspiring golfers compete for exemptions on professional tours and other prizes, filmed its fourth season at Carnoustie in 2005. As that year also saw the Ryder Cup at The K Club in Ireland, that year 's show was based around a US vs Europe theme, with the two teams competing for European Tour exemptions.
In North America, the course is infamously nicknamed "Car - nasty, '' due to its famous difficulty, especially under adverse weather conditions. Carnoustie is considered by many to be the most difficult course in the Open rota, and one of the toughest courses in the world.
The term Carnoustie effect dates from the 1999 Open, when the world 's best players, many of whom were reared on manicured and relatively windless courses, were frustrated by the unexpected difficulties of the Carnoustie links, which was compounded by the weather. One much - fancied young favourite, a 19 - year - old Sergio García of Spain, went straight from the course to his mother 's arms crying after shooting 89 and 83 in the first two rounds. The Carnoustie effect is defined as "that degree of mental and psychic shock experienced on collision with reality by those whose expectations are founded on false assumptions. '' This being a psychological term, it can of course apply to disillusionment in any area of activity, not just in golf.
The 1999 Open Championship is best remembered for the collapse of French golfer Jean van de Velde, who needed only a double - bogey six on the 72nd hole to win the Open -- and proceeded to score a triple - bogey seven, tying Paul Lawrie and 1997 champion Justin Leonard at 290 (+ 6). Lawrie won the four - hole aggregate playoff and the championship.
The Open Championship was once again contested at Carnoustie in July 2007. The eight - year absence was far shorter than the lengthy 24 years it took to return to Carnoustie, between 1975 and 1999. Harrington triumphed over García in a four - hole playoff. The 18th hole once again proved itself among the most dramatic and exciting in championship golf. Harrington had a one - shot lead over García as he approached the final hole in the fourth round, but proceeded to put not one but two shots into the Barry Burn, on his way to a double - bogey 6. García, playing in the final pairing of the day, reached the 18th with a one - shot lead over Harrington, but bogeyed the hole after missing a putt from just under ten feet away, setting up the playoff. In the four - hole playoff, which ended on the 18th, Harrington took no chances with a two - shot lead on the 18th; his bogey was enough to defeat García by one shot.
The Open Championship will return to Carnoustie in 2018.
On January 17, 2014, it was announced that Carnoustie Golf Links - which operates the six publicly owned courses, including the Championship Course - had appointed its first - ever female chairman, Pat Sawers.
This is a list of The Open Championship champions at Carnoustie Golf Links:
Winner of the Women 's British Open at Carnoustie Golf Links.
Winner of The Senior Open Championship at Carnoustie Golf Links.
Carnoustie Golf Links - Championship Course 2007 Open Championship
Lengths of the course for previous Opens (since 1950):
The 12th hole was played as a par - 5 through 1975.
Length of the course for Women 's British Open
Length of the course for Senior Open Championship
The course record is 63, achieved by:
Coordinates: 56 ° 29 ′ 49 '' N 2 ° 43 ′ 01 '' W / 56.497 ° N 2.717 ° W / 56.497; - 2.717
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who's going to play monday night football | Monday Night Football - Wikipedia
ESPN Monday Night Football (abbreviated as MNF and also known as ESPN Monday Night Football on ABC for rare live special broadcast) is a live television broadcast of weekly National Football League (NFL) games on ESPN in the United States. From 1970 to 2005, it aired on sister broadcast network ABC. Monday Night Football was, along with Hallmark Hall of Fame and the Walt Disney anthology television series, one of the longest - running prime time programs ever on commercial network television, and one of the highest - rated, particularly among male viewers. MNF is preceded on air by Monday Night Countdown served by Chili 's.
Monday Night Football is also broadcast in Canada on TSN and RDS, and in most of Europe. On September 7, 2013, the NFL announced that British Eurosport would show Monday Night Football games live in the United Kingdom for the 2013 and 2014 seasons. The telecasts are also seen in most of Australia on ESPN Australia, in Portugal on SportTV 3 and SportTV HD and on TV 2 Sport in Denmark, and in some other regions of the world outside the U.S. on ESPN International. A Spanish - language version airs on ESPN Deportes in the U.S. and on ESPN International in Latin America, while a Portuguese version airs on ESPN Brasil. Per an NFL broadcasting policy intended to allow those who do not subscribe to cable or satellite television to see games televised by a pay television network, the games are also made available on over-the - air television stations in each participating team 's local market.
On September 8, 2011, the first day of the 2011 regular season, ESPN extended its contract for Monday Night Football for eight additional seasons, giving it rights to the broadcasts until 2021. The new deal, valued between $14.2 billion and $15.2 billion, also gives ESPN rights to expanded highlights, international and streaming rights, and possibly a wild - card playoff game. Cable television providers condemned the new contract, noting that ESPN has the highest retransmission consent fees of any national cable television channel, nearly seven times higher than the nearest competitor (TNT), and raises fees on an annual basis.
After 45 seasons, there now have been a total of 730 games televised by the Monday Night Football franchise.
To avoid any scheduling unfairness where, just before the first playoff game, a team may have five days off and others six, there is no Monday night game during the final week of the regular season. From 2003 to 2005, one game was played on Thursday and another Monday under the Monday Night Football banner. Starting in 2006, when the series moved to cable, two games are played on the opening Monday night to capitalize on fan interest during "NFL Kickoff Weekend ''.
Monday night games early in the season are often highly anticipated since records are new, teams usually are showcasing fresh talent and potential, and storylines coming into the season are often played out as fans try to see if these hyped teams are up to form. Since no one knows during the first month of the season if a team is indeed good, or will rebound from a difficult start, interest is usually high for the first few weeks of the MNF season.
Since the MNF schedule is set in April and can not be changed, the league and network can not guarantee a late season matchup will have any significance or be highly anticipated. Teams thought to be good during the off - season could be out of playoff contention by the middle of the season; a prime example occurred in 1999, when the San Francisco 49ers and Atlanta Falcons both entered the season 's final MNF game with 4 -- 11 records. It had seemed like a good pre-season matchup since the Falcons had played in the previous season 's Super Bowl and the 49ers coming into the 1999 season had posted 16 consecutive 10 - win seasons. It is also possible for a team like the 1999 St. Louis Rams not to be scheduled for a Monday night game because of its dismal record the year before, and many other NFL teams (such as the 2004 San Diego Chargers, with zero primetime games) have had huge unforeseen turnarounds that result in lack of MNF attention (these teams generally receive multiple MNF spots the year after their breakout success, which is great for viewers if those teams continue to play well, and not so great if they return to mediocrity or worse). However, the forecasting abilities of the NFL 's scheduling officials have exhibited uncanny proficiency. Many MNF games occurring later in the season feature at least one team that is either headed to the playoffs or must win the MNF game to clinch a playoff spot.
The problem of having a national spotlight game which during the season 's most critical weeks late in the year probably would not show the most important game of the week was long known by the league and network. As a result of this, the NFL wished to move the "Game of the Week '' idea to Sunday nights as to make flex scheduling possible. This was a move which would ultimately mean the end of Monday Night Football on ABC (cable games are protected from the NFL 's flexible scheduling rule adopted for the 2006 -- 07 season; the new rule applies only to CBS, Fox, and NBC 's Sunday night games). The league currently has no interest in expanding flexible scheduling to include Monday Night Football, citing the logistical issues of moving games back and forth between Sundays and Mondays.
The franchise with the most Monday night appearances is the Miami Dolphins. The San Francisco 49ers won their record 48th Monday Night game with a 28 -- 0 win over the Los Angeles Rams on September 12, 2016.
The most common Monday Night Football pairings are Broncos vs. Raiders (17 match - ups as of 2013) and Cowboys vs. Redskins (met for a 17th time in 2015).
The defunct Candlestick Park in San Francisco currently holds the record for hosting the most Monday Night Football games, including its 36th and final Monday night game on December 23, 2013. Among the active stadiums following the conclusion of the 2013 season, Miami Gardens, Florida 's Hard Rock Stadium has hosted the most games with 32.
Monday Night Football has continued to provide as much entertainment as sports throughout its run. In addition to the extra cameras, the program has also pioneered technological broadcast innovations, such as the use of enhanced slow motion replays and computerized graphics.
Celebrity guests -- such as former Vice President Spiro Agnew, singers Plácido Domingo and former Beatle John Lennon, President Bill Clinton, and even Kermit the Frog -- were often featured during the game to "liven up '' the broadcast. The December 9, 1974 contest featured a rare instance of two celebrities entering the booth, with Lennon being interviewed by Howard Cosell and California governor Ronald Reagan speaking with Frank Gifford, with Reagan explaining the rules of American football (off - camera) to Lennon as the game went along. However, the late 1990s and early 2000s saw an even more increased reliance on the entertainment factor. Some halftime shows, featuring popular music stars, were broadcast in their entirety rather than being ignored in favor of analysis of the game by the commentators, as in previous seasons.
In December 1980, one of the most memorable moments of MNF occurred when Cosell announced in a news flash that Lennon had been shot and killed in New York City. Monday Night Football was the first national broadcast to announce his death.
An advertisement during halftime on the October 19, 2015 game featured the world premiere of the third trailer of the 2015 film Star Wars: The Force Awakens.
For its 2006 debut on ESPN, Williams, Jr. re-recorded the MNF opening theme with an all - star jam band that included among others Brian Setzer, Little Richard, Questlove, Joe Perry, Clarence Clemons, Rick Nielsen, Bootsy Collins, Charlie Daniels and Steven Van Zandt. The 2006 telecast generally began with a cinematic tease produced by Rico Labbe, Michael Sciallis and Jason Jobes. It was during one of these teases that Barack Obama spoofed his announcement for the 2008 Presidential candidacy in favor of his hometown Chicago Bears in their game against the St. Louis Rams.
That year, the tease was followed by the show open produced by Los Angeles - based The Syndicate called "Transformation ''. It features computer - generated imagery showing a city being transformed into a football stadium and passers - by on the street turning into players, coaches, fans and officials set to an updated orchestral treatment of the "Heavy Action '' theme song. The sequence began every week with a different celebrity walking down the street, picking up a glowing football helmet with the ESPN logo on the side and saying, "I 'm ready for some football! Are you? '', thus beginning the transformation process. Celebrities for 2006 included Arnold Schwarzenegger, Matthew Fox, Hugh Hefner, Paris Hilton, Spike Lee, Ashton Kutcher, Samuel L. Jackson, Ludacris, Jack Black, Kiefer Sutherland, James Belushi, Ben Stiller, Tyra Banks, Carmen Electra and Eva Longoria.
In addition, celebrities returned in full force to the booth, though this proved to be the major criticism of ESPN 's first MNF season. On the opening weekend, Arnold Schwarzenegger, another celebrity - turned - California governor, was in the booth at McAfee Coliseum in Oakland, California; before that, Jamie Foxx appeared at FedExField in suburban Washington, D.C. Following them, celebrity appearances included NBA basketball superstar Dwyane Wade, Basketball Hall of Fame player Charles Barkley, NASCAR Cup Series driver Jeff Gordon, comedian Jimmy Kimmel (whose opening words to Joe Theismann were "how 's the leg? ''), actor Sylvester Stallone, film director Spike Lee, hip hop artist Jay - Z, and MNF theme singer Hank Williams Jr.
ESPN scaled back to only one opening tease for the 2007 season. Williams Jr. and the all - star band returned, only this time they played in a "juke joint '' set on a country road. The lead singer arrives in a GMC Yukon truck (GMC paid for product placement) with the license plate "BOCEPHUS '', which is Williams ' nickname. The Syndicate 's computer - generated tease was dropped and replaced by short pre-taped films focusing on a team or player in the game. Some of them have featured actor Jamie Foxx.
The guest visits continued: Barkley returned to the booth on September 17 in Philadelphia. Other guests throughout the season included Kimmel (another returnee), Drew Carey, Miley Cyrus, Russell Crowe and Terry Bradshaw. In addition, Gordon was a halftime guest on the game just before the season - ending Ford 400 and was joined by teammate Jimmie Johnson.
At the end of each game, Williams returned to say, "See you in (city that is the site of the next week 's game). '' Both the open and close contain helmets of the participating teams, organized in the style of a concert poster.
Despite the de-emphasis on entertainment on the overall telecast, ESPN did bring back Hank Williams, Jr. for his 20th season as part of the opening. This time, the opening sequence was set in a private residence. At the end of the song, Williams Jr. touched a foot pump, which supposedly contained the helmets of that night 's participating teams. The helmets were launched from the home toward the stadium at which the game was held. Through computer - generated imagery, the helmets "land '' at midfield during a live shot, and then explode. The "exploding helmets '' gimmick was also used at various times in the 1980s and 1990s during the pre-game tease. Williams Jr. then appeared again at the end of the game to promote the next week 's matchup.
ESPN also continued to promote upcoming albums through its use in bumper music. On September 29 (Baltimore Ravens at Pittsburgh Steelers), ESPN used "Another Way to Die '', a duet between Alicia Keys and Jack White of the White Stripes -- the song was part of the soundtrack for the 2008 film Quantum of Solace, then the latest in the James Bond series.
Monday Night Football celebrated its 600th game broadcast on October 20, 2008 in a game which the New England Patriots defeated the Denver Broncos, 41 -- 7.
The 39th season of MNF ended on December 22, 2008, when the Bears beat the Green Bay Packers, 20 -- 17, in overtime at home at Soldier Field in Chicago.
The title sequence for the 40th season of Monday Night Football featured Hank Williams, Jr. seen on the steps of a building (presumably a museum), surrounded by dancers, football fans, and statues / busts -- which, along with everyone else in the scene, begin to move and dance -- patterned after those at the Pro Football Hall of Fame. The transition to Williams Jr. is a book, with the chapter number (in Roman numerals, sequentially with each week) and a tag line about the game to be played that night.
At the end of the song, Williams Jr. plugged in the cords, thereby launching animated "helmets '' into space, from the building toward the stadium at which the game was held (with the exception of October 5, 2009, when the helmets zoomed towards Brett Favre instead), passing the International Space Station. As with the previous season (as mentioned above), the helmets "land '' at midfield during a live shot and then crashed into each other. Williams Jr. appeared again at the end of the telecast to promote the following week 's matchup. After that, the picture was freezeframed and the shot zoomed out to the book, which showed the freezeframed picture as part of a page. As this happened, the NFL end - of - game bumper music was played and the book closed, revealing a golden NFL logo on the back cover and signifying the end of the "chapter '', or game. The scene was filmed in the summer of 2009 at The Parthenon in Nashville, Tennessee.
Before Williams Jr. appears, Frank Gifford gave a short vignette about a memorable moment in the history of Monday Night Football featuring one or both of the teams playing that night 's game.
The 40th season of Monday Night Football ended on December 28, 2009 with the Minnesota Vikings -- Chicago Bears game in Chicago, in which the Bears won in overtime, 36 -- 30. The telecast ended with a vignette that featured Gifford taking a look back at highlights from the previous four decades -- and the 40th season -- of MNF, after which the book closed, signifying the end of the season. The 40th season had the highest season viewership for MNF since ESPN acquired the rights to the broadcast.
The opening for the 2010 season was identical to that used in 2009, except for the final scenes. This time, Williams Jr. turns a wheel filled with paint, with CGI colors blasting into the air, revealing the helmets containing logos of the participating teams -- which stay on top of the building. In one other minor difference, the chapter numbers in the "book '' were changed from Roman to Arabic numerals. Gifford provided new vignettes and the Parthenon scenes were repeated from the year before. The 2010 season marked Williams ' 22nd as part of the telecast 's open.
In an unusual coincidence, both games which had the New York Jets as a home team at New Meadowlands Stadium (now MetLife Stadium) were delayed because of heavy rain and lightning in the area. In the first instance, the September 13 game against the Baltimore Ravens, it was delayed 25 minutes; the second delay, prior to the October 11 contest against the Minnesota Vikings, lasted for 40 minutes. Prior to the September 13 game, the last ESPN telecast to encounter weather problems was on October 4, 1998 (a Sunday night) when lightning halted a game between the Seattle Seahawks and Kansas City Chiefs during the second quarter. The first delay forced ESPN to use ESPN2 for a game telecast, this time for the Chiefs ' home opener against the San Diego Chargers. As in 2007, the broadcast was shifted to ESPN once the first game was over.
The game between the Jets and the Vikings was both Brett Favre 's first game in East Rutherford since his only season there in 2008 and marked Randy Moss 's return to the Vikings. Moss played only four games for Minnesota until he was waived on November 2.
The opening sequence for the 2011 season was set in a closed - studio setting, with Hank Williams Jr. (in his 23rd year) performing with a band in front of a live audience with large video screens in the background. The end of the opening sequence featured the team logos of that night 's participants transitioning into the new ESPN Monday Night Football logo before going to a live shot. On October 3, 2011, ESPN pulled the theme song after Williams appeared on the Fox News Channel program, Fox & Friends, where he compared a golf outing involving Barack Obama, John Boehner, Joe Biden and John Kasich to "Hitler playing golf with Netanyahu. '' On October 6, 2011, it was announced that Williams would no longer be singing the theme song, and that "All My Rowdy Friends '' would no longer be used as its theme, as Williams still owns the song. A statement from ESPN said that the network has "decided to part ways with Hank Williams Jr. We appreciate his contributions over the past years. The success of Monday Night Football has always been about the games and that will continue. '' Williams commented on the matter: "After reading hundreds of e-mails, I have made my decision... By pulling my opening October 3, (ESPN) stepped on the toes of the First Amendment Freedom of Speech, so therefore me, my song, and All My Rowdy Friends are out of here. It 's been a great run. '' MNF did not have an opening sequence at all from Week 4 through the end of that season.
With Suzy Kolber reassigned to the new studio show NFL32, and Michele Tafoya having left ESPN for NBC Sunday Night Football, the sideline reporter position rotated between various reporters for the season.
For the second year in a row, and the third time overall, the beginning of the 10: 15 p.m. Eastern Time game (Oakland Raiders at Denver Broncos) was shown on ESPN2 as the game that began at 7: 00 p.m. Eastern Time (New England Patriots at Miami Dolphins) ran past the scheduled time period.
Lisa Salters was named the permanent solo sideline reporter for the 2012 season. In addition, color commentator Ron Jaworski did not return to the program. As a result, Jon Gruden became the solo color commentator, with MNF going back to a two - man booth for the first time since its final season on ABC (2005). MNF 's opening graphic sequence, which showed the helmet logos of the game 's two participating NFL teams and then the program 's logo, was seen before the Monday Night Football Launch segment.
The opening animation sequence begins with an image of a 2014 GMC Sierra (GMC paid for product placement) and then goes into a timeline of historical events that occurred during the Monday Night Football era, including some highlights of MNF games from the previous 43 seasons up to 2012. At the end of the sequence, helmets featuring logos of that night 's two participating teams are shown, followed by the various Monday Night Football logos used since the program 's debut in 1970. The 80 - second opening animation sequence, which also featured Pac - Man, Darth Vader and President Ronald Reagan, was created by actor / filmmaker Peter Berg.
A revision of the opening sequence was used for the 2014 season. Among the few changes, GMC 's product placement promoted the automaker 's line of Denali vehicles, while the sequence itself included some additional highlights of MNF games from the previous 44 seasons up to 2013.
A 3D opening animation sequence is used for the 2015 season (46th season overall and tenth on ESPN). GMC 's product placement once again promoted the automaker 's line of Denali vehicles, including the Yukon Denali that is seen at the beginning. Also among the many changes is the highlights of MNF games -- this time, they are set inside a computer - generated stadium using 3D imagery -- from the previous 45 seasons up to 2014.
After three years of using the timeline - themed open, MNF debuted a new 75 - second, Hollywood - themed open on September 12, 2016 and it features ESPN 's new MNF broadcast team -- Sean McDonough (play - by - play), Jon Gruden (color) and Lisa Salters (sideline reporter) -- and more than 20 current NFL stars and Pro Football Hall of Famers walking along a red carpet entrance lined by cheering fans and photographers taking pictures. It begins with a shot of a downtown stadium surrounded by skyscrapers, with a 2017 GMC Acadia (product placement again provided by GMC) displaying the location for that week 's MNF game on its navigation system. The Acadia then heads to a glitzy red carpet at the stadium 's entrance, where McDonough, Gruden and Salters exit the car, followed on the carpet by a flood of NFL players representing the past and present of MNF. Players then pose for pictures and wave to the crowd as they reach the stadium entrance. Josh Norman (Redskins), Larry Fitzgerald (Cardinals) and Rob Gronkowski (Patriots) are among the current players being represented in the open, with Franco Harris (Steelers), Jerry Rice (49ers), Barry Sanders (Lions) and Bruce Smith (Bills) among the past players being represented. For the Spanish - language version of the Hollywood - themed open, it features ESPN 's Spanish - language MNF broadcast team -- Álvaro Martín (play - by - play), Raúl Allegre (color) and John Sutcliffe (sideline reporter) as well as the current Hispanic NFL players and the team of the Latin American version of NFL Live led by Ciro Procuna.
MNF returned to two teases for the first time since its first season on ESPN (2006). The Hollywood - themed open was repeated from the previous season, this time with the 2018 GMC Terrain being used as the automaker 's product placement.
Also, Hank Williams, Jr. returned to MNF on September 11, 2017 with an all - new version of the iconic opening theme song, "All My Rowdy Friends Are Here on Monday Night '' (used from 1989 to Week 3 of the 2011 season) and it appeared just before that night 's New Orleans Saints - Minnesota Vikings game. The new version, which is seen just before the kickoff of each game, is a collaboration of Williams, Jr, country duo Florida Georgia Line, and R&B singer Jason Derulo.
Hank Williams Jr. reworked his country music hit "All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight '' to be included in the telecast 's introduction as "All My Rowdy Friends Are Here on Monday Night '' (the original introduction music was an organ - based piece called "Score '', written by Charles Fox and recorded by Bob 's Band). In addition, Edd Kalehoff modernized the classic "Heavy Action '' theme in 1989.
For ABC 's last MNF game in 2005, Williams Jr. 's rendition of "Turn Out the Lights, The Party 's Over '', closed the broadcast.
Prior to 1997, Monday Night Football had a limited graphics package. A CGI - based intro began being used in 1984, with on - screen graphics still limited to basic text. In 1988, the entire graphics package was updated significantly to be more in line with the rest of ABC Sports ' presentations. That year, it introduced the "clashing helmets '' intro, with on - screen graphics consisting of italicized text underlined in red. It was updated in 1994, the year the network hosted Super Bowl XXIX, with a more box - like design. A permanent score bug would not be introduced until 1997.
Monday Night Football began using a score bug in 1997, the second network to do so after Fox introduced the first regular on - screen scoring bug when it began airing NFL games in 1994. Prior to this, the graphics package was limited, but followed a basic "ketchup and mustard '' color scheme of red and yellow. The first scorebug included team names, scores, time remaining, and displayed which quarter the game was in. This design was used through the 1998 season.
ABC hosted Super Bowl XXXIV for 1999, and updated its graphics package to more closely resemble those of sister cable network ESPN. ABC began using extended abbreviations for team names (for example, "TENN '', "VIKES '', "PACK '', and "FINS '' instead of "TEN '', "MIN '', "GB '', and "MIA ''), as four - letter and five - letter abbreviations were used on ESPN coverage. The result was a larger scorebug with a more conventional font. It was slightly modified in 2000 to have a border that was more in line with the red and yellow color scheme.
The graphics for Monday Night Football were changed in the 2002 season, the year the network hosted Super Bowl XXXVII. The scorebug was a solid color, with a more rounded shape, and a horizontally compressed font. ESPN 's graphics were no longer similar to those of ABC 's (with ESPN instead using a gray and black design with rounded corners). In 2005, the broadcast 's final year on ABC, Monday Night Football began using a horizontal bar on the bottom of the screen rather than a scorebug, with all information being contained on a single line.
After Monday Night Football moved to ESPN in 2006 (around the same time that ABC Sports rebranded as ESPN on ABC), ESPN changed its entire graphics package to a red and black design, while NFL coverage used a separate design. For NFL telecasts in 2006 and 2007, a dark gray, metallic scorebug was used, located in an unorthodox placement at the center of the bottom of the screen.
For the 2008 season, a new graphics scheme was introduced that was built around a new display known as the "dashboard ''; the scoreboard, which now took the form of a horizontal bar, was mounted in a dedicated area spanning across the bottom the screen. All lower - third graphics were also displayed within the dashboard, replacing the scorebar when in use.
For the 2009 and 2010 seasons, a revamped version of the 2008 design was used, incorporating a new, metallic silver design. Timeout indicators were added to the score bar in Week 4 of the 2009 season. For the 2009 season only, a "40th anniversary '' logo was incorporated into the bar in celebration of Monday Night Football 's 40th season. The "silver '' graphics scheme would later be adopted by other ESPN properties, such as its college football games in December 2009.
In the 2011 season, the banner was restructured as a black, metallic design, which was considerably larger than most scorebars -- including the previous one (although its sizes has varied, becoming significantly wider, though thinner in 2012). For ESPN 's first pre-season game of 2012, the timeout indicators were also accompanied by two smaller red lamps to the right, indicating the number of play challenges remaining, but these were unexpectedly removed the following game. On September 10, 2012, Monday Night Countdown began using MNF 's graphics scheme.
For the 2015 season, the graphics were completely overhauled to match the motif that has been used for ESPN 's NFL studio programming since the year prior. However, the studio programming uses the new motif only for introductions and transitions, while the actual insert graphics use the standard ESPN package used for SportsCenter and all other sports. Meanwhile, MNF uses the NFL motif for all insert graphics, not just introductions and transitions. Most notably, the NFL motif uses a horizontal score bar across the bottom of the screen, whereas the standard graphics package uses a score box. The layout is standard, with teams on the background of their color, with timeout indicators also displaying in team colors. Experimentally, the score bar "auto - hides '' itself during plays, though it is shown permanently during the final two minutes of each half and, if necessary, overtime. This is also the first time that ESPN has used the full 16: 9 frame for its NFL graphics.
From 1970 to 1997, ABC 's Monday Night Football coverage began at 9: 00 p.m. Eastern Time, with game kickoff typically occurring at seven minutes past the hour. Coverage was moved one hour earlier to 8: 00 p.m. Eastern Time in 1998, with a pre-game show titled Monday Night Blast, hosted by Chris Berman from the ESPN Zone restaurant in Baltimore preceding the start of the game at 8: 20 p.m. This was done mainly to address ABC 's inability to find a suitable 8: 00 p.m. lead - in program for MNF since MacGyver ended its run in 1992 (not even two other series from MacGyver 's production company Paramount Television -- The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles and The Marshal -- saw success, despite the former 's ties to Paramount 's Indiana Jones film series), and to allow stations to start their late local newscasts nearer to their regular times. Poor ratings caused this experiment to be dropped after one season, with MNF once again moving to 9: 00 p.m. in 1999, though in many NFL markets, the 8: 00 p.m. (Eastern Time) hour from 1999 to 2006 was replaced by affiliates with locally produced and programmed sports discussion and coaches shows, with ABC programming in that hour moved to late night or weekend slots; by the end of the ABC run, the 8: 00 p.m. timeslot was filled with either newsmagazines and short - lived reality television programs which failed to make any ratings headways due to affiliate pre-emptions.
From 1970 to 1995, Fisher Broadcasting 's ABC affiliates in Seattle (KOMO - TV) and Portland (KATU) aired MNF games on a one - hour tape delay starting at 7: 00 p.m. Pacific Time (games normally started in the Pacific Time Zone at 6: 00 p.m., corresponding to 9: 00 Eastern) in order to accommodate local newscasts (unless the Seattle Seahawks were playing, in which case the game would be shown live). The practice, long opposed by viewers and ABC, ended in 1996. KOMO then tried to accommodate having to air its local newscasts earlier than its local station competitors by marketing it as KOMO 4 News Primetime, touting it as a way to watch the news at a more convenient time than during evening rush hour. Additionally, this practice was done in Hawaii, where Honolulu ABC affiliate KITV delayed the game until 6: 00 p.m. Hawaii - Aleutian Time, corresponding to 11: 00 p.m. or midnight Eastern during daylight saving time on the mainland. Thus, the game, which was broadcast live on local radio starting at 3: 00 or 4: 00 p.m., was almost over before it aired on television. In the case of Guam, KTGM, the ABC affiliate in that U.S. territory, aired MNF live on Tuesdays at 11: 00 a.m., as Guam is a day ahead of the United States due to being located on the other side of International Date Line.
The demand to broadcast Monday Night Football games live across the United States over ABC was difficult to reconcile with other prime time programming, which is usually set to begin at a certain local time regardless of time zone. On the East Coast, with MNF beginning at 9: 00 p.m. Eastern Time, there was an hour of primetime in which to schedule regular programming. However, on the West Coast, the games lasted from 6: 00 to 9: 30 p.m. Pacific Time (or in the case of Seattle and Portland from 1970 to 1995, 7: 00 to 10: 30 p.m.), leaving little or no time for additional network programming on Monday. As a result, network programs scheduled for prime time on the East Coast were broadcast at various hours on the West Coast. Most affiliates pushed the network shows to immediately after the game; however, Los Angeles owned - and - operated station KABC - TV postponed them until 10: 00 p.m. from at least the mid-1990s until 2005 to show trivia contests and other sports shows produced locally (the longest - tenured such show was Monday Night Live, hosted by sports anchor Todd Donoho). Meanwhile, KOMO, one of the stations that tape - delayed MNF in most cases, broadcast new episodes of the sitcom Coach on Saturday afternoons (usually reserved, coincidentally enough, for college football telecasts; much of the series took place on a fictional college campus). Except for Seattle and Portland from 1970 to 1995, ABC World News Tonight was routinely preempted on most West Coast affiliates, though the ABC network - owned stations (e.g. Los Angeles) aired the program earlier in the afternoon.
Since ESPN took over the coverage in 2006, games normally have a kickoff time of 8: 30 p.m. Eastern. However, when ESPN airs a doubleheader during the first week of the season, the games respectively start at 7: 00 and 10: 15 p.m. Eastern. There have been issues with local stations in the ESPN era, where stations in each team 's home market that air the ESPN simulcast are in most cases ABC affiliates, which must pre-empt Dancing with the Stars to air NFL. This both forces the affiliate to air that program immediately after late - evening local newscasts, and has resulted in the program 's telephone and Internet voting coordinators keeping a late - night voting window open for the market or markets where Dancing with the Stars was pre-empted.
In some cases, the program is moved to a sister station of the ABC affiliate to air live instead (for example, until 2011 in the Minneapolis -- St. Paul market, when NBC affiliate KARE took over as the local broadcaster of MNF games, if the Minnesota Vikings were playing a game being simulcast on local ABC affiliate KSTP - TV, sister independent station KSTC - TV aired DWTS live). In 2016, for the opening week Monday night game (the second in a doubleheader) between the Los Angeles Rams and San Francisco 49ers, the ABC - owned stations in both markets (KABC - TV and KGO - TV) would broadcast World News Tonight and DWTS in their live Eastern Time Zone slots, thus airing at 3: 30 and 5pm PT respectively.
Since 2006, a Spanish - language telecast is also broadcast on ESPN Deportes, the Spanish version of ESPN and on ESPN Latin América featuring NBA and NFL play - by - play announcer Álvaro Martín, Super Bowl winner Raul Allegre as color commentator and John Sutcliffe as the field reporter. This is the same crew of La NFL Dominical, the Spanish version of ESPN Sunday Night Football, until 2005. The announcers of the second game of the 2006 doubleheader were Eduardo Varela (play - by - play), Robert Abramowitz (color) and Georgina Ruiz Sandoval (field reporter). Preceding the game NFL Esta Noche (NFL Tonight), the 30 - minute pre-game show, can be seen on both networks.
The four booth announcers called the 2007 season opening games from ESPN 's Bristol, Connecticut headquarters while watching games on monitors. None of them traveled to the game sites and there were no sideline reporters in the early weeks. Sutcliffe would later report from the game sites. Allegre did not work the season finale between the Broncos and Chargers; he was replaced by Abramovitz.
In 2008, Martin and Allegre only travelled to the Cowboys - Eagles game, during the NFL 's celebrations of the Hispanic Heritage Month.
As part of ESPN 's agreement to simulcast their Wild Card game on ABC, Martin and Allegre 's Spanish - language commentary is carried over the SAP channel on ABC, equivalent to the rest of the NFL 's over-the - air broadcast partners.
In 2016, ESPN Deportes served as the official Spanish - language broadcaster of Super Bowl 50 in parallel with CBS 's English - language broadcast, with Martin and Allegre commentating.
During the first 9 weeks of the 2017 NFL season, ESPN2 will simulcast ESPN Deportes ' broadcast, NFL Esta Noche, and the Spanish version of SportsCenter.
Since the 1990s, ESPN Latin America has a feed in Portuguese language targeted to their viewers in Brazil. Ivan Zimmermann (play - by - play), André José Adler (play - by - play), Roberto Figueroa (color), Marco Alfaro (color) among others, were the announcers broadcasting from ESPN 's headquarters. Since 2006, the structure of the Brazilian feed was merged with ESPN Brasil and the broadcasting is made from São Paulo. The current announcers are Everaldo Marques (play - by - play) and Paulo Antunes (color). Ari Aguiar (play - by - play), Rômulo Mendonça (play - by - play), Paulo Mancha (color) and Antony Curti (color) occasionally fill - in.
Monday Night Football has also been carried on national radio networks over the years. The Mutual Broadcasting System aired the games initially, with Van Patrick (1972 -- 1973), Lindsey Nelson (1974 -- 1977) and Al Wester announcing. CBS Radio took over the rights in 1978 with Jack Buck and Hank Stram commentating. After a two - year stint (1985 -- 1986) with Don Criqui and Bob Trumpy calling the games on NBC Radio, Buck and Stram resumed with CBS Radio in 1987. In 1996, Howard David and Matt Millen replaced Buck and Stram. Marv Albert and Boomer Esiason were the MNF radio voices from 2002 to 2009, with Kevin Harlan replacing Albert in 2010. Kurt Warner joined the crew in 2014 for games when Esiason is unavailable.
In the 1990s, CBS Radio purchased a controlling stake in Westwood One, which in turn had bought out both the NBC and Mutual networks. As of 2008, Westwood One was no longer controlled by CBS, but the network retained its NFL broadcast rights. In 2011, Westwood One was purchased by Dial Global. Then in 2014, Dial Global, including Westwood One, was acquired by Cumulus Media.
The Spanish - language broadcast is carried on ESPN Deportes Radio.
The highest - rated Monday Night Football telecast on ABC was the Miami Dolphins ' victory over the previously undefeated Chicago Bears on December 2, 1985, which drew a national Nielsen rating of 29.6 and a share of 46. ABC 's lowest - rated MNF game was the St. Louis Rams ' defeat of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on October 18, 2004, which drew a 7.7 rating.
During the 1995 -- 1996 television season, Monday Night Football averaged a 17.1 household rating. Its main competitor, Murphy Brown on CBS, averaged a 12.3 rating.
The highest - rated Monday Night Football game on ESPN, and the highest - rated program in U.S. cable television history at that time, was the Minnesota Vikings ' defeat of the Green Bay Packers 30 -- 23 on October 5, 2009, with a rating of 15.3. The game featured the much - hyped matchup of Vikings quarterback Brett Favre facing his longtime former Green Bay team. In a press release, ESPN noted that the telecast "was watched by more than 16.8 million people. The previous record was more than 13.6 million viewers for 2008 's Monday night game between the Philadelphia Eagles and Dallas Cowboys. This was subsequently beaten by ESPN 's coverage of the 2011 BCS National Championship Game. ESPN also stated that the game drew the highest rating in the network 's 30 - year history. The 15.3 rating beat the 14.4 for a Bears - Vikings game on Dec. 6, 1987, during ESPN 's first season of televising NFL games ''. ESPN 's lowest - rated MNF game to date was the New York Giants ' defeat of the Atlanta Falcons on October 15, 2007, which drew a 5.7 rating.
ESPN 's third season of Monday Night Football was the most - watched program on cable television in 2008, setting an all - time cable viewership record for the third straight year and drawing that year 's three largest cable household audiences and 13 of the top 15. In three seasons on ESPN, Monday Night Football has registered seven of the top 10 all - time largest household audiences in cable history, led by the Eagles - Cowboys telecast on September 15, 2008, which attracted cable 's largest household audience ever (an average of 12,953,000 homes). ESPN 's 17 MNF telecasts in 2008 averaged an 8.9 rating, representing an average of 8,679,000 households (11,962,000 viewers), increases of 3 %, 5 % and 7 %, respectively, vs. 2007 (8.6; 8,277,000 and 11,230,000).
When ABC first acquired the rights to air MNF in 1970, it did not include any playoff games. The network was eventually allowed into the rotation of airing the Super Bowl, starting with Super Bowl XIX in January 1985. When the league expanded the playoffs from a 10 - team to a 12 - team tournament in 1990, ABC was then given the rights to air the first two Wild Card Playoff games.
After MNF was awarded to ESPN and Sunday Night Football was acquired by NBC in 2006, the Wild Card doubleheader that had aired on ABC, as well as a share of the rotating rights to the Super Bowl, was also given to NBC.
On April 22, 2014, the NFL announced that it had exercised an option in ESPN 's recent contract extension for Monday Night Football rights to air a first - round Wild Card playoff game on the channel after the conclusion of the 2014 season. This was the first time that an NFL playoff game was ever broadcast exclusively on cable television in the United States, in lieu of any of the league 's broadcast network partners. The MNF broadcast team of Mike Tirico, Jon Gruden and sideline reporter Lisa Salters called the game, the first of the 2014 -- 15 NFL playoffs. The Carolina Panthers defeated the Arizona Cardinals 27 -- 16. As with all MNF games, the matchup was simulcast on WJZY in Charlotte and KASW in the Phoenix market to allow local viewers over-the - air access to the game.
However, the cable - only playoff game experiment would only last one season. On May 11, 2015, it was announced that ABC would simulcast a Wild Card playoff game with ESPN for the 2015 season. This was the first NFL game broadcast nationally on ABC since MNF left the network at the end of the 2005 season. The game, announced by the broadcast team of Tirico, Gruden and Salters, was the first of the 2015 -- 16 NFL playoffs. The Kansas City Chiefs defeated the Houston Texans 30 -- 0. The ESPN / ABC simulcast continued for the 2016 season as well.
ABC televised the Pro Bowl from 1975 to 1987, and again from 1995 to 2003.
As part of their 2011 rights agreement, ESPN was given the exclusive rights to the Pro Bowl from 2015 through 2022. Starting in 2018, it will be simulcast on ABC.
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who owns the back to the future car | DeLorean DMC - 12 - wikipedia
The DeLorean DMC - 12 (commonly referred to simply as "the DeLorean '', as it was the only model ever produced by the company) is a sports car originally manufactured by John DeLorean 's DeLorean Motor Company for the American market from 1981 to 1983. The car features gull - wing doors and an innovative fiberglass body structure with a steel backbone chassis, along with external brushed stainless - steel body panels. It became widely known and iconic for its appearance, and because a modified DMC - 12 was immortalized as the DeLorean time machine in the Back to the Future media franchise.
The first prototype appeared in October 1976. Production officially began in 1981 in Dunmurry, a suburb of southwest Belfast, Northern Ireland, where the first DMC - 12 rolled off the production line on January 21. Over the course of production, several features of the car were changed, such as the hood style, wheels, and interior. About 9,000 DMC - 12s were made before production halted in early 1983.
The DMC - 12 was the only model produced by the company, which was later liquidated as the US car market went through its largest slump since the 1930s. In 2007, about 6,500 DeLorean Motor cars were thought to still exist.
In 1995, Stephen Wynne, a British entrepreneur from Liverpool, created a separate company based in Texas using the "DeLorean Motor Company '' name. Wynne acquired the trademark on the stylized "DMC '' logo shortly thereafter, along with the remaining parts inventory of the original DeLorean Motor Company. The company builds new cars at its suburban Humble, Texas location from new old stock (NOS) parts, original equipment manufacturer (OEM), and reproduction parts on a "made to order '' basis using existing vehicle identification number (VIN) plates.
On January 27, 2016, DMC in Texas announced that it planned to build about 300 -- 325 replica 1982 DMC - 12 cars, each projected to cost just under US $100,000.
In October 1976, the first prototype DeLorean DMC - 12 was completed by American automotive chief engineer William T. Collins, formerly chief engineer at Pontiac. Originally, the car was intended to have a centrally - mounted Wankel rotary engine. The engine selection was reconsidered when Comotor production ended, and the favored engine became Ford 's "Cologne V6 ''. Eventually the French / Swedish PRV (Peugeot - Renault - Volvo) fuel - injected V6 was selected. Also the engine location moved from the mid-engined location in the prototype to a rear - engined installation in the production car. The chassis was initially planned to be produced from a new and untested manufacturing technology known as elastic reservoir moulding (ERM), which would lighten the car while presumably lowering its production costs. This new technology, for which DeLorean had purchased patent rights, was eventually found to be unsuitable.
These and other changes to the original concept led to considerable schedule pressures. The entire car was deemed to require almost complete re-engineering, which was turned over to engineer Colin Chapman, founder and owner of Lotus Cars. Chapman replaced most of the unproven material and manufacturing techniques with those then employed by Lotus, like the steel backbone chassis.
In an interview with James Espey of the new incarnation of the DeLorean Motor Company of Texas, a drawing surfaced showing that the car originally had the potential to be named "Z Tavio ''. John DeLorean 's middle name and his son 's first name were both Zachary, while Tavio was his father 's name and his son 's middle name. Due to only sporadic documentation, there is little more that is currently known about the Z Tavio name and why it was ultimately rejected in favor of the DMC - 12.
DeLorean required US $175 million to develop and build the motor company. Convincing Hollywood celebrities such as Johnny Carson and Sammy Davis, Jr. to invest in the firm, DeLorean eventually built the DMC - 12 in a factory in Dunmurry, Northern Ireland, a neighborhood a few miles from Belfast city center.
The company had originally intended to build the factory in Puerto Rico, but changed its plans when the Northern Ireland Development Agency offered £ 100 million towards it, despite an assessment by consultants hired by the NIDA that the business had only a 1 - in - 10 chance of success.
Construction on the factory began in October 1978, and although production of the DMC - 12 was scheduled to start in 1979, engineering problems and budget overruns delayed production until early 1981.
By the time production actually began in 1981, the unemployment rate was high in Northern Ireland, and local residents lined up to apply for jobs at the factory. The workers were largely inexperienced, but were paid premium wages and supplied with the best equipment available. Most quality issues were solved by 1982, and the cars were sold from dealers with a one - year, 12,000 - mile (19,000 km) warranty and an available five - year, 50,000 - mile (80,000 km) service contract.
The DeLorean Motor Company went bankrupt in late 1982 following John DeLorean 's arrest in October of that year on drug - trafficking charges. He was later found not guilty, but it was too late for the DMC - 12 to remain in production. Approximately 100 partially assembled DMCs on the production line were completed by Consolidated International (now known as Big Lots). The remaining parts from the factory stock, the parts from the US Warranty Parts Center, as well as parts from the original suppliers that had not yet been delivered to the factory were all shipped to Columbus, Ohio in 1983 -- 1984. A company called KAPAC sold these parts to retail and wholesale customers by mail order. In 1997, DeLorean Motor Company of Texas acquired this inventory. There had also been a long - standing rumor that the body stamping dies were dumped into the ocean to prevent later manufacture. Evidence later emerged that the dies were used as anchors for nets at a fish farm in Ards Bay, Connemara, Ireland.
About 9,200 DMC - 12s were produced between January 1981 and December 1982. Almost a fifth of these were produced in October 1981. About a thousand 1982 models were produced between February and May 1982, and all of these cars had the VINs changed after purchase by Consolidated to make them appear as 1983 models. There are the 15XXX, 16XXX, and 17XXX VINs, which were originally 10XXX, 11XXX, and 12XXX VINs. Only a dozen 12XXXX VIN cars still exist. These are the Wooler - Hodec right - hand - drive cars (see below).
The DMC - 12 features a number of unusual construction details, including gull - wing doors, unpainted stainless - steel body panels, and a rear - mounted engine.
The body design of the DMC - 12 was a product of Giorgetto Giugiaro of Ital Design and is panelled in brushed SS304 stainless steel. Except for three cars plated in 24 - karat gold, all DMC - 12s left the factory uncovered by paint or clearcoat. Painted DeLoreans do exist, although these were all painted after the cars were purchased from the factory. Several hundred DMCs were produced without stainless panels, for training workers, and are referred to as "black cars '' or "mules '', in reference to their black fiberglass panels instead of stainless, although these were never marketed. Small scratches in the stainless - steel body panels can be removed with a non-metallic scouring pad (since metal pads can leave iron particles embedded in the stainless steel, which can give the appearance of the stainless "rusting ''), or even sandpaper. The stainless - steel panels are fixed to a fiberglass underbody. The underbody is affixed to a steel double - Y frame chassis, derived from the Lotus Esprit platform.
The unpainted stainless body creates challenges during restoration of the cars. In traditional automotive body repair, the panel is repaired to be as original ("straight '') as possible, and imperfections are sculpted back to form with polyester body filler like Bondo or lead (body solder). This poses no problem (aside from originality) with most cars, as the filler will be hidden by the car 's paint (for example, most new cars have filler hiding the seam where the roof meets the quarter panel). With an unpainted stainless body, the stainless steel must be reworked to exactly the original shape, contour, and grain, which is a tremendously difficult job on regular steel (a dented or bent panel is stretched, and a shrinking hammer or other techniques must be used to unstretch the metal) and even more difficult with stainless due to its tendency to work - harden. Furthermore, it is exceedingly difficult to paint stainless steel due to difficulties with paint adhesion. DeLorean envisioned that damaged panels would simply be replaced rather than repaired; each DeLorean service center today has at least one experienced body - repair person on staff, and there are decades worth of new stainless panels still available in most instances.
Another distinctive feature of the DMC - 12 is its gull - wing doors. The common problem of supporting the weight of gull - wing doors was solved by other manufacturers with lightweight doors in the Mercedes - Benz 300SL and a hydraulic pump in the Bricklin SV - 1, although these designs had structural or convenience disadvantages. The DMC - 12 features heavy doors supported by cryogenically preset torsion bars and gas - charged struts. These torsion bars were developed by Grumman Aerospace (and built by Unbrako in the UK, a division of SPS Technologies of Jenkintown, PA) to withstand the stresses of supporting the doors. A popular misconception of the DMC - 12 's gull - wing doors is that they require far more side clearance to open relative to ordinary side - hinge doors, such as when parked in a parking lot. In fact, the opposite is true: the DMC - 12 requires far less clearance than side - hinge doors, and this can be physically demonstrated. This misconception of side clearance may stem from a misunderstood location of the hinge point of the doors by persons unfamiliar with DMC - 12s. These doors, when opening, only require 11 inches (28 cm) clearance outside the line of the car, making opening and closing the doors in crowded spaces relatively easy. Much like the doors fitted to the Lamborghini Countach, the DMC - 12 doors featured small cutout windows, because full - sized windows would not be fully retractable within the short door panels. Additionally, the doors featured red and amber "safety '' lights around the perimeter. These lights illuminated when the door was open and could be seen from the front, rear or side of the vehicle at night or in low - light situations.
The engine is a Peugeot - Renault - Volvo (PRV) 2.85 L (2,849 cc) V6, rated at 130 hp (132 PS; 97 kW) @ 5500 rpm and 207 N ⋅ m (153 lb ⋅ ft) @ 2750 rpm of torque, that was designed and built under special contract with the DeLorean Motor Company. These PRVs were a development of the 2.7 - litre V6 in the Renault 30 and were built in the PRV Factory in Douvrin, Northern France. The 5 - speed manual transmission, also designed by PRV, was built at the Renault facility near Caen in Normandy. The engines and gearboxes were shipped weekly by sea from the PRV factories to the DMC factory.
The suspension of the DMC - 12 is a four - wheel independent suspension, coil springs, and telescopic shock absorbers. The front suspension uses double wishbones, while the rear is a multi-link setup. In its original development stages, the car is said to have handled quite well. Design drawings clearly show that the design met NHTSA minimum bumper and headlight heights of the time. Many owners have subsequently replaced or modified the front springs to return the front height to the original design specification.
Steering is rack and pinion, with an overall steering ratio of 14.9: 1, giving 2.65 turns lock - to - lock and a 35 - foot (11 m) turning circle. DMC - 12s are fitted with cast alloy wheels, measuring 14 inches (360 mm) in diameter by 6 inches (150 mm) wide on the front and 15 inches (380 mm) in diameter by 8 inches (200 mm) wide on the rear. These were fitted with Goodyear NCT steel - belted radial tires. The DeLorean is a rear - engine vehicle with a 35 % -- 65 % front -- rear weight distribution.
The DMC - 12 features power - assisted disc brakes on all wheels, with 10 - inch (250 mm) rotors front and 10.5 - inch (270 mm) rear.
DeLorean 's comparison literature noted that the DMC - 12 could achieve 0 -- 60 miles per hour (0 -- 97 km / h) in 8.8 seconds, when equipped with a manual transmission. When equipped with an automatic transmission, the DeLorean would accelerate from 0 to 60 miles per hour (0 to 97 km / h) in 10.5 seconds as tested by Road & Track magazine. The car 's top speed is 110 miles per hour (177 km / h).
The car was named the DMC - 12 because of its intended price of US $12,000. Upon release in 1981, a DMC - 12 had a suggested retail price of US $25,000 ($650 more when equipped with an automatic transmission); this is equivalent to approximately US $67,295 in 2017.. MSRP would increase in 1982 to $29,825 and again in 1983 to $34,000. At the outset, there were extensive waiting lists of people willing to pay up to $10,000 above the list price; however, after the collapse of the DeLorean Motor Company, unsold cars could be purchased for less than the retail price.
The DMC - 12 was only available with two factory options; a no - cost manual transmission or automatic transmission and the choice of a grey or black interior. Several dealer options were available, including a car cover; floor mats; black textured accent stripes; grey scotch - cal accent stripes; a luggage rack and a ski - rack adapter. The standard feature list included stainless - steel body panels; gull - wing doors with cryogenically treated torsion bars; leather seats; air conditioning; an AM / FM cassette stereo system; power windows, locks and mirrors; a tilt and telescopic steering wheel; tinted glass; body side moldings; intermittent / constant windshield wipers; and an electric rear - window defogger.
Although there were no typical "yearly '' updates to the DeLorean, several changes were made to the DeLorean during production. John DeLorean believed that model years were primarily a gimmick used by automobile companies to sell more cars. Instead of making massive changes at the end of the model year, he implemented changes mid-production, which has become more common in car manufacturing.) This resulted in no clear distinction between the 1981, 1982, and 1983 model years, but with subtle changes taking place almost continuously throughout the life of the DeLorean. The most visible of these changes related to the hood style.
The original hood of the DeLorean had grooves running down both sides. It included a tank flap to simplify fuel filling. The flap was built so that the trunk could be added to the total cargo area of the DeLorean. These cars typically had a locking cap to prevent fuel theft by siphoning. In August 1981, the hood flap was removed from the hood of the cars (although the hood creases stayed). This style was retained well into 1982. Based on production numbers for all three years, this hood style is probably the most common. After the supply of locking caps was exhausted, the company switched to a non-locking version (resulting in at least 500 cars with no flap, but with locking caps). The final styling for the hood included the addition of a DeLorean name badge and the removal of the grooves, resulting in a completely flat hood. According to senior personnel who worked at the Dunmurry factory, initial elimination of flapped hoods has a simple if unglamorous explanation; Chuck Benington, managing director, did not like the design.
John DeLorean was 6 ft 4 in (1.93 m) tall, and he designed the car to comfortably fit someone of his stature. For shorter people, the addition of a pull strap made closing the doors much easier from the inside. Pull straps were manufactured as an add - on for earlier vehicles in November 1981. These attach to the existing door handle. Late - model 1981 cars, and all cars from 1982 and 1983, have doors with integrated pull straps.
The side bolstering in the DeLorean was originally separate from the main interior pieces. In cars with this construction, is a tendency to place pressure on this piece when entering and exiting the vehicle, which eventually causes the bolstering to separate from the trim panel. To solve this problem, cars built in and after late 1981 have one solid trim piece with the bolster permanently attached.
As an addition to later cars, a foot rest, or "dead '' pedal, (in the form of an unusable pedal) was added to the cars to help prevent fatigue while driving. This is one of the few changes that is directly tied to a model year. These were built into only a few of the late - 1981 vehicles and were added to all cars starting with 1982 production.
Although the styling of the DeLorean 's wheels remained unchanged, the wheels of early - model 1981 vehicles were painted grey. These wheels sported matching grey centre caps with an embossed DMC logo. Early into the 1981 production run, these were changed to a polished silver look, with a contrasting black center cap. The embossed logo on the center caps was painted silver to add contrast.
In 1981, the DeLorean came stocked with a Craig radio; this was a standard 1980s tape radio with dual knob controls. Since the Craig did not have a built - in clock, one was installed in front of the gear shift. DeLorean switched to an ASI stereo in the middle of the 1982 production run. Since the ASI radio featured an on - board clock, the standard DeLorean clock was removed at the same time.
The first 2,200 cars produced used a windshield - embedded antenna. This type of antenna proved to be unsuitable with poor radio reception. Oftentimes the radio would continually "seek '', attempting to find a signal. A standard whip antenna was added to the outside of the front right fender. While improving radio reception, this resulted in a hole in the stainless steel, and an unsightly antenna. As a result, the antenna was again moved, this time to the rear of the car. Automatic antennas were installed under the grills behind the rear driver 's - side window. While giving the reception quality of a whip antenna, these completely disappear from view when not in use.
The small sun visors on the DeLorean have vinyl on one side and headliner fabric on the other side. Originally these were installed such that the headliner side would be on the bottom when not in use. Later on in 1981, they were reversed so that the vinyl side would be on the bottom.
The original Ducellier alternator supplied with the early - production DMC - 12s could not provide enough current to supply the car when all lights and electrical options were on; as a result, the battery would gradually discharge, leaving the driver stranded on the road. Additional battery drainage problems were caused by faulty or improperly adjusted door jamb switches. This switch activated the "safety '' lights located around the door perimeter when it was open. When the door was closed, the door seals prevented the light from being seen. Due to the faulty switches the lights remained on, further draining the battery. This happened to DeLorean owner Johnny Carson shortly after he was presented with the vehicle. Later cars were fitted from the factory with a higher - output Motorola alternator, which solved this problem. This also is believed to be the reason behind the improvement in the sound quality of the horn. Earlier models emitted a weak sound, not loud or strong enough to be effective in normal traffic.
DMC - 12s were primarily intended for the American market. All production models were therefore left - hand - drive. Evidence survives from as early as April 1981, however, that the DeLorean Motor Company was aware of the need to produce a right - hand - drive version to supply to world markets such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, India, Thailand, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan.
The company faced the choice of building right - hand - drive models from scratch or performing a post-production conversion exercise. Given the cost of new body molds, tooling, and a host of specific parts that a factory - built right - hand - drive configuration would require, the company opted to investigate the idea of a post-production conversion using a company based in Hampshire called Wooler - Hodec Ltd.
Only 16 right - hand - drive factory - authorised DeLoreans were ever produced. These cars can be divided into two distinct groups:
A common misconception surrounding the factory - authorized right - hand - drive DeLoreans is that they were all fitted with different, so - called "Euro - spec '', tail lights as part of the right - hand - drive conversion program. This is not the case. Due to the nature of these cars as prototypes, they were not officially type - approved for use in the UK. Owners who bought these cars at auction in the early 1980s encountered difficulty in registering them as new vehicles in the UK. At this point a former DeLorean Motor Cars executive offered to modify and register the cars so that they could be used in the UK. These modifications included:
Over half of the 16 right - hand - drive cars had these modifications carried out. In recent years several owners of these cars have replaced the Rubbolite lights with original federal - style tail lights in an effort to return the cars to their original specification. Some owners have also fitted federal - style license - plate bezels on their cars.
There were a number of official alterations made to the right - hand - drive cars ' lights. The extent of these modifications varies between the first batch of "Wooler - Hodec '' cars and the later "AXI '' cars:
All of the 13 Wooler - Hodec cars were modified to the OEM front turn - signal lens fixing method in order to make them fit flush with the front fascia. The cars ' headlights were also changed for right - hand - drive spec lights that incorporate a UK sidelight feature. The rest of the lights appear to have been left untouched by Wooler - Hodec during the conversion process.
By contrast, the 3 "AXI '' cars had further modifications to the amber front door lights, which were exchanged for clear lenses of the same style. Perhaps the most significant alteration on the "AXI '' cars is the deletion of the front and rear side markers. These are replaced by a single small round European - style indicator side repeater, situated on the front wing (fender). The body rubstrips are also of a different configuration in order to cover the areas that would otherwise have had federal side marker lenses fitted.
Several special - edition DMC - 12 cars have been produced over the years, and the car is most notably featured as the time machine in the Back to the Future film trilogy. Six DeLorean chassis were used during the production, along with one manufactured out of fiberglass for scenes where a full - size DeLorean was needed to "fly '' on - screen; only three of the cars still exist, with one that was destroyed at the end of Back to the Future Part III, two additional were abandoned, and the fiberglass replica was scrapped. Universal Studios owns two of the remaining cars, occasionally putting them on display or using them for other productions, and the last resides in a private collection after having been extensively restored. The official Back to the Future DeLorean can be viewed at the Petersen Automotive Museum.
A number of production DeLoreans have been modified by the aftermarket into Back to the Future time machine replicas, whose bodies and interiors are modified to mirror the appearance and functions of the film cars.
Only one of two DeLorean prototypes still exists. Proto 1 received a complete restoration and is now on display at the DeLorean Motor Company of Florida (DMCFL). Proto 2 was sent to Lotus Cars for development and evaluation in 1978. It was reported to have been destroyed in the 1990s.
There were several mules that were fiberglass - bodied cars used by Lotus during development and engineering. None are known to exist today.
An estimated 28 pilot cars were built by DMC. The pilot cars are best identified by the subtly different interiors and sliding side windows. These cars, used for evaluation and regulatory testing of the DeLorean, were previously thought to have been destroyed. Subsequently, several of the pilot cars were found to have survived. The test car featured on the front cover of Autocar in 1981 announcing the DeLorean to the world was found in 2003 in a barn in Northern Ireland.
With the 1980 NADA meeting approaching, DMC planned to show a final "production '' version of the DeLorean DMC 12, however there were no production cars ready at the time or even any production stainless steel panels.
In 1979, the revised Giugiaro styling mock - up was shipped to Visioneering, a Detroit based company, to create data needed to make the stamping dies for the stainless panels. This project would expand to create dies used to create a "production '' car for the NADA show.
Using a prototype chassis supplied by Lotus, Visioneering completed the assembly of this car at a cost of $750,000. The car was presented at the 1980 NADA show and was later used for engineering development and technical training as well as press photos. The Visioneering car would eventually be sold at the bankruptcy auction in late 1984. Today, the car is in a private collection.
It was determined that the DeLorean needed additional power when automotive magazine road tests showed 0 -- 60 mph (0 -- 97 km / h) times for the DMC - 12 between 9.5 and 10.5 seconds, while its rivals were in the 7.5 -- 8.5 second range. There had been interest in turbocharging the DeLorean early on, but the DMC engineering staff was busy with other projects, so DeLorean decided to go outside to develop a turbocharged version of the DeLorean.
Having had previous success with turbocharging Fiat Spiders, DeLorean entered into a contract with Legend Industries, based in Hauppauge, New York. DMC wanted to increase power without sacrificing fuel efficiency. DMC wanted a wide power band and did not want a surge of power similar to the Porsche 930 Turbo. Legend used twin IHI RHB52 turbos along with twin intercoolers. The results were an engine capable of accelerating smoothly in fifth gear from 1,500 rpm to full turbo boost at 2,500 rpm, reaching 150 mph (240 km / h) at 6,500 rpm.
In addition, Legend Industries developed a single turbocharged setup that was never finished. The company converted a total of four DeLoreans and two Renault Alpines, which were the first development cars. VIN 530 was written in numerous press articles as the fastest production car of its era.
In a test run of VIN 530 at Bridgehampton Raceway in 1981, the twin - turbo DeLorean was quicker than a Ferrari 308 and a Porsche 928. It has been a misconception for many years that VIN 502 was at Bridgehampton and used in testing; however, evidence from pictures, along with information from a Legend employee published by PJ Grady, indicates that 530 was used with the aspirated VIN 558. By the time of Bridgehampton, Legend had perfected modular boosting, which the earlier prototypes did not have installed apart from one of the Alpine mules and VIN 530. This has also been proven by a Legend Engineer who actually worked on the cars.
VIN 530 tested 0 -- 60 mph in 5.8 seconds and the ⁄ mile (402 m) in 14.7 seconds. DeLorean was so impressed with the engine, he committed to ordering 5,000 engines from Legend Industries. DeLorean planned to offer a turbocharged engine as a $7,500 option in 1984 (presumably to compete with the newly redesigned 1984 Corvette). Before any of the 5,000 cars could be put into production, DMC had declared bankruptcy, which drove Legend Industries, as well as other suppliers, into bankruptcy.
For Christmas 1980, a DeLorean / American Express promotion planned to sell 100 24K - gold - plated DMC - 12s for US $85,000 each to its gold - card members, but only two were sold. One of these was purchased by Roger Mize, president of Snyder National Bank in Snyder, Texas. VIN # 4301 sat in the bank lobby for over 20 years before being loaned to the Petersen Automotive Museum of Los Angeles. It has a black interior and an automatic transmission.
The second gold - plated American Express DMC - 12 was purchased by Sherwood Marshall, an entrepreneur and former Royal Canadian Naval Officer. Marshall donated his DeLorean to the William F. Harrah Foundation / National Automobile Museum in Reno, Nevada. This car, VIN # 4300, is the only one of the three existing gold - plated cars to be equipped with a manual transmission. It has a saddle - brown interior and, like its golden siblings, is a low - mileage vehicle with only 1,442 miles (2,321 km) on the odometer.
A third gold - plated car exists with 636 miles (1,024 km) on the odometer; it carries the VIN plate for the last DeLorean, # 20105, although final assembly was actually completed in Columbus, Ohio in 1983. This car was assembled with spare parts that were required by American Express in case one of the other two that were built were damaged and all necessary gold - plated parts were on hand, with the exception of one door. Thus the car was assembled after another door was gold - plated, though the added door does not precisely match the rest of the car in color and grain. The car was first acquired by the winner of a Big Lots store raffle. Consolidated International, which owned the department store, had purchased 1374 DMC - 12s during the DeLorean Company 's financial troubles, acquiring the remaining stock after the company went into receivership. Now held by a private owner in La Vale, Maryland, this third and last gold - plated DeLorean was for sale online at a price of US $250,000, but remains unsold. After being offered for sale for over a decade, it is unclear whether it has sold. This car and the example in Reno have saddle - brown leather interiors, a color scheme which was intended to become an option on later - production cars, however, these two cars were the only DeLoreans to ever be equipped with these factory parts.
A gold - plated DeLorean was reproduced privately by an enthusiast.
DMC Texas (based in Humble, Texas) announced on July 30, 2007 that the car would be returning into very limited production (about 20 cars a year) in 2008. They were subsequently sued by John DeLorean 's widow for illegally licensing the family name. DMC Texas settled this lawsuit in September 2015 by paying his widow an undisclosed sum and in turn received rights to use the name, images, and trademark in the future.
The cars were announced to have a new stainless - steel frame; with optional extras such as GPS, an enhanced "Stage 2 '' engine, and possibly a new modern interior. Given that the cars were made with 80 % old parts, the term "return to production '' is something of a misnomer; the cars are constructed on DeLorean underbodies built by the original company in the 1980s and retaining their VINs. The cars ' titles show the year of the underbody 's manufacture. They are, therefore, not new DeLoreans, but complete rebuilds of the car from the underbody with enhancements. In 2009, the price of a refurbished DeLorean from DMC Texas started at US $57,500, and the project was featured in an episode of Modern Marvels.
On October 18, 2011, it was announced that an all - electric model would be available for sale by 2013. It was said to have a 200 - horsepower (150 kW) motor, accelerate from 0 to 60 miles per hour (0 to 97 km / h) in 8 seconds, and sell for US $90,000. Initial test drives revealed that the prototype had a range of 70 miles (110 km), approaching the 100 miles (160 km) that was announced. However, 2014 saw criticism from fans who tried to buy the electric DeLorean only to learn that it was still unavailable.
Due to the passage of the Low Volume Vehicle Manufacturing Act, DMC Texas announced that they would be producing replica DeLoreans with an expected release date in 2017. DMC anticipates to build approximately 50 vehicles per year over the next 6 years with an estimated retail price of US $100,000. In October 2016, DMC announced that they are expecting to build 12 units in the first production year with as many as 50 in the second year of production. In February 2018, it was reported that production should start in January 2019.
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what products top 4 producers are in asia | List of countries by natural gas production - Wikipedia
This is a list of countries by natural gas production based on statistics from the International Energy Agency.
According to the International Energy Agency, the top 10 natural gas producers in 2013 were (in billion cubic meters): 1) United States 689 (19.8 %), 2) Russia 671 (19.3 %), 3) Iran 255 (5.86 %), 4) Qatar 161 (4.6 %), 5) Canada 155 (4.5 %), 6) China 115 (3.3 %), 7) Norway 109 (3.1 %), 8) Netherlands 86 (2.5 %), 9) Saudi Arabia 84 (2.4 %), 10) Algeria 80 (2.3 %), together producing two thirds of the total world production of 3,479 billion cubic meters.
In 2009, world production of natural gas was cut down by 2.8 %. Different trends were noticed among largest gas producers. The US became the world 's largest gas producer in 2009, exceeding Russian volumes.
In 2010, Russia returned to first place. Its production increased by 4.4 % and balanced a shrinking output in the European countries (- 9 %, despite increasing outputs in Norway and the Netherlands). The OECD thus posted a slight growth of 0.1 % in 2009. Conversely, gas production in Russia was scaled down by 12 % while Algeria experienced a substantial decline in its production (- 6 %). In the Middle East, gas production development slowed down and grew at a slower pace than the previous year (4 % from 7 % in 2008).
The data in the following table comes from The World Factbook.
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original singer of get your kicks on route 66 | Route 66 (song) - wikipedia
"(Get Your Kicks on) Route 66 '' is a popular rhythm and blues standard, composed in 1946 by American songwriter Bobby Troup. The song uses a twelve - bar blues arrangement and the lyrics follow the path of U.S. Route 66 (US 66), which traversed the western two - thirds of the U.S. from Chicago, Illinois, to Los Angeles, California.
Nat King Cole, as the King Cole Trio, first recorded the song the same year and it became a hit, appearing on Billboard magazine 's R&B and pop charts. Another version to reach the Billboard charts was that recorded by Bing Crosby with the Andrews Sisters on May 11, 1946 and this reached the No. 14 position in 1946. The song was subsequently recorded by many artists including Chuck Berry, the Rolling Stones, Them, Dr. Feelgood, Asleep at the Wheel, the Manhattan Transfer, Depeche Mode, The Brian Setzer Orchestra, The Cramps, John Mayer, and George Benson.
Bobby Troup got the idea for the song on a cross-country drive from Pennsylvania to California. Troup wanted to try his hand as a Hollywood songwriter, so he and his wife, Cynthia, packed up their 1941 Buick and headed west. The trip began on US 40 and continued along US 66 to the California coast. Troup initially considered writing a tune about US 40, but Cynthia suggested the title "Get Your Kicks on Route 66 ''. The song was composed on the ten - day journey, and completed by referencing maps when the couple arrived in Los Angeles.
The lyrics read as a mini-travelogue about the major stops along the route, listing several cities and towns through which Route 66 passes, viz. St Louis; Joplin, Missouri; Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Amarillo, Texas; Gallup, New Mexico; Flagstaff, Arizona; Winona, Arizona; Kingman, Arizona; Barstow, California; and San Bernardino, California. Winona is the only town out of sequence: it was a very small settlement east of Flagstaff, and might indeed have been forgotten if not for the lyric "Do n't forget Winona '', written to rhyme with "Flagstaff, Arizona ''. Many artists who have covered the tune over the years have changed the initial lyrics, usually to "It goes to St. Louis, down through Missouri... '' then continuing on with Oklahoma City and so on. Of the eight states through which the actual route passes, only Kansas and its cities -- US 66 spends just eleven miles (18 km) inside the state 's southeast corner -- are not mentioned by the song. Chuck Berry famously mispronounces Barstow to rhyme with "cow '' instead of correctly pronouncing it to rhyme with "go ''.
"Route 66 '' was first recorded in 1946 by Nat King Cole, whose rendition became a hit on both the U.S. R&B and pop record charts. Cole later re-recorded the tune in 1956 (for the album After Midnight) and 1961 (The Nat King Cole Story).
The song has become a standard and has been recorded by numerous artists. The version recorded by Perry Como in 1959 (on the album Como Swings) is more lyrically complete, including the seldom - heard second verse and also the introductory verse. Chuck Berry 's version was closest to its R&B roots, with jazz overtones, often blended into his songs by Berry. Two of the leading British Invasion bands included "Route 66 '' on their debut albums, Them (Featuring Van Morrison) and the Rolling Stones. Michael Martin Murphey covered the song on his 1989 album Land of Enchantment. His version was released as a single in 1990 and peaked at number 67 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart. Little Willie Littlefield recorded a boogie - woogie version for his 1997 album The Red One.
Essex - born English singer - songwriter Billy Bragg recorded an anglicised version of the song called "A13 (Trunk Road to the Sea) '' for a John Peel session in 1985. In the song -- strummed and sung to the same tune as the original -- the landmark cities are replaced with English towns along the route of the A13, with Bragg inviting listeners to "Go motoring, on the A-thirteen ''. According to Bragg he wrote the lyrics whilst playing with his band Riff Raff in 1977: whilst the band played "Route 66 '' as part of their set, Bragg "objected to singing about these places that (he) did n't know... there 's a tradition of driving down the A13 to the glory of Southend. Growing up in Barking, that was the promised land, in quite a Springsteenish way ''. The song was originally meant to be released on Bragg 's 1983 debut album Life 's a Riot with Spy vs Spy, however it was ultimately not included due to problems getting permission to use the music of "Route 66 ''. It was finally released commercially on the bonus disc of the 2003 compilation Must I Paint You a Picture? The Essential Billy Bragg.
Natalie Cole 's version of the song was one of many California - related songs played throughout "Sunshine Plaza '' in the original Disney California Adventure.
The song is also played in the 2006 Pixar film Cars and is sung at the end of the film RV, which was released the same year.
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when did the instax mini 9 come out | List of Instax cameras and printers - wikipedia
This is a list of cameras and printers designed for use with Fujifilm 's Instax series of instant film.
Lens is 28.5 mm equivalent angle of view (AOV) in 35 mm full frame format
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who has the most gold medals this olympics | List of multiple Olympic gold medalists - wikipedia
The page lists individuals who have won three or more gold medals at the Olympics.
This is a partial list of multiple Olympic gold medalists, listing people who have won four or more Olympic gold medals. Medals won in the 1906 Intercalated Games are not included. (If they were, Ray Ewry would be second on the list with 10 gold). It includes top - three placings in 1896 and 1900, before medals were awarded for top - three placings. For simplicity, when an athlete has won medals for more than one nation, only the last nation he or she represented is mentioned here. The Olympics listed for each athlete only include games in which they won medals. See the particular article on the athlete for more details on when and for what nation an athlete competed. More medals are available in some events than others, and the number of events in which medals are available overall has changed over time.
This is a progressive list of Olympians that have held the record for most titles won. It includes titles won in 1896 and 1900, before gold medals were awarded for first place. All record - holders have competed at Summer Games rather than Winter Games.
This list currently includes all Olympians with three or more gold medals won as individuals (not as part of a team of two or more).
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yo yo honey singh rank in the world | Yo Yo Honey Singh - Wikipedia
Hirdesh Singh (born 15 March 1983), known by this professional name, Yo Yo Honey Singh or Honey Singh, is an Indian music producer, Indi - pop singer and film actor. He started as a session and recording artist, and became a Bhangra music producer. He has also begun to produce music for Bollywood films.
Singh was born on 15 March 1983 at Hoshiarpur, Punjab to a Sikh family. His birth name is Hirdesh Singh. He studied music at the Trinity School in the United Kingdom. His family later moved to Delhi.
Singh is married to Shalini Talwar Singh, whom he introduced to audiences for the first time on the television show India 's Raw Star.
In late 2014, Singh disappeared from the music scene, before making a comeback the following year, but mostly avoided the media. In March 2016, he attributed his 18 month long absence from the public to his bipolar disorder.
Singh and Diljit Dosanjh 's song "Lak 28 Kudi Da '' reached No. 1 in the BBC Asian Download Charts in May 2011. The song was released as a promotional track for Diljit Dosanjh 's film Lion of Punjab.
Singh received the ETC award for the best sound in 2006 for his song "Glassi '', the PTC award for the Best Folk Pop Award 2009 for "Rebirth '', and the PTC award for Punjab 's Best Music Director 2011.
It has been reported that he was paid the highest fee ever for a Bollywood song (as of 2012) of ₹ 7 million (US $100,000) for a song in the films Cocktail and Mastan.
Singh topped the chart of trending videos of 2012. He earned two places on YouTube 's list of top 10 trending videos of 2012. His song "Brown Rang '' made it to the top spot. "High Heels '', in collaboration with Jaz Dhami, took the fourth spot.
Singh prefers to sing in Hindi and his native language Punjabi rather than English.
The Punjabi album International Villager was released on 11 November 2011. The track "Gabru '' from the album, featuring singer J - Star, topped the Asian music charts, including the official BBC Asian charts.
He has performed at many college festivals, including Ansal Institute of Technology and Ramjas College, Delhi.
His debut song in Bollywood films was Shakal Pe Mat Ja, featuring Gagan Sidhu. Singh charged Rs. 7 million for a song in the film Mastan. This was the largest amount paid to a song artist in Bollywood to date, making Singh one of the highest - paid musical artists in Bollywood.
The song "Angreji Beat '' from Singh 's album International Villager, featuring Gippy Grewal, was featured in Saif Ali Khan 's film Cocktail.
Singh launched his single "Bring Me Back ft. Spoken Word '' at the Video Music Awards India, which aired on MTV India. After the show, his song was premiered on the channel.
In late 2013, he produced songs in the films Chennai Express and Boss. He has also had songs in smaller - budget films such as Mere Dad Ki Maruti, Bajatey Raho and Fugly.
In February 2015 he released the songs "Birthday Bash '', followed by songs in films including Gabbar is Back and Bhaag Johnny.
Singh made his acting debut with Baljit Singh Deo 's Punjabi film Mirza - The Untold Story (2012), performing the role of Deesha, a mad gangster. Despite only being a cameo appearance, the role went on to win Singh the PTC Punjabi Film Award for Best Male Debut. The following year, Singh appeared in another Punjabi film, this time a comedy by Amit Prasher, Tu Mera 22 Main Tera 22, as Rolly, a childish and spoilt brat, alongside Amrinder Gill. This was Singh 's first main role in a film.
Singh then made his debut as an actor in Bollywood cinema with the 2014 musical - thriller film The Xpose, alongside Himesh Reshammiya. The film was released on 16 May 2014, to mixed reviews from critics, though it was a box office flop.
In 2016, Singh is expected to return to acting with the Punjabi action film Zorawar, directed by Vinnil Markan, which is marketed as one of the most expensive Punjabi films to date.
In the aftermath of the 2012 Delhi gang rape case, the lyrics to some of his songs, which depict violence against women and rape positively, have caused controversy. A first information report (FIR) was lodged against Singh for his offensive lyrics, and a group of social activists filed an online petition demanding cancellation of his New Year performance at a Gurgaon hotel. After the campaign, Singh 's New Year concert was cancelled by the hotel. Singh denies writing these offensive lyrics.
Singh 's song "Party All Night '' in Akshay Kumar 's film Boss was at the centre of a controversy. Producers of the movie had to submit a petition in Delhi High Court claiming that they had ' muted ' an alleged vulgar word in Singh 's song. The court heard a petition filed by lawyer Sanjay Bhatnagar seeking a stay on the film, contending that without the censor board 's approval, the song could not be released with such a vulgar word. The petitioner had sought a stay on the release of the film until either the word or the song was deleted from the film.
His work has been perceived as being vulgar, misogynist, promoting violence against women and a bad influence on youth. There have been reactions in print to Singh, such as from Annie Zaidi, who wrote "An Open Letter to Honey Singh '' in January 2013, and Sandipan Sharma, who wrote "Thanks for the crassness: An open letter to Honey Singh from a parent '' in July 2014.
On 2014, he and singer Raftaar were in dispute over whether Raftaar should receive credit for the lyrics of the song "Yeh Fugly Fugly Kya Hai ''. The controversy went away without making a major effect. However, both rappers started targeting each other in their songs. Raftaar 's "Swag Mera Desi '' had a line which was already used in Singh 's song "Party With The Bhoothnath ''. Singh also replied with the song "Stardom '' from his album Desi Kalakaar.
Singh was reportedly in rehab in Chandigarh, according to Jasbir Jassi. However, Jassi later denied saying this.
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who does clary end up with in mortal instruments | List of the Mortal Instruments characters - wikipedia
This is a list of the main characters from The Mortal Instruments series by Cassandra Clare, including the novels City of Bones, City of Ashes, City of Glass, City of Fallen Angels, City of Lost Souls, and City of Heavenly Fire
The following is a list of series regulars who have appeared in one or more of the series ' three seasons. The characters are listed in the order they were first credited in the series.
Clarissa "Clary '' Adele Fairchild is a fictional character and the main protagonist of the Mortal Instruments series. While at a New York City nightclub, the Pandemonium, she is stunned to observe a group of teenagers with apparent supernatural abilities: Jace, Isabelle, and Alec. She sees them attack a demon and soon realizes she is the only person able to see them.
After the battle, Clary is introduced to the group of teens, who identify themselves as Shadowhunters, a race of humans who are physically enhanced with angel blood, who secretly protect humanity from demons. When her mother Jocelyn goes missing, Clary learns that the event is connected to the conflict between the Shadowhunters and their enemies. She then enters the Shadowhunter fold, using her newly revealed mystical abilities to assist the group while attempting to find her mother. In the process, she falls in love with fellow Shadowhunter Jace / Jonathan Herondale.
Clary learns that Valentine Morgenstern, the main antagonist of the series, is her biological father and her mother 's ex-husband. At the end of City of Bones, Valentine tells them that Clary and Jace are siblings -- which, they discover later in the series, is a lie. In the second book of the series, City of Ashes, Clary dates her best friend Simon, who has for a long time had a crush on her, in order to forget Jace during the torturous time of believing him to be her brother. She is told by the Seelie Queen that she has the ability to create runes that do n't exist; but they do exist, which later enables her to destroy Valentine 's ship using the "Open '' rune. In the end of the second novel, Clary finds that an old friend of her mother, Madeleine, knows how to wake her mother, who has been in a magical coma since the first book.
In City of Glass, it is discovered that Jocelyn had taken a potion, made by a warlock named Ragnor Fell, to induce a comatose state and prevent her from being interrogated by Valentine. Before she dies, Madeleine tells Clary she needs to find Fell, who will help her cure her mother. Clary uses a magic portal to convey herself and Luke to Idris, and falls into Lake Lyn and drinks some of the water by accident; this causes her to hallucinate and then to become lucid, because the lake 's water is poisonous to Shadowhunters. Luke then takes her to his sister Amatis for healing.
During her stay in Alicante, Clary ventures to find Ragnor Fell, who will be able to help her with the potion. She is escorted there by Sebastian Verlac, whom she recently met, in an attempt to make contact with Fell. Instead she finds Magnus Bane. He tells her of Ragnor 's death and how he was called as a replacement, and requests that she find him the Book of White in return for his help. She returns to Alicante, where Sebastian kisses her. She rejects him after having feelings of "wrong '' while he kissed her, and they continue back to Alicante. She then learns that something called the Book of White has been hidden in Wayland Manor, and travels with Jace to retrieve it. Inside the Manor, they find the angel Ithuriel tied up and left for dead in the basement. He gives both Shadowhunters visions of Valentine experimenting on his children with demon blood in an attempt to make a stronger warrior.
They escape from Wayland Manor, after freeing Ithuriel so that he can finally die; the two then share a moment of passionate romance. They return to Alicante to see it burning from the first assault on the city, and after things are in order, Clary meets with the others and they go to free Simon who was taken to a Conclave prison called The Guard. They return to see the Clave, and Clary uses her rune ability to create a binding rune, enabling Shadowhunters and Downworlders to share powers. All those of age go to the battle on Brocelind Plains, and Clary has to give Simon the Mark of Cain so that the vampires will join the fight.
At last, Magnus wakes Clary 's mother Jocelyn, who informs Clary that Jace is not her brother. Her real brother is Sebastian (Jonathan Morgenstern). It is soon revealed that Sebastian is a spy for Valentine and that he tried to seduce Clary into teaming up with him. Clary then tries to locate Jace to help him. She runs into Valentine, who ties her down in order to complete his summoning of the Angel by using her blood. Then, when Jace arrives to rescue her, Valentine forces her to watch as he fatally stabs Jace in the chest. Upon summoning the angel, Clary changes the marks on Valentine 's summoning circle, giving her the ability to control the Angel, and after Valentine is slain, she wishes to have Jace back. After Jace is brought back to life, the two get together.
In the fourth book, City of Fallen Angels, Clary and Jace are happily in love. But soon, Jace starts to behave strangely and avoids her, leading Clary to assume he wants to break up with her. In truth, he has been influenced by Lilith, who sent him dreams in which he kills or hurts Clary, because when he was raised from the dead by Raziel, all of his protections placed on him at birth were stripped away, leaving him vulnerable to demonic influence. During the party, when Lucian 's pack celebrated his engagement with Clary 's mother Jocelyn, she is kidnapped by a fully possessed Jace and taken to Lilith. There, she learns her brother Jonathan Christopher Morgenstern / Sebastian Verlac is going to be raised from the dead by Simon, and she was brought just to make him do that. Using Jace 's affection for her (which remains undiminished because his possession has no effect on that part of him), she cuts the rune which enabled Lilith to control him. Seeing his chance, Simon destroys Lilith with his Mark of Cain. After Lilith 's destruction, Isabelle and Alec appear on the scene, but Jace shoos them away since he does n't want to be consoled as he feels terrible for hurting Clary, in spite of the fact that he was n't himself. Alec then shoves Clary back to the room as they get into the elevator, feeling that only she can help him. Clary and Jace reaffirm their love after she convinces him he is not a horrible person. The last words Clary says to him before going down are, "I 'll be back. Five minutes, '' and they share a kiss before she leaves and comes back to find him gone, unaware his rune has healed and he is possessed once again.
In the fifth book of the series, City of Lost Souls, Clary has realized that Jace has gone away with Sebastian Verlac (Jonathan Morgenstern). The Clave was alarmed by the sudden disappearance of Jonathan and Jace and started to search for any signs of them, after two weeks of repeating the same statement about what happened at the rooftop, before Clary left him with Sebastian, alive by Simon 's blood. But other problems come to the Clave and it has to set aside the search for Jonathan. Clary is outraged by the news. Using the bell given to her by Kaelie Whitewillow, a waitress and subject of the Queen 's, she goes to the Seelie Queen 's palace where she has to beg for help due to the limited resources. The Seelie Queen has requested that Clary be allowed to steal the faerie rings kept inside the Institute. Clary steals the rings but does n't give them to the Queen because of the appearance of Jace and Sebastian at the library, all healthy looking and safe. Afterward, Clary accepts their offer of coming to them.
When the plan of Sebastian was finally revealed to her, she could n't believe what could happen. At the enchantment ceremony, she was surprised when Amatis was turned into a dark Shadowhunter by the blood of Lilith. At the same time, Magnus, Alec, Maryse, Isabelle, and Simon arrived, with Glorious in hand. When Glorious was handed to her, she struck Jace, the mark of Lilith burning, making him cry out in pain.
In the epilogue, she was concerned why she could n't visit Jace because of her thoughts telling her she almost killed Jace, but reassured by Isabelle she did n't do anything to make Jace mad. She visited Jace, but she almost thought she was n't going to be allowed to go in due to Brother Zachariah. By the consent of Brother Zachariah, she entered, hugging Jace and reaffirming their relationship.
Finally in City of Heavenly Fire, Sebastian has taken many shadowhunters and turned them into his endarkened. The remaining shadowhunters retreat to Idris for safety. Sebastian offers to leave them alone if he is given Clary and Jace. Before the Clave can make a decision Clary, Jace, Simon, Isabelle and Alec sneak off to Edom, the demon realm Sebastian is hiding in; he has Jocelyn, Luke, Magnus and Raphael prisoner. After spending days trying to find him they come upon his castle, a dark version of Alicante. Sebastian offers Clary a place next to him, in exchange for leaving everyone she knows and all of the Shadowhunters alone. She accepts it, knowing that she has to keep everyone safe. When Sebastian is momentarily distracted she stabs him with the Morgenstern blade, containing heavenly fire. He is returned to the brother that she could have had, before he then dies.
The group manage to escape after Simon gives up his immortality and memories of the Shadow World. Months later Clary talks to him but he does n't remember her. At her mother and Luke 's wedding, Simon tell her he remembers her. She and Jace are happy, as the others; they are coping with all the losses of the dark war. After all that Jace finally finds out what Sebastian did to Clary.
Clary is 5'2 '' with curly red hair, green eyes, pale skin, and freckles. She is said to look like her mother, who is described as beautiful and small. Clary sometimes doubts the fact that she is as beautiful as her mother, believing herself to be a duller version of her mother, with less defined features. She is rather small and thin. She is described by Jace many times throughout the series as "delicate ''.
She is portrayed by Lily Collins in the film adaptation of the book and Katherine McNamara in the television series.
She is the daughter of Valentine Morgenstern and Jocelyn Fairchild, step daughter of Lucian Graymark. She is also the sister to Jonathan Christopher Morgenstern. She gained her ability to create runes when Valentine fed her mother angel blood while she was in the womb.
Jace Ligtwood - Herondale is a Shadowhunter living at the New York Institute with his adopted family. Jace 's legal name changes throughout the series, from Jace Wayland (when his father is thought to be Michael Wayland), to Jonathan Morgenstern (Valentine 's son), to Jace Lightwood for the family that has taken him in, to Jace Herondale (when his true father is revealed to be Stephen Herondale). His mother was the young Celiné Herondale, a member of Valentine 's inner circle with Stephen Herondale, his father.
The nickname "Jace '' was given to him by Maryse Lightwood after his (fake) initials J.C. (Jonathan Christopher, because no one but Valentine and Jocelyn knew Jace was not his real son), when he first began living with Maryse Lightwood and her family, because of his dislike for his name. Jace was given the blood of an angel named Ithuriel by Valentine when Celiné was pregnant with him. This gave him enhanced abilities, even compared to regular Shadowhunters (Shadowhunters hunt demons that come into this world through portals from their own worlds), such as the ability to jump from extreme heights and survive, run faster than any other Shadowhunter, and move with a stealth close to that of the Silent Brothers.
For most of the books, Jace 's sarcastic, cold remarks and behavior hide his tortured and angry soul. In City of Ashes, his strong "bad - boy '' personality makes Maryse Lightwood (his adopted mother) somewhat scared of him, worried that he is too much like Valentine, who was believed to be his real father until the assumption was proven false in City of Glass. Jace and Clary fall in love in City of Bones, making Clary the only girl Jace has developed real genuine feelings for, but after they find out they are "siblings '', each attempts to get over the other by dating other people. He is naturally overprotective and caring for her, although Clary does not see this due to her internal suffering. At the end of the third novel, City of Glass, Jocelyn contradicts Valentine 's avowal that Jace and Clary are siblings, telling Clary that Jace is actually the son of Celine and Stephen Herondale. The truth frees Jace and Clary from the torture of having seemingly incestuous feelings for each other, allowing them to accept their mutual feelings and become a "real '' couple.
Jace has fine, wavy dark golden - blond hair and dark gold eyes. He has a slim, muscular build, and is about 5'11 ". His face is described as being pretty and angular, and Clary often refers to him as beautiful and leonine, with a narrow mouth. His eyes were much lighter in City of Bones, City of Ashes, and City of Glass; Clary describes his eyes and hair as darker in City of Fallen Angels. His eyes are brown with flecks of gold that lighten and darken with his moods.
Like all other Shadowhunters, he is covered in thin, pale scars from years of applying various magical runes with a stele for battle and healing purposes, as well as permanent runes. It is said that Jace is seventeen years old, though that was assuming he was Valentine (or Michael Wayland 's) son, and his real age is between a few years younger than Jonathan Christopher and a year or so older than Clary. Jace is also left - handed (like Valentine). He has often said (and tried to prove) that the only trait he got from his father was his attitude. He is described to be extremely good looking. Jace is portrayed by Jamie Campbell Bower in the film adaptation of the book and Dominic Sherwood in the television series.
In City of Bones, Jace lives with his adoptive family, the Lightwoods, and is seen as the brother of the Lightwood children. Later, he is told that he is the son of Valentine and Jocelyn Morgenstern, and not Michael Wayland as he had been told. At this time, he is also told that Clary Fray is his sister.
In the end it is revealed that he is actually Stephen Herondale and Celine Herondale 's son and that Clary is not related to him. He and Clary have a conversation at the end of City of Glass in which he confesses that he does n't know who he is, referring to his last name. Clary confirms that he is a Lightwood, and Jace accepts that, correcting people throughout City of Fallen Angels when they referred to him as "Jace Herondale ''. At the end of City of Heavenly Fire, Jace chooses to take on the Herondale name. Jace is also related to Will Herondale former leader of the London Institute and husband of Warlock Tessa Grey.
Clary Fray: Jace begins to fall in love with Clary in City of Bones, growing close to her. Isabelle and Alec later say that they noticed a change in Jace 's behavior after he started getting close to Clary. In City of Glass, Isabelle tells Clary that before Jace met her, he was apathetic and only half - alive as if in a long - time sleep, but that after his first encounter with her, Jace "woke up '' and "started living ''. Isabelle further claims that she has never seen him act the way he does with Clary and states that Jace will never get over her. Throughout the series, Jace continuously loves Clary even after he believes they are siblings, to the extent that he is willing to commit incest with her and have a secret relationship. He has been with a couple of girls (though it being stated as more as just hooking up) and tries to start a relationship with Aline Penhallow in a failed attempt to get over Clary. Clary and Jace reunite at the end of the third book after discovering they are not siblings.
Simon Lewis is Clary 's best friend. He accompanies Clary in her adventures, despite being human for the first book, and most of the second book, falling helplessly in love with Isabelle Lightwood (his girlfriend).
He is portrayed by Robert Sheehan in the film and by Alberto Rosende in the television series.
His family is said to be devoutly Jewish. Not much is said about Simon 's family. It is mentioned that his father died when he was very young due to a heart attack. His mother, Elaine Lewis, becomes a more prominent character in City of Fallen Angels when she discovers that Simon is a vampire and kicks him out of the house. Upon leaving, he puts her in a trance, hoping to talk to her at a later date. He also has a sister named Rebecca who is a few years older than he is. In City of Lost Souls, he admits to his sister that he is a vampire despite his fear of her shutting him out like his mother. Rebecca accepts him, and the two stay in contact.
Elaine Lewis is portrayed by Christina Cox, and Rebecca is portrayed by Holly Deveaux in the television series.
In City of Bones, he is kidnapped by vampires after being turned into a rat and brought to their lair in the abandoned Hotel Dumort. Later, in City of Ashes, he begins to feel some side effects as a result of biting Raphael, the temporary head vampire while he was a rat. Because he is human and does n't know the correct way to become a vampire, he begins to fear he may be turning into a monster.
When he can not reconcile his feelings for Clary, he returns to the hotel -- putting himself in great danger -- to ask them if he is becoming one of them. Unfortunately, the vampires attack, and Raphael saves him from immediate death by bringing him back to the Institute, where Clary is staying. Faced with the choice of letting Simon die or making him a vampire, Clary and Jace decide to let him be reborn as a vampire. In City of Ashes, he becomes a "Daylighter '' after being drained of most of his blood on Valentine 's ship by Valentine so he can complete his Conversion on Maellartach, The Soul - Sword. Jace finds Simon on the brink of death and allows him to drink his blood to revive him. The large quantity of Angel blood in Jace 's body then allows Simon to stand in high sun with no risk of burning, unlike all other vampires who can not.
After Max Lightwood 's death, Isabelle (Max 's older sister) becomes distraught, blaming herself for not listening to him and for not being there for her little brother. She refused to see anyone, finally allowing Simon to come in. Simon comforts Isabelle, trying to convince her that Max 's death was n't her fault, and ends up sleeping next to her, much to his surprise, although they do nothing sexual. Towards the end of the third novel, Raphael demands Simon 's death in exchange for his clan 's assistance for the war; Raphael believes Simon 's Daylighter powers make him too dangerous to remain alive. In order to protect him, Clary draws the Mark of Cain on Simon, which prevents him from being harmed by anyone and also curses him, marking him as a wanderer for eternity.
In City of Fallen Angels, a conflicted Simon tries casually dating both Isabelle and Maia. When the girls find out, they both leave him, and he is alone once more. However, by the end of the book it is clear that a deepening relationship is forming between Simon and Isabelle.
In City of Lost Souls, Simon loses his Mark of Cain to the Angel Raziel in exchange for the sword "Glorious '' to save Jace by separating him and Sebastian. Throughout the book, Simon and Isabelle 's relationship progresses to the point where she trusts him enough to let him bite her when he is hungry. They spend nights together, much to Alec 's horror. However, they still do n't consider themselves dating for neither has confessed that they want to. Simon thinks he will just be dumped like the rest of Isabelle 's boyfriends while Isabelle has trouble revealing her feelings and thinks Simon should make the first move.
In City of Heavenly Fire, Simon admits his love to Isabelle. Throughout the book, Simon follows Clary and Jace -- along with Isabelle and Alec -- into the demon realm Edom to defeat Sebastian and find Magnus, Raphael, Luke and Jocelyn. In the demon realm, he saves Isabelle after she is bitten by a demon. Soon after, he tells Isabelle he loves her. As a result, they finally make their relationship official. At the end, after defeating Sebastian, they have no possible way of getting out. Magnus calls on his father, Asmodeus, who asks to help them get out of Edom since Sebastian closed all possible ways for them to get out. In return, Asmodeus wants Magnus ' immortal life -- if Magnus does this, he will die. None of them want Magnus to sacrifice his life, so Simon steps forward. Because Simon has only just become a vampire, his years will not catch up to him and he will return a mundane. But to spice up the deal, Asmodeus also says he must take away all of Simon 's memory of the Shadow world and of Clary. Everything he will remember will be a normal life, a life without Clary, or Jace, or Alec, or Magnus and Isabelle. This devastated them all, but Simon gave it willingly to save his friends and the person he loves. In the Epilogue, Clary tries to see if Simon remembers her, but he does n't and just thinks she 's a crazy girl with tattoos. Except, he does give her his band flyer thinking she might be hitting on him. She walks away with it. Clary gives Izzy the flyer and walks away. The flyer says the band 's name, "The Mortal Instruments ''. With this sliver of hope, Izzy and Magnus go to Simon and tell him what has happened. Simon is given the choice for Magnus to prep him to Ascend and become a Shadowhunter so that Asmodeus can not touch him and he can regain all of his memory. Simon agrees and receives some of his memory back. He then reunites with Clary, Izzy, and the rest of the clan at Jocelyn and Luke 's wedding.
Luke Garroway, whose birth name is Lucian Graymark, is Jocelyn Fray 's best friend who later becomes her husband and stepfather to Clary Fray. He is a werewolf who was a Shadowhunter and member of The Circle which was run by Valentine Morgenstern.
In his early life, Lucian was raised in Idris with his mother and older sister Amatis. Later, his mother left to join the Iron Sisters, leaving Luke to be raised by his sister. When Luke was young he met Jocelyn Fairchild (Jocelyn Fray) and they were later sent to Alicante to train and attend school. When they arrived at Alicante, Luke was n't the best in school and often contemplated quitting, until Valentine Morgenstern offered to tutor him.
Before Luke turned into a Werewolf, he was a Shadowhunter. Valentine had invited Luke to go hunting to help clean out the werewolves ' nests that had killed Valentine 's father. While they were scouting out the nests, a werewolf bit Luke. After he was bitten, Luke was n't sure if the bite was enough to infect him with Lycanthropy. At one point, he went seeking aid from his sister Amatis for help and shelter and was sent away. He, along with Jocelyn and Valentine had kept quiet in following weeks while they awaited for the full moon. To his dismay, he did Change after the attack. Valentine then took him to the forest and gave Luke his father 's dagger and told him to be honorable and kill himself. Valentine then led everyone to believe that Luke was dead.
Instead Luke sought out the werewolf that had Turned him to kill him and himself in the process. When Luke finally found him, he turned out to be the leader of a pack in Brocelind Forest. Luke had fought and killed him. By werewolf law, Luke had become the new pack leader and accepted the position and began his new life.
Luke has blue eyes and brown, uneven hair with ragged - looking clothes. He is tall, with squared shoulders and wears glasses. His favorite shirts to wear are flannel shirts. He is portrayed by Aidan Turner in the film adaptation of the book, and Isaiah Mustafa in the television series.
After the Uprising Luke had offered Jocelyn to marry him but she refused and when they parted ways Luke could n't forget her and went looking for her. When he finally found her in New York, he chose to leave his life as a Werewolf behind to live a mundane life, all whilst harbouring a deep love for her.
Even though it took Luke many years, he finally told Jocelyn how he feels after she awoke from her coma. A few weeks later, the two became engaged and were married after the Dark War.
Isabelle "Izzy '' Sophia Lightwood is a Shadowhunter and lives in the New York Institute. She is rebellious and very beautiful. Her cooking is often made fun of by Jace and Alec. She is known to be dangerous and often carries weapons in her tall boots that are never less than seven inches.
Her signature weapon is an electrum whip with which she is quite skilled. She dresses well, as shown when she gave Clary to wear clothes that she picked for Magnus 's party. Despite this seemingly shallow and girlish side of her personality, she is shown to take responsibility for situations, shouldering the blame for her brother Max 's death, despite having been struck unconscious at the time. She is comforted by Simon, and ends up sleeping (in a literal, non-sexual sense) with him. She begins to casually date Simon -- who is also dating Maia at the same time -- and then later upon finding out about Maia, breaks up with him. After this and seeing how she is genuinely hurt by it, begins to slowly realize that she may actually be in love with Simon, but refuses to admit it.
Isabelle obviously cares for Jace and Alec, and is fiercely protective of both of them. Because of this, she is constantly torn over the fact that her brother is struggling with his sexuality and when Jace is heartbroken over Clary during their supposedly sibling relationship. In City of Glass, she yells at Clary for only thinking of herself and not realizing how much pain Jace is in due to how much he really loves her.
Isabelle is very beautiful and tall. She has very dark brown eyes with hints of gold that initially appear to be black. She is curvaceous and has long black hair that is described as "black as spilt ink '' by Clary. She dresses stylishly, often with high heels. However, she despised her height and hated towering over everyone and wished to be small and delicate like Clary.
She is portrayed by Jemima West in the film adaptation of the book, and Emeraude Toubia in the television series.
Isabelle is the middle child in the Lightwood family. Her parents are Maryse and Robert Lightwood, who were once in the Circle with Valentine until the Uprising. Her older brother is Alec and her younger brother was Max, who died at the hand of Jonathan Christopher Morgenstern. Jace is her adoptive brother. Her parents run the Institute in New York.
Alexander "Alec '' Gideon Lightwood lives in the New York Institute with his siblings. He is the oldest of the Lightwoods and is quieter than both Isabelle, his brother Max, and Jace, his best friend and adoptive brother. Alec is 18, making him legally an ' adult, ' which gives him permission to attend Clave meetings. He was jealous of Clary, at first, upon meeting her due to knowing how Jace felt about her, and Alec himself had a crush on Jace. Later, he begins to forget him and he starts to date and falls in love with Magnus Bane (a warlock who is immortal and nearly 400 years old), though his strong brotherly love for Jace remains.
Alec is mostly soft - spoken and serious. He tries his best to act wisely and is not as reckless as Jace. Later in the story, it is revealed early on that he had never killed a demon, which changes in the middle of City of Bones. He shows himself to be extremely caring about the ones he loves and is willing to do anything to protect them. Among the whole group, Alec is the most intelligent. For much of the series, Alec denies his homosexuality and attraction to males (particularly Jace), which results in him lashing out at people. When he finally accepts himself, he becomes a more relaxed person and comes out as gay to the whole Clave and everyone there, including his family and parents, by publicly passionately kissing Magnus. Clary notes at the end of the fourth novel that Alec had become more generous with himself, allowing him to be more generous with others. Alec, as seen in City of Fallen Angels, can also become extremely jealous, getting angry at Magnus when he discovers Magnus ' long dating history and relationship with Camille, a vampire woman.
Alec becomes a much more central character in City of Lost Souls and is one of the book 's narrators. He, along with Clary, leads the search for Jace, while also dealing with Camille.
Alec is said to have a thin, wiry build and like his mother, has black hair, luminous blue eyes, and impressive height. He is also very pale. Alec is described as being very handsome as well, but unlike his sister, he tries to downplay his looks by wearing worn out sweaters and damaged clothing. It is mentioned by Camille Belcourt that he bears a strong resemblance to William Herondale from The Infernal Devices.
He was portrayed by Kevin Zegers in the film adaptation of the book, and Matthew Daddario in the television series.
Alec is the oldest child of the Lightwood family, and the first son of Maryse and Robert Lightwood. Isabelle and Max Lightwood are his younger siblings, and Jace is his adoptive brother and Parabatai.
Magnus Bane is the High Warlock of Brooklyn. He regularly tampered with the mind of Clary Fray after designing a spell that would erase her memories of the Shadow World once every two years as a favour to her mother, Jocelyn. He first meets the other Shadowhunters at one of his Downworlder parties. He later has Clary retrieve the Book of the White for him in City of Glass, and agrees to help revive her mother with it. In City of Heavenly Fire, he admits to Alec that he is almost 400 years old, although he often lies about his age (for instance, in "The Bane Chronicles '' he claims to be under 300 years old, to which his friends Catarina Loss and Ragnor Fell laugh, obviously aware of the lie, and in "City of Glass '' he claims to be 800). Despite his flamboyant appearance and whimsical personality, Magnus is a kind yet jaded person who yearns for love and acceptance, but has great trouble revealing his honest desires and personal secrets to others due to his long and traumatic past. His life has frequently been entangled with the fates of certain Shadowhunters (specifically the Herondale family during the Victorian and Edwardian eras, and the Fairchild family following the collapse of Valentine 's Circle), but he does n't become seriously involved with the workings of their society and their struggle for survival and reformation until he meets Alec Lightwood, who goes on to become the love of his life.
Magnus Bane is described as being of Asian descent, due to his human parent being half - Dutch, half - Indonesian. He is an inch or two taller than Alec and is said to be lean, but not skinny, with lightly muscled arms. He has brown skin and black, nearly shoulder - length hair that is usually styled and dyed. He wears all kinds of makeup, such as glitter around his eyes and blue lipstick, and in City of Glass is also noted to own more makeup tools and accessories than even Isabelle Lightwood. He likes to flaunt his bisexuality by wearing flashy and sometimes bizarre clothing. Isabelle once described him as a "sexy, sexy warlock '', whereas Simon Lewis countered that Magnus "looks like a gay Sonic the Hedgehog and dresses like the Child Catcher from Chitty Chitty Bang Bang. '' He also has gold - green eyes with vertical cat - like pupils and no belly button, both of which serve as his warlock marks.
He is portrayed by Godfrey Gao in the film adaptation of the book, and Harry Shum Jr. in the television series.
Magnus ' mother and step - father began to fear him when he started nearing the age of ten, after they realised he was n't fully human. It is revealed that his mother was in fact tricked into sleeping with a demon who disguised himself as her husband, and when she realized, some time after Magnus ' birth, that Magnus was a warlock (in other words, someone half - human, half - demon) and not her husband 's child, she hanged herself in her family 's barn. Soon after, his step - father tried to drown him, and Magnus burned him alive in an attempt to save himself. He was then brought up by the Silent Brothers of Madrid, who also came up with his name. Cassandra Clare revealed on Twitter that Magnus was born in what was once Batavia of the Dutch East Indies (modern - day Jakarta, Indonesia). Camille does state in City of Lost Souls that his biological father is a Prince of Hell, therefore implying he is a high - ranked demon. Whenever asked who his father is, Magnus always avoids the question or changes the subject. In City of Heavenly Fire, his father is revealed to be Asmodeus, the Greater Demon of Lust and ruler of Edom. Because Asmodeus is also a fallen angel, Magnus is capable of interacting with witchlights -- he can make them glow red.
Maia Roberts is a biracial teenager born and raised in a New Jersey suburban neighborhood. Her brother, Daniel, was beautiful and abusive, though her parents never believed her, even when he broke her arm. This treatment leads to Maia hating and fearing beautiful boys, even after her brother was killed in a hit - and - run. In tenth - eleventh grade, Maia met Jordan Kyle and they began dating. However, during their relationship, he soon began to become controlling and abusive and she broke up with him. He became enraged at her break up with him and, in werewolf form, attacked her on her way home from a party. (She was a mundane and did not know that he was a werewolf or anything about the Shadow World.) Jordan vanished shortly afterward, and Maia soon turned into a werewolf on the next full moon. She ran away from home and joined the wolf - pack in New York and became good friends with Luke, the leader of the pack. She became associated with the Shadowhunters and develops a crush on Simon, and in City of Glass gets into a competition with Isabelle for his attention.
In City of Ashes, Maia leaves Luke 's apartment to apologize to Simon for her vicious reaction (after she was attacked) and realized he was a vampire. On her way over to him, she is attacked by Agramon, the Demon of Fear which she interprets as her older brother Daniel who violently abused her when he was still alive. Valentine then abducts her to drain her completely of blood so he can complete his spell. Simon is kidnapped as well shortly after for his vampire blood. It is learned that lycanthropes are negatively affected by all kinds of silver when Valentine sprinkles silver dust on her and she screams in pain.
At the beginning of City of Fallen Angels, Maia and Simon are casually dating, while Simon, not to her or Isabelle 's knowledge, ends up also casually dating Isabelle. The truth of Simon 's actions comes out just as Maia runs into her ex-boyfriend Jordan Kyle. Jordan, who had recently become acquainted with Simon, was the one who turned Maia into a werewolf. However, Jordan 's actions were not what they seemed to be, as he had just become a new werewolf when he bit her and therefore unable to control his actions. Maia is understandably angry to have him back in her life due to his abusiveness during their relationship and him turning her into a werewolf, but when she learns the truth behind what Jordan did, she understands and even seems to forgive him when realizing he is genuinely regretful of his past actions towards her. Towards the end of the book, after she and Jordan have helped Isabelle and Alec look for Simon, she and Jordan kiss and eventually reaffirm their relationship.
Maia is described as having curly, brown and gold hair (her eyelashes are described as the color of toast), light brown skin and amber - brown eyes. She is also described as having a heart - shaped face and rather curvy figure when Clary notes, "No girl should have that great of a body. ''
She is portrayed by Alisha Wainwright in the television series.
Not much is said about Maia 's mother or father, however her older brother Daniel is mentioned. Daniel was said to be an attractive boy, but a very abusive brother to Maia, It is said that he gave her bruises where they would n't be seen, breaking her arm, etc. He died when he was hit by a car while at a young age, but Maia still felt afraid of him for many more years after.
Jocelyn Morgenstern / Fairchild / Fray / Garroway / Graymark is Clary 's mother and a former Shadowhunter. Jocelyn grew up in Idris with Luke, Valentine, and the other Circle members. She was married to Valentine at the age of 19, though she says she married him because she loved him, she later realized that he was torturing innocent people. She fled Idris when she found out she was pregnant with Clary, so he could not do harm to her daughter like he did on Jonathan (Sebastian), her first - born son. Later it is said that Luke tracked her down and Clary, being around the age of 3 - 5 at the time though it does not specify, opened the door to him. He then stayed in their lives and him and Jocelyn lived their lives in New York, also taking a large part in raising Clary, until Jocelyn is located by Valentine. She takes a potion, putting herself in a coma to protect her secrets and remains unconscious until she is revived by Magnus Bane in City of Glass. She is also a Shadowhunter warrior.
In City of Glass, after Valentine was killed by the angel Raziel, Lucian Graymark (Luke) finally declared his love for her, telling her he 's been in love with her for over 20 years. After he walks out the door, initially believing she did not return his feelings, she soon runs after him to tell she loves him too. It is then later revealed in City of Fallen Angels that they are engaged to be married and also are "disgustingly in love '' as described by Clary. Later in City of Lost Souls, after Luke is wounded by Sebastian and in critical condition, Jocelyn says to him how she regrets failing to have noticed his feelings for her back when they were younger and wishes he would have told her how he felt about her so she would have married "the right guy '' instead of Valentine. Hence, so things would have been "different '' and could have turned out better than they were currently. However, Luke does n't have any regrets saying how if things had been any different, "they '' would n't have Clary, making Jocelyn happy since he said "as though he was sure Clary was his own daughter ''.
Jocelyn is described of being elegant and beautiful. She has long red hair that is usually in a twist, and still carries the scars of her Shadowhunting days. Clary is often said to look almost identical to her. Jocelyns hair is also a darker red than Clary 's.
She is portrayed by Lena Headey in the film adaptation of the book, and Maxim Roy in the television series.
Jocelyn has two children, Jonathan Christopher and Clarissa Adele. Her parents were killed in a fire set by Valentine Morgenstern, in which she also believed that Jonathan had been killed. She is engaged to Lucian Graymark (Luke) as of City of Lost Souls and they were married in City of Heavenly Fire as the majority of the epilogue takes place at the wedding reception.
Valentine Morgenstern is the main antagonist of the first half of the series, and is the former husband of Jocelyn Fairchild. This also makes him biological father to Clarissa Morgenstern and Jonathan Christopher Morgenstern (also known as Sebastian). In his youth he was a very skilled Shadowhunter from a rich family in Alicante. His best friend was Lucian Graymark while they were in school, among other Shadowhunters including Maryse Lightwood (née Trueblood), Robert Lightwood, Hodge Starkweather, Stephen Herondale and Michael Wayland. Upon the death of his father, Valentine fell in love with Jocelyn Fairchild, and together he and his group of young Shadowhunters formed the infamous group known as the Circle. With him leading the Circle, they had intended to share the gift of the Nephilim with the rest of humanity by using the Mortal Cup. Valentine and Jocelyn married and all was well until his ideas for the Circle became more radical, as Valentine wanted to kill all Downworlders. He infects his son with Demon blood and is betrayed by his former best friend, Lucian Graymark, and his wife at the Uprising of the Accords. Upon fleeing the battle, Valentine is assumed to be dead and goes into hiding with his son and Jace Herondale.
Years later, when City of Bones begins, Valentine finds Jocelyn and wants her to reveal where the Mortal Cup is located. He kidnaps her, but is unable to extract information from her due to her self - induced comatose state. He eventually secures the Mortal Cup, and the Mortal Sword and goes to the Mortal Mirror to summon the Angel Raziel. His arrogance, however, as well as his torturing of the angel Ithuriel, Raziel 's brother, causes the angel to slay him. During the series, it is also revealed he faked his death and took on the name of Michael Wayland, raising Jace Herondale as Jace Wayland.
Valentine is said to be tall and very handsome. He is broad - shouldered and has light blond, almost silver hair. He also has black eyes. Though in the movie he has dark brown hair and blue eyes.
He is portrayed by Jonathan Rhys Meyers in the film adaptation of the book, and Alan van Sprang in the television series.
Valentine is the former husband of Jocelyn Fairchild, with whom he had two children (Clarissa "Clary '' Adele Morgenstern and Jonathan Christopher Morgenstern). Clarissa realizes that she is Valentine 's daughter in the first book, City of Bones, but being raised by Jocelyn her whole life is void of Valentine 's influence. His son however, was tutored by him to be a very talented Shadowhunter and ruthless killer. He later becomes Valentine 's spy, taking the name Sebastian Verlac. Valentine also adopts Jace Herondale as his son, training him as well as Jonathan, making him as skilled a Shadowhunter as Jonathan.
Valentine also experimented on his children. Hoping to make a stronger and better Shadowhunter, he infused Jonathan with demon blood while in Jocelyn 's womb. However, a side effect of the blood was that it would "burn out his (Jonathan 's) humanity as poison burns the life from blood. '' This gave him a son capable of incredible feats, but with little to no compassion or ability to love. The experimentation on Jonathan led to Jocelyn feeling sick and very depressed. To make her feel better he gave her powdered Angel blood, not knowing that she was carrying a second child (Clary), infusing Clary with Angel blood in the same way that Jonathan was with Demon blood. With Jace, upon the failure of Jonathan to show any compassion, he gave Angel blood to Jace 's mother (Celiné Herondale), hoping to create a stronger warrior, without the side effects Jonathan suffered from the use Demon blood. In the end, Valentine trained Jace, but was forced to abandon him when he was 10 years old, making Valentine the only father Jace has known. It is also thought that of the two boys, the angel and the demon, that Valentine loved Jace more than his own son.
Sebastian Verlac / Jonathan Christopher Morgenstern / Sebastian Morgenstern is the true blood related son of Valentine Morgenstern and Jocelyn Fairchild, making him the brother of Clary Fray. His real name is Jonathan Christopher Morgenstern, but he went by Sebastian Verlac (cousin of the Penhallows) in City of Glass. He is very sadistic in nature, as a result of having been experimented on by his father with the blood of the Greater Demon Lilith, which robbed him of his humanity. He first appears in City of Glass as Sebastian Verlac, charming his way into the lives of the Lightwoods. He takes Clary to see Ragnor Fell, and kisses her, disgusting her. Upon Clary 's return with Jace to Alicante, it is discovered that Max Lightwood had seen someone climbing the demon warding towers. Sebastian was the person climbing the towers, and it was his blood that was used to bring down the wards. During the first attack on Alicante, he also kills Max Lightwood and severely injures Isabelle Lightwood. He is eventually tracked down and killed by Jace, before the summoning of Raziel by Valentine, but his body is never recovered. He is taken by his "mother '', Lilith, and taken to safety. She uses Jace as leverage and tries to bring him back from the dead. In City of Fallen Angels he is awoken, and uses a rune put on Jace to control him.
He becomes the main antagonist in City of Lost Souls, using Lilith 's bond to alter Jace 's memories to believe they are on the same side and plans on raising and army of demons and Dark Shadowhunters to destroy the world. Clary infiltrates his inner circle through Jace and they both continually mistrust each other but are forced to work together when they are attacked by enemy demons. Eventually Clary learns the truth of his plans and they engage in a bloody battle. Unable to kill him because it will kill Jace too, she gives up but successfully destroys their base of operations with one of her runes. After a dark ritual, he uses the Infernal Cup to create more Dark Shadowhunters and almost turns Clary but is quickly stopped by the arrival of the Lightwoods and their allies. Before he manages to escape, Clary is forced to stab Jace with the angelic sword Glorious, severing his bond with Sebastian and causing the latter horrible pain. At the end of the book he sends a message to Maryse Lightwood: severed angel wings with a single piece of paper saying _́ _́ I am coming. _́ _́
In City of Heavenly Fire, Sebastian is attacking institutes around the world and turning Shadowhunters into Endarkened. He then goes and attacks the Citadel, and kills many Shadowhunters but is forced to flee when Jace loses control of his Heavenly Fire. Sebastian then later visits Clary and tries to convince her to leave with him, offering her mercy but she refuses. Once again Jace and Sebastian fight but Sebastian proves that he can not be hurt by anything other than the Heavenly Fire after he stabs himself and then leaves unharmed. Sebastian offers to leave all of the Shadowhunters in Alicante alone, and return Jocelyn, Luke, Magnus, Raphael and Meliorn, whom he has kidnapped, if the Clave turn over Clary and Jace to him. Clary, Jace, Simon, Alec and Isabelle all travel by portal to the Seelie court and travel through to Edom, where Sebastian is hiding. Sebastian is well aware of this and plans for them. When they arrive Sebastian defeats them all and forces Clary by his side. When he is unaware, Clary stabs him with a sword that contains the Heavenly Fire, burning away all of the demon blood in him. He dies surrounded by Clary, Jocelyn and Jace. Clary mourns for the brother that she could have had. Clary later spreads Sebastians ashes over Lake Lyn.
He is said to be the spitting image of Valentine. He has naturally white / silver hair, is very buff, and has deep black eyes. He dyes his hair black in City of Glass while he is impersonating Sebastian Verlac.
He is portrayed by Will Tudor in the television series.
Jonathan is the birth child of Jocelyn Morgenstern (née Fairchild) and Valentine Morgenstern. He was experimented on by Valentine while Jocelyn was pregnant with him. When he was born, Jocelyn knew that something was wrong with the child and had to try very hard to be around him. He is Clary 's brother, and has an unusual sexual attraction to her, freely kissing her in City of Glass and almost forcing himself on her in City of Lost Souls with Clary having to fight him off, repulsed by his actions. The Demoness Lilith also claims that Jonathan is her "son '' due to the fact that it is her demon blood that flows through his veins.
Alaric was a werewolf and served as Third hand (soon second when Gretel died) to Luke in his werewolf pack. He later dies in the battle at Renwick 's in City of Bones.
Amatis Graymark is Luke 's sister who resides in Alicante. She cared for Luke after their mother became an Iron Sister, married Stephen Herondale, and later joined Valentine 's Circle. However, when Luke was bitten by a werewolf, Amatis sent him away in disgust, in spite of their close relationship. Even after this, Valentine decided that Amatis was unfit to be Stephen 's wife for having a Downworlder brother, and told Stephen to leave Amatis for Céline Montclaire (Jace 's biological mother), devastating Amatis. Amatis later became regretful of her decision to banish her brother, who became distrustful of her. In City of Glass, Luke took refuge in Amatis ' residence due to Clary 's wounds caused by Lake Lyn, despite Amatis ' resistance. Amatis then helps the Shadowhunters in the battle of Brocelind Plain and mends her relationship with Luke afterwards. In city of lost souls, Jonathan Morgenstern kidnaps Amatis and turns her into an Endarkened Shadowhunter by having her drink from the Infernal Cup, becoming Jonathan 's faithful lieutenant from then on. With the Infernal Cup 's destruction at the end of the series, Amatis too dies along with all other Endarkened Shadowhunters, only managing to give Luke one last loving look.
Catarina Loss is a warlock and an old friend of Magnus Bane, Ragnor Fell, and Tessa Gray. She has blue skin which she covers up using glamour rather frequently due to her choice to work at Beth Israel Hospital, a hospital for the mundanes. She helps Magnus craft an antidote to wake Jocelyn from her coma and is entrusted with the Book of the White. Catarina continues to help the Shadowhunters against Jonathan and his army of Endarkened Shadowhunters and at the end of the series, attends Jocelyn and Luke 's wedding, where she hints that the Fair Folk is possibly planning revenge against the Shadowhunters for the disadvantaging terms applied to them for their betrayal during the war. She also begins teaching history at the Shadowhunter Academy in Alicante.
Emma Carstairs is a young Shadowhunter of the Los Angeles Institute who appears in City of Heavenly Fire. She is also the main protagonist of The Dark Artifices series (which takes place five years after The Mortal Instruments). Her parents are both killed during the height of the war against Jonathan and his army of Endarkened Shadowhunters; though they are not the true suspects, the Clave decides to put the blame on them. Emma is also interrogated by the Clave using the Mortal Sword which impacts her greatly and prompts Clary to comfort her. Though the Clave mumbles on sending Emma to her relatives, Emma decides to live with her parabatai, Julian Blackthorn, and his family back in Los Angeles. She has a crush on Jace Herondale.
Hodge Starkweather was a member of the Circle, a tutor to the Lightwood children. He was bound to the New York Institute due to not leaving the Circle before the Uprising but he was still loyal to Valentine and tricked Clary into giving him The Mortal Cup so he could give to Valentine in order to be freed of his curse which happened. He fled afterwards with Clary in pursuit and cornered him. Hodge was about to kill her but was attacked by Luke in his werewolf form and somehow found the strength to escape. He reappears again in City of Glass where he was imprisoned by the Clave in the cell next to the one Simon Lewis was in. After Simon was rescued by Clary, Jace and Alec, Hodge revealed where the Mortal Mirror was and nearly revealed to Jace that Valentine was n't his real father but was killed by Jonathan Morgenstern before he could.
He is played by Jared Harris in the movie, and Jon Cor in the television series.
Imogen Herondale (née Whitelaw) is the Inquisitor up to City of Ashes and the paternal grandmother of Jace Herondale through her son, Stephen Herondale. Ever since Stephen 's death at the hands of Valentine and her husband 's immediate death after hearing the news, Imogen becomes a cold - hearted woman who seeks vengeance against Valentine and anyone who has connections with him, such as the former members of his Circle which includes the Lightwoods. She is also certain that Jace, whom she believes is Valentine 's son, is a spy of his father. In City of Ashes, though, Imogen realizes that Jace is actually her grandson after looking at his birthmark (a sign of the Herondales) and sacrifices herself to protect Jace from a poison attack. Before she dies, Imogen tells Jace how his real father, Stephen, would be proud of him if he were still alive.
Lilith is a Greater Demon, the first woman made by God and is said to have been Adam 's first wife. However, she was disobedient so she was cast into Hell. Also Sebastian / Jonathan 's creator because it was her blood that Valentine had used. And she was an unknown demon that almost killed God and the Devil. In the book, The City of Fallen Angels, it is said that Lilith considers Sebastian her son because it is her blood that flows through his veins. She is then killed by attacking Simon when he still had the Mark of Cain.
Malachi was a Shadowhunter Consul for almost two decades before his death. He secretly worked with Valentine Morgenstern and planned to destroy all of the Clave. Consequently, he was an enemy. He is killed in City of Glass by Hugo after he tries to hurt Clary.
Maryse Lightwood (née Trueblood) is the wife of Robert Lightwood, mother of Alec, Isabelle, and Max, and the adoptive mother of Jace Herondale, being the one who gave him his nickname that he preferred over his "real '' name, Jonathan. She is also one of the heads of the New York Institute. Maryse had a brother who decided to leave the Shadowhunter world in favor of marrying a mundane, making her an outcast in her peers, though she still honored him by naming her youngest son, Max, after him. Like her husband, Maryse was a part of Valentine 's Circle and was the more attracted of the two, up until the Uprising which sentenced her and Robert to lead the New York Institute as punishment for conspiring with Valentine. Her marriage with Robert is never the same ever since the Uprising, with Robert even thinking of leaving the family several times. Maryse becomes especially grief - stricken after Max 's death at the hands of Sebastian in City of Glass. At the end of The Mortal Instruments series, Maryse and Robert announce that they are no longer together, though the two say that they will continue to care and love each other.
Maureen Brown is a 14 - year - old girl who tells everyone she is Simon 's girlfriend and is the friend of the cousin of Simon 's friend Eric. In City of Fallen Angels Simon drinks her blood, but Camille turns her into a vampire and she starts working for a Lilith after killing multiple mundanes. In the epilogue of City of Lost Souls, Alec goes to kill Camille though discovers that Maureen has already killed her and is now head of the New York vampire clan.
Maureen, as leader of the clan, allowed the members to kill conspicuously while sending for some of them to capture Simon, who later escaped to Idris with Raphael. It appears she was mentally tormented by Lilith and Camille before turning into a vampire which resulted in her corrupted state. Eventually Lily, one of the second - in - commands of the clan, conspired with Maia Roberts, the new leader of the New York werewolf pack, to kill Maureen to stop her reckless actions; while most the members were happy with her, some saw the error of her ways as a problem to their kind. Maia agreed to join Maureen 's cause against the Shadowhunters to make her drink her blood and seal the deal. Her blood, however, was spiked with holy water and Maureen turned to dust, but not before being able mutter her last word, "Mama ''. Lily then took leadership of the clan.
Maxwell "Max '' Joseph Lightwood is the second son of Robert and Maryse and the younger brother of Alec and Isabelle. He is 9 years old and is described as hating the fact that he is still young, which prevents him from joining in the matters for adults. In City of Glass, Max is murdered by Sebastian, who strikes him with his hammer. His death greatly impacts his sister, who blames herself for not being there to save him.
Raphael Santiago used to be the head of the New York vampire clan at the Hotel Dumort. He became a vampire sometime in the 1950s after being bitten by a vampire at the hotel when he tried to drive out the vampires who lived there. He is said to have been asexual. He died in the last installment of The Mortal Instruments: City Of Heavenly Fire.
Robert Lightwood is one of the heads of the New York Institute, later the Inquisitor, husband of Maryse, father of Alec, Isabelle, and Max, as well as the adoptive father of Jace Herondale. He was a part of Valentine 's Circle until the Uprising, after which he and his family were banished to New York. His parabatai was Michael Wayland, but they drifted apart because of Robert 's contempt for the latter 's love for him, later breaking up completely after Robert 's banishment to the point that Robert did not know that Michael had been murdered with his identity being taken up by Valentine. Robert 's marriage with Maryse has been strained since their banishment and Robert once even considered to leave the family for Annamarie Highsmith if not for Max 's birth; this fact is played up by Isabelle after Max 's death, who accuses her father of being happy with Max 's death now that his "burden '' is released. Robert also seems to be the one in his family least pleased when Alec comes out of the closet, even questioning him about what drove him to become gay. At the end of The Mortal Instruments series, Robert has ended his marriage with Maryse, though the two say that they will continue to love each other. He also tells Alec that his disapproval of the latter 's sexuality was because of his previous experience with Michael Wayland.
Theresa "Tessa '' Gray is a half - demon half - Shadowhunter warlock who is descended from the Starkweather family and the ancestor of the Herondale family. She is the main protagonist of The Infernal Devices series, a distant prequel series of The Mortal Instruments series set during the Victorian era London. Though she does not appear until the last book, Tessa figures in the series ' backstory, not only by her descendants but also as the one who performed the Shadowhunter ritual on Clary when she was younger; Clary even notes several times before their formal meeting that Tessa is familiar to her in some way. She was married to Will Herondale until his mortal death 60 years post-marriage, after which Tessa became a recluse living in the Spiral Labyrinth. When Brother Zachariah is cured by Jace 's heavenly fire, he reverts to Tessa 's old lover, Jem Carstairs, now a mortal and dispelled of any needs of his yin fen medication to which he had needed to live. The two happily marry sometime after Jocelyn and Luke 's wedding, attended by new and old friends -- Will Herondale and Jessamine Lovelace 's ghosts.
Zachariah is a Silent Brother who becomes the one most contacted by the Clave to solve cases regarding the New York Institute in 2007 after the Silent Brothers ' massacre by Valentine. He used to be Jem Carstairs, a main character of The Infernal Devices series, who was turned into a Silent Brother to save his life as he laid dying due to running out of the yin fen medication required to sustain his life, in the process breaking his parabatai link with Will Herondale and separating him from his fiancée, Tessa Gray. He and Tessa together performed the Shadowhunter protection ritual on Clary when she was younger, which also erased her knowledge about the Shadow World for a time. When he finds out that Jace is a descendant of Will, Zachariah becomes fiercely protective of him, especially when he is put under Jonathan Morgenstern 's spell and infused with the heavenly fire. In City of Heavenly Fire, Zachariah 's attempt to save Jace infuses him with the heavenly fire, which burns out his yin fen and turns him back into a mortal Jem Carstairs again. During the war he finds Emma Carstairs a descendant of His family and fiercely protects her during the war. After the war, Jem reunites with Tessa and marries her a year after Jocelyn and Luke 's wedding. He also begins to keep an eye on his distant relative, Emma Carstairs, in Los Angeles and Jace Herondale.
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the right to bear arms in the us | Right to keep and bear arms in the United States - wikipedia
The right to keep and bear arms in the United States is a fundamental right protected by the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution, part of the Bill of Rights, and by the constitutions of most U.S. states. The Second Amendment declares:
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
In the United States, which has an English common law tradition, the concept of a right to keep and bear arms was recognized prior to the creation of a written national constitution. When colonists in the Thirteen Colonies rebelled against British control during the American Revolution they cited the 1689 English Bill of Rights as an example.
The American understanding of the right to keep and bear arms was influenced by the 1689 English Bill of Rights, an Act of Parliament, which also dealt with personal defence by Protestant English subjects.
The Bill of Rights did not create a new right to have arms but rather rescinded and deplored acts of the deposed King James II, a Roman Catholic, who had forced the disarming of Protestants, while arming and deploying armed Catholics contrary to Law (among other alleged violations of individual rights). The Bill of Rights provided that Protestants could bear arms for their defence as permitted by law. It also established that the power to regulate the right to bear arms belonged to Parliament, not the monarch.
Sir William Blackstone wrote in the eighteenth century about the right to have arms being auxiliary to the "natural right of resistance and self - preservation '', but conceded that the right was subject to their suitability and allowance by law.
The fifth and last auxiliary right of the subject, that I shall at present mention, is that of having arms for their defence, suitable to their condition and degree, and such as are allowed by law. Which is also declared by the same statute and is indeed a public allowance, under due restrictions, of the natural right of resistance and self - preservation, when the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression. ''
In United States v. Cruikshank (1876), the U.S. Supreme Court recognized that the right to arms preexisted the Constitution and in that case and in Presser v. Illinois (1886) recognized that the Second Amendment protected the right from being infringed by Congress. In United States v. Miller (1939), the Court again recognized that the right to arms is individually held and, citing the Tennessee case of Aymette v State, indicated that it protected the right to keep and bear arms that are "part of the ordinary military equipment '' or the use of which could "contribute to the common defense. '' In its first opportunity to rule specifically on whose right the Second Amendment protects, District of Columbia v. Heller (2008), the Court ruled that the amendment protects an individual right "to keep and carry arms in case of confrontation, '' not contingent on service in a militia, while indicating, in dicta, that restrictions on the possession of firearms by felons and the mentally ill, on the carrying of arms in sensitive locations, and with respect to the conditions on the sale of firearms could pass constitutional muster. In the 2010 case of McDonald v. Chicago, the Court applied incorporation doctrine to extend the Second Amendment 's protections nationwide.
The people 's right to have their own arms for their defense is described in the philosophical and political writings of Aristotle, Cicero, John Locke, Machiavelli, the English Whigs and others. Though possessing arms appears to be distinct from "bearing '' them, the possession of arms is recognized as necessary for and a logical precursor to the bearing of arms. Don Kates, a civil liberties lawyer, cites historic English usage describing the "right to keep and bear their private arms. ''
Likewise, Sayoko Blodgett - Ford notes a non-military usage of the phrase in a pamphlet widely circulated by the dissenting minority dating from the time of the Pennsylvania ratifying convention for the U.S. Constitution:
"(T) he people have a right to bear arms for the defense of themselves and their own state, or the United States, or the purpose of killing game; and no law shall be passed for disarming the people or any of them, unless for crimes committed... ''
In commentary written by Judge Garwood in United States v. Emerson, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit concluded in 2001 that:
... there are numerous instances of the phrase ' bear arms ' being used to describe a civilian 's carrying of arms. Early constitutional provisions or declarations of rights in at least some ten different states speak of the right of the ' people ' (or ' citizen ' or ' citizens ') "to bear arms in defense of themselves (or ' himself ') and the state, ' or equivalent words, thus indisputably reflecting that under common usage ' bear arms ' was in no sense restricted to bearing arms in military service. See Bliss v. Commonwealth, 13 Am. Dec. 251, 12 Ky. 90 (Ky. 1822).
Similarly, in a released Senate report on the Right to Keep and Bear Arms, Senator Orrin Hatch, chairman, U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee, Subcommittee on the Constitution, states:
They argue that the Second Amendment 's words "right of the people '' mean "a right of the state '' -- apparently overlooking the impact of those same words when used in the First and Fourth Amendments. The "right of the people '' to assemble or to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures is not contested as an individual guarantee. Still they ignore consistency and claim that the right to "bear arms '' relates only to military uses. This not only violates a consistent constitutional reading of "right of the people '' but also ignores that the second amendment protects a right to "keep '' arms. "When our ancestors forged a land "conceived in liberty '', they did so with musket and rifle. When they reacted to attempts to dissolve their free institutions, and established their identity as a free nation, they did so as a nation of armed freemen. When they sought to record forever a guarantee of their rights, they devoted one full amendment out of ten to nothing but the protection of their right to keep and bear arms against governmental interference. Under my chairmanship the Subcommittee on the Constitution will concern itself with a proper recognition of, and respect for, this right most valued by free men. ''
Likewise, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in District of Columbia v. Heller (2008), No. 07 - 290, that "(t) he Second Amendment protects an individual right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia, and to use that arm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self - defense within the home. ''
Some historians have argued that prior to and through the 18th century, the expression "bear arms '' appeared exclusively in military contexts, as opposed to the use of firearms by civilians.
"In late - eighteenth - century parlance, bearing arms was a term of art with an obvious military and legal connotation... As a review of the Library of Congress 's data base of congressional proceedings in the revolutionary and early national periods reveals, the thirty uses of ' bear arms ' and ' bearing arms ' in bills, statutes, and debates of the Continental, Confederation, and United States ' Congresses between 1774 and 1821 invariably occur in a context exclusively focused on the army or the militia. ''
However, this conclusion is disputed and may be due to selection bias, which arises from the use of a limited selection of government documents that overwhelmingly refer to matters of military service. Commenting on this previous research, other historians note:
"Searching more comprehensive collections of English language works published before 1820 shows that there are a number of uses that... have nothing to do with military service... (and) The common law was in agreement. Edward Christian 's edition of Blackstone 's Commentaries that appeared in 1790s described the rights of Englishmen (which every American colonist had been promised) in these terms ' everyone is at liberty to keep or carry a gun, if he does not use it for the (unlawful) destruction of game. ' This right was separate from militia duties. ''
The Oxford English Dictionary defines the term to bear arms as: "to serve as a soldier, do military service, fight, '' dating to about 1330.
Garry Wills, author and history professor at Northwestern University, has written of the origin of the term bear arms:
"By legal and other channels, the Latin "arma ferre '' entered deeply into the European language of war. Bearing arms is such a synonym for waging war that Shakespeare can call a just war "' justborne arms '' and a civil war "self - borne arms. '' Even outside the special phrase "bear arms, '' much of the noun 's use echoes Latin phrases: to be under arms (sub armis), the call to arms (ad arma), to follow arms (arma sequi), to take arms (arma capere), to lay down arms (arma pœnere). "Arms '' is a profession that one brother chooses the way another choose law or the church. An issue undergoes the arbitrament of arms. ''... "One does not bear arms against a rabbit... ''.
Garry Wills also cites Greek and Latin etymology:
"... "Bear Arms '' refers to military service, which is why the plural is used (based on Greek ' hopla pherein ' and Latin ' arma ferre ') -- one does not bear arm, or bear an arm. The word means, etymologically, ' equipment ' (from the root ar - * in verbs like ' ararisko ', to fit out). It refers to the ' equipage ' of war. Thus ' bear arms ' can be used of naval as well as artillery warfare, since the "profession of arms '' refers to all military callings. ''
Historically, the right to keep and bear arms, whether considered an individual or a collective or a militia right, did not originate fully formed in the Bill of Rights in 1791; rather, the Second Amendment was the codification of the six - centuries - old responsibility to keep and bear arms for king and country that was inherited from the English Colonists that settled North America, tracing its origin back to the Assize of Arms of 1181 that occurred during the reign of Henry II. Through being codified in the United States Constitution, the common law right was continued and guaranteed for the People, and statutory law enacted subsequently by Congress can not extinguish the pre-existing common law right to keep and bear arms.
The Second Amendment to the United States Constitution refers to a pre-existing right to keep and bear arms:
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
The right is often presented in the United States as being an unenumerated, pre-existing right, such as provided for by the Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution, interpreted by some as providing for unenumerated rights, and therefore implicitly a right to keep and bear arms:
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
Some have seen the Second Amendment as derivative of a common law right to keep and bear arms; Thomas B. McAffee & Michael J. Quinlan, writing in the North Carolina Law Review said "... Madison did not invent the right to keep and bear arms when he drafted the Second Amendment -- the right was pre-existing at both common law and in the early state constitutions. ''
Akhil Reed Amar similarly notes the basis of Common Law for the first ten amendments of the U.S. Constitution, "following John Randolph Tucker 's famous oral argument in the 1887 Chicago anarchist case, Spies v. Illinois '':
Though originally the first ten Amendments were adopted as limitations on Federal power, yet insofar as they secure and recognize fundamental rights -- common law rights -- of the man, they make them privileges and immunities of the man as citizen of the United States...
Uviller and Merkel hold that the right to bear arms was not reserved for the state, but rather was an individual and personal right for arms only to the extent needed to maintain a well regulated militia to support the state. They also hold that a militia recognizable to the framers of the Constitution has ceased to exist in the United States resulting from deliberate Congressional legislation and also societal neglect; nonetheless, "Technically, all males aged seventeen to forty - five are members of the unorganized militia, but that status has no practical legal significance. ''
A few academic writers published their opinions in several works:
"From the text as well as a fair understanding of the contemporary ethic regarding arms and liberty, it seems to us overwhelmingly evident that the principal purpose of the Amendment was to secure a personal, individual entitlement to the possession and use of arms. We can not, however, (as the individual rights contingent generally does) disregard entirely the first part of the text proclaiming a well regulated militia necessary to the security of a free state. ''
"... we understand the Second Amendment as though it read: "Inasmuch as and so long as a well regulated Militia shall be necessary to the security of a free state and so long as privately held arms shall be essential to the maintenance thereof, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. '' "... to us, the language of the Amendment can not support a right to personal weaponry independent of the social value of a regulated organization of armed citizens... ''
In the century following the ratification of the Bill of Rights, the intended meaning and application of the Second Amendment drew less interest than it does in modern times. The vast majority of regulation was done by states, and the first case law on weapons regulation dealt with state interpretations of the Second Amendment. A notable exception to this general rule was Houston v. Moore, 18 U.S. 1 (1820), where the Supreme Court mentioned the Second Amendment in an aside.
In the Nineteenth century considerable attention in public discourse and the courts was directed to the issue of arming of slaves (prior to the Civil War), and later to the right of slaves to belong to militia and the arming of these individuals. Most famously this is seen in the court arguments of the 1857 court case Dred Scott v. Sandford, whether the slave Dred Scott could be a citizen with rights, including the right to bear arms. This debate about the rights of slaves and former slaves often included the usage of the term ' bear arms ' with the meaning of individuals having or not having the right to possess firearms.
In the Dred Scott decision, the opinion of the court stated that if African Americans were considered U.S. citizens, "It would give to persons of the negro race, who were recognized as citizens in any one State of the Union, the right... to keep and carry arms wherever they went. ''
The Second Amendment of the United States Constitution is a federal provision. In 2010, this "fundamental '' and "individual '' right was "fully incorporated '' with the 14th Amendment per the SCOTUS ruling made in McDonald v. City of Chicago, which upheld the prior opinion made in District of Columbia v. Heller. Each of the fifty states also has its own state constitution. Forty - four states have chosen to explicitly embody a right to bear arms into their state constitutions. Each of the state constitutions, state laws, and state courts addresses the state - based right to bear arms distinctly within its respective jurisdictions. The degree and the nature of the protection, prohibition, and regulation at the state level varies from state to state. The District of Columbia, not being a state, falls within the federal jurisdiction.
Approximately thirty - one states have explicitly chosen to include the right to arms for "individual right '', "defense of self '', "defense of home '' or similarly worded reasons. Approximately thirteen states, as with the U.S. Constitution, did not choose to explicitly include "individual '', "self '' or "home '' wording associated with a right to bear arms for their specific states.
Approximately twenty - eight states have explicitly chosen to include the right to bear arms for "security of a free state '', "defense of state '', "common defense '' or similarly worded reasons, as with the U.S. Constitution. Approximately sixteen states did not choose to include explicitly "free state '', "defense of state '' or "common defense '' wording for their specific state. Whether the inclusion of these kinds of wording in state constitutions has relevance to the issue of whether implicit "individual '' rights exist, or whether such rights (if any) are implicitly protected by the states ' constitutions or by the U.S. Constitution 's Second Amendment, remains a matter of dispute. However, since the SCOTUS has "fully incorporated '' the 2nd and 14th Amendments in their 2010 opinion and order in McDonald v. City of Chicago, the right to keep and bear arms is "fully applicable '' to the states and limits the states on any and all regulations and restrictions they choose to take, and federal Constitutional rights take precedence over state, local and other laws that regulate to "Right of Lawful Citizens to keep and bear Arms for self - defense, a ' central component ' of the 2nd Amendment '' (see McDonald v. City of Chicago (SC 2010)).
Regarding the state interpretations of these state and the federal constitutional rights to bear arms, state courts have addressed the meaning of these specific rights in considerable detail. Two different models have emerged from state jurisprudence: an individual right (defense of self or home) and a collective (defense of the state) right. It should be noted, however, that the states can not lessen or restrict any Bill of Rights guarantee that has been "fully incorporated '' (American jurisprudence) and that the right that is "fully incorporated '' also applies to the respective State Constitutions; again, the states can only "add to '' these rights but can never "diminish '' these rights by state and local laws.
Bliss v. Commonwealth (1822, KY) addressed the right to bear arms pursuant to Art. 10, Sec. 23 of the Second Constitution of Kentucky (1799): "That the rights of the citizens to bear arms in defense of themselves and the State shall not be questioned. '' This was interpreted to include the right to carry a concealed sword in a cane. This case has been described as about "a statute prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons (that) was violative of the Second Amendment. '' Others, however, have seen no conflict with the Second Amendment by the Commonwealth of Kentucky 's statute under consideration in Bliss since "The Kentucky law was aimed at concealed weapons. No one saw any conflict with the Second Amendment. As a matter of fact, most of the few people who considered the question at all believed amendments to the U.S. Constitution did not apply to state laws. ''
The Kentucky High Court stated in Bliss, "But it should not be forgotten, that it is not only a part of the right that is secured by the constitution; it is the right entire and complete, as it existed at the adoption of the constitution; and if any portion of that right be impaired, immaterial how small the part may be, and immaterial the order of time at which it be done, it is equally forbidden by the constitution. '' The "constitution '' mentioned in this quote refers to Kentucky 's Constitution.
The case prompted outrage in the Kentucky House, all the while recognizing that Section 23 of the Second Constitution of Kentucky (1799) did guarantee individuals the right to bear arms. The Bliss ruling, to the extent that it dealt with concealed weapons, was overturned by constitutional amendment with Section 26 in Kentucky 's Third Constitution (1850) banning the future carrying of concealed weapons, while still asserting that the bearing of arms in defense of themselves and the state was an individual and collective right in the Commonwealth of Kentucky. This recognition has remained to the present day in the Commonwealth of Kentucky 's Fourth Constitution, enacted in 1891, in Section 1, Article 7, that guarantees "The right to bear arms in defense of themselves and of the State, subject to the power of the General Assembly to enact laws to prevent persons from carrying concealed weapons. '' As noted in the Northern Kentucky Law Review Second Amendment Symposium: Rights in Conflict in the 1980s, vol. 10, no. 1, 1982, p. 155, "The first state court decision resulting from the "right to bear arms '' issue was Bliss v. Commonwealth. The court held that "the right of citizens to bear arms in defense of themselves and the State must be preserved entire,... '' "This holding was unique because it stated that the right to bear arms is absolute and unqualified. ''
The importance of Bliss is also seen from the defense subsequently given against a murder charge in Kentucky against Mattews Ward, who in 1852 pulled out a concealed pistol and fatally wounded his brother 's teacher over an accusation regarding eating chestnuts in class. Ward 's defense team consisted of eighteen lawyers, including U.S. Senator John Crittenden, former Governor of Kentucky, and former United States Attorney General. The defense successfully defended Ward in 1854 through an assertion that "a man has a right to carry arms; I am aware of nothing in the laws of God or man, prohibiting it. The Constitution of Kentucky and our Bill of Rights guarantee it. The Legislature once passed an act forbidding it, but it was decided unconstitutional, and overruled by our highest tribunal, the Court of Appeals. '' As noted by Cornell, "Ward 's lawyers took advantage of the doctrine advanced in Bliss and wrapped their client 's action under the banner of a constitutional right to bear arms. Ward was acquitted. ''
In Aymette v. State, 21 Tenn. 154, 156 (1840), the Tennessee Supreme Court construed the guarantee in Tennessee 's 1834 Constitution that ' the free white men of this State have a right to Keep and bear arms for their common defence. ' Explaining that the provision was adopted with the same goals as the Federal Constitution 's Second Amendment, the court wrote: "The words ' bear arms '... have reference to their military use, and were not employed to mean wearing them about the person as part of the dress. As the object for which the right to keep and bear arms is secured, is of general and public nature, to be exercised by the people in a body, for their common defense, so the arms, the right to keep which is secured, are such as are usually employed in civilized warfare, and that constitute the ordinary military equipment. ''
The Georgia Supreme Court ruled in Nunn v. Georgia (Nunn v. State, 1 Ga. (1 Kel.) 243 (1846)) that a state law banning handguns was an unconstitutional violation of the Second Amendment. This was the first gun control measure to be overturned on Second Amendment grounds. The Supreme Court in its ruling in District of Columbia v. Heller said Nunn "perfectly captured the way in which the operative clause of the Second Amendment furthers the purpose announced in the prefatory clause. ''
"The right of the whole people, old and young, men, women and boys, and not militia only, to keep and bear arms of every description, and not such merely as are used by the militia, shall not be infringed, curtailed, or broken in upon, in the smallest degree; and all this for the important end to be attained: the rearing up and qualifying a well - regulated militia, so vitally necessary to the security of a free State. Our opinion is, that any law, State or Federal, is repugnant to the Constitution, and void, which contravenes this right, originally belonging to our forefathers, trampled under foot by Charles I. and his two wicked sons and successors, re-established by the revolution of 1688, conveyed to this land of liberty by the colonists, and finally incorporated conspicuously in our own Magna Charta! ''
In State v. Buzzard (1842, Ark), the Arkansas high court adopted a militia - based, political interpretation, reading of the right to bear arms under state law, and upheld the 21st section of the second article of the Arkansas Constitution that declared, "that the free white men of this State shall have a right to keep and bear arms for their common defense '', while rejecting a challenge to a statute prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons. Buzzard had carried a concealed weapon and stood "indicted by virtue of the authority of the 13th section of an act of the Legislature prohibiting any person wearing a pistol, dirk, large knife or sword - cane concealed as a weapon, unless upon a journey, under the penalties of fine and imprisonment. '' Justice Lacy, in a dissenting opinion in Buzzard, summarizing the majority viewpoint to which he disagreed, declared:
"That the words "a well regulated militia being necessary for the security of a free State '', and the words "common defense '' clearly show the true intent and meaning of these Constitutions (i.e., Ark. and U.S.) and prove that it is a political and not an individual right, and, of course, that the State, in her legislative capacity, has the right to regulate and control it: This being the case, then the people, neither individually nor collectively, have the right to keep and bear arms. ''
Joel Prentiss Bishop 's influential Commentaries on the Law of Statutory Crimes (1873) took Buzzard 's militia - based interpretation, a view that Bishop characterized as the "Arkansas doctrine '', as the orthodox view of the right to bear arms in American law.
Political scientist Earl Kruschke has categorized both Bliss and Buzzard as being "cases illustrating the individual view. '' Professor Eugene Volokh revealed, in the California Political Review, that a statement in a concurring opinion in Buzzard was the only support for a collective right view of the right to keep and bear arms in the 19th century.
In 1905, the Kansas Supreme Court in Salina v. Blaksley made the first collective right judicial interpretation. The Kansas high court declared: "That the provision in question applies only to the right to bear arms as a member of the state militia, or some other military organization provided for by law, is also apparent from the second amendment to the federal Constitution, which says: ' A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ' ''
Three models of interpreting the right to bear arms in the United States commonly exist. These three models are founded on differing interpretations of the Second Amendment, "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. ''
The first model, the individual - rights model, holds that a right of individuals is to own and possess firearms, much as the First Amendment protects a right of individuals to engage in free speech. This view was confirmed by the Supreme Court in District of Columbia v. Heller (2008) than had previous interpretations by the Court. Prior to the Supreme Court 's ruling in Heller there was a split among the federal courts, with nine of the federal circuit courts of appeal supporting a modified collective rights view, two of the federal circuits supporting an individual rights view, and one federal circuit court having not addressed the question.
The second two models focus on the preamble, or "purpose '' clause, of the Amendment -- the words "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State. '' The second model, the collective model, holds that the right to bear arms belongs to the people collectively rather than to individuals, under the belief that the right 's only purpose is to enable states to maintain a militia.
The third model, the modified collective model, holds that the right to keep and bear arms exists only for individuals actively serving in the militia, and then only pursuant to such regulations as may be prescribed.
Supreme Court justice Antonin Scalia in 2008 wrote that the right to bear arms is not unlimited and is subject to reasonable prohibitions and regulations and subsequently federal court rulings have upheld existing gun prohibitions and regulations.
Nadine Strossen, former president of the American Civil Liberties Union, has stated that the individual rights model must yield to reasonable regulation. Strossen said "it is no more absolute than freedom of speech or any other right in the Constitution. No right is absolute; the government is always allowed to restrict the right if it can satisfy Constitutional strict scrutiny and show the restriction is narrowly tailored to promote a goal of compelling importance. ''
In October 2001, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit stated:
"there are numerous instances of the phrase ' bear arms ' being used to describe a civilian 's carrying of arms. Early constitutional provisions or declarations of rights in at least some ten different states speak of the right of the ' people ' (or ' citizen ' or ' citizens ') "to bear arms in defense of themselves (or ' himself ') and the state, ' or equivalent words, thus indisputably reflecting that under common usage ' bear arms ' was in no sense restricted to bearing arms in military service. ''
In United States v. Miller, 307 U.S. 174 (1939), the Supreme Court rejected a Second Amendment challenge to the National Firearms Act prohibiting the interstate transportation of unregistered Title II weapons:
Jack Miller and Frank Layton "did unlawfully... transport in interstate commerce from... Claremore... Oklahoma to... Siloam Springs... Arkansas a certain firearm... a double barrel... shotgun having a barrel less than 18 inches in length... at the time of so transporting said firearm in interstate commerce... not having registered said firearm as required by Section 1132d of Title 26, United States Code,... and not having in their possession a stamp - affixed written order... as provided by Section 1132C... ''
In a unanimous opinion authored by Justice McReynolds, the Supreme Court stated "the objection that the Act usurps police power reserved to the States is plainly untenable. '' As the Court explained:
In the absence of any evidence tending to show that possession or use of a ' shotgun having a barrel of less than eighteen inches in length ' at this time has some reasonable relationship to any preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia, we can not say that the Second Amendment guarantees the right to keep and bear such an instrument. Certainly it is not within judicial notice that this weapon is any part of the ordinary military equipment or that its use could contribute to the common defense.
Gun rights advocates claim that the Court in Miller ruled that the Second Amendment protected the right to keep arms that are part of "ordinary military equipment. '' They also claim that the Court did not consider the question of whether the sawed - off shotgun in the case would be an applicable weapon for personal defense, instead looking solely at the weapon 's suitability for the "common defense. '' Law professor Andrew McClurg states, "The only certainty about Miller is that it failed to give either side a clear - cut victory. Most modern scholars recognize this fact. ''
According to the syllabus prepared by the U.S. Supreme Court Reporter of Decisions, in District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570 (2008), the Supreme Court held that the Second Amendment protects an individual right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia, and to use that arm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self - defense within the home. pp. 2 -- 53.
Other legal summaries of the court 's findings in this case are similar.
On June 28, 2010, the Supreme Court in McDonald v. Chicago, 561 U.S. 3025 (2010) held that the Second Amendment was fully incorporated within the 14th Amendment. This means that the court ruled that the Second Amendment limits state and local governments to the same extent that it limits the federal government. It also remanded a case regarding a Chicago handgun prohibition. Four of the five Justices in the majority voted to do so by way of the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, while the fifth Justice, Clarence Thomas, voted to do so through the amendment 's Privileges or Immunities Clause.
Interest groups, primarily in the United States, exert political pressure for and against legislation limiting the right to keep and bear arms. This political debate in America is organized between those who seek stricter regulations and those who believe gun regulations violate the Second Amendment protection of a right to keep and bear arms. The largest advocacy group in this regard is the National Rifle Association, and its political wing, the NRA Institute for Legislative Action. The NRA has been described as one of the largest and most powerful political special interest groups in the United States. Several other groups including the Gun Owners of America and the Citizens Committee for the Right to Keep and Bear Arms, while smaller in size, are also politically active. The main gun control advocacy group is the Brady Campaign which has been described as considerably less effective than gun - rights organizations.
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what do you call an object that provides the elements that make up a stream | Stream processing - Wikipedia
Stream processing is a computer programming paradigm, equivalent to dataflow programming, event stream processing, and reactive programming, that allows some applications to more easily exploit a limited form of parallel processing. Such applications can use multiple computational units, such as the floating point unit on a graphics processing unit or field - programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), without explicitly managing allocation, synchronization, or communication among those units.
The stream processing paradigm simplifies parallel software and hardware by restricting the parallel computation that can be performed. Given a sequence of data (a stream), a series of operations (kernel functions) is applied to each element in the stream. Kernel functions are usually pipelined, and optimal local on - chip memory reuse is attempted, in order to minimize the loss in bandwidth, accredited to external memory interaction. Uniform streaming, where one kernel function is applied to all elements in the stream, is typical. Since the kernel and stream abstractions expose data dependencies, compiler tools can fully automate and optimize on - chip management tasks. Stream processing hardware can use scoreboarding, for example, to initiate a direct memory access (DMA) when dependencies become known. The elimination of manual DMA management reduces software complexity, and an associated elimination for hardware cached I / O, reduces the data area expanse that has to be involved with service by specialized computational units such as arithmetic logic units.
During the 1980s stream processing was explored within dataflow programming. An example is the language SISAL (Streams and Iteration in a Single Assignment Language).
Stream processing is essentially a compromise, driven by a data - centric model that works very well for traditional DSP or GPU - type applications (such as image, video and digital signal processing) but less so for general purpose processing with more randomized data access (such as databases). By sacrificing some flexibility in the model, the implications allow easier, faster and more efficient execution. Depending on the context, processor design may be tuned for maximum efficiency or a trade - off for flexibility.
Stream processing is especially suitable for applications that exhibit three application characteristics:
Examples of records within streams include:
For each record we can only read from the input, perform operations on it, and write to the output. It is permissible to have multiple inputs and multiple outputs, but never a piece of memory that is both readable and writable.
Basic computers started from a sequential execution paradigm. Traditional CPUs are SISD based, which means they conceptually perform only one operation at a time. As the computing needs of the world evolved, the amount of data to be managed increased very quickly. It was obvious that the sequential programming model could not cope with the increased need for processing power. Various efforts have been spent on finding alternative ways to perform massive amounts of computations but the only solution was to exploit some level of parallel execution. The result of those efforts was SIMD, a programming paradigm which allowed applying one instruction to multiple instances of (different) data. Most of the time, SIMD was being used in a SWAR environment. By using more complicated structures, one could also have MIMD parallelism.
Although those two paradigms were efficient, real - world implementations were plagued with limitations from memory alignment problems to synchronization issues and limited parallelism. Only few SIMD processors survived as stand - alone components; most were embedded in standard CPUs.
Consider a simple program adding up two arrays containing 100 4 - component vectors (i.e. 400 numbers in total).
This is the sequential paradigm that is most familiar. Variations do exist (such as inner loops, structures and such), but they ultimately boil down to that construct.
This is actually oversimplified. It assumes the instruction vector_sum works. Although this is what happens with instruction intrinsics, much information is actually not taken into account here such as the number of vector components and their data format. This is done for clarity.
You can see however, this method reduces the number of decoded instructions from numElements * componentsPerElement to numElements. The number of jump instructions is also decreased, as the loop is run fewer times. These gains result from the parallel execution of the four mathematical operations.
What happened however is that the packed SIMD register holds a certain amount of data so it 's not possible to get more parallelism. The speed up is somewhat limited by the assumption we made of performing four parallel operations (please note this is common for both AltiVec and SSE).
In this paradigm, the whole dataset is defined, rather than each component block being defined separately. Describing the set of data is assumed to be in the first two rows. After that, the result is inferred from the sources and kernel. For simplicity, there 's a 1: 1 mapping between input and output data but this does not need to be. Applied kernels can also be much more complex.
An implementation of this paradigm can "unroll '' a loop internally. This allows throughput to scale with chip complexity, easily utilizing hundreds of ALUs. The elimination of complex data patterns makes much of this extra power available.
While stream processing is a branch of SIMD / MIMD processing, they must not be confused. Although SIMD implementations can often work in a "streaming '' manner, their performance is not comparable: the model envisions a very different usage pattern which allows far greater performance by itself. It has been noted that when applied on generic processors such as standard CPU, only a 1.5 x speedup can be reached. By contrast, ad - hoc stream processors easily reach over 10x performance, mainly attributed to the more efficient memory access and higher levels of parallel processing.
Although there are various degrees of flexibility allowed by the model, stream processors usually impose some limitations on the kernel or stream size. For example, consumer hardware often lacks the ability to perform high - precision math, lacks complex indirection chains or presents lower limits on the number of instructions which can be executed.
Stanford University stream processing projects included the Stanford Real - Time Programmable Shading Project started in 1999. A prototype called Imagine was developed in 2002. A project called Merrimac ran until about 2004. AT&T also researched stream - enhanced processors as graphics processing units rapidly evolved in both speed and functionality. Since these early days, dozens of stream processing languages have been developed, as well as specialized hardware.
The most immediate challenge in the realm of parallel processing does not lie as much in the type of hardware architecture used, but in how easy it will be to program the system in question in a real - world environment with acceptable performance. Machines like Imagine use a straightforward single - threaded model with automated dependencies, memory allocation and DMA scheduling. This in itself is a result of the research at MIT and Stanford in finding an optimal layering of tasks between programmer, tools and hardware. Programmers beat tools in mapping algorithms to parallel hardware, and tools beat programmers in figuring out smartest memory allocation schemes, etc. Of particular concern are MIMD designs such as Cell, for which the programmer needs to deal with application partitioning across multiple cores and deal with process synchronization and load balancing. Efficient multi-core programming tools are severely lacking today.
A drawback of SIMD programming was the issue of Array - of - Structures (AoS) and Structure - of - Arrays (SoA). Programmers often wanted to build data structures with a ' real ' meaning, for example:
What happened is that those structures were then assembled in arrays to keep things nicely organized. This is array of structures (AoS). When the structure is laid out in memory, the compiler will produce interleaved data, in the sense that all the structures will be contiguous but there will be a constant offset between, say, the "size '' attribute of a structure instance and the same element of the following instance. The offset depends on the structure definition (and possibly other things not considered here such as compiler 's policies). There are also other problems. For example, the three position variables can not be SIMD - ized that way, because it 's not sure they will be allocated in continuous memory space. To make sure SIMD operations can work on them, they shall be grouped in a ' packed memory location ' or at least in an array. Another problem lies in both "color '' and "xyz '' to be defined in three - component vector quantities. SIMD processors usually have support for 4 - component operations only (with some exceptions however).
These kinds of problems and limitations made SIMD acceleration on standard CPUs quite nasty. The proposed solution, structure of arrays (SoA) follows as:
For readers not experienced with C, the ' * ' before each identifier means a pointer. In this case, they will be used to point to the first element of an array, which is to be allocated later. For Java programmers, this is roughly equivalent to "() ''. The drawback here is that the various attributes could be spread in memory. To make sure this does not cause cache misses, we 'll have to update all the various "reds '', then all the "greens '' and "blues ''.
For stream processors, the usage of structures is encouraged. From an application point of view, all the attributes can be defined with some flexibility. Taking GPUs as reference, there is a set of attributes (at least 16) available. For each attribute, the application can state the number of components and the format of the components (but only primitive data types are supported for now). The various attributes are then attached to a memory block, possibly defining a stride between ' consecutive ' elements of the same attributes, effectively allowing interleaved data. When the GPU begins the stream processing, it will gather all the various attributes in a single set of parameters (usually this looks like a structure or a "magic global variable ''), performs the operations and scatters the results to some memory area for later processing (or retrieving).
More modern stream processing frameworks provide a FIFO like interface to structure data as a literal stream. This abstraction provides a means to specify data dependencies implicitly while enabling the runtime / hardware to take full advantage of that knowledge for efficient computation. One of the simplest and most efficient stream processing modalities to date for C++, is RaftLib. RaftLib enables linking independent compute kernels together as a data flow graph using C++ stream operators. As an example:
Apart from specifying streaming applications in high - level language. Models of computation (MoCs) also have been widely used such as dataflow models and process - based models.
Historically, CPUs began implementing various tiers of memory access optimizations because of the ever - increasing performance when compared to relatively slow growing external memory bandwidth. As this gap widened, big amounts of die area were dedicated to hiding memory latencies. Since fetching information and opcodes to those few ALUs is expensive, very little die area is dedicated to actual mathematical machinery (as a rough estimation, consider it to be less than 10 %).
A similar architecture exists on stream processors but thanks to the new programming model, the amount of transistors dedicated to management is actually very little.
Beginning from a whole system point of view, stream processors usually exist in a controlled environment. GPUs do exist on an add - in board (this seems to also apply to Imagine). CPUs do the dirty job of managing system resources, running applications and such.
The stream processor is usually equipped with a fast, efficient, proprietary memory bus (crossbar switches are now common, multi-buses have been employed in the past). The exact amount of memory lanes is dependent on the market range. As this is written, there are still 64 - bit wide interconnections around (entry - level). Most mid-range models use a fast 128 - bit crossbar switch matrix (4 or 2 segments), while high - end models deploy huge amounts of memory (actually up to 512 MB) with a slightly slower crossbar that is 256 bits wide. By contrast, standard processors from Intel Pentium to some Athlon 64 have only a single 64 - bit wide data bus.
Memory access patterns are much more predictable. While arrays do exist, their dimension is fixed at kernel invocation. The thing which most closely matches a multiple pointer indirection is an indirection chain, which is however guaranteed to finally read or write from a specific memory area (inside a stream).
Because of the SIMD nature of the stream processor 's execution units (ALUs clusters), read / write operations are expected to happen in bulk, so memories are optimized for high bandwidth rather than low latency (this is a difference from Rambus and DDR SDRAM, for example). This also allows for efficient memory bus negotiations.
Most (90 %) of a stream processor 's work is done on - chip, requiring only 1 % of the global data to be stored to memory. This is where knowing the kernel temporaries and dependencies pays.
Internally, a stream processor features some clever communication and management circuits but what 's interesting is the Stream Register File (SRF). This is conceptually a large cache in which stream data is stored to be transferred to external memory in bulks. As a cache - like software - controlled structure to the various ALUs, the SRF is shared between all the various ALU clusters. The key concept and innovation here done with Stanford 's Imagine chip is that the compiler is able to automate and allocate memory in an optimal way, fully transparent to the programmer. The dependencies between kernel functions and data is known through the programming model which enables the compiler to perform flow analysis and optimally pack the SRFs. Commonly, this cache and DMA management can take up the majority of a project 's schedule, something the stream processor (or at least Imagine) totally automates. Tests done at Stanford showed that the compiler did an as well or better job at scheduling memory than if you hand tuned the thing with much effort.
There is proof; there can be a lot of clusters because inter-cluster communication is assumed to be rare. Internally however, each cluster can efficiently exploit a much lower amount of ALUs because intra-cluster communication is common and thus needs to be highly efficient.
To keep those ALUs fetched with data, each ALU is equipped with local register files (LRFs), which are basically its usable registers.
This three - tiered data access pattern, makes it easy to keep temporary data away from slow memories, thus making the silicon implementation highly efficient and power - saving.
Although an order of magnitude speedup can be reasonably expected (even from mainstream GPUs when computing in a streaming manner), not all applications benefit from this. Communication latencies are actually the biggest problem. Although PCI Express improved this with full - duplex communications, getting a GPU (and possibly a generic stream processor) to work will possibly take long amounts of time. This means it 's usually counter-productive to use them for small datasets. Because changing the kernel is a rather expensive operation the stream architecture also incurs penalties for small streams, a behaviour referred to as the short stream effect.
Pipelining is a very widespread and heavily used practice on stream processors, with GPUs featuring pipelines exceeding 200 stages. The cost for switching settings is dependent on the setting being modified but it is now considered to always be expensive. To avoid those problems at various levels of the pipeline, many techniques have been deployed such as "über shaders '' and "texture atlases ''. Those techniques are game - oriented because of the nature of GPUs, but the concepts are interesting for generic stream processing as well.
Most programming languages for stream processors start with Java, C or C++ and add extensions which provide specific instructions to allow application developers to tag kernels and / or streams. This also applies to most shading languages, which can be considered stream programming languages to a certain degree.
Non-commercial examples of stream programming languages include:
Commercial implementations are either general purpose or tied to specific hardware by a vendor. Examples of general purpose languages include:
Vendor - specific languages include:
Event - Based Processing
Batch File Based Processing (emulates some of actual stream processing, but much lower performance in general)
Stream Processing Services:
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when does michonne come in the walking dead | Michonne - wikipedia
Michonne (/ mɪˈʃɔːn / mi - SHOHN) is a fictional character from the comic book series The Walking Dead and is portrayed by Danai Gurira in the television series of the same name. Armed with a katana and harboring a mysterious past, Michonne is introduced clothed under a hood and pulling the shackles of two reanimated corpses for protection and camouflage. The two walkers are subsequently revealed to be her zombified boyfriend and his best friend. In both the comic and TV series, she has a prominent role in the conflict between the town of Woodbury led by The Governor, and the Prison crew (of which she was a member).
The direction of the character is contrasted between the two mediums (though in both mediums, Michonne is introduced as an outsider who quickly proves to be a valuable asset). In the comic, Michonne is a former lawyer as well as a divorcee with two missing daughters. She forms a complicated relationship with Tyreese. Her conflict with The Governor is much more violent in the comics, enduring sexual assault before mutilating him in revenge. Michonne 's mental state deteriorates after many losses, bringing her closer to Rick Grimes who shares similar trauma. Despite finding temporary peace with Ezekiel at The Kingdom, Michonne runs away to Oceanside before making a return. Her absence was explored in a 3 - episode mini-series by Telltale Games, exploring her departure and living life at sea.
Michonne 's backstory is slightly altered in the television series, having a three - year - old son named Andre Anthony, while the fate of her boyfriend and friend remain the same. In the television series, Michonne 's trauma and guarded nature gradually diminishes as she slowly recovers and finds herself opening up and investing in a community as well as Rick 's core group. Her conflict with The Governor is motivated by his attempt to kill her after leaving the town under suspicion that he is dangerous and trying to protect her friend, Andrea. In addition, her relationship with the Grimes family is explored in more depth as she pushes her group to strive for a sanctuary in Washington, DC. She also develops a romance with protagonist Rick Grimes, which is implied in the comic, but never developed. In both media, she becomes a constable at the Alexandria Safe - Zone.
The character has been critically praised, often regarded as a fan - favorite in both mediums. Michonne was voted # 86 on IGN 's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes and Gurira 's performance has been well received.
Michonne is introduced as a mysterious woman armed with a katana. She first appears towing two armless, jawless zombies in shackles and causes no small consternation among the group. She saves Otis from zombies and follows him to the abandoned prison where the group is based. She immediately bonds with Tyreese, recognizing him from his days in the NFL, and shares his passion for weightlifting. They sleep together, precipitating Tyreese 's breakup with Carol Peletier; Michonne and Tyreese then become a couple.
Michonne reveals some details of her life before the apocalypse. She was a lawyer who had recently ended her marriage and lost custody of her children. At first, she appears to have suffered some kind of trauma or mental illness, often carrying on conversations with herself or with her deceased boyfriend, as Andrea first notices in the prison. Michonne later admits to Rick Grimes that she has imaginary conversations with her dead boyfriend to keep herself from breaking down, and as a coping mechanism to deal with the real world 's horrors. In return, Rick shows her a rotary telephone he used to "call '' his late wife, Lori.
Michonne is among the small group sent out to investigate a helicopter crash, and they stumble upon the town of Woodbury. Woodbury 's Governor betrays and captures them, and violently rapes and tortures Michonne. He soon realizes she must be dealt with more aggressively when she kills all the participants in a gladiator - style tournament. The group escapes, but Michonne remains behind, saying "she has to take care of some things ''. She mutilates the Governor before making her way back to the prison with the rest of the group. When the Governor retaliates, Michonne and Tyreese go on the offensive, attempting guerrilla warfare in order to buy the prison time to prepare for the next attack. Instead Michonne is forced to flee after nearly being captured, and Tyreese is captured and used as a bargaining tool to get into the prison. When this fails, the Governor kills Tyreese with Michonne 's katana. Moments later, she returns and reclaims her sword, disappearing into the woods nearby.
After the events at the prison, she returns to look for the RV survivors and puts Tyreese 's reanimated remains to peace. When she finds only footprints, she begins to follow them and stumbles upon Rick and his son, Carl. She saves Carl from a roamer and joins up with Rick and Carl. She bonds with them and keeps Rick 's self - conversations secret. Michonne protects Carl as a mother would, and goes to great lengths to protect Rick out of respect for him. They rejoin other surviving members of the group at Hershel 's farm. Michonne travels with the survivors in search of safety, and inquires about Morgan Jones ' whereabouts. When Rick asks if she finds Morgan attractive, Michonne admits that she does, but is still grieving over Tyreese 's death.
When the survivors locate the town of Alexandria, a safe haven from the undead, and think they have finally been given an opportunity to rest, Michonne has a difficult time relinquishing her sword, as seen with her confrontation with Alexandria resident Douglas. Another resident, Olivia, persuades Douglas to allow Michonne to keep her weapon. Michonne settles into her new "home '' and even hangs her sword above the mantle. She recalls all of the horrific ways she has used it to survive, and finally proclaims, "I am through with you. ''
Michonne begins to let her guard down, and Rick asks Douglas if there is a job for her in the community. Since there is no need for lawyers, Douglas recommends making her a constable to uphold the law in Alexandria. Michonne attends a welcome party held by Douglas in honor of Alexandria 's new residents, but is quiet and reserved during the festivities. When one of Alexandria 's residents, Barbara, tries playing matchmaker between Michonne and a young man named Heath, Michonne wearies of the conversation among the partygoers and attempts to leave. Barbara makes a well - intentioned attempt to dissuade her, but becomes insistent about what Michonne would care to eat and says she 'd hate to cook a meal Michonne did not enjoy. Michonne snaps and asks if that 's all she truly concerns herself about. The guests grow silent. Michonne, uncomfortable, leaves.
She finds Morgan, who confesses to having left the party earlier, and they commiserate about not caring for chipper people. Michonne admits their conversation made her feel even more alone. She lets her guard down and rests her head on Morgan 's shoulder. They end up having sex that night, but Michonne is annoyed and turned off by Morgan 's refusal to let go of the fact that his wife is dead and gone.
Michonne ends up falling for Morgan. The two ultimately get a chance to make up afterwards, with her agreeing to take things slow and get to know each other better. She 's devastated when he gets bitten, amputating his arm in an attempt to save his life. Michonne later apologizes to a seemingly - unconscious Morgan. She says she does n't mean to be an insensitive person and asks for his forgiveness, only to realize he has already died.
The group successfully fends off an attack when Alexandria is swarmed by walkers, later holding funerals for Morgan and other fallen friends. Rick finds Michonne sitting at Morgan 's grave, and she says she would have lived with Morgan for the rest of her life. Michonne asks Rick if this is funny, to which he replies everyone wants a relationship, and Michonne says she does n't think she will ever be happy. Michonne helps in clearing up the last of the zombie horde in Alexandria and Rick approaches her, asking how she feels. Michonne replies that she is getting by, and thinks it 's nice someone cares about her.
Michonne and Abraham are clearing roamers away from the Alexandria Safe - Zone perimeter when they are surprised by an unknown man, later revealed to be named Paul Monroe and nicknamed "Jesus ''. Paul reveals he has traveled from a community nearby and wishes to establish an alliance between them all. Rick lashes out at Paul, knocking him unconscious, and Michonne helps in tying him up. Rick, Michonne, and Abraham set out to scout the area for an impending threat, but realize Paul was telling the truth, and Rick decides to work with him. Rick, Michonne, Paul, Glenn, Carl and Andrea travel to Paul 's community, the "Hilltop ''. Along the way, Paul helps the group defeat walkers even with his hands tied, proving his trustworthiness.
Once inside Hilltop, the group learns that Hilltop 's leader, Gregory, has established a deal with Negan, the brutal leader of a group of bandits known as "The Saviors ''. The Saviors keep the area clear of the dead in exchange for half of everything the Hilltop survivors manage to gather. However, the Saviors have been abusing members of the Hilltop Colony and Rick volunteers to help deal with Negan, a decision Michonne seems angry about. The group is attacked by a group of Saviors on their way back to Alexandria, but Rick 's group emerges victorious and kills all but one of them. Rick spares him so he can deliver a message to Negan, saying they are protecting Hilltop now and want half of Negan 's supplies.
Abraham is killed by the Saviors and Eugene is captured, sparking a conflict between Alexandria and the Saviors. Michonne travels with Rick, Carl, Glenn, Maggie and Sophia to Hilltop, but they are captured by Negan along the way. Negan savagely bashes Glenn 's head in with a baseball bat and leaves the other survivors, saying they will be back to collect half of Alexandria 's supplies. Michonne and the others return to Alexandria, to find a battle has taken place between the Safe Zone and the Saviors, resulting in Rick 's group capturing one of Negan 's men. Rick lets the man go free, but Carl disappears sometime later, and Michonne joins Rick, Andrea, and Jesus on a trip to Negan 's community, suspecting the Saviors have kidnapped Carl. After a brief scuffle between Negan and Rick, it is revealed Carl is safe and they return to Alexandria.
Michonne tries unsuccessfully to seduce Heath, who reveals Maggie told him about what happened between Michonne and Tyreese. She leaves and asks Heath to pretend as if the moment had never happened. Michonne and Carl are later seen fighting a group of walkers, and Carl is surprised by one of them, which falls on top of him. Carl says he is useless with only one eye, but Michonne assures him Rick is fine with only one hand. Michonne later tells Andrea that she feels as if she can not talk normally to anyone anymore, including Heath.
Michonne, Rick and several others travel to a community known as "The Kingdom '' where Rick plans to get help from Ezekiel to defeat Negan. She and Ezekiel become romantically involved, despite starting off on the wrong foot. Michonne participates in the war against Negan and the Saviors, which ends in Rick 's group emerging victorious and imprisoning Negan.
After the war, there is a time - skip. Michonne is not seen for a long period of time. Rick states that he still misses her "even after all this time. '' Michonne 's disappearance is explained in the video game.
Michonne is first revealed stepping off of a sailboat. She immediately shows her negative feelings toward Ezekiel by asking herself, "Seriously, there was no one else he (Rick) could have sent? '' As Rick asks many questions as to why Michonne had left Ezekiel and the Kingdom, she reveals that she abandoned her daughters during the outbreak and that she would never be able to start a new life with all of her regret. The conversation ends with Rick telling her to "get her shit together '' and to "go back home. ''
Rick and Michonne discover the decapitated heads of Ezekiel and Rosita on pikes, and Michonne is devastated by her lover 's death. They later find out that someone helped Negan escape from his cell. Michonne initially desires to go back to sailing with Pete, but Rick encourages her to become the Kingdom 's new leader, since Eziekiel was killed. Despite having defeated Negan, Rick 's group becomes involved in another war with a group known as the "Whisperers ''. Michonne and her allies eventually come out on top, but Alexandria is swarmed by an incredibly large herd of walkers. The survivors are able to drive the walkers from Alexandria, but Andrea is bitten on the neck and dies. Michonne and Maggie are seen taking her body away, as the group mourns their losses and rebuild. Rick decides to form a careful alliance with Negan, as he appears to have changed his ways.
Michonne makes her first appearance as a hooded figure near the end of the second - season finale, "Beside the Dying Fire '' (though at the time Danai Gurira had not been cast for this role), wherein she saves Andrea from a walker by decapitating it with her katana, which features a triquetra on the inner crossguard.
As in the comics, she is accompanied by two chained walkers, side - by - side with their arms and lower jaws removed to prevent them from attacking. In removing their ability to eat, Michonne effectively tamed these walkers. Michonne has demonstrated economic uses for her pet walkers, such as using them as human pack mules by loading supplies onto their backs as well as a camouflage / repellent, as their presence and scent fools other walkers into thinking those accompanying them are also walkers. Michonne later decapitates the walkers shortly before she and Andrea are discovered by Merle.
In the episode "Walk with Me '', Michonne and Andrea are taken by a group led by Merle Dixon (Michael Rooker) from a nearby town called Woodbury, run by the Governor (David Morrissey). Andrea, having been severely ill after spending eight months on the road, embraces the town 's sense of community which Michonne resists, suspicious of The Governor and his leadership. In the episode "Say the Word '', Michonne ultimately decides to leave alone after failing to convince Andrea to leave. In the episode "Hounded '', Michonne 's suspicions of The Governor 's true nature prove to be true as Merle and his men go after her under the orders of killing her. However, Michonne kills two of Merle 's men and escapes. She then spies Maggie (Lauren Cohan) and Glenn (Steven Yeun) on a supply run in a nearby town and overhears directions to the prison where they are staying, but Michonne is not able to make contact with them as they are ambushed and kidnapped by Merle. A wounded and weakened Michonne soon arrives at the prison with Maggie and Glenn 's basket of infant supplies. In the episode "When the Dead Come Knocking '', Michonne is brought into the prison, albeit cautiously, by Carl (Chandler Riggs) and Rick (Andrew Lincoln), who directs Hershel (Scott Wilson) to tend to her wounds. Michonne informs them of Glenn and Maggie 's abduction by Merle, of the Governor, and of Woodbury. In the mid-season finale "Made to Suffer '', she accompanies Rick, Daryl (Norman Reedus), unaware he is Merle 's brother, and Oscar (Vincent M. Ward) to rescue Glenn and Maggie from Woodbury. In the process, Daryl is kidnapped. After Glenn and Maggie are rescued, Michonne breaks off from the larger group and proceeds to discover the Governor 's zombie - head aquaria and reanimated daughter, Penny, whom she kills despite his pleas not to. She and the Governor get into a hand - to - hand fight, which she wins, stabbing him in the eye during the scuffle. Andrea 's arrival and intervention at gunpoint prevents Michonne from killing the Governor, and Michonne instead withdraws. When Michonne returns to Rick 's group, they question her reliability after her disappearance, but she counters that they need her due to the loss of Daryl.
In the mid-season premiere "The Suicide King '', Rick continues to show distrust toward Michonne, and tells her that she will be sent away when she is fully recovered. In the episode "Home '', Michonne observes Rick as he hallucinates an encounter with his recently deceased wife, Lori (Sarah Wayne Callies). When the Governor and his men attack the prison, Michonne helps defend it. In the episode "I Ai n't a Judas '', when Andrea comes to the prison to start a negotiation with them, Michonne tells her The Governor sent Merle to kill her, demonstrating that he wo n't allow anyone to leave (or live) who is n't under his control. In the episode "Clear '', Rick has her join him and Carl on a weapons run to Rick 's hometown, where she bonds with the two and eventually earns their trust (Rick confirms to her that she is "one of us ''). She confides in him about his hallucinations and tells him she used to speak to her dead boyfriend. In the episode "This Sorrowful Life '', Rick reveals to Merle that the Governor claimed he would leave the prison group alone if they handed over Michonne. Merle takes it upon himself to capture her and deliver her to the Governor, but as they talk in the car he has second thoughts and releases her; he instead ambushes the Governor 's group alone and kills a number of them before the Governor finds him and kills him. In the season finale "Welcome to the Tombs '', following another attack on the prison Rick, accompanied by Michonne and Daryl, sets out to locate the Governor. However, they come across the scene where the Governor slaughtered his own troops. One survivor (Karen) (Melissa Ponzio) leads the group back to Woodbury to locate Andrea, as they fear the worst for her safety after learning she had fled Woodbury for the prison, but never arrived there. They manage to find Andrea but not before she has been bitten by the reanimated Milton (Dallas Roberts), whom she managed to kill. Michonne offers to stay with her in her last minutes before killing herself to prevent reanimation, using a pistol borrowed from Rick. While Michonne is with Andrea in the room, the others outside the room hear a gunshot offscreen. Michonne is seen with Woodbury 's remaining citizens and the rest of the group returning to the prison, as they also bring Andrea 's corpse back to bury it.
In the season premiere "30 Days Without an Accident '', Michonne comes back to the prison from her tireless search for the Governor which have proved unsuccessful. In the episode "Infected '', Michonne is about to head back out on her search, but tries to get back in when a walker attack is announced and she injures her ankle. Beth (Emily Kinney) tends to her wounds, and asks her to watch Rick 's baby Judith; when Beth leaves the room, Michonne breaks down crying as she cradles the baby. In the episode "Isolation '', she volunteers to go with Bob (Lawrence Gilliard Jr.) and Daryl to get antibiotics from a veterinary college to treat a deadly illness that has broken out among the prison population, and Tyreese (Chad Coleman) joins them before they leave. On the car radio they hear a message offering sanctuary at a place called Terminus before the car is swarmed by walkers and they are forced to flee on foot. In the episode "Indifference '', they obtain the needed medicine from the college. Daryl and Tyreese argue with Michonne that the Governor wo n't be found, and that she is more needed at the prison, and she ultimately agrees to give up her search. In the episode "Internment '', they return to the prison with the medicine after Rick and Carl have defended the prison from a walker herd. Michonne takes the bodies to be burnt offsite and Hershel decides to go with her. In the episode "Dead Weight '', Michonne and Hershel are seen chatting and laughing in the distance as they prepare the bodies for disposal, unaware they are being watched by The Governor who aims his gun at them. In the mid-season finale "Too Far Gone '', the Governor kidnaps Hershel and Michonne and convinces his new group to use them as hostages to take over the prison. At the prison, the Governor takes a well - armed caravan with a tank and demands that Rick order his group to leave the prison, using Hershel and Michonne as leverage. Rick tries to reason with the Governor with the offer of living together peacefully but The Governor declares him a liar and decapitates Hershel with Michonne 's katana. Rick 's group opens fire, and Michonne rolls away and unties herself. The Governor orders his group to kill everyone at the prison, and they attack, breaking down the fences with their vehicles. When the Governor is punching Rick in the face, Michonne impales him through the chest with her katana and escapes as the prison is overwhelmed by walkers drawn by the noise.
In the mid-season premiere "After '', Michonne returns to the prison, where she discovers Hershel 's reanimated head. After putting her katana through his head as a mercy kill, she takes two new walker pets and travels through the woods. While sleeping, she has a nightmare about her former life. The nightmare reveals that Michonne lived a comfortable life with her boyfriend Mike and her young son Andre before the apocalypse. While walking through the forest, she encounters a walker that looks disturbingly similar to her. Realizing the walkers will not attack her because they think she is already dead, Michonne chooses to embrace life instead and cuts down the entire herd of walkers. Following this, she has an emotional breakdown and has a brief monologue addressing Mike. Later in the episode she investigates footprints belonging to Rick and Carl and follows them to a house that they have taken shelter in, crying when she sees them. In the episode "Claimed '', Michonne joins Carl on a run for more supplies in the neighborhood and reveals more about her past in an effort to cheer him up. She reveals she had a three - year - old son named Andre Anthony who died shortly after the outbreak began. Rick, Carl and Michonne are forced to travel in the direction of a camp known as Terminus because a group of men intrude on their house. In the episode "Us '', Michonne, Rick, and Carl are following a set of train tracks, and it is revealed that the group of men have been tracking them. In the season finale "A '', Michonne, Rick and Carl are nearing Terminus. In the night they are ambushed by the group of marauders and held at gunpoint. Daryl, who is travelling with the marauders, attempts to reason with the leader -- Joe (Jeff Kober), to no avail. Joe orders his gang to beat Daryl to death, before telling Rick his group will rape Michonne and Carl before assassinating him. Enraged when Dan (Keith Brooks) tries to rape Carl, Rick snaps and brutally kills Joe by biting out a chunk of his throat. In the following confusion, Michonne manages to get hold of a gun and kill two marauders. With the marauders dead, the reunited gang continue to Terminus. On the outskirts of Terminus, Michonne confesses to Carl the details of Andre 's death and the reasoning behind keeping two walker pets. Upon entering Terminus and realizing it is a trap, Michonne along with Rick, Carl and Daryl flee across the grounds, to eventually become captured. Forced into a container, the group are reunited with Glenn, Maggie, Bob and Sasha, as well as meeting Sergeant Abraham Ford, Dr. Eugene Porter, Rosita Espinosa and Tara Chambler. Michonne is present as the season closes with Rick uttering the words: "... they 're screwing with the wrong people. ''
In the season five premiere "No Sanctuary '' Michonne and the others are able to escape Terminus and are reunited with Carol, Tyreese and Judith. In the episode "Strangers '', as the group continues travelling Michonne offers to take out a nearby walker only to realize her sword was left behind in Terminus and kills it with a gun instead. As they travel they encounter Fr. Gabriel Stokes (Seth Gilliam) whom they distrust but he gives them shelter in his church. Abraham tries to insist they travel to Washington D.C. where they can cure the outbreak, but Michonne insists to him they find supplies first. Later Gabriel leads Rick, Michonne, Bob and Sasha to a store to find supplies where Michonne reveals the sword was not hers to begin with but she found it and confesses to missing Andrea and Hershel but not the sword. In the episode "Four Walls and a Roof '', the group takes shelter in the church while being hunted by the last of the cannabalistic members of Terminus. Rick 's group gains the upper hand and Michonne helps in killing Gareth and the others. She discovers the Terminus group has been keeping her katana, which she takes back. In the episode "Crossed '', the group learns Beth is still alive and being held captive in a hospital in Atlanta, so Rick leads a team to rescue her, leaving Michonne, Carl and Judith at the church. In the mid-season finale "Coda '', Michonne helps defend against a herd of walkers that attack but the church is quickly overrun. They are saved by the timely arrival of Glenn, Maggie, Abraham and the others, and decide to help Rick in Atlanta. Upon arrival at the hospital, Michonne and the others witness Daryl carrying Beth 's corpse out of the building.
In the midseason premiere "What Happened and What 's Going On '', Michonne pushes the idea of going to Washington, D.C. despite Noah 's (Tyler James Williams) community being overrun in Richmond, Virginia. Later, Tyreese is bitten and Michonne is forced to amputate his arm, but he dies of blood loss anyway. In the episode "Them '', Michonne shows concern for Sasha telling her not to give in to anger like Tyreese over her recent losses, but Sasha then breaks formation in silently pushing away walkers by attacking them. Sasha walks off irritated. The group trudge on sixty miles to DC, as they face a tornado in the process. In the episode "The Distance '', Maggie and Sasha introduce Aaron (Ross Marquand) to the group, who reveals himself as a recruiter for a safe haven, Alexandria, and takes them there despite going a dangerous route because of their previous mistrusting of communities like Terminus and Woodbury.), they are hesitant to trust him because of what happened in Woodbury and Terminus. Rick initially decides not to take the risk, prompting Michonne to step in and challenge his decision. She argues that the group should give Aaron a chance for the sake of survival, successfully convincing Rick to change his mind. The group arrives at the gates of Alexandria the next day. Rick hears children laughing inside the community 's walls, and Michonne smiles, knowing they have made the right decision.
In the episode "Remember '', Rick 's group has difficulty assimilating into the daily routines of the Alexandria residents. The people of Alexandria, led by politician Deanna Monroe (Tovah Feldshuh), have been shielded from many of the dangers and tribulations that the new world holds, which causes Rick 's group to believe they are weak. Deanna asks Rick and Michonne to become the town constables, and they both accept their new roles. In the episode "Forget '', Michonne has traded in her usual clothes for a police uniform. Deanna explains to Rick and Michonne that their basic roles as constables are to keep the peace and establish a sense of civilization inside the walls of Alexandria. Deanna invites the entire group to a welcoming party at her house, and Michonne reluctantly attends. Abraham finds her outside by herself, and the two have a discussion about adjusting to their new lives. Michonne is later seen hanging her sword on the fireplace mantle of one of Alexandria 's houses, though she does n't appear happy about doing so.
In the episode "Try '', Rosita tells Michonne that Sasha has gone missing from her post in the tower. Worried, they venture outside the walls to look for her. They find several dead walkers and realize Sasha is actively hunting them. They track her down and help her eliminate a large pack of walkers, which leads to an outburst from Sasha. Later, when Rick and Pete fight in the street, Rick begins ranting to the gathered crowd and pointing a gun at them, and Michonne eventually silences him by knocking him unconscious. In the season finale "Conquer '', Rick admits to Michonne that he and Carol stole guns from the armory and tries to return the gun, though Michonne says she would not have stopped him, and that she knocked out Rick to protect him, not Alexandria. She also tells Rick she is confident that they can find a way to integrate with Alexandria, but she will still follow him even if they can not. At the town forum, Michonne is one of the people who speak in Rick 's defense then witnesses Rick arrive with a dead walker, who got in because Gabriel left the gate open, and addresses Alexandria itself and how they are n't ready to survive but they have to be and he 'll show them how. Pete arrives, drunk and angered, during the meeting with Michonne 's katana, bent on assassinating Rick, and Michonne witnesses him killing Reg, Rick killing Pete and Morgan 's arrival. Michonne is later seen contemplating mounting her katana back on the wall, but ultimately decides to carry it.
Season 6 finds Rick, Michonne and the others struggling to keep the Alexandria members safe while also teaching them how to survive. In the season premiere "First Time Again '', the group discovers an enormous herd of roamers trapped inside a quarry not far from Alexandria. They decide to use the herd as a learning opportunity and also eliminate the threat before it becomes a problem later. While trying to draw the herd away from the walls, Michonne, Rick, Morgan and a few others hear a horn sounding from Alexandria. The noise draws the attention of the walkers and the herd begins heading toward the walls. Morgan is sent ahead of the others to find out what is causing the noise. Rick decides to split up to draw more walkers in another direction, giving Michonne and Glenn the task of ensuring they get the others back to Alexandria and find out what is going on. In the episode "Thank You '', Michonne, Glenn, and Heath struggle to stay ahead of the herd and keep the others alive. Glenn gets separated from the group and only Michonne and Heath return to Alexandria alive. In the episode "Now '', Michonne informs Maggie she is n't sure what happened to Glenn, but that he would send up a signal if he was alive. Rick returns to Alexandria as well, but has been followed by the herd, and barely makes it back inside Alexandria 's walls as Michonne helps close the gates. With walkers gathered outside the walls, the group must decide how to address the problem while waiting for Glenn, Daryl, Sasha and Abraham to return. Rick and Michonne learn more about what happened when the Wolves attacked, and Carol informs them that Morgan allowed several of the Wolves to escape (later killed by Rick). In the episode "Heads Up '', Morgan maintains his belief that "all life is precious '', and Michonne argues that life is not as simple as four words anymore.
In the mid-season finale episode "Start to Finish '', the herd finally breaks through Alexandra 's walls after knocking over the guard tower. Michonne, Rick, and Deanna flee towards the houses, but Deanna gets knocked over and falls onto a saw blade, causing a mortal wound to her side. Rick, Michonne, Deanna, Gabriel, Jessie, Carl, and others manage to get inside a house and struggle to keep the walkers from breaking in. Michonne tends to Deanna 's wound, only to discover a walker bite on her side. Realizing her end is near, Deanna and Michonne bond while waiting out the herd. Michonne affirms her belief that the new plans Deanna drew up for Alexandria can still work, and Deanna encourages Michonne to find her own answer for what survival means for her. Michonne admits she is n't sure, but later promises she will figure it out. The walkers eventually break into the house and the group is forced to move quickly and leave the dying Deanna. Michonne spends a few last minutes with her, offering to put her down before she turns, but Deanna insists on ending her own life with a gun. Deanna tells her to "give them hell '' and Michonne leaves. Rick devises a plan for the group to cover themselves in guts from two walkers they have killed, which allows them to move outside the house undetected by the dead. However, Jessie 's son, frightened by the situation, begins calling out to his mother as the group joins hands and moves through the herd.
In the midseason premiere, Jessie and her sons are devoured by the walkers. Michonne is forced to stab Ron, who shoots Carl in the eye. Rick and Michonne get Carl to the infirmary and help the surviving residents drive the herd out of Alexandria. Two months later, Alexandria is being rebuilt and things have more or less returned to normal. After sharing a sincere moment with Carl, Michonne realizes what she desires in her life. That night, she and Rick kiss and have sex, beginning a romantic relationship. However, Rick 's group soon becomes involved in a conflict with Negan, who captures most of the survivors and kills one of them with "Lucille '' a bat wrapped in barbed wire.
In the season premiere, "The Day Will Come When You Wo n't Be '', Michonne witnesses the deaths of group members Abraham and Glenn. She is later held at gunpoint, along with the rest of the group, as Negan commands Rick to chop off Carl 's left arm to remove the last of Rick 's disobedience. Michonne tells Negan that they now understand, but Negan tells her that its Rick who does n't understand. Thankfully, Negan stops Rick as it was all a test to break his will, which is successful. Sasha then helps get Maggie to the doctor at the Hilltop after Negan and his people leave. Michonne goes with Rick and the others in the RV. In Service, Michonne is shown walking outside Alexandria with a rifle she concealed in the house before the Saviors arrive. She is shown practicing her marksmanship by shooting at a walker with the rifle to prepare for the fight she feels is coming. When she returns, Rick states he needs the rifle as the Saviors want all their guns. Michonne does n't want want her community surrender their guns, but eventually hands it over. Rick later tells her about his old partner and friend being Judith 's real father, and that he had to accept it in order to raise her and keep her alive as his own daughter. Stating that this is their life now and he had to accept it as she does. Michonne later reappears in Sing Me a Song, where she is shown walking along whistling to lure walkers. She then kills them and drags their bodies over to a pile. This causes a female Savior to stop driving and observe the pile, allowing Michonne to take her hostage and demand that she take her to Negan. The following episode, "Hearts Still Beating '', shows Michonne attempting to talk to the Savior, who remains silent. They arrive outside the Sanctuary and Michonne realizes the power and scope of the Saviors. She later returns to find the Saviors killed Spencer and Olivia and took Eugene hostage. She finds Rick in the jail cell Morgan built and attempts to convince him that they 're fighters and that, despite Negan 's power, they can find a way to win. Rick agrees, having seen the costs of subjugation and the two reunite with Maggie and Daryl at the Hilltop (along with Carl, Rosita, and Tara) as the group walks off to plan their next move. In "Rock in the Road '', Michonne is part of the group that sets out with Rick and Jesus to the Kingdom to enlist their help. When this fails, they come across wired explosives, placed by the Saviors, to deter walker herds. Michonne aids Rick in stealing them and tells him that they can win, just to put a smile on his face. The episode ends with the group being captured by an unknown group of survivors which results in Rick smiling at the discovery of a potential ally. In "New Best Friends '', Michonne is part of the group that meets with the this new group. When Rick is tested by being pitted against an armored walker, Michonne helps advise him on how to kill it. He later thanks her by gifting her a metal cat sculpture he found. In "Say Yes '', Michonne goes out scavenging with Rick to find the guns they need. They enjoy their time together and are eventually able to discover a carnival wrought with reanimated soldiers. They stumble upon a large amount of packaged food and discuss their future after the Saviors have been dealt with. The next day, their plans go awry and they are quickly swarmed by walkers. At one point, Rick is seemingly killed and Michonne goes into a catatonic state, nearly allowing herself to be killed before Rick is revealed to be okay and they manage to win. Michonne later confides to Rick that she ca n't bear the thought of losing him, but agrees that she 'll take charge if he dies in the upcoming fight. In the season finale "The First Day of the Rest of Your Life '', Rick and his group are betrayed by Jadis and the Scavengers, and it is revealed that Sasha has died. Michonne participates in the ensuing battle, but she is badly hurt and nearly dies. She is later seen resting in bed, with Rick by her side.
Her first appearance in the season finale of Season 2 of the TV series was just a cameo and she was played by a stand - in.
Producer Frank Darabont stated in an interview with Fearnet in 2011 that Michonne would appear in the third season of the show. After Darabont was fired, there was speculation that those plans might have changed. However, in an interview with The Watercooler in late January 2012, Gale Anne Hurd confirmed that Michonne would appear in future seasons.
Danai Gurira was officially announced, during an episode of Talking Dead, to have been cast as Michonne. During an interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Kirkman was quoted saying "there 's a lot to that role, and Danai, more than any other actress, showed us that she could exhibit that strength and show what an intense character she could be and, at the same time, have that emotional core and be able to show a vulnerability to a certain extent that we do n't see much of but is definitely there. '' He added, "She really was the whole package, and I think she 's going to do a really good job ''. Danai later commented on implementing her comic counterpart 's traits:
"I was trying to really investigate a character and allow her to have as much dimension as possible and crack it open even more. What you see through the writing and vision of the creator, you add to it by bringing your full humanity and by really delving into the character 's background and their motives and fears; all those things can make a multidimensional character come to life. That 's how I 've been trained from the beginning and how I 've created characters in the past on the stage or through my playwriting. I plan to bring all of that to the table to allow Michonne to be as rich and complex as possible. I 'm excited to bring her to life as someone who really has a lot of life and a lot of complexity. ''
Michonne was voted # 86 on IGN 's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes. Regarding the television portrayal of the character, her scowling expression, reserved nature, and "Magical Negro '' qualities have been much - discussed by reviewers. Michonne 's uniquely independent nature has been praised, with one website commenting, "A case could be made that no character is as independently strong as Michonne. '' However, others have criticized Michonne 's lack of development on the show, writing that she "was quickly sinking into the "strong black woman '' trope. She is constantly assaulted and manhandled with seemingly very little concern shown for her wellbeing. ''
Rolling Stone ranked Michonne 1st in a list of 30 best Walking Dead characters, saying, "She survived on her own for months, figuring out how to thrive in the wilderness under the harshest of circumstances. Yet she 's also adapted well to living in a group, and has even started to draw on her pre-apocalypse past as a mother and an academic to start thinking about how best to rebuild society. Savage when she has to be, tender and affectionate with her friends and lovers, both nurturing and deadly as they come, this character (courtesy of Danai Gurira 's continually extraordinary performance) represents this series at its best. Michonne has n't lost touch with her humanity. And she 's a thrill to watch on a killing spree. ''
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how many ucas points is an a level | UCAS Tariff - wikipedia
The UCAS Tariff (formerly called UCAS Points System) is used to allocate points to post-16 qualifications. Universities and colleges may use it when making offers to applicants. A points total is achieved by converting qualifications such as A levels (and many others) into points, making it simpler for course providers to compare applicants. It is used as a means of giving students from the United Kingdom places at UK universities.
Common ways for UCAS points to be calculated are through the UCAS Tariff Calculator, official tariff tables, or through third - party software and websites.
The UCAS Tariff was first introduced in 2001. Since then, however, both the range of qualifications held by applicants, and the variety of progression routes into higher education have increased. Therefore a new Tariff was introduced. The new UCAS Tariff points are based on a different methodology. The change to new UCAS Tariff will not in itself change entry requirements for university or college courses. Universities and colleges are independent organisations and each year they decide how to set their entry requirements. Those universities and colleges that use UCAS Tariff points to express their entry requirements will simply set their requirements using the new number system.
The following qualifications can count towards the tariff:
Full Diploma or each of its components.
These are only counted if at grade 6 or above.
These are only counted if at grade 6 or above.
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jewish home for the aged new haven ct | New Haven Jewish home for the Aged - Wikipedia
The New Haven Jewish Home for the Aged is a nursing home in the Hill neighborhood of New Haven, Connecticut.
The original Beaux Arts building at 169 Davenport Avenue was built in 1921. A new wing of the building was constructed in 1974. The building was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 1979. Founded in 1914, it originally provided housing for elderly, destitute Jews, and was the second organization in the state to provide these services to its Jewish population.
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or accusatorial system of law is used in the usa and in the uk | Adversarial system - wikipedia
The adversarial system or adversary system is a legal system used in the common law countries where two advocates represent their parties ' case or position before an impartial person or group of people, usually a jury or judge, who attempt to determine the truth and pass judgment accordingly. It is in contrast to the inquisitorial system used in some civil law systems (i.e. those deriving from Roman law or the Napoleonic code) where a judge investigates the case.
The adversarial system is the two - sided structure under which criminal trial courts operate that puts the prosecution against the defense.
Some writers trace the process to the medieval mode of trial by combat, in which some litigants, notably women, were allowed a champion to represent them. The use of the jury in the common law system seems to have fostered the adversarial system and provides the opportunity for both sides to argue their point of view.
As an accused is not compelled to give evidence in a criminal adversarial proceeding, they may not be questioned by a prosecutor or judge unless they choose to do so. However, should they decide to testify, they are subject to cross-examination and could be found guilty of perjury. As the election to maintain an accused person 's right to silence prevents any examination or cross-examination of that person 's position, it follows that the decision of counsel as to what evidence will be called is a crucial tactic in any case in the adversarial system and hence it might be said that it is a lawyer 's manipulation of the truth. Certainly, it requires the skills of counsel on both sides to be fairly equally pitted and subjected to an impartial judge.
By contrast, while defendants in most civil law systems can be compelled to give a statement, this statement is not subject to cross-examination by the prosecutor and not given under oath. This allows the defendant to explain his side of the case without being subject to cross-examination by a skilled opposition. However, this is mainly because it is not the prosecutor but the judges who question the defendant. The concept of "cross '' - examination is entirely due to adversarial structure of the common law.
Judges in an adversarial system are impartial in ensuring the fair play of due process, or fundamental justice. Such judges decide, often when called upon by counsel rather than of their own motion, what evidence is to be admitted when there is a dispute; though in some common law jurisdictions judges play more of a role in deciding what evidence to admit into the record or reject. At worst, abusing judicial discretion would actually pave the way to a biased decision, rendering obsolete the judicial process in question -- rule of law being illicitly subordinated by rule of man under such discriminating circumstances.
The rules of evidence are also developed based upon the system of objections of adversaries and on what basis it may tend to prejudice the trier of fact which may be the judge or the jury. In a way the rules of evidence can function to give a judge limited inquisitorial powers as the judge may exclude evidence he / she believes is not trustworthy or irrelevant to the legal issue at hand.
All evidence must be relevant and not hearsay evidence.
Peter Murphy in his Practical Guide to Evidence recounts an instructive example. A frustrated judge in an English (adversarial) court finally asked a barrister after witnesses had produced conflicting accounts, ' Am I never to hear the truth? ' ' No, my lord, merely the evidence ', replied counsel.
The name "adversarial system '' may be misleading in that it implies it is only within this type of system in which there are opposing prosecution and defense. This is not the case, and both modern adversarial and inquisitorial systems have the powers of the state separated between a prosecutor and the judge and allow the defendant the right to counsel. Indeed, the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in Article 6 requires these features in the legal systems of its signatory states.
The right to counsel in criminal trials was initially not accepted in some adversarial systems. It was believed that the facts should speak for themselves, and that lawyers would just blur the matters. As a consequence, it was only in 1836 that England gave suspects of felonies the formal right to have legal counsel (the Prisoners ' Counsel Act 1836), although in practice English courts routinely allowed defendants to be represented by counsel from the mid-18th century. During the second half of the 18th century advocates like Sir William Garrow and Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine helped usher in the adversarial court system used in most common law countries today. In the United States, however, personally retained counsel have had a right to appear in all federal criminal cases since the adoption of the Constitution and in state cases at least since the end of the Civil War, although nearly all provided this right in their state constitutions or laws much earlier. Appointment of counsel for indigent defendants was nearly universal in federal felony cases, though it varied considerably in state cases. It was not until 1963 that the U.S. Supreme Court declared that legal counsel must be provided at the expense of the state for indigent felony defendants, under the federal Sixth Amendment, in state courts. See Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963).
One of the most significant differences between the adversarial system and the inquisitorial system occurs when a criminal defendant admits to the crime. In an adversarial system, there is no more controversy and the case proceeds to sentencing; though in many jurisdictions the defendant must have allocution of her or his crime; an obviously false confession will not be accepted even in common law courts. By contrast, in an inquisitiorial system, the fact that the defendant has confessed is merely one more fact that is entered into evidence, and a confession by the defendant does not remove the requirement that the prosecution present a full case. This allows for plea bargaining in adversarial systems in a way that is difficult or impossible in inquisitional system, and many felony cases in the United States are handled without trial through such plea bargains.
In some adversarial legislative systems, the court is permitted to make inferences on an accused 's failure to face cross-examination or to answer a particular question. This obviously limits the usefulness of silence as a tactic by the defense. In England the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 allowed such inferences to be made for the first time in England and Wales (it was already possible in Scotland under the rule of criminative circumstances). This change was disparaged by critics as an end to the ' right to silence ', though in fact an accused still has the right to remain silent and can not be compelled to take the stand. The criticism reflects the idea that if the accused can be inferred to be guilty by exercising their right to silence, it no longer confers the protection intended by such a right. In the United States, the Fifth Amendment has been interpreted to prohibit a jury from drawing a negative inference based on the defendant 's invocation of his right not to testify, and the jury must be so instructed if the defendant requests.
Lord Devlin in The Judge said: "It can also be argued that two prejudiced searchers starting from opposite ends of the field will between them be less likely to miss anything than the impartial searcher starting at the middle. ''
There are many differences in the way cases are reviewed. It is questionable that the results would be different if cases were conducted under the differing approaches; in fact no statistics exist that can show whether or not these systems would come to the same results. However, these approaches are often a matter of national pride and there are opinions amongst jurists about the merits of the differing approaches and their drawbacks as well.
Proponents of the adversarial system often argue that the system is more fair and less prone to abuse than the inquisitional approach, because it allows less room for the state to be biased against the defendant. It also allows most private litigants to settle their disputes in an amicable manner through discovery and pre-trial settlements in which non-contested facts are agreed upon and not dealt with during the trial process.
In addition, adversarial procedure defenders argue that the inquisitorial court systems are overly institutionalized and removed from the average citizen. The common law trial lawyer has ample opportunity to uncover the truth in the courtroom. Most cases that go to trial are carefully prepared through a discovery process that aids in the review of evidence and testimony before it is presented to judge or jury. The lawyers involved have a very good idea of the scope of agreement and disagreement of the issues to present at trial which develops much in the same way as the role of investigative judges.
Proponents of inquisitorial justice dispute these points. They point out that many cases in adversarial systems, and most cases in the United States, are actually resolved by plea bargain or settlement. Plea bargain as a system does not exist in an inquisitorial system. Many legal cases in adversarial systems, and most in the United States, do not go to trial, which may lead to injustice when the defendant has an unskilled or overworked attorney, which is likely to be the case when the defendant is poor. In addition, proponents of inquisitorial systems argue that the plea bargain system causes the participants in the system to act in perverse ways, in that it encourages prosecutors to bring charges far in excess of what is warranted and defendants to plead guilty even when they believe that they are not.
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who sings the song we all die young in the movie rockstar | We All Die Young - Wikipedia
"We All Die Young '' is a song by Michael Matijevic of Steelheart, and Kenny Kanowski formerly of Steelheart. It is the first song from the 1996 album Wait. The song was covered by the fictional band Steel Dragon in the 2001 film Rock Star, with Miljenko Matijevic on vocals, Zakk Wylde on guitar, Jeff Pilson on bass and Jason Bonham on drums. For the movie, Matijevic performed the vocals for Mark Wahlberg 's character, Chris "Izzy '' Cole.
In 2007, the song was covered by melodic metal band Eden 's Curse for their self - titled debut album.
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is a visa required to travel to georgia | Visa requirements for Nigerian citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for Nigerian citizens are administrative entry restrictions imposed by the authorities of other states on citizens of Nigeria.
As of February 2018, Nigerian citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 46 countries and territories, ranking the Nigerian passport 91st in terms of travel freedom (tied with Republic of the Congo passport) according to the Henley Passport Index.
Where visa - free access is permitted, such access is not necessarily a right, and admission is at the discretion of border enforcement officers. Visitors engaging in activities other than tourism, including unpaid work, may require a visa or work permit.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
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where is the nobel peace prize ceremony held | Nobel Peace Prize - wikipedia
The Nobel Peace Prize (Swedish: Nobels fredspris) is one of the five Nobel Prizes created by the Swedish industrialist, inventor, and armaments manufacturer Alfred Nobel, along with the prizes in Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature. Since March 1901, it has been awarded annually (with some exceptions) to those who have "done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses ''.
As per Alfred Nobel 's will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five - member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year. The prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law (1947 -- 89), the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905 -- 46), and the Parliament (1901 -- 04).
Due to its political ideology and interferences, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history, been the subject of controversies.
According to Nobel 's will, the Peace Prize shall be awarded to the person who in the preceding year "shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses ''.
Alfred Nobel 's will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five people chosen by the Norwegian Parliament.
Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category. As he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear. According to the Norwegian Nobel Committee, his friendship with Bertha von Suttner, a peace activist and later recipient of the prize, profoundly influenced his decision to include peace as a category. Some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobel 's way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite, both of which were used violently during his lifetime. Ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company.
It is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobel 's death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, as it did not have the same militaristic traditions as Sweden. It also notes that at the end of the 19th century, the Norwegian parliament had become closely involved in the Inter-Parliamentary Union 's efforts to resolve conflicts through mediation and arbitration.
The Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate.
Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. The statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. These nominators are:
Nominations must usually be submitted to the Committee by the beginning of February in the award year. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline.
In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was broken again in 2010 with 237 nominations; in 2011, the record was broken once again with 241 nominations. The statutes of the Nobel Foundation do not allow information about nominations, considerations, or investigations relating to awarding the prize to be made public for at least 50 years after a prize has been awarded. Over time, many individuals have become known as "Nobel Peace Prize Nominees '', but this designation has no official standing, and means only that one of the thousands of eligible nominators suggested the person 's name for consideration. Indeed, in 1939, Adolf Hitler received a satirical nomination from a member of the Swedish parliament, mocking the (serious but unsuccessful) nomination of Neville Chamberlain. Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have been released in a database.
Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for further review is created. This short list is then considered by permanent advisers to the Nobel institute, which consists of the Institute 's Director and the Research Director and a small number of Norwegian academics with expertise in subject areas relating to the prize. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are then considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a unanimous decision, but this is not always possible. The Nobel Committee typically comes to a conclusion in mid-September, but occasionally the final decision has not been made until the last meeting before the official announcement at the beginning of October.
The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year (the anniversary of Nobel 's death). The Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount. As of 2013, the prize was worth 10 million SEK (about US $1.5 million). Since 1990, the Nobel Peace Prize Ceremony is held at Oslo City Hall.
From 1947 to 1989, the Nobel Peace Prize ceremony was held in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, a few hundred metres from Oslo City Hall. Between 1905 and 1946, the ceremony took place at the Norwegian Nobel Institute. From 1901 to 1904, the ceremony took place in the Storting (Parliament).
It has been expressed that the Peace Prize has been awarded in politically motivated ways for more recent or immediate achievements, or with the intention of encouraging future achievements. Some commentators have suggested that to award a peace prize on the basis of unquantifiable contemporary opinion is unjust or possibly erroneous, especially as many of the judges can not themselves be said to be impartial observers.
In 2011, a feature story in the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten contended that major criticisms of the award were that the Norwegian Nobel Committee ought to recruit members from professional and international backgrounds, rather than retired members of parliament; that there is too little openness about the criteria that the committee uses when they choose a recipient of the prize; and that the adherence to Nobel 's will should be more strict. In the article, Norwegian historian Øivind Stenersen argues that Norway has been able to use the prize as an instrument for nation building and furthering Norway 's foreign policy and economic interests.
In another 2011 Aftenposten opinion article, the grandson of one of Nobel 's two brothers, Michael Nobel, also criticised what he believed to be the politicisation of the award, claiming that the Nobel Committee has not always acted in accordance with Nobel 's will. Norwegian lawyer Fredrik S. Heffermehl has criticized the management of the Peace Prize.
The awards given to Mikhail Gorbachev, Yitzhak Rabin, Shimon Peres, Menachem Begin and Yasser Arafat, Lê Đức Thọ, Henry Kissinger, Jimmy Carter, Al Gore, IPCC, Liu Xiaobo, Aung San Suu Kyi Barack Obama, and the European Union have all been the subject of controversy.
The awards given to Lê Đức Thọ and Henry Kissinger prompted two dissenting Committee members to resign. Thọ refused to accept the prize, on the grounds that such "bourgeois sentimentalities '' were not for him and that peace had not actually been achieved in Vietnam. Kissinger donated his prize money to charity, did not attend the award ceremony and would later offer to return his prize medal after the fall of South Vietnam to North Vietnamese forces 18 months later.
Foreign Policy has listed Mahatma Gandhi, Eleanor Roosevelt, U Thant, Václav Havel, Ken Saro - Wiwa, Fazle Hasan Abed, Sari Nusseibeh, and Corazon Aquino as people who "never won the prize, but should have ''. Other notable omissions that have drawn criticism include Pope John Paul II, Hélder Câmara, and Dorothy Day. Both Eleanor Roosevelt and Dorothy Day were recipients of the Gandhi Peace Award.
The omission of Mahatma Gandhi has been particularly widely discussed, including in public statements by various members of the Nobel Committee. The Committee has confirmed that Gandhi was nominated in 1937, 1938, 1939, 1947, and, finally, a few days before his assassination in January 1948. The omission has been publicly regretted by later members of the Nobel Committee. Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006 said, "The greatest omission in our 106 - year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize, whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question ''. In 1948, following Gandhi 's death, the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the ground that "there was no suitable living candidate '' that year. Later, when the Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi ''.
As of 2016, the Peace Prize has been awarded to 104 individuals and 23 organizations. Sixteen women have won the Nobel Peace Prize, more than any other Nobel Prize. Only two recipients have won multiple Prizes: the International Committee of the Red Cross has won three times (1917, 1944, and 1963) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has won twice (1954 and 1981). Lê Đức Thọ is the only person who refused to accept the Nobel Peace Prize.
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in most of the fungi the food material is stored in the form of | Fungus - wikipedia
Dikarya (inc. Deuteromycota)
Subphyla incertae sedis
A fungus (plural: fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants and animals.
A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protists is chitin in their cell walls. Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophs; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesise. Growth is their means of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), which share a common ancestor (form a monophyletic group), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics. This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from the Greek μύκης mykes, mushroom). In the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants.
Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also parasites. They may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the environment. They have long been used as a direct source of human food, in the form of mushrooms and truffles; as a leavening agent for bread; and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, that are toxic to animals including humans. The fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies.
The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. However, little is known of the true biodiversity of Kingdom Fungi, which has been estimated at 2.2 million to 3.8 million species, of which only 120,000 have been described. 8000 of them are detrimental to plants and 300 can be pathogenic to humans. Ever since the pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of Carl Linnaeus, Christian Hendrik Persoon, and Elias Magnus Fries, fungi have been classified according to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic features) or physiology. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes challenged the historical groupings based on morphology and other traits. Phylogenetic studies published in the last decade have helped reshape the classification within Kingdom Fungi, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla.
The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus (mushroom), used in the writings of Horace and Pliny. This in turn is derived from the Greek word sphongos (σφογγος "sponge ''), which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds; the root is also used in other languages, such as the German Schwamm ("sponge '') and Schimmel ("mold ''). The use of the word mycology, which is derived from the Greek mykes (μύκης "mushroom '') and logos (λόγος "discourse ''), to denote the scientific study of fungi is thought to have originated in 1836 with English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley 's publication The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith, Vol. 5. A group of all the fungi present in a particular area or geographic region is known as mycobiota (plural noun, no singular), e.g., "the mycobiota of Ireland ''.
Before the introduction of molecular methods for phylogenetic analysis, taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the plant kingdom because of similarities in lifestyle: both fungi and plants are mainly immobile, and have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat. Like plants, fungi often grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies, which sometimes resemble plants such as mosses. The fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago. Some morphological, biochemical, and genetic features are shared with other organisms, while others are unique to the fungi, clearly separating them from the other kingdoms:
Shared features:
Unique features:
Most fungi lack an efficient system for the long - distance transport of water and nutrients, such as the xylem and phloem in many plants. To overcome this limitation, some fungi, such as Armillaria, form rhizomorphs, which resemble and perform functions similar to the roots of plants. As eukaryotes, fungi possess a biosynthetic pathway for producing terpenes that uses mevalonic acid and pyrophosphate as chemical building blocks. Plants and some other organisms have an additional terpene biosynthesis pathway in their chloroplasts, a structure fungi and animals do not have. Fungi produce several secondary metabolites that are similar or identical in structure to those made by plants. Many of the plant and fungal enzymes that make these compounds differ from each other in sequence and other characteristics, which indicates separate origins and convergent evolution of these enzymes in the fungi and plants.
Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as deserts or areas with high salt concentrations or ionizing radiation, as well as in deep sea sediments. Some can survive the intense UV and cosmic radiation encountered during space travel. Most grow in terrestrial environments, though several species live partly or solely in aquatic habitats, such as the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a parasite that has been responsible for a worldwide decline in amphibian populations. This organism spends part of its life cycle as a motile zoospore, enabling it to propel itself through water and enter its amphibian host. Other examples of aquatic fungi include those living in hydrothermal areas of the ocean.
Around 120,000 species of fungi have been described by taxonomists, but the global biodiversity of the fungus kingdom is not fully understood. A 2017 estimate suggests there may be between 2.2 and 3.8 million species. In mycology, species have historically been distinguished by a variety of methods and concepts. Classification based on morphological characteristics, such as the size and shape of spores or fruiting structures, has traditionally dominated fungal taxonomy. Species may also be distinguished by their biochemical and physiological characteristics, such as their ability to metabolize certain biochemicals, or their reaction to chemical tests. The biological species concept discriminates species based on their ability to mate. The application of molecular tools, such as DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, to study diversity has greatly enhanced the resolution and added robustness to estimates of genetic diversity within various taxonomic groups.
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the systematic study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and their use to humans as a source of medicine, food, and psychotropic substances consumed for religious purposes, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. The field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases, is closely related because many plant pathogens are fungi.
The use of fungi by humans dates back to prehistory; Ötzi the Iceman, a well - preserved mummy of a 5,300 - year - old Neolithic man found frozen in the Austrian Alps, carried two species of polypore mushrooms that may have been used as tinder (Fomes fomentarius), or for medicinal purposes (Piptoporus betulinus). Ancient peoples have used fungi as food sources -- often unknowingly -- for millennia, in the preparation of leavened bread and fermented juices. Some of the oldest written records contain references to the destruction of crops that were probably caused by pathogenic fungi.
Mycology is a relatively new science that became systematic after the development of the microscope in the 17th century. Although fungal spores were first observed by Giambattista della Porta in 1588, the seminal work in the development of mycology is considered to be the publication of Pier Antonio Micheli 's 1729 work Nova plantarum genera. Micheli not only observed spores but also showed that, under the proper conditions, they could be induced into growing into the same species of fungi from which they originated. Extending the use of the binomial system of nomenclature introduced by Carl Linnaeus in his Species plantarum (1753), the Dutch Christian Hendrik Persoon (1761 -- 1836) established the first classification of mushrooms with such skill so as to be considered a founder of modern mycology. Later, Elias Magnus Fries (1794 -- 1878) further elaborated the classification of fungi, using spore color and various microscopic characteristics, methods still used by taxonomists today. Other notable early contributors to mycology in the 17th -- 19th and early 20th centuries include Miles Joseph Berkeley, August Carl Joseph Corda, Anton de Bary, the brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne, Arthur H.R. Buller, Curtis G. Lloyd, and Pier Andrea Saccardo. The 20th century has seen a modernization of mycology that has come from advances in biochemistry, genetics, molecular biology, and biotechnology. The use of DNA sequencing technologies and phylogenetic analysis has provided new insights into fungal relationships and biodiversity, and has challenged traditional morphology - based groupings in fungal taxonomy.
Most fungi grow as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread - like structures 2 -- 10 μm in diameter and up to several centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by a process called branching, or occasionally growing hyphal tips fork, giving rise to two parallel - growing hyphae. Hyphae also sometimes fuse when they come into contact, a process called hyphal fusion (or anastamosis). These growth processes lead to the development of a mycelium, an interconnected network of hyphae. Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic. Septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated by cross walls (internal cell walls, called septa, that are formed at right angles to the cell wall giving the hypha its shape), with each compartment containing one or more nuclei; coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized. Septa have pores that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass through; an example is the dolipore septum in fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota. Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate supercells.
Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include haustoria in plant - parasitic species of most fungal phyla, and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate into the host cells to consume nutrients.
Although fungi are opisthokonts -- a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum -- all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella. Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, in addition to glucans (e.g., β - 1, 3 - glucan) and other typical components, also contains the biopolymer chitin.
Fungal mycelia can become visible to the naked eye, for example, on various surfaces and substrates, such as damp walls and spoiled food, where they are commonly called molds. Mycelia grown on solid agar media in laboratory petri dishes are usually referred to as colonies. These colonies can exhibit growth shapes and colors (due to spores or pigmentation) that can be used as diagnostic features in the identification of species or groups. Some individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary dimensions and ages as in the case of a clonal colony of Armillaria solidipes, which extends over an area of more than 900 ha (3.5 square miles), with an estimated age of nearly 9,000 years.
The apothecium -- a specialized structure important in sexual reproduction in the ascomycetes -- is a cup - shaped fruit body that is often macroscopic and holds the hymenium, a layer of tissue containing the spore - bearing cells. The fruit bodies of the basidiomycetes (basidiocarps) and some ascomycetes can sometimes grow very large, and many are well known as mushrooms.
The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios. Hyphae are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and to invade substrates and tissues. They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example, many plant pathogens, including Magnaporthe grisea, form a structure called an appressorium that evolved to puncture plant tissues. The pressure generated by the appressorium, directed against the plant epidermis, can exceed 8 megapascals (1,200 psi). The filamentous fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus uses a similar structure to penetrate the eggs of nematodes.
The mechanical pressure exerted by the appressorium is generated from physiological processes that increase intracellular turgor by producing osmolytes such as glycerol. Adaptations such as these are complemented by hydrolytic enzymes secreted into the environment to digest large organic molecules -- such as polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids -- into smaller molecules that may then be absorbed as nutrients. The vast majority of filamentous fungi grow in a polar fashion (extending in one direction) by elongation at the tip (apex) of the hypha. Other forms of fungal growth include intercalary extension (longitudinal expansion of hyphal compartments that are below the apex) as in the case of some endophytic fungi, or growth by volume expansion during the development of mushroom stipes and other large organs. Growth of fungi as multicellular structures consisting of somatic and reproductive cells -- a feature independently evolved in animals and plants -- has several functions, including the development of fruit bodies for dissemination of sexual spores (see above) and biofilms for substrate colonization and intercellular communication.
The fungi are traditionally considered heterotrophs, organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by other organisms for metabolism. Fungi have evolved a high degree of metabolic versatility that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol. In some species the pigment melanin may play a role in extracting energy from ionizing radiation, such as gamma radiation. This form of "radiotrophic '' growth has been described for only a few species, the effects on growth rates are small, and the underlying biophysical and biochemical processes are not well known. This process might bear similarity to CO fixation via visible light, but instead uses ionizing radiation as a source of energy.
Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse kingdom of organisms. It is estimated that a third of all fungi reproduce using more than one method of propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two well - differentiated stages within the life cycle of a species, the teleomorph and the anamorph. Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by efficiently dispersing spores or spore - containing propagules.
Asexual reproduction occurs via vegetative spores (conidia) or through mycelial fragmentation. Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium separates into pieces, and each component grows into a separate mycelium. Mycelial fragmentation and vegetative spores maintain clonal populations adapted to a specific niche, and allow more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. The "Fungi imperfecti '' (fungi lacking the perfect or sexual stage) or Deuteromycota comprise all the species that lack an observable sexual cycle. Deuteromycota is not an accepted taxonomic clade, and is now taken to mean simply fungi that lack a known sexual stage.
Sexual reproduction with meiosis has been directly observed in all fungal phyla except Glomeromycota (genetic analysis suggests meiosis in Glomeromycota as well). It differs in many aspects from sexual reproduction in animals or plants. Differences also exist between fungal groups and can be used to discriminate species by morphological differences in sexual structures and reproductive strategies. Mating experiments between fungal isolates may identify species on the basis of biological species concepts. The major fungal groupings have initially been delineated based on the morphology of their sexual structures and spores; for example, the spore - containing structures, asci and basidia, can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, respectively. Some species may allow mating only between individuals of opposite mating type, whereas others can mate and sexually reproduce with any other individual or itself. Species of the former mating system are called heterothallic, and of the latter homothallic.
Most fungi have both a haploid and a diploid stage in their life cycles. In sexually reproducing fungi, compatible individuals may combine by fusing their hyphae together into an interconnected network; this process, anastomosis, is required for the initiation of the sexual cycle. Many ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a dikaryotic stage, in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do not combine immediately after cell fusion, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see heterokaryosis).
In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium (the spore - bearing tissue layer) form a characteristic hook at the hyphal septum. During cell division, formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments. An ascus (plural asci) is then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are embedded in an ascocarp, or fruiting body. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. After dispersal, the ascospores may germinate and form a new haploid mycelium.
Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure, called a clamp connection, is formed at each hyphal septum. As with the structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment. A basidiocarp is formed in which club - like structures known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and meiosis. The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take other forms (see Morphology section).
In glomeromycetes (formerly zygomycetes), haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse, forming a gametangium, a specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile gamete - producing cell. The gametangium develops into a zygospore, a thick - walled spore formed by the union of gametes. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes meiosis, generating new haploid hyphae, which may then form asexual sporangiospores. These sporangiospores allow the fungus to rapidly disperse and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia.
Both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as traveling through the air over long distances.
Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms, as well as spore surface structures (such as hydrophobins), enable efficient spore ejection. For example, the structure of the spore - bearing cells in some ascomycete species is such that the buildup of substances affecting cell volume and fluid balance enables the explosive discharge of spores into the air. The forcible discharge of single spores termed ballistospores involves formation of a small drop of water (Buller 's drop), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g; the net result is that the spore is ejected 0.01 -- 0.02 cm, sufficient distance for it to fall through the gills or pores into the air below. Other fungi, like the puffballs, rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces. The bird 's nest fungi use the force of falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup - shaped fruiting bodies. Another strategy is seen in the stinkhorns, a group of fungi with lively colors and putrid odor that attract insects to disperse their spores.
Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis, certain fungi, such as those in the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus, may exchange genetic material via parasexual processes, initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and plasmogamy of fungal cells. The frequency and relative importance of parasexual events is unclear and may be lower than other sexual processes. It is known to play a role in intraspecific hybridization and is likely required for hybridization between species, which has been associated with major events in fungal evolution.
In contrast to plants and animals, the early fossil record of the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the under - representation of fungal species among fossils include the nature of fungal fruiting bodies, which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble extant fungi. Often recovered from a permineralized plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin - section preparations that can be examined with light microscopy or transmission electron microscopy. Researchers study compression fossils by dissolving the surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or scanning electron microscopy to examine surface details.
The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2,400 million years ago (Ma); these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis. Other studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760 -- 1060 Ma on the basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups. For much of the Paleozoic Era (542 -- 251 Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant chytrids in having flagellum - bearing spores. The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients, including parasitism, saprobism, and the development of mutualistic relationships such as mycorrhiza and lichenization. Recent (2009) studies suggest that the ancestral ecological state of the Ascomycota was saprobism, and that independent lichenization events have occurred multiple times.
It is presumed that the fungi colonized the land during the Cambrian (542 -- 488.3 Ma), long before land plants. Fossilized hyphae and spores recovered from the Ordovician of Wisconsin (460 Ma) resemble modern - day Glomerales, and existed at a time when the land flora likely consisted of only non-vascular bryophyte - like plants. Prototaxites, which was probably a fungus or lichen, would have been the tallest organism of the late Silurian. Fungal fossils do not become common and uncontroversial until the early Devonian (416 -- 359.2 Ma), when they occur abundantly in the Rhynie chert, mostly as Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota. At about this same time, approximately 400 Ma, the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota diverged, and all modern classes of fungi were present by the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian, 318.1 -- 299 Ma).
Lichen - like fossils have been found in the Doushantuo Formation in southern China dating back to 635 -- 551 Ma. Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 400 Ma; this date corresponds to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil, a Paleopyrenomycites species found in the Rhynie Chert. The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern - day basidiomycetes is Palaeoancistrus, found permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are the Homobasidiomycetes (a taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom - producing species of the Agaricomycetes). Two amber - preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom - forming fungi (the extinct species Archaeomarasmius leggetti) appeared during the late Cretaceous, 90 Ma.
Some time after the Permian -- Triassic extinction event (251.4 Ma), a fungal spike (originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments) formed, suggesting that fungi were the dominant life form at this time, representing nearly 100 % of the available fossil record for this period. However, the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is difficult to assess, the spike did not appear worldwide, and in many places it did not fall on the Permian -- Triassic boundary.
Although commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants and are placed with the animals in the monophyletic group of opisthokonts. Analyses using molecular phylogenetics support a monophyletic origin of the Fungi. The taxonomy of the Fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to recent research based on DNA comparisons. These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological features and biological species concepts obtained from experimental matings.
There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are frequent name changes at every level, from species upwards. Efforts among researchers are now underway to establish and encourage usage of a unified and more consistent nomenclature. Fungal species can also have multiple scientific names depending on their life cycle and mode (sexual or asexual) of reproduction. Web sites such as Index Fungorum and ITIS list current names of fungal species (with cross-references to older synonyms).
The 2007 classification of Kingdom Fungi is the result of a large - scale collaborative research effort involving dozens of mycologists and other scientists working on fungal taxonomy. It recognizes seven phyla, two of which -- the Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota -- are contained within a branch representing subkingdom Dikarya, the most species rich and familiar group, including all the mushrooms, most food - spoilage molds, most plant pathogenic fungi, and the beer, wine, and bread yeasts. The accompanying cladogram depicts the major fungal taxa and their relationship to opisthokont and unikont organisms, based on the work of Philippe Silar and "The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research ''. The lengths of the branches are not proportional to evolutionary distances.
Cristidiscoidea
Aphelida
Cryptomycota
Metchnikovellea
Microsporea
Neocallimastigomycetes
Chytridiomycetes
Hyaloraphidiomycetes
Monoblepharidomycetes
Blastocladiomycetes
Olpidiales
Basidiobolomycetes
Neozygitomycetes
Entomophthoromycetes
Zoopagomycetes
Kickxellomycetes
Mortierellomycetes
Mucoromycetes
Glomeromycetes
Entorrhizomycetes
Basidiomycota
Ascomycota
Tritirachiomycetes
Mixiomycetes
Agaricostilbomycetes
Cystobasidiomycetes
Classiculaceae
Microbotryomycetes
Cryptomycocolacomycetes
Atractiellomycetes
Pucciniomycetes
Monilielliomycetes
Malasseziomycetes
Ustilaginomycetes
Exobasidiomycetes
Wallemiomycetes
Bartheletiomycetes
Tremellomycetes
Dacrymycetes
Agaricomycetes
Neolectomycetes
Taphrinomycetes
Archaeorhizomycetes
Pneumocystidomycetes
Schizosaccharomycetes
Saccharomycetes
? Thelocarpales
? Vezdaeales
? Lahmiales
? Triblidiales
Orbiliomycetes
Pezizomycetes
Xylonomycetes
Geoglossomycetes
Leotiomycetes
Laboulbeniomycetes
Sordariomycetes
Coniocybomycetes
Lichinomycetes
Eurotiomycetes
Lecanoromycetes
Collemopsidiales
Arthoniomycetes
Dothideomycetes
The major phyla (sometimes called divisions) of fungi have been classified mainly on the basis of characteristics of their sexual reproductive structures. Currently, seven phyla are proposed: Microsporidia, Chytridiomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota.
Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated that the Microsporidia, unicellular parasites of animals and protists, are fairly recent and highly derived endobiotic fungi (living within the tissue of another species). One 2006 study concludes that the Microsporidia are a sister group to the true fungi; that is, they are each other 's closest evolutionary relative. Hibbett and colleagues suggest that this analysis does not clash with their classification of the Fungi, and although the Microsporidia are elevated to phylum status, it is acknowledged that further analysis is required to clarify evolutionary relationships within this group.
The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi are distributed worldwide. Chytrids and their close relatives Neocallimastigomycota and Blastocladiomycota (below) are the only fungi with active motility, producing zoospores that are capable of active movement through aqueous phases with a single flagellum, leading early taxonomists to classify them as protists. Molecular phylogenies, inferred from rRNA sequences in ribosomes, suggest that the Chytrids are a basal group divergent from the other fungal phyla, consisting of four major clades with suggestive evidence for paraphyly or possibly polyphyly.
The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a taxonomic clade within the Chytridiomycota. Recent molecular data and ultrastructural characteristics, however, place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota). The blastocladiomycetes are saprotrophs, feeding on decomposing organic matter, and they are parasites of all eukaryotic groups. Unlike their close relatives, the chytrids, most of which exhibit zygotic meiosis, the blastocladiomycetes undergo sporic meiosis.
The Neocallimastigomycota were earlier placed in the phylum Chytridomycota. Members of this small phylum are anaerobic organisms, living in the digestive system of larger herbivorous mammals and in other terrestrial and aquatic environments enriched in cellulose (e.g., domestic waste landfill sites). They lack mitochondria but contain hydrogenosomes of mitochondrial origin. As in the related chrytrids, neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores that are posteriorly uniflagellate or polyflagellate.
Members of the Glomeromycota form arbuscular mycorrhizae, a form of mutualist symbiosis wherein fungal hyphae invade plant root cells and both species benefit from the resulting increased supply of nutrients. All known Glomeromycota species reproduce asexually. The symbiotic association between the Glomeromycota and plants is ancient, with evidence dating to 400 million years ago. Formerly part of the Zygomycota (commonly known as ' sugar ' and ' pin ' molds), the Glomeromycota were elevated to phylum status in 2001 and now replace the older phylum Zygomycota. Fungi that were placed in the Zygomycota are now being reassigned to the Glomeromycota, or the subphyla incertae sedis Mucoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, the Zoopagomycotina and the Entomophthoromycotina. Some well - known examples of fungi formerly in the Zygomycota include black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer), and Pilobolus species, capable of ejecting spores several meters through the air. Medically relevant genera include Mucor, Rhizomucor, and Rhizopus.
The Ascomycota, commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, constitute the largest taxonomic group within the Eumycota. These fungi form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac - like structure called an ascus. This phylum includes morels, a few mushrooms and truffles, unicellular yeasts (e.g., of the genera Saccharomyces, Kluyveromyces, Pichia, and Candida), and many filamentous fungi living as saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts (e.g. lichens). Prominent and important genera of filamentous ascomycetes include Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Claviceps. Many ascomycete species have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction (called anamorphic species), but analysis of molecular data has often been able to identify their closest teleomorphs in the Ascomycota. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac - like ascus, ascomycetes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g., Neurospora crassa).
Members of the Basidiomycota, commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called basidiospores on club - like stalks called basidia. Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust and smut fungi, which are major pathogens of grains. Other important basidiomycetes include the maize pathogen Ustilago maydis, human commensal species of the genus Malassezia, and the opportunistic human pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans.
Because of similarities in morphology and lifestyle, the slime molds (mycetozoans, plasmodiophorids, acrasids, Fonticula and labyrinthulids, now in Amoebozoa, Rhizaria, Excavata, Opisthokonta and Stramenopiles, respectively), water molds (oomycetes) and hyphochytrids (both Stramenopiles) were formerly classified in the kingdom Fungi, in groups like Mastigomycotina, Gymnomycota and Phycomycetes. The slime molds were studied also as protozoans, leading to a ambiregnal, duplicated taxonomy.
Unlike true fungi, the cell walls of oomycetes contain cellulose and lack chitin. Hyphochytrids have both chitin and cellulose. Slime molds lack a cell wall during the assimilative phase (except labyrinthulids, which have a wall of scales), and ingest nutrients by ingestion (phagocytosis, except labyrinthulids) rather than absorption (osmotrophy, as fungi, labyrinthulids, oomycetes and hyphochytrids). Neither water molds nor slime molds are closely related to the true fungi, and, therefore, taxonomists no longer group them in the kingdom Fungi. Nonetheless, studies of the oomycetes and myxomycetes are still often included in mycology textbooks and primary research literature.
The Eccrinales and Amoebidiales are opisthokont protists, previously thought to be zygomycete fungi. Other groups now in Opisthokonta (e.g., Corallochytrium, Ichthyosporea) were also at given time classified as fungi. The genus Blastocystis, now in Stramenopiles, was originally classified as a yeast. Ellobiopsis, now in Alveolata, was considered a chytrid. The bacteria were also included in fungi in some classifications, as the group Schizomycetes.
The Rozellida clade, including the "ex-chytrid '' Rozella, is a genetically disparate group known mostly from environmental DNA sequences that is a sister group to fungi. Members of the group that have been isolated lack the chitinous cell wall that is characteristic of fungi.
The nucleariids, protists currently grouped in the Choanozoa (Opisthokonta), may be the next sister group to the eumycete clade, and as such could be included in an expanded fungal kingdom.
Many Actinomycetales (Actinobacteria), a group with many filamentous bacteria, were also long believed to be fungi.
Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on Earth and play very important roles in most ecosystems. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major decomposers in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in biogeochemical cycles and in many food webs. As decomposers, they play an essential role in nutrient cycling, especially as saprotrophs and symbionts, degrading organic matter to inorganic molecules, which can then re-enter anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or other organisms.
Many fungi have important symbiotic relationships with organisms from most if not all Kingdoms. These interactions can be mutualistic or antagonistic in nature, or in the case of commensal fungi are of no apparent benefit or detriment to the host.
Mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and fungi is one of the most well - known plant -- fungus associations and is of significant importance for plant growth and persistence in many ecosystems; over 90 % of all plant species engage in mycorrhizal relationships with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival.
The mycorrhizal symbiosis is ancient, dating to at least 400 million years ago. It often increases the plant 's uptake of inorganic compounds, such as nitrate and phosphate from soils having low concentrations of these key plant nutrients. The fungal partners may also mediate plant - to - plant transfer of carbohydrates and other nutrients. Such mycorrhizal communities are called "common mycorrhizal networks ''. A special case of mycorrhiza is myco - heterotrophy, whereby the plant parasitizes the fungus, obtaining all of its nutrients from its fungal symbiont. Some fungal species inhabit the tissues inside roots, stems, and leaves, in which case they are called endophytes. Similar to mycorrhiza, endophytic colonization by fungi may benefit both symbionts; for example, endophytes of grasses impart to their host increased resistance to herbivores and other environmental stresses and receive food and shelter from the plant in return.
Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria. The photosynthetic partner in the relationship is referred to in lichen terminology as a "photobiont ''. The fungal part of the relationship is composed mostly of various species of ascomycetes and a few basidiomycetes. Lichens occur in every ecosystem on all continents, play a key role in soil formation and the initiation of biological succession, and are prominent in some extreme environments, including polar, alpine, and semiarid desert regions. They are able to grow on inhospitable surfaces, including bare soil, rocks, tree bark, wood, shells, barnacles and leaves. As in mycorrhizas, the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates via photosynthesis to the fungus, while the fungus provides minerals and water to the photobiont. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism; in most cases the resulting organism differs greatly from the individual components. Lichenization is a common mode of nutrition for fungi; around 20 % of fungi -- between 17,500 and 20,000 described species -- are lichenized. Characteristics common to most lichens include obtaining organic carbon by photosynthesis, slow growth, small size, long life, long - lasting (seasonal) vegetative reproductive structures, mineral nutrition obtained largely from airborne sources, and greater tolerance of desiccation than most other photosynthetic organisms in the same habitat.
Many insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order Agaricales as their primary food source, while ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest. Likewise, females of several wood wasp species (genus Sirex) inject their eggs together with spores of the wood - rotting fungus Amylostereum areolatum into the sapwood of pine trees; the growth of the fungus provides ideal nutritional conditions for the development of the wasp larvae. At least one species of stingless bee has a relationship with a fungus in the genus Monascus, where the larvae consume and depend on fungus transferred from old to new nests. Termites on the African savannah are also known to cultivate fungi, and yeasts of the genera Candida and Lachancea inhabit the gut of a wide range of insects, including neuropterans, beetles, and cockroaches; it is not known whether these fungi benefit their hosts. Fungi ingrowing dead wood are essential for xylophagous insects (e.g. woodboring beetles). They deliver nutrients needed by xylophages to nutritionally scarce dead wood. Thanks to this nutritional enrichment the larvae of woodboring insect is able to grow and develop to adulthood. The larvae of many families of fungicolous flies, particularly those within the superfamily Sciaroidea such as the Mycetophilidae and some Keroplatidae feed on fungal fruiting bodies and sterile mycorrhizae.
Many fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including humans), and other fungi. Serious pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage and losses to agriculture and forestry include the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae, tree pathogens such as Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo - ulmi causing Dutch elm disease and Cryphonectria parasitica responsible for chestnut blight, and plant pathogens in the genera Fusarium, Ustilago, Alternaria, and Cochliobolus. Some carnivorous fungi, like Paecilomyces lilacinus, are predators of nematodes, which they capture using an array of specialized structures such as constricting rings or adhesive nets.
Some fungi can cause serious diseases in humans, several of which may be fatal if untreated. These include aspergillosis, candidiasis, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, mycetomas, and paracoccidioidomycosis. Furthermore, persons with immuno - deficiencies are particularly susceptible to disease by genera such as Aspergillus, Candida, Cryptoccocus, Histoplasma, and Pneumocystis. Other fungi can attack eyes, nails, hair, and especially skin, the so - called dermatophytic and keratinophilic fungi, and cause local infections such as ringworm and athlete 's foot. Fungal spores are also a cause of allergies, and fungi from different taxonomic groups can evoke allergic reactions.
The organisms which parasitize fungi are known as mycoparasitic organisms. Certain species of the Pythium genus, which are oomycetes, have potential as biocontrol agents against certain fungi. Fungi can also act as mycoparasites or antagonists of other fungi, such as Hypomyces chrysospermus, which grows on bolete mushrooms.
Fungi can become the target of infection by mycoviruses.
Many fungi produce biologically active compounds, several of which are toxic to animals or plants and are therefore called mycotoxins. Of particular relevance to humans are mycotoxins produced by molds causing food spoilage, and poisonous mushrooms (see above). Particularly infamous are the lethal amatoxins in some Amanita mushrooms, and ergot alkaloids, which have a long history of causing serious epidemics of ergotism (St Anthony 's Fire) in people consuming rye or related cereals contaminated with sclerotia of the ergot fungus, Claviceps purpurea. Other notable mycotoxins include the aflatoxins, which are insidious liver toxins and highly carcinogenic metabolites produced by certain Aspergillus species often growing in or on grains and nuts consumed by humans, ochratoxins, patulin, and trichothecenes (e.g., T - 2 mycotoxin) and fumonisins, which have significant impact on human food supplies or animal livestock.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites (or natural products), and research has established the existence of biochemical pathways solely for the purpose of producing mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi. Mycotoxins may provide fitness benefits in terms of physiological adaptation, competition with other microbes and fungi, and protection from consumption (fungivory). Many fungal secondary metabolites (or derivatives) are used medically, as described under Human Use below.
Ustilago maydis is a pathogenic plant fungus that causes smut disease in maize and teosinte. Plants have evolved efficient defense systems against pathogenic microbes such as U. maydis. A rapid defense reaction after pathogen attack is the oxidative burst where the plant produces reactive oxygen species at the site of the attempted invasion. U. maydis can respond to the oxidative burst with an oxidative stress response, regulated by the gene YAP1. The response protects U. maydis from the host defense, and is necessary for the pathogen 's virulence. Furthermore, U. maydis has a well - established recombinational DNA repair system which acts during mitosis and meiosis. The system may assist the pathogen in surviving DNA damage arising from the host plant 's oxidative defensive response to infection.
Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast that can live in both plants and animals. C. neoformans usually infects the lungs, where it is phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages. Some C. neoformans can survive inside macrophages, which appears to be the basis for latency, disseminated disease, and resistance to antifungal agents. One mechanism by which C. neoformans survives the hostile macrophage environment is by up - regulating the expression of genes involved in the oxidative stress response. Another mechanism involves meiosis. The majority of C. neoformans are mating "type a ''. Filaments of mating "type a '' ordinarily have haploid nuclei, but they can become diploid (perhaps by endoduplication or by stimulated nuclear fusion) to form blastospores. The diploid nuclei of blastospores can undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can be dispersed. This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. this process requires a gene called DMC1, which is a conserved homologue of genes recA in bacteria and RAD51 in eukaryotes, that mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of DNA double - strand breaks. Thus, C. neoformans can undergo a meiosis, monokaryotic fruiting, that promotes recombinational repair in the oxidative, DNA damaging environment of the host macrophage, and the repair capability may contribute to its virulence.
The human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes is extensive and has a long history. Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering are large industries in many countries. The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as ethnomycology. Because of the capacity of this group to produce an enormous range of natural products with antimicrobial or other biological activities, many species have long been used or are being developed for industrial production of antibiotics, vitamins, and anti-cancer and cholesterol - lowering drugs. More recently, methods have been developed for genetic engineering of fungi, enabling metabolic engineering of fungal species. For example, genetic modification of yeast species -- which are easy to grow at fast rates in large fermentation vessels -- has opened up ways of pharmaceutical production that are potentially more efficient than production by the original source organisms.
Many species produce metabolites that are major sources of pharmacologically active drugs. Particularly important are the antibiotics, including the penicillins, a structurally related group of β - lactam antibiotics that are synthesized from small peptides. Although naturally occurring penicillins such as penicillin G (produced by Penicillium chrysogenum) have a relatively narrow spectrum of biological activity, a wide range of other penicillins can be produced by chemical modification of the natural penicillins. Modern penicillins are semisynthetic compounds, obtained initially from fermentation cultures, but then structurally altered for specific desirable properties. Other antibiotics produced by fungi include: ciclosporin, commonly used as an immunosuppressant during transplant surgery; and fusidic acid, used to help control infection from methicillin - resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Widespread use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, syphilis, leprosy, and others began in the early 20th century and continues to date. In nature, antibiotics of fungal or bacterial origin appear to play a dual role: at high concentrations they act as chemical defense against competition with other microorganisms in species - rich environments, such as the rhizosphere, and at low concentrations as quorum - sensing molecules for intra - or interspecies signaling. Other drugs produced by fungi include griseofulvin isolated from Penicillium griseofulvum, used to treat fungal infections, and statins (HMG - CoA reductase inhibitors), used to inhibit cholesterol synthesis. Examples of statins found in fungi include mevastatin from Penicillium citrinum and lovastatin from Aspergillus terreus and the oyster mushroom.
Certain mushrooms enjoy usage as therapeutics in folk medicines, such as Traditional Chinese medicine. Notable medicinal mushrooms with a well - documented history of use include Agaricus subrufescens, Ganoderma lucidum, and Ophiocordyceps sinensis. Research has identified compounds produced by these and other fungi that have inhibitory biological effects against viruses and cancer cells. Specific metabolites, such as polysaccharide - K, ergotamine, and β - lactam antibiotics, are routinely used in clinical medicine. The shiitake mushroom is a source of lentinan, a clinical drug approved for use in cancer treatments in several countries, including Japan. In Europe and Japan, polysaccharide - K (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from Trametes versicolor, is an approved adjuvant for cancer therapy.
Baker 's yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a unicellular fungus, is used to make bread and other wheat - based products, such as pizza dough and dumplings. Yeast species of the genus Saccharomyces are also used to produce alcoholic beverages through fermentation. Shoyu koji mold (Aspergillus oryzae) is an essential ingredient in brewing Shoyu (soy sauce) and sake, and the preparation of miso, while Rhizopus species are used for making tempeh. Several of these fungi are domesticated species that were bred or selected according to their capacity to ferment food without producing harmful mycotoxins (see below), which are produced by very closely related Aspergilli. Quorn, a meat substitute, is made from Fusarium venenatum.
Edible mushrooms are well - known examples of fungi. Many are commercially raised, but others must be harvested from the wild. Agaricus bisporus, sold as button mushrooms when small or Portobello mushrooms when larger, is a commonly eaten species, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. Many Asian fungi are commercially grown and have increased in popularity in the West. They are often available fresh in grocery stores and markets, including straw mushrooms (Volvariella volvacea), oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), shiitakes (Lentinula edodes), and enokitake (Flammulina spp.).
There are many more mushroom species that are harvested from the wild for personal consumption or commercial sale. Milk mushrooms, morels, chanterelles, truffles, black trumpets, and porcini mushrooms (Boletus edulis) (also known as king boletes) demand a high price on the market. They are often used in gourmet dishes.
Certain types of cheeses require inoculation of milk curds with fungal species that impart a unique flavor and texture to the cheese. Examples include the blue color in cheeses such as Stilton or Roquefort, which are made by inoculation with Penicillium roqueforti. Molds used in cheese production are non-toxic and are thus safe for human consumption; however, mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins, roquefortine C, patulin, or others) may accumulate because of growth of other fungi during cheese ripening or storage.
Many mushroom species are poisonous to humans, with toxicities ranging from slight digestive problems or allergic reactions as well as hallucinations to severe organ failures and death. Genera with mushrooms containing deadly toxins include Conocybe, Galerina, Lepiota, and, the most infamous, Amanita. The latter genus includes the destroying angel (A. virosa) and the death cap (A. phalloides), the most common cause of deadly mushroom poisoning. The false morel (Gyromitra esculenta) is occasionally considered a delicacy when cooked, yet can be highly toxic when eaten raw. Tricholoma equestre was considered edible until it was implicated in serious poisonings causing rhabdomyolysis. Fly agaric mushrooms (Amanita muscaria) also cause occasional non-fatal poisonings, mostly as a result of ingestion for its hallucinogenic properties. Historically, fly agaric was used by different peoples in Europe and Asia and its present usage for religious or shamanic purposes is reported from some ethnic groups such as the Koryak people of north - eastern Siberia.
As it is difficult to accurately identify a safe mushroom without proper training and knowledge, it is often advised to assume that a wild mushroom is poisonous and not to consume it.
In agriculture, fungi may be useful if they actively compete for nutrients and space with pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria or other fungi via the competitive exclusion principle, or if they are parasites of these pathogens. For example, certain species may be used to eliminate or suppress the growth of harmful plant pathogens, such as insects, mites, weeds, nematodes, and other fungi that cause diseases of important crop plants. This has generated strong interest in practical applications that use these fungi in the biological control of these agricultural pests. Entomopathogenic fungi can be used as biopesticides, as they actively kill insects. Examples that have been used as biological insecticides are Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium spp, Hirsutella spp, Paecilomyces (Isaria) spp, and Lecanicillium lecanii. Endophytic fungi of grasses of the genus Neotyphodium, such as N. coenophialum, produce alkaloids that are toxic to a range of invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores. These alkaloids protect grass plants from herbivory, but several endophyte alkaloids can poison grazing animals, such as cattle and sheep. Infecting cultivars of pasture or forage grasses with Neotyphodium endophytes is one approach being used in grass breeding programs; the fungal strains are selected for producing only alkaloids that increase resistance to herbivores such as insects, while being non-toxic to livestock.
Certain fungi, in particular "white rot '' fungi, can degrade insecticides, herbicides, pentachlorophenol, creosote, coal tars, and heavy fuels and turn them into carbon dioxide, water, and basic elements. Fungi have been shown to biomineralize uranium oxides, suggesting they may have application in the bioremediation of radioactively polluted sites.
Several pivotal discoveries in biology were made by researchers using fungi as model organisms, that is, fungi that grow and sexually reproduce rapidly in the laboratory. For example, the one gene - one enzyme hypothesis was formulated by scientists using the bread mold Neurospora crassa to test their biochemical theories. Other important model fungi are Aspergillus nidulans and the yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe, each of which with a long history of use to investigate issues in eukaryotic cell biology and genetics, such as cell cycle regulation, chromatin structure, and gene regulation. Other fungal models have more recently emerged that address specific biological questions relevant to medicine, plant pathology, and industrial uses; examples include Candida albicans, a dimorphic, opportunistic human pathogen, Magnaporthe grisea, a plant pathogen, and Pichia pastoris, a yeast widely used for eukaryotic protein production.
Fungi are used extensively to produce industrial chemicals like citric, gluconic, lactic, and malic acids, and industrial enzymes, such as lipases used in biological detergents, cellulases used in making cellulosic ethanol and stonewashed jeans, and amylases, invertases, proteases and xylanases. Several species, most notably Psilocybin mushrooms (colloquially known as magic mushrooms), are ingested for their psychedelic properties, both recreationally and religiously.
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song by cher if i could turn back time | If I Could Turn Back Time - wikipedia
"If I Could Turn Back Time '' is a song recorded by American singer and actress Cher. Written by Diane Warren and co-produced along with Guy Roche, the pop rock track was included on Cher 's nineteenth album, Heart of Stone (1989). The song was released on June 1, 1989 as the second North American and first European single release from the album. The song also appears on the greatest hits compilations The Greatest Hits (1999) and The Very Best of Cher (2003). In 1989, it was certified Gold by the RIAA for the sales of 500,000 copies. Sales have n't been updated since. In November 2011, Billboard reported the digital sales of "If I Could Turn Back Time '' to be 394,000 in the US.
Highly successful around the globe, "If I Could Turn Back Time '' was seen as a major comeback for Cher in the late 1980s. It charted at number one in Australia and Norway, and reached number three in the United States and number six in the United Kingdom, respectively. It also became Cher 's second consecutive solo number one hit on Billboard 's Adult Contemporary chart. Gary Hill of Allmusic retrospectively wrote that the song "has a crunchy texture to it, albeit in a poppy, ' 80s Starship sort of arrangement. ''
The song was written by Diane Warren, who produced the song along with Guy Roche. While the soft rock track was not specifically written for Cher, the singer initially disliked the song upon hearing a demo and turned it down. Speaking of its recording, Warren elaborated in 1991: "I got on my knees and pleaded. I told her I was n't going to leave the room until she said yes, and finally, just to get rid of me, she did. '' In 2014, she further added: "She really hated (it), but I held her leg down during a session and said, ' You have to record it! '. '' According to Warren, Cher reportedly responded: "' Fuck you, bitch! You 're hurting my leg! OK, I 'll try it. ' She gave me this look like, ' You were right '. ''
The music video for "If I Could Turn Back Time '', directed by Marty Callner, takes place on board the battleship USS Missouri. It depicts Cher and her band performing a concert for the ship 's crew. The video was filmed in Los Angeles on July 1, 1989, while the ship was stationed at the former Long Beach Naval Shipyard at Pier D. In the video, the band plays on the foredeck, and the ship is rigged with spotlights, light racks and strobes. Cher 's son, Elijah Blue Allman, only twelve at the time, appears as one of the band 's guitarists (he wears dark glasses and a Jimi Hendrix T - shirt).
Cher 's outfit for the original video, a fishnet body stocking under a black one - piece bathing suit that left most of her buttocks exposed, proved very controversial, and many television networks refused to show the video. MTV first banned the video, and later played it only after 9 PM. A second version of the video was made, including new scenes and less overtly sexual content than the original. The outfit and sexual nature of the video were not expected by the US Navy when they had originally granted permission for filming. The USS Missouri liaison, Steve Honda, asked Callner to prevent Cher from wearing the outfit when he saw it on - set, but Callner refused. The Navy also received criticism for the video, and has since refused to allow any music videos to be filmed aboard its ships.
In 2003, Cher released her Living Proof: Farewell Tour concert on DVD which included an official "If I Could Turn Back Time '' remix video.
Cher performed the song on the following concert tours:
In 2000, Cher released a promotional double - pack vinyl in the UK with 3 new remixes of "If I Could Turn Back Time '', with vocal which was recorded during her "Do You Believe? '' tour. The Almighty remix was used as the opening track for the "Living Proof: Farewell Tour '' which also featured the intro to "Dark Lady '' and elements of "A Different Kind of Love Song ''.
If I Could Turn Back Time US Promo CD Single
If I Could Turn Back Time European CD Single
If I Could Turn Back Time Remix
shipments figures based on certification alone
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who has the highest crime rate in california | California locations by crime rate - wikipedia
The following is a list of California locations by crime rate.
In 2014, California reported 153,709 violent crimes (3.96 for every 1,000 people) and 947,192 property crimes (24.41 for every 1,000 people). These rates are very similar for the average county and city in California.
The following table includes the number of incidents reported and the rate per 1,000 persons for each type of offense.
There is little correlation between crime rates and population for counties in California. However, there is a moderate to strong correlation between crime rates and population densities at the county level. The median county in California has violent and property crime rates roughly the same as California 's.
San Bernardino County also has violent and property crime rates similar to that of the state.
There 's hardly any correlation between crime rates and population or population density whatsoever for cities in California.
The median city had crime rates slightly lower than that of the state, with a violent crime rate of 2.74 and a property crime rate of 21.66. The fact that the average city had crime rates similar to the state in contrast to the lower median rates indicates the presence of outliers with high crime rates. Indeed, the 66th percentile for violent crime rates was 3.69 crimes per 1,000 people, still not as high as the average crime rate among cities (the 33rd percentile was 1.81).
Irvine ranks second with regard to lowest violent crime rates among places with a population of 50,000 or more even though it has a population roughly five times that. Its violent crime rate is 0.49 per 1,000 people. Joining Irvine among the top five in that population class are San Ramon (0.31), Murrieta (0.63), Cupertino (0.66), and Yorba Linda (0.66). Change the focus to property crime and Orange County cities with a population not much higher than 50,000 dominate the top ten, with seven of the ten places ranking in the top ten being located in Orange County, including (in ascending order of violent crime rate) Aliso Viejo, Laguna Niguel, Lake Forest, Mission Viejo, and Yorba Linda.
Of the ten places with populations over 50,000 and the highest violent crime rates, only two had populations under 100,000: they are Santa Cruz (8.26) and Compton (11.49). The other places include (in descending order of violent crime rate) Oakland, Stockton, San Bernardino, Vallejo, and San Francisco.
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which city of pakistan is called manchester of pakistan | Faisalabad - wikipedia
Faisalabad (Urdu: فیصل آباد ; English: / fɑːɪsɑːlˌbɑːd /; Lyallpur until 1979), is the third-most - populous city in Pakistan, and the second - largest in the eastern province of Punjab. Historically one of the first planned cities within British India, it has long since developed into a cosmopolitan metropolis. Faisalabad was restructured into city district status; a devolution promulgated by the 2001 local government ordinance (LGO). The total area of Faisalabad District is 5,856 km (2,261 sq mi) while the area controlled by the Faisalabad Development Authority (FDA) is 1,280 km (490 sq mi). Faisalabad has grown to become a major industrial and distribution centre because of its central location in the region and connecting roads, rails, and air transportation. It has been referred to as the "Manchester of Pakistan ''. Faisalabad 's GDP (PPP) in 2013 was $43 billion (USD). The average annual GDP of Faisalabad is $20.5 billion calculated by averaging GDP projections from 2015 to 2025; agriculture and industry remains its hallmark.
The surrounding countryside, irrigated by the lower Chenab River, produces cotton, wheat, sugarcane, vegetables and fruits. The city is an industrial centre with major railway repair yards, engineering works, and mills that process sugar, flour, and oil seed. Faisalabad is a major producer of superphosphates, cotton and silk textiles, hosiery, dyes, industrial chemicals, beverages, clothing, pulp and paper, printing, agricultural equipment, and ghee (clarified butter). The Faisalabad Chamber of Commerce and Industry monitors industrial activity in the city and reports their findings to the Federation of Pakistan Chamber of Commerce and Industry and provincial government. The city has a major dry port and international airport.
Faisalabad is home to the University of Agriculture, Government College University as well as the Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Divisional Public School Faisalabad and National Textile University. The city has its own cricket team, Faisalabad Wolves, which is based at the Iqbal Stadium. There are several other sports teams that compete internationally, including hockey and snooker as well as other sporting events.
Faisalabad district actually began as Lyallpur district in 1904 and prior to that, was a tehsil of Jhang district. During the British Raj, the city Lyallpur was named in honour of the then Lieutenant - Governor of Punjab, Sir James Broadwood Lyall, for his services in the colonisation of the lower Chenab Valley. His surname Lyall was joined with "pur '' which in old Sanskrit language means city. In the late 1970s, the Government of Pakistan changed the name of the city from Lyallpur to Faisalabad (meaning City of Faisal), in honour of King Faisal of Saudi Arabia, who made several financial contributions to Pakistan.
According to the University of Faisalabad, the city of Faisalabad traces its origins to the 18th century when the land was inhabited by a number of forest - dwelling tribes. It is believed these early settlements belonged to the ancient districts of Jhang and Sandalbar, which included the area between Shahdara to Shorekot and Sangla Hill to Toba Tek Singh.
By the mid-18th century, the economic and administrative collapse of provinces within the Mughal Empire, from Punjab to Bengal, led to its dissolution. Internal unrest resulted in multiple battles for independence and further deterioration of the region, which then led to formal colonialisation as established by the Government of India Act 1858, with direct control under the British Raj from 1858 to 1947. In 1880, Poham Young CIE, a British colonial officer, proposed construction of a new strategic town within the area. His proposal was supported by Sir James Broadwood Lyall and the city of Lyall was developed. Historically, Faisalabad, (Lyallpur until 1979), became one of the first planned cities within British India.
Young designed the city centre to replicate the design in the Union Jack with eight roads extending from a large clock tower at its epicentre; a design geometrically symbolic of the Cross of Saint Andrew counterchanged with the Cross of Saint Patrick, and Saint George 's Cross over all. The eight roads developed into eight separate bazaars (markets) leading to different regions of the Punjab. In 1892, the newly constructed town with its growing agricultural surplus was added to the British rail network. Construction of the rail link between Wazirabad and Lyallpur was completed in 1895. In 1896, Gujranwala, Jhang and Sahiwal comprising the Tehsils of Lyallpur were under the administrative control of the Jhang District.
In 1904, the new district of Lyallpur was formed to include the tehsils of Samundri and Toba Tek Singh with a sub-tehsil at Jaranwala, which later became a full tehsil in itself. The University of Agriculture, originally the Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute, Lyallpur, was established in 1906. The Town Committee was upgraded to a Municipal Committee in 1909. Lyallpur grew into an established agricultural tool and grain centre. The 1930s brought industrial growth and market expansion to the textile industry as well as to food processing, grain crushing and chemicals.
In August 1947, following three decades of nationalist struggles, India and Pakistan achieved independence. The British agreed to partition colonial India into two sovereign states -- Pakistan with a Muslim majority, and India with a Hindu majority; however, more Muslims remained in India than what governing authorities believed would assimilate into Pakistan. The partitioning led to a mass migration of an estimated 10 million people which made it the largest mass migration in human history. India 's Bengal province was divided into East Pakistan and West Bengal (India), and the Punjab Province was divided into Punjab (West Pakistan) and Punjab, India. There were also respective divisions of the British Indian Army, the Indian Civil Service, various administrative services, the central treasury, and the railways. Riots and local fighting followed the expeditious withdrawal of the British, resulting in an estimated one million civilians deaths, particularly in the western region of Punjab. Lyallpur, which was located in the region of the Punjab Province that became West Pakistan, was populated by a number of Hindus and Sikhs who migrated to India, while Muslim refugees from India settled in the district.
In 1977, Pakistani authorities changed the name of the city to "Faisalabad '' to honour the close relationship of King Faisal of Saudi Arabia with Pakistan. During the eighties, the city realised an increase in foreign investment. More Faisalabadis began working abroad as bilateral ties improved within the new dominion. This led to more monetary funds returning to the city that aided the development of the region. In 1985, the city was upgraded as a division with the districts of Faisalabad, Jhang and Toba Tek Singh.
Faisalabad was restructured into city district status; a devolution promulgated by the 2001 local government ordinance (LGO). It is governed by the city district 's seven departments: Agriculture, Community Development, Education, Finance and Planning, Health, Municipal Services, and Works and Services. The district coordination officer of Faisalabad (DCO) is head of the city district government and responsible for co-ordinating and supervising the administrative units. Each of the seven departments has its own Executive District Officer who is charged with co-ordinating and overseeing the activities of their respective departments.
The aim of the city district government is to empower politics by improving governance which basically involved decentralising administrative authority with the establishment of different departments and respective department heads, all working under one platform. The stated vision and mission of the city district government of Faisalabad is to "establish an efficient, effective and accountable city district government, which is committed to respecting and upholding women, men and children 's basic human rights, responsive towards people 's needs, committed to poverty reduction and capable of meeting the challenges of the 21st century. Our actions will be driven by the concerns of local people. ''
In 2005, Faisalabad was reorganised as a city district composed of eight Tehsil municipal administrations (TMAs). The functions of the TMA include preparation of the spatial and land use plans, management of these development plans and exercise of control over land use, land sub-division, land development and zoning by public and private sectors, enforcement of municipal laws, rules and by - laws, provision and management of water, drainage waste and sanitation along with allied municipal services.
There are 118 union councils in Faisalabad. Their role is to collect and maintain statistical information for socio - economic surveys. They consolidate ward neighbourhood development needs and prioritise these into union - wide development proposals. The council identifies any deficiencies in the delivery of these services and makes recommendations for improvement to the TMA.
The Faisalabad Development Authority (FDA) was validly established in October 1976 under The Punjab Development of Cities Act (1976) to regulate, supervise and implement development activities in its jurisdiction area. The FDA acts as a policy - making body for the development of the city and is in charge of arranging and supervising major developments within the city. It is responsible for the administration of building regulations, management of parks and gardens and subsoil water management. The FDA works with the Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) to control and maintain the water supply, sewerage and drainage. The FDA works to improve conditions in the slums.
Healthcare services are provided to the citizens by both public and private sector hospitals. The government -- run hospitals are Allied Hospital, District HQ Hospital, Institute of Child Care, PINUM Cancer Hospital, Faisalabad Institute of Cardiology (FIC) and General Hospitals in Ghulam Muhammadabad and Samanabad. There are a number of private hospitals, clinics and laboratories in the city, notably Al - Rahmat labs, Mujahid Hospital lab, National Hospital lab & Agha Khan lab.
Law enforcement in Faisalabad is carried out by the city police, under the command of the city police officer (CPO), an appointment by the provincial government. The office of the CPO is located in the District Courts, Faisalabad. Various police formations include district police, elite police, traffic police, Punjab highway patrolling, investigation branch, and special branch.
The Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA), is a subsidiary of Faisalabad Development Authority (FDA), established 23 April 1978 under the Development of Cities Act 1976. 2015 estimates indicate that WASA provides about 72 % of the city 's sewerage services and about 60 % of their water services. The existing production capacity of WASA is 65 million imperial gallons per day (300 million litres per day), almost all of which is drawn from wells located in the old beds of the Chenab River. From the wells, water is pumped to a terminal reservoir located on Sargodha Road. Water is normally supplied for a total of about 8 hours per day to the majority of the city. The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has provided financial and hardware equipment to help improve the water and sanitation conditions in the city.
Faisalabad lies in the rolling flat plains of northeast Punjab, at 184 metres (604 ft) above sea level. The city proper comprises approximately 1,230 square kilometres (470 sq mi) while the district encompasses more than 16,000 square kilometres (6,200 sq mi). The Chenab River flows about 30 kilometres (19 mi), and the Ravi River meanders 40 kilometres (25 mi) to the southeast. The lower Chenab canal provides water to 80 % of cultivated lands making it the main source of irrigation. Faisalabad is bound on the north by Chiniot and Sheikhupura, on the east by Sheikhupura and Sahiwal, on the south by Sahiwal and Toba Tek Singh and on the west by Jhang.
The district of Faisalabad is part of the alluvial plains between the Himalayan foothills and the central core of the Indian subcontinent. The alluvial deposits are typically over a thousand feet thick. The interfluves are believed to have been formed during the Late Pleistocene and feature river terraces. These were later identified as old and young floodplains of the Ravi River on the Kamalia and Chenab Plains. The old floodplains consist of Holocene deposits from the Ravi and Chenab rivers.
The soil consists of young stratified silt loam or very fine sand loam which makes the subsoil weak in structure with common kankers at only five feet. The course of the rivers within Faisalabad are winding and often subject to frequent alternations. In the rainy season, the currents are very strong. This leads to high floods in certain areas which do last for a number of days. The Rakh and Gogera canals have encouraged the water levels in the district however the belt on the Ravi River has remained narrow. The river bed does include the river channels which have shifted the sand bars and low sandy levees leading to river erosion.
Faisalabad is situated at the centre of the lower Rechna Doab, the area is located between the Chenab and Ravi rivers. There is a mild slope from the northeast to the southwest with an average fall of 0.2 -- 0.3 metres per kilometre (1.1 -- 1.6 feet per mile). The city is situated at an elevation of about 183 metres (600 ft). The topography is marked by valleys, local depression and high ground.
The weather in the city is monitored by the Pakistan Meteorological Department. The Pakistan Meteorological Department regularly provides forecasts, public warnings and rainfall information to farmers with the assistance of the National Agromet Centre. Faisalabad has been classified as a hot desert climate (BWh) by the Köppen - Geiger climate classification system.
Average annual rainfall is approximately 375 millimetres (14.8 in) and highly seasonal. It is usually at its highest in July and August during monsoon season. Record - breaking rainfall of 264.2 millimetres (10.40 in) was recorded on 5 September 1961 by the Pakistan Meteorological Department. Observations from the Meteorological Observatory at the University of Agriculture indicate that overall rainfall levels in the city have increased by 90.4 millimetres (3.56 in) over the course of thirty years.
Faisalabad was established as one of the first planned towns of British India covering an area of 3 square kilometres (1.2 sq mi). It was initially designed to accommodate 20,000 people. The city 's population increased from 69,930 in 1941 to 179,000 in 1951 (152.2 % increase). Much of the increase is attributed to the settlement of Muslim refugees from East Punjab and Haryana, India. In 1961, the population rose to 425,248, an increase of 137.4 %. Faisalabad set a record in the demographic history of Pakistan by registering an overall population increase of 508.1 % between 1941 and 1961. The industrial revolution of the 1960s contributed to population growth. In 1961, the population was 425,248. A 1972 census ranked Faisalabad as the 3rd largest city of Pakistan with a population of 864,000. In a 1981 census, the population was 1,092,000; however, the Faisalabad Development Authority estimated the number to be 1,232,000. A 2014 demographic profile shows the population count at 3.038 million.
The province of Punjab, in which Faisalabad is the second largest city, has prevalent sociocultural distinctions. Population sizes vary by district but some distinguishing factors include a young age structure, high age dependency ratio, a higher percentage of males, a higher proportion of married population, and heterogeneity in castes and languages.
Islam is the common heritage in the region with a 97.22 % Muslim majority according to the 1998 Pakistan census report and 2001 population data sheet. Islamic influences are evident in the fundamental values of various inhabitants including cultural traditions, marriage, education, diet, ceremonies and policies with may reflect stark differences in rural villages as compared to urban areas. People live in tight - knit joint families, although a nuclear family system is emerging due to changing socio - economic conditions. Ancient Pakistani culture prevails in most marriage practices in the region, as do certain restrictions related to ethnicity and caste. However, the influences of more modern societies have effected some change, particularly in the area of the dowry system. As of 2016, monogamous and polygamous unions remain an acceptable marriage practice. In following ancient culture, marriages are customarily arranged by the parents or matchmakers. In some instances, the husband must buy his wife from her parents. Marriage ceremonies, which can be more or less formal, include rituals which are universal in nature and hold sociological importance. Studies conducted in 2007 and 2013, the latter in an outlying rural village in Faisalabad District, acknowledged the existence of gender bias and discrimination against females, stating that "Gender discrimination is not a new phenomenon '', and that it still exists in the modern world. It was further noted that situations may be worse in villages because "whenever a girl is born, nobody celebrates her birth, whereas when a boy is born, it means great joy and celebration. ''
Social change in the region has been a slow process but there are indications that change has occurred as more villages are exposed to various forms of media and modernized urban communities. It is further noted that there has been a "conscious and persistent effort '' to educate rural and urban societies about gender bias and equality. In early 2014, there was a march known as the "White Ribbon Campaign '' which took place in front of the Faisalabad Press Club. Protestors appealed to the government to adopt new laws "to protect women who are discriminated against in the family and workplace. ''
Prevalent minorities, particularly Hindu and Christian, feel a sense of vulnerability because of their religious beliefs. Labourers and farmhands comprise the countless Christian villages throughout Punjab; many are descendants of people who converted from Hinduism to Christianity under the British Raj, and considered low caste by virtue of their birth. A small population of wealthy, well - educated Christians have settled in Karachi; however, as a result of increasing Islamization, religious intolerance in Pakistani society, blashphemy laws and Islamist militancy, most have left Pakistan to settle in other countries where there is more religious tolerance, such as Canada and Australia.
Faisalabad contributes over 20 % toward Pakistan 's annual GDP; therefore, it is often referred to as the "Manchester of Pakistan ''. Faisalabad 's average annual GDP is $20.55 billion (USD), of which 21 % comes from agriculture. The surrounding countryside, irrigated by the lower Chenab River, produces agricultural commodities such as cotton, rice, sugarcane, wheat, fruit and vegetables. The city has carved a niche as an industrial centre with its highways, railways, railway repair yards, processing mills, and engineering works. It is a producer of industrial goods and textile manufacturing including cotton and silk textiles, super phosphates, hosiery, dyes, industrial chemicals, clothing, pulp and paper, printing, agricultural equipment, ghee (clarified butter), and beverages.
The Faisalabad Chamber of Commerce and Industry monitors industrial activity in the city and reports their findings to the Federation of Pakistan Chamber of Commerce and Industry and provincial government. The city has a major dry port and international airport.
Faisalabad is recognised as the centre of the textile industry in Pakistan, contributing to half of Pakistans total textile shipments. At the end of June 2012, textile mills employed 20 % of the nation 's workforce, and generated 1.3 trillion rupees ($13.8 billion) in textile products, most of which were exported to the US and Europe. While Punjab 's economy is driven primarily by agriculture, the textile industry along with leather products and light engineering goods play an important role, with more than 48,000 industrial units spread across Punjab. In an effort to boost bilateral trade, Romania and Turkey have honorary - consulates in Faisalabad which enable trade links with the city.
The Faisalabad clock tower and its eight bazaars (markets) remain a major trading zone in the city. Each of the eight bazaars has a special name and is known for selling certain goods as follows:
Faisalabad has received substantial funding from the government of Punjab and the city district government to improve infrastructure and roads to rural areas. In an effort to deal with the energy crisis, the FCCI has been working with private companies to develop renewable energy resources such as solar energy and the construction of dams within the district. CAE, a German - based renewable energy company, has disclosed plans to establish the first solar panel manufacturing facility in Faisalabad, second of its kind in Asia, with intentions of investing upwards of € 100 million (Rs 12.9 billion) for its development.
Faisalabad is well - connected by rail, road and air. Public transportation in Faisalabad includes auto - rickshaws, buses and railways. Faisalabad International Airport is located on the outskirts of the city, and operates flights to the Middle East.
The majority of roads are under the control of the National Highway Authority, linking Faisalabad with other cities in the country.
National highways and motorways passing through Faisalabad
Faisalabad is connected to various parts of the country by several National Highways and Motorways:
The district government has worked with the National Highway Authority to connect Multan and Faisalabad. The construction of the M4 is scheduled for completion by 2019. The new motorway will help reduce congestion, boost trade, and reduce travel times and transportation costs from Faisalabad, a major textile hub to the major trade centre of Multan. One section of the M4 was inaugurated on 16 March 2015 which links Faisalabad to Gojra.
The Faisalabad Urban Transport System Service (FUTS) is the main bus operator within the city. It was launched in 1994, and operates a number of large CNG buses and smaller Toyota hiace vans connecting the majority of the city. There is another public - private run bus operator, Brothers Metro, which is a consortium between the government of Punjab and a private firm who operates a fleet of air - conditioned CNG buses.
The Faisalabad railway station is the central railway station in the city. The railway line forms part of the Khanewal -- Wazirabad railway line. Rail services are operated by Pakistan Railways, owned and operated by the Ministry of Railways.
Cargo Express services are operated by Pakistan Railways which runs from Karachi to Faisalabad via Multan. Twenty - seven bogies comprise the goods train, and are handled respectively by private contractors at the station. The station has a special cargo facility operated by the Ministry of Railways (Pakistan) for handling various goods from the city to other regions of the country. An express parcel service runs from Karachi to Lahore via Faisalabad.
Faisalabad International Airport is approximately 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) from the city centre and is a major airport for domestic and international travel. The airport includes a cargo facility. As of January 2016, passenger flights are run by the national flag carrier, Pakistan International Airlines, and a number of middle eastern carriers. There are seasonal Hajj operations to Jeddah and Medina operated by Shaheen Air. FlyDubai became the first international carrier to launch operations from the city followed by Qatar Airways, Air Arabia and Gulf Air.
In 2015, significant upgrades and renovations to the airport were initiated by the Pakistan Civil Aviation Authority, including updates to aviation technology, construction of additional areas and services for travellers, and the expansion of air traffic capabilities to accommodate wide - body aircraft such as the Boeing 777.
Faisalabad, the third most populated metropolis in Pakistan after Karachi and Lahore is an epicentre for trade that has gained popularity for its colonial heritage sites. In 1982, the Government of Punjab established the Faisalabad Arts Council, a division of the Punjab Arts Council which is overseen administratively by the Information, Culture and Youth Affairs Department. The Faisalabad Arts Council building, designed by architect Nayyer Ali Dada, was completed in 2006. The auditorium was named after the late Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, a Pakistani musician and singer.
The Punjabi people celebrate a variety of cultural and religious festivals throughout the Punjab region, such as arts and craft, music, local events, and religious celebrations. The city of Faisalabad customarily celebrates its independence day on 14 August every year by raising the Pakistan flag at the clock tower in the Commissioner Office compound. Bazaars are colourfully decorated for the celebration, government and private buildings are brightly lit, and there are similar flag -- raising ceremonies that are typically held in the district and its tehsils.
The arrival of spring brings the annual "Rang - e-Bahar '' festival where the Parks & Horticulture Authority of the city district government organise a flower show and exhibition at Jinnah Gardens. The University of Agriculture organises a similar event at their main campus which is known as the "Kissan Mela ''. The festival of Basant which involves kite flying is an annual tradition in the city despite the ban. The provincial government introduced the "Canal Mela '' which involves five days of festivities including the main canal in the city being decorated with national floats and lights ending with a musical concert to conclude the festival.
Being a Muslim majority the city religious observances include Ramadan and Muharram. The festivals of Chaand Raat, Eid al - Fitr and Eid al - Adha are celebrated and are national holidays. The celebration of the Prophet Muhammad birthday is observed in the city which is often referred to as "Eid Milād - un-Nabī ''. There are a number of darbar and shrines which attract a number of devotees during the annual Urs. There are a number of Christian churches in the city where Easter and Christmas services take place each year.
Traditional attire in Faisalabad is Punjabi clothing such as the dhoti, kurta and pagri. Faisalabadi men wear white shalwar kameez as do women but also with a dupatta (scarf). The more conservative women wear burqas that may or may not cover the face. Combinations of Pakistani and Western attire are worn by women, such as an embroidered kurta worn with jeans or trousers, and half sleeve or sleeveless shirts with Capri pants. Men have adopted some of the modern Western styles for both casual and formal business dress such as dress pants, trousers, T - shirts and jeans.
Faisalabad Institute of Textile and Fashion Design at the Government College University (Faisalabad) teaches Fashion Design as part of their Fine Arts program. Some of the more conservative establishments and universities follow strict dress codes, such as the National Textile University in Faisalabad where a notice was issued on 27 April 2016 by university professor Muhammad Ashfaq. The intent of the notice was to "promote a positive image of the NTU and to maintain good moral, religious and cultural values among the faculty, staff and students. '' The dress code bans certain styles of Western attire including shorts, sleeveless shirts and shawls for men. Women are prohibited from wearing jeans, tights or leggings, sleeveless or half - sleeved shirts for women. Women are also prohibited from wearing heavy make - up and expensive jewellery.
Faisalabadi cuisine is very much Punjabi cuisine, with influences from the realms of the Mughal and Colonial empires. Key ingredients include rice or roti (flatbread) served with a vegetable or non-vegetable curry, a salad consisting of spiced tomatoes and onions, and yogurt. This is usually accompanied by a variety of South Asian sweets such as jaggery, gajar ka halwa, gulab jamun, and jalebi. Tandoori barbecue specialties consist of a variety of naan bread served with tandoori chicken, chicken tikka or lamb shishkebab served with a mint chutney.
Street foods are a key element to Faislabadi cuisine. Samosas (deep fried pastry filled with vegetables or meat) topped with an onion salad and two types of chutney. There is even a square dedicated to them in the old city. Other street foods include, dahi bhale (deep fried vadas in creamy yoghurt), gol gappay (fried round puri filled with vegetables and topped with tamarind chutney) and vegetable or chicken pakoras. Biryani and murgh pilao rice are a speciality in Faisalabad.
A typical breakfast in Faislabadi is halwa poori comprising a deep fried flatbread served with a spicy chickpea curry and sweet orange coloured halwa. It is customarily accompanied by a sweet or salty yoghurt based drink called lassi. During winter, a common breakfast is roghni naan bread served with paya curry.
Specialty drinks vary depending on climate. During winter, a variety of hot drinks are available, such as rabri doodh, a creamy dessert drink commonly made with full - fat milk, almonds, pistachios and basil seeds, dhood patti (milky tea), and Kashmiri chai, a pink coloured milky tea containing almonds and pistachios. During summer, drinks such as sugar cane rusk, limo pani (iced lemon water), skanjvi (iced orange and black pepper) and lassi are common.
There are American - style fast food franchises that cater to the local community such as McDonald 's, Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC), and Pizza Hut.
According to a report by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), the 2015 literacy rate for Pakistan ranked 160th which is among the lowest literacy rates in the world.
In 1981, Faisalabad was among four districts in Punjab, which included Gujranwala, Jhelum and Gujrat, that were experiencing low literacy rates, due primarily to either a lack of resources or family pressure; the latter of which may also be attributable to illiteracy. In 1998, Faisalabad progressed to a higher literacy rate with the most improvement realised at the primary school level. In 2008, Faisalabad District ranked 51.9 % which placed the district 9th in literacy out of the 34 Punjab districts.
In 2014, the city held its first literary festival which brought a number of writers to the city to encourage the community to follow the arts. Two literary groups were established, the Faisalabad Union of Column Writers and Faisalabad Union of Journalists, to bring together printed media personalities for the purpose of providing training to budding writers from the city.
Faisalabad is home to a number of parks, most of which are maintained by the Parks and Horticulture Authority, Faisalabad. The oldest park in the city is Jinnah Garden, the city 's central park, commonly known as "Company Bagh '' and where the monument of Sir Charles James Lyall is situated.
Other parks include Canal Park, a family park located on the west bank of the Rakh Branch Canal. The Gatwala Wildlife Park is a botanical natural reserve located at Gatwala that was renovated by the city district government. The Pahari Grounds near D Ground is another renovated park that has a Pakistan Air Force F - 86 Sabre on display.
Cricket is a popular sport in Faisalabad. Regional and international cricket matches are held in Iqbal Stadium, named after Pakistani poet Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal. The stadium is home to Faisalabad 's local team, the Faisalabad Wolves. Iqbal Stadium hosted the 1987 Cricket World Cup, and the 1996 Cricket World Cup.
The Faisalabad Hockey Stadium located on Susan Road was constructed in 2002, and can accommodate 25,000 spectators. On 16 April 2003, the stadium was inaugurated by Khalid Maqbool, governor of Punjab. It is the third largest hockey stadium in the country. The stadium has hosted field hockey matches for both national and international competition but by the beginning of 2016 was reported to be in "pathetic condition as its astroturf has completed its life span about eight years ago. '' Commissioner Naseem Nawaz advised that efforts were under way to maintain the stadium.
In October 2002, the Government College University established a Directorate of Sports to promote university and national level sports for male and female players. Infrastructure and facilities are available for university players in track, hockey, tennis, basketball, table tennis, badminton and cricket pitch.
In 2013, Faisalabad 's literacy rate of 46 % for females was noticeably lower than the 69 % for males; rural literarcy was 49 % compared to 74 % in urban areas.
Faisalabad has several research and educational institutions, both public and private, such as the University of Agriculture, Government College University, National Textile University, Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology, University of Faisalabad, and the University of Engineering & Technology of Lahore. In 2014, the University of Agriculture ranked 1st in agriculture and 4th overall for universities in Pakistan according to the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC), and was ranked 142nd in the 2013 Top 200 World Universities for agriculture and forestry by Quacquarelli Symonds (QS).
The education system is monitored by the District Education Officer of the City District Government of Faisalabad. The city government reports its findings to the Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training and the Minister for Education. Funding is provided by the Government of Punjab, Pakistan, City District Government and the fees collected from schools. There are four levels of the education system in the city: Primary, Elementary, High and Higher Secondary Level. Primary level education is only compulsory. There are a number of schools for the assistance of children with special needs.
There are two libraries that are open to the public: Allama Iqbal Library and Municipal Corporation Public Library. They are funded and regulated by the Government of Punjab, Pakistan under the service sector.
The Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA) is responsible for the regulation and monitoring of electronic media entertainment in the country. Pakistan Television Corporation, is the state - owned regulated television broadcasting network. The government began licensing private broadcasters in 2002.
The government of Pakistan installed the first radio transmitters in the city on 15 September 1982. "Radio Pakistan '' broadcasts three government regulated FM stations: "Radio Pakistan FM101, Radio Pakistan FM93 and Radio Pakistan Sautul Qur'an Channel FM93. 4. FM101 became operational in 2002, FM93 went live in 2010 and FM93. 4 Sautul Qur'an Channel went live in 2016; PBC all three stations are standard power KW 2.5.
Pakistan Telecommunication Authority is a government - owned organisation that is responsible for the establishment, operation and maintenance of telecommunications in the city. The organisation monitors and prevents illegal exchanges in the city.
Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited is the main provider of fixed line, mobile and broadband services. Regional headquarters is located at the Central Telecom House in Chinot Bazaar. With the deregulation of the telecommunication sector by the Ministry of Information Technology, a range of companies now offer mobile and broadband services in the city.
In 2008, the Government of Pakistan lifted a forty - year ban on Bollywood films which allowed Indian films to be played in cinemas. The cinema industry has since seen the introduction of new cinemas such as Cinepax by Hotel One, and Cine Nagina.
The Government College University in Faisalabad encourages students from the University of Agriculture to hold workshops and explore themes of peace and tolerance which can be used in an engaging and entertaining way to communicate complex issues to different audiences.
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who developed many of the features of the modern novel | Novel - wikipedia
A novel is a relatively long work of narrative fiction, normally in prose, which is typically published as a book.
The genre has been described as having "a continuous and comprehensive history of about two thousand years '', with its origins in classical Greece and Rome, in medieval and early modern romance, and in the tradition of the novella. The latter, an Italian word for a short story to distinguish it from a novel, has been used in English since the 18th century for a work that falls somewhere in between. Ian Watt, in The Rise of the Novel, suggested in 1957 that the novel first came into being in the early 18th century.
Miguel de Cervantes, author of Don Quixote (the first part of which was published in 1605), is frequently cited as the first significant European novelist of the modern era.
The romance is a closely related long prose narrative. Walter Scott defined it as "a fictitious narrative in prose or verse; the interest of which turns upon marvellous and uncommon incidents '', whereas in the novel "the events are accommodated to the ordinary train of human events and the modern state of society ''. However, many romances, including the historical romances of Scott, Emily Brontë 's Wuthering Heights and Herman Melville 's Moby - Dick, are also frequently called novels, and Scott describes romance as a "kindred term ''. Romance, as defined here, should not be confused with the genre fiction love romance or romance novel. Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and novel: "a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo. '' The word "novella '' or "novelle '' is, however, used, in most European languages, to describe a long short story or a short novel.
A novel is a long, fictional narrative which describes intimate human experiences. The novel in the modern era usually makes use of a literary prose style. The development of the prose novel at this time was encouraged by innovations in printing, and the introduction of cheap paper in the 15th century.
The present English (and Spanish) word for a long work of prose fiction derives from the Italian novella for "new '', "news '', or "short story of something new '', itself from the Latin novella, a singular noun use of the neuter plural of novellus, diminutive of novus, meaning "new ''. Most European languages use the word "romance '' (as in French, Dutch, Russian, Slovene, Serbo - Croatian, Romanian, Danish, Swedish and Norwegian "roman ''; Finnish "romaani ''; German "Roman ''; Portuguese "romance '' and Italian "romanzo '') for extended narratives.
Fictionality is most commonly cited as distinguishing novels from historiography. However this can be a problematic criterion. Throughout the early modern period authors of historical narratives would often include inventions rooted in traditional beliefs in order to embellish a passage of text or add credibility to an opinion. Historians would also invent and compose speeches for didactic purposes. Novels can, on the other hand, depict the social, political and personal realities of a place and period with clarity and detail not found in works of history.
While prose rather than verse became the standard of the modern novel, the ancestors of the modern European novel include verse epics in the Romance language of southern France, especially those by Chrétien de Troyes (late 12th century), and in Middle English (Geoffrey Chaucer 's (c. 1343 -- 1400) The Canterbury Tales). Even in the 19th century, fictional narratives in verse, such as Lord Byron 's Don Juan (1824), Alexander Pushkin 's Yevgeniy Onegin (1833), and Elizabeth Barrett Browning 's Aurora Leigh (1856), competed with prose novels. Vikram Seth 's The Golden Gate (1986), composed of 590 Onegin stanzas, is a more recent example of the verse novel.
Both in 12th - century Japan and 15th - century Europe, prose fiction created intimate reading situations. On the other hand, verse epics, including the Odyssey and Aeneid, had been recited to a select audiences, though this was a more intimate experience than the performance of plays in theaters. A new world of individualistic fashion, personal views, intimate feelings, secret anxieties, "conduct '', and "gallantry '' spread with novels and the associated prose - romance.
The novel is today the longest genre of narrative prose fiction, followed by the novella. However, in the 17th century, critics saw the romance as of epic length and the novel as its short rival. A precise definition of the differences in length between these types of fiction, is, however, not possible. The requirement of length has been traditionally connected with the notion that a novel should encompass the "totality of life. ''
Although early forms of the novel are to be found in a number of places, including classical Rome, 10th -- and 11th - century Japan, and Elizabethan England, the European novel is often said to have begun with Don Quixote in 1605.
Early works of extended fictional prose, or novels, include works in Latin like the Satyricon by Petronius (c. 50 AD), and The Golden Ass by Apuleius (c. 150 AD), works in Ancient Greek such as Daphnis and Chloe by Longus (c. late second century AD), works in Sanskrit such as the 6th -- or 7th - century Daśakumāracarita by Daṇḍin, and in the 7th - century Kadambari by Banabhatta, Murasaki Shikibu 's 11th - century Japanese work The Tale of Genji, the 12th - century Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (or Philosophus Autodidactus, the 17th - century Latin title) by Ibn Tufail, who wrote in Arabic, the 13th - century Theologus Autodidactus by Ibn al - Nafis, another Arabic novelist, and Blanquerna, written in Catalan by Ramon Llull (1283), and the 14th - century Chinese Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong.
Murasaki Shikibu 's Tale of Genji (1010) has been described as the world 's first novel and shows essentially all the qualities for which Marie de La Fayette 's novel La Princesse de Clèves (1678) has been praised: individuality of perception, an interest in character development, and psychological observation. Urbanization and the spread of printed books in Song Dynasty (960 -- 1279) China led to the evolution of oral storytelling into fictional novels by the Ming dynasty (1368 -- 1644). Parallel European developments did not occur until after the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1439, and the rise of the publishing industry over a century later allowed for similar opportunities.
By contrast, Ibn Tufail 's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and Ibn al - Nafis ' Theologus Autodidactus are works of didactic philosophy and theology. In this sense, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan would be considered an early example of a philosophical novel, while Theologus Autodidactus would be considered an early theological novel. Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, with its story of a human outcast surviving on an island, is also likely to have influenced Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe (1719), because the work was available in an English edition in 1711.
Epic poetry exhibits some similarities with the novel, and the Western tradition of the novel reaches back into the field of verse epics, though again not in an unbroken tradition. The epics of Asia, such as the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (1300 -- 1000 BC), and Indian epics such as the Ramayana (400 BCE and 200 CE), and Mahabharata (4th century BC) were as unknown in early modern Europe as was the Anglo - Saxon epic of Beowulf (c. 750 -- 1000 AD), which was rediscovered in the late 18th century and early 19th century. Other non-European works, such as the Torah, the Koran, and the Bible, are full of stories, and thus have also had a significant influence on the development of prose narratives, and therefore the novel. Then at the beginning of the 18th century, French prose translations brought Homer 's works to a wider public, who accepted them as forerunners of the novel.
Classical Greek and Roman prose narratives included a didactic strand, with the philosopher Plato 's (c. 425 -- c. 348 BC) dialogues; a satirical dimension with Petronius ' Satyricon; the incredible stories of Lucian of Samosata; and Lucius Apuleius ' proto - picaresque The Golden Ass, as well as the heroic romances of the Greeks Heliodorus and Longus. Longus is the author of the Greek novel, Daphnis and Chloe (2nd century AD).
Romance or chivalric romance is a type of narrative in prose or verse popular in the aristocratic circles of High Medieval and Early Modern Europe. They were marvel - filled adventures, often of a knight - errant with heroic qualities, who undertakes a quest, yet it is "the emphasis on heterosexual love and courtly manners distinguishes it from the chanson de geste and other kinds of epic, which involve heroism. '' In later romances, particularly those of French origin, there is a marked tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love.
Originally, romance literature was written in Old French, Anglo - Norman and Occitan, later, in English, Italian and German. During the early 13th century, romances were increasingly written as prose.
The shift from verse to prose dates from the early 13th century. The Prose Lancelot or Vulgate Cycle includes passages from that period. This collection indirectly led to Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur of the early 1470s. Prose became increasingly attractive because it enabled writers to associate popular stories with serious histories traditionally composed in prose, and could also be more easily translated.
Popular literature also drew on themes of romance, but with ironic, satiric or burlesque intent. Romances reworked legends, fairy tales, and history, but by about 1600 they were out of fashion, and Miguel de Cervantes famously burlesqued them in Don Quixote (1605). Still, the modern image of medieval is more influenced by the romance than by any other medieval genre, and the word "medieval '' evokes knights, distressed damsels, dragons, and such tropes.
Around 1800, the connotations of "romance '' was modified with the development Gothic fiction.
The term "novel '' originates from the production of short stories, or novella that remained part of a European oral culture of storytelling into the late 19th century. Fairy tales, jokes, and humorous stories designed to make a point in a conversation, and the exemplum a priest would insert in a sermon belong into this tradition. Written collections of such stories circulated in a wide range of products from practical compilations of examples designed for the use of clerics to compilations of various stories such as Boccaccio 's Decameron (1354) and Geoffrey Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales (1386 -- 1400). The Decameron (1354) was a compilation of one hundred novelle told by ten people -- seven women and three men -- fleeing the Black Death by escaping from Florence to the Fiesole hills, in 1348.
The modern distinction between history and fiction did not exist in the early sixteenth century and the grossest improbabilities pervade many historical accounts found in the early modern print market. William Caxton 's 1485 edition of Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur (1471) was sold as a true history, though the story unfolded in a series of magical incidents and historical improbabilities. Sir John Mandeville 's Voyages, written in the 14th century, but circulated in printed editions throughout the 18th century, was filled with natural wonders, which were accepted as fact, like the one - footed Ethiopians who use their extremity as an umbrella against the desert sun. Both works eventually came to be viewed as works of fiction.
In the 16th and 17th centuries two factors led to the separation of history and fiction. The invention of printing immediately created a new market of comparatively cheap entertainment and knowledge in the form of chapbooks. The more elegant production of this genre by 17th - and 18th - century authors were belles lettres -- that is, a market that would be neither low nor academic. The second major development was the first best - seller of modern fiction, the Spanish Amadis de Gaula, by García Montalvo. However, it was not accepted as an example of belles lettres. The Amadis eventually became the archetypical romance, in contrast with the modern novel which began to be developed in the 17th century.
A chapbook is an early type of popular literature printed in early modern Europe. Produced cheaply, chapbooks were commonly small, paper - covered booklets, usually printed on a single sheet folded into books of 8, 12, 16 and 24 pages. They were often illustrated with crude woodcuts, which sometimes bore no relation to the text. When illustrations were included in chapbooks, they were considered popular prints. The tradition arose in the 16th century, as soon as printed books became affordable, and rose to its height during the 17th and 18th centuries and Many different kinds of ephemera and popular or folk literature were published as chapbooks, such as almanacs, children 's literature, folk tales, nursery rhymes, pamphlets, poetry, and political and religious tracts.
The term "chapbook '' for this type of literature was coined in the 19th century. The corresponding French and German terms are bibliothèque bleue (blue book) and Volksbuch, respectively. The principal historical subject matter of chapbooks was abridgements of ancient historians, popular medieval histories of knights, stories of comical heroes, religious legends, and collections of jests and fables. The new printed books reached the households of urban citizens and country merchants who visited the cities as traders. Cheap printed histories were, in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially popular among apprentices and younger urban readers of both sexes.
The early modern market, from the 1530s and 1540s, divided into low chapbooks and high market expensive, fashionable, elegant belles lettres. The Amadis and Rabelais ' Gargantua and Pantagruel were important publications with respect to this divide. Both books specifically addressed the new customers of popular histories, rather than readers of belles lettres. The Amadis was a multi -- volume fictional history of style, that aroused a debate about style and elegance as it became the first best - seller of popular fiction. On the other hand, Gargantua and Pantagruel, while it adopted the form of modern popular history, in fact satirized that genre 's stylistic achievements. The division, between low and high literature, became especially visible with books that appeared on both the popular and belles lettres markets in the course of the 17th and 18th centuries: low chapbooks included abridgments of books such as Miguel Cervantes ' Don Quixote (1605 / 1615)
The term "chapbook '' is also in use for present - day publications, commonly short, inexpensive booklets.
Heroic Romance is a genre of imaginative literature, which flourished in the 17th century, principally in France.
The beginnings of modern fiction in France took a pseudo-bucolic form, and the celebrated L'Astrée, (1610) of Honore d'Urfe (1568 -- 1625), which is the earliest French novel, is properly styled a pastoral. Although its action was, in the main, languid and sentimental, there was a side of the Astree which encouraged that extravagant love of glory, that spirit of "panache '', which was now rising to its height in France. That spirit it was which animated Marin le Roy de Gomberville (1603 -- 1674), who was the inventor of what have since been known as the Heroical Romances. In these there was experienced a violent recrudescence of the old medieval elements of romance, the impossible valour devoted to a pursuit of the impossible beauty, but the whole clothed in the language and feeling and atmosphere of the age in which the books were written. In order to give point to the chivalrous actions of the heroes, it was always hinted that they were well - known public characters of the day in a romantic disguise.
Stories of witty cheats were an integral part of the European novella with its tradition of fabliaux. Significant examples include Till Eulenspiegel (1510), Lazarillo de Tormes (1554), Grimmelshausen 's Simplicissimus Teutsch (1666 -- 1668) and in England Richard Head 's The English Rogue (1665). The tradition that developed with these titles focused on a hero and his life. The adventures led to satirical encounters with the real world with the hero either becoming the pitiable victim or the rogue who exploited the vices of those he met.
A second tradition of satirical romances can be traced back to Heinrich Wittenwiler 's Ring (c. 1410) and to François Rabelais ' Gargantua and Pantagruel (1532 -- 1564), which parodied and satirized heroic romances, and did this mostly by dragging them into the low realm of the burlesque. Cervantes ' Don Quixote (1606 / 1615) modified the satire of romances: its hero lost contact with reality by reading too many romances in the Amadisian tradition.
Other important works of the tradition are Paul Scarron 's Roman Comique (1651 -- 57), the anonymous French Rozelli with its satire on Europe 's religions, Alain - René Lesage 's Gil Blas (1715 -- 1735), Henry Fielding 's Joseph Andrews (1742) and Tom Jones (1749), and Denis Diderot 's Jacques the Fatalist (1773, printed posthumously in 1796).
A market of literature in the modern sense of the word, that is a separate market for fiction and poetry, did not exist until the late seventeenth century. All books were sold under the rubric of "History and politicks '' in the early 18th century, including pamphlets, memoirs, travel literature, political analysis, serious histories, romances, poetry, and novels.
That fictional histories shared the same space with academic histories and modern journalism had been criticized by historians since the end of the Middle Ages: fictions were "lies '' and therefore hardly justifiable at all. The climate, however, changed in the 1670s.
The romance format of the quasi -- historical works of Madame d'Aulnoy, César Vichard de Saint - Réal, Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras, and Anne - Marguerite Petit du Noyer, allowed the publication of histories that dared not risk an unambiguous assertion of their truth. The literary market - place of the late 17th and early 18th century employed a simple pattern of options whereby fictions could reach out into the sphere of true histories. This permitted its authors to claim they had published fiction, not truth, if they ever faced allegations of libel.
Prefaces and title pages of 17th -- and early 18th - century fiction acknowledged this pattern: histories could claim to be romances, but threaten to relate true events, as in the Roman à clef. Other works could, conversely, claim to be factual histories, yet earn the suspicion that they were wholly invented. A further differentiation was made between private and public history: Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe was, within this pattern, neither a "romance '' nor a "novel ''. It smelled of romance, yet the preface stated that it should most certainly be read as a true private history.
The rise of the novel as an alternative to the romance began with the publication of Cervantes ' Novelas Exemplares (1613). It continued with Scarron 's Roman Comique (the first part of which appeared in 1651), whose heroes noted the rivalry between French romances and the new Spanish genre.
Late 17th - century critics looked back on the history of prose fiction, proud of the generic shift that had taken place, leading towards the modern novel / novella. The first perfect works in French were those of Scarron and Madame de La Fayette 's "Spanish history '' Zayde (1670). The development finally led to her Princesse de Clèves (1678), the first novel with what would become characteristic French subject matter.
Europe witnessed the generic shift in the titles of works in French published in Holland, which supplied the international market and English publishers exploited the novel / romance controversy in the 1670s and 1680s. Contemporary critics listed the advantages of the new genre: brevity, a lack of ambition to produce epic poetry in prose; the style was fresh and plain; the focus was on modern life, and on heroes who were neither good nor bad. The novel 's potential to become the medium of urban gossip and scandal fuelled the rise of the novel / novella. Stories were offered as allegedly true recent histories, not for the sake of scandal but strictly for the moral lessons they gave. To prove this, fictionalized names were used with the true names in a separate key. The Mercure Gallant set the fashion in the 1670s. Collections of letters and memoirs appeared, and were filled with the intriguing new subject matter and the epistolary novel grew from this and led to the first full blown example of scandalous fiction in Aphra Behn 's Love - Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister (1684 / 1685 / 1687). Before the rise of the literary novel, reading novels had only been a form of entertainment.
However, one of the earliest English novels, Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe (1719), has elements of the romance, unlike these novels, because of its exotic setting and story of survival in isolation. Crusoe lacks almost all of the elements found in these new novels: wit, a fast narration evolving around a group of young fashionable urban heroes, along with their intrigues, a scandalous moral, gallant talk to be imitated, and a brief, conciseness plot. The new developments did, however, lead to Eliza Haywood 's epic length novel, Love in Excess (1719 / 20) and to Samuel Richardson 's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1741). Some literary historians date the beginning of the English novel with Richardson 's Pamela, rather than Crusoe.
The idea of the "rise of the novel '' in the 18th century is especially associated with Ian Watt 's important study The Rise of the Novel (1957). However, what happened in the 18th century is not so much the rise of the novel, but rather the rise of realism in fiction, which is what Ian Watt sees as distinguishing the novel from earlier prose narratives.
The rising status of the novel in 18th - century can be seen in the development of philosophical and experimental novels.
Philosophical fiction was not exactly new. Plato 's dialogues were embedded in fictional narratives and his Republic is an early example of a Utopia. The tradition of works of fiction that were also philosophical texts continued with Thomas More 's Utopia (1516) and Tommaso Campanella 's City of the Sun (1602). However, the actual tradition of the philosophical novel came into being in the 1740s with new editions of More 's work under the title Utopia: or the happy republic; a philosophical romance (1743). Voltaire wrote in this genre in Micromegas: a comic romance, which is a biting satire on philosophy, ignorance, and the self - conceit of mankind (1752, English 1753). His Zadig (1747) and Candide (1759) became central texts of the French Enlightenment and of the modern novel.
An example of the experimental novel is Laurence Sterne 's The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759 -- 1767), with its rejection of continuous narration. In it the author not only addresses readers in his preface but speaks directly to them in his fictional narrative. In addition to Sterne 's narrative experiments, there has visual experiments, such as a marbled page, a black page to express sorrow, and a page of lines to show the plot lines of the book. The novel as a whole focuses on the problems of language, with constant regard to John Locke 's theories in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.
The rise of the word novel at the cost of its rival, the romance, remained a Spanish and English phenomenon, and though readers all over Western Europe had welcomed the novel (la) or short history as an alternative in the second half of the 17th century, only the English and the Spanish had, however, openly discredited the romance.
But the change of taste was brief and Fénelon 's Telemachus (1699 / 1700) already exploited a nostalgia for the old romances with their heroism and professed virtue. Jane Barker explicitly advertised her Exilius as "A new Romance '', "written after the Manner of Telemachus '', in 1715. Robinson Crusoe spoke of his own story as a "romance '', though in the preface to the third volume, published in 1720, Defoe attacks all who said "that (...) the Story is feign 'd, that the Names are borrow 'd, and that it is all a Romance; that there never were any such Man or Place ''.
The late 18th century brought an answer with the Romantic Movement 's readiness to reclaim the word romance, with the gothic romance, and the historical novels of Walter Scott. Robinson Crusoe now became a "novel '' in this period, that is a work of the new realistic fiction created in the 18th century.
Sentimental novels relied on emotional responses, and feature scenes of distress and tenderness, and the plot is arranged to advance emotions rather than action. The result is a valorization of "fine feeling '', displaying the characters as models of refined, sensitive emotional effect. The ability to display such feelings was thought at this time to show character and experience, and to help shape positive social life and relationships.
An example of this genre is Samuel Richardson 's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740), composed "to cultivate the Principles of Virtue and Religion in the Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes '', which focuses on a potential victim, a heroine that has all the modern virtues and who is vulnerable because her low social status and her occupation as servant of a libertine who falls in love with her. She, however, ends in reforming her antagonist.
Male heroes adopted the new sentimental character traits in the 1760s. Laurence Sterne 's Yorick, the hero of the Sentimental Journey (1768) did so with an enormous amount of humour. Oliver Goldsmith 's Vicar of Wakefield (1766) and Henry Mackenzie 's Man of Feeling (1771) produced the far more serious role models.
Thees works inspired a sub - and counterculture of pornographic novels, for which Greek and Latin authors in translations had provided elegant models from the last century. Pornography includes John Cleland 's Fanny Hill (1748), which offered an almost exact reversals of the plot of novel 's that emphasised virtue. The prostitute Fanny Hill learns to enjoy her work and establishes herself as a free and economically independent individual, in editions one could only expect to buy under the counter.
Less virtuous protagonists can also be found in satirical novels, like Richard Head 's English Rogue (1665), that feature brothels, while women authors like Aphra Behn had offered their heroines alternative careers as precursors of the 19th - century femmes fatales. >
The genre evolves in the 1770s with, for example, Werther in Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 's The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774) realising that it is impossible for him to integrate into the new conformist society, and Pierre Choderlos de Laclos in Les Liaisons dangereuses (1782) showing a group of aristocrats playing games of intrigue and amorality..
By around 1700, fiction was no longer a predominantly aristocratic entertainment, and printed books had soon gained the power to reach readers of almost all classes, though the reading habits differed and to follow fashions remained a privilege. Spain was a trendsetter into the 1630s but French authors superseded Cervantes, de Quevedo, and Alemán in the 1640s. As Huet was to note in 1670, the change was one of manners. The new French works taught a new, on the surface freer, gallant exchange between the sexes as the essence of life at the French court.
The situation changed again from 1660s into the 1690s when works by French authors were published in Holland out of the reach of French censors. Dutch publishing houses pirated of fashionable books from France and created a new market of political and scandalous fiction. This led to a market of European rather than French fashions in the early 18th century.
By the 1680s fashionable political European novels had inspired a second wave of private scandalous publications and generated new productions of local importance. Women authors reported on politics and on their private love affairs in The Hague and in London. German students imitated them to boast of their private amours in fiction. The London, the anonymous international market of the Netherlands, publishers in Hamburg and Leipzig generated new public spheres. Once private individuals, such as students in university towns and daughters of London 's upper class began write novels based on questionable reputations, the public began to call for a reformation of manners.
An important development in Britain, at the beginning of the century, was that new journals like The Spectator and The Tatler reviewed novels. In Germany Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 's Briefe, die neuste Literatur betreffend (1758) appeared in the middle of the century with reviews of art and fiction. By the 1780s such reviews played had an important role in introducing new works of fiction to the public.
Influenced by the new journals, reform became the main goal of the second generation of 18th - century novelists. The Spectator Number 10 had stated that the aim was now "to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality (...) to bring philosophy out of the closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea - tables and coffeehouses ''). Constructive criticism of novels had until then been rare. The first treatise on the history of the novel was a preface to Marie de La Fayette 's novel Zayde (1670).
A much later development was the introduction of novels into school and later university curricula.
The French churchman and scholar Pierre Daniel Huet 's Traitté de l'origine des romans (1670) laid the ground for a greater acceptance of the novel as literature, that is comparable to the classics, in the early 18th century. The theologian had not only dared to praise fictions, but he had also explained techniques of theological interpretation of fiction, which was a novelty. Furthermore, readers of novels and romances could gain insight not only into into their own culture, but also that of distant, exotic countries.
When the decades around 1700 saw the appearance of new editions of the classical authors Petronius, Lucian, and Heliodorus of Emesa. the publishers equipped them with prefaces that referred to Huet 's treatise. and the canon it had established. Also exotic works of Middle Eastern fiction entered the market that gave insight into Islamic culture. The Book of One Thousand and One Nights was first published in Europe from 1704 to 1715 in French, and then translated immediately into English and German, and was seen as a contribution to Huet 's history of romances.
The English, Select Collection of Novels in six volumes (1720 -- 22), is a milestone in this development of the novel 's prestige. It included Huet 's Treatise, along with the European tradition of the modern novel of the day: that is, novella from Machiavelli 's to Marie de La Fayette 's masterpieces. Aphra Behn 's novels had appeared in the 1680s but became classics when reprinted in collections. Fénelon 's Telemachus (1699 / 1700) became a classic three years after its publication. New authors entering the market were now ready to use their personal names rather than pseudonyms, including Eliza Haywood, who in 1719 following in the footsteps of Aphra Behn used her name with unprecedented pride.
The very word romanticism is connected to the idea of romance, and the romance genre experienced a revival, at the end of the 18th century, with gothic fiction, that began in 1746 with English author Horace Walpole 's The Castle of Otranto, subtitled (in its second edition) "A Gothic Story ''. Other important works are Ann Radcliffe 's The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) and ' Monk ' Lewis 's The Monk (1795).
The new romances challenged the idea that the novel involved a realistic depictions of life, and destabilized the difference the critics had been trying to establish, between serious classical art and popular fiction. Gothic romances exploited the grotesque, and some critics thought that their subject matter deserved less credit than the worst medieval tales of Arthurian knighthood.
The authors of this new type of fiction were accused of exploiting all available topics to thrill, arouse, or horrify their audience. These new romantic novelists, however, claimed that they were exploring the entire realm of fictionality. And psychological interpreters, in the early 19th century, read these works as encounters with the deeper hidden truth of the human imagination: this included sexuality, anxieties, and insatiable desires. Under such readings, novels were described as exploring deeper human motives, and it was suggested that such artistic freedom would reveal what had not previously been openly visible.
The romances of de Sade, Les 120 Journées de Sodome (1785), Poe 's Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque (1840), Mary Shelley, Frankenstein (1818), and E.T.A. Hoffmann, Die Elixiere des Teufels (1815), would later attract 20th - century psychoanalysts and supply the images for 20th - and 21st - century horror films, love romances, fantasy novels, role - playing computer games, and the surrealists.
The historical romance was also important at this time. But, while earlier writers of these romances paid little attention to historical reality, Walter Scott 's historical novel Waverley (1814) broke with this tradition, and he invented "the true historical novel ''. At the same time he was influenced by gothic romance, and had collaborated in 1801 with ' Monk ' Lewis on Tales of Wonder. With his Waverley novels Scott "hoped to do for the Scottish border '' what Goethe and other German poets "had done for the Middle Ages, "and make its past live again in modern romance ''. Scott 's novels "are in the mode he himself defined as romance, ' the interest of which turns upon marvelous and uncommon incidents ' ''. He used his imagination to re-evaluate history by rendering things, incidents and protagonists in the way only the novelist could do. His work remained historical fiction, yet it questioned existing historical perceptions. The use of historical research was an important tool: Scott, the novelist, resorted to documentary sources as any historian would have done, but as a romantic he gave his subject a deeper imaginative and emotional significance. By combining research with "marvelous and uncommon incidents '', Scott attracted a far wider market than any historian could, and was the most famous novelist of his generation, throughout Europe.
In the 19th century the relationship between authors, publishers, and readers, changed. Authors originally had only received payment for their manuscript, however, changes in copyright laws, which began in 18th and continued into 19th century promised royalties on all future editions. Another change in the 19th century was that novelists began to read their works in theaters, halls, and bookshops. Also during the nineteenth century the market for popular fiction grew, and competed with works of literature. New institutions like the circulating library created a new market with a mass reading public.
Another difference was that novels began to deal with more difficult subjects, including current political and social issues, that were being discussed in newspapers and magazines. The idea of social responsibility became a key subject, whether of the citizen, or of the artist, with the theoretical debate concentrating on questions around the moral soundness of the modern novel. Questions about artistic integrity, as well as aesthetics, including, for example. the idea of "art for art 's sake '', proposed by writers like Oscar Wilde and Algernon Charles Swinburne, were also important.
Major British writers such as Charles Dickens and Thomas Hardy were influenced by the romance genre tradition of the novel, which had been revitalized during the Romantic period. The Brontë sisters were notable mid-19th - century authors in this tradition, with Anne Brontë 's The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, Charlotte Brontë 's Jane Eyre and Emily Brontë 's Wuthering Heights. Publishing at the very end of the 19th century, Joseph Conrad has been called, "a supreme ' romancer ' ''. In America "the romance... proved to be a serious, flexible, and successful medium for the exploration of philosophical ideas and attitudes. '' Notable examples include Nathaniel Hawthorne 's The Scarlet Letter, and Herman Melville 's Moby - Dick.
A number of European novelists were similarly influenced influenced during this period by the earlier romance tradition, along with the Romanticism, including Victor Hugo, with novels like The Hunchback of Notre - Dame (1831) and Les Misérables (1862), and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov with A Hero of Our Time (1840).
Many 19th - century authors dealt with significant social matters. Émile Zola 's novels depicted the world of the working classes, which Marx and Engels 's non-fiction explores. In the United States slavery and racism became topics of far broader public debate thanks to Harriet Beecher Stowe 's Uncle Tom 's Cabin (1852), which dramatizes topics that had previously been discussed mainly in the abstract. Charles Dickens ' novels led his readers into contemporary workhouses, and provided first - hand accounts of child labor. The treatment of the subject of war changed with Leo Tolstoy 's War and Peace (1868 / 69), where he questions the facts provided by historians. Similarly the treatment of crime is very different in Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's Crime and Punishment (1866), where the point of view is that of a criminal. Women authors had dominated fiction from the 1640s into the early 18th century, but few before George Eliot so openly questioned the role, education, and status of women in society, as she did.
As the novel became a platform of modern debate, national literatures were developed that link the present with the past in the form of the historical novel. Alessandro Manzoni 's I Promessi Sposi (1827) did this for Italy, while novelists in Russia and the surrounding Slavonic countries, as well as Scandinavia, did likewise.
Along with this new appreciation of history, the future also became a topic for fiction. This had been done earlier in works like Samuel Madden 's Memoirs of the Twentieth Century (1733) and Mary Shelley 's The Last Man (1826), a work whose plot culminated in the catastrophic last days of a mankind extinguished by the plague. Edward Bellamy 's Looking Backward (1887) and H.G. Wells 's The Time Machine (1895) were concerned with technological and biological developments. Industrialization, Darwin 's theory of evolution and Marx 's theory of class divisions shaped these works and turned historical processes into a subject of wide debate. Bellamy 's Looking Backward became the second best - selling book of the 19th century after Harriet Beecher Stowe 's Uncle Tom 's Cabin. Such works led to the development of a whole genre of popular science fiction as the 20th century approached.
James Joyce 's Ulysses (1922) had a major influence on modern novelists, in the way that it replaced the 18th - and 19th - century narrator with a text that attempted to record inner thoughts, or a "stream of consciousness ''. This term was first used by William James in 1890 and is used (or the related interior monologue) by modernists like Dorothy Richardson, Marcel Proust, as well as, later Virginia Woolf and William Faulkner. Also in the 1920s expressionist Alfred Döblin went in a different direction with Berlin Alexanderplatz (1929), where interspersed non-fictional text fragments exist alongside the fictional material to create another new form of realism, which differs from that of stream - of - consciousness.
Later works like Samuel Beckett 's trilogy Molloy (1951), Malone Dies (1951) and The Unnamable (1953), as well as Julio Cortázar 's Rayuela (1963) and Thomas Pynchon 's Gravity 's Rainbow (1973) all make use of the stream - of - consciousness technique. On the other hand, Robert Coover is an example of those authors who, in the 1960s, fragmented their stories and challenged time and sequentiality as fundamental structural concepts.
The 20th century novels deals with a wide range of subject matter. Erich Maria Remarque 's All Quiet on the Western Front (1928) focusses on young German 's experiences of World War I. The Jazz Age is explored by American F. Scott Fitzgerald, and the Great Depression by fellow American John Steinbeck. The rise of totalitarian states is the subject of British writer George Orwell. France 's existentialism is the subject of French writers Jean - Paul Sartre 's Nausea (1938) and Albert Camus ' The Stranger (1942). The counterculture of the 1960s led to revived interest in Hermann Hesse 's Steppenwolf (1927), and produced such iconic works of its own like Ken Kesey 's One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest and Thomas Pynchon 's Gravity 's Rainbow. Novelist have also been interested in the subject of racial and gender identity in recent decades. Jesse Kavadlo of Maryville University of St. Louis has described Chuck Palahniuk 's Fight Club (1996) as "a closeted feminist critique ''. Virginia Woolf, Simone de Beauvoir, Doris Lessing, Elfriede Jelinek were feminist voices during this period.
Furthermore, the major political and military confrontations of the 20th and 21st centuries have also influenced novelists. The events of World War II, from a German perspective, are dealt with by Günter Grass ' The Tin Drum (1959) and an American by Joseph Heller 's Catch - 22 (1961). The subsequent Cold War influenced popular spy novels. Latin American self - awareness in the wake of the (failing) left revolutions of the 1960s and 1970s resulted in a "Latin American Boom '', linked to with the names of novelists Julio Cortázar, Mario Vargas Llosa, Carlos Fuentes and Gabriel García Márquez, along with the invention of a special brand of postmodern magic realism.
Another major 20th - century social events, the so - called sexual revolution is reflected in the modern novel. D.H. Lawrence 's Lady Chatterley 's Lover had to be published in Italy in 1928; British censorship lifted its ban as late as 1960. Henry Miller 's Tropic of Cancer (1934) created the comparable US scandal. Transgressive fiction from Vladimir Nabokov 's Lolita (1955) to Michel Houellebecq 's Les Particules élémentaires (1998) entered a literary field that eventually led to more pornographic works such as Anne Desclos ' Story of O (1954) to Anaïs Nin 's Delta of Venus (1978).
In the second half of the 20th century, Postmodern authors subverted serious debate with playfulness, claiming that art could never be original, that it always plays with existing materials. The idea that language is self - referential was already an accepted truth in the world of pulp fiction. A postmodernist re-reads popular literature as an essential cultural production. Novels from Thomas Pynchon 's The Crying of Lot 49 (1966), to Umberto Eco 's The Name of the Rose (1980) and Foucault 's Pendulum (1989) made use of intertextual references.
See also: Thriller, Westerns and Speculative fiction
While the reader of so - called serious literature will follow public discussions of novels, popular fiction production employs more direct and short - term marketing strategies by openly declarating of the work 's genre. Popular novels are based entirely on the expectations for the particular genre, and this includes the creation of a series of novels with an identifiable brand name. e.g. the Sherlock Holmes series by Arthur Conan Doyle
Popular literature holds a larger market share. Romance fiction had an estimated $1.375 billion share in the US book market in 2007. Inspirational literature / religious literature followed with $819 million, science fiction / fantasy with $700 million, mystery with $650 million and then classic literary fiction with $466 million.
Genre literature might be seen as the successor of the early modern chapbook. Both fields share a focus on readers who are in search of accessible reading satisfaction. The 20th - century love romance is a successor of the novels Madeleine de Scudéry, Marie de La Fayette, Aphra Behn, and Eliza Haywood wrote from the 1640s into the 1740s. The modern adventure novel goes back to Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe (1719) and its immediate successors. Modern pornography has no precedent in the chapbook market but originates in libertine and hedonistic belles lettres, of works like John Cleland 's Fanny Hill (1749) and similar eighteenth century novels. Ian Fleming 's James Bond is a descendant of the anonymous yet extremely sophisticated and stylish narrator who mixed his love affairs with his political missions in La Guerre d'Espagne (1707). Marion Zimmer Bradley 's The Mists of Avalon is influenced by Tolkien, as well as Arthurian literature, including its 19th - century successors. Modern horror fiction also has no precedent on the market of chapbooks but goes back to the elitist market of early - 19th - century Romantic literature. Modern popular science fiction has an even shorter history, from the 1860s.
The authors of popular fiction tend to advertise that they have exploited a controversial topic and this is a major difference between them and so - called elitist literature. Dan Brown, for example, discusses, on his website, the question whether his Da Vinci Code is an anti-Christian novel. And because authors of popular fiction have a fan community to serve, they can risk offending literary critic. However, the boundaries between popular and serious literature have blurred in recent years, with postmodernism and poststructuralism, as well as by adaptation of popular literary classics by the film and television industries.
Crime became a major subject of 20th and 21st century genre novelists and crime fiction reflects the realities of modern industrialized societies. Crime is both a personal and public subject: criminals each have their personal motivations; detectives, see their moral codes challenged. Patricia Highsmith 's thrillers became a medium of new psychological explorations. Paul Auster 's New York Trilogy (1985 -- 1986) is an example of experimental postmodernist literature based on this genre.
Fantasy is another major area of commercial fiction, and A major example is J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings (1954 / 55), a work originally written for young readers that became a major cultural artefact. Tolkien in fact revived the tradition of European epic literature in the tradition of Beowulf, the North Germanic Edda and the Arthurian Cycles.
Science fiction, is another important type of genre fiction and it has developed in a variety of ways, ranging from the early, technological adventure Jules Verne had made fashionable in the 1860s, to Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World (1932) about Western consumerism and technology. George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty - Four (1949) deals with totalitarianism and surveillance, among other matters, while Stanisław Lem, Isaac Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke produced modern classics which focus on the interaction between humans and machines. The surreal novels of Philip K Dick such as The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch explore the nature of reality, reflecting the widespread recreational experimentation with drugs and cold - war paranoia of the 60 's and 70 's. Writers such as Ursula le Guin and Margaret Atwood explore feminist and broader social issues in their works. William Gibson, author of the cult classic Neuromancer (1984), is one of a new wave of authors who explore post-apocalyptic fantasies and virtual reality.
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when did the earned income tax credit start | Earned income tax Credit - wikipedia
The United States federal earned income tax credit or earned income credit (EITC or EIC) is a refundable tax credit for low - to moderate - income working individuals and couples, particularly those with children. The amount of EITC benefit depends on a recipient 's income and number of children. For a person or couple to claim one or more persons as their qualifying child, requirements such as relationship, age, and shared residency must be met. In the 2013 tax year, working families, if they have children, with annual incomes below $37,870 to $51,567 (depending on the number of dependent children) may be eligible for the federal EITC. Childless workers that have incomes below about $14,340 ($19,680 for a married couple) can receive a very small EITC benefit. U.S. tax forms 1040EZ, 1040A, or 1040 can be used to claim EITC without qualifying children. To claim the credit with qualifying children, forms 1040A or 1040 must be used along with Schedule EITC attached.
EIC phases in slowly, has a medium - length plateau, and then phases out more slowly than it was phased in. Since the credit phases out at 21 % (more than one qualifying child) or 16 % (one qualifying child), it is always preferable to have one more dollar of actual salary or wages (although technically, since the EIC table moves by fifty - dollar increments, it is always preferable to have an extra fifty - dollar increment of salary or wages) considering the EITC alone. If the EITC is combined with multiple other means - tested programs such as Medicaid or Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, it is possible that the marginal tax rate approaches or exceeds 100 % in rare circumstances depending on the state of residence; conversely, under certain circumstances, net income can rise faster than the increase in wages because the EITC phases in.
For tax year 2013, the maximum EITC benefit for a single person or couple filing without qualifying children is $487. The maximum EITC with one qualifying child is $3,250, with two children, it is $5,372, and with three or more qualifying children, it is $6,044. These amounts are indexed annually for inflation.
The earned income tax credit has been part of political debates in the United States regarding whether raising the minimum wage or increasing EITC is a better idea. In a random survey of 568 members of the American Economic Association in 2011, roughly 60 % of economists agreed (31.7 %) or agreed with provisos (30.8 %) that the Earned Income Tax Credit program should be expanded.
Enacted in 1975, the initially modest EIC has been expanded by tax legislation on a number of occasions, including the widely publicized Tax Reform Act of 1986, and was further expanded in 1990, 1993, 2001, and 2009, regardless of whether the act in general raised taxes (1990, 1993), lowered taxes (2001), or eliminated other deductions and credits (1986). Today, the EITC is one of the largest anti-poverty tools in the United States. Most income measures, including the poverty rate, do not account for the credit.
A qualifying child can be a person 's daughter, son, stepchild, or any further descendant (such as grandchild, great grandchild, etc.) or a person 's brother, sister, half sister, half brother, stepbrother, stepsister, or any further descendant (such as niece, nephew, great - nephew, great - great - niece, etc.). A qualifying child can also be in the process of being adopted provided he or she has been lawfully placed. Foster children also count provided either the child has been officially placed or is a member of one 's extended family. A younger single parent can not claim EIC if he or she is also claimable as a qualifying child of their parent or another older relative, which can happen in some extended family situations. This restriction does not apply to a married couple who is claiming EIC with a child, even if one or both spouses are under the age of 19.
A person claiming EIC must be older than his or her qualifying child unless the "child '' is classified as "permanently and totally disabled '' for the tax year (physician states one year or more). A qualifying "child '' can be up to and including age 18. A qualifying "child '' who is a full - time student (one long semester or equivalent) can be up to and including age 23. And a person classified as "permanently and totally disabled '' (one year or more) can be any age and count as one 's qualifying "child '' provided the other requirements are met. Parents claim their own child (ren) if eligible unless they are waiving this year 's credit to an extended family member who has higher adjusted gross income. There is no support test for EIC. There is a six - month plus one day shared residency test.
In the 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, the EIC was temporarily expanded for two specific groups: married couples and families with three or more children; this expansion was extended through December 2012 by H.R. 4853, the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010. Effective for the 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 filing seasons, the EIC supported these taxpayers by:
As of early 2012, 26 states have enacted state EITCs: Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, Virginia, and Wisconsin. Some of these state EICs are refundable, and some are not. In addition, a few small local EICs have been enacted in San Francisco, New York City, and Montgomery County, Maryland.
Earned income is defined by the United States Internal Revenue Code as income received through personal effort, with the following as the main sources:
A person or couple claiming EIC with one or more qualifying children need to fill out and attach Schedule EIC to their 1040 or 1040A. This form asks for the child (ren) 's name, social security number, year of birth, whether an older "child '' age 19 to 23 was classified as a student for the year (full - time status for at least one long semester or equivalent time period), whether an older "child '' is classified as disabled during the year (doctor states one year or more), the child 's relationship to claimant, and the number of months the child lived with the claimant in the United States.
To claim a person as qualifying child, the following requirements of relationship, age, and shared residence must be met.
In the case of a married couple filing jointly, if one spouse is related to the child by any of the below relationships, both spouses are considered related to the child.
The claimant must be related to their qualifying child through blood, marriage, or law. The qualifying child can be:
A child might classify as the qualifying child of more than one adult family member, at least initially. For example, in an extended family situation, both a parent and an uncle may meet the initial standards of relationship, age, and residency to claim a particular child. In such a case, there is a further rule: If a single parent or both parents, whether married or not, can claim the child (residency and age) but choose to waive the child to a non-parent, such as a grandparent or uncle or aunt, this non-parent can claim the child only if they have a higher adjusted gross income (AGI) than any parent who has lived with the child for at least six months.
This still remains the parent 's choice. Provided the parent has lived with the child for at least six months and one day, the parent can always choose to claim his or her child for purposes of the earned income credit. In a tiebreaker situation between two unmarried parents, the tiebreak goes to the parent who lived with the child for the longest. In a tiebreaker between two non-parents, the tiebreak goes to the person with the higher AGI. And in a tiebreaker between a parent and non-parent, the parent wins by definition. These tiebreaker situations only occur if more than one family member actually file tax returns in which they claim the same child. On the other hand, if the family can agree, per the above and following rules, they can engage in a limited amount of tax planning as to which family member claims the child.
A single parent younger than age 19 living in an extended family situation is potentially claimable as the qualifying "child '' of an older relative. And a single parent under age 24 who is also a full - time college student (one long semester or equivalent) living in an extended family situation is also potentially claimable. If so, the younger single parent can not claim EIC. This rule does not apply to a married couple who are claiming EIC with a child, even if one or both spouses are under the age of 19. (This rule also does not apply if the older relative is not required to file a tax return, and subsequently either does not file or only files to receive a full refund of taxes withheld.)
Generally, one sibling claiming another as their qualifying child must be older. In the case of a married couple filing a joint return, only one of the spouses must be older. An exception to the must - be-older - rule is the case of a qualifying child who is classified as "permanently and totally disabled '' (physician states one year or more). Such a "child '' can be any age and the age requirement is considered to be automatically met (of course the relationship and shared residency requirements must still be met).
The standard rule is that the qualifying "child '' must be under the age of 19 at the end of the tax year. That is, the younger person can be 18 years and 364 days old on December 31 and the age requirement is met.
This age limit is extended for a qualifying "child '' who is also a full - time student during some part of five calendar months. This young adult merely needs to be under age 24 at the end of the tax year for the age requirement to be met (relationship and residency requirements must still be met). That is, the young adult who is full - time for at least part of five different months can be 23 years and 364 days on December 31 and meet the age requirement to be someone else 's qualifying "child. '' The standard Fall semester of a university, in which classes start in late August and continue through September, October, November, and early December, counts as part of five calendar months. And a similar conclusion applies to the standard Spring semester. However, the five months need not be consecutive and can be obtained with any combination of shorter periods. A full - time student is a student who is enrolled for the number of hours or courses the school considers to be full - time attendance. High school students who work in co-op jobs or who are in a vocational high school program are classified as full - time students. Schools include technical, trade, and mechanical schools.
A person who is classified as "permanently and totally disabled '' (physician states one year or more) can be any age and the age requirement is automatically met. More fully, the definition of "permanently and totally disabled '' is that a person has a mental or physical disability, can not engage in substantial gainful activity, and a physician has determined that the condition has lasted or is expected to last one year or more (or that it can lead to death).
The claimant must live with their qualifying child (ren) within the fifty states and / or District of Columbia of the United States for more than half the tax year (per instructions, six months and one day is listed as 7 months on Schedule EIC). U.S. military personnel stationed outside the United States on extended active duty are considered to live in the U.S. for purposes of the EIC. Extended active duty means the person is called to duty for an indefinite period or for a period of more than 90 days (which is still considered to be extended active even if the period ends up being less than 90 days).
Temporary absences, for either the claimant or the child, due to school, hospital stays, business trips, vacations, shorter periods of military service, or jail or detention, are ignored and instead count as time lived at home. "Temporary '' is perhaps unavoidably vague and generally hinges or whether the claimant and / or the child are expected to return, and the IRS does not provide any substantial guidance past this. If the child was born or died in the year and the claimant 's home was the child 's home, or potential home, for the entire time the child was alive during the year, this counts as living with the claimant, and per instructions, 12 months is entered on Schedule EIC.
Unlike the rules for claiming a dependent, there is no rule that a qualifying child not support herself or himself. A child who supports himself or herself can still qualify as a qualifying child for purposes of the EIC. There is an exception for older married "children. '' If an otherwise qualifying child is married, the claimant needs to be able to claim this child as a dependent (and the married couple must have low enough income so that they are not required to file a return and are either not filing or are filing only for the purpose of claiming a refund on withheld taxes).
Investment income can not be greater than $3,400 in 2016.
A claimant must be either a United States citizen or resident alien. In the case of married filing jointly where one spouse is and one is n't, the couple can elect to treat the nonresident spouse as resident and have their entire worldwide income subject to U.S. tax, and will then be eligible for EIC.
Filers both with and without qualifying children must have lived in the 50 states and / or District of Columbia of the United States for more than half the tax year (six months and one day). Puerto Rico, American Samoa, the Northern Mariana Islands, and other U.S. territories do not count in this regard. However, a person on extended military duty is considered to have met this requirement for the period of the duty served.
Filers who are not claiming a qualifying child must be between the ages of 25 and 64 inclusive. For a married couple without a qualifying child, only one spouse must be within this age range. For a single person with a qualify child, there is no age requirement per se other than the requirement that the single person not himself or herself be claimable as another relative 's qualifying child (see Age section above). A married couple with at least one qualifying child is only occasionally classified as claimable by another relative, especially if the married couple has earned income and elects to claim EIC.
All filers and all children being claimed must have a valid social security number. This includes social security cards printed with "Valid for work only with INS authorization '' or "Valid for work only with DHS authorization. ''
Single, Head of Household, Qualifying Widow (er), and Married Filing Jointly are all equally valid filing statuses for EIC. In fact, depending on the income of both spouses, Married Filing Jointly can be advantageous in some circumstances because, in 2009, the phase - out for MFJ for begins at $21,450 whereas phase - out begins at $16,450 for the other filing statuses. A couple who is legally married can file MFJ even if they lived apart the entire year and even if they shared no revenues or expenses for the year, as long as both spouses agree. However, if both spouses do not agree, or if there are other circumstances such as domestic violence, a spouse who lived apart with children for the last six months of the year and who meets other requirements can file as Head of Household. Or, for a couple that is split up but still legally married, they might consider visiting an accountant at separate times and perhaps even signing a joint return on separate visits. There is even an IRS form that can be used to request direct deposit into up to three separate accounts. In addition, if a person obtains a divorce by December 31, that will carry, since it is marital status on the last day of the year that controls for tax purposes. In addition, if a person is "legally separated '' according to state law by December 31, that will also carry. The only disqualifying filing status for purposes of the EIC is married filing separately.
EIC phases out by the greater of earned income or adjusted gross income.
A married couple in 2010, whose total income was just shy of $21,500, but who had more than $3,100 of investment income, would have received the maximum credit for their number of qualifying children, but because of the rule that for any claimant -- whether single of married, with or without children -- that investment income can not be greater than $3,100, will instead receive zero EIC. This is an edge case, but there are income ranges and situations in which an increase of investment dollars can result in a loss of after - tax dollars. (Instead of $21,500, the phase - out for Single, Head of Household, and Qualifying Widow (er) begins at $16,450.)
In normal circumstances, EIC phases out relatively slowly, at 16 % or 21 % depending on the number of children.
A person or couple will be disallowed EIC for two years if they claim EIC when not eligible and the IRS determines the "error is due to reckless or intentional disregard of the EIC rules. '' A person or couple will be disallowed for ten years if they make a fraudulent claim. Form 8862 is required after this time period in order to be reinstated. However, this form is not required if EIC was reduced solely because of mathematical or clerical error.
Cynthia and Jerry Grey have two children ages 6 and 8. For tax year 2012, one spouse made $10,000 in wages and the other spouse made $15,000, plus the couple received $525 on interest from a savings account. Since they are into the phase - out range, their EIC will phase out by the greater of earned income or adjusted gross income. So, they will look up in the EIC table $25,525 for MFJ with two children, and this amount is $4,557. Since they are claiming children, the Greys will also need to attach Schedule EIC to their tax return which will ask for each child, the child 's name, social security number, year of birth, relationship to couple, and months lived with couple in the United States during 2012. If the Greys use 1040A, they will enter $4,557 on line 38a. If they use form 1040, they will enter $4,557 on line 64a.
At a cost of $56 billion in 2013, the EITC is the third - largest social welfare program in the United States after Medicaid ($275 billion federal and $127 billion state expenditures) and food stamps ($78 billion). Almost 27 million American households received more than $56 billion in payments through the EITC in 2010. These EITC dollars had a significant impact on the lives and communities of the nation 's lowest - paid working people largely repaying any payroll taxes they may have paid. The Census Bureau, using an alternative calculation of poverty, found that EITC lifted 5.4 million above the poverty line in 2010.
The stimulus effects of the EITC and other consumption - augmenting policies have been challenged by more recent and rigorous studies. Haskell (2006) finds that the unique spending patterns of lump - sum tax credit recipients and the increasingly global supply chain for consumer goods is counter-productive to producing high, localized multipliers. He places the local multiplier effect somewhere in the range of 1.07 to 1.15, more in line with typical economic returns. The lower multiplier is due to recipients emphasizing "big - ticket '' durable - good purchases, which are typically produced elsewhere, versus locally produced products and services such as agricultural products or restaurant visits. However, Haskell points to a silver lining: there are perhaps more important benefits from recipients who use the credit for savings or investment in big - ticket purchases that promote social mobility, such as automobiles, school tuition, or health - care services.
Due to its structure, the EITC is effective at targeting assistance to low - income families in the bottom two quintiles -- 0 -- 40 % of households. By contrast, only 30 % of minimum wage workers live in families near or below the federal poverty line, as most are teenagers, young adults, students, or spouses supplementing their studies or family income. Opponents of the minimum wage argue that it is a less efficient means to help the poor than adjusting the EITC.
EITC follows a graphical benefit pattern of going up a hill, traveling along a plateau, and then going back down the hill more slowly than it went up. For example, a married couple with two qualifying children and yearly income of seven thousand dollars will receive EITC of $2,810 (going up the hill). At fifteen thousand dollars, this couple will receive EITC of $5,036 (plateau). And at twenty - five and thirty - five thousand dollars, this same couple with their two children will receive EITC of $4,285 and $2,179, respectively.
A single person (such as a single parent, aunt, uncle, grandparent, older sibling, etc.) goes up the hill at the same rate and will receive the same maximum EITC for two qualifying children of $5,036 at plateau. But the single person has a shorter plateau. And thus, a single person with two qualifying children and income of twenty - five and thirty - five thousand will receive EITC of $3,230 and $1,124 respectively (going down the hill).
EITC phases out at 16 % with one qualifying child and at 21 % for two children and three or more children. Thus it is always preferable to have an extra fifty dollars of actual earned income (the table for EITC steps in increments of fifty dollars).
The GRAPHICAL plateau range for Married Filing Jointly continues for five thousand dollars longer than does the plateau for the other filing statuses and thus MFJ can be advantageous for some income ranges. Single, Head of Household, and Qualifying Widow (er) are all equally valid and eligible filing statuses for claiming EITC. The only disqualifying status is Married Filing Separately. However, a couple can file as Married Filing Jointly even if they lived apart for the entire year if legally married and both agree.
A 2013 systematic review of the effect of in - work tax credits on health outcomes in adults conducted through the Cochrane Collaboration found no evidence for an effect of the EITC on health outcomes (except for mixed evidence favoring a reduction of tobacco smoking) in adults. However, the study concluded that further evidence is required to establish the effects of EITC on health outcomes with confidence.
The direct cost of the EITC to the U.S. federal government was about $56 billion in 2012. The IRS has estimated that between 21 % and 25 % of this cost ($11.6 to $13.6 billion) is due to EITC payments that were issued improperly to recipients who did not qualify for the EITC benefit that they received. For the 2013 tax year the IRS paid an estimated $13.6 billion in bogus claims. In total the IRS has overpaid as much as $132.6 billion in EITC over the last ten years.
The direct fiscal cost of the EITC may be partially offset by two factors: any new taxes (such as payroll taxes paid by employers) generated by new workers drawn by the EITC into the labor force; and taxes generated on additional spending done by families receiving earned income tax credit.
Some economists have noted that the EITC might conceivably cause reductions in entitlement spending that result from individuals being lifted out of poverty by their EITC benefit check. However, because the pre-tax income determines eligibility for most state and federal benefits, the EITC rarely changes a taxpayer 's eligibility for state or federal aid benefits.
Millions of American families who are eligible for the EITC do not receive it, essentially leaving billions of dollars unclaimed. Research by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) and Internal Revenue Service indicates that between 15 % and 25 % of households who are entitled to the EITC do not claim their credit, or between 3.5 million and 7 million households (no reference cited).
Many nonprofit organizations around the United States, sometimes in partnership with government and with some public financing, have begun programs designed to increase EITC utilization by raising awareness of the credit and assisting with the filing of the relevant tax forms. One example is the Claim it! campaign in Minnesota that launched in 2006 to help Minnesotans claim the EITC.
The state of California requires employers to notify every employee about the EITC every year, in writing, at the same time W - 2 forms are distributed.
RALs (Refund Anticipation Loans) are short term loans on the security of an expected tax refund, and RACs (Refund Anticipation Checks) are temporary accounts specifically to wait to receive tax refunds, which are then paid by a check or debit card from the bank less fees. The combination of Earned Income Credit, RALs, and RACs has created a major market for the storefront tax preparation industry. A 2002 Brookings Institution study of Cleveland taxpayers found that 47 percent of filers claiming EIC purchased RALs, as compared to 10 percent of those not claiming EIC. The tax preparation industry responded that at least one - half of RAL customers included in the IRS data actually received RACs instead.
These financial products have been criticized on various grounds, including inflated prices for tax preparation, account fees, RAL interest rates, as well as the practice of third - party debt collection (this used to be called "cross-collection '' which hinted at the practice, but tax prep companies now to seem more vaguely refer to the practice merely as "previous debt ''). This practice occurs when one RAL - or RAC - issuing bank collects for another. That is, such lenders may take all or part of a client 's current year tax refund for purposes of third - party debt collection, and it is unclear how broad are the types of debts for which the banks collect. This contrasts with the more limited types of debt collected for by the IRS. This practice of one bank collecting debt for another may not be adequately disclosed to the tax preparation client; on the other hand, some clients may fail to disclose obligations that result a governmental seizure of their refunds. With both RALs and RACs, the client grants the bank first rights to their tax refund, and both carry the same risk of third - party bank collection.
Advertisement phrases such as "Rapid Refund '' have been deemed deceptive and illegal, since these financial products do not speed remittances beyond the routine automation of tax return processing, and do not make it clear that these are loan applications. Beginning with 2011 tax season, the IRS announced that they would no longer provide preparers and financial institutions with the "debt indicator '' that assisted banks in determining whether RAL applications were approved. Beginning with the 2013 tax season, major banks are no longer offering RALs but only RACs.
However, a March 2013 article in CNN Money reported that tax prep companies are offering a hodgepodge of financial products similar to RALs. The article further states that, "The NCLC (National Consumer Law Center) also found that some shady tax preparers are even offering tax refund loans to lure taxpayers into their offices, but have no intention of lending them the money. ''
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what is the name of the head of state of jamaica 2017 | List of heads of state of Jamaica - wikipedia
This is a list of the heads of state of Jamaica, from the independence of Jamaica in 1962 to the present day.
From 1962 the head of state under the Jamaica Independence Act 1962 is the Queen of Jamaica, Elizabeth II, who is also the Monarch of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen is represented in Jamaica by a Governor - General.
The succession to the throne is the same as the succession to the British throne.
The Governor - General is the representative of the Monarch in Jamaica and exercises most of the powers of the Monarch. The Governor - General is appointed for an indefinite term, serving at the pleasure of the Monarch. After the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931, the Governor - General is appointed solely on the advice of the Cabinet of Jamaica without the involvement of the British government. In the event of a vacancy the Chief Justice served as Officer Administering the Government.
Royal Standard
Governor - General 's Standard
There is one living former Jamaican Head of State:
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where is costa maya mexico on the map | Costa Maya - wikipedia
Costa Maya is a small tourist region in the municipality of Othón P. Blanco in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico, the only state bounded by the Caribbean Sea to its east. This municipality is close to Chetumal (capital of the state) on the border with Belize. The area was generally undeveloped but has been growing rapidly since construction of a large pier to accommodate cruise ships. Costa Maya is also the name of a subdivision near the village of Mahahual. The beach extends from Xcalak in the south to the southern border of Sian Ka'an in the north, a distance of approximately 100 kilometers (62 mi).
Xcalak is approximately 60 kilometers (37 mi) south of the Costa Maya cruise port, and the fishing village of Mahahual is only about 3 kilometers (1.9 mi) away. Cruise ships can easily be seen from the village. Mahahual has soft sand beaches, grass thatched palapas, and a coral reef a short distance off - shore called Banco Chinchorro, as well as several bars, restaurants, and shops. A new development called New Mahahual is being created directly inland from the port. When ships are in port, the village is busy with cruise passengers.
Costa Maya 's port has a new and modern tourist shopping mall. The center has a central plaza with saltwater pools and ' swim - up ' style bars. There are several jewellery stores and many small shops selling ubiquitous souvenir items. It is generally open only to cruise ship passengers.
Costa Maya is the closest port of access to many of the lesser - known Mayan ruins in the Yucatan including Chacchoben and Kohunlich. These sites are substantially less excavated than the better - known pyramids of Tulum and Coba to the north; Chichen Itza and Uxmal in Yucatan.
The port sustained heavy damage due to Hurricane Dean in August 2007. This included the dock designed for cruise ships. Holland America 's Westerdam was the first cruise ship to return to the port since Hurricane Dean on October 31, 2008.
Around 6500 BC the Native Americans started agricultural activities. The agriculture was of the slash and burn type. Around 3500 BC the agricultural skill had developed as such that they formed permanent villages in the center of Mexico. The Maya are not the first culture to appear in Mexico; they were preceded by the Olmecs near the Gulf coast. The first Maya like culture appeared around 200 BC in the south of Mexico (Chiapas).
The Maya were predominant in three areas: the northern area which is the Yucatán Peninsula, the central area which is the Petén area and the western area which are the lowlands bordering to Belize. The Costa Maya falls under the western lowlands. The agricultural skills evolved between 200 BC and 900 AD to the extent that workers could be made available to build the beautiful cities as we know them today. In the area around the Costa Maya the building styles called Rio Bec and Chennes are found. The Mayan culture weakened during the period of 900 AD to 1200 AD. Other cultures influenced the building styles in that period (an example of this is Tulum).
The Río Bec and Chennes sites are some of the most recent found in Mexico. Most of the sites were found by rubber farmers scouting the forest in search of rubber trees. The discovered sites are as follows:
During the Mayan high times there was a flourishing maritime trade along the Yucatan coast. The Mayans used large dugout canoes. They traded in fabrics, jade, obsidian, salt, and shells. The area of Xcalak was a landing point because of the two openings in the reef. Xcalak means ' the twins ' in Yucatec Maya. A small unnamed site was found just east of the current village of Xcalak.
The first contact between the Spanish conquerors and the Maya took place in 1502 in Honduras. Initial contacts were friendly; however when Francisco Hernández de Córdoba arrived on the Yucatán Peninsula in 1517 intent on conquest, the Maya resisted. Thousands of Spaniards were killed within a short period of time, giving subsequent conquistadores adequate excuse for subjugating the native population.
Hernán Cortés landed in 1519 on Cozumel and within three years he had conquered most of the area, with more help from the smallpox with which his men had unintentionally infected the natives, than actual battle. Twenty years later the Mayans suffered their final defeat by Francisco de Montejo. Not content in having reduced the native population by half or more, the Spaniards destroyed many Mayan artifacts in an attempt to suppress the culture itself.
Following Mexican independene in 1821, the Mayan territories of Chiapas and Yucatan decided to join the United States of Mexico in 1840.
In the 19th century Mennonites came to Mexico from the Netherlands. The Mennonites can also be found around the Costa Maya and can easily be recognized by their denim overalls and checkered red shirts.
The history of Xcalak dates back to pre-Hispanic times, with 16 archaeological sites having been discovered between Punta Herrero (south of Bahia Espiritu Santo) and Boca Bacalar Chico. Seven of these sites are located between Punta Gavilan (just north of Guacamaya) and Boca Bacalar Chico, the border with Belize.
In the 16th century, English pirates took over a large part of the coast and attacked Spanish ships that transported gold and riches back to Spain. Spain tried to defend its interests by constructing forts such as the one at Bacalar. Pirates continued to devastate the region, intending to take over the entire peninsula in the name of the English Crown. The reign of the pirates lasted until the end of the 19th century, taking advantage of the indigenous rebellions and the abandonment in which the region was found.
At the end of the 19th Century, the Mexican Navy took control over what is today the state of Quintana Roo. In 1897, during the presidency of Porfirio Diaz, a treaty was signed which established the territorial limits between British Honduras (now Belize) and Mexico. This caused serious problems for Mexico because the territorial limit was at the center of Boca Bacalar Chico canal. This natural canal separates the Xcalak peninsula from Ambergris Key, and as a result, Mexican military vessels lost access to Chetumal Bay and remain at the mercy of Belize for permits.
Due to the lack of access to Chetumal Bay, Brigadier Angel Ortiz Monasterio, the Mexican consulate, commissioned engineer Rebolledo to find a suitable place to build a port in this area. Rebolledo selected Xcalak because two natural entrances through the barrier reef would permit navigation. The port was established in an effort to permanently occupy this area. From this site, Mexico intended to direct a military campaign to stop the supply of arms to the Maya rebels of Quintana Roo, who were participating in what is known as the Caste War. This led to the establishment of a base on the southern limits of Xcalak peninsula.
In October 1899, a site was constructed on the Zaragoza Canal to provide access to Chetumal Bay. (This canal south of town has recently been reopened and re-dredged in another effort to allow military vessels access to the bay.) At the same time, on the Caribbean coast the widening of the entrance through the reef was initiated. In addition, a ' Decauville ' railroad was built between Xcalak and La Aguada (on Chetumal Bay) in order to relieve the boat traffic through the narrow international canal.
The development resulted in a port system which overcame the lack of a direct entrance into Chetumal Bay. Equipment was unloaded in Xcalak, taken by train to La Aguada, and then reloaded and taken to Payo Obispo, which was founded two years earlier. Thus, the village of Xcalak was founded on May 19, 1900 as the base for the ' Southern Fleet ' and the first shipyard in the Mexican Caribbean. At the same time, the first telegraph in the state was built.
When the Federal Territory of Quintana Roo was created in 1902, there were three important villages on the coast: Xcalak in the south, Vigia Chico in the middle, and Puerto Morelos in the north. The Xcalak village was the only village in the territory that did not depend on mahogany and chicle (used for chewing gum). Xcalak relied upon fishing and the exportation of coconut. The organization of copra, or coconut ranches, began in Xcalak and expanded to the bay area. Copra exportation eventually replaced fishing.
In the 1950s, Xcalak 's economy was very healthy, boasting developments such as stone and wood construction, an ice factory, and electric plant, storehouses for large quantities of copra, grocery stores, a billiard hall, a movie theater, and an ice cream factory. Xcalak was the most important supply center in the region. After Hurricane Janet (1955), Xcalak was in ruins. Many of its inhabitants died, including the lighthouse keeper and many sailors. The survivors were traumatized and a large group migrated to interior towns. The survivors who remained in Xcalak returned to fishing. The area was repopulated with people from San Pedro and Sarteneja, Belize, as well as from Honduras and El Salvador.
The fishing trade resulted in social organizations. On October 25, 1959, the Cooperative Fishing Production Society of Andrea Quintana Roo was founded. It consisted of 49 members. Fishing techniques were greatly altered with the arrival of the first outboard motors made by Calipso and Lister.
In 1980, a 120 kilometers (75 mi) gravel road was built, forming the Chetumal − Carrillo Puerto highway. This established a land route between the village of Xcalak and the rest of the state. People often recall that the first vehicle to arrive in the village was a Land Rover.
At the end of the 1980s Costa de Cocos and the first dive shop, ' Aventuras Chinchorro ' (now XTC Dive Center), opened. Soon after that a second dive shop ' Xcalak Dive Center ' appeared. These developments increased tourism and marked the beginning of a new period.
On August 24, 1995, the government of Quintana Roo published the decree for the ' Ecological regulation for the area referred to as the Maya Coast ' (Punta Herero - Xcalak). The decree outlined tourism development plans for the Costa Maya corridor. Xcalak was designated as one of the sites for the greatest development. The restoration of the municipal pier in Xcalak was completed at the end of 1995 to facilitate tourism development. In June 1996, a ferry pier was built at La Aguada in order to provide service between Chetumal and Xcalak. At the same time, the existing airstrip in Xcalak was enlarged.
There are approximately 300 native inhabitants of Xcalak. Most rely on fishing for their livelihood; however, many are now working in tourism and recently the Tourism Cooperative was formed. Officials that have their headquarters in Xcalak include: the Municipal Delegation, State Government representative of the Judicial Police, a port captain, immigration officer, and Navy base. As part of the social structure, other associations have been formed: the Parents Association, the Electricity Committee, the fishing Cooperative, and a Community Committee in which different representatives of all community sectors participate. It is through the Community Committee that issues regarding the management and conservation of natural resources are addressed.
The resort was hit directly by Category 5 Hurricane Dean in August 2007. The area was also hit significantly by Hurricane Ernesto in early August 2012. Although much of the resort was not hit heavily, the surrounding town of Mahahual has experienced a large amount of damage.
The Mexican government is trying to improve the standard of living for the indigenous population in the Costa Maya area by developing small scale ecologically - based tourism.
Mahahual is to be a larger tourist center with an airport and a large dock for cruise ships.
Xcalak is to be preserved as a middle - sized village with tourism based on ecological principles. To achieve this development, ecological laws have been implemented on the Costa Maya. Sian Ka'an South of Tulum is a protected natural reserve, Banco Chinchorro is declared as a protected archaeological marine park and the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System in front of Xcalak is declared a natural reserve park.
Coordinates: 18 ° 42 ′ 50 '' N 87 ° 42 ′ 32 '' W / 18.714 ° N 87.709 ° W / 18.714; - 87.709
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where did latavius murray go to high school | Latavius Murray - wikipedia
Latavius Murray (born January 18, 1990) is an American football running back for the Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Central Florida and was drafted by the Oakland Raiders in the sixth round of the 2013 NFL Draft.
Born in Titusville, Florida, Murray attended Natick High School in New York, where he was a three - sport athlete in football, basketball, and track. In football, Murray was All - league and All - Central New York selection in three straight seasons. In his sophomore year, he was third - team All - state honoree following a 1,609 - yard, 14 - touchdown season. He garnered first - team All - state honors as a junior, rushing for 2,030 yards and 30 touchdowns. In his final year, he was named the 2007 Gatorade Football Player of the Year in the state of New York after rushing for 2,194 yards with 28 touchdowns on offense, while also recording 78 tackles, three forced fumbles and two interceptions on defense. He also was named as the Class D Player of the Year and First - Team All - State by the NYSSWA.
Regarded as a three - star recruit, Murray was ranked as the No. 5 prospect in the state of Florida by Rivals.com, No. 6 according to Scout.com. He chose UCF over scholarship offers from Boston College, Maryland, and Syracuse, among others.
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Murray played his college ball at the University of Central Florida. Murray tore his ACL during the offseason after his freshman year while playing basketball. In his redshirt sophomore season, he was named Conference USA Championship MVP and also was named AutoZone Liberty Bowl MVP for his performance against Georgia in which he rushed for 104 yards and scored the game - winning touchdown. Following the conclusion of his junior season, he was selected as the team 's MVP and offensive player of the year. In his senior season, he was an All - C - USA First Team selection and was named to Phil Steele 's All - C - USA First Team. He was named to the College Football Performance Awards All - Purpose Trophy Watch List and also was selected to the College Football Performance Awards Special Teams Watch List. He was named to the Doak Walker Award Watch List. He finished his college career with a total of 2,424 rushing yards, 37 rushing touchdowns, 50 receptions, 524 receiving yards and 6 receiving touchdowns.
Murray was regarded as a sixth to seventh round selection according to CBSSports.com.
Murray was not invited to the NFL Combine, but garnered much attention with an impressive performance at Central Florida 's Pro Day. Murray weighed in at 6 - foot - 2 5 / 8 and 223 pounds, ran the 40 - yard dash in 4.4 and 4.38 seconds, registered a 10 - foot - 4 broad jump and a 36 - inch vertical jump, ran 4.36 seconds in the short shuttle and 6.81 seconds in the 3 - cone.
Murray was selected by the Oakland Raiders with the 181st overall pick in the sixth round of the 2013 NFL Draft.
The Oakland Raiders signed Murray to a four - year, $2.26 million contract on June 6, 2013. It also included $106,200 guaranteed and a signing bonus of $106,200.
On August 27, 2013, before the start of the regular season, Murray was placed on injured reserve, ending his rookie season.
After being third on the depth chart for the first half of the season behind veterans Darren McFadden and Maurice Jones - Drew, the Raiders turned to Murray in Week 11 to provide a spark after ineffectiveness by McFadden and Jones - Drew all year. He responded by totaling 59 yards on 7 touches against the San Diego Chargers. On November 20, 2014, he finished with 4 carries for 112 rushing yards and 2 rushing touchdowns, marking his first career touchdown against the Kansas City Chiefs. It also marked the first rushing touchdown the Chiefs defense allowed all season and his 90 - yard touchdown marked the longest rush for the Raiders that year. The solid performance by Murray contributed to the Raiders ' first victory of the 2014 season. After having success on his first three attempts, he suffered a concussion on his fourth carry and was taken out of the game.
He returned to play against the San Francisco 49ers in week 14 and finished the game with 23 carries for 76 rushing yards. The next week, he earned his first career start against the Chiefs and had 12 rushing attempts for 59 yards. In week 16, he gained 86 yards on 16 carries and had his second consecutive start against the Buffalo Bills. He remained the starting running back for the last three games of the season and finished his first year with 82 carries, 424 rushing yards, 2 rushing touchdowns in 15 games.
Murray entered the season as the Raiders ' number one tailback and was expected by the Raiders to receive the majority of the carries after the retirement of Maurice Jones - Drew and the departure of Darren McFadden. As expected, he began the season as the Raiders ' starting running back and had 11 attempts for 44 yards in the season opener against the Cincinnati Bengals. In a week 3 contest, Murray finished the game with a career - high 139 yards on 26 carries and added a touchdown in a win over the Cleveland Browns.
On December 24, 2015, Murray became the first Raider to reach the 1,000 - yard mark rushing, since Darren McFadden in 2010. His performance of 79 yards on 19 carries, 38 yards on 5 receptions and a rushing touchdown, helped edge a victory over the San Diego Chargers with a final score of 23 -- 20 on a Thursday night in overtime.
Murray finished the regular season playing in 14 games and rushing for 788 yards and a career - high 12 rushing touchdowns. Murray 's pass protecting ability was rated third best in the NFL among running backs.
On March 16, 2017, Murray signed a three - year contract with the Minnesota Vikings. In his opening statement to Vikings fans, Murray stated on his Instagram account: "There was n't a thought in my mind to try and wear or ask for the No. 28. I have too much respect for Adrian Peterson and so much respect for what he 's done and what he means to this organization. '' During his first press conference as a Viking, Murray announced that he would be wearing No. 25 in honor of his best friend, who had died in 2016. On March 22, 2017, it was revealed Murray underwent ankle surgery.
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what are three types of government in india | Government - wikipedia
A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, often a state.
In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government is a means by which organizational policies are enforced, as well as a mechanism for determining policy. Each government has a kind of constitution, a statement of its governing principles and philosophy. Typically the philosophy chosen is some balance between the principle of individual freedom and the idea of absolute state authority (tyranny).
While all types of organizations have governance, the word government is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200 independent national governments on Earth, as well as subsidiary organizations.
Historically prevalent forms of government include monarchy, aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, theocracy and tyranny. The main aspect of any philosophy of government is how political power is obtained, with the two main forms being electoral contest and hereditary succession.
A government is the system to govern a state or community.
The word government derives, ultimately, from the Greek verb κυβερνάω (kubernáo) (meaning to steer with gubernaculum (rudder), the metaphorical sense being attested in Plato 's Ship of State).
The Columbia Encyclopedia defines government as "a system of social control under which the right to make laws, and the right to enforce them, is vested in a particular group in society ''.
While all types of organizations have governance, the word government is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200 independent national governments on Earth, as well as their subsidiary organizations.
In the Commonwealth of Nations, the word government is also used more narrowly to refer to the ministry (collective executive), a collective group of people that exercises executive authority in a state or, metonymically, to the governing cabinet as part of the executive.
Finally, government is also sometimes used in English as a synonym for governance.
The moment and place that the phenomenon of human government developed is lost in time; however, history does record the formations of early governments. About 5,000 years ago, the first small city - states appeared. By the third to second millenniums BC, some of these had developed into larger governed areas: Sumer, Ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilization, and the Yellow River Civilization.
The development of agriculture and water control projects were a catalyst for the development of governments. For many thousands of years when people were hunter - gatherers and small scale farmers, humans lived in small, non-hierarchical and self - sufficient communities. On occasion a chief of a tribe was elected by various rituals or tests of strength to govern his tribe, sometimes with a group of elder tribesmen as a council. The human ability to precisely communicate abstract, learned information allowed humans to become ever more effective at agriculture, and that allowed for ever increasing population densities. David Christian explains how this resulted in states with laws and governments:
As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between different groups increased and the social pressure rose until, in a striking parallel with star formation, new structures suddenly appeared, together with a new level of complexity. Like stars, cities and states reorganize and energize the smaller objects within their gravitational field.
Starting at the end of the 17th century, the prevalence of republican forms of government grew. The Glorious Revolution in England, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution contributed to the growth of representative forms of government. The Soviet Union was the first large country to have a Communist government. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, liberal democracy has become an even more prevalent form of government.
In the nineteenth and twentieth century, there was a significant increase in the size and scale of government at the national level. This included the regulation of corporations and the development of the welfare state.
In political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities, as typologies of political systems are not obvious. It is especially important in the political science fields of comparative politics and international relations. Like all categories discerned within forms of government, the boundaries of government classifications are either fluid or ill - defined.
Superficially, all governments have an official or ideal form. The United States is a constitutional republic, while the former Soviet Union was a socialist republic. However self - identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, defining regimes can be tricky. For example, elections are a defining characteristic of an electoral democracy, but in practice elections in the former Soviet Union were not "free and fair '' and took place in a one - party state. Voltaire argued that "the Holy Roman Empire is neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire ''. Many governments that officially call themselves a "democratic republic '' are not democratic, nor a republic; they are usually a dictatorship de facto. Communist dictatorships have been especially prone to use this term. For example, the official name of North Vietnam was "The Democratic Republic of Vietnam ''. China uses a variant, "The People 's Republic of China ''. Thus in many practical classifications it would not be considered democratic.
Identifying a form of government is also difficult because many political systems originate as socio - economic movements and are then carried into governments by parties naming themselves after those movements; all with competing political - ideologies. Experience with those movements in power, and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government, can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves.
Other complications include general non-consensus or deliberate "distortion or bias '' of reasonable technical definitions to political ideologies and associated forms of governing, due to the nature of politics in the modern era. For example: The meaning of "conservatism '' in the United States has little in common with the way the word 's definition is used elsewhere. As Ribuffo notes, "what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism ''. Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been chiefly associated with the Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation many Southern Democrats were conservatives, and they played a key role in the Conservative Coalition that controlled Congress from 1937 to 1963.
Every country in the world is ruled by a system of governance that combines at least three or more political or economic attributes. Additionally, opinions vary by individuals concerning the types and properties of governments that exist. "Shades of gray '' are commonplace in any government and its corresponding classification. Even the most liberal democracies limit rival political activity to one extent or another while the most tyrannical dictatorships must organize a broad base of support thereby creating difficulties for "pigeonholing '' governments into narrow categories. Examples include the claims of the United States as being a plutocracy rather than a democracy since some American voters believe elections are being manipulated by wealthy Super PACs.
The Classical Greek philosopher Plato discusses five types of regimes: aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy and tyranny. Plato also assigns a man to each of these regimes to illustrate what they stand for. The tyrannical man would represent tyranny for example. These five regimes progressively degenerate starting with aristocracy at the top and tyranny at the bottom.
One method of classifying governments is through which people have the authority to rule. This can either be one person (an autocracy, such as monarchy), a select group of people (an aristocracy), or the people as a whole (a democracy, such as a republic).
The division of governments as monarchy, aristocracy and democracy has been used since Aristotle 's Politics. In his book Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes expands on this classification.
The difference of Commonwealths consisteth in the difference of the sovereign, or the person representative of all and every one of the multitude. And because the sovereignty is either in one man, or in an assembly of more than one; and into that assembly either every man hath right to enter, or not every one, but certain men distinguished from the rest; it is manifest there can be but three kinds of Commonwealth. For the representative must needs be one man, or more; and if more, then it is the assembly of all, or but of a part. When the representative is one man, then is the Commonwealth a monarchy; when an assembly of all that will come together, then it is a democracy, or popular Commonwealth; when an assembly of a part only, then it is called an aristocracy. Other kind of Commonwealth there can be none: for either one, or more, or all, must have the sovereign power (which I have shown to be indivisible) entire.
An autocracy is a system of government in which supreme power is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for the implicit threat of a coup d'état or mass insurrection).
A despotism is a government ruled by a single entity with absolute power, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regular mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for implicit threat). That entity may be an individual, as in an autocracy, or it may be a group, as in an oligarchy. The word despotism means to "rule in the fashion of despots ''.
A monarchy is where a family or group of families (rarely another type of group), called the royalty, represents national identity, with power traditionally assigned to one of its individuals, called the monarch, who mostly rule kingdoms. The actual role of the monarch and other members of royalty varies from purely symbolical (crowned republic) to partial and restricted (constitutional monarchy) to completely despotic (absolute monarchy). Traditionally and in most cases, the post of the monarch is inherited, but there are also elective monarchies where the monarch is elected.
Aristocracy (Greek ἀριστοκρατία aristokratía, from ἄριστος aristos "excellent '', and κράτος kratos "power '') is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class.
An oligarchy is ruled by a small group of segregated, powerful or influential people who usually share similar interests or family relations. These people may spread power and elect candidates equally or not equally. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or monarchic. An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler but several rulers.
Some historical examples of oligarchy are the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Some critics of representative democracy think of the United States as an oligarchy. The Athenian democracy used sortition to elect candidates, almost always male, Greek, educated citizens holding a minimum of land, wealth and status.
A theocracy is rule by a religious elite; a system of governance composed of religious institutions in which the state and the church are traditionally or constitutionally the same entity. The Vatican 's (see Pope), Iran 's (see Supreme Leader), Tibetan government 's (see Dalai Lama), Caliphates and other Islamic states are historically considered theocracies.
In a general sense, in a democracy, all the people of a state or polity are involved in making decisions about its affairs. Also refer to the rule by a government chosen by election where most of the populace are enfranchised. The key distinction between a democracy and other forms of constitutional government is usually taken to be that the right to vote is not limited by a person 's wealth or race (the main qualification for enfranchisement is usually having reached a certain age). A democratic government is, therefore, one supported (at least at the time of the election) by a majority of the populace (provided the election was held fairly). A "majority '' may be defined in different ways. There are many "power - sharing '' (usually in countries where people mainly identify themselves by race or religion) or "electoral - college '' or "constituency '' systems where the government is not chosen by a simple one - vote - per - person headcount.
In democracies, large proportions of the population may vote, either to make decisions or to choose representatives to make decisions. Commonly significant in democracies are political parties, which are groups of people with similar ideas about how a country or region should be governed. Different political parties have different ideas about how the government should handle different problems.
Liberal democracy is a variant of democracy. It is a form of government in which representative democracy operates under the principles of liberalism. It is characterised by fair, free, and competitive elections between multiple distinct political parties, a separation of powers into different branches of government, the rule of law in everyday life as part of an open society, and the protection of human rights and civil liberties for all persons. To define the system in practice, liberal democracies often draw upon a constitution, either formally written or uncodified, to delineate the powers of government and enshrine the social contract. After a period of sustained expansion throughout the 20th century, liberal democracy became the predominant political system in the world. A liberal democracy may take various constitutional forms: it may be a republic, such as France, Germany, India, Ireland, Italy, Taiwan, or the United States; or a constitutional monarchy, such as Japan, Spain, or the United Kingdom. It may have a presidential system (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, or the United States), a semi-presidential system (France, Portugal, or Taiwan), or a parliamentary system (Australia, Canada, Germany, Ireland, India, Italy, New Zealand, or the United Kingdom).
A republic is a form of government in which the country is considered a "public matter '' (Latin: res publica), not the private concern or property of the rulers, and where offices of states are subsequently directly or indirectly elected or appointed rather than inherited. The people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. A common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Montesquieu included both democracies, where all the people have a share in rule, and aristocracies or oligarchies, where only some of the people rule, as republican forms of government.
Other terms used to describe different republics include Democratic republic, Parliamentary republic, Federal republic, and Islamic Republic.
Rule by authoritarian governments is identified in societies where a specific set of people possess the authority of the state in a republic or union. It is a political system controlled by unelected rulers who usually permit some degree of individual freedom. Rule by a totalitarian government is characterised by a highly centralised and coercive authority that regulates nearly every aspect of public and private life.
In contrast, a constitutional republic is rule by a government whose powers are limited by law or a formal constitution, and chosen by a vote amongst at least some sections of the populace (Ancient Sparta was in its own terms a republic, though most inhabitants were disenfranchised). Republics that exclude sections of the populace from participation will typically claim to represent all citizens (by defining people without the vote as "non-citizens ''). Examples include the United States, South Africa, India, etc.
Federalism is a political concept in which a group of members are bound together by covenant (Latin: foedus, covenant) with a governing representative head. The term "federalism '' is also used to describe a system of government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units (such as states or provinces). Federalism is a system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial / state governments, creating what is often called a federation. Proponents are often called federalists.
Historically, most political systems originated as socioeconomic ideologies. Experience with those movements in power and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves.
Certain major characteristics are defining of certain types; others are historically associated with certain types of government.
This list focuses on differing approaches that political systems take to the distribution of sovereignty, and the autonomy of regions within the state.
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when was the metric system introduced in the uk | Metrication in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
Metrication in the United Kingdom, the process of introducing the metric system of measurement in place of imperial units, has made steady progress since the mid -- 20th century but today remains equivocal and varies by context. Most of government, industry and commerce use metric units, but imperial units are officially used to specify journey distances, vehicle speeds and the sizes of returnable milk containers, beer and cider glasses (though fresh milk is often still sold in multiples of pints, with the metric equivalent also marked). Imperial units are also often used to describe body measurements and vehicle fuel economy. In schools metric units are taught and used as the norm and imperial units that remain in common usage in the UK must also be taught.
Adopting the metric system was discussed in Parliament as early as 1818 and some industries and even some government agencies had metricated, or were in the process of metricating by the mid 1960s. A formal government policy to support metrication was agreed by 1965. This policy, initiated in response to requests from industry, was to support voluntary metrication, with costs picked up where they fell. In 1969 the government created the Metrication Board as a quango to promote and coordinate metrication. In 1978, after some carpet retailers reverted to pricing by the square yard rather than the square metre, government policy shifted, and they started issuing orders making metrication mandatory in certain sectors. In 1980 government policy shifted again to prefer voluntary metrication, and the Metrication Board was abolished. By the time the Metrication Board was wound up, all the economic sectors that fell within its remit except road signage and parts of the retail trade sector had metricated.
The treaty of accession to the European Economic Community (EEC), which the United Kingdom joined in 1973, obliged the United Kingdom to incorporate into domestic law all EEC directives, including the use of a prescribed SI - based set of units for many purposes within five years. By 1980 most pre-packaged goods were sold using the prescribed units. Mandatory use of prescribed units for retail sales took effect in 1995 for packaged goods and in 2000 for goods sold loose by weight. The use of "supplementary indications '' or alternative units (generally the traditional imperial units formerly used) was originally to have been permitted for only a limited period. That period being extended a number of times due to public resistance, until in 2009 the requirement to ultimately cease use of traditional units alongside metric units was finally removed.
British scientists, philosophers and engineers have been at the forefront of the development of metrication -- in 1668 John Wilkins first proposed a coherent system of units of measure, in 1861 a committee of the British Association for Advancement of Science (BAAS), including William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin), James Clerk Maxwell and Joule among its members, defined various electrical units in terms of metric rather than imperial units, and in the 1870s Johnson, Matthey & Co manufactured the international prototype metre and kilogram.
When James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne in 1603, England and Scotland had different systems of measure. Superficially the English and the Scots units of measure were similar -- many had the same names -- but there were differences in their sizes: in particular the Scots pint and gallon were more than twice the size of their English counterparts. In 1707, under the Act of Union, the Parliaments of England and Scotland were merged and the English units of measurement became the standard for the whole new Kingdom of Great Britain. The practical effect of this was that both systems were used in Scotland, and the Scottish measures remained in common use until the Weights and Measures Act 1824 outlawed them.
This period marked the Age of Enlightenment, when people started using the power of reason to reform society and advance knowledge. Britons played their role in the realm of measurement, laying down practical and philosophical foundations for a decimal system of measurement which were ultimately to provide the building blocks of the metric system.
One of the earliest decimal measuring devices, developed in 1620 by the English clergyman and mathematician Edmund Gunter, introduced two new units of measure -- the chain and the link -- and a new measuring device: Gunter 's chain. Gunter 's chain was one chain (one tenth of a furlong) in length and consisted of 100 links, making each link 0.001 furlongs. The decimal nature of these units and of the device made it easy to calculate the area of a rectangle of land in acres and decimal fractions of an acre.
In 1670, John Wilkins, the first president of the Royal Society, published his proposal for a decimal system of measure, in his work An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language. His proposal envisaged a system of units in which the base unit of length was defined by a pendulum that had a period of one second, and the base unit of mass was defined by a cube of rainwater having sides equal to the base unit of length. He recycled the existing names of units of measure, so that there were 10 lines in an inch, 10 inches in a foot, and so on. A century later, his concept of defining unit mass in terms of a cube of water with edges of unit length was one of the fundamental concepts of the metric system.
Having difficulties in communicating with German scientists, the Scottish inventor James Watt, in 1783, called for the creation of a global decimal measurement system. A letter of invitation, in 1790, from the French National Assembly to the British Parliament to help create such a system using the length of a pendulum as the base unit of length received the support of the British Parliament, championed by John Riggs Miller, but when the French overthrew their monarchy and decided to use the meridional definition of the metre as their base unit, Britain withdrew support. The French continued alone and created the foundations of what is now called the Système International d'Unités and is the measurement system for most of the world.
In 1799, the French created, and started to use, a new system with the metre and the kilogram as the units of length and mass. As use of this new system, originally called the "Decimal System '', spread through Europe, there were some calls in the United Kingdom for decimalisation. The issue of decimalisation of measurement was intertwined in the United Kingdom with decimalisation of currency. The idea was first discussed by a Royal Commission that reported in 1818, and again in Parliament by Sir John Wrottesley in 1824. Another Royal Commission was set up 1838 by Chancellor of the Exchequer Thomas Spring Rice and it reported in 1841 that decimal coinage was required first. A third commission in 1853 advocated decimal coinage in the form £ 1: 10 florins: 100 cents: 1000 mils. The first florins (one tenth of a pound sterling) were struck in 1849 as silver coins weighing 11.3 grams (0.40 ounces) and having a diameter of 28 millimetres (1.1 inches).
An early supporter of the Decimal Association was the mathematician Augustus de Morgan whose articles supporting the metric system had been published in the Penny Cyclopeadia (1833) and The Companion to the Almanac (1841). A few days later Wrottesley met with Gladstone, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, but was unable to win him over to the idea. The inherent problems associated with handling multiple currencies and systems of units encountered in the Great Exhibition of 1851 triggered calls for a standardisation of units across Europe with the metric system being suggested as the natural choice. In 1854, de Morgan was influential in setting up the "Decimal Association '' to lobby for decimalisation of both measurement and coinage. In 1862, the Select Committee on Weights and Measures favoured the introduction of decimalisation to accompany the introduction of metric weights and measures. A further Royal Commission "on the question of the introduction of metric system of weights and measures '' also reported in 1869
In 1863, a bill which would have mandated the use of the metric system throughout the British Empire, and which had passed its first and second readings in the House of Commons, was rejected at its Commons Committee stage as impractical, and so did not pass into law. The following year, after pressure from the astronomers George Airy and Sir John Herschel, the bill was watered down to merely legalise the use of the metric system in contracts. It was presented and passed as a Private Member 's Bill. Ambiguous wording in the 1864 Act meant that traders who possessed metric weights and measures were still liable to arrest under the Weights and Measures Act 1835 5 ° & 6 ° William IV. Cap. 63.
While the politicians were discussing whether or not to adopt the metric system, British scientists were in the forefront in developing the system. In 1845, a paper by James Prescott Joule proved the equivalence of mechanical and thermal energy, a concept that is vital to the metric system -- in SI, power is measured in watts and energy in joules regardless of whether it is mechanical, electrical or thermal.
In 1861, a committee of the British Association for Advancement of Science (BAAS) including William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin), James Clerk Maxwell and Joule among its members was tasked with investigating the "Standards of Electrical Resistance ''. In their first report (1862), they laid the ground rules for their work -- the metric system was to be used and measures of electrical energy must have the same units as measures of mechanical energy. In the second report (1863), they introduced the concept of a coherent system of units whereby units of length, mass and time were identified as "fundamental units '' (now known as base units). All other units of measure could be derived (hence derived units) from these base units.
In 1873, another committee of the BAAS that also counted Maxwell and Thomson among its members and was tasked with "the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical Units ''. They recommended the CGS (centimetre - gram - second) system of units. The committee also recommended the names "dyne '' and "erg '' for the CGS units of force and energy. The CGS system became the basis for scientific work for the next seventy years.
In 1875, a British delegation was one of twenty national delegations to a convention in Paris that resulted in seventeen of the nations signing the Metre Convention on 20 May 1875, and the establishment of three bodies, the CGPM, CIPM and BIPM, that were charged with overseeing weights and measures on behalf of the international community. The United Kingdom was one of the countries that declined to sign the convention. In 1882 the British firm Johnson, Matthey & Co secured an agreement with the French government to supply 30 standard metres and 40 standard kilograms. Two years later the United Kingdom signed the treaty and the following year it was found that the standard yard which had been in use since 1855 had been shrinking at the rate of one part per million every twenty years. In 1889, one of the standard metres and one of the standard kilograms that had been cast by Johnson, Matthey & Co were selected at random as the reference standard and the other standards, having been cross-correlated with each other, were distributed to the signatory nations of the treaty.
In 1896, Parliament passed the Weights and Measures (Metric System) Act, legalising metric units for all purposes but not making them compulsory.
The situation was clarified in 1897 following another Select Committee which also recommended that metrication become compulsory by 1899. In 1902, an Empire conference decided that metrication should be compulsory across the British Empire. In 1904, scientist Lord Kelvin led a campaign for metrication and collected 8 million signatures of British subjects. On the opposition side, 1904 saw the establishment of the British Weights and Measures Association for "the purpose of defending and, where practicable, improving the present system of weights and measures ''. At this time 45 % of British exports were to metricated countries. Parliament voted to set up a Select Committee on the matter.
This Select Committee reported in 1907 and a bill was drafted proposing compulsory metrication by 1910, including decimalisation of coinage.
The matter was dropped in the face of wars and depression, and would not be again raised until the White Paper of 1951, the result of the Hodgson Committee Report of 1949 which unanimously recommended compulsory metrication and currency decimalisation within ten years. The report said "The real problem facing Great Britain is not whether to adhere either to the Imperial or to the metric system, but whether to maintain two legal systems or to abolish the Imperial. '' The report also recommended that any change should be implemented in concert with the Commonwealth (former Empire) and the USA, that the United Kingdom adopt a decimal currency and that the United Kingdom and United States harmonise their respective definitions of the yard using the metre as a reference. The Hodgson Report was originally rejected by British industry, but in 1959 the United Kingdom and United States redefined their respective yards to be 0.9144 m exactly.
The introduction of the metric system was a topic at the Fifth Commonwealth Standards Conference that was held in Sydney in 1962. The following year a poll by the British Standards Institute (BSI) revealed that the majority of its members favoured a transition to the metric system and two years later (1965), after taking a poll of its members, the Confederation of British Industry informed the government that they favoured the adoption of the metric system, though some sectors emphasised the need for a voluntary system of adoption.
In 1966 the Government announced the adoption in 1971 of a decimal currency.
In 1965, the then Federation of British Industry informed the British Government that its members favoured the adoption of the metric system. The Board of Trade, on behalf of the Government, agreed to support a ten - year metrication programme. There would be minimal legislation as the programme was to be voluntary and costs were to be borne where they fell.
Work on adapting specifications started almost as soon as the government first gave its approval in 1965. The BSI took the lead in coordinating the efforts of industry, and where appropriate working with the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), CEE, CEN and CENELEC while the Royal Society liaised with professional societies, schools and the like. Initially the BSI targeted 1200 basic standards which were converted to metric units by 1970. Most of the remaining 4000 standards were converted in the ensuing five years.
There were three principal ways in which metrication was implemented:
In July 1968, following the publication of a report from the Standing Joint Committee on Metrication, the government announced that an advisory metrication board would be set up as soon as possible, to oversee the metrication process, with a target completion date of the end of 1975. The report favoured the board being made up of part - time members drawn from commerce and industry, with government, education and consumer interests also being represented. In December 1968 the government announced the set up of the Metrication Board to coordinate the metrication programme, with Lord Ritchie - Calder being appointed as chairman. By this time much of the groundwork, especially rewriting of many British Standards using metric units, had been done and many of the industries that stood to benefit from metrication had already metricated, or had a metrication programme in progress.
The general election of 18 June 1970 resulted in a change of government and four months later, on 27 October 1970, following an anti-metrication motion being tabled calling on the new government not to continue with the previous government 's metrication commitments, the government announced that a White Paper would be produced to examine the cost, savings, advantages and disadvantages of a change to the metric system. During the debate when the announcement was made, Conservative MPs complained that metrication was being introduced by stealth.
The White Paper was published in February 1972, and it set out the case for metrication and refuted the charge of metrication by stealth as metric units had been lawful for most purposes since 1897. It also reported that metrication would be necessary for the UK to join the European Common Market and that as British industry was exporting to all parts of the world they would benefit. It also reiterated the previous government 's policy that metrication should be voluntary and hoped metrication would be mostly complete within ten years. The expectation was also expressed that with both the imperial and metric systems coexisting for many years, that consumers would gradually become familiar and comfortable with the metric system.
Shortly after the publication of the White Paper, the Minister of Transport announced postponement of the metrication of speed limits, which had been scheduled for 1973. The rest of the metrication programme continued, with the following completion dates:
Yet the target of completion by 1975 "in concert with the Commonwealth '' was not achieved; Australia, New Zealand and South Africa all completed their metrication processes by 1980.
There was no single approach to the metrication of the engineering industry: in some areas soft metrication was applied and in others hard metrication. In certain branches metrication was achieved by adopting the equivalent European or international standard, but this was not always possible as certain standards, such as BS 1363 which defined electric plugs were peculiarly British while the petrochemical industry had standardised on API and ANSI standards.
An example of a hard metrication changeover was the threaded fastener industry (nuts and bolts) where 21 "first choice '' BSW, BSF and BA series thread in the range 0 BA to 1 inch plus another 20 UNC and UNF fasteners were replaced by just seven metric sizes. This resulted in considerable cost savings, not only due to the reduction in inventories, but also the numbers of taps, dies, tapping and clearance drills that workshops held.
An example of soft conversion was within the construction products industry (metricated 1969 and 1972) where certain products continue to be produced to with reference to Imperial trade names but made using metric dimensions in the factory; for example, a 13 mm thick plasterboard is still often called ' half - inch ', even though the measurement is rounded to a convenient metric size and so is now only approximately half an inch thick. The construction industry itself (which included civil engineering projects) was one of the leaders in the metrication programme, having drawn up a detailed plan in 1967 and completing the phase - over by the end 1972.
The BSI, after consultations with the engineering industry, had set a target of 75 % of the industry being metric by the end of 1975. This target was not reached, one of the principal reasons being that other sectors, especially the retail sector, were lagging in reaching their targets.
In England and Wales, unlike Scotland, education was controlled at county council level rather than at national level. In 1967 the Department for Education alerted all local education authorities to the need to adapt to the metric system. In 1968 all bodies that had an interest in the examination system were invited to contribute to the discussion of both metrication and decimalisation in education. In science subjects, this meant a conversion from the cgs system to SI, in geography from the imperial system to SI while in mathematics it meant discarding the teaching of mixed unit arithmetic, a topic that took up a significant part of the time allocated in primary schools to arithmetic / mathematics and 7 % of total time allocated to all subjects.
In Scotland, virtually all examinations set from 1973 onwards have used SI, especially those connected with science and engineering. In England, each examination board had its own timetable -- the Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations, for example, announced a change to SI in 1968, with examinations in science and mathematics using SI by 1972, Geography in 1973 and Home Economics and various craft subjects being converted by the end of 1976. Pupils were hampered by a revolution in teaching methods that was taking place at the same time and a lack of coordination at the national level. According to a report in 1982, children were taught the relationship between decimal counting, decimal money and metric measurements, with time being the only quantity whose units were manipulated in a mixed - unit manner.
The year 1988 saw the introduction, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland of the National Curriculum, in which SI is the principal system of measurement and calculation. Following devolution, there are now separate but similar curricula for state schools in England and Wales and Northern Ireland. They provide for pupils to be taught to measure, calculate and solve problems using the metric system, but also to be cognisant of the Imperial measurements still in common use and their approximate metric equivalents.
Scotland has always had a separate education system Curriculum for Excellence and there the units of measurement taught in education are the SI or metric system.
The retail industry proved difficult for the Metrication Board. The sector saw little benefit in metrication -- competition was fierce and margins low. The opinions of the trade organisations with which the Metrication Board could negotiate were fragmented.
Many sectors of the industry did agree to a programme coordinated by the Metrication Board, with metrication of pre-packaged goods being introduced on a commodity by commodity basis. In 1977 when a carpet retailing chain reneged on an industry - wide agreement to use metric units (carpeting at £ 8.36 per square yard being much more appealing to the customer than carpeting at £ 10.00 per square metre), it became necessary for the first time to use legislation to enforce metrication rather than to rely on a voluntary adoption of the system.
Much of the retail industry was metricated during 1977 and 1978 by means of statutory orders.
By the beginning of 1980, 95 % of the "basic shopping basket '' of foods were sold in metric quantities, with only a few products not being sold in prescribed metric quantities. The final report of the Metrication Board catalogues dried vegetables, dried fruit, flour and flour products, oat products, cocoa and chocolate powder, margarine, instant coffee, pasta, biscuits, bread, sugar, corn flakes, salt, white fats, dripping and shredded suet as being sold by prescribed metric quantities while no agreement had been reached with the industry regarding jam, marmalade, honey, jelly preserves, syrup, cereal grain and starches.
When the Metrication Board was abolished in 1980, agreement had been reached with the EEC regarding the use of certain imperial measures until the end of 1989, a date that was subsequently extended to 1999. By this date most pre-packaged goods were sold in metric quantities with loose goods and goods weighed in front of the customer continuing to be sold in imperial quantities. In 1999, when the British Government allowed the derogation for the use of imperial units to lapse, all goods (apart from beer, cider and milk in returnable containers) had to be priced in metric units.
The changeover to selling of petrol by the litre rather than by the gallon took place after the Board was wound up. It was prompted by a technical shortcoming of petrol pump design: pumps (which were electro - mechanical) had been designed to be switchable between metric and imperial units, but had no provisions for prices above £ 1.999 per unit of fuel. Once the price of petrol rose above £ 1 per gallon, the industry requested that they be permitted to sell fuel by the litre rather than the gallon, enabling them to reduce the unit price by a factor of about 4.5 and so to extend the lives of existing pumps.
In the United Kingdom, draught beer and cider are the only goods that may not be sold in metric units; the only legal measures for these are ⁄ pint (190 ml) (rarely encountered), ⁄ pint (283 ml) and multiples of the pint. Other alcoholic drinks for consumption on the premises are sold by metric measure: the ⁄, ⁄ and ⁄ gill measures for spirits (whisky, gin, rum and vodka) were replaced by 25 ml and 35 ml measures on 1 January 1995 and since 1995 wine may only be sold in 125 ml, 175 ml or 250 ml glasses. (Prior to 1995, the size of wine glasses was unregulated.)
Before the Hodgson Committee, the metrication process was already in operation. One example was the Ordnance Survey, the national mapping agency for Great Britain, which initiated the Retriangulation of Great Britain in 1936, using metric measures. A metric National Grid was then used as the basis for maps published by the Ordnance Survey from World War II onwards, the War Office maps having had a metric grid since 1920. The Ordnance Survey decided on full metrication in 1964. The best - selling 1 inch to the mile range of maps started being replaced with the 1: 50000 range in 1969. The metrication of Admiralty Charts began in 1967 as part of a modernisation programme. As of 2013, road and street maps with primary scales in inches per mile were still being produced by the company Geographers ' A -- Z Street Atlas. (1) (2)
Another example was the Met Office who, in 1962, started publishing temperatures in both Celsius and Fahrenheit, dropping the use of Fahrenheit from their official reports in 1970.
Many other sectors metricated their operations in the late 1960s or early 1970s, invisibly to the general public, though their use of metric units can be seen in the financial pages of the leading newspapers. Such sectors included the principal London commodity markets (apart from the oil industry) the London Metal Exchange, and the various agricultural markets.
The basic features of the British metrication programme as announced in 1966 was a voluntary adoption of the metric programme with the costs being absorbed where they fell. As a result, the costs and savings of metrication in the United Kingdom have not been comprehensively determined and studies have tended to focus on specific programmes. The impact of a voluntary programme meant that industry was free to take the most cost - efficient approach, which in many cases has meant installing equipment calibrated in metric units as part of an ongoing maintenance cycle rather than as part of a specific metrication programme. Such an approach was taken by the gas industry where all newly installed meters record usage in cubic metres, but many older installations will measure in cubic feet.
A 1970s study by the United Kingdom chemical industry estimated costs at £ 6m over seven years, or 0.25 % of expected capital investment over the change period. Other estimates ranged from 0.04 % of a large company 's turnover spread over seven years to 2 % of a small company 's turnover for a single year. Many companies reported recouping their costs within a year as a result of improved production.
Some 90 % of United Kingdom exports go to metric countries (as only Liberia, Myanmar and the United States have not adopted the International System of Units), and there are costs to business of maintaining two production lines (one for exports to the US in US customary units, and the other for domestic sales and exports to the rest of the world in metric). These have been estimated at 3 % of annual turnover by the Institute of Production Engineers, and at £ 1.1 billion (1980) per annum by the CBI. Regardless of United Kingdom metrication, goods produced in the United Kingdom for export to the United States would have still been labelled in non-metric units to comply with the US Fair Packaging and Labelling Act.
In 1978 the cost of converting road signs from miles to kilometres in the United Kingdom was estimated to be between £ 71⁄2 and £ 81⁄2 million (1978 prices). A 2005 report pointed to the metrication of the United Kingdom 's two million road signs as the major cost of completing the United Kingdom 's metrication programme. The Department for Transport (DfT) costed the replacement of all of the United Kingdom 's road signs in a short period of time at between £ 565 million and £ 644 million. In 2008 -- 09, before the outcome of the consultations that led to the EU directive 2009 / 3 / EC was known, the DfT had a contingency of £ 746 million for the metrication of roads signs.
Traditionally, weights and measures legislation in the United Kingdom only applied to trade, but when the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community, it had to align its legislation with EEC directives that were in place. These directives included EEC directive 71 / 354 / EEC which related to weights and measures and which required the United Kingdom to formally define in law a number of units of measure, hitherto formally undefined in law including those for electric current (ampere), electric potential difference (volt), temperature (degree Celsius and kelvin), pressure (pascal), energy (joule) and power (watt).
Due to public opposition to metrication (a 1979 survey indicated that, of people who knew about the programme, 46 % opposed it and 31 % supported it), the programme stalled. In the late 1970s, the United Kingdom government asked the EEC to postpone the deadlines for the introduction of metric units. The result was the repeal of directive 71 / 354 / EEC and the introduction of directive 80 / 181 / EEC. This new directive contained a derogation allowing for the continued use in the United Kingdom, until the end of 1989 (subsequently extended to 1995), of many imperial units then in use for trade. The directive should have been transposed into United Kingdom law by 30 June 1981, but this transposition only occurred with the enactment of The Weights and Measures Act 1985, which also removed from the statute book a large number of imperial units of measure that had fallen into disuse as a result of the completed elements of the metrication programme.
At the end of 1988, the derogation was extended generally to the end of 1994, and to the end of 1999 for the sale of loose goods. This amendment was transposed into United Kingdom law by the Units of Measurement Regulations 1994. At the same time, regulations were passed prescribing metric quantities by which the remaining pre-packaged retail commodities not yet defined in metric terms could be sold. From the beginning of 1995, pre-packed coffee, coffee mixtures and coffee bags had to be sold in the prescribed quantities of 57 grams (2 oz), 75 grams (2.6 oz), 113 grams (4 oz) 125 grams (4.4 oz), 227 grams (8 oz), 250 grams (8.8 oz), 340 grams (12 oz), 454 grams (1 lb), 500 grams (1.1 lb), 680 grams (1.50 lb), 750 grams (1.65 lb) or a multiple of 454 grams (1 lb) or of 500 grams (1.1 lb); and honey, jam and marmalade other than diabetic jam or marmalade, jelly preserves and molasses, syrup and treacle in 57 grams (2 oz), 113 grams (4 oz), 227 grams (8 oz), 340 grams (12 oz), 454 grams (1 lb), 680 grams (1.50 lb) or a multiple of 454 grams (1 lb).
The number of units of measure to which derogations applied was reduced with effect from 1 October 1995 and reduced further with effect from 1 January 2000. A direct result of the changes that were effective from 1 January 2000 was the requirement that most loose goods sold by weight, volume or length (for example, potatoes or tomatoes that were sold loose, or cheese or meat that was cut or weighed in front of the customer) must be priced and measured using metric units.
After 1 January 2000, the remaining non-metric units, allowed by United Kingdom law without supplementary indicators for economic, public health, public safety or administrative use, are limited to:
Goods and services sold by a description, as opposed to a price per unit quantity, are not covered by weights and measures legislation; thus, a fence panel sold as "6 foot by 6 foot '' is legal, as is a 6 x 4 inch photograph frame, but a pole sold as "50 pence per linear foot '', with no accompanying metric price, would be illegal.
In response to the specific requirements of the United Kingdom and of Ireland, both of which were in the process of converting to the metric system Directive 80 / 181 / EEC incorporated a provision that any unit of measure could be followed by a "supplementary indicator '', provided that the supplementary indicator was not the dominant unit and that it was "... expressed in characters no larger than those of the corresponding indication... ''. Initially this provision was to have expired in 1989, but it was extended firstly to 1999 and then to 2009. During the 2007 consultations on the revision of the directive, strong representations were made to retain this provision as its removal would impede trade with the United States. When the directive was revised in 2009, the "sunset clause '' was removed from the text.
The EU directive gives no guidance as to what units may or may not be used as supplementary indicators but British legislation has restricted the unit that may be used in this way for purposes of trade to specified imperial units only.
Furthermore, in the United Kingdom it is still common to see imperial packaging sizes marked with metric units. For example, most jars of jam, packs of sausages and tins of golden syrup are marked 454 g.
There are no restrictions on the units that consumers can use when asking for goods, and the use of supplementary indicators and dual - measure weighing scales (provided these have been calibrated in metric) means that it is possible for a consumer to see an imperial price, request an imperial quantity and be supplied with the imperial quantity, provided that the seller legally weighs out and sells the metric equivalent.
In its initial form, the scope of directive 80 / 181 / EEC was restricted to "economic, public health, public safety and administrative '' purposes only. An outcome of the 2007 consultations was a proposal by the EU Commission to extend the scope of the directive to include "consumer protection '' and "environmental issues ''. This was implemented by removing the phrase limiting the scope of the directive, thereby extending it to all matters that come under the ambit of the Internal Market Chapter of the EU Treaty.
The directive specifically excluded units of measurement used in international treaties relating to rail traffic, aviation and shipping such as expressing aircraft altitude in feet.
The United Kingdom 's legislation of 2009 that implemented these changes made no reference to the extension of the directive 's scope.
During the 1990s, a series of statutory instruments relating to weighing devices and to the sale of pre-packaged goods were passed to ensure that United Kingdom law on metrology was harmonised with that of its EEC partners. In line with EEC practice, the meaning of weights displayed on pre-packaged goods was changed in 1980 to show the average weight of each item in the batch rather than the guaranteed minimum weight of each individual item. The EU Measuring Instruments Directive (Directive 2004 / 22 / EU) which intends to create a common market for measuring instruments across the 27 countries of the EU came into force on 30 October 2006 with a ten - year transition period.
The EU non-automatic weighing instrument directive (directive 2009 / 23 / EEC), which came into force in 2009 codified existing regulations regarding the harmonisation of non-automatic weighing devices used for trade, medical purposes or in the preparation of evidence to be heard in court. The directive identified four classes of weighing device ranging from Class I (having a minimum accuracy of 1 part in 50,000) to class IIII (having a minimum accuracy of 1 part in 100). Devices that fall within the scope of the directive are required to be recalibrated at regular intervals and to have an output showing SI units, except for those used for weighing precious metals or stones. Secondary indications may be shown, provided that they can not be mistaken for primary indications.
The impact of this directive in the United Kingdom is that most traders can not legally use weighing devices calibrated in units other than SI units. In 2000, after the deadline for the cessation of selling loose produce by imperial units had passed, some traders continued to sell produce from their market stalls using imperial - only scales. They were variously prosecuted for using unlawful scales, giving short measure and failing to display unit price per kilogram. Five traders, who became known as the Metric Martyrs, appealed unsuccessfully to the High Court, were refused appeal to the House of Lords, and appealed unsuccessfully to the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR).
A LACORS report published in March 2010 highlighting widescale use of inappropriate scales in hospitals, sometimes of domestic quality, recommended that on safety grounds NHS hospitals should use Class III (or better) metric - only scales. A Department of Health alert was subsequently sent to all NHS trusts endorsing these recommendations.
Following the publication of the UK government 's White Paper on metrication in February 1972, the journal New Scientist, reported the lack of urgency in the minister 's handling of the issue and described how the government refused to use its purchasing power to advance the metrication process. It quoted one (unnamed) metricationalist as saying "(The White Paper) is not firming things up at all. It will turn us into a dual country ''.
Studies of the British metrication programme included two by US government agencies -- NASA in October 1976 and the National Bureau of Standards in April 1979. Both reports noted that the British metrication programme lacked leadership from government. This manifest itself in many ways including:
These sentiments were echoed in the final report of the Metrication Board.
The involvement of the European Commission led metrication to be linked in public debate with Euroscepticism, and traditionally Eurosceptic parts of the British press often exaggerating or inventing the extent of enforced metrication. Example stories include the Daily Star, which on 17 January 2001 claimed that beer would soon have to be sold by the litre in pubs, something not demanded in any EU directive.
Reaction to the UK Metric Association report A Very British Mess (2004), the executive summary of which was published in Science in Parliament, was mixed -- the Daily Telegraph, put forward the proposition that the UKMA 's assertion of hostility or indifference by the British public to the metric system was due to the lack of cultural empathy rather than it being "Foreign or European '' while the Economist said that retreat (to the imperial system) was impossible and the current impasse costly ".
An Ipsos MORI telephone survey conducted in September 2007 for The Sun newspaper, entitled "Northern Rock, Metric Measurements And The EU Constitutional Treaty '' found significant opposition to metrication in the sample questioned when asked "How strongly would you support and oppose Britain switching to use entirely metric measurements, rather than continuing to use traditional units? '': The opinion breakdown showed that the greatest variation in opinion was between tabloid and broadsheet readers rather than age, social class or voting intention.
In its final report (1980), the Metrication Board wrote "Today metric units are used in many important areas of British life -- including education; agriculture; construction; industrial materials; much of manufacturing; the wholesaling of petrol, milk, cheese and textiles; fatstock markets and many port fish auctions, nearly all the principal prepacked foods; posts and telecommunications: most freight and customs tariffs; all new and revised Ordnance Survey maps; and athletics. Nevertheless, taken as a whole, Britain is far from being wholly metric. '' The report major identified areas that had not yet been metricated as being the retail petrol trade (metricated in 1984), retail sale of loose goods (metricated in 2000) and roads signs (not metricated).
The report did not address issues related to the media such as news reports and advertising.
The regulations that came into force on 1 January 2000 regarding the sale of loose goods effectively made it mandatory to use metric units in the retail industry for most products though supplementary indicators using certain imperial units were still permitted under United Kingdom law. Various price - marking orders prescribed the sizes in which products could be marketed. Some of these restrictions, such as wine being sold in 750 ml bottles, were derived from EU directives, while others, such as the production of bread in 400 g or 800 g loaves, were applicable to the United Kingdom only. The principle of the Internal Market, backed up by a judgment of the European Court of Justice, required that any product that was legally produced anywhere in the European Union could, in most cases, be sold anywhere in the EU. Thus a 500 g packet of rye bread, legally manufactured in Germany, could be sold in the United Kingdom even though it was not lawful under British law for a British baker to produce an identical 500 g packet of bread.
A consultation by the EU aimed at bypassing this impasse was launched in 2004. The outcome was Directive 2007 / 45 / EC which deregulated prescribed packaging of most products, leaving only wines and liqueurs subject to prescribed EU - wide pre-packaging legislation. While this effectively undid much of the work done by the Metrication Board by deregulating prescribed sizing for over 40 products, the law relating to labelling of products has remained unchanged.
The civil service is bound by law to follow EU directives relating to public administration. Government disseminators of information include the Office for National Statistics and the Ordnance Survey office both of whom, being government departments, use metric units in their work.
Standards pertaining to transport infrastructure were metricated using soft conversions, as part of the general metrication of the engineering industry -- the standard railway track gauges fixed at 4 ft 81⁄2 in in 1845 was redefined as 1.435 m -- a decrease of 0.1 mm but well within the engineering tolerances. Motorway marker posts used by road maintenance teams and emergency services demarcate locations in multiples of 100 m. Standards relating to the design and building of new road and rail vehicles have been metric since the engineering changeover in the 1970s. Imperial units have been retained for both road and railway signage except on new railways such as the Channel Tunnel Rail Link, and the Tyne and Wear Metro and London Tramlink which along with all other modern British tram systems also operate in metric. The Cambrian Line has also changed to metric units with the change to ERMTS signalling. London Underground has converted to using metric units for distances but not for speeds.
Apart from the sale of petrol, which was metricated in the 1980s, motorists have seen little metrication. Speedometers and mandatory information on car advertisements such as fuel consumption are given in both metric and imperial units. The 1994 TSRGD permitted the use of metric units alongside imperial units for width and height warning signs and dual metric / imperial signs became mandatory from March 2015. Distances and speed restrictions are shown only in imperial units.
The UK Metric Association (UKMA) commissioned YouGov to carry out a survey to investigate "public understanding and use of metric and imperial units and of public support for completing the metric changeover ''. The UKMA executive summary of results of the September and November 2013 survey, published in 2014, presents the following points as the key results:
The sample size was 1,978 adults in September and 1,878 in November. The results were weighted and are said by YouGov to be representative of all GB adults (aged 18 +).
A number of advocacy groups exist to promote either the metric or the imperial system. The groups include:
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what kind of car does cruella deville drive in 101 dalmatians | Panther De Ville - wikipedia
The Panther De Ville is a neo-classic luxury vehicle which was produced by Panther Westwinds, the British specialty maker, from 1974 to 1985. The De Ville was conceived by Robert Jankel to appeal to the taste of nouveau riche customers, including singer Elton John and actor Oliver Reed. About 60 De Villes were hand - built, including eleven two - door convertibles (for many years Britain 's most expensive listed production car), and one pink and gold six - door limousine.
With a wheelbase of 142 inches (3,600 mm), the tubular - framed De Ville used a straight - six engine or a V12 engine from Jaguar Cars. The flowing wing lines and big headlights of the De Ville were styled to imitate the Bugatti Royale. The cockpit of the De Ville was modern, without the exterior 's pretense of pre-war styling.
The Panther De Ville was equipped with Jaguar suspension, power steering and automatic transmission, so it was an easy car to drive and quite quick, although poor aerodynamics tended to keep the top speed low. Interiors were lavish and often featured TV sets and drinks bars. The doors of the De Ville were from the BMC 1800 family car.
A Panther De Ville was used in Disney 's 1996 live - action movie 101 Dalmatians as Cruella de Vil 's car. The Jaguar engine in the car was replaced with a small - block Chevrolet V8.
The Panther de Ville was hand painted by Alexander Mitchell
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the sources of law in islamic sharia include all of the following except mgt611 | Constitution of Pakistan - wikipedia
The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: آئین پاکستان ), also known as the 1973 Constitution is the supreme law of Pakistan. Drafted by the government of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, with additional assistance from the country 's opposition parties, it was approved by the Parliament on 10 April and ratified on 14 August 1973.
The Constitution is intended to guide Pakistan 's law and its political culture, and system. It identifies the state (its physical existence and its borders), people and their fundamental rights, state 's constitutional law and orders, and also the constitutional structure and establishment of the institutions and the country 's armed forces. The first three chapters establish the rules, mandate, and separate powers of the three branches of the government: a bicameral legislature; an executive branch governed by the Prime Minister as chief executive; and an apex federal judiciary headed by Supreme Court. The Constitution designates the President of Pakistan as a ceremonial Head of State who is to represent the unity of the state. The first six articles of the constitution outline the political system as federal parliamentary republic system; as well as Islam as its state religion. The Constitution also encapsulates provisions stipulating the legal system 's compliance with Islamic injunctions contained in the Quran and Sunnah.
The Parliament can not make any laws which may be repugnant or contrary to the Constitution, however the Constitution itself may be amended by a two - thirds majority in both the houses of the bicameral Parliament, unlike the previous legal documents of 1956 and 1962. It has been amended over time, and most recent impulses for political upgrades and reforms has been amended. Although enforced in 1973, Pakistan, however, celebrates the adoption of the constitution on 23 March -- when the first set was promulgated in 1956 -- each and every year as Republic Day.
In a radio talk addressed to the people of USA broadcast in February 1948, Jinnah expressed his views regarding Pakistan 's constitution to be in the following way:
The Constitution of Pakistan is yet to be framed by the Pakistan Constituent Assembly, I do not know what the ultimate shape of the constitution is going to be, but I am sure that it will be of a democratic type, embodying the essential principles of Islam. Today these are as applicable in actual life as these were 1300 years ago. Islam and its idealism have taught us democracy. It has taught equality of man, justice and fair play to everybody. We are the inheritors of these glorious traditions and are fully alive to our responsibilities and obligations as framers of the future constitution of Pakistan.
Pakistan was founded in 1947. Before writing a constitution, a Constituent Assembly passed the Objectives Resolution, on the insistence of the ulama and Jamaat - e-Islami, in March 1949 to define the basic directive principles of the new state and to declare state recognition of the sovereignty of Allah over the universe. The Objectives Resolution affirmed the role of democracy and contained religious provisions to enable society to adhere to the teachings of the Quran and Sunnah. The Objectives Resolution has henceforth been inserted as a preamble into each of Pakistan 's subsequent constitutions.
The country 's first constitution was approved in 1956 but abrogated in 1958 after a military Coup d'état. Pakistan 's second constitution was approved in 1962. It granted executive power to the president and abolished the office of the prime minister. It also institutionalised the intervention of military in politics by providing that for twenty years, the president or the defence minister must be a person who had held a rank not lower than that of lieutenant - general in the army. The 1962 constitution was suspended in 1969 and abrogated in 1972.
The 1973 constitution was the first in Pakistan to be framed by elected representatives. Unlike the 1962 constitution it gave Pakistan a parliamentary democracy with executive power concentrated in the office of the prime minister, and the formal head of state -- the president -- limited to acting on the advice of the prime minister.
The Constitution states that all laws are to conform with the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran and Sunnah. The 1973 Constitution also created certain institutions such as the Shariat Court and the Council of Islamic Ideology to channel the interpretation and application of Islam.
After another coup in 1977, the constitution was held in abeyance until it was "restored '' in 1985 but with an amendment (the Eighth) shifting power from the parliament and Prime Minister to the president. Another Amendment (Seventeenth) in 2004 continued this shift, but in 2010, the Eighteenth amendment reduced presidential powers, returning the government to a parliamentary republic.
The successful movement led the establishment of Pakistan, independent from British India in 1947. The British Empire divided British India into two, India and Pakistan.
The provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935, had greatly influenced the state and served its legal document until 1956. In 1950, Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan author the first annexe that would paved a path in drafting of the Constitution. Elected in 1947, the first Constituent Assembly drafted and adopted its first constitution in 1956.
Following the adoption of a constitution in India in 1950, Pakistan 's lawmakers were incentified to work on their constitution. Prime Minister Muhammad Ali and his government officials worked with the opposition parties in the country to formulate a constitution for Pakistan.
Finally, the joint work led to the promulgation of the first set of the constitution on 23 March 1956 -- a day when Pakistan celebrates its Republic Day over the adoption of the constitution. The constitution provided for parliamentary form of government with a unicameral legislature. It officially adopted Pakistan as "Islamic Republic '' and the principle of parity was introduced. Its features were:
By the constitution, Iskander Mirza assumed the presidency but his constant involvement in national affairs, as opposed to Constitution, dismissed four elected prime ministers in two years. Under public pressure, Mirza upheld the coup d'état in 1958, thus virtually suspending the constitution. Shortly afterwards General Ayub Khan deposed Mirza and declared himself president.
General Ayub Khan appointed a Constitution Commission to draft another part of the constitution under Chief Justice Muhammad Shahabuddin. Submitted its considerations on 6 May 1961, Ayub Khan altered the entire version of the constitution which was entirely different from the one recommended by Chief Justice Muhammad Shahabuddin. It was promulgated on 8 June 1962. Main feature of this set was the introduction of the Presidential system and more consolidated powers to the President. No further changes were carried out to oppose the 1956 document. Its features includes:
The military government and President Yahya himself made no efforts to frame a constitution, aside from issuing the extrajudicial order in 1970. Across the country, the expectations were that a National Assembly would be set up by holding a free and fair election. To hold the proposed elections, President Yahya promulgated a Legal Framework Order on 30 March 1970 that also spelled out the fundamental principles of the proposed constitution and the structure and composition of the national and provincial assemblies.
In December 1970, nationwide general elections were held simultaneously for both the national and five provincial assemblies. The polling results turned were simply disastrous from the standpoint of national unity and demonstrated the failure of national integration. No party enjoyed the full confidence of the people of Pakistan. The nationalist Awami League (AL) secured the mandate of East Pakistan but failed to perform in any four provinces of Pakistan. The socialist Pakistan People 's Party (PPP) under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto gained mandate in Punjab and Sind but failed in East Pakistan, NWFP and Balochistan. The general elections truly reflected the ugly political reality: the PPP 's mandate in Pakistan and AL mandate in East Pakistan.
Constitutional crises grew further when AL refused to make concessions over its six points to draft the constitution and instead maintaining that AL had was quiet competent to frame a constitution and to form a central government on its own.
The PPP was not willing to dilute the authority of the federal government in spite of assuring full provincial autonomy for all the provinces of Pakistan. Negotiations on framing the work on constitution were held between January and March 1971 between leaders of PPP, AL, and the military government of Yahya Khan, which turned out to be a failure. Under the LFO, the President Yahya was to decide when the National Assembly was to meet. By 13 February 1971, the President Yahya announced that the National Assembly was to meet at Dhaka on 3 March 1971. By this time the differences between the main parties to the conflict had already crystallized. Over the six - point issue, the PPP was convinced that a federation based on six - point would lead to a feeble confederation in name only and was part of larger Indian plan to break up the Pakistan. These fears were evidently shared by the military leaders in the west, including President Yahya Khan who had publicly described Sheikh Mujibur Rehman as the ' future Prime Minister of Pakistan ' on 14 January 1971. Bhutto announced on 15 February that his party would not attend the National Assembly unless there was ' some amount of reciprocity ' from the Awami League. Sheikh Mujib replied at a press conference on 21 February, asserting that "Our stand is absolutely clear. The constitution will be framed on the basis of the six - points '' '.
Such announcement led the PPP to demand the removal of the National Assembly session or opening session to be postponed. The PPP threatened to stage a large scale general strike in all over the country. Under pressured by PPP, President Yahya postponed the National Assembly session on 25 March which came as a shattering disillusionment to the AL and their supporters throughout East Pakistan. It was seen as a betrayal and as proof of the authorities of the Pakistan to deny them the fruits of their electoral victory. This resulted in the outbreak of violence in East Pakistan. The Awami League launched a non-co - operation movement as they virtually controlled the entire province. Due to disturbances in East Pakistan, no National Assembly session was called and the military moved in East Pakistan to control the situation. The civil disobedience movement turned into armed liberation movement backed by the India.
With India successfully intervening in the conflict, the Pakistan military surrender to the Indian military and almost over ~ 93,000 military personnel were taken as prisoners of war on 16 December 1971. Demoralized, gaining notoriety in the country, and finding himself unable to control the situation, President Yahya ultimately handed over the national power to PPP, of which, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was sworn in on 20 December 1971 as President and as the (first civilian) Chief Martial Law Administrator.
After Bangladesh was formed in 1971, the PPP formed the government and partially enacted the 1962 constitution. President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto called for a constitutional convention and invited the leaders of the all political parties to meet him on 17 April 1972. Leaders and constitutional experts of the Islamic political parties, conservative parties, socialists and communist parties were delegated to attend the constitutional convention in 1972.
The law experts, constitutional analysts, and country 's reputed clergymen worked on formulating the constitution that represents the will and desire of people. Unlike earlier attempts, the convention was not meant for new laws or piecemeal alterations, but for the "sole and express purpose of revising the 1956 articles. '' Also, the convention was not limited to the religion, exigencies of government and the preservation of the State; rather it was intended to maintain delicacy in commerce, finances, issue of loans to federation, and Separation of powers. Several key ideas of the philosophy of John Locke and Islamic provisions on civil rights were interchanged in the Constitution.
The Constitution ultimately established the "Bicameral Parliament '' -- National Assembly as Lower house and Senate as Upper house. It also established the parliamentary form of government with Prime Minister as its head of government; the elected National Assembly genuinely representing the will of the people. The Constitution truly maintained a delicate balance between traditionalists and modernists and reflected heavy compromises on fundamental religious rights in the country. The fundamental rights, freedoms of speech, religion, press, movement, association, thought, and intellectual, life, liberty and property and right to bear arms were introduced in the new Constitution. Islam was declared as the State religion of Pakistan. Geography and border statue of the country was redefined and "Pakistan was to be a Federation of Four Provinces. '' The Constitution was written in the point of representing the conservative Islam as well as reflecting a heavy compromise over the religious rights and humanism ideas, advocated by the extremist leftists of the PPP.
On 20 October 1972, the draft was revived by all leaders of the political parties and signed the declaration of adopting the Constitution in the National Assembly on 2 February 1973. Ratified unanimously on 19 April 1973, the Constitution came into full effect on 14 August 1973. On the same day, the successful vote of confidence movement in the Parliament endorsed Zulfikar Bhutto as the elected Prime Minister after latter relinquishing the presidency after appointing Fazal - i - Ilahi to that stint.
Contrary to 1956 and 1962 articles, several ideas in the Constitution were new, and guaranteed security to each citizen of Pakistan. First part of the Constitution introduced the definition of State, the idea of life, liberty and property, individual equality, prohibition of slavery, preservation of languages, right to fair trial, and provided safeguard as to arrest and detention as well as providing safeguards against discrimination in services.
The due process clause of the Constitution was partly based on the British Common law, as many founding fathers and legal experts of the country had followed the British legal tradition. The fundamental rights are supreme in the Constitution and any law that is ultra vires the fundamental rights can be struck down by the apex courts in their constitutional jurisdiction vested on them under Article 199 of the Constitution.
In contrast to the constitutions of India and Bangladesh, the Constitution reflected a heavy compromise over several issues to maintain a delicate balance of power among the country 's institutions. The Constitution defined the role of Islam; Pakistan was to be a Federation of Four Provinces and shall be known as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan; introduction of check and balances, separation of powers, and provided the federal system under which the government should governed.
The Constitution established a "Bicameral Parliament '' as a legislative authority that consists of the Senate as Upper house (providing equal provincial representation), and National Assembly as Lower house (providing the will and representation of people). The Constitution put stipulation on the eligibility of becoming President and Prime Minister that only "Muslim '' of not less than forty - five years of age and is qualified for becoming the Prime Minister. No law repugnant to Islam shall be enacted and the present laws shall also be Islamised. The Constitution also introduced a new institution known as the "Council of Common Interests '' consisting of Chief Minister of each four provinces and an equal number of Cabinet ministers of the Government nominated by the Prime Minister. The Council could formulate and regulate the policy in the Part II of the Legislative List. In case of complaint of interference in water supply by any province the Council would look into the complaint.
Another major innovative introduction in the Constitution is the establishment of the National Finance Commission (NFC) consisting of the Provincial and Finance Ministers and other members to advice on distribution of revenues between the federation and the provinces. The Constitution 's first parts introduce the Islamic way of life, promotion of local government, full participation of women in national life, protection of minorities, promotion of social and economic well being of the people, and strengthening the bonds with the Muslim world and to work for international peace.
Under the Constitution, the Fundamental Rights include security of person, safeguards as to arrest and detention, prohibition of slavery and forced labour, freedom of movement, freedom of association, freedom of speech, freedom to profess religion and safeguards to religious institutions, non-discrimination in respect of access to public places and in service, preservation of languages, script and culture. The judiciary enjoys full supremacy over the other organs of the state. About national languages, Urdu was declared as national languages, and English as official language; all other languages were preserved by the Constitution.
Many key ideas on regarding the role of Islam in the State that were mentioned in 1956 Articles were made part of the Constitution:
The individual Articles of the Constitution are grouped together into the following Parts:
Schedules are lists in the Constitution that categorise and tabulate bureaucratic activity and policy of the Government.
Unlike the previous documents, the Constitution can not be changed, instead constitutional amendments are passed; altering its effect. Amendments to the Constitution are made through the Parliament, where a Two - thirds majority and voting is required in both houses for a constitutional amendment to take its effect, in accordance to the Constitution. In addition to this, certain amendments which pertain to the federal nature of the Constitution must be ratified by a majority of state legislatures.
As of 2015, 21 amendments have been introduced to the Constitution. Among the most important of these are the Eighth (1985) and Seventeenth Amendments (2004), which changed the government from a parliamentary system to a semi-presidential system. However, in 2010 the Eighteenth Amendment reversed these expansions of presidential powers, returning the government to a parliamentary republic, and also defined any attempt to subvert, abrogate, or suspend the constitution as an act of high treason.
Whereas sovereignty over the entire Universe belongs to Almighty Allah alone, and the authority to be exercised by the people of Pakistan within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust;
And whereas it is the will of the people of Pakistan to establish an order: -
Wherein the State shall exercise its powers and authority through the chosen representatives of the people;
Wherein the principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice, as enunciated by Islam, shall be fully observed;
Wherein the Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accordance with the teachings and requirements of Islam as set out in the Holy Quran and Sunnah;
Wherein adequate provision shall be made for the minorities freely to profess and practise their religions and develop their cultures;
Wherein the territories now included in or in accession with Pakistan and such other territories as may hereafter be included in or accede to Pakistan shall form a Federation wherein the units will be autonomous with such boundaries and limitations on their powers and authority as may be prescribed;
Therein shall be guaranteed fundamental rights, including equality of status, of opportunity and before law, social, economic and political justice, and freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith, worship and association, subject to law and public morality;
Wherein adequate provision shall be made to safeguard the legitimate interests of minorities and backward and depressed classes;
Wherein the independence of the judiciary shall be fully secured;
Wherein the integrity of the territories of the Federation, its independence and all its rights, including its sovereign rights on land, sea and air, shall be safeguarded;
So that the people of Pakistan may prosper and attain their rightful and honoured place amongst the nations of the World and make their full contribution towards international peace and progress and happiness of humanity:
Now, therefore, we, the people of Pakistan,
Cognisant of our responsibility before Almighty Allah and men;
Cognisant of the sacrifices made by the people in the cause of Pakistan;
Faithful to the declaration made by the Founder of Pakistan, Quaid - i - Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, that Pakistan would be a democratic State based on Islamic principles of social justice;
Dedicated to the preservation of democracy achieved by the unremitting struggle of the people against oppression and tyranny;
Inspired by the resolve to protect our national and political unity and solidarity by creating an egalitarian society through a new order;
Do hereby, through our representatives in the National Assembly, adopt, enact and give to ourselves, this Constitution.
All of the MNAs (full list) signed the constitution except Mian Mahmud Ali Kasuri, Dr Abdul Hayee Baloch, Mr Abdul Khaliq Khan, Haji Ali Ahmed Khan, Rais Atta Mohammad Khan and Nizamuddin Haider. Sahibzada Muhammad Nazeer Sultan is currently the last serving member of the National Assembly who was also elected as the Member of National Assembly in the 1970 elections & was one of the last signatories of 1973 Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
With regard to provincial rights the 1973 constitution was in fact the most centralised of Pakistan 's various constitutions. The Government of India Act of 1935, which Pakistan adopted as its first working constitution, granted the federal government 96 items of power. The 1956 constitution reduced that number to 49, and this was retained in the 1962 constitution. In 1973, however, it was then enlarged to 114.
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who played jennifer in the first back to the future | Claudia Wells - wikipedia
Claudia Grace Wells (born July 5, 1966) is an American actress best known for her role as Jennifer Parker in the film Back to the Future (1985).
Born in Kuala Lumpur, Claudia Wells grew up in San Francisco, California, and moved to Los Angeles at the age of 14. She later graduated from Beverly Hills High School.
She started acting with appearances in TV shows.
Wells played Jennifer Parker, Marty McFly 's girlfriend, in the 1985 film Back to the Future. She almost did not end up in the first film of the successful franchise. According to Wells, she had been cast, but a pilot she had done for ABC had been picked up, and she was contractually forced to drop out of Back to the Future. During that time, Eric Stoltz had been shooting for five weeks in the role of Marty McFly. Melora Hardin was slated for the role of Jennifer, though she never actually filmed any scenes. The producers halted filming and replaced Stoltz with Michael J. Fox. By then, Wells ' pilot had been finished and she was recast as Jennifer, now shooting alongside Fox, never having filmed a frame with Stoltz.
After her mother was diagnosed with cancer, Wells said family took precedence and told the studio she would not be available to reprise the role for the two sequels; actress Elisabeth Shue replaced her.
That same year (1985), Wells co-starred in Stop the Madness, an anti-drug music video sponsored by the Reagan administration, featuring several famous musicians, actors and athletes. The following year, she appeared in the TV movie Babies Having Babies, and the short - lived series Fast Times, a TV adaptation of the 1982 film Fast Times at Ridgemont High (Wells played Linda Barrett, portrayed by Phoebe Cates in the film). Following Fast Times, she did not again appear on - screen until the 1996 independent film Still Waters Burn (released on DVD February 12, 2008).
After a lengthy absence, Wells returned to acting in 2011 with a small role in the independent science - fiction film Alien Armageddon.
The same year Wells had the opportunity to reprise her role from Back to the Future, 26 years after her last appearance in the series. She provided the voice of Jennifer Parker for Back to the Future: The Game. Wells announced that her next project would be a horror film titled Room & Board.
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who was national inventor's day named after | Inventors ' Day - wikipedia
Inventors ' Day is a day of the year set aside by a country to recognise the contributions of inventors. Not all countries recognise Inventors ' Day. Those countries which do recognise an Inventors ' Day do so with varying degrees of emphasis and on different days of the year.
The Inventors ' Day (Spanish: Día del Inventor) in Argentina has been celebrated since 1986 and is held yearly on 29 September, the birthday of the inventor of the ballpoint pen, László József Bíró.
The Inventors ' Day (German: Tag der Erfinder) in the German - speaking countries Germany, Austria and Switzerland is celebrated on 9 November, the birthday of the Austrian - born inventor and Hollywood actress Hedy Lamarr whose main invention was the frequency - hopped spread spectrum 1942.
The day was proclaimed by Berlin inventor and entrepreneur Gerhard Muthenthaler. According to the website of the organisation it intends to pursue the following goals:
Hungarian Inventors ' Day (Magyar Feltalálók Napja) is celebrated on 13 June in memoriam of Albert Szent - Györgyi who registered his national patent about the synthesized Vitamin C in 1941. It is celebrated by the Association of Hungarian Inventors (MAFE) since 2009.
Since 1995, the Republic of Moldova has celebrated an Inventors ' and Rationalizers ' Day annually at the end of June.
Since 1957, Russia has celebrated an Inventors ' and Rationalizers ' Day (Russian: День изобретателя и рационализатора) annually at the last Saturday of June.
Thailand recognises 2 February as Inventors ' Day each year. The Thai Cabinet set this date to commemorate the anniversary of His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej 's allocation of a patent for a slow speed surface aerator on 2 February 1993.
While as of yet, the United Kingdom does not officially recognize an Inventor 's Day, in 2014 BT made a public appeal to celebrate "the first '' National Inventor 's Day on 2 December 2014. While many countries celebrate inventiveness on a significant day relating to one of that country 's inventors, 2 December does not appear to have such a relationship. However, the day was also the release of a study by BT of the inventiveness of UK residents. As of 9 November, 2016 there has not been any announcement of a second or subsequent National Inventor 's Day in the United Kingdom.
Ronald Reagan as President of the United States proclaimed 11 February 1983 as National Inventors ' Day, Proclamation 5013, to "... call upon the people of the United States to observe this day with appropriate ceremonies and activities ''.
In recognition of the enormous contribution inventors make to the nation and the world, the Congress, pursuant to Senate Joint Resolution 140 (Public Law 97 -- 198), has designated 11 February, the anniversary of the birth of the inventor Thomas Alva Edison, who held over 1,000 patents, as National Inventors ' Day.
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koraput is related to which of the following industry | Koraput - wikipedia
Koraput is a town and a Municipality in Koraput district in the Indian state of Odisha. Koraput town is the district headquarter of Koraput district.
The district of Koraput derives its name from its headquarters the present town of Koraput. In ancient times when the Nalas were ruling over this tract, Pushkari near modern Umarkot was the capital city. In the medieval period Nandapur developed as the capital under the Silavamsi kings and sometimes under the kings of the Solar dynasty. Vikram Dev of the Solar dynasty shifted his headquarters to Jeypore about the middle of the 17th century and this town prospered as the capital. Koraput was chosen by the British in 1870 for better health prospects. The origin of the name of Koraput is obscure. There are several theories, none of which are convincing.
According to Mr. R.C.S. Bell the name of the town is ' Kora - Putti ' or '' the hamlet of the nux - vomica '' and it is derived presumably from a tree or trees that must at one time have been prominent near the site. But today not a single tree of nux - vomica is to be found near about the town of Koraput and so the assumption or Mr. Bell is open to question.
According to second theory, Koraput is corrupted form of ' Karaka pentho ' Karaka literally mans ' hail - stone '. It is also believed that one ' Khora Naiko ' laid foundation of the village during the time of Nandapur kings. He hailed probably from Ranpur and served under the Nandapur kings in the Militia, and for his faithful and meritorious services he has permitted to establish this village which was named after him as Khora Putu, and later on the name has been abbreviated to ' Koraput '.
Koraput is also a Tourism Place. The town is surrounded by mountains, thick forests and waterfalls.
Marking a social success for others to emulate, the past two years, around 220 tribal villagers of the non-descript Bondaguda village under Similiguda block in the district has become totally free of open defecation with each of its 45 families constructing toilets in their homes.
This district is a part of the tribal belt in southern Odisha. As the word ' tribal ' often denotes a negative connotation, the indigenous people here prefer to be known as ' Adivasis ' meaning ' original inhabitants '. Most of the area was under thick forest cover until a few years ago. Many adivasi communities live in this district. Largely due to deforestation, industrialization and urbanization these communities have almost come to modernity and are adopting new ways of life. However, on any Sunday one can see the adivasis selling their products (vegetables and fruits of organic origin) in Sunday markets popularly known as HAT PODA. Tha hat poda or the ' haat ' plays an important role in maintaining Adivasi identity. In the month of December (1st - 2nd week), a famous festival of tribals, organised by the district administration DONGAR FESTIVAL or PARAB is being organised every year to showcase the life of adivasis. In reality, one could see the Adivasis being paraded as ' museum specimens ' for the sake of the voyeuristic tourist. Many foreign tourists also visit this place to witness this festival. The adivasi languages, culture and traditional knowledge are closely connected with their ecosystem
Koraput is mostly famous for its Jagannath Temple which is also known as Sabara Srikhetra. Srikhetra is normally referred to as Puri Jagannath, but the unique identity of the Koraput temple is because of the fact that no section of the society is barred entry.
Thousands of persons flock to the temple every day for darshan. The Temple trust has built huge accommodation centres for pilgrims and is an important force behind the growing number of tourist arrivals. The trust also runs COATS (Council of Analytical Tribal Studies), a university -- like educational institute is a successful attempt to restore and educate tribal way of life, customs, tradition, medicine, language, social structure and history. This quite paradoxical: A group of people building a Hindu temple on one hand and running COATS for tribal culture restoration on the other.
Koraput is located at 18 ° 49 ′ N 82 ° 43 ′ E / 18.82 ° N 82.72 ° E / 18.82; 82.72. It has an average elevation of 870 m (2,850 ft).
Some major rivers of Odisha pass through the district Koraput like Machhakunda, Vamsadhara and Kolab. This district is also bestowed with waterfalls like Duduma, Bagra and Khandahati. It also contains the largest mountain of Odisha, called Deomali along with Chandragiri mountain. Koraput district is famous for the important places like Jeypur, Duduma, Bagra, Sunabeda MiG factory. Koraput holds a total area of 8,807 km. As of 2011 census, with a total population of 13, 79,647, the district has a literacy rate of 36.20 %. Koraput is dependent on agricultural activities. The district has total cultivable land of 301,000 hectares (740,000 acres). With a 157 km long national highway the district is well connected to all the other districts of Odisha. Gupteswar, Neelabadi, Nandapur, Sunabeda, Duduma water fall, (Savra shrikhetra), Ankadeli forms the major interests of Koraput.
Being at the heart of tribal belt in South Odisha, it has also many hill stations though they are not that famous as other hill stations of India. Places like Machkund, Onukadelli, Jalaput, Chindri, Hatipathar, (Deomali) Potangi etc. are places to be visited for their scenic beauty.
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, Engine Division (Su - 30 MkI and MiG engine), located at Sunabeda. National Aluminium Company Limited, located at Damanjodi. South Orissa Voluntary Action (SOVA), located at Koraput.
The Engine division of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), a defence enterprise of the Government of India, is located at Sunabeda, 15 km from Koraput town. This factory manufactures aircraft engines for MiG and Sukhoi fighter aircraft. The HAL factory employs 6,000 engineers and technicians, all of whom reside in the township next to the factory.
The National Aluminium Company Ltd. (NALCO) mining and refinery complex at Damanjodi also has a significant contribution to the economy of Koraput district. Around 2,500 engineers and technicians are engaged in the process of extraction of Alumina from Bauxite. Other than the NALCO employees, there are thousands of workers engaged by hundreds of contractors who are employed here. The nearby town of Semiliguda has developed as a commercial centre of the district and has become a good market catering to the people of Semiliguda as well as of nearby Sunabeda and Damanjodi. Semliguda is mostly inhabited by trading communities.
Koraput has good linkage with other parts of the state as well as some major cities of neighboring states, by means of rail and road. National highway number 26 (43) passes through the town which connects it with Raipur and Visakhapatnam. Buses are a plenty from Visakhapatnam and Vijayanagaram to Koraput. Buses to Jeypore, Jagdalpur, Umerkote, etc., also passes through Koraput.
By Railways, it is also well connected with Rayagada, Visakhapatnam, Berhampur, Jagdalpur, Howrah, Bhubaneswar, Rourkela.
Also new proposed Biju Expressway will connect this city with Rourkela.
Koraput district is divided into 2 sub-divisions and 14 blocks. The 2 sub-divisions are Koraput and Jeypore
Blocks in Koraput sub-division 1. Koraput 2. Semiliguda 3. Nandapur 4. Pottangi 5. Dasmanthpur 6. Lamtaput 7. Laxmipur 8. Narayanapatna 9. Bandugaon
Blocks in Jeypore sub-division 1. Jeypore 2. Boipariguda 3. Kotpad 4. Kundra 5. Boriguma
Koraput is well equipped with basic educational facilities. The major government and privately owned schools and college include:
As far as higher studies are concerned, Koraput has got one Woman 's College and a D.A.V. College, both of which are affiliated to the Berhampur University. The quality of higher education in Koraput is still under question.
Apart from traditional courses, Koraput now also provides facilities for professional courses like engineering and pharmacy. There is a demand from the people of Koraput to establish a medical college in the district which has not been entertained by the Government. Koraput is surrounded with industry like HAL, NALCO, and other like power project, which create a demand for technical professionals.
In 2009, a central university was set up in Koraput namely Central University of Orissa. This started functioning from August 2009 providing courses on English, Oriya, Mass Communication, Journalism, Anthropology and Sociology. Prof Surabhi Banarjee has been appointed as the first Vice Chancellor of the University.
Recently on 4th september 2017 the new government medical college was established in koraput and named after Saheed Laxman Nayak, a great freedom fighter of that region. The classes started commencing from the month of september in 2017.
An official Census 2011 detail of Koraput, a district of Odisha has been released by Directorate of Census Operations in Odisha. Enumeration of key persons was also done by census officials in Koraput District of Odisha.
As per 2011 census, Koraput had population of 47,468 of which male and female were 24,553 and 22,915 respectively. There was change of 16.63 percent in the population compared to population as per 2001 in Koraput District. In the previous census of India 2001, Koraput District recorded increase of 14.67 percent to its population compared to 1991.
The initial provisional data suggest a density of 156 in 2011 compared to 134 of 2001. Total area under Koraput district is of about 8,807 km.
Average literacy rate of Koraput in 2011 was 49.87 compared to 35.72 of 2001. Gender wise, male and female literacy were 61.29 and 38.92 respectively. For 2001 census, same figures stood at 47.20 and 24.26 in Koraput District. Total literate in Koraput District were 579,203, of which male and female were 348,447 and 230,756 respectively. In 2001, Koraput District had 350,044 in its total region.
With regards to Sex Ratio in Koraput, it stood at 1031 per 1000 male compared to 2001 census figure of 999. The average national sex ratio in India is 940 as per latest reports of Census 2011 Directorate.
Current (Member of Parliament (MP)) Mr. Jhina Hikka and MLA from Koraput Assembly Constituency is Mr. Krushna Chandra Sagaria who won the seat in State elections in 2014. Previous MLAs from this seat were Raghuram Padal of BJD from 2009 to 2014, Gupta Prasad Das of INC. in 1994, Harish Chandra Baxipatra who won as JD candidate in 1990 and as JNP candidate in 1977, Narusinghananda Brahma as INC. candidate in 1985, as INC. (I) candidate in 1980 and Taraprasad Bahinipati (INC) in 2000 and 2005.
Koraput is part of Koraput (Lok Sabha constituency).
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parallel projection and perspective projection in computer graphics | Parallel projection - wikipedia
A parallel projection is a projection of an object in three - dimensional space onto a fixed plane, known as the projection plane or image plane, where the rays, known as lines of sight or projection lines, are parallel to each other. It is a basic tool in descriptive geometry. The projection is called orthographic if the rays are perpendicular (orthogonal) to the image plane, and oblique or skew if they are not.
A parallel projection is a particular case of projection in mathematics and graphical projection in technical drawing. Parallel projections can be seen as the limit of a central or perspective projection, in which the rays pass through a fixed point called the center or viewpoint, as this point is moved towards infinity. Put differently, a parallel projection corresponds to a perspective projection with an infinite focal length (the distance between the lens and the focal point in photography) or "zoom ''. In parallel projections, lines that are parallel in three - dimensional space remain parallel in the two - dimensional projected image.
A perspective projection of an object is often considered more realistic than a parallel projection, since it more closely resembles human vision and photography. However, parallel projections are popular in technical applications, since the parallelism of an object 's lines and faces is preserved, and direct measurements can be taken from the image. Among parallel projections, orthographic projections are the most realistic, and are commonly used by engineers. On the other hand, certain types of oblique projections (for example cavalier projection, military projection) are very simple to implement, and are used to create quick and informal pictorials of objects.
The term parallel projection is used in the literature to describe both the procedure itself (a mathematical mapping function) as well as the resulting image produced by the procedure.
Every parallel projection has the following properties.
Orthographic projection is derived from the principles of descriptive geometry, and is a type of parallel projection where the projection rays are perpendicular to the projection plane. It is the projection type of choice for working drawings.
The term orthographic is sometimes reserved specifically for depictions of objects where the principal axes or planes of the object are parallel with the projection plane (or the paper on which the orthographic or parallel projection is drawn). However, the term multiview projection is also used. In multiview projections, up to six pictures of an object are produced, with each projection plane perpendicular to one of the coordinate axes. Sub-types of multiview orthographic projections include plans, elevations and sections.
When the principal planes or axes of an object are not parallel with the projection plane, but are rather tilted to some degree to reveal multiple sides of the object, it is called an axonometric projection. Axonometric projection (not to be confused with the closely related principle of axonometry, as described in Pohlke 's theorem) is further subdivided into three groups: isometric, dimetric and trimetric projection, depending on the exact angle at which the view deviates from the orthogonal. A typical characteristic of axonometric pictorials is that one axis of space is usually displayed as vertical.
In an oblique projection, the parallel projection rays are not perpendicular to the viewing plane, but strike the projection plane at an angle other than ninety degrees. In both orthographic and oblique projection, parallel lines in space appear parallel on the projected image. Because of its simplicity, oblique projection is used exclusively for pictorial purposes rather than for formal, working drawings. In an oblique pictorial drawing, the displayed angles among the axes as well as the foreshortening factors (scale) are arbitrary. The distortion created thereby is usually attenuated by aligning one plane of the imaged object to be parallel with the plane of projection thereby creating a true shape, full - size image of the chosen plane. Special types of oblique projections include military, cavalier and cabinet projection.
If the image plane is given by equation Π: n → ⋅ x → − d = 0 (\ displaystyle \ Pi: ~ (\ vec (n)) \ cdot (\ vec (x)) - d = 0) and the direction of projection by v → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (v))), then the projection line through the point P: p → (\ displaystyle P: ~ (\ vec (p))) is parametrized by
The image P ′ (\ displaystyle P ') of P (\ displaystyle P) is the intersection of line g (\ displaystyle g) with plane Π (\ displaystyle \ Pi); it is given by the equation
In several cases, these formulas can be simplified.
(S1) If one can choose the vectors n → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (n))) and v → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (v))) such that n → ⋅ v → = 1 (\ displaystyle (\ vec (n)) \ cdot (\ vec (v)) = 1), the formula for the image simplifies to
(S2) In an orthographic projection, the vectors n → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (n))) and v → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (v))) are parallel. In this case, one can choose v → = n →, n → = 1 (\ displaystyle (\ vec (v)) = (\ vec (n)), \; (\ vec (n)) = 1) and one gets
(S3) If one can choose the vectors n → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (n))) and v → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (v))) such that n → ⋅ v → = 1 (\ displaystyle (\ vec (n)) \ cdot (\ vec (v)) = 1), and if the image plane contains the origin, one has d = 0 (\ displaystyle d = 0) and the parallel projection is a linear mapping:
(Here I 3 (\ displaystyle I_ (3)) is the identity matrix and ⊗ (\ displaystyle \ otimes) the outer product.)
From this analytic representation of a parallel projection one can deduce most of the properties stated in the previous sections.
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who is the mayor of saint john nb | Mayor of Saint John, New Brunswick - wikipedia
The Mayor of the City of Saint John is the head of the elected municipal council of Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada. Saint John Common Council consists of a mayor (chair) and 10 councillors. The city has a ward system with four of roughly equal population. This municipal arrangement was first adopted in the 2008 municipal election after a plebiscite held October 9, 2007. The mayor is directly elected along with two councillors that run at large. The councillor at large, which gains a plurality of votes, becomes the deputy mayor. Each ward elects two councillor.
Since the incorporation of Saint John in 1785, the mayor has served as the chief representative of the city. Officeholders were first appointed by the Governor of New Brunswick, under an order in council. By the end of the end of the nineteenth century, the mayor was elected by the alderman of Common Council. In 1854, the office was directly elected by Saint John residents. As head of the largest city in New Brunswick, many mayors have served as elected officials at the federal and provincial level both before and after their tenure.
Since 1785, 67 individuals have held the office of mayor. Notably, Samuel Davis, 1977 - 1980, served as the first elected Jewish Mayor of Saint John. In 1983 Elsie Wayne was elected the first woman mayor. She served until 1993. While serving only two years, Thomas J. Higgins was the first Catholic Mayor of Saint John. The incumbent, Don Darling, was elected May 9, 2016.
Appointed by Governor - In - Council
Elected indirectly by Common Council
Elected directly by residents
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a list of countries in the 2018 olympics | Category: nations at the 2018 Winter Olympics - wikipedia Help
This category contains articles about nations that will compete at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea.
The following 93 pages are in this category, out of 93 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).
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who played the original phyllis on young and the restless | Michelle Stafford - wikipedia
Michelle Stafford (born September 14, 1965) is an American actress, screenwriter and producer. She is perhaps best known for her role as Phyllis Summers on the CBS daytime soap opera The Young and the Restless, for which she has won two Daytime Emmy Awards. In 2013, Stafford created and starred in her own comedy web series, The Stafford Project. She currently stars as Nina Clay on the ABC daytime soap opera General Hospital.
In 1990 Stafford was cast in Fox soap opera Tribes. The show was canceled after 3 - month airing on Fox. She later appeared in two plays directed by Charles Durning in Los Angeles stage, and co-starred in several small films.
In October 1994, Stafford began what was supposed to be a short term role of Phyllis Summers on the American CBS Daytime soap opera The Young and the Restless; however, her work impressed the producers and she was placed on contract. In 1997, Stafford left the series to pursue other career opportunities, and she was replaced by Sandra Nelson. In 1997 she was cast in Aaron Spelling primetime soap opera Pacific Palisades as lead character, but show was canceled after 13 episodes. She later guest - starred in Two Guys and a Girl, Diagnosis: Murder, and JAG. In film, Stafford appeared in 1999 thriller Double Jeopardy opposite Ashley Judd.
In July 2000, Stafford was brought back to the soap opera by former head writer Kay Alden. From December 2006 to February 2007, Stafford played dual roles on Y&R, portraying Sheila Carter, formerly played by Kimberlin Brown (Sheila had plastic surgery to look like Phyllis). In May 2013, it was announced that Stafford would be exiting the soap opera after sixteen years in the role. Stafford later confirmed that her final scenes would air sometime that August. Stafford exited the series on August 2, 2013.
In 2004, Stafford was a hockey correspondent for The Best Damn Sports Show Period. Stafford starred in Lifetime movie Like Mother, Like Daughter in 2007. In 2007, Stafford appeared on Tyra Banks ' talk show to help Tyra through "soap opera school. '' In 2012 she appeared as Lauren on the web series The Grove, created by Crystal Chappell. She also guest - starred in Frasier, Charmed, and Ringer. She subsequently launched her web series, The Stafford Project, based on her personal life and struggles, with the first episode premiering on her YouTube Channel on August 5, 2013. The series received positive reviews from critics. Michael Logan of TV Guide appreciated the web series, calling it "terrific and audacious '' and saying that "there 's never a dull moment in the life of Michelle Stafford ''. Jamey Giddens of the entertainment website Zap2it said that Stafford is "as viable and fiery as ever '', calling The Stafford Project "insanely - funny ''.
In 2014, Stafford returned to daytime television with the role of Nina Clay, the wife of Dr. Silas Clay (Michael Easton) on the ABC soap opera, General Hospital. Stafford 's long - rumored addition to the cast was made official when her character Nina, the presumed - dead wife of Silas, suddenly appeared at the very end of the episode on May 1, 2014. In 2015, she co-starred alongside Tom Sizemore in the independent film Durant 's Never Closes.
In 2016, Stafford launched a skincare product line called Skin Nation. The products are said to be organic, natural, gluten free, vegan and cruelty free.
Stafford was born in 1965, in Chicago, Illinois. Her parents moved her and her older sister, Janine, to Montrose, California, where she was raised. After graduating from high school, Stafford chased after her dream of modeling. Stafford welcomed her first child, daughter Natalia Scout Lee, via her embryo and a gestational surrogate on Monday, December 21, 2009 In October 2015, Stafford welcomed her second child, a son Jameson Jones Lee.
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kareem abdul jabbar most points in a single game | List of career achievements by Kareem Abdul - Jabbar - wikipedia
This is page of achievements of greatest basketball player of all time - Kareem Abdul - Jabbar.
70 times in the regular season 55 with Milwaukee Bucks 15 with Los Angeles Lakers
All of Abdul - Jabbar 's 50 - point efforts occurred while he played for the Milwaukee Bucks. His career high as a Laker was 48 points against the Portland Trail Blazers on 000000001975 - 11 - 26 - 0000 November 26, 1975.
3 times in the regular season
Seasons: 20 (Milwaukee Bucks, 1969 -- 70 -- 1974 -- 75; Los Angeles Lakers, 1975 -- 76 -- 1988 -- 89)
Games, career: 1,560
Minutes, career: 57,446
Points, career: 38,387
Seasons scoring 2,000 or more points: 9 (1969 -- 70 -- 1973 -- 74, 1975 -- 76 -- 1976 -- 77, 1979 -- 80 -- 1980 -- 81)
Seasons scoring 1,000 or more points: 19 (1969 -- 70 -- 1987 -- 88)
Consecutive games scoring 10 or more points: 787, December 4, 1977 to December 2, 1987
Field goals made, career: 15,837
Field goal attempts, career: 28,307
Defensive rebounds, career: 9,394
Defensive rebounds, season: 1,111 (1975 -- 76)
Defensive rebounds, game: 29, Los Angeles Lakers vs. Detroit Pistons, December 14, 1975
Personal fouls, career: 4,657
Seasons leading the league in blocked shots: 4 (1974 -- 75 -- 1975 -- 76, 1978 -- 79 -- 1979 -- 80)
Consecutive seasons leading the league in blocked shots: 2 (1974 -- 75 -- 1975 -- 76, 1978 -- 79 -- 1979 -- 80)
Blocked shots, career: 3,189
Years played: 18
Games, career: 237
Minutes played, career: 8,851
Minutes played, 7 - game series: 345, Milwaukee Bucks vs. Boston Celtics, 1974 NBA Finals
Points, career: 5,762
Consecutive games scoring 20 or more points: 57, April 13, 1973 to April 5, 1981
Consecutive games scoring 20 or more points, from start of playoff career: 27
Games scoring 10 or more points, career: 223
Field goals made, career: 2,356
Field goals made, 4 - game series: 65, Milwaukee Bucks vs. Chicago Bulls, 1974 Western Conference Finals
Field goal attempts, career: 4,422
Offensive rebounds, 5 - game series: 29, Milwaukee Bucks vs. Los Angeles Lakers, 1974 Western Conference Semifinals
Defensive rebounds, 4 - game series: 62, Milwaukee Bucks vs. Chicago Bulls, 1974 Western Conference Finals
Defensive rebounds, 5 - game series: 61, Milwaukee Bucks vs. Los Angeles Lakers, 1974 Western Conference Semifinals
Defensive rebounds, 7 - game series: 95, Los Angeles Lakers vs. Golden State Warriors, 1977 Western Conference Semifinals
Blocked shots, career: 476
Blocked shots, 3 - game series: 15, Los Angeles Lakers vs. Denver Nuggets, 1979 Western Conference First Round
Blocked shots, 4 - game series: 15, Los Angeles Lakers vs. Portland Trail Blazers, 1977 Western Conference Finals
Blocked shots, game: 9, Los Angeles Lakers vs. Golden State Warriors, April 22, 1977
Personal fouls, career: 797
Highest average, minutes per game, any championship series: 49.3, Milwaukee Bucks vs. Boston Celtics, 1974 (345 / 7)
Minutes, 7 - game series: 345, Milwaukee Bucks vs. Boston Celtics, 1974
Minutes, game: 58, Milwaukee Bucks at Boston Celtics, May 10, 1974 (2 OT)
Points, 4 - game series: 108, Milwaukee Bucks vs. Baltimore Bullets, 1971
Scoring 20 or more points in all games, 7 - game series: Milwaukee Bucks vs. Boston Celtics, 1974
Highest field goal percentage, 4 - game series:. 605 (46 -- 76), Milwaukee Bucks vs. Baltimore Bullets, 1971
Field goals, 4 - game series: 46, Milwaukee Bucks vs. Baltimore Bullets, 1971
Blocked shots, career: 116
Blocked shots, 6 - game series: 23, Los Angeles Lakers vs. Philadelphia 76ers, 1980
Points, career: 251
Games, career: 18
Minutes, career: 449
Field goals made, career: 105
Field goal attempts, career: 213
Blocked shots, career: 31
Personal fouls, career: 57
Personal fouls, game: 6 (1970)
All - NBA Team selections: 15
NBA Most Valuable Player Awards (regular season): 6
One of five players in NBA history to lead the league in blocks and rebounding in the same season (1975 -- 76)
One of two players in NBA history to win the NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award with two different franchises
One of fourteen players in NBA history to win at least six NBA championships
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youtube believe me if all those endearing young charms | Believe Me, if All Those Endearing Young Charms - wikipedia
"Believe Me, if All Those Endearing Young Charms '' is a popular song written in 1808 by Irish poet Thomas Moore using a traditional Irish air.
The tune to which Moore set his words is a traditional Irish air, first printed in a London songbook in 1775. It is occasionally wrongly credited to Sir William Davenant, whose older collection of tunes may have been the source for later publishers, including a collection titled General Collection of Ancient Irish Music, compiled by Edward Bunting in 1796. Sir John Andrew Stevenson has been credited as responsible for the music for Moore 's setting.
It is thought that after Moore 's wife, Elizabeth, was badly scarred by smallpox, she refused to leave her room, believing herself ugly and unlovable. To convince her his love was unwavering, Moore composed the ' Endearing ' poem which he set to an old Irish melody and sang outside her bedroom door. He later wrote that this restored her confidence and re-kindled their love.
The lyrics, as originally published in 1808 in A Selection of Irish Melodies, are as follows:
Other than "Believe Me, If All Those Endearing Young Charms '', the tune is perhaps best known as the melody to "Fair Harvard '', the alma mater of Harvard University. A seventeenth - century folk song, Matthew Locke 's "My Lodging is in the Cold, Cold Ground '', was set to this tune some time after its original setting to a different, also traditional, air. Simone Mantia, a pioneer of American euphonium music, composed a theme and variations on the melody, which remains a staple of the solo euphonium literature.
The first verse, as originally written, was sung by the character Alfalfa in a 1936 episode of MGM 's The Little Rascals entitled Bored of Education. The tune, with the Endearing Young Charms title, also became a staple of Warner Brothers cartoons, appearing first in the 1944 Private Snafu short Booby Traps. Subsequent uses included the 1951 Merrie Melodies animated cartoon Ballot Box Bunny, 1957 Looney Tunes short Show Biz Bugs (which reappeared in the 1981 package film), 1965 Road Runner cartoon Rushing Roulette, and finally in a new twist on the gag, with Slappy Squirrel 's 1993 introductory episode, "Slappy Goes Walnuts '', from Animaniacs. Variations were also done in the 1963 Andy Griffith Show episode "Rafe Hollister Sings '', and the 2010 South Park episode "Crippled Summer ''. In its cartoon appearances, the song is often the cue for a classic "bomb gag '' wherein the playing of the first line of the song sets off a rigged explosion on the final note. However, the target often misses, forcing the perpetrator to play it themselves and fall for their own trap. The gag is so well known that it is often called "The Xylophone Gag ''.
Little Virgie (Shirley Temple) sings the song to her father (John Boles) in the 1935 film The Littlest Rebel.
The first line appears in some versions of Dexys Midnight Runners ' "Come On Eileen '' as an introduction played by a solo fiddle.
Roger Quilter 's setting of the song was included in the Arnold Book of Old Songs, published in 1950.
Debbie Reynolds and Barbara Ruick sing the first stanza in the 1953 film The Affairs of Dobie Gillis.
Walter Huston plays the melody on harmonica in the film The Treasure of the Sierra Madre.
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who sang running bear loved little white dove | Running Bear - wikipedia
"Running Bear '' is a song written by Jiles Perry Richardson (a.k.a. The Big Bopper) and sung most famously by Johnny Preston in 1959. The 1959 recording featured background vocals by Richardson and George Jones and the session 's producer Bill Hall, who provided the "Indian chanting '' of "uga - uga '' during the three verses, as well as the "Indian war cries '' at the start and end of the record. It was No. 1 for three weeks in January 1960 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States. The song also reached No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart in 1960. Coincidentally, "Running Bear '' was immediately preceded in the Hot 100 No. 1 position by Marty Robbins ' "El Paso '', another song in which the protagonist dies. Billboard ranked "Running Bear '' as the No. 4 song of 1960.
Richardson was a friend of Preston and offered "Running Bear '' to him after hearing him perform in a club. Preston recorded the song at the Gold Star Studios in Houston, Texas in 1958. The saxophone was played by Link Davis.
Preston was signed to Mercury Records, and "Running Bear '' was released in August 1959, seven months after Richardson 's death in the plane crash that also killed Buddy Holly and Ritchie Valens.
"Running Bear '' was used in the 1994 movie A Simple Twist of Fate, which stars Steve Martin as Michael McCann, a fine furniture maker in rural Virginia, who adopts a little girl named Mathilda. There is a scene about midway through the movie where he plays "Running Bear '' on the record player, and he and Mathilda are dancing to the song. The song, performed by Ray Gelato, also features in the London night - club scene in the film Scandal, based on the Profumo affair.
The song tells the story of Running Bear, a "young Indian brave '', and Little White Dove, an "Indian maid ''. The two are in love but are separated by two factors:
The two, longing to be together, despite the obstacles and the risks posed by the river, dive into the raging river to unite. After sharing a passionate kiss, they are pulled down by the swift current and drown. The lyrics describe their fate: "Now they 'll always be together / In their happy hunting ground. ''
A German version titled Brauner Bär und Weiße Taube ("Brown Bear and White Dove '') was recorded as a single by Gus Backus in 1960.
In 1960, the Dutch group Het Cocktail Trio recorded a version of the song called Grote Beer (' Great Bear ', but also ' Ursa Maior ') about an Indian who travels in space.
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Sonny James enjoyed an unprecedented streak of success with his commercially released singles, many of them covers of previous pop hits. One of his 16 consecutive No. 1 singles on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart was a cover version of "Running Bear. '' Released in April 1969, James topped the Hot Country Singles chart in mid-June and spent three weeks at No. 1. The song soon was one of James ' most popular recordings of his career.
Jim Stallings recorded a version of the song on his 1969 album titled Heya!
The Guess Who included the song on their 1972 album Rockin ', although the songwriting credit is incorrectly given to Clarence "Curly '' Herdman, a country and bluegrass fiddler.
The Youngbloods released a version of the song as a single in 1972 and was featured on their album High on a Ridge Top.
Tom Jones recorded a funk version of the song on his 1973 album The Body and Soul of Tom Jones.
Mud recorded the song on their 1974 debut album Mud Rock which reached # 8 in the UK charts.
Danny Davis and the Nashville Brass recorded a toe - tapping version of the song, complete with the standard Nashville Brass banjo - and - steel solo, for their 1975 album Dream Country.
The song was occasionally part of Led Zeppelin 's live repertoire in the early 1970s, during rock medleys contained within long versions of "Whole Lotta Love ''.
In 2012 Ray Stevens covered the song on his 9 - CD box set, The Encyclopedia of Recorded Comedy Music.
Northern Irish punk band, Stiff Little Fingers did a live cover of this, which ended up on their album All the Best and later on the re-issue of their live album, Hanx!.
The song is a staple of Williams and Ree 's live set and is one of the duo 's most popular songs. Ree performs the lead vocals while Williams provides Indian chants and humorous alternatives, such as lyrics from Pump Up the Jam and Ice Ice Baby.
Bob Wills and his Texas Playboys frequently performed the song and it appears their album Time Changes Everything, and on many greatest hits compilations.
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when is a latin word accented on the last syllable | Ultima (linguistics) - wikipedia
In linguistics, the ultima is the last syllable of a word, the penult is the next - to - last syllable, and the antepenult is third - from - last syllable. In a word of three syllables, the names of the syllables are antepenult - penult - ultima.
Ultima comes from Latin ultima (syllaba) "last (syllable) ''. Penult and antepenult are abbreviations for paenultima and antepaenultima. Penult has the prefix paene "almost '', and antepenult has the prefix ante "before ''.
In Latin and Ancient Greek, only the three last syllables can be accented. In Latin, a word 's stress is dependent on the weight or length of the penultimate syllable; in Greek, the place and type of accent is dependent on the length of the vowel in the ultima.
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what is the subject of the movie the post | The Post (film) - wikipedia
The Post is a 2017 American historical political thriller film directed and produced by Steven Spielberg and written by Liz Hannah and Josh Singer. It stars Meryl Streep as Katharine Graham, the first female publisher of a major American newspaper, and Tom Hanks as Ben Bradlee, the executive editor of The Washington Post, with Sarah Paulson, Bob Odenkirk, Tracy Letts, Bradley Whitford, David Cross, Bruce Greenwood, Carrie Coon, and Matthew Rhys in supporting roles. Set in the early 1970s, The Post depicts the true story of attempts by journalists at The Washington Post to publish the Pentagon Papers, classified documents regarding the 30 - year involvement of the United States government in the Vietnam War.
Principal photography began in New York City in May 2017. The film premiered at the Newseum in Washington, D.C. on December 14, 2017 and began a limited release in the United States on December 22, 2017. It had a wide release on January 12, 2018, and grossed $174 million worldwide.
The film received positive reviews, with critics praising the performances in the film (particularly those of Streep, Hanks, and Odenkirk) and noting the references and allusions to the presidencies of Richard Nixon and Donald Trump. The Post was chosen by the National Board of Review as the best film of 2017 and was named as one of the top 10 films of the year by Time and the American Film Institute. The film was nominated for Best Picture and Best Actress (for Streep) at the 90th Academy Awards, and also received six nominations at the 75th Golden Globe Awards: Best Motion Picture -- Drama, Best Director, Best Actress -- Drama (for Streep), Best Actor -- Drama (for Hanks), Best Screenplay and Best Original Score.
In 1966 Vietnam, State Department military analyst Daniel Ellsberg accompanies U.S. troops in combat, documenting the progress of U.S. military activities in the region for Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara. On the return flight home, McNamara expresses to Ellsberg and William Macomber his view that the war in Vietnam is hopeless, yet, upon landing, McNamara expresses to the press his confidence in the war effort. Ellsberg overhears this and becomes disillusioned. Years later, now working for the RAND Corporation, a civilian military contractor, Ellsberg surreptitiously photocopies classified reports documenting the country 's decades - long involvement in the conflict in Vietnam, dating back to the Truman administration. Ellsberg then leaks these documents to reporters at The New York Times.
Newspaper heiress Katharine Graham tries to balance her social life with her responsibility as owner and publisher of The Washington Post, following the deaths of her husband, and her father. She is troubled over preparations for the newspaper 's stock market launch, a move she recognizes as important for strengthening the paper 's economic stability. Graham lacks experience and is frequently overruled by more assertive men who advise or work for her, such as editor - in - chief Ben Bradlee, and board member Arthur Parsons. Bradlee tries in vain to match The New York Times 's ability to get scoops. Meanwhile, McNamara, Graham 's longtime friend, confides in her that he is to be the subject of unflattering coverage by the Times. The story turns out to be an exposé of the government 's long - running deception of the American public. However, the series is halted by a court injunction against further publication by the Times.
Post assistant editor Ben Bagdikian tracks down Ellsberg as the source for the leak, who provides Bagdikian with copies of the same material given to the Times. A hand - picked team of Post reporters sorts through the piles of papers, searching for the headline stories. The lawyers for the Post advise against publishing the material, lest the Nixon administration bring criminal charges against them. Graham talks to McNamara, Bradlee, and trusted Post chairman Fritz Beebe, agonizing over the decision of whether to publish. The situation is made even more complicated when the Post 's lawyers discover that Bagdikian 's source is the same as the Times 's, possibly putting Graham in contempt of court. If charges are brought against the company, Graham could destroy the newspaper she sees as a family legacy. Alternately, if she were to win any legal challenge, the Post could instead establish itself as an important journalistic institution. She chooses to run the story.
The White House retaliates, and in short order the Post and Times appear together before the Supreme Court to plead their First Amendment argument for the right to publish the material. Meanwhile, newspapers across the country pick up the story in solidarity with the Post and Times. The court rules 6 -- 3 in the newspapers ' favor, vindicating Graham 's decision. Nixon demands that the Post should be barred from the White House. One year later, security guard Frank Wills discovers a break - in in progress at the Watergate complex after a guest at the Watergate hotel called complaining about people using flashlights.
In October 2016, Amy Pascal won a bid for the rights to the screenplay The Post, written by Liz Hannah. In February 2017, Steven Spielberg had halted pre-production on The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara after a casting setback, and consequently opened his schedule to other potential films to direct. The following month, it was announced that Spielberg was in negotiations to direct and produce the film, with Meryl Streep and Tom Hanks in talks for the roles of Katharine Graham and Ben Bradlee, respectively. The Post is the first time that Spielberg, Streep, and Hanks had all worked together on a film.
Spielberg read the screenplay and decided to direct the film as soon as possible, citing that "when I read the first draft of the script, this was n't something that could wait three years or two years -- this was a story I felt we needed to tell today. '' Spielberg worked on The Post while post-production work continued on the visual - effects - heavy Ready Player One, a situation familiar to him from concurrently producing, in the early 1990s, Jurassic Park and Schindler 's List. Josh Singer was hired to re-write the screenplay ten weeks before filming.
As filming commenced, a number of New York Times figures who were associated with the Pentagon Papers case -- among them James Greenfield, James Goodale, Allan Siegal, and Max Frankel -- objected to the film 's production due to the script 's lack of emphasis on the Times ' role in breaking the story. Goodale, who was at the time the Times 's in - house counsel, later called the film "a good movie but bad history. ''
The film began principal photography in New York on May 30, 2017. On June 6, 2017, it was announced that the project, retitled The Papers, would also star Alison Brie, Carrie Coon, David Cross, Bruce Greenwood, Tracy Letts, Bob Odenkirk, Sarah Paulson, Jesse Plemons, Matthew Rhys, Michael Stuhlbarg, Bradley Whitford, and Zach Woods. On August 25, 2017, the film 's title reverted to The Post. Spielberg finished the final cut of the film on November 6, 2017, with the final sound mix also completed along with the musical score a week later, on November 13.
Writing for The New York Times, Manogla Dargis indicated some high points in the costume design used in the film stating, "The costume designer Ann Roth subtly brightens Katharine, taking her from leaden gray to free - flowing gold. ''.
The score for the film was written by John Williams; it is his 28th collaboration with Spielberg. The music is a combination of traditional orchestral instrumentation and what Williams has called "very light, computerised electronic effects. '' Williams was originally attached to write the music for Spielberg 's Ready Player One, but, because both films had similar post-production schedules, Williams chose to work on The Post, while Alan Silvestri composed for Ready Player One. Spielberg has said that The Post was a rare instance in which he went to the recording sessions "having not heard a note '' in advance.
Recording began on October 30, 2017 in Los Angeles. The soundtrack was released digitally by Sony Classical Records on December 22, 2017 and in physical form on January 12, 2018.
December 22, 2017 (2017 - 12 - 22) (digital)
The Post premiered at the Newseum in Washington, D.C. on December 14, 2017. It began a limited theatrical release in the United States on December 22, 2017, and a wide release on January 12, 2018. The film is distributed internationally through Amblin Partners ' distribution agreements with Universal Pictures, Reliance Entertainment, and Entertainment One Films. The film was released by Reliance in India. Tom Hanks has expressed disinterest in appearing at a potential White House screening for Donald Trump.
The first official image from The Post was released on October 31, 2017. The trailer for The Post premiered exclusively on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, on November 7, 2017, and the film 's poster, designed by BLT Communications, was released the next day. The first TV spot, titled "Uncover the Truth '', was released on November 21, 2017.
The Post was released on Digital HD on April 3 and on Blu - ray / DVD April 17 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.
As of April 15, 2018, The Post has grossed $81.8 million in the United States and Canada, and $92.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $174.4 million, against a production budget of $50 million.
During The Post 's limited opening weekend, December 22 to 24, it grossed $526,011 (and a total of $762,057 over the four - day Christmas weekend) from nine theaters. The following weekend, the film grossed $561,080 for a per - theater average of $62,342, one of the highest of 2017. The film had its wide release alongside the openings of The Commuter, Paddington 2 and Proud Mary, and was projected to gross around $20 million from 2,819 theaters over the weekend. It made $5.9 million on its first day and $18.6 million over the weekend (and a four - day MLK weekend total of $23.4 million), finishing second at the box office behind holdover Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle. 66 % of its opening weekend audience was over the age of 35. It dropped 37 % the following weekend to $12.2 million, finishing 4th behind Jumanji and newcomers 12 Strong and Den of Thieves. It dropped to 5th in its third week of wide release, grossing $8.9 million.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88 % based on 321 reviews, with an average rating of 7.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The Post 's period setting belies its bitingly timely themes, brought compellingly to life by director Steven Spielberg and an outstanding ensemble cast. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 83 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported 63 % of audience members gave the film a "definite recommend ''.
Alonso Duralde of TheWrap praised the acting and Spielberg 's direction, though noted the script as being too on - the - nose at times, saying, "The Post passes the trickiest tests of a historical drama: It makes us understand that decisions that have been validated by the lens of history were difficult ones to make in the moment, and it generates suspense over how all the pieces fell into place to make those decisions come to fruition. '' David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film an A -- and wrote: "Nobody needs to be reminded that history tends to go in circles, but The Post is so vital because it captures the ecstasy of trying to break the chain and bend things towards justice; defending the fundamental tenets of the Constitution has n't been this much fun since Hamilton. ''
Chris Nashawaty, writing for Entertainment Weekly, gave the film a positive review, but also compared it with previous journalism films such as All the President 's Men and stating: "Spielberg makes these crucial days in American history easy to follow. But if you look at The Post next to something like All the President 's Men, you see the difference between having a story passively explained to you and actively helping to untangle it. That 's a small quibble with an urgent and impeccably acted film. But it 's also the difference between a very good movie and a great one. ''
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times awarded the film an NYT Critic 's Pick with a strong acknowledgment of Spielberg as director stating, "Mostly, (the Post decision to publish) went down fast, a pace that Mr. Spielberg conveys with accelerated rhythms, flying feet, racing cameras and an enjoyably loose approach to the material. With his virtuosic, veteran crew, Mr. Spielberg paints the scene vividly and with daubs of beauty; most notably, he creates distinct visual realms for the story 's two main overlapping, at times colliding worlds. Katharine reigns over one; at first she 's all but entombed in her darkly lighted, wood - paneled empire. Ben rules the other, overseeing the talking and typing warriors of the glaring, noisily freewheeling newsroom ''.
Matt Bobkin, writing for Exclaim!, gave the film a 6 out of 10 score, saying the film "has all the makings of an awards season hit, but is too calculated to reflect today 's ragged, tenuous sociopolitical climate. ''
The film downplays the role that journalists from The New York Times had in the leak of the Pentagon Papers and emphasizes The Washington Post 's involvement. In an interview with the Columbia Journalism Review, former New York Times associates James Greenfield, who coordinated the Pentagon Papers project as the Times ' foreign editor; James Goodale, the Times ' general counsel at the time; and Max Frankel, the Times ' Washington bureau chief when the Papers were published, criticized the film 's more minor portrayal of the paper. The New York Times had not only published the Pentagon Papers before The Washington Post, but had also set the stage for the major legal battle between the press and the United States government. The newspaper also won the 1972 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service for its contributions. The 1972 Pulitzer jury of journalists noted in their recommendation not only the significance of Daniel Ellsberg 's Pentagon Papers leak, but also that of Times reporters Neil Sheehan, Hedrick Smith, Fox Butterfield and E.W. Kenworthy, and stated that their effort was "a combination of investigative reporting, analysis, research, and writing -- all of which added to a distinctly meritorious public service, not only for readers of The Times but also for an entire nation. '' Goodale noted in an article for The Daily Beast that the Times published the Papers after Ellsberg had leaked them to Sheehan, and further stated that the film "creates a false impression that the Post was a major player in such publication. It 's as though Hollywood had made a movie about the Times ' triumphant role in Watergate. '' On PBS NewsHour, Goodale further said, "Although a producer has artistic license, I think it should be limited in a situation such as this, so that the public comes away with an understanding of what the true facts are in this case... And I think that if you 're doing a movie now, when (President Donald) Trump is picking on the press for ' fake news ', you want to be authentic. You do n't want to be in any way fake. ''
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who is a famous person born in california | List of people from California - wikipedia
This is a list of notable people from the U.S. state of California. It includes people who were born / raised in, lived in, or spent portions of their lives in California, or for whom California is a significant part of their identity. The list is in alphabetical order.
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who are called the two gentlemen of verona | The Two Gentlemen of Verona - wikipedia
The Two Gentlemen of Verona is a comedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1589 and 1593. It is considered by some to be Shakespeare 's first play, and is often seen as showing his first tentative steps in laying out some of the themes and motifs with which he would later deal in more detail; for example, it is the first of his plays in which a heroine dresses as a boy. The play deals with the themes of friendship and infidelity, the conflict between friendship and love, and the foolish behaviour of people in love. The highlight of the play is considered by some to be Launce, the clownish servant of Proteus, and his dog Crab, to whom "the most scene - stealing non-speaking role in the canon '' has been attributed.
Two Gentlemen is often regarded as one of Shakespeare 's weakest plays. It has the smallest named cast of any play by Shakespeare.
As the play begins, Valentine is preparing to leave Verona for Milan so as to broaden his horizons. He begs his best friend, Proteus, to come with him, but Proteus is in love with Julia, and refuses to leave. Disappointed, Valentine bids Proteus farewell and goes on alone. Meanwhile, Julia is discussing Proteus with her maid, Lucetta, who tells Julia that she thinks Proteus is fond of her. Julia, however, acts coyly, embarrassed to admit that she likes him. Lucetta then produces a letter; she will not say who gave it to her, but teases Julia that it was Valentine 's servant, Speed, who brought it from Proteus. Julia, still unwilling to reveal her love in front of Lucetta, angrily tears up the letter. She sends Lucetta away, but then, realising her own rashness, she picks up the fragments of the letter and kisses them, trying to piece them back together.
Meanwhile, Proteus ' father has decided that Proteus should travel to Milan and join Valentine. He orders that Proteus must leave the next day, prompting a tearful farewell with Julia, to whom Proteus swears eternal love. The two exchange rings and vows and Proteus promises to return as soon as he can.
In Milan, Proteus finds Valentine in love with the Duke 's daughter, Silvia. Despite being in love with Julia, Proteus falls instantly in love with Silvia and vows to win her. Unaware of Proteus ' feelings, Valentine tells him the Duke wants Silvia to marry the foppish but wealthy Thurio, against her wishes. Because the Duke suspects that his daughter and Valentine are in love, he locks her nightly in a tower, to which he keeps the only key. However, Valentine tells Proteus that he plans to free her by means of a corded ladder, and together, they will elope. Proteus immediately informs the Duke, who subsequently captures and banishes Valentine. While wandering outside Milan, Valentine runs afoul of a band of outlaws, who claim they are also exiled gentlemen. Valentine lies, saying he was banished for killing a man in a fair fight, and the outlaws elect him their leader.
Meanwhile, in Verona, Julia decides to join her lover in Milan. She convinces Lucetta to dress her in boy 's clothes and help her fix her hair so she will not be harmed on the journey. Once in Milan, Julia quickly discovers Proteus ' love for Silvia, watching him attempt to serenade her. She contrives to become his page boy -- Sebastian -- until she can decide upon a course of action. Proteus sends Sebastian to Silvia with a gift of the ring that Julia gave to him before he left Verona, but Julia learns that Silvia scorns Proteus ' affections and is disgusted he would forget his love back home, i.e. Julia herself. Silvia deeply mourns the loss of Valentine, who Proteus has told her is rumoured dead.
Not persuaded of Valentine 's death, Silvia determines to flee the city with the help of Sir Eglamour. They escape into the forest but when they are confronted by the outlaws, Eglamour flees and Silvia is taken captive. The outlaws head to their leader (Valentine), but on the way, they encounter Proteus and Julia (still disguised as Sebastian). Proteus rescues Silvia, and then pursues her deeper into the forest. Secretly observed by Valentine, Proteus attempts to persuade Silvia that he loves her, but she rejects his advances.
Proteus insinuates that he will rape her ("I 'll force thee yield to my desire ''), but at this point, Valentine intervenes and denounces Proteus. Horrified at what has happened, Proteus vows that the hate Valentine feels for him is nothing compared to the hate he feels for himself. Convinced that Proteus ' repentance is genuine, Valentine forgives him and seems to offer Silvia to him. At this point, overwhelmed, Julia faints, revealing her true identity. Upon seeing her, Proteus suddenly remembers his love for her and vows fidelity to her once again. The Duke and Thurio are brought as prisoners by the outlaws. Seeing Silvia, Thurio claims her as his, but Valentine warns Thurio that if he makes one move toward her, he will kill him. Terrified, Thurio renounces Silvia. The Duke, disgusted with Thurio 's cowardice and impressed by Valentine 's actions, approves his and Silvia 's love, and consents to their marriage. The two couples are happily united, and the Duke pardons the outlaws, telling them they may return to Milan.
In writing The Two Gentlemen of Verona, Shakespeare drew on the Spanish prose romance Los Siete Libros de la Diana (The Seven Books of the Diana) by the Portuguese writer Jorge de Montemayor. In the second book of Diana, Don Felix, who is in love with Felismena, sends her a letter explaining his feelings. Like Julia, Felismena pretends to reject the letter, and be annoyed with her maid for delivering it. Like Proteus, Felix is sent away by his father, and is followed by Felismena, who, disguised as a boy, becomes his page, only to subsequently learn that Felix has fallen in love with Celia. Felismena is then employed by Felix to act as his messenger in all communications with Celia, who scorns his love. Instead, Celia falls in love with the page (i.e. Felismena in disguise). Eventually, after a combat in a wood, Felix and Felismena are reunited. Upon Felismena revealing herself however, Celia, having no counterpart to Valentine, dies of grief.
Diana was published in Spanish in 1559 and translated into French by Nicholas Collin in 1578. An English translation was made by Bartholomew Young and published in 1598, though Young claims in his preface to have finished the translation sixteen years earlier (c. 1582). Shakespeare could have read a manuscript of Young 's English translation, or encountered the story in French, or learned of it from an anonymous English play, The History of Felix and Philiomena, which may have been based on Diana, and which was performed for the court at Greenwich Palace by the Queen 's Men on 3 January 1585. The History of Felix and Philiomena is now lost.
Another major influence on Shakespeare was the story of the intimate friendship of Titus and Gisippus as told in Thomas Elyot 's The Boke Named the Governour in 1531 (the same story is told in The Decameron by Giovanni Boccaccio, but verbal similarities between The Two Gentlemen and The Governor suggest it was Elyot 's work Shakespeare used as his primary source, not Boccaccio 's). In this story, Titus and Gisippus are inseparable until Gisippus falls in love with Sophronia. He introduces her to Titus, but Titus is overcome with jealousy, and vows to seduce her. Upon hearing of Titus ' plan, Gisippus arranges for them to change places on the wedding night, thus placing their friendship above his love.
Also important to Shakespeare in the composition of the play was John Lyly 's Euphues, The Anatomy of Wit, published in 1578. Like The Governor, Euphues presents two close friends who are inseparable until a woman comes between them, and, like both The Governor and Two Gentlemen, the story concludes with one friend sacrificing the woman so as to save the friendship. However, as Geoffrey Bullough argues "Shakespeare 's debt to Lyly was probably one of technique more than matter. '' Lyly 's Midas may also have influenced the scene where Launce and Speed run through the milkmaid 's virtues and defects, as it contains a very similar scene between Lucio and Petulus.
Other minor sources include Arthur Brooke 's narrative poem The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet. Obviously Shakespeare 's source for Romeo and Juliet, it features a character called Friar Laurence, as does Two Gentlemen, and a scene where a young man attempts to outwit his lover 's father by means of a corded ladder (as Valentine does in Two Gentlemen). Philip Sidney 's The Countess of Pembroke 's Arcadia may also have influenced Shakespeare insofar as it contains a character who follows her betrothed, dressed as his page, and later on, one of the main characters becomes captain of a group of Helots.
The exact date of composition of The Two Gentlemen of Verona is unknown, but it is generally believed to have been one of Shakespeare 's earliest works. The first evidence of its existence is in a list of Shakespeare 's plays in Francis Meres 's Palladis Tamia, published in 1598, but it is thought to have been written in the early 1590s. Clifford Leech, for example, argues for 1592 / 1593; G. Blakemore Evans places the date at 1590 -- 1593; Gary Taylor suggests 1590 -- 1591; Kurt Schlueter posits the late 1580s; William C. Carroll suggests 1590 -- 1592; Roger Warren tentatively suggests 1587, but acknowledges 1590 / 1591 as more likely.
It has been argued that Two Gentlemen may have been Shakespeare 's first work for the stage. This theory was first suggested by Edmond Malone in 1821, in the Third Variorum edition of Shakespeare 's plays, edited by James Boswell based on Malone 's notes. Malone dated the play 1591, a modification of his earlier 1595 date from the third edition of The Plays of William Shakespeare. At this time, the dominant theory was that the Henry VI trilogy had been Shakespeare 's first work. More recently, the play was placed first in The Oxford Shakespeare: The Complete Works of 1986, and again in the 2nd edition of 2005, in The Norton Shakespeare of 1997, and again in the 2nd edition of 2008, and in The Complete Pelican Shakespeare of 2002.
A large part of the theory that this may be Shakespeare 's first play is the quality of the work itself. Writing in 1968, Norman Sanders argued "all are agreed on the play 's immaturity. '' The argument is that the play betrays a lack of practical theatrical experience on Shakespeare 's part, and as such, it must have come extremely early in his career. Stanley Wells, for example, has written the "dramatic structure is comparatively unambitious, and while some of its scenes are expertly constructed, those involving more than, at the most, four characters betray an uncertainty of technique suggestive of inexperience. '' This uncertainty can be seen in how Shakespeare handles the distribution of dialogue in such scenes. Whenever there are more than three characters on stage, at least one of those characters tends to fall silent. For example, Speed is silent for almost all of Act 2, Scene 4, as are Thurio, Silvia and Julia for most of the last half of the final scene. It has also been suggested that the handling of the final scene in general, in which the faithful lover seemingly offers his beloved as a token of his forgiveness to the man who has just attempted to rape her, is a sign of Shakespeare 's lack of maturity as a dramatist.
In his 2008 edition of the play for the Oxford Shakespeare, Roger Warren argues that the play is the oldest surviving piece of Shakespearean literature, suggesting a date of composition as somewhere between 1587 and 1591. He hypothesizes that the play was perhaps written before Shakespeare came to London, with an idea towards using the famous comic actor Richard Tarlton in the role of Launce (this theory stems from the fact that Tarlton had performed several extremely popular and well known scenes with dogs). However, Tarlton died in September 1588, and Warren notes several passages in Two Gentlemen which seem to borrow from John Lyly 's Midas, which was n't written until at least late - 1589. As such, Warren acknowledges that 1590 / 1591 is most likely the correct date of composition.
The play was not printed until 1623, when it appeared in the First Folio of Shakespeare 's plays.
Perhaps the most critically discussed issue in the play is the sequence, bizarre by modern Western European standards, in Act 5, Scene 4 in which Valentine seems to ' give ' Silvia to Proteus as a sign of his friendship. For many years, the general critical consensus on this issue was that the incident revealed an inherent misogyny in the text. For example, Hilary Spurling wrote in 1970, "Valentine is so overcome (by Proteus ' apology) that he promptly offers to hand over his beloved to the man who, not three minutes before, had meant to rape her. '' Modern scholarship, however, is much more divided about Valentine 's actions at the end of the play, with some critics arguing that he does not offer to give Silvia to Proteus at all. The ambiguity lies in the line "All that was mine in Silvia I give thee '' (5.4. 83). Some critics (such as Stanley Wells, for example) interpret this to mean that Valentine is indeed handing Silvia over to her would - be rapist, but another school of thought suggests that Valentine simply means "I will love you (Proteus) with as much love as I love Silvia, '' thus reconciling the dichotomy of friendship and love as depicted elsewhere in the play. This is certainly how Jeffrey Masten, for example, sees it, arguing that the play as a whole "reveals not the opposition of male friendship and Petrarchan love but rather their interdependence. '' As such, the final scene "stages the play 's ultimate collaboration of male friendship and its incorporation of the plot we would label "heterosexual ''. ''
This is also how Roger Warren interprets the final scene. Warren cites a number of productions of the play as evidence for this argument, including Robin Phillips ' Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) production in 1970, where Valentine kisses Silvia, makes his offer and then kisses Proteus. Another staging cited by Warren is Edward Hall 's 1998 Swan Theatre production. In Hall 's version of the scene, after Valentine says the controversial line, Silvia approaches him and takes him by the hand. They remain holding hands for the rest of the play, clearly suggesting that Valentine has not ' given ' her away. Warren also mentions Leon Rubin 's 1984 Stratford Shakespeare Festival production (where the controversial line was altered to "All my love to Silvia I also give to thee ''), David Thacker 's 1991 Swan Theatre production, and the 1983 BBC Television Shakespeare adaptation as supporting the theory that Valentine is not giving Silvia away, but is simply promising to love Proteus as much as he loves Silvia. Patty S. Derrick also interprets the BBC production in this manner, arguing that "Proteus clearly perceives the offer as a noble gesture of friendship, not an actual offer, because he does not even look towards Silvia but rather falls into an embrace with Valentine '' (although Derrick does raise the question that if Valentine is not offering Silvia to Proteus, why does Julia swoon?).
There are other theories regarding this final scene, however. For example, in his 1990 edition of the play for the New Cambridge Shakespeare, Kurt Schlueter suggests that Valentine is indeed handing Silvia over to Proteus, but the audience is not supposed to take it literally; the incident is farcical, and should be interpreted as such. Schlueter argues that the play provides possible evidence it was written to be performed and viewed primarily by a young audience, and as such, to be staged at university theatres, as opposed to public playhouses. Such an audience would be more predisposed to accepting the farcical nature of the scene, and more likely to find humorous the absurdity of Valentine 's gift. As such, in Schlueter 's theory, the scene does represent what it appears to represent; Valentine does give Silvia to her would - be rapist, but it is done purely for comic effect.
Another theory is provided by William C. Carroll in his 2004 edition for the Arden Shakespeare, Third Series. Carroll argues, like Schlueter, that Valentine is indeed giving Silvia to Proteus, but unlike Schlueter, Carroll detects no sense of farce. Instead, he sees the action as a perfectly logical one in terms of the notions of friendship which were prevalent at the time:
the idealisation of male friendship as superior to male - female love (which was considered not romantic or compassionate but merely lustful, hence inferior) performs a project of cultural nostalgia, a stepping back from potentially more threatening social arrangements to a world of order, a world based on a ' gift ' economy of personal relations among male social equals rather than one based on a newer, less stable economy of emotional and economic risk. The offer of the woman from one male friend to another would therefore be the highest expression of friendship from one point of view, a low point of psycho - sexual regression from another.
As in Schlueter, Carroll here interprets Valentine 's actions as a gift to Proteus, but unlike Schlueter, and more in line with traditional criticism of the play, Carroll also argues that such a gift, as unacceptable as it is to modern eyes, is perfectly understandable when one considers the cultural and social milieu of the play itself.
Language is of primary importance in the play insofar as Valentine and Proteus speak in blank verse, but Launce and Speed speak (for the most part) in prose. More specifically, the actual content of many of the speeches serve to illustrate the pompousness of Valentine and Proteus ' exalted outlook, and the more realistic and practical outlook of the servants. This is most apparent in Act 3, Scene 1. Valentine has just given a lengthy speech lamenting his banishment and musing on how he can not possibly survive without Silvia; "Except I be by Silvia in the night / There is no music in the nightingale. / Unless I look on Silvia in the day / There is no day for me to look upon '' (ll. 178 -- 181). However, when Launce enters only a few lines later, he announces that he too is in love, and proceeds to outline, along with Speed, all of his betrothed 's positives ("She brews good ale ''; "She can knit ''; "She can wash and scour ''), and negatives ("She hath a sweet mouth ''; "She doth talk in her sleep ''; "She is slow in words ''). After weighing his options, Launce decides that the woman 's most important quality is that "she hath more hair than wit, and more faults than hairs, and more wealth than faults '' (ll. 343 -- 344). He announces that her wealth "makes the faults gracious '' (l. 356), and chooses for that reason to wed her. This purely materialistic reasoning, as revealed in the form of language, is in stark contrast to the more spiritual and idealised love espoused by Valentine earlier in the scene.
One of the dominant theories as regards the value of Two Gentlemen is that thematically, it represents a ' trial run ' of sorts, in which Shakespeare deals briefly with themes which he would examine in more detail in later works. E.K. Chambers, for example, believed that the play represents something of a gestation of Shakespeare 's great thematic concerns. Writing in 1905, Chambers stated that Two Gentlemen
was Shakespeare 's first essay at originality, at fashioning for himself the outlines of that romantic or tragicomic formula in which so many of his most characteristic dramas were afterwards to be cast. Something which is neither quite tragedy nor quite comedy, something which touches the heights and depths of sentiment and reveals the dark places of the human heart without lingering long enough there to crystallise the painful impression, a love story broken for a moment into passionate chords by absence and inconstancy and intrigue, and then reunited to the music of wedding bells.
As such, the play 's primary interest for critics has tended to lie in relation to what it reveals about Shakespeare 's conception of certain themes before he became the accomplished playwright of later years. Writing in 1879, A.C. Swinburne, for example, states "here is the first dawn of that higher and more tender humour that was never given in such perfection to any man as ultimately to Shakespeare. '' Similarly, in 1906, Warwick R. Bond writes "Shakespeare first opens the vein he worked so richly afterwards -- the vein of crossed love, of flight and exile under the escort of the generous sentiments; of disguised heroines, and sufferings endured and virtues exhibited under their disguise; and of the Providence, kinder than life, that annuls the errors and forgives the sin. '' More recently, Stanley Wells has referred to the play as a "dramatic laboratory in which Shakespeare first experimented with the conventions of romantic comedy which he would later treat with a more subtle complexity, but it has its own charm. ''
Other critics have been less kind however, arguing that if the later plays show a skilled and confident writer exploring serious issues of the human heart, Two Gentlemen represents the initial, primarily unsuccessful attempt to do likewise. In 1921, for example, J. Dover Wilson and Arthur Quiller - Couch, in their edition of the play for the Cambridge Shakespeare, famously stated that after hearing Valentine offer Silvia to Proteus "one 's impulse, upon this declaration, is to remark that there are, by this time, no gentlemen in Verona. '' H.B. Charlton, writing in 1938, argues that "clearly, Shakespeare 's first attempt to make romantic comedy had only succeeded so far as it had unexpectedly and inadvertently made romance comic. '' Another such argument is provided by Norman Sanders in 1968; "because the play reveals a relatively unsure dramatist and many effects managed with a tiro 's lack of expertise, it offers us an opportunity to see more clearly than anywhere else in the canon what were to become characteristic techniques. It stands as an ' anatomie ' or show - through version, as it were, of Shakespeare 's comic art. '' Kurt Schlueter, on the other hand, argues that critics have been too harsh on the play precisely because the later plays are so much superior. He suggests that when looking at Shakespeare 's earlier works, scholars put too much emphasis on how they fail to measure up to the later works, rather than looking at them for their own intrinsic merits; "we should not continue the practice of holding his later achievements against him when dealing with his early beginnings. ''
Norman Sanders calls the play "almost a complete anthology of the practices of the doctrine of romantic love which inspired the poetic and prose Romances of the period. '' At the very centre of this is the contest between love and friendship; "an essential part of the comicality of The Two Gentlemen of Verona is created by the necessary conflict between highly stylised concepts of love and friendship. '' This is manifested in the question of whether the relationship between two male friends is more important than that between lovers, encapsulated by Proteus ' rhetorical question at 5.4. 54; "In love / Who respects friend? '' This question "exposes the raw nerve at the heart of the central relationships, the dark reality lurking beneath the wit and lyricism with which the play has in general presented lovers ' behaviour. '' In the program notes for John Barton 's 1981 RSC production at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, Anne Barton, his wife, wrote that the central theme of the play was "how to bring love and friendship into a constructive and mutually enhancing relationship. '' As William C. Carroll points out, this is a common theme in Renaissance literature, which often celebrates friendship as the more important relationship (because it is pure and unconcerned with sexual attraction), and contends that love and friendship can not co-exist. As actor Alex Avery argues, "The love between two men is a greater love for some reason. There seems to be a sense that the function of a male / female relationship is purely for the family and to procreate, to have a family. But a love between two men is something that you choose. You have arranged marriages, (but) a friendship between two men is created by the desires and wills of those two men, whereas a relationship between a man and a girl is actually constructed completely peripheral to whatever the feelings of the said boy and girl are. ''
Carroll sees this societal belief as vital in interpreting the final scene of the play, arguing that Valentine does give Silvia to Proteus, and in so doing, he is merely acting in accordance with the practices of the day. However, if one accepts that Valentine does not give Silvia to Proteus, as critics such as Jeffrey Masten argue, but instead offers to love Proteus as much as he loves Silvia, then the conclusion of the play can be read as a final triumphant reconciliation between friendship and love; Valentine intends to love his friend as much as he does his betrothed. Love and friendship are shown to be co-existent, not exclusive.
Another major theme is the foolishness of lovers, what Roger Warren refers to as "mockery of the absurdity of conventional lovers ' behaviour. '' Valentine for example, is introduced into the play mocking the excesses of love; "To be in love, where scorn is bought with groans / Coy looks with heart - sore sighs, one fading moment 's mirth / With twenty watchful, weary, tedious nights '' (1.1. 29 -- 31). Later, however, he becomes as much a prisoner of love as Proteus, exclaiming, "For in revenge of my contempt for love / Love hath chased sleep from my enthrall 'd eyes / And made them watchers of my own heart 's sorrow '' (2.4. 131 -- 133).
The majority of the cynicism and mockery as regards conventional lovers, however, comes from Launce and Speed, who serve as foils for the two protagonists, and "supply a mundane view of the idealistic flights of fancy indulged in by Proteus and Valentine. '' Several times in the play, after either Valentine or Proteus has made an eloquent speech about love, Shakespeare introduces either Launce or Speed (or both), whose more mundane concerns serve to undercut what has just been said, thus exposing Proteus and Valentine to mockery. For example, in Act 2, Scene 1, as Valentine and Silvia engage in a game of flirtation, hinting at their love for one another, Speed provides constant asides which serve to directly mock the couple;
VALENTINE Peace, here she comes. Enter Silvia SPEED (aside) O excellent motion! O exceeding puppet! Now he will interpret her. VALENTINE Madame and mistress, a thousand good - morrows. SPEED (aside) O, give ye good e'en. Here 's a million of manners. SILVIA Sir Valentine and servant, to you two thousand. SPEED (aside) He should give her interest, and she gives it him. (2.1. 85 - 94)
A third major theme is inconstancy, particularly as manifested in Proteus, whose very name hints at his changeable mind (in Ovid 's Metamorphoses, Proteus is a sea - god forever changing its shape). At the start of the play, Proteus has only eyes for Julia. However, upon meeting Silvia, he immediately falls in love with her (although he has no idea why). He then finds himself drawn to the page Sebastian (Julia in disguise) whilst still trying to woo Silvia, and at the end of the play, he announces that Silvia is no better than Julia and vows he now loves Julia again. Indeed, Proteus himself seems to be aware of this mutability, pointing out towards the end of the play; "O heaven, were man / But constant, he were perfect. That one error / Fills him with faults, makes him run through all th'sins; / Inconstancy falls off ere it begins '' (5.4. 109 -- 112).
There is no record of a performance during Shakespeare 's lifetime, although due to its inclusion in Francis Meres ' Palladis Tamia, we know the play had definitely been performed by 1598. The earliest known performance was at Drury Lane in 1762. However, this production was of a version of the play rewritten by Benjamin Victor. The earliest known performance of the straight Shakespearean text was at Covent Garden in 1784, advertised as "Shaxespeare 's with alterations. '' Although the play was supposed to run for several weeks, it closed after the first night.
From the middle of the eighteenth century, even if staging Shakespeare 's original (as opposed to Victor 's rewrite) it was common to cut the lines in the final scene where Valentine seems to offer Silvia to Proteus. This practice prevailed until William Macready reintroduced the lines in 1841 in a production at Drury Lane, although they were still being removed as late as 1952, in Denis Carey 's production at the Bristol Old Vic. Notable nineteenth - century performances include Charles Kean 's 1848 production at the Haymarket Theatre, Samuel Phelps ' 1857 production at Sadler 's Wells Theatre and William Poel 's 1892 and 1896 productions.
During the twentieth century, the play has been produced sporadically in the English - speaking world, although it has proved more popular in Europe. Indeed, there have been only a few significant English speaking productions. Little is known, for example, about Harley Granville - Barker 's 1904 production at the Court Theatre, F.R. Benson 's 1910 production at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, Robert Atkins ' 1923 production at the Apollo Theatre, or Ben Iden Payne 's 1938 production at Stratford - upon - Avon. The earliest production about which we have significant information is Michael Langham 's 1957 production at The Old Vic, starring Richard Gale as Valentine, Keith Michell as Proteus, Barbara Jefford as Julia and Ingrid Hafner as Silvia. In this production, set in late nineteenth - century Italy and grounded very much in high Romanticism, Proteus threatens to kill himself with a pistol at the end of the play, prompting Valentine 's hasty offer of Silvia.
Perhaps the most notable 20th - century production was Peter Hall 's 1960 production at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. Set in a late medieval milieu, the play starred Denholm Elliott as Valentine, Derek Godfrey as Proteus, Susan Maryott as Silvia, Frances Cuka as Julia, and featured a much lauded performance by Patrick Wymark as Launce. Hall had only recently been appointed as Artistic Director of the RSC, and, somewhat unexpectedly, he chose Two Gentlemen as his inaugural production, billed as the opening show in a re-examination of the development of Shakespearean comedy.
Ten years later, in 1970, Robin Phillips ' RSC production starred Peter Egan as Valentine, Ian Richardson as Proteus, Helen Mirren as Julia, Estelle Kohler as Silvia, and Patrick Stewart as Launce. This production concentrated on the issues of friendship and treachery, and set the play in a decadent world of social elitism. Valentine and Proteus were presented as aristocratic students, the Duke was a Don, and Eglamour an old scout master. On the other hand, the poverty - stricken outlaws were dressed in animal skins.
The RSC again staged the play at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 1981, as a double bill with Titus Andronicus, with both plays heavily edited. Directed by John Barton, the production starred Peter Chelsom as Valentine, Peter Land as Proteus, Julia Swift as Julia and Diana Hardcastle as Silvia. This production saw the actors not involved in the current on - stage scene sit at the front of the stage and watch the performance. Leon Rubin directed a performance at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in 1984, where the actors were dressed in modern clothes and contemporary pop music was featured within the play (for example, the outlaws are portrayed as an anarchic rock group).
A 1991 RSC production at the Swan Theatre saw director David Thacker use an on - stage band for the duration of the play, playing music from the 1930s, such as Cole Porter and George Gershwin. Thacker 's production featured Richard Bonneville as Valentine, Finbar Lynch as Proteus, Clare Holman as Julia and Saskia Reeves as Silvia. In 1992, Thacker 's production moved to the Barbican Centre, and in 1993 went on regional tour. In 1996, Jack Shepherd directed a modern dress version at the Royal National Theatre as part of Shakespeare 's Globe 's "Prologue Season ''. The production starred Lenny James as Valentine, Mark Rylance as Proteus, Stephanie Roth Haberle as Julia and Anastasia Hille as Silvia. Another RSC production took place at the Swan in 1998, under the direction of Edward Hall, and starring Tom Goodman - Hill as Valentine, Dominic Rowan as Proteus, Lesley Vickerage as Julia and Poppy Miller as Silvia. This production set the play in a grimy unnamed contemporary city where material obsession was all - encompassing.
In 2004, Fiona Buffini directed a touring production for the RSC. Premiering at the Swan, the production starred Alex Avery as Valentine, Laurence Mitchell as Proteus, Vanessa Ackerman as Julia and Rachel Pickup as Silvia. Buffini set the play in a swinging 1930s milieu, and featuring numerous dance numbers. Additionally, London and New York replaced Verona and Milan; initially, Valentine and Proteus are shown as living in the English countryside, in a rural paradise devoid of any real vitality, the sons of wealthy families who have retired from the city. When Valentine leaves, he heads to New York to pursue the American Dream and falls in love with Silvia, the famous actress daughter of a powerful media magnate. Another change to the play was that the roles of the outlaws (represented here as a group of paparazzi) were increased considerably. Scenes added to the play show them arriving in New York and going about their daily business, although none of the new scenes featured any dialogue. Another performance worth noting occurred at the Courtyard Theatre in Stratford in 2006. A non-professional acting company from Brazil, named Nós do Morro, in collaboration with a Gallery 37 group from Birmingham, gave a single performance of the play during the RSC 's presentation of the Complete Works, directed by Guti Fraga. The production was spoken in Portuguese, with the original English text projected as surtitles onto the back of the stage. It also featured two 17 - year - olds in the roles of Valentine and Proteus (usually, actors in their 20s are cast), and Crab was played not by a dog, but by a human actor in a dog costume. In 2009, Joe Dowling directed the play at the Guthrie Theater, starring Sam Bardwell as Valentine, Jonas Goslow as Proteus, Sun Mee Chomet as Julia and Valeri Mudek as Silvia. Staged as a 1950s live television production, large black - and - white monitors were set on either side of the stage, with cameras feeding the action to them. Additionally, period advertisements appeared both before the show and during the intermission. The actors spoke the original dialogue, but wore 1950s clothing. Rock and roll music and dance sequences were occasionally mixed with the action.
In 2011, Laura Cole directed a production at the Shakespeare Tavern. Presented as an "in repertory '' production, alongside The Taming of the Shrew and The Comedy of Errors, it starred Kenneth Wigley as Valentine, Jonathan Horne as Proteus, Amee Vyas as Julia and Kati Grace Morton as Silvia. In 2012, P.J. Paparelli directed a Shakespeare Theatre Company production at the Lansburgh Theatre, starring Andrew Veenstra as Valentine, Nick Dillenburg as Proteus, Natalie Mitchell as Silvia and Miriam Silverman as Julia. Set in the 1990s, and featuring a contemporary soundtrack, mobile phones and guns, the production downplayed the comedy, and instead presented the play as a semi-tragic coming - of - age story. Reviews were mixed, with most critics impressed with the attempts to do something new with the play, but not universally sure the new ideas worked. Also in 2012, a touring production was staged at various venues throughout the UK, including a performance at the Globe Theatre as part of the Globe to Globe Festival, under the name Vakomana Vaviri Ve Zimbabwe (The Two Gentlemen from Zimbabwe). Directed by Arne Pohlmeier, and spoken in Shona, the entire play was performed with a cast of two; Denton Chikura and Tonderai Munyevu. In 2014, for the first time since Robin Phillips ' 1970 production, the RSC performed the play in a full production at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. Directed by Simon Godwin, the production starred Michael Marcus as Valentine, Mark Arends as Proteus, Pearl Chanda as Julia and Sarah MacRae as Silvia. On 3 September, the play was broadcast live to cinemas around the world as part of the "Live from Stratford - upon - Avon '' series. The production received generally positive reviews, with most critics happy to see it back on the RSC stage.
Benjamin Victor rewrote the play for performance in 1762 (the earliest recorded performance we have of the play), at the Theatre Royal in Drury Lane. Starring Richard Yates as Launce, his wife, Mary Ann Yates as Julia and Elizabeth Pope as Silvia, Victor brought all of the Verona scenes together, removed Valentine 's ' gift ' of Silvia to Proteus and increased the roles of Launce and Crab (especially during the outlaw scenes, where both characters are intimately involved in the action). He also switched the emphasis of the play away from the love - friendship dichotomy and instead focused on the issues of fidelity, with the last line of the play altered to, "Lovers must be faithful to be bless 'd. '' This necessitated rewriting Valentine as a near flawless protagonist who represents such faithfulness, and Proteus as a traditional villain, who does n't care for such notions. The two are not presented as old friends, but simply as acquaintances. Thurio was also rewritten as a harmless, but lovable fool, not unlike Launce and Speed. Although not a major success (the play initially ran for only six performances), it was still being staged as late as 1895.
In 1790, John Philip Kemble staged his own production of the play at Drury Lane, maintaining many of Victor 's alterations whilst also adding many of his own. The production starred Richard Wroughton as Proteus and Elizabeth Satchell as Silvia. The play was again staged at Covent Garden in 1808, with Kemble, who was fifty years old at the time, playing Valentine.
Frederic Reynolds staged an operatic version in 1821 at Covent Garden as part of his series of adaptations of the works of Shakespeare. Reynolds wrote the lyrics, with Henry Bishop writing the music. The production ran for twenty - nine performances, and included some of Shakespeare 's sonnets set to music. Augustin Daly revived the opera in 1895 at Daly 's Theatre, in an elaborate production starring Ada Rehan as Julia.
In 1826, Franz Schubert set a German translation by Eduard von Bauernfeld of Proteus ' serenade to Silvia ("Who is Silvia? What is she, / That all our swains commend her? '') to music. This song is usually known in English as "Who is Sylvia?, '' but in German it is known as "An Sylvia '' ("Vier Lieder '', opus 106, number 4, D. 891). In 1942, Gerald Finzi included a setting of "Who Is Silvia? '' in his song cycle on Shakespearean texts Let Us Garlands Bring; the title of the work is the last line of the song.
In 1971, Galt MacDermot, John Guare and Mel Shapiro adapted the show into a rock musical under the same name as the play. Guare and Shapiro wrote the book, Guare the lyrics, and MacDermot the music. Opening at the St. James Theatre on 1 December 1971, with Shapiro directing and Jean Erdman as choreographer, it ran for 614 performances, closing on 20 May 1973. During its initial run, the play won two Tony Awards; Best Musical and Best Book. The original cast included Clifton Davis as Valentine, Raúl Juliá as Proteus, Jonelle Allen as Silvia and Diana Dávila as Julia. The play moved to the West End in 1973, playing at the Phoenix Theatre from 26 April, and running for 237 performances. It was revived in 1996 at the New Jersey Shakespeare Festival, directed by Robert Duke, and again in 2005, directed and choreographed by Kathleen Marshall as part of the Shakespeare in the Park festival. Marshall 's production was performed at the Delacorte Theater in Central Park, and starred Norm Lewis as Valentine, Oscar Isaac as Proteus, Renée Elise Goldsberry as Silvia and Rosario Dawson as Julia.
The only cinematic adaptation of the play is Yī jiǎn méi (more commonly known by its English title A Spray of Plum Blossoms), a 1931 silent film from China, directed by Bu Wancang and written by Huang Yicuo. A loose adaptation of the play, the film tells the story of Bai Lede (Wang Chilong) and Hu Luting (Jin Yan), two military cadets who have been friends since they were children. After graduating, Hu, a playboy uninterested in love, is appointed as a captain in Guangdong and leaves his home town in Shanghai. Bai however, deeply in love with Hu 's sister, Hu Zhuli (Ruan Lingyu) stays behind. At Guangdong, Hu falls in love with the local general 's daughter, Shi Luohua (Lin Chuchu), although the general, Shi (Wang Guilin), is unaware of the relationship, and instead wants his daughter to marry the foolish Liao Di'ao (Kao Chien Fei). Meanwhile, Bai 's father uses his influence to get Bai posted to Guangdong, and after a sorrowful farewell between himself and Zhuli, he arrives at his new post and instantly falls in love with Luohua. In an effort to have her for himself, Bai betrays his friend, by informing General Shi of his daughter 's plans to elope with Hu, leading to Shi dishonourably discharging Hu. Bai tries to win Luohua over, but she is uninterested, only concerned with lamenting the loss of Hu. In the meantime, Hu encounters a group of bandits who ask him to be their leader, to which he agrees, planning on returning for Luohua at some point in the future. Some time passes, and one day, as Luohua, Bai and Liao are passing through the forest, they are attacked. Luohua manages to flee, and Bai pursues her into the forest. They engage in an argument, but just as Bai seems about to lose his temper, Hu intervenes, and he and Luohua are reunited. General Shi arrives in time to see Liao flee the scene, and he now realises that he was wrong to get in the way of the relationship between Hu and his daughter. Hu then forgives Bai his betrayal, and Bai reveals that he has discovered that his only true love is in fact Zhuli back in Shanghai. The film is notable for being one of many Chinese films of the period which, although performed in Mandarin when filming, used English intertitles upon its original release. In the English intertitles and credits, the characters are named after their counterparts in the play; Hu is Valentine, Bai is Proteus, Zhuli is Julia and Luohua is Silvia. Liao is named Tiburio rather than Thurio.
Two Gentlemen is also featured in Shakespeare in Love (1999). Directed by John Madden and written by Marc Norman and Tom Stoppard, the film tells the fictional story of William Shakespeare 's (Joseph Fiennes) composition of Romeo and Juliet. Early in the film, Queen Elizabeth (Judi Dench) attends a production of Two Gentlemen, greatly enjoying William Kempe (Patrick Barlow) being thoroughly outperformed by Crab, and then falling asleep during Henry Condell 's (Nicholas Boulton) recitation of Proteus ' soliloquy from Act 2, Scene 1. Later, after reading the first draft of Romeo and Ethel, theatre manager Philip Henslowe (Geoffrey Rush) suggests that Shakespeare add a dog to liven the play up.
The first television adaptation was in 1952, when BBC Television Service broadcast Act 1 of the play live from the Bristol Old Vic. Directed by Denis Carey, the production starred John Neville as Valentine, Laurence Payne as Proteus, Gudrun Ure as Silvia and Pamela Ann as Julia.
In 1956, the entire play was broadcast on West German TV channel Das Erste from a performance at the Munich Kammerspiele, under the title Zwei herren aus Verona. The theatrical production was directed by Hans Schalla, with the TV adaptation directed by Ernst Markwardt. The cast included Rolf Schult as Valentine, Hannes Riesenberger as Proteus, Helga Siemers as Julia and Isolde Chlapek as Silvia. In 1964, the play was made into a TV movie in West Germany, again using the title Zwei herren aus Verona. Screened on ZDF, it was directed by Hans Dieter Schwarze and starred Norbert Hansing as Valentine, Rolf Becker as Proteus, Katinka Hoffman as Julia and Heidelinde Weis as Silvia. Another West German TV movie, under the title Die zwei herren aus Verona, was screened on Das Erste in 1966. Directed by Harald Benesch, it starred Jürgen Kloth as Valentine, Lothar Berg as Proteus, Anne - Marie Lermon as Julia and Carola Regnier as Silvia. In 1969, the entire play was broadcast on Austrian TV channel ORF eins from a performance at the Theater in der Josefstadt, under the title Zwei aus Verona. The theatrical production was directed by Edwin Zbonek, with the TV adaptation directed by Wolfgang Lesowsky. The cast included Klaus Maria Brandauer as Valentine, Albert Rueprecht as Proteus, Kitty Speiser as Julia and Brigitte Neumeister as Silvia.
In 1983, the play was adapted for the BBC Television Shakespeare series, as the fourth episode of the sixth season. Directed by Don Taylor, it starred Tyler Butterworth as Proteus, John Hudson as Valentine, Tessa Peake - Jones as Julia and Joanne Pearce as Silvia. For the most part, the adaptation is taken verbatim from the First Folio, with some very minor differences. For example, omitted lines include the Duke 's "Knowing that tender youth is soon suggested '' (3.1. 34), and Julia 's "Her eyes are grey as glass, and so are mine '' (4.4. 189). Other differences include a slightly different opening scene to that indicated in the text. Whereas the play seems to open with Valentine and Proteus in mid-conversation, the adaptation begins with Mercatio and Eglamour attempting to formally woo Julia; Mercatio by showing her a coffer overflowing with gold coins, Eglamour by displaying a parchment detailing his ancestry. Neither Eglamour nor Mercatio appear in the text. However, there is no dialogue in this scene, and the first words spoken are the same as in the text ("Cease to persuade my loving Proteus ''). Eglamour is also present in the final scene, albeit once again without any dialogue, and, additionally, the capture of Silvia and the flight of Eglamour is seen, as opposed to merely being described. The music for the episode was created by Anthony Rooley, who wrote new arrangements of works from Shakespeare 's own time, such as John Dowland 's "Lachrimae ''. Performed by The Consort of Musicke, other musicians whose music was used include William Byrd, Thomas Campion, Anthony Holborne, John Johnson, Thomas Morley and Orazio Vecchi.
Taylor initially planned a representational setting for the film; Verona, Milan and the forest were all to be realistic. However, he changed his mind early in preproduction and had production designer Barbara Gosnold go in the opposite direction -- a stylised setting. To this end, the forest is composed of metal poles with bits of green tinsel and brown sticks stuck to them (the cast and crew referred to the set as "Christmas at Selfridges ''). Whilst the set for Verona remained relatively realistic, that for Milan featured young actors dressed like cherubs as extras. This was to convey the idea that the characters lived in a ' Garden of Courtly Love ', which was slightly divorced from the everyday reality represented by Verona. Working in tandem with this idea, upon Proteus ' arrival in Milan, after meeting Silvia, he is left alone on screen, and the weather suddenly changes from calm and sunny to cloudy and windy, accompanied by a thunderclap. The implication being that Proteus has brought a darkness within him into the garden of courtly delights previously experienced by Silvia. Although the production is edited in a fairly conventional manner, much of it was shot in extremely long takes, and then edited into sections, rather than actually shooting in sections. Director Don Taylor would shoot most of the scenes in single takes, as he felt this enhanced performances and allowed actors to discover aspects which they never would were everything broken up into pieces.
In 1995, a production of the play aired on Polish TV channel TVP1 under the title Dwaj panowie z Werony, directed by Roland Rowiński and starring Rafal Krolikowski as Proteus, Marek Bukowski as Valentine, Agnieszka Krukówna as Julia and Edyta Jungowska as Sylvia.
In 2000, episode three of season four of Dawson 's Creek, "Two Gentlemen of Capeside '' loosely adapted the plot of the play. Written by Chris Levinson and Jeffrey Stepakoff, and directed by Sandy Smolan, the episode depicts how Dawson Leery (James Van Der Beek) and Pacey Witter (Joshua Jackson), formally best friends, have been driven apart over their love for the same woman. The play is referenced early in the episode as the characters are reading it for their English class.
In 1923, extracts from the play were broadcast on BBC Radio, performed by the Cardiff Station Repertory Company as the first episode of a series of programs showcasing Shakespeare 's plays, entitled Shakespeare Night. In 1924, the entire play was broadcast by 2BD, directed by Joyce Tremayne and R.E. Jeffrey, with Treymane playing Silvia and Jeffrey playing Valentine, alongside G.R. Harvey as Proteus and Daisy Moncur as Julia. In 1927, the scenes between Julia and Lucetta were broadcast on BBC Radio as part of the Echoes from Greenwich Theatre series. Betty Rayner played Julia and Joan Rayner played Lucetta. BBC National Programme broadcast the full play in 1934, adapted for radio by Barbara Burnham and produced by Lance Sieveking. Ion Swinley played Valentine, Robert Craven was Proteus, Helen Horsey was Silvia and Lydia Sherwood played Julia.
In 1958, the entire play was broadcast on BBC Third Programme. Produced and directed by Raymond Raikes, it starred John Westbrook as Valentine, Charles Hodgson as Proteus, Caroline Leigh as Silvia, Perlita Neilson as Julia, and Frankie Howerd as Launce. BBC Third Programme aired another full production of the play in 1968, produced and directed by R.D. Smith and starring Denys Hawthorne as Valentine, Michael N. Harbour as Proteus, Judi Dench as Julia and Kate Coleridge as Silvia.
In 2007, producer Roger Elsgood and director Willi Richards adapted the play into a radio drama called The Two Gentlemen of Valasna. Set in two petty Indian princely states called Malpur and Valasna in the weeks leading up to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the play was first broadcast on BBC Radio 3 on 29 July 2007. It was recorded on location in Maharashtra, India earlier in 2007 with a cast drawn from Bollywood, Indian television and the Mumbai English - speaking theatre traditions; actors included Nadir Khan as Vishvadev (i.e. Valentine), Arghya Lahiri as Parminder (Proteus), Anuradha Menon as Syoni (Silvia), Avantika Akerkar as Jumaana / Servi (Julia / Sebastian), Sohrab Ardishir as The Maharaja (Duke of Milan) and Zafar Karachiwala as Thaqib (Thurio).
All references to The Two Gentlemen of Verona, unless otherwise specified, are taken from the Oxford Shakespeare (Warren), based on the First Folio text of 1623. Under its referencing system, 2.3. 14 means act 2, scene 3, line 14.
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who bought the most expensive painting in the world | List of most expensive paintings - Wikipedia
This is a list of the highest known prices paid for paintings. The earliest sale listed (Vase with Fifteen Sunflowers by Vincent van Gogh) is from 1987, and more than tripled the previous record price, set only two years before, introducing a new era in the history of high sums of money paid for paintings. The sale was also significant in that for the first time a "modern '' painting (in this case from 1888) became the record holder, as opposed to the old master paintings which had always previously held it. The current record price is approximately $ 450 million paid for Leonardo Da Vinci 's Salvator Mundi in November 2017.
The world 's most famous paintings, especially old master works done before 1803, are generally owned or held at museums, for viewing by patrons. The museums rarely sell them, and as such, they are quite literally priceless. Guinness World Records lists the Mona Lisa as having the highest insurance value for a painting in history. On permanent display at The Louvre museum in Paris, the Mona Lisa was assessed at US $100 million on December 14, 1962. Taking inflation into account, the 1962 value would be around US $620 million in 2016.
The earliest sale on the list below (Vase with Fifteen Sunflowers by Vincent van Gogh) is from March 1987; with a price of £ 24.75 million (£ 53.5 million in 2016 pounds sterling) it tripled the previous record and introduced a new era in top art sales. Before this, the highest absolute price paid for a painting was £ 8.1 million (£ 19.3 million in 2016 pounds sterling) paid by the J. Paul Getty Museum for Mantegna 's Adoration of the Magi at Christie 's in London on April 18, 1985. In constant dollars, the highest price paid before 1987 was by the National Gallery of Art when in February 1967 they acquired Leonardo da Vinci 's Ginevra de ' Benci for around $5 million ($28 million in 2016 dollars) from the Princely Family of Liechtenstein. The sale of Van Gogh 's Sunflowers was also significant in that for the first time a "modern '' (in this case 1888) painting became the record holder, as opposed to the old master paintings which previously had dominated the market. In contrast, there are currently only nine pre-1875 paintings among the listed top 79, and no works painted between 1635 and 1874.
An exceptional case is graffiti artist David Choe, who accepted payment in shares for painting graffiti art in the headquarters of a fledgling Facebook. While his shares were of limited value when he was awarded them, by the time of Facebook 's IPO they were valued at around $200 m.
Vincent van Gogh, Pablo Picasso, and Andy Warhol are by far the best represented artists in the list. Whereas Picasso and Warhol became wealthy men, Van Gogh (supposedly) sold only one painting in his lifetime, The Red Vineyard, for 400 francs (about $2000 (?) in 2017) to the impressionist painter and heiress Anna Boch. Prices realised for only his nine paintings in the list below, if adjusted for inflation to 2016, add up to over $885 million.
Georgia O'Keeffe holds the record for the highest price paid for a painting by a woman. On 20 November 2014 at Sotheby 's, the Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art bought her 1932 painting Jimson Weed / White Flower No. 1 for $44.4 million (equivalent to $45.5 million in 2016).
This list is ordered by GDP deflator inflation - adjusted value (in bold) in millions of United States dollars in 2016. Where necessary, the price is first converted to dollars using the exchange rate at the time the painting was sold. The inflation adjustment may change as recent inflation rates are often revised. A list in another currency may be in a slightly different order due to exchange - rate fluctuations. Paintings are listed only once, i.e. for the highest price sold.
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what is the second series of percy jackson called | The Heroes of Olympus - wikipedia
The Heroes of Olympus is a pentalogy of adventure, mythological fiction and fantasy novels written by American author Rick Riordan that collectively form a sequel series to the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series. This series details a conflict between Greek and Roman demigods and Gaea, the earth goddess. Riordan introduces Roman mythology into his sequel series as well as several new characters. The first book of the series, The Lost Hero, was published on October 12, 2010. The final entry in the series, The Blood of Olympus, was published on October 7, 2014.
The plot of the Heroes of Olympus is centered around a prophecy, introduced in The Last Olympian, that predicted seven demigods would unite to protect the earth from Gaea. Demigods from both the Greek camp, Camp Half - Blood, and a newfound Roman camp, Camp Jupiter, work together to save the world from being destroyed by Gaea. The prophecy reads:
Seven half - bloods shall answer the call, To storm or fire, the world must fall. An oath to keep with a final breath, And foes bear arms to the Doors of Death.
The Lost Hero, the first book in the Heroes of Olympus series, was released on October 12, 2010 as a hardcover, audiobook, and ebook. The initial publishing run consisted of 2.5 million copies. The book 's official publication was preceded by several "sneak - peek '' releases by Disney - Hyperion. A graphic novel version, adapted and illustrated by Orpheus Collar, was released October 7, 2014.
The novel begins by introducing Jason Grace, Piper McLean, and Leo Valdez, three newly - discovered demigods who travel to Camp Half - Blood. In response to a prophecy, they set off on a quest to prevent the rebirth of the giant king Porphyrion and rescue Piper 's father, who has been kidnapped by another giant, Enceladus. Jason, who has amnesia, also begins to remember pieces of his past throughout the book - most importantly, that he comes from a Roman camp for demigods called Camp Jupiter. Camp Half - Blood resolves to seek out this other camp both to gain allies in the fight against Gaea, the giants ' mother and commander, and to locate the missing Percy Jackson.
The novel was a number one bestseller on the lists of The New York Times, USA Today, The Wall Street Journal, and Publishers Weekly.. Many critics praised the novel as a good follow - up to Riordan 's previous series. A review by The Epoch Times commented, "If anyone was afraid that Riordan could n't top his Percy Jackson series -- they can quit worrying. This new series, even though in the same genre as the Percy Jackson group, has fresh ideas, more mystery and magic and keeps the reader engrossed from start to finish. '' Despite this praise, some reviews were more mixed. Vicky Smith of Kirkus Reviews wrote, "(there are) far too many pages of stretched - out action, telling not showing and awkward dialogue... Unless Riordan tightens things up considerably by number five, (readers) may find themselves hoping that it does not end with a third Great Prophecy ''.
The Lost Hero won the Barnes & Noble Best Book of 2010 award and was a Massachusetts Children 's Book Award Honor book for 2014, among other honors. Rick Riordan was named "Author of the Year '' for the novel at the 2011 Children 's Choice Awards. The book was also recommended by the ALA Best Fiction for Young Adults list of 2012.
The Son of Neptune, the second book in the Heroes of Olympus series, was released on October 4, 2011.
The novel opens with Percy Jackson (stricken with amnesia) discovering Camp Jupiter and meeting several Roman demigods. After a prophecy from Mars, he, Frank Zhang, and Hazel Levesque travel to Alaska to stop the rise of the giant Alcyoneus and free the god Thanatos, whom the giant has captured. After successfully completing their mission, the group returns to Camp Jupiter to defend it from yet another giant, Polybotes, and his army. After repelling this invasion, the demigods from Camp Jupiter go to meet the delegation from Camp Half - Blood arriving in the flying ship known as the Argo II.
The Mark of Athena, the third book, was released on October 2, 2012.
After the Argo II unintentionally fires on Camp Jupiter, the seven demigods of the "Prophecy of Seven '' - Percy Jackson, Annabeth Chase, Hazel Levesque, Frank Zhang, Jason Grace, Piper McLean, and Leo Valdez - rush to escape the angered Roman campers. They travel to Rome following the Mark of Athena, a magical talisman designed to lead children of Athena (like Annabeth) to the missing Athena Parthenos. During their journey, they hear that Nico di Angelo has been captured by the Aloadae, and go to rescue him. Although they successfully free the son of Hades and locate the statue, Annabeth and Percy are pulled into Tartarus and the rest of the group resolves to find some way to save them.
The House of Hades, the fourth book, was released on October 8, 2013.
In Tartarus, Percy Jackson and Annabeth Chase travel towards the "Doors of Death '' (the only exit to the mortal world) with help from Bob the Titan, hoping to escape and simultaneously stop more monsters from getting through. In the mortal world, the remaining demigods search for the mortal side of the Doors to help open them. They also meet with Reyna Avila Ramírez - Arellano, a Roman demigod; she, Nico di Angelo, and Coach Hedge leave with the Athena Parthenos for Camp Half - Blood. Once reunited, the original seven sail for Greece, where they expect Gaea 's main force will gather.
The Blood of Olympus, the fifth and final book in the series, was released on October 7, 2014.
While Reyna Ramírez - Arellano, Nico di Angelo, and Gleeson Hedge travel towards Camp Half - Blood (where the Romans are preparing to attack the Greeks), the seven of the quest travel to Athens. With help from the gods, the demigods defeat the giants in Athens. They then return to the fight on Long Island and Leo Valdez sacrifices himself to defeat Gaea and restore peace. In the final pages, Leo is resurrected by his bronze dragon Festus and goes to find his girlfriend Calypso. Unaware that he is alive, Camp Half - Blood and Camp Jupiter mourn his loss, determining to become allies and prevent such a deadly war from happening again.
Released August 14, 2012, The Demigod Diaries is a collection of short stories. Similar to The Demigod Files, it contains some new stories with character interviews, illustrations, puzzles, and a quiz. The four stories include:
A sequel pentalogy series titled The Trials of Apollo is currently in - development, with the first installment, The Hidden Oracle released on May 3, 2016. The second installment, The Dark Prophecy, was released on May 2, 2017.
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different types of mangoes with names in india | List of mango cultivars - wikipedia
Worldwide, hundreds of mango cultivars exist. In mango orchards, multiple cultivars are often grown together to improve cross-pollination.
Reportedly, in India alone, there are around 283 types of mangoes, out of which only 30 are well - known. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) facility on Old Cutler Road in Coral Gables, Florida, has about 400 varieties of mangoes and is one of the largest depositories of mango plant cultures in the world. The USDA collection was originally believed to have over 500 varieties of mango germplasm, but genetic testing showed several duplicates. In the United States, South Florida is one of the meccas for mangoes due to year - round temperate climate and culture fascinated by mangoes and several nurseries dedicated to bringing new varieties of mangoes into the US by either import or selective breeding. Reviews of older varieties of mangoes were based upon the competition available at the time. Most of the varieties of mangoes available in grocery stores in the United States can trace their lineage to the Haden mango tree, a tree planted by Jack Haden in 1902 in Coral Gables, Florida (Haden it self can be traced back to Malgova which is mis - spelled Malgoba in US and has origin in tamilnadu, India). The Zills family has created a number of new varieties of mango, most recently, Gary Zill with Zill 's High Performance a selective breeding program of new varieties. The following are among the more widely grown mango cultivars, listed by the country in which they were selected or are most extensively cultivated:
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who played organ on fly like an eagle | Fly Like an Eagle (song) - wikipedia
"Fly Like an Eagle '' is a song written by Steve Miller for the album of the same name. The song went to number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart during the week of March 12, 1977, kept from the top spot by "Evergreen (Love Theme from A Star Is Born) '' by Barbra Streisand. The single edit can be found on Greatest Hits (1974 -- 1978). The song has an unusually mellow and "dreamy '' feel. It is usually played in tandem with "Space Intro '', but the song also segues into "Wild Mountain Honey ''.
The band first performed the song in 1973 for the concert at New York City 's Felt Forum venue with The Marshall Tucker Band, Buddy Guy and Junior Wells. The song was re-recorded for the eponymous album released in 1976.
An earlier 1973 version of the song features a more bluesy and less funk - inspired rhythm, and guitar taking the synthesizer parts (albeit with similar delay effects). The lyrics are slightly different, indicating that the place the eagle wants to fly away from is a Native American reservation. The song 's final, funk - inspired album version pays homage to "Slippin ' Into Darkness '' by War (1971).
The main guitar hook in the song was first used in a slightly different form on Miller 's 1969 track "My Dark Hour '' (which featured Paul McCartney).
The original Steve Miller Band version sold over one million copies. The Seal version sold over 300,000 units as of April 5, 1997, according to Nielsen SoundScan.
Twenty years after Steve Miller 's original version, British artist Seal covered "Fly Like an Eagle '' for the Space Jam soundtrack, even sampling Miller 's original "Space Intro '' parts in the song 's chorus. This version peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100, number 13 on the UK Singles Chart and number two on the Canadian RPM 100 Chart. The single was his first top ten since 1995 's "Kiss from a Rose ''.
According to Seal, the executive producer of the Space Jam soundtrack, Dominique Trenier, asked him to record it. D'Angelo, who was managed by Trenier, played keyboards on the song. Seal has said that Steve Miller approved of the cover version and at one point called him "thanking me and saying that was the best cover of the song that he had heard. ''
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60 state street 33rd floor boston ma 02109 | 60 State Street - wikipedia
60 State Street is a modern skyscraper on historic State Street in the Government Center neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. Completed in 1977, it is Boston 's 14th tallest building, standing 509 feet (155 m) tall, and housing 38 floors (1).
Sixty State Street marks the site of one of two colonial taverns named the Great Britain Coffee - House, where Queen Street (now Court Street) ended and King Street (now State Street) began. This Great Britain Coffee - House, established in 1713, advertised "superfine bohea, and green tea, chocolate, coffee - powder, etc. ''
In 1838, Thatcher Magoun Sr., a ship designer, builder and merchant who ran a shipbuilding facility in Medford, established Thatcher Magoun & Son, a counting - house, on the 60 State Street site to manage his business revenue, bookkeeping and correspondence. This helped to establish State Street as one of Boston 's financial centers, hence initiate the city 's Financial District. His son and grandson, Thatcher Magoun Jr. and Thatcher Magoun III, kept the firm going in the maritime trade until the late 1870s. An abstract from the firm 's records reads:
Upon Magoun Sr. 's death at 81 in 1856, the Thatcher Magoun, a clipper ship built by Hayden & Cudworth in Medford for Thatcher Magoun & Sons, was named and launched in his memory. Author Hall Gleason described the clipper as follows: "Her figurehead was a life - like image of the father of ship building on the Mystic... She made five passages from Boston to S.F., the fastest being 113 days and the slowest 152 days; seven from N.Y. to S.F., fastest 117 and slowest 149; two from Liverpool in 150 and 115 days. The average of the fourteen is 128.7 days. S.F. to NY. in 96 days in 1869. ''
Designed by the Chicago - based firm of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill and developed by Cabot, Cabot & Forbes, 60 State Street is clad in pink granite to blend with the red brick of Faneuil Hall, City Hall Plaza and other neighboring buildings and spaces. The granite - clad triangular pillars alternate with vertical banks of rectangular floor - to - ceiling windows in a pattern similar to that of Eero Saarinen 's black granite - faced CBS Building, a.k.a. "Black Rock, '' in New York City.
Also like Black Rock, 60 State Street is surrounded by a pedestrian plaza. Only this time the plaza is raised rather than sunken and is accessible at street level from State Street and by two flights of stairs from Faneuil Hall Marketplace.
Unlike Black Rock 's rectangular solid composition, 60 State Street was given eleven sides and a two - part scheme so that it has the appearance of side - by - side octagonal tubes from a distance. The chamfered corner pillars are similarly octagonal. This theme recalls Boston 's historic architectural vernacular of chamfered bay windows on Beacon Hill and in the Back Bay.
The main office of a major international law firm, WilmerHale, is located at 60 State Street.
The building is shared with Good Measures and is the corporate headquarters for the company. The building also served as the corporate headquarters of the Sheraton Hotel group from 1978 until they were acquired by Starwood Hotels and Resorts in 1998.
The State Room is located in the building 's elegant space on the 33rd floor, the site of the former Bay Tower Room restaurant. The State Room run by Longwood Events hosts private functions (such as weddings, corporate events) and offers panoramic views of Boston Harbor, the Financial District, Boston Common, the Massachusetts State House, the Charles River and the Mystic River. In 2009, the American Idol Preliminary round for Boston was held here.
A Bank of America branch is at street level, with ATMs located at the intersection of Congress Street and State Street, where Boston 's Financial District begins.
Berkshire Bank announced 60 State Street as their new corporate headquarters in late 2017.
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did tom hanks won any awards for forrest gump | List of Awards and Nominations received by Tom Hanks - wikipedia
Actor, producer and director Tom Hanks has been honored with numerous awards and nominations, including two consecutive Oscars for Philadelphia (1993) and Forrest Gump (1994). Tom Hanks has won a total of 50 awards on this list.
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where was the 1963 movie jason and the argonauts filmed | Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film) - wikipedia
Jason and the Argonauts (working title Jason and the Golden Fleece) is a 1963 independently made American - British fantasy film, produced by Charles H. Schneer, directed by Don Chaffey, that stars Todd Armstrong, Nancy Kovack, Honor Blackman, and Gary Raymond. It was distributed by Columbia Pictures.
The film was made in collaboration with stop motion animation master Ray Harryhausen and is known for its various fantasy creatures, notably the iconic fight scene featuring multiple skeleton warriors.
The film score was composed by Bernard Herrmann, who also worked with Harryhausen on the fantasy films The 7th Voyage of Sinbad (1958), The Three Worlds of Gulliver (1960), and Mysterious Island (1961).
Pelias (Douglas Wilmer), misinterpreting the prophecy given to him by the god Zeus (Niall MacGinnis), usurps the throne of Thessaly, killing King Aristo and most of his family. The god Hermes (Michael Gwynn), disguised as Pelias ' soothsayer, holds back his army long enough for the infant Jason to be spirited away by one of Aristo 's soldiers. Pelias slays one of the king 's daughters, Briseis (Davina Taylor), as she seeks sanctuary in the temple of the goddess Hera (Honor Blackman). Because the murder has profaned her temple, the angry Hera becomes Jason 's protector. She warns Pelias to beware "of a man wearing one sandal ''.
Twenty years later, Jason (Todd Armstrong) saves Pelias from drowning (orchestrated by Hera), but loses his sandal in the river; Pelias recognizes him from the prophecy. Learning that Jason intends to find the legendary Golden Fleece, he encourages him, hoping Jason will be killed in the attempt.
Jason is brought to Mount Olympus to speak with Zeus and Hera. Hera tells him Zeus has decreed he can only call upon her for aid five times. She directs him to search for the Fleece in the land of Colchis. Zeus offers his direct aid, but Jason declares he can organize the voyage, build a ship, and collect a crew of the bravest men in all Greece.
Men from all over Greece compete for the honor. Because their ship is named the Argo after her builder, Argus (Laurence Naismith), the crew are dubbed the Argonauts. Among them are Hercules (Nigel Green), Hylas (John Cairney), and Acastus (Gary Raymond), the son of Pelias, sent by his father to sabotage the voyage.
Hera guides Jason to the Isle of Bronze, but warns him to take nothing but provisions. However, Hercules steals a brooch pin the size of a javelin from a treasure building, surmounted by a giant statue of Talos, which comes to life and attacks the Argonauts. Jason again turns to Hera, who tells him to open a large plug on Talos ' heel, to release the giant 's ichor. Talos falls to the ground, crushing Hylas, hiding his body. Hercules refuses to leave until he ascertains the fate of his friend. The other Argonauts refuse to abandon Hercules, so Jason calls upon Hera again. She informs them that Hylas is dead and that Hercules will not continue on with them.
The Argonauts next reach the realm of King Phineus (Patrick Troughton), who has been blinded and is tormented by harpies for his transgressions against the gods. In return for his advice on how to reach Colchis, the Argonauts render the harpies harmless by caging them, whereupon Phineus tells them to sail between the Clashing Rocks, which destroy any ship in the narrow channel, and gives Jason an amulet. Arriving at the Clashing Rocks, the Argonauts witness another ship suffering that fate. When the Argo tries to row through, the ship appears doomed. Jason throws Phineus ' amulet into the water, and the sea god Triton rises up and holds the rocks apart so the Argo can pass them. The Argonauts rescue a survivor from the other ship, Medea (Nancy Kovack), high priestess of Colchis.
Challenging Jason 's authority, Acastus engages him in a duel. Disarmed, Acastus jumps into the sea and disappears. Jason and his men land in Colchis and accept an invitation from King Aeëtes (Jack Gwillim) to a feast. Unknown to them, Acastus has survived and warned Aeëtes of Jason 's quest for their prized Golden Fleece. Aeëtes has the unwary Argonauts imprisoned, but Medea, having fallen in love with Jason, helps him and his men escape.
Meanwhile, Acastus tries to steal the Fleece, but is killed by its guardian, the Hydra. Following right behind Acastus, Jason is able to kill the beast and retrieve the gift of the gods. Aeëtes, in pursuit, sows the Hydra 's teeth while praying to the goddess Hecate, producing a band of skeletal warriors. Jason, together with Phalerus and Castor, hold off the skeletons while Medea and Argus escape back to the Argo with the Fleece. After a prolonged battle in which his companions are killed, Jason escapes by jumping into the sea, and he, Medea, and the surviving Argonauts begin their voyage home to Thessaly. In Olympus, Zeus tells Hera that in due time he will call upon Jason again.
The film is one of the mythically - themed fantasy ones scored by Bernard Herrmann. Apart from being the composer 's fourth collaboration with Ray Harryhausen (The 7th Voyage of Sinbad, The Three Worlds of Gulliver, and Mysterious Island, made in 1958, 1960, and 1961 respectively), Herrmann also scored the science fiction films The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) and Journey to the Center of the Earth (1959).
Contrasting with Herrmann 's all - string score for Psycho, the film 's soundtrack was made without a string section. This leaves the brass and percussion to perform the heroic fanfares, and the woodwinds along with additional instruments (such as the harp) to dominate in the more subtle and romantic parts.
In 1995, Intrada released a re-recording of the original score. The new version was conducted by American composer / conductor Bruce Broughton, and performed by the Sinfonia of London.
The film differs from the traditional telling in Greek mythology in several ways.
The film was shot in Eastman Color.
The film received critical acclaim and is now considered a cult film classic. It currently holds a 93 % "fresh '' rating at the film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 41 reviews, with the consensus: "Don Chaffey 's Jason and the Argonauts is an outlandish, transportive piece of nostalgia whose real star is the masterful stop - motion animation work of Ray Harryhausen. ''. In April 2004, Empire magazine ranked Talos as the second - best film monster of all time, after King Kong.
At the 1992 Academy Awards, in honoring Ray Harryhausen with a lifetime - achievement award, actor Tom Hanks remarked "Some people say Casablanca or Citizen Kane. I say Jason and the Argonauts is the greatest film ever made ''.
Ray Harryhausen regarded the film as his best. Previous Harryhausen films had been generally shown as part of double features in "B '' theatres. Columbia was able to book it as a single feature in many "A '' theatres in the United States. The skeletons ' shields are adorned with designs of other Harryhausen creatures, including an octopus and the head of the Ymir from 20 Million Miles to Earth.
In 2008, the American Film Institute nominated the film for its Top 10 Fantasy Films list.
Columbia released the film on Blu - ray (for regions A, B, and C) on 6 July 2010. The disc 's special features include two new audio commentaries, one by Peter Jackson and Randall William Cook, and the other by Harryhausen in conversation with his biographer Tony Dalton.
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who does the voice of alex in madagascar | Madagascar (2005 film) - wikipedia
Madagascar is a 2005 American computer - animated comedy film produced by DreamWorks Animation and released to theaters on May 27, 2005. The film tells the story of four animals from the Central Park Zoo who unexpectedly find themselves stranded on the island of Madagascar. It features the voices of Ben Stiller, Chris Rock, David Schwimmer, and Jada Pinkett Smith, with Sacha Baron Cohen, Cedric the Entertainer, and Andy Richter voicing secondary characters.
Despite its mixed critical reception, it was a success at the box office. The film launched a franchise with a series of films, including the sequel Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa in 2008 and another film Madagascar 3: Europe 's Most Wanted in 2012. A spin - off featuring the series ' penguin characters, Penguins of Madagascar, was released on November 26, 2014.
At the Central Park Zoo, Marty the zebra is celebrating his tenth birthday, but has grown bored with his daily routine and longs to experience the wild. Marty 's best friend is Alex the lion, who enjoys showing off for the public and his celebrity status as "the king of New York ''. Alex attempts to cheer Marty up, but Marty, still unsatisfied, gets some tips from the zoo 's penguins -- Skipper, Kowalski, Rico, and Private -- who are trying to escape the zoo, and follows them out. Alex, Melman the giraffe, and Gloria the hippopotamus pursue Marty in an attempt to convince him to return. The four, along with the penguins and two chimpanzees named Mason and Phil, find themselves at Grand Central Station, where they are quickly sedated via tranquillizer gun when Alex 's attempt to communicate with humans is mistaken for aggression. The zoo, under pressure from anti-captivity activists, is forced to ship the escaped animals by sea to a Kenyan wildlife preserve. During their travels, the penguins escape from their enclosure and take over the ship, intent on taking it to Antarctica. Their antics on the bridge cause the crates containing Alex, Marty, Melman, and Gloria to fall overboard and wash ashore on Madagascar.
The animals are soon able to regroup, initially believing themselves to be at the San Diego Zoo. Upon exploring, however, they come across a pack of lemurs, led by King Julien XIII, and learn their true location. Alex blames Marty for their predicament and attempts to signal for help to get back to civilization. Marty, on the other hand, finds the wild to be exactly what he was looking for, with Gloria and Melman soon joining him in enjoying the island. Alex eventually comes around, but, deprived from the raw steaks he was provided with at the zoo, his prey drive begins to show as hunger kicks in. The group is accepted by the lemurs, though King Julien 's adviser, Maurice, cautions them about Alex 's predatory nature. King Julien ignores Maurice 's concerns and persuades the group to help the lemurs fend off the fossa, who hunt the lemurs as prey. While Alex initially scares the fossa away and is worshiped by the lemurs, later, compelled by hunger, he attacks Marty. Realizing that Alex is now a threat, King Julien banishes him to the far side of the island where the fossa live. Seeing what has happened to Alex, and how difficult it is to survive with so many predators around the island, Marty begins to regret his decision to leave the zoo.
The penguins, having been to Antarctica and found that it "sucks '', land the ship at Madagascar. Seeing this as a chance to return Alex to New York, Marty rushes after his friend against the wishes of the others. Marty attempts to convince the now grizzled, starving Alex to return, but Alex refuses out of fear of attacking Marty again. The penguins, Gloria, and Melman go to find Marty, but are trapped by the fossa. At the last minute, Alex overcomes his predatory instincts and scares the fossa away from the lemur territory forever. The lemurs regain their respect for Alex, and the penguins help him satisfy his hunger through sushi. As the lemurs throw a farewell celebration for the foursome, the penguins decide not to break the news that the ship has run out of fuel.
Madagascar was released on DVD and VHS on November 15, 2005. The DVD included a short animated film The Madagascar Penguins in a Christmas Caper, and a music video "I Like to Move It, '' featuring characters from the film dancing to the song.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film received a 55 % approval rating based on 178 reviews. The consensus reads: "Though its story is problematic in spots and its humor is hit - or - miss for the adult crowd, Madagascar boasts impressive visuals and enough spunky charm to keep children entertained. '' On Metacritic, the film has 57 % approval rating based on 36 reviews falling under the "Mixed or Average '' category.
Despite the mixed response from critics, the film was a commercial success. On its opening weekend, the film grossed $47,224,594 with a $11,431 average from 4,131 theaters making it the number 3 movie of that weekend behind Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith and The Longest Yard. However, the film managed to claim the top position in the U.S. box office the following week with a gross of $28,110,235. In the United States, the film eventually grossed $193,595,521, and in foreign areas grossed $339,085,150 with a summative worldwide gross of $532,680,671. As of December 2013, the film is the ninth highest - grossing DreamWorks animated feature in the U.S. behind Shrek 2, Shrek the Third, Shrek, Shrek Forever After, How to Train Your Dragon, Madagascar 3: Europe 's Most Wanted, Kung Fu Panda, and Monsters vs. Aliens.
The film has won three awards and several nominations.
In 2008, the American Film Institute nominated this film for its Top 10 Animation Films list.
A sequel titled Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa was released on November 7, 2008, and picked up right where the first one left off, with the same voice cast. A second sequel, Madagascar 3: Europe 's Most Wanted, was released on June 8, 2012. A short film called The Madagascar Penguins in a Christmas Caper was released with the Madagascar DVD, and was theatrically released with Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were - Rabbit in the United States. A 2009 spinoff series, The Penguins of Madagascar, premiered in March 2009 on Nickelodeon. It is the first Nicktoon to be produced by both Nickelodeon and DreamWorks. Merry Madagascar, a holiday special featuring characters from the film series, premiered on November 17, 2009 on NBC. Madly Madagascar, a Valentine 's Day special featuring characters from the film series, was released on DVD on January 29, 2013. A spin - off film starring the Penguins was released on November 26, 2014 and a third sequel, Madagascar 4, was set for release on May 18, 2018, but it was removed from its schedule due to the studio 's restructuring.
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mention the three policies of expansion adopted by the british in india | Company rule in India - Wikipedia
Company rule in India (sometimes, Company Raj, "raj '', lit. "rule '' in Hindi) refers to the rule or dominion of the British East India Company over parts of the Indian subcontinent. This is variously taken to have commenced in 1757, after the Battle of Plassey, when Mir Jafar, the new Nawab of Bengal enthroned by Robert Clive, became a puppet in the Company 's hands; in 1765, when the Company was granted the diwani, or the right to collect revenue, in Bengal and Bihar; or in 1773, when the Company established a capital in Calcutta, appointed its first Governor - General, Warren Hastings, and became directly involved in governance. By 1818, with the defeat of the Marathas, followed by the pensioning of the Peshwa and the annexation of his territories, British supremacy in India was complete.
The East India Company was a private company owned by stockholders and reporting to a board of directors in London. Originally formed as a monopoly on trade, it increasingly took on governmental powers with its own army and judiciary. It seldom turned a profit, as employees diverted funds into their own pockets. The British government had little control, and there was increasing anger at the corruption and irresponsibility of Company officials or "nabobs '' who made vast fortunes in a few years. Pitt 's India Act of 1784 gave the British government effective control of the private company for the first time. The new policies were designed for an elite civil service career that minimized temptations for corruption. Increasingly Company officials lived in separate compounds according to British standards. The Company 's rule lasted until 1858, when, after the Indian rebellion of 1857, it was abolished. With the Government of India Act 1858, the British government assumed the task of directly administering India in the new British Raj.
The English East India Company ("the Company '') was founded in 1600, as The Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies. It gained a foothold in India with the establishment of a factory in Masulipatnam on the Eastern coast of India in 1611 and the grant of the rights to establish a factory in Surat in 1612 by the Mughal emperor Jahangir. In 1640, after receiving similar permission from the Vijayanagara ruler farther south, a second factory was established in Madras on the southeastern coast. Bombay island, not far from Surat, a former Portuguese outpost gifted to England as dowry in the marriage of Catherine of Braganza to Charles II, was leased by the Company in 1668. Two decades later, the Company established a presence on the eastern coast as well; far up that coast, in the Ganges river delta, a factory was set up in Calcutta. Since, during this time other companies -- established by the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and Danish -- were similarly expanding in the region, the English Company 's unremarkable beginnings on coastal India offered no clues to what would become a lengthy presence on the Indian subcontinent.
The Company 's victory under Robert Clive in the 1757 Battle of Plassey and another victory in the 1764 Battle of Buxar (in Bihar), consolidated the Company 's power, and forced emperor Shah Alam II to appoint it the diwan, or revenue collector, of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The Company thus became the de facto ruler of large areas of the lower Gangetic plain by 1773. It also proceeded by degrees to expand its dominions around Bombay and Madras. The Anglo - Mysore Wars (1766 -- 99) and the Anglo - Maratha Wars (1772 -- 1818) left it in control of large areas of India south of the Sutlej River. With the defeat of the Marathas, no native power represented a threat for the Company any longer.
The expansion of the Company 's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions, which collectively came to comprise British India. The annexed regions included the North - Western Provinces (comprising Rohilkhand, Gorakhpur, and the Doab) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam (Ahom Kingdom 1828), and Sindh (1843). Punjab, North - West Frontier Province, and Kashmir, were annexed after the Anglo - Sikh Wars in 1849 -- 56 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie Governor General); however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the Treaty of Amritsar (1850) to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu, and thereby became a princely state. In 1854 Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh two years later.
The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the Company 's hegemony in return for limited internal autonomy. Since the Company operated under financial constraints, it had to set up political underpinnings for its rule. The most important such support came from the subsidiary alliances with Indian princes during the first 75 years of Company rule. In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two - thirds of India. When an Indian ruler, who was able to secure his territory, wanted to enter such an alliance, the Company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule, which did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects.
In return, the Company undertook the "defense of these subordinate allies and treated them with traditional respect and marks of honor. '' Subsidiary alliances created the princely states, of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs. Prominent among the princely states were: Cochin (1791), Jaipur (1794), Travancore (1795), Hyderabad (1798), Mysore (1799), Cis - Sutlej Hill States (1815), Central India Agency (1819), Cutch and Gujarat Gaikwad territories (1819), Rajputana (1818), and Bahawalpur (1833).
The area encompassed by modern India was significantly fractured following the decline of the Mughal Empire in the first half of the 18th century
(The Governors - General (locum tenens) are not included in this table unless a major event occurred during their tenure.)
Second Anglo - Mysore War (1780 -- 1784)
Nawab of Oudh cedes Gorakhpur and Rohilkhand divisions; Allahabad, Fatehpur, Cawnpore, Etawah, Mainpuri, Etah districts; part of Mirzapur; and terai of Kumaun (Ceded Provinces, 1801) Treaty of Bassein signed by Peshwa Baji Rao II accepting Subsidiary Alliance Battle of Delhi (1803). Second Anglo - Maratha War (1803 -- 05) Remainder of Doab, Delhi and Agra division, parts of Bundelkhand annexed from Maratha Empire (1805). Ceded and Conquered Provinces established (1805)
Until Clive 's victory at Plassey, the East India Company territories in India, which consisted largely of the presidency towns of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, were governed by the mostly autonomous -- and sporadically unmanageable -- town councils, all composed of merchants. The councils barely had enough powers for the effective management of their local affairs, and the ensuing lack of oversight of the overall Company operations in India led to some grave abuses by Company officers or their allies. Clive 's victory, and the award of the diwani of the rich region of Bengal, brought India into the public spotlight in Britain. The Company 's money management practices came to be questioned, especially as it began to post net losses even as some Company servants, the "Nabobs, '' returned to Britain with large fortunes, which -- according to rumours then current -- were acquired unscrupulously. By 1772, the Company needed British government loans to stay afloat, and there was fear in London that the Company 's corrupt practices could soon seep into British business and public life. The rights and duties of the British government with regards the Company 's new territories came also to be examined. The British parliament then held several inquiries and in 1773, during the premiership of Lord North, enacted the Regulating Act, which established regulations, its long title stated, "for the better Management of the Affairs of the East India Company, as well in India as in Europe ''
Although Lord North himself wanted the Company 's territories to be taken over by the British state, he faced determined political opposition from many quarters, including some in the City of London and the British parliament. The result was a compromise in which the Regulating Act -- although implying the ultimate sovereignty of the British Crown over these new territories -- asserted that the Company could act as a sovereign power on behalf of the Crown. It could do this while concurrently being subject to oversight and regulation by the British government and parliament. The Court of Directors of the Company were required under the Act to submit all communications regarding civil, military, and revenue matters in India for scrutiny by the British government. For the governance of the Indian territories, the act asserted the supremacy of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal) over those of Fort St. George (Madras) and Bombay. It also nominated a Governor - General (Warren Hastings) and four councillors for administering the Bengal Presidency (and for overseeing the Company 's operations in India). "The subordinate Presidencies were forbidden to wage war or make treaties without the previous consent of the Governor - General of Bengal in Council, except in case of imminent necessity. The Governors of these Presidencies were directed in general terms to obey the orders of the Governor - General - in - Council, and to transmit to him intelligence of all important matters. '' However, the imprecise wording of the Act, left it open to be variously interpreted; consequently, the administration in India continued to be hobbled by disunity between the provincial governors, between members of the Council, and between the Governor - General himself and his Council. The Regulating Act also attempted to address the prevalent corruption in India: Company servants were henceforth forbidden to engage in private trade in India or to receive "presents '' from Indian nationals.
William Pitt 's India Act of 1784 established a Board of Control in England both to supervise the East India Company 's affairs and to prevent the Company 's shareholders from interfering in the governance of India. The Board of Control consisted of six members, which included one Secretary of State from the British cabinet, as well as the Chancellor of the Exchequer. Around this time, there was also extensive debate in the British Parliament on the issue of landed rights in Bengal, with a consensus developing in support of the view advocated by Philip Francis, a member of the Bengal council and political adversary of Warren Hastings, that all lands in Bengal should be considered the "estate and inheritance of native land - holders and families... ''
Mindful of the reports of abuse and corruption in Bengal by Company servants, the India Act itself noted numerous complaints that "' divers Rajahs, Zemindars, Polygars, Talookdars, and landholders '' ' had been unjustly deprived of ' their lands, jurisdictions, rights, and privileges '. '' At the same time the Company 's directors were now leaning towards Francis 's view that the land - tax in Bengal should be made fixed and permanent, setting the stage for the Permanent Settlement (see section Revenue settlements under the Company below). The India Act also created in each of the three presidencies a number of administrative and military posts, which included: a Governor and three Councilors, one of which was the Commander in Chief of the Presidency army. Although the supervisory powers of the Governor - General - in - Council in Bengal (over Madras and Bombay) were extended -- as they were again in the Charter Act of 1793 -- the subordinate presidencies continued to exercise some autonomy until both the extension of British possessions into becoming contiguous and the advent of faster communications in the next century.
Still, the new Governor - General appointed in 1786, Lord Cornwallis, not only had more power than Hastings, but also had the support of a powerful British cabinet minister, Henry Dundas, who, as Secretary of State for the Home Office, was in charge of the overall India policy. From 1784 onwards, the British government had the final word on all major appointments in India; a candidate 's suitability for a senior position was often decided by the strength of his political connections rather than that of his administrative ability. Although this practice resulted in many Governor - General nominees being chosen from Britain 's conservative landed gentry, there were some liberals as well, such as Lord William Bentinck and Lord Dalhousie.
British political opinion was also shaped by the attempted Impeachment of Warren Hastings; the trial, whose proceedings began in 1788, ended with Hastings ' acquittal, in 1795. Although the effort was chiefly coordinated by Edmund Burke, it also drew support from within the British government. Burke accused Hastings not only of corruption, but -- appealing to universal standards of justice -- also of acting solely upon his own discretion, without concern for law, and of wilfully causing distress to others in India. Hastings ' defenders countered that his actions were consistent with Indian customs and traditions. Although Burke 's speeches at the trial drew applause and focused attention on India, Hastings was eventually acquitted, due in part to the revival of nationalism in Britain in the wake of the French Revolution. Nonetheless, Burke 's effort had the effect of creating a sense of responsibility in British public life for the Company 's dominion in India.
Soon rumblings appeared amongst merchants in London that the monopoly granted to the East India Company in 1600, intended to facilitate its competition against Dutch and French in a distant region, was no longer needed. In response, in the Charter Act of 1813, the British Parliament renewed the Company 's charter but terminated its monopoly except with regard to tea and trade with China, opening India both to private investment and missionaries. With increased British power in India, supervision of Indian affairs by the British Crown and Parliament increased as well. By the 1820s British nationals could transact business or engage in missionary work under the protection of the Crown in the three presidencies. Finally, under the terms of The Saint Helena Act 1833, the British Parliament revoked the Company 's monopoly in the China trade and made it an agent for the administration of British India. The Governor - General of Bengal was redesignated as the Governor - General of India. The Governor - General and his executive council were given exclusive legislative powers for the whole of British India. Since the British territories in north India had now extended up to Delhi, the Act also sanctioned the creation of a Presidency of Agra. With the annexation of Oudh in 1856, this territory was extended and eventually became the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. In addition, in 1854, a Lieutenant - Governor was appointed for the region of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha, leaving the Governor - General to concentrate on the governance of India as a whole.
In the remnant of the Mughal Empire revenue system existing in pre-1765 Bengal, zamindars, or "land holders, '' collected revenue on behalf of the Mughal emperor, whose representative, or diwan supervised their activities. In this system, the assortment of rights associated with land were not possessed by a "land owner, '' but rather shared by the several parties with stake in the land, including the peasant cultivator, the zamindar, and the state. The zamindar served as an intermediary who procured economic rent from the cultivator, and after withholding a percentage for his own expenses, made available the rest, as revenue to the state. Under the Mughal system, the land itself belonged to the state and not to the zamindar, who could transfer only his right to collect rent. On being awarded the diwani or overlordship of Bengal following the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the East India Company found itself short of trained administrators, especially those familiar with local custom and law; tax collection was consequently farmed out. This uncertain foray into land taxation by the Company, may have gravely worsened the impact of a famine that struck Bengal in 1769 - 70, in which between seven and ten million people -- or between a quarter and third of the presidency 's population -- may have died. However, the company provided little relief either through reduced taxation or by relief efforts, and the economic and cultural impact of the famine was felt decades later, even becoming, a century later, the subject of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee 's novel Anandamath.
In 1772, under Warren Hastings, the East India Company took over revenue collection directly in the Bengal Presidency (then Bengal and Bihar), establishing a Board of Revenue with offices in Calcutta and Patna, and moving the pre-existing Mughal revenue records from Murshidabad to Calcutta. In 1773, after Oudh ceded the tributary state of Benaras, the revenue collection system was extended to the territory with a Company Resident in charge. The following year -- with a view to preventing corruption -- Company district collectors, who were then responsible for revenue collection for an entire district, were replaced with provincial councils at Patna, Murshidabad, and Calcutta, and with Indian collectors working within each district. The title, "collector, '' reflected "the centrality of land revenue collection to government in India: it was the government 's primary function and it moulded the institutions and patterns of administration. ''
The Company inherited a revenue collection system from the Mughals in which the heaviest proportion of the tax burden fell on the cultivators, with one - third of the production reserved for imperial entitlement; this pre-colonial system became the Company revenue policy 's baseline. However, there was vast variation across India in the methods by which the revenues were collected; with this complication in mind, a Committee of Circuit toured the districts of expanded Bengal Presidency in order to make a five - year settlement, consisting of five - yearly inspections and temporary tax farming. In their overall approach to revenue policy, Company officials were guided by two goals: first, preserving as much as possible the balance of rights and obligations that were traditionally claimed by the farmers who cultivated the land and the various intermediaries who collected tax on the state 's behalf and who reserved a cut for themselves; and second, identifying those sectors of the rural economy that would maximise both revenue and security. Although their first revenue settlement turned out to be essentially the same as the more informal pre-existing Mughal one, the Company had created a foundation for the growth of both information and bureaucracy.
In 1793, the new Governor - General, Lord Cornwallis, promulgated the permanent settlement of land revenues in the presidency, the first socio - economic regulation in colonial India. By the terms of the settlement Rajas and Taluqdars were recognised as Zamindars and they were asked to collect the rent from the peasants and pay revenue to the Company. It was named permanent because it fixed the land tax in perpetuity in return for landed property rights for zamindars; it simultaneously defined the nature of land ownership in the presidency, and gave individuals and families separate property rights in occupied land. Since the revenue was fixed in perpetuity, it was fixed at a high level, which in Bengal amounted to £ 3 million at 1789 - 90 prices. According to the Permanent Settlement if the Zamindars failed to pay the revenue on time, the Zmaindari right would be taken from them. According to one estimate, this was 20 % higher than the revenue demand before 1757. Over the next century, partly as a result of land surveys, court rulings, and property sales, the change was given practical dimension. An influence on the development of this revenue policy were the economic theories then current, which regarded agriculture as the engine of economic development, and consequently stressed the fixing of revenue demands in order to encourage growth. The expectation behind the permanent settlement was that knowledge of a fixed government demand would encourage the zamindars to increase both their average outcrop and the land under cultivation, since they would be able to retain the profits from the increased output; in addition, it was envisaged that land itself would become a marketable form of property that could be purchased, sold, or mortgaged. A feature of this economic rationale was the additional expectation that the zamindars, recognising their own best interest, would not make unreasonable demands on the peasantry.
However, these expectations were not realised in practice, and in many regions of Bengal, the peasants bore the brunt of the increased demand, there being little protection for their traditional rights in the new legislation. Forced labour of the peasants by the zamindars became more prevalent as cash crops were cultivated to meet the Company revenue demands. Although commercialised cultivation was not new to the region, it had now penetrated deeper into village society and made it more vulnerable to market forces. The zamindars themselves were often unable to meet the increased demands that the Company had placed on them; consequently, many defaulted, and by one estimate, up to one - third of their lands were auctioned during the first three decades following the permanent settlement. The new owners were often Brahmin and Kayastha employees of the Company who had a good grasp of the new system, and, in many cases, some had prospered under it.
Since the zamindars were never able to undertake costly improvements to the land envisaged under the Permanent Settlement, some of which required the removal of the existing farmers, they soon became rentiers who lived off the rent from their tenant farmers. In many areas, especially northern Bengal, they had to increasingly share the revenue with intermediate tenure holders, called jotedars, who supervised farming in the villages. Consequently, unlike the contemporaneous Enclosure movement in Britain, agriculture in Bengal remained the province of the subsistence farming of innumerable small paddy fields.
The zamindari system was one of two principal revenue settlements undertaken by the Company in India. In southern India, Thomas Munro, who would later become Governor of Madras, promoted the ryotwari system or the Munro system, in which the government settled land - revenue directly with the peasant farmers, or ryots. It was first tried in small scale by Captain Alexander Read in the areas that were taken over from the wars with Tipu Sultan. Subsequently, developed by Thomas Munro, this system was gradually extended all over South India. This was, in part, a consequence of the turmoil of the Anglo - Mysore Wars, which had prevented the emergence of a class of large landowners; in addition, Munro and others felt that ryotwari was closer to traditional practice in the region and ideologically more progressive, allowing the benefits of Company rule to reach the lowest levels of rural society. At the heart of the ryotwari system was a particular theory of economic rent -- and based on David Ricardo 's Law of Rent -- promoted by utilitarian James Mill who formulated the Indian revenue policy between 1819 and 1830. "He believed that the government was the ultimate lord of the soil and should not renounce its right to ' rent ', i.e. the profit left over on richer soil when wages and other working expenses had been settled. '' Another keystone of the new system of temporary settlements was the classification of agricultural fields according to soil type and produce, with average rent rates fixed for the period of the settlement. According to Mill, taxation of land rent would promote efficient agriculture and simultaneously prevent the emergence of a "parasitic landlord class. '' Mill advocated ryotwari settlements which consisted of government measurement and assessment of each plot (valid for 20 or 30 years) and subsequent taxation which was dependent on the fertility of the soil. The taxed amount was nine - tenths of the "rent '' in the early 19th century and gradually fell afterwards. However, in spite of the appeal of the ryotwari system 's abstract principles, class hierarchies in southern Indian villages had not entirely disappeared -- for example village headmen continued to hold sway -- and peasant cultivators sometimes came to experience revenue demands they could not meet. In the 1850s, a scandal erupted when it was discovered that some Indian revenue agents of the Company were using torture to meet the Company 's revenue demands.
Land revenue settlements constituted a major administrative activity of the various governments in India under Company rule. In all areas other than the Bengal Presidency, land settlement work involved a continually repetitive process of surveying and measuring plots, assessing their quality, and recording landed rights, and constituted a large proportion of the work of Indian Civil Service officers working for the government. After the Company lost its trading rights, it became the single most important source of government revenue, roughly half of overall revenue in the middle of the 19th century; even so, between the years 1814 and 1859, the government of India ran debts in 33 years. With expanded dominion, even during non-deficit years, there was just enough money to pay the salaries of a threadbare administration, a skeleton police force, and the army.
In 1772, when Hastings became the first Governor - General one of his first undertakings was the rapid expansion of the Presidency 's army. Since the available soldiers, or Sepoys, from Bengal -- many of whom had fought against the British in the Battle of Plassey -- were now suspect in British eyes, Hastings recruited farther west from the "major breeding ground of India 's infantry in eastern Awadh and the lands around Banaras including Bihar. The high caste rural Hindu Rajputs and Brahmins of this region (known as Purbiyas (Hindi, lit. "easterners '') had been recruited by Mughal Empire armies for two hundred years; the East India Company continued this practice for the next 75 years, with these soldiers comprising up to eighty per cent of the Bengal army. However, in order to avoid any friction within the ranks, the Company also took pains to adapt its military practices to their religious requirements. Consequently, these soldiers dined in separate facilities; in addition, overseas service, considered polluting to their caste, was not required of them, and the army soon came to recognise Hindu festivals officially. "This encouragement of high caste ritual status, however, left the government vulnerable to protest, even mutiny, whenever the sepoys detected infringement of their prerogatives. ''
The Bengal Army was used in military campaigns in other parts of India and abroad: to provide crucial support to a weak Madras army in the Third Anglo - Mysore War in 1791, and also in Java and Ceylon. In contrast to the soldiers in the armies of Indian rulers, the Bengal sepoys not only received high pay, but also received it reliably, thanks in great measure to the Company 's access to the vast land - revenue reserves of Bengal. Soon, bolstered both by the new musket technology and naval support, the Bengal army came to be widely regarded. The well - disciplined sepoys attired in red - coats and their British officers began to arouse "a kind of awe in their adversaries. In Maharashtra and in Java, the sepoys were regarded as the embodiment of demonic forces, sometimes of antique warrior heroes. Indian rulers adopted red serge jackets for their own forces and retainers as if to capture their magical qualities. ''
In 1796, under pressure from the Company 's Board of Directors in London, the Indian troops were re-organised and reduced during the tenure of John Shore as Governor - General. However, the closing years of the 18th century saw, with Wellesley 's campaigns, a new increase in the army strength. Thus in 1806, at the time of the Vellore Mutiny, the combined strength of the three presidencies ' armies stood at 154,500, making them one of the largest standing armies in the world.
As the East India Company expanded its territories, it added irregular "local corps, '' which were not as well trained as the army. In 1846, after the Second Anglo - Sikh War, a frontier brigade was raised in the Cis - Sutlej Hill States mainly for police work; in addition, in 1849, the "Punjab Irregular Force '' was added on the frontier. Two years later, this force consisted of "3 light field batteries, 5 regiments of cavalry, and 5 of infantry. '' The following year, "a garrison company was added,... a sixth infantry regiment (formed from the Sind Camel Corps) in 1853, and one mountain battery in 1856. '' Similarly, a local force was raised after the annexation of Nagpur in 1854, and the "Oudh Irregular Force '' was added after Oudh was annexed in 1856. Earlier, as a result of the treaty of 1800, the Nizam of Hyderabad had begun to maintain a contingent force of 9,000 horse and 6,000 - foot which was commanded by Company officers; in 1853, after a new treaty was negotiated, this force was assigned to Berar and stopped being a part of the Nizam 's army.
In the Indian rebellion of 1857 almost the entire Bengal army, both regular and irregular, revolted. It has been suggested that after the annexation of Oudh by the East India Company in 1856, many sepoys were disquieted both from losing their perquisites, as landed gentry, in the Oudh courts and from the anticipation of any increased land - revenue payments that the annexation might augur. With British victories in wars or with annexation, as the extent of British jurisdiction expanded, the soldiers were now not only expected to serve in less familiar regions (such as in Burma in the Anglo - Burmese Wars in 1856), but also make do without the "foreign service, '' remuneration that had previously been their due, and this caused resentment in the ranks. The Bombay and Madras armies, and the Hyderabad contingent, however, remained loyal. The Punjab Irregular Force not only did n't revolt, it played an active role in suppressing the mutiny. The rebellion led to a complete re-organisation of the Indian army in 1858 in the new British Raj.
The reforms initiated after 1784 were designed to create an elite civil service where very talented young Britons would spend their entire careers. Advanced training was promoted especially at the Haileybury and Imperial Service College (until 1853). Haileybury emphasised the Anglican religion and morality and trained students in the classical Indian languages. Many students held to Whiggish, evangelical, and Utilitarian convictions of their duty to represent their nation and to modernise India. At most there were about 600 of these men who managed the Raj 's customs service, taxes, justice system, and its general administration. The Company 's original policy was one of "Orientalism '', that is of adjusting to the way of life and customs of the Indian people and not trying to reform them. That changed after 1813, as the forces of reform in the home country, especially evangelical religion, Whiggish political outlook, and Utilitarian philosophy worked together to make the Company an agent of Anglicization and modernisation. Christian missionaries became active, but made few converts. The Raj set out to outlaw sati (widow - burning) and thuggee (ritual banditry) and upgrade the status of women. Schools would be established in which they would teach the English language. The 1830s and 1840s, however, were not times of prosperity: After its heavy spending on the military, the Company had little money to engage in large - scale public works projects or modernisation programs.
After gaining the right to collect revenue in Bengal in 1765, the Company largely ceased importing gold and silver, which it had hitherto used to pay for goods shipped back to Britain.
In addition, as under Mughal Empire rule, land revenue collected in the Bengal Presidency helped finance the Company 's wars in other parts of India. Consequently, in the period 1760 -- 1800, Bengal 's money supply was greatly diminished; furthermore, the closing of some local mints and close supervision of the rest, the fixing of exchange rates, and the standardisation of coinage, paradoxically, added to the economic downturn. During the period, 1780 -- 1860, India changed from being an exporter of processed goods for which it received payment in bullion, to being an exporter of raw materials and a buyer of manufactured goods. More specifically, in the 1750s, mostly fine cotton and silk was exported from India to markets in Europe, Asia, and Africa; by the second quarter of the 19th century, raw materials, which chiefly consisted of raw cotton, opium, and indigo, accounted for most of India 's exports. Also, from the late 18th century British cotton mill industry began to lobby the government to both tax Indian imports and allow them access to markets in India. Starting in the 1830s, British textiles began to appear in -- and soon to inundate -- the Indian markets, with the value of the textile imports growing from £ 5.2 million 1850 to £ 18.4 million in 1896. The American Civil War too would have a major impact on India 's cotton economy: with the outbreak of the war, American cotton was no longer available to British manufacturers; consequently, demand for Indian cotton soared, and the prices soon quadrupled. This led many farmers in India to switch to cultivating cotton as a quick cash crop; however, with the end of the war in 1865, the demand plummeted again, creating another downturn in the agricultural economy.
At this time, the East India Company 's trade with China began to grow as well. In the early 19th century demand for Chinese tea had greatly increased in Britain; since the money supply in India was restricted and the Company was indisposed to shipping bullion from Britain, it decided upon opium, which had a large underground market in China and which was grown in many parts of India, as the most profitable form of payment. However, since the Chinese authorities had banned the importation and consumption of opium, the Company engaged them in the First Opium War, and at its conclusion, under the Treaty of Nanjing, gained access to five Chinese ports, Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Shanghai, and Ningbo; in addition, Hong Kong was ceded to the British Crown. Towards the end of the second quarter of the 19th century, opium export constituted 40 % of India 's exports.
Another major, though erratic, export item was indigo dye, which was extracted from natural indigo, and which came to be grown in Bengal and northern Bihar. In late 17th and early 18th century Europe, blue clothing was favoured as a fashion, and blue uniforms were common in the military; consequently, the demand for the dye was high. In 1788, the East India Company offered advances to ten British planters to grow indigo; however, since the new (landed) property rights defined in the Permanent Settlement, did n't allow them, as Europeans, to buy agricultural land, they had to in turn offer cash advances to local peasants, and sometimes coerce them, to grow the crop. The European demand for the dye, however, proved to be unstable, and both creditors and cultivators bore the risk of the market crashes in 1827 and 1847. The peasant discontent in Bengal eventually led to the Indigo rebellion in 1859 - 60 and to the end of indigo production there. In Bihar, however, indigo production continued well into the 20th century; the centre of indigo production there, Champaran district, became the staging ground, in 1917, for Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi 's first experiment in non-violent resistance against the British Raj.
Until the British gained control of Bengal in the mid-18th century, the system of justice there was presided over by the Nawab of Bengal himself, who, as the chief law officer, Nawāb Nāzim, attended to cases qualifying for capital punishment in his headquarters, Murshidabad. His deputy, the Naib Nāzim, attended to the slightly less important cases. The ordinary lawsuits belonged to the jurisdiction of a hierarchy of court officials consisting of faujdārs, muhtasils, and kotwāls. In the rural areas, or the Mofussil, the zamindars -- the rural overlords with the hereditary right to collect rent from peasant farmers -- also had the power to administer justice. This they did with little routine oversight, being required to report only their judgments in capital punishment cases to the Nawāb.
By the mid-18th century, the British too had completed a century and a half in India, and had a burgeoning presence in the three presidency towns of Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta. During this time the successive Royal Charters had gradually given the East India Company more power to administer justice in these towns. In the charter granted by Charles II in 1683, the Company was given the power to establish "courts of judicature '' in locations of its choice, each court consisting of a lawyer and two merchants. This right was renewed in the subsequent charters granted by James II and William III in 1686 and 1698 respectively. In 1726, however, the Court of Directors of the Company felt that more customary justice was necessary for European residents in the presidency towns, and petitioned the King to establish Mayor 's Courts. The petition was approved and Mayor 's courts, each consisting of a Mayor and nine aldermen, and each having the jurisdiction in lawsuits between Europeans, were created in Fort William (Calcutta), Madras, and Bombay. Judgments handed down by a Mayor 's Court could be disputed with an appeal to the respective Presidency government and, when the amount disputed was greater than Rs. 4,000, with a further appeal to the King - in - Council. In 1753, the Mayor 's courts were renewed under a revised letters patent; in addition, Courts of Requests for lawsuits involving amounts less than Rs. 20 were introduced. Both types of courts were regulated by the Court of Directors of the East India Company.
After its victory in the Battle of Buxar, the Company obtained in 1765 the Diwāni of Bengal, the right not only to collect revenue, but also to administer civil justice in Bengal. The administration of criminal justice, the Nizāmat or Faujdāri, however, remained with the Nawāb, and for criminal cases the prevailing Islamic law remained in place. However, the Company 's new duties associated with the Diwāni were leased out to the Indian officials who had formerly performed them. This makeshift arrangement continued -- with much accompanying disarray -- until 1771, when the Court of Directors of the Company decided to obtain for the Company the jurisdiction of both criminal and civil cases.
Soon afterwards Warren Hastings arrived in Calcutta as the first Governor - General of the Company 's Indian dominions and resolved to overhaul the Company 's organisation and in particular its judicial affairs. In the interior, or Mofussil, diwāni adālats, or a civil courts of first instance, were constituted in each district; these courts were presided over by European Zilā judges employed by the Company, who were assisted in the interpretation of customary Indian law by Hindu pandits and Muslim qazis. For small claims, however, Registrars and Indian commissioners, known as Sadr Amīns and Munsifs, were appointed. These in their turn were supervised by provincial civil courts of appeal constituted for such purpose, each consisting of four British judges. All these were under the authority of the Sadr Diwāni Adālat, or the Chief Civil Court of Appeals, consisting of the Governor of the Presidency and his Council, assisted by Indian officers.
Similarly for criminal cases, Mofussil nizāmat adālats, or Provincial courts of criminal judicature, were created in the interior; these again consisted of Indian court officers (pandits and qazis), who were supervised by officials of the Company. Also constituted were Courts of circuit with appellate jurisdiction in criminal cases, which were usually presided over by the judges of the civil appellate courts. All these too were under a Sadr Nizāmat Adālat or a Chief Court of Criminal Appeal.
Around this time the business affairs of the East India Company began to draw increased scrutiny in the House of Commons. After receiving a report by a committee, which condemned the Mayor 's Courts, the Crown issued a charter for a new judicial system in the Bengal Presidency. The British Parliament consequently enacted the Regulating Act of 1773 under which the King - in - Council created a Supreme Court in the Presidency town, i.e. Fort William. The tribunal consisted of one Chief Justice and three puisne judges; all four judges were to be chosen from barristers. The Supreme Court supplanted the Mayor 's Court; however, it left the Court of Requests in place. Under the charter, the Supreme Court, moreover, had the authority to exercise all types of jurisdiction in the region of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, with the only caveat that in situations where the disputed amount was in excess of Rs. 4,000, their judgment could be appealed to the Privy Council. Both the Act and the charter said nothing about the relation between the judiciary (Supreme Court) and the executive branch (Governor - General); equally, they were silent on the Adālats (both Diwāni and Nizāmat) created by Warren Hastings just the year before. In the new Supreme Court, the civil and criminal cases alike were interpreted and prosecuted accorded to English law; in the Sadr Adālats, however, the judges and law - officers had no knowledge of English law, and were required only, by the Governor - General 's order, "to proceed according to equity, justice, and good conscience, unless Hindu or Muhammadan law was in point, or some Regulation expressly applied. ''
There was a good likelihood, therefore, that the Supreme Court and the Sadr Adālats would act in opposition to each other and, predictably, many disputes resulted. Hastings ' premature attempt to appoint the Chief Justice, Sir Elijah Impey, an old schoolmate from Winchester, to the bench of the Sadr Diwāni Adālat, only complicated the situation further. The appointment had to be annulled in 1781 by a parliamentary intervention with the enactment of the Declaration Act. The Act exempted the Executive Branch from the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. It recognised the independent existence of the Sadr Adālats and all subsidiary courts of the Company. Furthermore, it headed off future legal turf wars by prohibiting the Supreme Court any jurisdiction in matters of revenue (Diwāni) or Regulations of the Government enacted by the British Parliament. This state of affairs continued until 1797, when a new Act extended the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court to the province of Benares (which had since been added to the Company 's dominions) and "all places for the time being included in Bengal. '' With the constituting of the Ceded and Conquered Provinces in 1805, the jurisdiction would extend as far west as Delhi.
In the other two presidencies, Madras and Bombay, a similar course of legal changes unfolded; there, however, the Mayor 's Courts were first strengthened to Recorder 's Courts by adding a legal president to the bench. The Supreme Courts in Madras and Bombay were finally established in 1801 and 1823, respectively. Madras Presidency was also unusual in being the first to rely on village headmen and panchāyats for cases involving small claims. This judicial system in the three presidencies was to survive the Company 's rule, the next major change coming only in 1861.
Education of Indians had become a topic of interest among East India Company officials from the outset of the Company 's rule in Bengal. In the last two decades of the 18th century and the first decade of the nineteenth, Company officials pursued a policy of conciliation towards the native culture of its new dominion, especially in relation to education policy. During the 19th century, the Indian literacy rates were rumoured to be less than half of post independence levels which were 18.33 % in 1951. The policy was pursued in the aid of three goals: "to sponsor Indians in their own culture, to advance knowledge of India, and to employ that knowledge in government. ''
The first goal was supported by some administrators, such as Warren Hastings, who envisaged the Company as the successor of a great Empire, and saw the support of vernacular learning as only befitting that role. In 1781, Hastings founded the Madrasa ' Aliya, an institution in Calcutta for the study of Arabic and Persian languages, and Islamic Law. A few decades later a related perspective appeared among the governed population, one that was expressed by the conservative Bengali reformer Radhakanta Deb as the "duty of the Rulers of Countries to preserve and Customs and the religions of their subjects. ''
The second goal was motivated by the concerns among some Company officials about being seen as foreign rulers. They argued that the Company should try to win over its subjects by outdoing the region 's previous rulers in the support of indigenous learning. Guided by this belief, the Benares Sanskrit College was founded in Varanasi in 1791 during the administration of Lord Cornwallis. The promotion of knowledge of Asia had attracted scholars as well to the Company 's service. Earlier, in 1784, the Asiatick Society had been founded in Calcutta by William Jones, a puisne judge in the newly established Supreme Court of Bengal. Soon, Jones was to advance his famous thesis on the common origin of Indo - European languages.
The third related goal grew out of the philosophy then current among some Company officials that they would themselves become better administrators if they were better versed in the languages and cultures of India. It led in 1800 to the founding of the College of Fort William, in Calcutta by Lord Wellesley, the then Governor - General. The College was later to play an important role both in the development of modern Indian languages and in the Bengal Renaissance. Advocates of these related goals were termed, "Orientalists. '' The Orientalist group was led by Horace Hayman Wilson. Many leading Company officials, such as Thomas Munro and Montstuart Elphinstone, were influenced by the Orientalist ethos and felt that the Company 's government in India should be responsive to Indian expectations. The Orientalist ethos would prevail in education policy well into the 1820s, and was reflected in the founding of the Poona Sanskrit College in Pune in 1821 and the Calcutta Sanskrit College in 1824.
The Orientalists were, however, soon opposed by advocates of an approach that has been termed Anglicist. The Anglicists supported instruction in the English language in order to impart to Indians what they considered modern Western knowledge. Prominent among them were evangelicals who, after 1813 -- when the Company 's territories were opened to Christian missionaries -- were interested in spreading Christian belief; they also believed in using theology to promote liberal social reform, such as the abolition of slavery. Among them was Charles Grant, the Chairman of the East India Company. Grant supported state - sponsored education in India 20 years before a similar system was set up in Britain. Among Grant 's close evangelical friends were William Wilberforce, a prominent abolitionist and member of the British Parliament, and Sir John Shore, the Governor - General of India from 1793 to 1797. During this period, many Scottish Presbyterian missionaries also supported the British rulers in their efforts to spread English education and established many reputed colleges like Scottish Church College (1830), Wilson College (1832), Madras Christian College (1837), and Elphinstone College (1856).
However, the Anglicists also included utilitarians, led by James Mill, who had begun to play an important role in fashioning Company policy. The utilitarians believed in the moral worth of an education that aided the good of society and promoted instruction in useful knowledge. Such useful instruction to Indians had the added consequence of making them more suitable for the Company 's burgeoning bureaucracy. By the early 1830s, the Anglicists had the upper hand in devising education policy in India. Many utilitarian ideas were employed in Thomas Babbington Macaulay 's Minute on Indian Education of 1835. The Minute, which later aroused great controversy, was to influence education policy in India well into the next century.
Since English was increasingly being employed as the language of instruction, Persian was abolished as the official language of the Company 's administration and courts by 1837. However, bilingual educations was proving to be popular as well, and some institutions such as the Poona Sanskrit College commenced teaching both Sanskrit and English. Charles Grant 's son, Sir Robert Grant, who in 1834 was appointed Governor of the Bombay Presidency, played an influential role in the planning of the first medical college in Bombay, which after his unexpected death was named Grant Medical College when it was established in 1845. During 1852 -- 1853 some citizens of Bombay sent petitions to the British Parliament in support of both establishing and adequately funding university education in India. The petitions resulted in the Education Dispatch of July 1854 sent by Sir Charles Wood, the President of the Board of Control of the East India Company, the chief official on Indian affairs in the British government, to Lord Dalhousie, the then Governor - General of India. The dispatch outlined a broad plan of state - sponsored education for India, which included:
The Department of Public Instruction was in place by 1855. In January 1857, the University of Calcutta was established, followed by the University of Bombay in June, 1857, and the University of Madras in September 1857. The University of Bombay, for example, consisted of three affiliated institutions: the Elphinstone Institution, the Grant Medical College, and the Poona Sanskrit College. The Company 's administration also founded high - schools en masse in the different provinces and presidencies, and the policy was continued during Crown rule which commenced in 1858. By 1861, 230,000 students were attending public educational institutions in the four provinces (the three Presidencies and North - Western Provinces), of whom 200,000 were in primary schools. Over 5,000 primary schools and 142 secondary schools had been established in these provinces. Earlier, during the Indian rebellion of 1857, some civilian leaders, such as Khan Bhadur Khan of Bareilly, had stressed the threat posed to the populace 's religions by the new education programmes begun by the Company; however, historical statistics have shown that this was not generally the case. For example, in Etawah district in the then North - Western Provinces (present - day Uttar Pradesh), where during the period 1855 -- 57, nearly 200 primary, middle -, and high - schools had been opened by the Company and tax levied on the population, relative calm prevailed and the schools remained open during the rebellion.
In the first half of the 19th century, the British legislated reforms against what they considered were iniquitous Indian practices. In most cases, the legislation alone was unable to change Indian society sufficiently for it to absorb both the ideal and the ethic underpinning the reform. For example, upper - caste Hindu society had long looked askance at the remarriage of widows in order to protect both what it considered was family honour and family property. Even adolescent widows were expected to live a life of austerity and denial. The Hindu Widows ' Remarriage Act, 1856, enacted in the waning years of Company rule, provided legal safeguards against loss of certain forms of inheritance for a remarrying Hindu widow, though not of the inheritance due her from her deceased husband. However, very few widows actually remarried. Some Indian reformers, such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, even offered money to men who would take widows as brides, but these men often deserted their new wives.
Before 1837, the East India Company 's dominions in India had no universal public postal service, one that was shared by all regions. Although courier services did exist, connecting the more important towns with their respective seats of provincial government (i.e. the Presidency towns of Fort William (Calcutta), Fort St. George (Madras), and Bombay), private individuals were, upon payment, only sparingly allowed their use. That situation changed in 1837, when, by Act XVII of that year, a public post, run by the Company 's Government, was established in the Company 's territory in India. Post offices were established in the principal towns and postmasters appointed. The postmasters of the Presidency towns oversaw a few provincial post offices in addition to being responsible for the main postal services between the provinces. By contrast, the District collectors (originally, collectors of land - tax) directed the District post offices, including their local postal services. Postal services required payment in cash, to be made in advance, with the amount charged usually varying with weight and distance. For example, the charge of sending a letter from Calcutta to Bombay was one rupee; however, that from Calcutta to Agra was 12 annas (or three - quarter of a rupee) for each tola (three - eighths of an ounce).
After the recommendations of the commission appointed in 1850 to evaluate the Indian postal system were received, Act XVII of 1837 was superseded by the Indian Postal Act of 1854. Under its provisions, the entire postal department was headed by a Director - General, and the duties of a Postmaster - General were set apart from those of a Presidency Postmaster; the former administered the postal system of the larger provinces (such as the Bombay Presidency or the North - Western Provinces), whereas the latter attended to the less important Provinces (such as Ajmer - Merwara and the major Political Agencies such as Rajputana). Postage stamps were introduced at this time and the postal rates fixed by weight, dependent no longer also on the distance travelled in the delivery. The lowest inland letter rate was half anna for 1 / 4 tola, followed by one anna for 1 / 2 tola, and 2 annas for a tola, a great reduction from the rates of 17 years before. The Indian Post Office delivered letters, newspapers, postcards, book packets, and parcels. These deliveries grew steadily in number; by 1861 (three years after the end of Company rule), a total of 889 post offices had been opened, and almost 43 million letters and over four and a half million newspapers were being delivered annually.
Before the advent of electric telegraphy, the word "telegraph '' had been used for semaphore signalling. During the period 1820 -- 30, the East India Company 's Government in India seriously considered constructing signalling towers ("telegraph '' towers), each a hundred feet high and separated from the next by eight miles, along the entire distance from Calcutta to Bombay. Although such towers were built in Bengal and Bihar, the India - wide semaphore network never took off. By mid-century, electric telegraphy had become viable, and hand signalling obsolete.
Dr. W.B. O'Shaughnessy, a Professor of Chemistry in the Calcutta Medical College, received permission in 1851 to conduct a trial run for a telegraph service from Calcutta to Diamond Harbour along the river Hooghly. Four telegraph offices, mainly for shipping - related business, were also opened along the river that year. The telegraph receiver used in the trial was a galvanoscope of Dr. O'Shaughnessy's design and manufactured in India. When the experiment was deemed to be a success a year later, the Governor - General of India, Lord Dalhousie, sought permission from the Court of Directors of the Company for the construction of telegraph lines from "Calcutta to Agra, Agra to Bombay, Agra to Peshawar, and Bombay to Madras, extending in all over 3,050 miles and including forty - one offices. '' The permission was soon granted; by February 1855 all the proposed telegraph lines had been constructed and were being used to send paid messages. Dr. O'Shaughnessy's instrument was used all over India until early 1857, when it was supplanted by the Morse instrument. By 1857, the telegraph network had expanded to 4,555 miles of lines and sixty two offices, and had reached as far as the hill station of Ootacamund in the Nilgiri Hills and the port of Calicut on the southwest coast of India. During the Indian rebellion of 1857, more than seven hundred miles of telegraph lines were destroyed by the rebel forces, mainly in the North - Western Provinces. The East India Company was nevertheless able to use the remaining intact lines to warn many outposts of impending disturbances. The political value of the new technology was, thus, driven home to the Company, and, in the following year, not only were the destroyed lines rebuil, but the network was expanded further by 2,000 miles.
O'Shaughnessy's experimental set - up of 1851 -- 52 consisted of both overhead and underground lines; the latter included underwater ones that crossed two rivers, the Hooghly and the Haldi. The overhead line was constructed by welding uninsulated iron rods, 131⁄2 feet long and 3 / 8 inch wide, end to end. These lines, which weighed 1,250 pounds per mile, were held aloft by fifteen - foot lengths of bamboo, planted into the ground at equal intervals -- 200 to the mile -- and covered with a layer each of coal tar and pitch for insulation. The underwater cables had been manufactured in England and consisted of copper wire covered with gutta - percha. Furthermore, in order to protect the cables from dragging ship anchors, the cables were attached to the links of a ⁄ - inch - thick (22 mm) chain cable. An underwater cable of length 2,070 yards was laid across the Hooghly river at Diamond Harbour, and another, 1,400 yards long, was laid across the Haldi at Kedgeree.
Work on the long lines from Calcutta to Peshawar (through Agra), Agra to Bombay, and Bombay to Madras began in 1853. The conducting material chosen for these lines was now lighter, and the support stronger. The wood used for the support consisted of teak, sal, fir, ironwood, or blackwood (Terminalia elata), and was either fashioned into whole posts, or used in attachments to iron screw - piles or masonry columns. Some sections had uniformly strong support; one such was the 322 - mile Bombay - Madras line, which was supported by granite obelisks sixteen feet high. Other sections had less secure support, consisting, in some cases, of sections of toddy palm, insulated with pieces of sal wood fastened to their tops. Some of the conducting wires or rods were insulated, the insulating material being either manufactured in India or England; other stretches of wire remained uninsulated. By 1856, iron tubes had begun to be employed to provide support, and would see increased use in the second half of the 19th century all over India.
The first Telegraph Act for India was Parliament 's Act XXXIV of 1854. When the public telegramme service was first set up in 1855, the charge was fixed at one rupee for every sixteen words (including the address) for every 400 miles of transmission. The charges were doubled for telegrammes sent between 6PM and 6AM. These rates would remain fixed until 1882. In the year 1860 -- 61, two years after the end of Company rule, India had 11,093 miles of telegraph lines and 145 telegraph offices. That year telegrammes totalling Rs. 500,000 in value were sent by the public, the working expense of the Indian Telegraph Department was Rs. 1.4 million, and the capital expenditure until the end of the year totalled Rs. 6.5 million.
The first inter-city railway service in England, the Stockton - Darlington railway, had been established in 1825; in the following decade other inter-city railways were rapidly constructed between cities in England. In 1845, the Court of Directors of the East India Company, forwarded to the Governor - General of India, Lord Dalhousie, a number of applications they had received from private contractors in England for the construction of a wide - ranging railway network in India, and requested a feasibility report. They added that, in their view, the enterprise would be profitable only if large sums of money could be raised for the construction. The Court was concerned that in addition to the usual difficulties encountered in the construction of this new form of transportation, India might present some unique problems, among which they counted floods, tropical storms in coastal areas, damage by "insects and luxuriant tropical vegetation, '' and the difficulty of finding qualified technicians at a reasonable cost. It was suggested, therefore, that three experimental lines be constructed and their performance evaluated.
Contracts were awarded in 1849 to the East Indian Railway Company to construct a 120 - mile railway from Howrah - Calcutta to Raniganj; to the Great Indian Peninsular Railway Company for a service from Bombay to Kalyan, thirty miles away; and to the Madras Railway Company for a line from Madras city to Arkonam, a distance of some thirty nine miles. Although construction began first, in 1849, on the East Indian Railways line, with an outlay of £ 1 million, it was the first - leg of the Bombay - Kalyan line -- a 21 - mile stretch from Bombay to Thane -- that, in 1853, was the first to be completed (see picture below).
The feasibility of a train network in India was comprehensively discussed by Lord Dalhousie in his Railway minute of 1853. The Governor - General vigorously advocated the quick and widespread introduction of railways in India, pointing to their political, social, and economic advantages. He recommended that a network of trunk lines be first constructed connecting the inland regions of each presidency with its chief port as well as each presidency with several others. His recommended trunk lines included the following ones: (i) from Calcutta, in the Bengal Presidency, on the eastern coast to Lahore in the north - western region of the Punjab, annexed just three years before; (ii) from Agra in north - central India (in, what was still being called North - Western Provinces) to Bombay city on the western coast; (iii) from Bombay to Madras city on the southeastern coast; and (iv) from Madras to the southwestern Malabar coast (see map above). The proposal was soon accepted by the Court of Directors.
During this time work had been proceeding on the experimental lines as well. The first leg of the East Indian Railway line, a broad gauge railway, from Howrah to Pandua, was opened in 1854 (see picture of locomotive below), and the entire line up to Raniganj would become functional by the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857. The Great Indian Peninsular Railway was permitted to extend its experimental line to Poona. This extension required planning for the steep rise in the Bor Ghat valley in the Western Ghats, a section 153⁄4 miles long with an ascent of 1,831 feet. Construction began in 1856 and was completed in 1863, and, in the end, the line required a total of twenty five tunnels and fifteen miles of gradients (inclines) of 1 in 50 or steeper, the most extreme being the Bor Ghat Incline, a distance of 13⁄4 miles at a gradient of 1 in 37 (see picture above).
Each of the three companies (and later five others that were given contracts in 1859) was joint stock company domiciled in England with its financial capital raised in pound sterling. Each company was guaranteed a 5 per cent return on its capital outlay and, in addition, a share of half the profits. Although the Government of India had no capital expenditure other than the provision of the underlying land free of charge, it had the onus of continuing to provide the 5 percent return in the event of net loss, and soon all anticipation of profits would fall by the wayside as the outlays would mount.
The technology of railway construction was still new and there was no railway engineering expertise in India; consequently, all engineers had to be brought in from England. These engineers were unfamiliar not only with the language and culture of India, but also with the physical aspect of the land itself and its concomitant engineering requirements. Moreover, never before had such a large and complex construction project been undertaken in India, and no pool of semi-skilled labour was already organised to aid the engineers. The work, therefore, proceeded in fits and starts -- many practical trials followed by a final construction that was undertaken with great caution and care -- producing an outcome that was later criticised as being "built to a standard which was far in excess of the needs to the time. '' The Government of India 's administrators, moreover, made up in their attention to the fine details of expenditure and management what they lacked in professional expertise. The resulting delays soon led to the appointment of a Committee of the House of Commons in 1857 -- 58 to investigate the matter. However, by the time the Committee concluded that all parties needed to honour the spirit rather than the letter of the contracts, Company rule in India had ended.
Although, railway construction had barely begun in the last years of this rule, its foundations had been laid, and it would proceed apace for much of the next half century. By the turn of the 20th century, India would have over 28,000 miles of railways connecting most interior regions to the ports of Karachi, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Chittagong, and Rangoon, and together they would constitute the fourth - largest railway network in the world.
The first irrigation works undertaken during East India Company 's rule were begun in 1817. Consisting chiefly of extensions or reinforcements of previous Indian works, these projects were limited to the plains north of Delhi and to the river deltas of the Madras Presidency. A small dam in the Kaveri river delta, built some 1,500 years before, and known as the Grand Anicut, was one such indigenous work in South India. In 1835 -- 36, Sir Arthur Cotton successfully reinforced the dam, and his success prompted more irrigation projects on the river. A little farther north, on the Tungabhadra river, the 16th century Vijayanagara ruler, Krishna Deva Raya, had constructed several weirs; these too would be extended under British administration.
In plains above Delhi, the mid-14th century Sultan of Delhi, Firoz Shah Tughlaq, had constructed the 150 - mile long Western Jamna Canal. Taking off from the right bank of the Jamna river early in its course, the canal irrigated the Sultan 's territories in the Hissar region of Eastern Punjab. By the mid-16th century, however, the fine sediment carried by the Himalayan river had gradually choked the canal. Desilted and reopened several decades later by Akbar the Great, the Western Jamna Canal was itself tapped by Akbar 's grandson Shah Jahan, and some of its water was diverted to Delhi. During this time another canal was cut off the river. The 129 - mile Eastern Jamna Canal or Doab Canal, which took off from the left bank of the Jamna, also high in its course, presented a qualitatively different difficulty. Since it was cut through steeply sloped land, its flow became difficult to control, and it was never to function efficiently. With the decline of Mughal Empire power in the 18th century, both canals fell into disrepair and closed. The Western Jamna Canal was repaired by British army engineers and it reopened in 1820. The Doab Canal was reopened in 1830; its considerable renovation involved raising the embankment by an average height of 9 ft. for some 40 miles.
Farther west in the Punjab region, the 130 - mile long Hasli Canal, had been constructed by previous rulers. Taking off from the Ravi river and supplying water to the cities of Lahore and Amritsar, this left - bank canal was extended by the British in the Bari Doab Canal works during 1850 -- 57. The Punjab region, moreover, had much rudimentary irrigation by "inundation canals. '' Consisting of open cuts on the side of a river and involving no regulation, the inundation canals had been used in both the Punjab and Sindh for many centuries. The energetic administrations of the Sikh and Pathan governors of Mughal West Punjab had ensured that many such canals in Multan, Dera Ghazi Khan, and Muzaffargarh were still working efficiently at the time of the British annexation of the Punjab in 1849 - 1856 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie Governor General).
The first new British work -- with no Indian antecedents -- was the Ganges Canal built between 1842 and 1854. Contemplated first by Col. John Russell Colvin in 1836, it did not at first elicit much enthusiasm from its eventual architect Sir Proby Thomas Cautley, who balked at idea of cutting a canal through extensive low - lying land in order to reach the drier upland destination. However, after the Agra famine of 1837 -- 38, during which the East India Company 's administration spent Rs. 2,300,000 on famine relief, the idea of a canal became more attractive to the Company 's budget - conscious Court of Directors. In 1839, the Governor General of India, Lord Auckland, with the Court 's assent, granted funds to Cautley for a full survey of the swath of land that underlay and fringed the projected course of the canal. The Court of Directors, moreover, considerably enlarged the scope of the projected canal, which, in consequence of the severity and geographical extent of the famine, they now deemed to be the entire Doab region.
The enthusiasm, however, proved to be short lived. Auckland 's successor as Governor General, Lord Ellenborough, appeared less receptive to large - scale public works, and for the duration of his tenure, withheld major funds for the project. Only in 1844, when a new Governor - General, Lord Hardinge, was appointed, did official enthusiasm and funds return to the Ganges canal project. Although the intervening impasse, had seemingly affected Cautely 's health and required him to return to Britain in 1845 for recuperation, his European sojourn gave him an opportunity to study contemporary hydraulic works in Great Britain and Italy. By the time of his return to India even more supportive men were at the helm, both in the North - Western Provinces, with James Thomason as Lt. Governor, and in British India with Lord Dalhousie as Governor - General. Canal construction, under Cautley 's supervision, now went into full swing. A 350 - mile long canal, with another 300 miles of branch lines, eventually stretched between the headworks in Hardwar and -- after splitting into two branches at Nanau near Aligarh -- the confluence with the Ganges at Cawnpore (now Kanpur) and with the Jumna (now Yamuna) mainstem at Etawah. The Ganges Canal, which required a total capital outlay of £ 2.15 million, was officially opened in 1854 by Lord Dalhousie. According to historian Ian Stone:
It was the largest canal ever attempted in the world, five times greater in its length than all the main irrigation lines of Lombardy and Egypt put together, and longer by a third than even the largest USA navigation canal, the Pennsylvania Canal.
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1st generation: November 2, 2012 (2012 - 11 - 02) 2: November 12, 2013 (2013 - 11 - 12) 3: October 22, 2014 (2014 - 10 - 22)
1st generation, 2 & 3: Wi - Fi 802.11 a / b / g / n @ 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz 4: Wi - Fi 802.11 a / b / g / n / ac @ 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz 1st generation, 2 & 3: Bluetooth 4.0 4: Bluetooth 4.2
iPad Mini (branded and marketed as iPad mini) is a line of mini tablet computers designed, developed, and marketed by Apple Inc. It is a sub-series of the iPad line of tablets, with a reduced screen size of 7.9 inches, in contrast to the standard 9.7 inches. The first generation iPad Mini was announced on October 23, 2012, and was released on November 2, 2012, in nearly all of Apple 's markets. It features similar internal specifications to the iPad 2, including its display resolution.
The second generation iPad Mini, with a faster processor and a Retina Display, was announced on October 22, 2013 and released on November 12, 2013. The third generation iPad Mini was announced on October 16, 2014 and was released on October 22, 2014; it features the same external hardware as the Mini 2 and the addition of a Touch ID fingerprint sensor compatible with Apple Pay. On September 9, 2015, Apple released the iPad Mini 4.
On October 16, 2012, Apple announced plans for a media event on October 23 at the California Theatre in San Jose, California. The company did not give the subject of the event, but it was widely expected to be the iPad Mini. At the event, Apple CEO Tim Cook introduced a new version of MacBook family and new generations of the MacBook Pro, Mac Mini, and the iMac, then unveiled the fourth - generation iPad and the iPad Mini.
The iPad Mini comes with several pre-installed applications, including Siri, Safari, Mail, Photos, Video, Music, iTunes, App Store, Maps, Notes, Calendar, Game Center, Photo Booth, and Contacts. Like all iOS devices, the iPad can sync content and other data with a Mac or PC using iTunes and to Apple 's iCloud online service. Although the tablet is not designed to make telephone calls over a cellular network, users can use a headset or the built - in speaker and microphone and place phone calls over Wi - Fi or cellular using a VoIP application, such as Skype. iPads offer dictation when connected to a Wi - Fi or cellular network.
Applications from Apple and third - party developers can be downloaded through the App Store, an application distribution market for iOS that is maintained and regulated by Apple. The service allows users to browse and purchase applications. Optional apps from Apple that can be purchased through the App Store include GarageBand, iMovie, iPhoto, and the iWork apps (Pages, Keynote, and Numbers) are available.
The device has an optional iBooks application, which displays books and other ePub - format content downloaded from the iBookstore. Several major book publishers including Penguin Books, HarperCollins, Simon & Schuster and Macmillan have committed to publishing books for the device. Despite the iPad being a direct competitor to both the Amazon Kindle and Barnes & Noble Nook, both Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble offer e-reader apps for the iPad.
On June 8, 2015, it was announced at the WWDC that all four generations of the iPad Mini would support iOS 9. However, certain new multitasking features, such as Slide Over and Picture in Picture, will be limited to the second, third generation, and the fourth generation. Split View, another new multitasking feature, is only available on the iPad Mini 4.
The current version of iOS, iOS 11, is supported on iPad Mini 2 and up. An upgrade to this version is available as a free download.
The first generation iPad Mini shipped with iOS 6.0 and the highest supported version is iOS 9.3. 5.
There are four buttons and one switch on the iPad Mini, including a "home '' button near the display that returns the user to the home screen, and three aluminum buttons on the right side and top: wake / sleep and volume up and volume down, plus a software - controlled switch whose function varies with software updates. The tablet is manufactured either with or without the capability to communicate over a cellular network. All models can connect to a wireless LAN via Wi - Fi. The iPad Mini is available with 16, 32, 64 and 128 GB of internal flash memory, with no expansion option. Apple sells a "camera connection kit '' with an SD card reader, but it can only be used to transfer photos and videos.
The first generation iPad Mini features partially the same hardware as the iPad 2. Both screens have resolutions of 1024x768, but the iPad Mini has a smaller screen and thus higher pixel density than iPad 2 (163 PPI vs. 132 PPI). Unlike the iPad 2, it has 5 MP and 1.2 MP cameras and the Lightning connector. The system - on - chip is A5, which is the same one found in the later revision of the iPad 2 (32 nm). The audio processor is the same found in iPhone 5 and iPad 4th generation, which allows the iPad Mini to have Siri and voice dictation unlike the iPad 2. The graphics processor (GPU) of the first generation iPad Mini is the same one found in the iPad 2 (PowerVR SGX 543MP2).
iPads with a data connection can download data through cellphone networks, but can not make voice calls. They can act as a hotspot, sharing the Internet connection over Wi - Fi, Bluetooth, or USB.
The Smart Cover, introduced with the iPad 2, is a screen protector that magnetically attaches to the face of the iPad. A smaller version is now available for iPad Mini. The cover has three folds, which allow it to convert into a stand, held together by magnets. Smart Covers have a microfiber bottom that cleans the front of the iPad, and wakes up the unit when the cover is removed. It comes in six colors of polyurethane.
Apple offers other accessories, including a Bluetooth keyboard, several types of earbuds or headphones and many adapters for the Lightning connector. AppleCare and free engraving are also available for the iPad Mini.
The most recent model is the iPad Mini 4. The iPad models are listed in a comparison grid.
browsing: 10 hours (Wi - Fi), 9 hours (3G / Cellular); video: 10 hours; audio: 140 hours; standby: 1 month
Reviews of the first generation iPad Mini have been positive, with reviewers praising the device 's size, design, and availability of applications, while criticizing its use of a proprietary power connector and its lack of expandable storage and Retina Display for the first generation iPad Mini. The device competes with tablets such as the Amazon Kindle Fire HD, Google Nexus 7, and Barnes & Noble Nook HD. Joshua Topolsky of The Verge praised the industrial design of the iPad Mini, however panned its lack of Retina Display and price. The iPad Mini 2 was well received, praising the Retina Display and Apple A7 chip performance, with criticisms on the price increase and the quality of the camera.
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when was the second republic established in france | French Second Republic - wikipedia
The French Second Republic was a short - lived republican government of France between the 1848 Revolution and the 1851 coup by Louis - Napoléon Bonaparte which initiated the Second Empire. It officially adopted the motto of the First Republic, Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité. The Second Republic witnessed the tension between the "Social and Democratic Republic '' (French: la République démocratique et sociale) and a liberal form of republicanism, which exploded during the June Days uprising of 1848.
The industrial population of the faubourgs was welcomed by the National Guard on their way towards the centre of Paris. Barricades were raised after the shooting of protestors outside the Guizot manor by soldiers.
On 23 February 1848 Prime Minister François Guizot 's cabinet resigned, abandoned by the petite bourgeoisie, on whose support they thought they could depend. The heads of the Left Centre and the dynastic Left, Louis - Mathieu Molé and Adolphe Thiers, declined the offered leadership. Odilon Barrot accepted it, and Thomas Robert Bugeaud, commander - in - chief of the first military division, who had begun to attack the barricades, was recalled. In the face of the insurrection that had now taken possession of the whole capital, King Louis - Philippe abdicated in favour of his grandson, Prince Philippe, Count of Paris.
The Republic was then proclaimed by Alphonse de Lamartine in the name of the provisional government elected by the Chamber under the pressure of the mob.
This provisional government with Dupont de l'Eure as its president, consisted of Lamartine for foreign affairs, Crémieux for justice, Ledru - Rollin for the interior, Carnot for public instruction, Goudchaux for finance, Arago for the navy, and Burdeau for war. Garnier - Pagès was mayor of Paris.
But, as in 1830, the republican - socialist party had set up a rival government at the Hôtel de Ville (city hall), including Louis Blanc, Armand Marrast, Ferdinand Flocon, and Alexandre Martin, known as Albert L'Ouvrier ("Albert the Worker ''), which bid fair to involve discord and civil war. But this time the Palais Bourbon was not victorious over the Hôtel de Ville. It had to consent to a fusion of the two bodies, in which, however, the predominating elements were the moderate republicans. It was uncertain what the policy of the new government would be.
One party seeing that in spite of the changes in the last sixty years of all political institutions the position of the people had not been improved, demanded a reform of society itself, the abolition of the privileged position of property, which they viewed as the only obstacle to equality, and as an emblem hoisted the red flag (the 1791 red flag was, however, the symbol not merely of the French Revolution, but rather of martial law and of order). The other party wished to maintain society on the basis of its traditional institutions, and rallied round the tricolore. As a concession made by Lamartine to popular aspirations, and in exchange of the maintaining of the tricolor flag, he conceded the Republican triptych of Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité, written on the flag, on which a red rosette was also to be added.
The first collision took place as to the form which the 1848 Revolution was to take. Lamartine wished for them to maintain their original principles, with the whole country as supreme, whereas the revolutionaries under Ledru - Rollin wished for the republic of Paris to hold a monopoly on political power. On 5 March the government, under the pressure of the Parisian clubs, decided in favour of an immediate reference to the people, and direct universal suffrage, and adjourned it until 26 April. This added the uneducated masses to the electorate and led to the election of the Constituent Assembly of 4 May 1848. The provisional government having resigned, the republican and anti-socialist majority on the 9 May entrusted the supreme power to an Executive Commission consisting of five members: Arago, Pierre Marie de Saint - Georges, Garnier - Pagès, Lamartine and Ledru - Rollin.
The result of the general election, the return of a constituent assembly, predominantly moderate, if not monarchical, dashed the hopes of those who had looked for the establishment, by a peaceful revolution, of their ideal socialist state; but they were not prepared to yield without a struggle, and in Paris itself they commanded a formidable force. In spite of the preponderance of the "tri-colour '' party in the provisional government, so long as the voice of France had not spoken, the socialists, supported by the Parisian proletariat, had exercised an influence on policy disproportionate to their relative numbers. By the decree of 24 February, the provisional government had solemnly accepted the principle of the "right to work, '' and decided to establish "National Workshops '' for the unemployed; at the same time, a sort of industrial parliament was established at the Luxembourg Palace, under the presidency of Louis Blanc, with the object of preparing a scheme for the organization of labor; and, lastly, by the decree of 8 March, the property qualification for enrollment in the National Guard had been abolished and the workmen were supplied with arms. The socialists thus formed a sort of state - within - a-state, complete with a government and an armed force.
On 15 May, an armed mob, headed by Raspail, Blanqui and Barbès, and assisted by the proletariat - aligned Guard, attempted to overwhelm the Assembly, but were defeated by the bourgeois - aligned battalions of the National Guard. Meanwhile, the national workshops were unable to provide remunerative work for the genuine unemployed, and of the thousands who applied, the greater number were employed in aimless digging and refilling of trenches; soon even this expedient failed, and those for whom work could not be invented were given a half wage of 1 franc a day. Even this pitiful dole, with no obligation to work, proved attractive, and all over France, workmen quit their jobs and traveled to Paris, where they swelled the ranks of the army under the red flag. The socialist economic plan was straining state finances, and as the émeute of 15 May had proven that it constituted a perpetual menace to the state, the government decided to end it.
On 21 June, Alfred de Falloux decided in the name of the parliamentary commission on labour that the workmen should be discharged within three days and those who were able - bodied should be forced to enlist.
After this, the June Days Uprising broke out, over the course of 24 -- 26 June, when the eastern industrial quarter of Paris, led by Pujol, fought the western quarter, led by Louis - Eugène Cavaignac, who had been appointed dictator. The socialist party was defeated and afterwards its members were deported. But the republic had been discredited and had already become unpopular with both the peasants, who were exasperated by the new land tax of 45 centimes imposed in order to fill the empty treasury, and with the bourgeoisie, who were intimidated by the power of the revolutionary clubs and disadvantaged by the economic stagnation. By the "massacres '' of the June Days, the working classes were also alienated from it. The Duke of Wellington wrote at this time, "France needs a Napoleon! I can not yet see him... '' The granting of universal suffrage to a society with Imperialist sympathies would benefit reactionaries, which culminated in the election of Louis - Napoléon Bonaparte as president of the republic.
The new constitution, proclaiming a democratic republic, direct universal suffrage and the separation of powers, was promulgated on 4 November. Under the new constitution, there was to be a single permanent Assembly of 750 members elected for a term of three years by the scrutin de liste. The Assembly would elect members of a Council of State to serve for six years. Laws would be proposed by the Council of State, to be voted on by the Assembly. The executive power was delegated to the President, who was elected for four years by direct universal suffrage, i.e. on a broader basis than that of the Assembly, and was not eligible for re-election. He was to choose his ministers, who, like him, would be responsible to the Assembly. Finally, revision of the constitution was made practically impossible: it involved obtaining three times in succession a majority of three - quarters of the deputies in a special assembly. It was in vain that Jules Grévy, in the name of those who perceived the obvious and inevitable risk of creating, under the name of a president, a monarch and more than a king, proposed that the head of the state should be no more than a removable president of the ministerial council. Lamartine, thinking that he was sure to be the choice of the electors under universal suffrage, won over the support of the Chamber, which did not even take the precaution of rendering ineligible the members of families which had reigned over France. It made the presidency an office dependent upon popular acclamation.
The election was keenly contested; the democratic republicans adopted as their candidate Ledru - Rollin, the "pure republicans '' Cavaignac, and the recently reorganized Imperialist party Prince Louis - Napoléon Bonaparte. Unknown in 1835, and forgotten or despised since 1840, Louis Napoleon had in the last eight years advanced sufficiently in the public estimation to be elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1848 by five departments. He owed this rapid increase of popularity partly to blunders of the government of July, which had unwisely aroused the memory of the country, filled as it was with recollections of the Empire, and partly to Louis Napoléon 's campaign carried on from his prison at Ham by means of pamphlets of socialistic tendencies. Moreover, the monarchists, led by Thiers and the committee of the Rue de Poitiers, were no longer content even with the safe dictatorship of the upright Cavaignac, and joined forces with the Bonapartists. On 10 December the peasants gave over 5,000,000 votes to a name: Napoléon, which stood for order at all costs, against 1,400,000 for Cavaignac.
Henri Georges Boulay de la Meurthe was elected Vice President, a unique position in French history.
For three years, there was an indecisive struggle between the heterogeneous Assembly and the President, who was silently awaiting his opportunity. He chose as his ministers men with little inclination towards republicanism, with a preference for Orléanists, the chief of whom was Odilon Barrot. In order to strengthen his position, he endeavored to conciliate the reactionary parties, without committing himself to any of them. The chief instance of this was the expedition to Rome voted by the Catholics, to restore the temporal authority of the Pope Pius IX, who had fled Rome in fear of the nationalists and republicans. (Garibaldi and Mazzini had been elected to a Constitutional Assembly.) The Pope called for international intervention to restore him in his temporal power. The French President moved to establish the power and prestige of France against that of Austria, as beginning the work of European renovation and reconstruction which he already looked upon as his mission. French troops under Oudinot marched into Rome. This provoked a foolish insurrection in Paris in favor of the Roman Republic, that of the Château d'Eau, which was crushed on 13 June 1849. On the other hand, when the Pope, though only just restored, began to yield to the general movement of reaction, the President demanded that he should set up a Liberal government. The Pope 's dilatory reply having been accepted by the French ministry, the President replaced it on 1 November, by the Fould - Rouher cabinet.
This looked like a declaration of war against the Catholic and monarchist majority in the Legislative Assembly, which had been elected on 28 May in a moment of panic. But the President again pretended to be playing the game of the Orléanists, as he had done in the case of the Constituent Assembly. The complementary elections of March and April 1850 resulted in an unexpected victory for the republicans which alarmed the conservative leaders, Thiers, Berryer and Montalembert. The President and the Assembly co-operated in the passage of the Loi Falloux of 15 March 1850, which again placed university instruction under the direction of the Church.
A conservative electoral law was passed on 31 May. It required each voter to prove three years ' residence at his current address, by entries in the record of direct taxes. This effectively repealed universal suffrage: factory workers, who moved fairly often, were thus disenfranchised. The law of 16 July aggravated the severity of the press restrictions by re-establishing the "caution money '' (cautionnement) deposited by proprietors and editors of papers with the government as a guarantee of good behavior. Finally, a skillful interpretation of the law on clubs and political societies suppressed about this time all the republican societies. It was now their turn to be crushed like the socialists.
However, the president had only joined in Montalembert 's cry of "Down with the Republicans! '' in the hope of effecting a revision of the constitution without having recourse to a coup d'état. His concessions only increased the boldness of the monarchists, while they had only accepted Louis - Napoléon as president in opposition to the Republic and as a step in the direction of the monarchy. A conflict was now inevitable between his personal policy and the majority of the Chamber, who were moreover divided into legitimists and Orléanists, in spite of the death of Louis - Philippe in August 1850.
Louis - Napoléon exploited their projects for a restoration of the monarchy, which he knew to be unpopular in the country, and which gave him the opportunity of furthering his own personal ambitions. From 8 August to 12 November 1850 he went about France stating the case for a revision of the constitution in speeches which he varied according to each place; he held reviews, at which cries of "Vive Napoléon! '' showed that the army was with him; he superseded General Changarnier, on whose arms the parliament relied for the projected monarchical coup d'état; he replaced his Orléanist ministry by obscure men devoted to his own cause, such as Morny, Fleury and Persigny, and gathered round him officers of the African army, broken men like General Saint - Arnaud; in fact he practically declared open war.
His reply to the votes of censure passed by the Assembly, and their refusal to increase his civil list was to hint at a vast communistic plot in order to scare the bourgeoisie, and to denounce the electoral law of 31 May 1850, in order to gain the support of the mass of the people. The Assembly retaliated by throwing out the proposal for a partial reform of that article of the constitution which prohibited the re-election of the president and the re-establishment of universal suffrage (July). All hope of a peaceful issue was at an end. When the questors called upon the Chamber to have posted up in all barracks the decree of 6 May 1848 concerning the right of the Assembly to demand the support of the troops if attacked, the Mountain, dreading a restoration of the monarchy, voted with the Bonapartists against the measure, thus disarming the legislative power.
Louis - Napoléon saw his opportunity, and organised the French coup of 1851. On the night of 1 / 2 December 1851, the anniversary of his uncle Napoleon 's coronation in 1804 and his victory at Austerlitz in 1805, he dissolved the Chamber, re-established universal suffrage, had all the party leaders arrested, and summoned a new assembly to prolong his term of office for ten years. The deputies who had met under Berryer at the Mairie of the 10th arrondissement to defend the constitution and proclaim the deposition of Louis Napoleon were scattered by the troops at Mazas and Mont Valérien. The resistance organized by the republicans within Paris under Victor Hugo was soon subdued by the intoxicated soldiers. The more serious resistance in the départements was crushed by declaring a state of siege and by the "mixed commissions. '' The plebiscite of 20 December, ratified by a huge majority the coup d'état in favour of the prince - president, who alone reaped the benefit of the excesses of the Republicans and the reactionary passions of the monarchists.
Coordinates: 48 ° 49 ′ N 2 ° 29 ′ E / 48.817 ° N 2.483 ° E / 48.817; 2.483
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who has been in all american horror story | List of American Horror Story cast members - wikipedia
American Horror Story is an American horror television series created and produced by Ryan Murphy and Brad Falchuk. Described as an anthology series, each season is conceived as a self - contained miniseries, following a disparate set of characters, settings, and a storyline with its own beginning, middle, and end. However, Murphy has stated that all of the seasons are and will be connected by the end of the series.
The first season, subtitled Murder House, takes place during 2011 in Los Angeles, California and centers on a family that moves into a house haunted by its deceased former occupants. The second season, subtitled Asylum, takes place during 1964 in Massachusetts and follows the stories of the inmates and staff of an institution for the criminally insane. The third season, subtitled Coven, takes place during 2013 in New Orleans, Louisiana and follows a coven of witches who face off against those who wish to destroy them. The fourth season, subtitled Freak Show, takes place during 1952 in Jupiter, Florida and focuses on one of the last remaining freak shows in America and its struggle to survive. The fifth season, subtitled Hotel, takes place during 2015 in Los Angeles, California and centers on the unusual occurrences and people of a mysterious and outdated hotel. The sixth, subtitled Roanoke, takes place in 2015 on Roanoke Island in North Carolina, and follows a documentary of experiences endured by a couple and one of their relatives while living on Roanoke Island followed by reenactments, and, in 2016, follows the real experiences on the Island of the couple and the reenactors of the documentary. The seventh season, subtitled Cult, takes place between 2016 and 2017 in the fictitious city of Brookfield Heights, Michigan, and centers around a clown cult terrorizing a neighborhood suburb in the aftermath of the 2016 U.S. election.
Although each season is set in a different time period, there have been characters who have appeared in multiple seasons. Billie Dean Howard (Sarah Paulson), Marcy (Christine Estabrook), Dr. Charles Montgomery (Matt Ross), Sister Mary Eunice McKee (Lily Rabe), Dr. Arthur Arden (James Cromwell as old Arden; John Cromwell as young Arden), Pepper (Naomi Grossman), Queenie (Gabourey Sidibe), Lana Winters (Paulson), Twisty the Clown (John Carroll Lynch), and The Zodiac Killer (an unidentified actor in Hotel and Dot - Marie Jones in Cult) are the ten characters to appear in more than one season of the series. Sister Mary, Dr. Arden, and Pepper appear and reappear in Asylum and Freak Show. Billie, Marcy, and Dr. Montgomery make appearances in Murder House and Hotel. Queenie appears in both Coven and Hotel. Lana appears in Asylum and Roanoke and is mentioned in Cult. Twisty appears in Freak Show and Cult. The Zodiac Killer appears in Hotel and Cult. Murphy has stated that as the series progresses, more and more characters will be making a return to the show.
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who makes up the british house of lords | House of Lords - wikipedia
The House of Lords of the United Kingdom, also known as the House of Peers, is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster. Officially, the full name of the house is the Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled.
Unlike the elected House of Commons, all members of the House of Lords (excluding 90 hereditary peers elected among themselves and two peers who are ex officio members) are appointed. The membership of the House of Lords is drawn from the peerage and is made up of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. The Lords Spiritual are 26 bishops in the established Church of England. Of the Lords Temporal, the majority are life peers who are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, or on the advice of the House of Lords Appointments Commission. However, they also include some hereditary peers including four dukes.
Membership was once an entitlement of all hereditary peers, other than those in the peerage of Ireland, but under the House of Lords Act 1999, the right to membership was restricted to 92 hereditary peers. Very few of these are female since most hereditary peerages can only be inherited by men.
While the House of Commons has a defined 650 - seat membership, the number of members in the House of Lords is not fixed. There are currently 787 sitting Lords. The House of Lords is the only upper house of any bicameral parliament to be larger than its lower house.
The House of Lords scrutinises bills that have been approved by the House of Commons. It regularly reviews and amends Bills from the Commons. While it is unable to prevent Bills passing into law, except in certain limited circumstances, it can delay Bills and force the Commons to reconsider their decisions. In this capacity, the House of Lords acts as a check on the House of Commons that is independent from the electoral process. Bills can be introduced into either the House of Lords or the House of Commons. While members of the Lords may also take on roles as government ministers, high - ranking officials such as cabinet ministers are usually drawn from the Commons. The House of Lords has its own support services, separate from the Commons, including the House of Lords Library.
The Queen 's Speech is delivered in the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament. In addition to its role as the upper house, until the establishment of the Supreme Court in 2009, the House of Lords, through the Law Lords, acted as the final court of appeal in the United Kingdom judicial system. The House also has a Church of England role, in that Church Measures must be tabled within the House by the Lords Spiritual.
Today 's Parliament of the United Kingdom largely descends, in practice, from the Parliament of England, though the Treaty of Union of 1706 and the Acts of Union that ratified the Treaty in 1707 created a new Parliament of Great Britain to replace the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland.
The House of Lords developed from the "Great Council '' (Magnum Concilium) that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, and representatives of the counties of England and Wales (afterwards, representatives of the boroughs as well). The first English Parliament is often considered to be the "Model Parliament '' (held in 1295), which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs of it.
The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined. For example, during much of the reign of Edward II (1307 -- 1327), the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In 1569, the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, but by an authoritative statute, passed by Parliament itself.
During the reign of Edward II 's successor, Edward III, Parliament clearly separated into two distinct chambers: the House of Commons (consisting of the shire and borough representatives) and the House of Lords (consisting of the bishops, abbots and peers). The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and during the early 15th century both Houses exercised powers to an extent not seen before. The Lords were far more powerful than the Commons because of the great influence of the great landowners and the prelates of the realm.
The power of the nobility declined during the civil wars of the late 15th century, known as the Wars of the Roses. Much of the nobility was killed on the battlefield or executed for participation in the war, and many aristocratic estates were lost to the Crown. Moreover, feudalism was dying, and the feudal armies controlled by the barons became obsolete. Henry VII (1485 -- 1509) clearly established the supremacy of the monarch, symbolised by the "Crown Imperial ''. The domination of the Sovereign continued to grow during the reigns of the Tudor monarchs in the 16th century. The Crown was at the height of its power during the reign of Henry VIII (1509 -- 1547).
The House of Lords remained more powerful than the House of Commons, but the Lower House continued to grow in influence, reaching a zenith in relation to the House of Lords during the middle 17th century. Conflicts between the King and the Parliament (for the most part, the House of Commons) ultimately led to the English Civil War during the 1640s. In 1649, after the defeat and execution of King Charles I, the Commonwealth of England was declared, but the nation was effectively under the overall control of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland.
The House of Lords was reduced to a largely powerless body, with Cromwell and his supporters in the Commons dominating the Government. On 19 March 1649, the House of Lords was abolished by an Act of Parliament, which declared that "The Commons of England (find) by too long experience that the House of Lords is useless and dangerous to the people of England. '' The House of Lords did not assemble again until the Convention Parliament met in 1660 and the monarchy was restored. It returned to its former position as the more powerful chamber of Parliament -- a position it would occupy until the 19th century.
The 19th century was marked by several changes to the House of Lords. The House, once a body of only about 50 members, had been greatly enlarged by the liberality of George III and his successors in creating peerages. The individual influence of a Lord of Parliament was thus diminished.
Moreover, the power of the House as a whole decreased, whilst that of the House of Commons grew. Particularly notable in the development of the Lower House 's superiority was the Reform Bill of 1832. The electoral system of the House of Commons was far from democratic: property qualifications greatly restricted the size of the electorate, and the boundaries of many constituencies had not been changed for centuries.
Entire cities such as Manchester were not represented by a single individual in the House of Commons, but the 11 voters of Old Sarum retained their ancient right to elect two MPs. A small borough was susceptible to bribery, and was often under the control of a patron, whose nominee was guaranteed to win an election. Some aristocrats were patrons of numerous "pocket boroughs '', and therefore controlled a considerable part of the membership of the House of Commons.
When the House of Commons passed a Reform Bill to correct some of these anomalies in 1831, the House of Lords rejected the proposal. The popular cause of reform, however, was not abandoned by the ministry, despite a second rejection of the bill in 1832. Prime Minister Earl Grey advised the King to overwhelm opposition to the bill in the House of Lords by creating about 80 new pro-Reform peers. William IV originally balked at the proposal, which effectively threatened the opposition of the House of Lords, but at length relented.
Before the new peers were created, however, the Lords who opposed the bill admitted defeat and abstained from the vote, allowing the passage of the bill. The crisis damaged the political influence of the House of Lords but did not altogether end it. A vital reform was effected by the Lords themselves in 1868, when they changed their standing orders to abolish proxy voting, preventing Lords from voting without taking the trouble to attend. Over the course of the century the power of the Upper House were further eroded, and the Commons gradually became the stronger House of Parliament.
The status of the House of Lords returned to the forefront of debate after the election of a Liberal Government in 1906. In 1909, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, introduced into the House of Commons the "People 's Budget '', which proposed a land tax targeting wealthy landowners. The popular measure, however, was defeated in the heavily Conservative House of Lords.
Having made the powers of the House of Lords a primary campaign issue, the Liberals were narrowly re-elected in January 1910. Prime Minister H.H. Asquith then proposed that the powers of the House of Lords be severely curtailed. After a further general election in December 1910, and with an undertaking by King George V to create sufficient new Liberal peers to overcome Lords ' opposition to the measure if necessary, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords.
The Parliament Act 1911 effectively abolished the power of the House of Lords to reject legislation, or to amend it in a way unacceptable to the House of Commons: most bills could be delayed for no more than three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years. It was not meant to be a permanent solution; more comprehensive reforms were planned. Neither party, however, pursued the matter with much enthusiasm, and the House of Lords remained primarily hereditary. In 1949, the Parliament Act reduced the delaying power of the House of Lords further to two sessions or one year.
In 1958, the predominantly hereditary nature of the House of Lords was changed by the Life Peerages Act 1958, which authorised the creation of life baronies, with no numerical limits. The number of Life Peers then gradually increased, though not at a constant rate.
The Labour Party had for most of the 20th century a commitment, based on the party 's historic opposition to class privilege, to abolish the House of Lords, or at least expel the hereditary element. In 1968, the Labour Government of Harold Wilson attempted to reform the House of Lords by introducing a system under which hereditary peers would be allowed to remain in the House and take part in debate, but would be unable to vote. This plan, however, was defeated in the House of Commons by a coalition of traditionalist Conservatives (such as Enoch Powell), and Labour members who continued to advocate the outright abolition of the Upper House (such as Michael Foot).
When Michael Foot became leader of the Labour Party in 1980, abolition of the House of Lords became a part of the party 's agenda; under his successor, Neil Kinnock, however, a reformed Upper House was proposed instead. In the meantime, the creation of hereditary peerages (except for members of the Royal Family) has been arrested, with the exception of three creations during the administration of the Conservative Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s.
Whilst some hereditary peers were at best apathetic, the Labour Party 's clear commitments were not lost on Baron Sudeley, who for decades was considered an expert on the House of Lords. In December 1979 the Conservative Monday Club published his extensive paper entitled Lords Reform -- Why tamper with the House of Lords? and in July 1980 The Monarchist carried another article by Lord Sudeley entitled Why Reform or Abolish the House of Lords?. In 1990 he wrote a further booklet for the Monday Club entitled The Preservation of the House of Lords.
There were no women sitting in the House of Lords until 1958, when a small number came into the chamber as a result of the Life Peerages Act 1958. One of these was Irene Curzon, 2nd Baroness Ravensdale, who had inherited her father 's peerage in 1925 and was made a life peer to enable her to sit. After a campaign stretching back in some cases to the 1920s, another twelve women who held hereditary peerages in their own right were finally admitted by the Peerage Act 1963.
The Labour Party included in its 1997 general election Manifesto a commitment to remove the hereditary peerage from the House of Lords. Their subsequent election victory in 1997 under Tony Blair finally heralded the demise of the traditional House of Lords. The Labour Government introduced legislation to expel all hereditary peers from the Upper House as a first step in Lords reform. As a part of a compromise, however, it agreed to permit 92 hereditary peers to remain until the reforms were complete. Thus all but 92 hereditary peers were expelled under the House of Lords Act 1999 (see below for its provisions), making the House of Lords predominantly an appointed house.
Since 1999, however, no further reform has taken place. The Wakeham Commission proposed introducing a 20 % elected element to the Lords, but this plan was widely criticised. A Joint Committee was established in 2001 to resolve the issue, but it reached no conclusion and instead gave Parliament seven options to choose from (fully appointed, 20 % elected, 40 % elected, 50 % elected, 60 % elected, 80 %, and fully elected). In a confusing series of votes in February 2003, all of these options were defeated, although the 80 % elected option fell by just three votes in the Commons. Socialist MPs favouring outright abolition voted against all the options.
In 2005, a cross-party group of senior MPs (Kenneth Clarke, Paul Tyler, Tony Wright, Sir George Young and Robin Cook) published a report proposing that 70 % of members of the House of Lords should be elected -- each member for a single long term -- by the single transferable vote system. Most of the remainder were to be appointed by a Commission to ensure a mix of "skills, knowledge and experience ''. This proposal was also not implemented. A cross-party campaign initiative called "Elect the Lords '' was set up to make the case for a predominantly elected Second Chamber in the run up to the 2005 general election.
At the 2005 election, the Labour Party proposed further reform of the Lords, but without specific details. The Conservative Party, which had, prior to 1997, opposed any tampering with the House of Lords, favoured an 80 % elected Second Chamber, while the Liberal Democrats called for a fully elected Senate. During 2006, a cross-party committee discussed Lords reform, with the aim of reaching a consensus: its findings were published in early 2007.
On 7 March 2007, members of the House of Commons voted ten times on a variety of alternative compositions for the upper chamber. Outright abolition, a wholly appointed house, a 20 % elected house, a 40 % elected house, a 50 % elected house and a 60 % elected house were all defeated in turn. Finally the vote for an 80 % elected chamber was won by 305 votes to 267, and the vote for a wholly elected chamber was won by an even greater margin: 337 to 224. Significantly this last vote represented an overall majority of MPs.
Furthermore, examination of the names of MPs voting at each division shows that, of the 305 who voted for the 80 % elected option, 211 went on to vote for the 100 % elected option. Given that this vote took place after the vote on 80 % -- whose result was already known when the vote on 100 % took place -- this showed a clear preference for a fully elected upper house among those who voted for the only other option that passed. But this was nevertheless only an indicative vote and many political and legislative hurdles remained to be overcome for supporters of an elected second chamber. The House of Lords, soon after, rejected this proposal and voted for an entirely appointed House of Lords.
In July 2008, Jack Straw, the Secretary of State for Justice and Lord Chancellor, introduced a white paper to the House of Commons proposing to replace the House of Lords with an 80 -- 100 % elected chamber, with one third being elected at each general election, for a term of approximately 12 -- 15 years. The white paper states that as the peerage would be totally separated from membership of the upper house, the name "House of Lords '' would no longer be appropriate: It goes on to explain that there is cross-party consensus for the new chamber to be titled the "Senate of the United Kingdom ''; however, to ensure the debate remains on the role of the upper house rather than its title, the white paper is neutral on the title of the new house.
On 30 November 2009, a Code of Conduct for Members of the House of Lords was agreed by them; certain amendments were agreed by them on 30 March 2010 and on 12 June 2014. The scandal over expenses in the Commons was at its highest pitch only six months before, and the Labourite leadership under Janet Royall determined that something sympathetic should be done.
In Meg Russell 's article "Is the House of Lords already reformed? '', she states three essential features of a legitimate House of Lords. The first is that it must have adequate powers over legislation to make the government think twice before making a decision. The House of Lords, she argues, currently has enough power to make it relevant. During Tony Blair 's first year, he was defeated 38 times in the Lords. Secondly, as to the composition of the Lords, Meg Russell suggests that the composition must be distinct from the Commons, otherwise it would render the Lords useless. The third feature is the perceived legitimacy of the Lords. She writes, "In general legitimacy comes with election. ''
If the Lords have a distinct and elected composition, this would probably come about through fixed term proportional representation. If this happens, then the perceived legitimacy of the Lords could arguably outweigh the legitimacy of the Commons. This would especially be the case if the House of Lords had been elected more recently than the House of Commons as it could be said to reflect the will of the people better than the Commons.
In this scenario, there may well come a time when the Lords twice reject a Bill from the Commons and it is forced through. This would in turn trigger questions about the amount of power the Lords should have and there would be pressure for it to increase. This hypothetical process is known as the "circumnavigation of power theory ''. It implies that it would never be in any government 's interest to legitimise the Lords, as they would be forfeiting their own power.
The Conservative -- Liberal Democrat coalition agreed, after the 2010 general election, to outline clearly a provision for a wholly or mainly elected second chamber, elected by proportional representation. These proposals sparked a debate on 29 June 2010. As an interim measure, appointment of new peers would reflect the shares of the vote secured by the political parties in the last general election.
Detailed proposals for Lords reform, including a draft House of Lords Reform Bill, were published on 17 May 2011. These included a 300 - member hybrid house, of whom 80 % would be elected. A further 20 % would be appointed, and reserve space would be included for some Church of England bishops. Under the proposals, members would also serve single non-renewable terms of 15 years. Former MPs would be allowed to stand for election to the Upper House, but members of the Upper House would not be immediately allowed to become MPs.
The details of the proposal were:
The proposals were considered by a Joint Committee on House of Lords Reform made up of both MPs and Peers, which issued its final report on 23 April 2012, making the following suggestions:
Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg introduced the House of Lords Reform Bill 2012 on 27 June 2012 which built on proposals published on 17 May 2011. However, this Bill was abandoned by the Government on 6 August 2012 following opposition from within the Conservative Party.
A private members bill to introduce some reforms was introduced by Dan Byles in 2013. The House of Lords Reform Act 2014 received the Royal Assent in 2014. Under the new law:
The House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015 authorised the House to expel or suspend members.
This act makes provision to preferentially admit bishops of the Church of England who are women to the Lords Spiritual in the 10 years following its commencement.
In 2015, Rachel Treweek, Bishop of Gloucester, became the first woman to sit as a Lord Spiritual in the House of Lords.
The size of the House of Lords has varied greatly throughout its history. From about 50 members in the early 1700s, it increased to a record size of 1,330 in October 1999, before Lords reform reduced it to 669 by March 2000.
In April 2011, a cross-party group of former leading politicians, including many senior members of the House of Lords, called on the Prime Minister David Cameron to stop creating new peers. He had created 117 new peers since becoming prime minister in May 2010, a faster rate of elevation than any PM in British history. The expansion occurred while his government had tried (in vain) to reduce the size of the House of Commons by 50 members, from 650 to 600.
In August 2014, despite there being a seating capacity of only around 230 to 400 on the benches in the Lords chamber, the House had 774 active members (plus 54 who were not entitled to attend or vote, having been suspended or granted leave of absence). This made the House of Lords the largest parliamentary chamber in any democracy. In August 2014, former Speaker of the House of Commons Baroness Boothroyd requested that "older peers should retire gracefully '' to ease the overcrowding in the House of Lords. She also criticised successive prime ministers for filling the second chamber with "lobby fodder '' in an attempt to help their policies become law. She made her remarks days before a new batch of peers were due to be created.
In August 2015, following the creation of a further 45 peers in the Dissolution Honours, the total number of eligible members of the Lords increased to 826. In a report entitled Does size matter? the BBC said: "Increasingly, yes. Critics argue the House of Lords is the second largest legislature after the Chinese National People 's Congress and dwarfs Upper Houses in other bi-cameral democracies such as the United States (100 senators), France (348 senators), Australia (76 senators) and India (250 members). The Lords is also larger than the Supreme People 's Assembly of North Korea (687 members). (...) Peers grumble that there is not enough room to accommodate all of their colleagues in the Chamber, where there are only about 400 seats, and say they are constantly jostling for space -- particularly during high - profile sittings '', but added, "On the other hand, defenders of the Lords say that it does a vital job scrutinising legislation, a lot of which has come its way from the Commons in recent years ''.
The House of Lords does not control the term of the Prime Minister or of the Government. Only the Lower House may force the Prime Minister to resign or call elections by passing a motion of no - confidence or by withdrawing supply. Thus, the House of Lords ' oversight of the government is limited.
Most Cabinet ministers are from the House of Commons rather than the House of Lords. In particular, all Prime Ministers since 1902 have been members of the Lower House. (Alec Douglas - Home, who became Prime Minister in 1963 whilst still an Earl, disclaimed his peerage and was elected to the Commons soon after his term began.) In recent history, it has been very rare for major cabinet positions (except Lord Chancellor and Leader of the House of Lords) to have been filled by peers.
Exceptions include Lord Carrington, who was the Foreign Secretary between 1979 and 1982, Lord Young of Graffham (Minister without Portfolio, then Secretary of State for Employment and then Secretary of State for Trade and Industry from 1984 to 1989), Lady Amos, who served as Secretary of State for International Development and Lord Mandelson, who served as First Secretary of State, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills and President of the Board of Trade. George Robertson was briefly a peer whilst serving as Secretary of State for Defence before resigning to take up the post of Secretary General of NATO. From 1999 to 2010 the Attorney General for England and Wales was a Member of the House of Lords; the most recent was Baroness Scotland of Asthal.
The House of Lords remains a source for junior ministers and members of government. Like the House of Commons, the Lords also has a Government Chief Whip as well as several Junior Whips. Where a government department is not represented by a minister in the Lords or one is not available, government whips will act as spokesmen for them.
Legislation, with the exception of money bills, may be introduced in either House.
The House of Lords debates legislation, and has power to amend or reject bills. However, the power of the Lords to reject a bill passed by the House of Commons is severely restricted by the Parliament Acts. Under those Acts, certain types of bills may be presented for the Royal Assent without the consent of the House of Lords (i.e. the Commons can override the Lords ' veto). The House of Lords can not delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month.
Other public bills can not be delayed by the House of Lords for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons, and can not have the effect of extending a parliamentary term beyond five years. A further restriction is a constitutional convention known as the Salisbury Convention, which means that the House of Lords does not oppose legislation promised in the Government 's election manifesto.
By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, the House of Lords is further restrained insofar as financial bills are concerned. The House of Lords may neither originate a bill concerning taxation or Supply (supply of treasury or exchequer funds), nor amend a bill so as to insert a taxation or Supply - related provision. (The House of Commons, however, often waives its privileges and allows the Upper House to make amendments with financial implications.) Moreover, the Upper House may not amend any Supply Bill. The House of Lords formerly maintained the absolute power to reject a bill relating to revenue or Supply, but this power was curtailed by the Parliament Acts, as aforementioned.
Historically, the House of Lords held several judicial functions. Most notably, until 2009 the House of Lords served as the court of last resort for most instances of UK law. Since 1 October 2009 this role is now held by the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.
The Lords ' judicial functions originated from the ancient role of the Curia Regis as a body that addressed the petitions of the King 's subjects. The functions were exercised not by the whole House, but by a committee of "Law Lords ''. The bulk of the House 's judicial business was conducted by the twelve Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, who were specifically appointed for this purpose under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876.
The judicial functions could also be exercised by Lords of Appeal (other members of the House who happened to have held high judicial office). No Lord of Appeal in Ordinary or Lord of Appeal could sit judicially beyond the age of seventy - five. The judicial business of the Lords was supervised by the Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary and their deputy, the Second Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary.
The jurisdiction of the House of Lords extended, in civil and in criminal cases, to appeals from the courts of England and Wales, and of Northern Ireland. From Scotland, appeals were possible only in civil cases; Scotland 's High Court of Justiciary is the highest court in criminal matters. The House of Lords was not the United Kingdom 's only court of last resort; in some cases, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council performs such a function. The jurisdiction of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom, however, is relatively restricted; it encompasses appeals from ecclesiastical courts, disputes under the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975, and a few other minor matters. Issues related to devolution were transferred from the Privy Council to the Supreme Court in 2009.
The twelve Law Lords did not all hear every case; rather, after World War II cases were heard by panels known as Appellate Committees, each of which normally consisted of five members (selected by the Senior Lord). An Appellate Committee hearing an important case could consist of more than five members. Though Appellate Committees met in separate committee rooms, judgement was given in the Lords Chamber itself. No further appeal lay from the House of Lords, although the House of Lords could refer a "preliminary question '' to the European Court of Justice in cases involving an element of European Union law, and a case could be brought at the European Court of Human Rights if the House of Lords did not provide a satisfactory remedy in cases where the European Convention on Human Rights was relevant.
A distinct judicial function -- one in which the whole House used to participate -- is that of trying impeachments. Impeachments were brought by the House of Commons, and tried in the House of Lords; a conviction required only a majority of the Lords voting. Impeachments, however, are to all intents and purposes obsolete; the last impeachment was that of Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, in 1806.
Similarly, the House of Lords was once the court that tried peers charged with high treason or felony. The House would be presided over not by the Lord Chancellor, but by the Lord High Steward, an official especially appointed for the occasion of the trial. If Parliament was not in session, then peers could be tried in a separate court, known as the Lord High Steward 's Court. Only peers, their wives, and their widows (unless remarried) were entitled to trials in the House of Lords or the Lord High Steward 's Court; the Lords Spiritual were tried in Ecclesiastical Courts. In 1948, the right of peers to be tried in such special courts was abolished; now, they are tried in the regular courts. The last such trial in the House was of Edward Russell, 26th Baron de Clifford, in 1935. An illustrative dramatisation circa 1928 of a trial of a peer (the fictional Duke of Denver) on a charge of murder (a felony) is portrayed in the 1972 BBC Television adaption of Dorothy L. Sayers ' Lord Peter Wimsey mystery Clouds of Witness.
The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 resulted in the creation of a separate Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, to which the judicial function of the House of Lords, and some of the judicial functions of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, were transferred. In addition, the office of Lord Chancellor was reformed by the act, removing his ability to act as both a government minister and a judge. This was motivated in part by concerns about the historical admixture of legislative, judicial, and executive power. The new Supreme Court is located at Middlesex Guildhall.
Members of the House of Lords who sit by virtue of their ecclesiastical offices are known as Lords Spiritual. Formerly, the Lords Spiritual were the majority in the English House of Lords, comprising the church 's archbishops, (diocesan) bishops, abbots, and those priors who were entitled to wear a mitre. After the English Reformation 's highpoint in 1539, only the archbishops and bishops continued to attend, as the Dissolution of the Monasteries had just disproved of and suppressed the positions of abbot and prior. In 1642, during the few Lords ' gatherings convened during English Interregnum which saw periodic war, the Lords Spiritual were excluded altogether, but they returned under the Clergy Act 1661.
The number of Lords Spiritual was further restricted by the Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847, and by later Acts. The Lords Spiritual can now number no more than 26; these are the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Archbishop of York, the Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham, the Bishop of Winchester (who sit by right regardless of seniority) and the 21 longest - serving bishops from other dioceses in the Church of England (excluding the dioceses of Sodor and Man and Gibraltar in Europe, as these lie entirely outside the United Kingdom). Following a change to the law in 2014 to allow women to be ordained bishops, the Lords Spiritual (Women) Act 2015 was passed, which provides that whenever a vacancy arises among the Lords Spiritual during the ten years following the Act coming into force, the vacancy has to be filled by a woman, if one is eligible. This does not apply to the five bishops who sit by right.
The current Lords Spiritual represent only the Church of England. Bishops of the Church of Scotland historically sat in the Parliament of Scotland but were finally excluded in 1689 (after a number of previous exclusions) when the Church of Scotland became permanently Presbyterian. There are no longer bishops in the Church of Scotland in the traditional sense of the word, and that Church has never sent members to sit in the Westminster House of Lords. The Church of Ireland did obtain representation in the House of Lords after the union of Ireland and Great Britain in 1801.
Of the Church of Ireland 's ecclesiastics, four (one archbishop and three bishops) were to sit at any one time, with the members rotating at the end of every parliamentary session (which normally lasted about one year). The Church of Ireland, however, was disestablished in 1871, and thereafter ceased to be represented by Lords Spiritual. Bishops of Welsh sees in the Church of England originally sat in the House of Lords (after 1847, only if their seniority within the Church entitled them to), but the Church in Wales ceased to be a part of the Church of England in 1920 and was simultaneously disestablished in Wales. Accordingly, bishops of the Church in Wales were no longer eligible to be appointed to the House as bishops of the Church of England, but those already appointed remained.
Other ecclesiastics have sat in the House of Lords as Lords Temporal in recent times: Chief Rabbi Immanuel Jakobovits was appointed to the House of Lords (with the consent of the Queen, who acted on the advice of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher), as was his successor Chief Rabbi Jonathan Sacks. Baroness Neuberger is the Senior Rabbi to the West London Synagogue. In recognition of his work at reconciliation and in the peace process in Northern Ireland, the Archbishop of Armagh (the senior Anglican bishop in Northern Ireland), Lord Eames, was appointed to the Lords by John Major. Other clergymen appointed include the Reverend Donald Soper, the Reverend Timothy Beaumont, and some Scottish clerics.
There have been no Roman Catholic clergymen appointed, though it was rumoured that Cardinal Basil Hume and his successor Cormac Murphy O'Connor were offered peerages, by James Callaghan, Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair respectively, but declined. Hume later accepted the Order of Merit, a personal appointment of the Queen, shortly before his death. O'Connor said he had his maiden speech ready, but Roman Catholics who have received Holy Orders are prohibited by Canon Law from holding major offices connected with any government other than the Holy See.
Former Archbishops of Canterbury, having reverted to the status of bishop but who are no longer diocesans, are invariably given life peerages and sit as Lords Temporal.
By custom at least one of the Bishops reads prayers in each legislative day (a role taken by the chaplain in the Commons). They often speak in debates; in 2004 Rowan Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury, opened a debate into sentencing legislation. Measures (proposed laws of the Church of England) must be put before the Lords, and the Lords Spiritual have a role in ensuring that this takes place.
Since the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the Lords Temporal have been the most numerous group in the House of Lords. Unlike the Lords Spiritual, they may be publicly partisan, aligning themselves with one or another of the political parties that dominate the House of Commons. Publicly non-partisan Lords are called crossbenchers. Originally, the Lords Temporal included several hundred hereditary peers (that is, those whose peerages may be inherited), who ranked variously as dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts, and barons (as well as Scottish Lords of Parliament). Such hereditary dignities can be created by the Crown; in modern times this is done on the advice of the Prime Minister of the day (except in the case of members of the Royal Family).
Holders of Scottish and Irish peerages were not always permitted to sit in the Lords. When Scotland united with England to form Great Britain in 1707, it was provided that the Scottish hereditary peers would only be able to elect 16 representative peers to sit in the House of Lords; the term of a representative was to extend until the next general election. A similar provision was enacted when Ireland merged with Great Britain in 1801 to form the United Kingdom; the Irish peers were allowed to elect 28 representatives, who were to retain office for life. Elections for Irish representatives ended in 1922, when most of Ireland became an independent state; elections for Scottish representatives ended with the passage of the Peerage Act 1963, under which all Scottish peers obtained seats in the Upper House.
In 1999, the Labour government brought forward the House of Lords Act removing the right of several hundred hereditary peers to sit in the House. The Act provided, as a measure intended to be temporary, that 92 people would continue to sit in the Lords by virtue of hereditary peerages, and this is still in effect.
Of the 92, two remain in the House of Lords because they hold royal offices connected with Parliament: the Earl Marshal and the Lord Great Chamberlain. Of the remaining ninety peers sitting in the Lords by virtue of a hereditary peerage, 15 are elected by the whole House and 75 are chosen by fellow hereditary peers in the House of Lords, grouped by party. (If a hereditary peerage holder is given a life peerage, he or she becomes a member of the House of Lords without a need for a by - election.) The exclusion of other hereditary peers removed the Prince of Wales (who is also Earl of Chester) and all other Royal Peers, including the Duke of Edinburgh, Duke of York, Earl of Wessex, Duke of Gloucester and Duke of Kent.
The number of peers to be chosen by a political group reflects the proportion of hereditary peers that belonged to that group (see current composition below) in 1999. When an elected hereditary peer dies, a by - election is held, with a variant of the Alternative Vote system being used. If the recently deceased hereditary peer had been elected by the whole House, then so is his or her replacement; a hereditary peer elected by a specific political group (including the non-aligned crossbenchers) is replaced by a vote of the hereditary peers already elected to the Lords belonging to that political group (whether elected by that group or by the whole house).
Until 2009, the Lords Temporal also included the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, a group of individuals appointed to the House of Lords so that they could exercise its judicial functions. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, more commonly known as Law Lords, were first appointed under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. They were selected by the Prime Minister of the day, but were formally appointed by the Sovereign. A Lord of Appeal in Ordinary had to retire at the age of 70, or, if his or her term was extended by the government, at the age of 75; after reaching such an age, the Law Lord could not hear any further cases in the House of Lords.
The number of Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (excluding those who were no longer able to hear cases because of age restrictions) was limited to twelve, but could be changed by statutory instrument. By a convention of the House, Lords of Appeal in Ordinary did not take part in debates on new legislation, so as to maintain judicial independence. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary held their seats in the House of Lords for life, remaining as members even after reaching the judicial retirement age of 70 or 75. Former Lord Chancellors and holders of other high judicial office could also sit as Law Lords under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, although in practice this right was only rarely exercised.
Under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary when the Act came into effect in 2009 became judges of the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and were then barred from sitting or voting in the House of Lords until they had retired as judges. One of the main justifications for the new Supreme Court was to establish a separation of powers between the judiciary and the legislature. It is therefore unlikely that future appointees to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom will be made Lords of Appeal in Ordinary.
The largest group of Lords Temporal, and indeed of the whole House, are life peers. Life peerages rank only as barons or baronesses, and are created under the Life Peerages Act 1958. Like all other peers, life peers are created by the Sovereign, who acts on the advice of the Prime Minister or the House of Lords Appointments Commission. By convention, however, the Prime Minister allows leaders of other parties to nominate some life peers, so as to maintain a political balance in the House of Lords. Moreover, some non-party life peers (the number being determined by the Prime Minister) are nominated by the independent House of Lords Appointments Commission.
In 2000, the government announced it would set up an Independent Appointments Commission, under Lord Stevenson of Coddenham, to select fifteen so - called "people 's peers '' for life peerages. However, when the choices were announced in April 2001, from a list of 3,000 applicants, the choices were treated with criticism in the media, as all were distinguished in their field, and none were "ordinary people '' as some had originally hoped.
Several different qualifications apply for membership of the House of Lords. No person may sit in the House of Lords if under the age of 21. Furthermore, only United Kingdom, Irish and Commonwealth citizens may sit in the House of Lords. The nationality restrictions were previously more stringent: under the Act of Settlement 1701, and prior to the British Nationality Act 1948, only natural - born subjects qualified.
Additionally, some bankruptcy - related restrictions apply to members of the Upper House. A person may not sit in the House of Lords if he or she is the subject of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), or if he or she is adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or if his or her estate is sequestered (in Scotland). A final restriction bars an individual convicted of high treason from sitting in the House of Lords until completing his or her full term of imprisonment. An exception applies, however, if the individual convicted of high treason receives a full pardon. Note that an individual serving a prison sentence for an offence other than high treason is not automatically disqualified.
Women were excluded from the House of Lords until the Life Peerages Act 1958, passed to address the declining number of active members, made possible the creation of peerages for life. Women were immediately eligible and four were among the first life peers appointed. However, hereditary peeresses continued to be excluded until the passage of the Peerage Act 1963. Since the passage of the House of Lords Act 1999, hereditary peeresses remain eligible for election to the Upper House; there is one (Countess of Mar) among the 90 hereditary peers who continue to sit.
The Honours (Prevention of Abuses) Act 1925 made it illegal for a peerage, or other honour, to be bought or sold. Nonetheless, there have been repeated allegations that life peerages (and thus membership of the House of Lords) have been made available to major political donors in exchange for donations. The most prominent case, the 2006 Cash for Honours scandal, saw a police investigation, with no charges being brought. A 2015 study found that of 303 people nominated for peerages in the period 2005 -- 14, a total of 211 were former senior figures within politics (including former MPs), or were non-political appointments. Of the remaining 92 political appointments from outside public life, 27 had made significant donations to political parties. The authors concluded firstly that nominees from outside public life were much more likely to have made large gifts than peers nominated after prior political or public service. They also found that significant donors to parties were far more likely to be nominated for peerages than other party members.
Traditionally there was no mechanism by which members could resign or be removed from the House of Lords (compare the situation as regards resignation from the House of Commons). The Peerage Act 1963 permitted a person to disclaim their newly inherited peerage (within certain time limits); this meant that such a person could effectively renounce their membership of the Lords. This might be done in order to remain or become qualified to sit in the House of Commons, as in the case of Tony Benn (formerly the second Viscount Stansgate), who had campaigned for such a change.
The House of Lords Reform Act 2014 made provision for members ' resignation from the House, removal for non-attendance, and automatic expulsion upon conviction for a serious criminal offence (if resulting in a jail sentence of at least one year). In June 2015, under the House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015, the House 's Standing Orders may provide for the expulsion or suspension of a member upon a resolution of the House.
Traditionally the House of Lords did not elect its own speaker, unlike the House of Commons; rather, the ex officio presiding officer was the Lord Chancellor. With the passage of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the post of Lord Speaker was created, a position to which a peer is elected by the House and subsequently appointed by the Crown. The first Lord Speaker, elected on 4 May 2006, was Baroness Hayman, a former Labour peer. As the Speaker is expected to be an impartial presiding officer, Baroness Hayman resigned from the Labour Party. In 2011, Baroness D'Souza was elected as the second Lord Speaker, replacing Baroness Hayman in September 2011. Baroness D'Souza was in turn succeeded by Lord Fowler in September 2016, the incumbent Lord Speaker.
This reform of the post of Lord Chancellor was made due to the perceived constitutional anomalies inherent in the role. The Lord Chancellor was not only the Speaker of the House of Lords, but also a member of the Cabinet; his or her department, formerly the Lord Chancellor 's Department, is now called the Ministry of Justice. The Lord Chancellor is no longer the head of the judiciary of England and Wales. Hitherto, the Lord Chancellor was part of all three branches of government: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial.
The overlap of the legislative and executive roles is a characteristic of the Westminster system, as the entire cabinet consists of members of the House of Commons or the House of Lords; however, in June 2003, the Blair Government announced its intention to abolish the post of Lord Chancellor because of the office 's mixed executive and judicial responsibilities. The abolition of the office was rejected by the House of Lords, and the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 was thus amended to preserve the office of Lord Chancellor. The Act no longer guarantees that the office holder of Lord Chancellor is the presiding officer of the House of Lords, and therefore allows the House of Lords to elect a speaker of their own.
The Lord Speaker may be replaced as presiding officer by one of his or her deputies. The Chairman of Committees, the Principal Deputy Chairman of Committees, and several Chairmen are all deputies to the Lord Speaker, and are all appointed by the House of Lords itself at the beginning of each session. By custom, the Crown appoints each Chairman, Principal Deputy Chairman and Deputy Chairman to the additional office of Deputy Speaker of the House of Lords. There was previously no legal requirement that the Lord Chancellor or a Deputy Speaker be a member of the House of Lords (though the same has long been customary).
Whilst presiding over the House of Lords, the Lord Chancellor traditionally wore ceremonial black and gold robes. Robes of black and gold are now worn by the Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice in the House of Commons, on ceremonial occasions. This is no longer a requirement for the Lord Speaker except for State occasions outside of the chamber. The Speaker or Deputy Speaker sits on the Woolsack, a large red seat stuffed with wool, at the front of the Lords Chamber.
When the House of Lords resolves itself into committee (see below), the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman of Committees presides, not from the Woolsack, but from a chair at the Table of the House. The presiding officer has little power compared to the Speaker of the House of Commons. He or she only acts as the mouthpiece of the House, performing duties such as announcing the results of votes. This is because, unlike in the House of Commons where all statements are directed to "Mr / Madam Speaker '', in the House of Lords they are directed to "My Lords ''; i.e., the entire body of the House.
The Lord Speaker or Deputy Speaker can not determine which members may speak, or discipline members for violating the rules of the House; these measures may be taken only by the House itself. Unlike the politically neutral Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor and Deputy Speakers originally remained members of their respective parties, and were permitted to participate in debate; however, this is no longer true of the new role of Lord Speaker.
Another officer of the body is the Leader of the House of Lords, a peer selected by the Prime Minister. The Leader of the House is responsible for steering Government bills through the House of Lords, and is a member of the Cabinet. The Leader also advises the House on proper procedure when necessary, but such advice is merely informal, rather than official and binding. A Deputy Leader is also appointed by the Prime Minister, and takes the place of an absent or unavailable leader.
The Clerk of the Parliaments is the chief clerk and officer of the House of Lords (but is not a member of the House itself). The Clerk, who is appointed by the Crown, advises the presiding officer on the rules of the House, signs orders and official communications, endorses bills, and is the keeper of the official records of both Houses of Parliament. Moreover, the Clerk of the Parliaments is responsible for arranging by - elections of hereditary peers when necessary. The deputies of the Clerk of the Parliaments (the Clerk Assistant and the Reading Clerk) are appointed by the Lord Speaker, subject to the House 's approval.
The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod is also an officer of the House; he takes his title from the symbol of his office, a black rod. Black Rod (as the Gentleman Usher is normally known) is responsible for ceremonial arrangements, is in charge of the House 's doorkeepers, and may (upon the order of the House) take action to end disorder or disturbance in the Chamber. Black Rod also holds the office of Serjeant - at - Arms of the House of Lords, and in this capacity attends upon the Lord Speaker. The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod 's duties may be delegated to the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod or to the Assistant Serjeant - at - Arms.
The House of Lords and the House of Commons assemble in the Palace of Westminster. The Lords Chamber is lavishly decorated, in contrast with the more modestly furnished Commons Chamber. Benches in the Lords Chamber are coloured red. The Woolsack is at the front of the Chamber; the Government sit on benches on the right of the Woolsack, while members of the Opposition sit on the left. Crossbenchers, sit on the benches immediately opposite the Woolsack.
The Lords Chamber is the site of many formal ceremonies, the most famous of which is the State Opening of Parliament, held at the beginning of each new parliamentary session. During the State Opening, the Sovereign, seated on the Throne in the Lords Chamber and in the presence of both Houses of Parliament, delivers a speech outlining the Government 's agenda for the upcoming parliamentary session.
In the House of Lords, members need not seek the recognition of the presiding officer before speaking, as is done in the House of Commons. If two or more Lords simultaneously rise to speak, the House decides which one is to be heard by acclamation, or, if necessary, by voting on a motion. Often, however, the Leader of the House will suggest an order, which is thereafter generally followed. Speeches in the House of Lords are addressed to the House as a whole ("My Lords '') rather than to the presiding officer alone (as is the custom in the Lower House). Members may not refer to each other in the second person (as "you ''), but rather use third person forms such as "the noble Duke '', "the noble Earl '', "the noble Lord '', "my noble friend '', "The most Reverend Primate '', etc.
Each member may make no more than one speech on a motion, except that the mover of the motion may make one speech at the beginning of the debate and another at the end. Speeches are not subject to any time limits in the House; however, the House may put an end to a speech by approving a motion "that the noble Lord be no longer heard ''. It is also possible for the House to end the debate entirely, by approving a motion "that the Question be now put ''. This procedure is known as Closure, and is extremely rare.
Once all speeches on a motion have concluded, or Closure invoked, the motion may be put to a vote. The House first votes by voice vote; the Lord Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and the Lords respond either "content '' (in favour of the motion) or "not content '' (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his assessment is challenged by any Lord, a recorded vote known as a division follows.
Members of the House enter one of two lobbies (the content lobby or the not - content lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. At each lobby are two Tellers (themselves members of the House) who count the votes of the Lords. The Lord Speaker may not take part in the vote. Once the division concludes, the Tellers provide the results thereof to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House.
If there is an equality of votes, the motion is decided according to the following principles: legislation may proceed in its present form, unless there is a majority in favour of amending or rejecting it; any other motions are rejected, unless there is a majority in favour of approving it. The quorum of the House of Lords is just three members for a general or procedural vote, and 30 members for a vote on legislation. If fewer than three or 30 members (as appropriate) are present, the division is invalid.
By contrast with the House of Commons, the House of Lords has not until recently had an established procedure for putting sanctions on its members. When a cash for influence scandal was referred to the Committee of Privileges in January 2009, the Leader of the House of Lords also asked the Privileges Committee to report on what sanctions the House had against its members. After seeking advice from the Attorney General for England and Wales and the former Lord Chancellor Lord Mackay of Clashfern, the committee decided that the House "possessed an inherent power '' to suspend errant members, although not to withhold a writ of summons nor to expel a member permanently. When the House subsequently suspended Lord Truscott and Lord Taylor of Blackburn for their role in the scandal, they were the first to meet this fate since 1642.
Recent changes have expanded the disciplinary powers of the House. Section 3 of the House of Lords Reform Act 2014 now provides that any member of the House of Lords convicted of a crime and sentenced to imprisonment for more than one year loses their seat. The House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015 allows the House to set up procedures to suspend, and to expel, its members.
There are two motions which have grown up through custom and practice and which govern questionable conduct within the House. They are brought into play by a member standing up, possibly intervening on another member, and moving the motion without notice. When the debate is getting excessively heated, it is open to a member to move "that the Standing Order on Asperity of Speech be read by the Clerk ''. The motion can be debated, but if agreed by the House, the Clerk of the Parliaments will read out Standing Order 33 which provides "That all personal, sharp, or taxing speeches be forborn ''. The Journals of the House of Lords record only four instances on which the House has ordered the Standing Order to be read since the procedure was invented in 1871.
For more serious problems with an individual Lord, the option is available to move "That the noble Lord be no longer heard ''. This motion also is debatable, and the debate which ensues has sometimes offered a chance for the member whose conduct has brought it about to come to order so that the motion can be withdrawn. If the motion is passed, its effect is to prevent the member from continuing their speech on the motion then under debate. The Journals identify eleven occasions on which this motion has been moved since 1884; four were eventually withdrawn, one was voted down, and six were passed.
In 1958, to counter criticism that some peers only appeared at major decisions in the House and thereby particular votes were swayed, the Standing Orders of the House of Lords were enhanced. Peers who did not wish to attend meetings regularly or were prevented by ill health, age or further reasons, were now able to request Leave of Absence. During the granted time a peer is expected not to visit the House 's meetings until either its expiration or termination, announced at least a month prior to their return.
Members of the House of Lords can, since 2010, opt to receive a £ 300 per day attendance allowance, plus limited travel expenses. Peers can elect to receive a reduced attendance allowance of £ 150 per day instead. Prior to 2010 peers from outside London could claim an overnight allowance of £ 174.
Unlike in the House of Commons, when the term committee is used to describe a stage of a bill, this committee does not take the form of a public bill committee, but what is described as Committee of the Whole House. It is made up of all Members of the House of Lords allowing any Member to contribute to debates if he or she chooses to do so and allows for more flexible rules of procedure. It is presided over by the Chairman of Committees.
The term committee is also used to describe Grand Committee, where the same rules of procedure apply as in the main chamber, except that no divisions may take place. For this reason, business that is discussed in Grand Committee is usually uncontroversial and likely to be agreed unanimously.
Public bills may also be committed to pre-legislative committees. A pre-legislative Committee is specifically constituted for a particular bill. These committees are established in advance of the bill being laid before either the House of Lords or the House of Commons and can take evidence from the public. Such committees are rare and do not replace any of the usual stages of a bill, including committee stage.
The House of Lords also has 15 Select Committees. Typically, these are sessional committees, meaning that their members are appointed by the House at the beginning of each session, and continue to serve until the next parliamentary session begins. In practice, these are often permanent committees, which are re-established during every session. These committees are typically empowered to make reports to the House "from time to time '', that is, whenever they wish. Other committees are ad - hoc committees, which are set up to investigate a specific issue. When they are set up by a motion in the House, the motion will set a deadline by which the Committee must report. After this date, the Committee will cease to exist unless it is granted an extension. One example of this is the Committee on Public Service and Demographic Change. The House of Lords may appoint a chairman for a committee; if it does not do so, the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman of Committees may preside instead. Most of the Select Committees are also granted the power to co-opt members, such as the European Union Committee. The primary function of Select Committees is to scrutinise and investigate Government activities; to fulfil these aims, they are permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence. Bills may be referred to Select Committees, but are more often sent to the Committee of the Whole House and Grand Committees.
The committee system of the House of Lords also includes several Domestic Committees, which supervise or consider the House 's procedures and administration. One of the Domestic Committees is the Committee of Selection, which is responsible for assigning members to many of the House 's other committees.
There are currently 787 sitting members of the House of Lords. An additional 26 Lords are ineligible from participation, including eight peers who are constitutionally disqualified as members of the Judiciary.
The House of Lords Act 1999 allocated 75 of the 92 hereditary peers to the parties based on the proportion of hereditary peers that belonged to that party in 1999:
Of the initial 42 hereditary peers elected as Conservatives, one, Lord Willoughby de Broke, now sits as a member of UKIP.
Fifteen hereditary peers are elected by the whole House, and the remaining hereditary peers are the two royal office - holders, the Earl Marshal and the Lord Great Chamberlain, both of whom are currently on leave of absence.
A report in 2007 stated that many members of the Lords (particularly the life peers) do not attend regularly; the average daily attendance was around 408.
While the number of hereditary peers is limited to 92, and that of Lords spiritual to 26, there is no maximum limit to the number of life peers who may be members of the House of Lords at any time.
Coordinates: 51 ° 29 ′ 55.7 '' N 0 ° 07 ′ 29.5 '' W / 51.498806 ° N 0.124861 ° W / 51.498806; - 0.124861
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what kind of light does an optical telescope collect | Optical telescope - wikipedia
An optical telescope is a telescope that gathers and focuses light, mainly from the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum, to create a magnified image for direct view, or to make a photograph, or to collect data through electronic image sensors.
There are three primary types of optical telescope:
A telescope 's light gathering power and ability to resolve small detail is directly related to the diameter (or aperture) of its objective (the primary lens or mirror that collects and focuses the light). The larger the objective, the more light the telescope collects and the finer detail it resolves.
People use telescopes and binoculars for activities such as observational astronomy, ornithology, pilotage and reconnaissance, and watching sports or performance arts.
The telescope is more a discovery of optical craftsmen than an invention of a scientist. The lens and the properties of refracting and reflecting light had been known since antiquity and theory on how they worked were developed by ancient Greek philosophers, preserved and expanded on in the medieval Islamic world, and had reached a significantly advanced state by the time of the telescope 's invention in early modern Europe. But the most significant step cited in the invention of the telescope was the development of lens manufacture for spectacles, first in Venice and Florence in the thirteenth century, and later in the spectacle making centers in both the Netherlands and Germany. It is in the Netherlands in 1608 where the first recorded optical telescopes (refracting telescopes) appeared. The invention is credited to the spectacle makers Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen in Middelburg, and the instrument - maker and optician Jacob Metius of Alkmaar.
Galileo greatly improved on these designs the following year, and is generally credited as the first to use a telescope for astronomy. Galileo 's telescope used Hans Lippershey 's design of a convex objective lens and a concave eye lens, and this design is now called a Galilean telescope. Johannes Kepler proposed an improvement on the design that used a convex eyepiece, often called the Keplerian Telescope.
The next big step in the development of refractors was the advent of the Achromatic lens in the early 18th century, which corrected the chromatic aberration in Keplerian telescopes up to that time -- allowing for much shorter instruments with much larger objectives.
For reflecting telescopes, which use a curved mirror in place of the objective lens, theory preceded practice. The theoretical basis for curved mirrors behaving similar to lenses was probably established by Alhazen, whose theories had been widely disseminated in Latin translations of his work. Soon after the invention of the refracting telescope Galileo, Giovanni Francesco Sagredo, and others, spurred on by their knowledge that curved mirrors had similar properties as lenses, discussed the idea of building a telescope using a mirror as the image forming objective. The potential advantages of using parabolic mirrors (primarily a reduction of spherical aberration with elimination of chromatic aberration) led to several proposed designs for reflecting telescopes, the most notable of which was published in 1663 by James Gregory and came to be called the Gregorian telescope, but no working models were built. Isaac Newton has been generally credited with constructing the first practical reflecting telescopes, the Newtonian telescope, in 1668 although due to their difficulty of construction and the poor performance of the speculum metal mirrors used it took over 100 years for reflectors to become popular. Many of the advances in reflecting telescopes included the perfection of parabolic mirror fabrication in the 18th century, silver coated glass mirrors in the 19th century, long - lasting aluminum coatings in the 20th century, segmented mirrors to allow larger diameters, and active optics to compensate for gravitational deformation. A mid-20th century innovation was catadioptric telescopes such as the Schmidt camera, which uses both a lens (corrector plate) and mirror as primary optical elements, mainly used for wide field imaging without spherical aberration.
The late 20th century has seen the development of adaptive optics and space telescopes to overcome the problems of astronomical seeing.
The basic scheme is that the primary light - gathering element the objective (1) (the convex lens or concave mirror used to gather the incoming light), focuses that light from the distant object (4) to a focal plane where it forms a real image (5). This image may be recorded or viewed through an eyepiece (2), which acts like a magnifying glass. The eye (3) then sees an inverted magnified virtual image (6) of the object.
Most telescope designs produce an inverted image at the focal plane; these are referred to as inverting telescopes. In fact, the image is both turned upside down and reversed left to right, so that altogether it is rotated by 180 degrees from the object orientation. In astronomical telescopes the rotated view is normally not corrected, since it does not affect how the telescope is used. However, a mirror diagonal is often used to place the eyepiece in a more convenient viewing location, and in that case the image is erect, but still reversed left to right. In terrestrial telescopes such as spotting scopes, monoculars and binoculars, prisms (e.g., Porro prisms) or a relay lens between objective and eyepiece are used to correct the image orientation. There are telescope designs that do not present an inverted image such as the Galilean refractor and the Gregorian reflector. These are referred to as erecting telescopes.
Many types of telescope fold or divert the optical path with secondary or tertiary mirrors. These may be integral part of the optical design (Newtonian telescope, Cassegrain reflector or similar types), or may simply be used to place the eyepiece or detector at a more convenient position. Telescope designs may also use specially designed additional lenses or mirrors to improve image quality over a larger field of view.
Design specifications relate to the characteristics of the telescope and how it performs optically. Several properties of the specifications may change with the equipment or accessories used with the telescope; such as Barlow lenses, star diagonals and eyepieces. These interchangeable accessories do n't alter the specifications of the telescope, however they alter the way the telescopes properties function, typically magnification, angular resolution and FOV.
The smallest resolvable surface area of an object, as seen through an optical telescope, is the limited physical area that can be resolved. It is analogous to angular resolution, but differs in definition: instead of separation ability between point - light sources it refers to the physical area that can be resolved. A familiar way to express the characteristic is the resolvable ability of features such as Moon craters or Sun spots. Expression using the formula is given by the sum of twice the resolving power R (\ displaystyle R) over aperture diameter D (\ displaystyle D) multiplied by the objects diameter D o b (\ displaystyle D_ (ob)) multiplied by the constant Φ (\ displaystyle \ Phi) all divided by the objects apparent diameter D a (\ displaystyle D_ (a)).
Resolving power R (\ displaystyle R) is derived from the wavelength λ (\ displaystyle (\ lambda)) using the same unit as aperture; where 550 nm to mm is given by: R = λ 10 6 = 550 10 6 = 0.00055 (\ displaystyle R = (\ frac (\ lambda) (10 ^ (6))) = (\ frac (550) (10 ^ (6))) = 0.00055). The constant Φ (\ displaystyle \ Phi) is derived from radians to the same unit as the objects apparent diameter; where the Moons apparent diameter of D a = 313 Π 10800 (\ displaystyle D_ (a) = (\ frac (313 \ Pi) (10800))) radians to arcsecs is given by: D a = 313 Π 10800 ∗ 206265 = 1878 (\ displaystyle D_ (a) = (\ frac (313 \ Pi) (10800)) * 206265 = 1878).
An example using a telescope with an aperture of 130 mm observing the Moon in a 550 nm wavelength, is given by: F = 2 R D ∗ D o b ∗ Φ D a = 2 ∗ 0.00055 130 ∗ 3474.2 ∗ 206265 1878 ≈ 3.22 (\ displaystyle F = (\ frac ((\ frac (2R) (D)) * D_ (ob) * \ Phi) (D_ (a))) = (\ frac ((\ frac (2 * 0.00055) (130)) * 3474.2 * 206265) (1878)) \ approx 3.22)
The unit used in the object diameter results in the smallest resolvable features at that unit. In the above example they are approximated in kilometers resulting in the smallest resolvable Moon craters being 3.22 km in diameter. The Hubble Space Telescope has a primary mirror aperture of 2400 mm that provides a surface resolvability of Moon craters being 174.9 meters in diameter, or sunspots of 7365.2 km in diameter.
Ignoring blurring of the image by turbulence in the atmosphere (atmospheric seeing) and optical imperfections of the telescope, the angular resolution of an optical telescope is determined by the diameter of the primary mirror or lens gathering the light (also termed its "aperture '').
The Rayleigh criterion for the resolution limit α R (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (R)) (in radians) is given by
where λ (\ displaystyle \ lambda) is the wavelength and D (\ displaystyle D) is the aperture. For visible light (λ (\ displaystyle \ lambda) = 550 nm) in the small - angle approximation, this equation can be rewritten:
Here, α R (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (R)) denotes the resolution limit in arcseconds and D (\ displaystyle D) is in millimeters. In the ideal case, the two components of a double star system can be discerned even if separated by slightly less than α R (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (R)). This is taken into account by the Dawes limit
The equation shows that, all else being equal, the larger the aperture, the better the angular resolution. The resolution is not given by the maximum magnification (or "power '') of a telescope. Telescopes marketed by giving high values of the maximum power often deliver poor images.
For large ground - based telescopes, the resolution is limited by atmospheric seeing. This limit can be overcome by placing the telescopes above the atmosphere, e.g., on the summits of high mountains, on balloon and high - flying airplanes, or in space. Resolution limits can also be overcome by adaptive optics, speckle imaging or lucky imaging for ground - based telescopes.
Recently, it has become practical to perform aperture synthesis with arrays of optical telescopes. Very high resolution images can be obtained with groups of widely spaced smaller telescopes, linked together by carefully controlled optical paths, but these interferometers can only be used for imaging bright objects such as stars or measuring the bright cores of active galaxies.
The focal length of an optical system is a measure of how strongly the system converges or diverges light. For an optical system in air, it is the distance over which initially collimated rays are brought to a focus. A system with a shorter focal length has greater optical power than one with a long focal length; that is, it bends the rays more strongly, bringing them to a focus in a shorter distance. In astronomy, the f - number is commonly referred to as the focal ratio notated as N (\ displaystyle N). The focal ratio of a telescope is defined as the focal length f (\ displaystyle f) of an objective divided by its diameter D (\ displaystyle D) or by the diameter of an aperture stop in the system. The focal length controls the field of view of the instrument and the scale of the image that is presented at the focal plane to an eyepiece, film plate, or CCD.
An example of a telescope with a focal length of 1200 mm and aperture diameter of 254 mm is given by: N = f D = 1200 254 ≈ 4.7 (\ displaystyle N = (\ frac (f) (D)) = (\ frac (1200) (254)) \ approx 4.7)
Numerically large Focal ratios are said to be long or slow. Small numbers are short or fast. There are no sharp lines for determining when to use these terms, an individual may consider their own standards of determination. Among contemporary astronomical telescopes, any telescope with a focal ratio slower (bigger number) than f / 12 is generally considered slow, and any telescope with a focal ratio faster (smaller number) than f / 6, is considered fast. Faster systems often have more optical aberrations away from the center of the field of view and are generally more demanding of eyepiece designs than slower ones. A fast system is often desired for practical purposes in astrophotography with the purpose of gathering more photons in a given time period than a slower system, allowing time lapsed photography to process the result faster.
Wide - field telescopes (such as astrographs), are used to track satellites and asteroids, for cosmic - ray research, and for astronomical surveys of the sky. It is more difficult to reduce optical aberrations in telescopes with low f - ratio than in telescopes with larger f - ratio.
The light - gathering power of an optical telescope, also referred to as light grasp or aperture gain, is the ability of a telescope to collect a lot more light than the human eye. Its light - gathering power is probably its most important feature. The telescope acts as a light bucket, collecting all of the photons that come down on it from a far away object, where a larger bucket catches more photons resulting in more received light in a given time period, effectively brightening the image. This is why the pupils of your eyes enlarge at night so that more light reaches the retinas. The gathering power P (\ displaystyle P) compared against a human eye is the squared result of the division of the aperture D (\ displaystyle D) over the observer 's pupil diameter D p (\ displaystyle D_ (p)), with an average adult having a pupil diameter of 7mm. Younger persons host larger diameters, typically said to be 9mm, as the diameter of the pupil decreases with age.
An example gathering power of an aperture with 254 mm compared to an adult pupil diameter being 7 mm is given by: P = (D D p) 2 = (254 7) 2 ≈ 1316.7 (\ displaystyle P = \ left ((\ frac (D) (D_ (p))) \ right) ^ (2) = \ left ((\ frac (254) (7)) \ right) ^ (2) \ approx 1316.7)
Light - gathering power can be compared between telescopes by comparing the areas A (\ displaystyle A) of the two different apertures.
As an example, the light - gathering power of a 10 meter telescope is 25x that of a 2 meter telescope: p = A 1 A 2 = π 5 2 π 1 2 = 25 (\ displaystyle p = (\ frac (A_ (1)) (A_ (2))) = (\ frac (\ pi 5 ^ (2)) (\ pi 1 ^ (2))) = 25)
For a survey of a given area, the field of view is just as important as raw light gathering power. Survey telescopes such as the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope try to maximize the product of mirror area and field of view (or etendue) rather than raw light gathering ability alone.
The magnification through a telescope magnifies a viewing object while limiting the FOV. Magnification is often misleading as the optical power of the telescope, its characteristic is the most misunderstood term used to describe the observable world. At higher magnifications the image quality significantly reduces, usage of a Barlow lens -- which increases the effective focal length of an optical system -- multiplies image quality reduction.
Similar minor effects may be present when using star diagonals, as light travels through a multitude of lenses that increase or decrease effective focal length. The quality of the image generally depends on the quality of the optics (lenses) and viewing conditions -- not on magnification.
Magnification itself is limited by optical characteristics. With any telescope or microscope, beyond a practical maximum magnification, the image looks bigger but shows no more detail. It occurs when the finest detail the instrument can resolve is magnified to match the finest detail the eye can see. Magnification beyond this maximum is sometimes called empty magnification.
To get the most detail out of a telescope, it is critical to choose the right magnification for the object being observed. Some objects appear best at low power, some at high power, and many at a moderate magnification. There are two values for magnification, a minimum and maximum. A wider field of view eyepiece may be used to keep the same eyepiece focal length whilst providing the same magnification through the telescope. For a good quality telescope operating in good atmospheric conditions, the maximum usable magnification is limited by diffraction.
The visual magnification M (\ displaystyle M) of the field of view through a telescope can be determined by the telescopes focal length f (\ displaystyle f) divided by the eyepiece focal length f e (\ displaystyle f_ (e)) (or diameter). The maximum is limited by the focal length of the eyepiece.
An example of visual magnification using a telescope with a 1200 mm focal length and 3 mm eyepiece is given by: M = f f e = 1200 3 = 400 (\ displaystyle M = (\ frac (f) (f_ (e))) = (\ frac (1200) (3)) = 400)
There is a lowest usable magnification on a telescope. The increase in brightness with reduced magnification has a limit related to something called the exit pupil. The exit pupil is the cylinder of light coming out of the eyepiece, hence the lower the magnification, the larger the exit pupil. The minimum M m (\ displaystyle M_ (m)) can be calculated by dividing the telescope aperture D (\ displaystyle D) over the exit pupil diameter D e p (\ displaystyle D_ (ep)). Decreasing the magnification past this limit can not increase brightness, at this limit there is no benefit for decreased magnification. Likewise calculating the exit pupil D e p (\ displaystyle D_ (ep)) is a division of the aperture diameter D (\ displaystyle D) and the visual magnification M (\ displaystyle M) used. The minimum often may not be reachable with some telescopes, a telescope with a very long focal length may require a longer - focal - length eyepiece than is possible.
An example of the lowest usable magnification using a 254 mm aperture and 7 mm exit pupil is given by: M m = D D e p = 254 7 ≈ 36 (\ displaystyle M_ (m) = (\ frac (D) (D_ (ep))) = (\ frac (254) (7)) \ approx 36), whilst the exit pupil diameter using a 254 mm aperture and 36x magnification is given by: D e p = D M = 254 36 ≈ 7 (\ displaystyle D_ (ep) = (\ frac (D) (M)) = (\ frac (254) (36)) \ approx 7)
A useful reference is:
Only personal experience determines the best optimum magnifications for objects, relying on observational skills and seeing conditions.
Field of view is the extent of the observable world seen at any given moment, through an instrument (e.g., telescope or binoculars), or by naked eye. There are various expressions of field of view, being a specification of an eyepiece or a characteristic determined from and eyepiece and telescope combination. A physical limit derives from the combination where the FOV can not be viewed larger than a defined maximum, due to diffraction of the optics.
Apparent FOV is the observable world observed through an ocular eyepiece without insertion into a telescope. It is limited by the barrel size used in a telescope, generally with modern telescopes that being either 1.25 or 2 inches in diameter. A wider FOV may be used to achieve a more vast observable world given the same magnification compared with a smaller FOV without compromise to magnification. Note that increasing the FOV lowers surface brightness of an observed object, as the gathered light is spread over more area, in relative terms increasing the observing area proportionally lowers surface brightness dimming the observed object. Wide FOV eyepieces work best at low magnifications with large apertures, where the relative size of an object is viewed at higher comparative standards with minimal magnification giving an overall brighter image to begin with.
True FOV is the observable world observed though an ocular eyepiece inserted into a telescope. Knowing the true FOV of eyepieces is very useful since it can be used to compare what is seen through the eyepiece to printed or computerized star charts that help identify what is observed. True FOV v t (\ displaystyle v_ (t)) is the division of apparent FOV v a (\ displaystyle v_ (a)) over magnification M (\ displaystyle M).
An example of true FOV using an eyepiece with 52 ° apparent FOV used at 81.25 x magnification is given by: v t = v a M = 52 81.25 = 0.64 ∘ (\ displaystyle v_ (t) = (\ frac (v_ (a)) (M)) = (\ frac (52) (81.25)) = 0.64 ^ (\ circ))
Max FOV is a term used to describe the maximum useful true FOV limited by the optics of the telescope, it is a physical limitation where increases beyond the maximum remain at maximum. Max FOV v m (\ displaystyle v_ (m)) is the barrel size B (\ displaystyle B) over the telescopes focal length f (\ displaystyle f) converted from radian to degrees.
An example of max FOV using a telescope with a barrel size of 31.75 mm (1.25 inches) and focal length of 1200 mm is given by: v m = B ∗ 180 π f ≈ 31.75 ∗ 57.2958 1200 ≈ 1.52 ∘ (\ displaystyle v_ (m) = B * (\ frac (\ frac (180) (\ pi)) (f)) \ approx 31.75 * (\ frac (57.2958) (1200)) \ approx 1.52 ^ (\ circ))
There are many properties of optical telescopes and the complexity of observation using one can be a daunting task; experience and experimentation are the major contributors to understanding how to maximize one 's observations. In practice, only two main properties of a telescope determine how observation differs: the focal length and aperture. These relate as to how the optical system views an object or range and how much light is gathered through an ocular eyepiece. Eyepieces further determine how the field of view and magnification of the observable world change.
Observable world describes what can be seen using a telescope, when viewing an object or range the observer may use many different techniques. Understanding what can be viewed and how to view it depends on the field of view. Viewing an object at a size that fits entirely in the field of view is measured using the two telescope properties -- focal length and aperture, with the inclusion of an ocular eyepiece with suitable focal length (or diameter). Comparing the observable world and the angular diameter of an object shows how much of the object we see. However, the relationship with the optical system may not result in high surface brightness. Celestial objects are often dim because of their vast distance, and detail may be limited by diffraction or unsuitable optical properties.
Finding what can be seen through the optical system begins with the eyepiece providing the field of view and magnification; the magnification is given by the division of the telescope and eyepiece focal lengths. Using an example of an amateur telescope such as a Newtonian telescope with an aperture D (\ displaystyle D) of 130 mm (5 ") and focal length f (\ displaystyle f) of 650 mm (25.5 inches), one uses an eyepiece with a focal length d (\ displaystyle d) of 8 mm and apparent field of view v a (\ displaystyle v_ (a)) of 52 °. The magnification at which the observable world is viewed is given by: M = f d = 650 8 = 81.25 (\ displaystyle M = (\ frac (f) (d)) = (\ frac (650) (8)) = 81.25). The true field of view v t (\ displaystyle v_ (t)) requires the magnification, which is formulated by its division over the apparent field of view: v t = v a M = 52 81.25 = 0.64 (\ displaystyle v_ (t) = (\ frac (v_ (a)) (M)) = (\ frac (52) (81.25)) = 0.64). The resulting true field of view is 0.64 °, allowing an object such as the Orion nebula, which appears elliptical with an angular diameter of 65 × 60 arcminutes, to be viewable through the telescope in its entirety, where the whole of the nebula is within the observable world. Using methods such as this can greatly increase one 's viewing potential ensuring the observable world can contain the entire object, or whether to increase or decrease magnification viewing the object in a different aspect.
The surface brightness at such a magnification significantly reduces, resulting in a far dimmer appearance. A dimmer appearance results in less visual detail of the object. Details such as matter, rings, spiral arms, and gases may be completely hidden from the observer, giving a far less complete view of the object or range. Physics dictates that at the theoretical minimum magnification of the telescope, the surface brightness is at 100 %. Practically, however, various factors prevent 100 % brightness; these include telescope limitations (focal length, eyepiece focal length, etc.) and the age of the observer.
Age plays a role in brightness, as a contributing factor is the observer 's pupil. With age the pupil naturally shrinks in diameter; generally accepted a young adult may have a 7 mm diameter pupil, an older adult as little as 5 mm, and a younger person larger at 9 mm. The minimum magnification m (\ displaystyle m) can be expressed as the division of the aperture D (\ displaystyle D) and pupil p (\ displaystyle p) diameter given by: m = D d = 130 7 ≈ 18.6 (\ displaystyle m = (\ frac (D) (d)) = (\ frac (130) (7)) \ approx 18.6). A problematic instance may be apparent, achieving a theoretical surface brightness of 100 %, as the required effective focal length of the optical system may require an eyepiece with too large a diameter.
Some telescopes can not achieve the theoretical surface brightness of 100 %, while some telescopes can achieve it using a very small - diameter eyepiece. To find what eyepiece is required to get minimum magnification one can rearrange the magnification formula, where it is now the division of the telescope 's focal length over the minimum magnification: F m = 650 18.6 ≈ 35 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (F) (m)) = (\ frac (650) (18.6)) \ approx 35). An eyepiece of 35 mm is a non-standard size and would not be purchasable; in this scenario to achieve 100 % one would require a standard manufactured eyepiece size of 40 mm. As the eyepiece has a larger focal length than the minimum magnification, an abundance of wasted light is not received through the eyes.
The increase in surface brightness as one reduces magnification is limited; that limitation is what is described as the exit pupil: a cylinder of light that projects out the eyepiece to the observer. An exit pupil must match or be smaller in diameter than one 's pupil to receive the full amount of projected light; a larger exit pupil results in the wasted light. The exit pupil e (\ displaystyle e) can be derived with from division of the telescope aperture D (\ displaystyle D) and the minimum magnification m (\ displaystyle m), derived by: e = D m = 130 18.6 ≈ 7 (\ displaystyle e = (\ frac (D) (m)) = (\ frac (130) (18.6)) \ approx 7). The pupil and exit pupil are almost identical in diameter, giving no wasted observable light with the optical system. A 7 mm pupil falls slightly short of 100 % brightness, where the surface brightness B (\ displaystyle B) can be measured from the product of the constant 2, by the square of the pupil p (\ displaystyle p) resulting in: B = 2 ∗ p 2 = 2 ∗ 7 2 = 98 (\ displaystyle B = 2 * p ^ (2) = 2 * 7 ^ (2) = 98). The limitation here is the pupil diameter; it 's an unfortunate result and degrades with age. Some observable light loss is expected and decreasing the magnification can not increase surface brightness once the system has reached its minimum usable magnification, hence why the term is referred to as usable.
When using a CCD to record observations, the CCD is placed in the focal plane. Image scale (sometimes called plate scale) describes how the angular size of the object being observed is related to the physical size of the projected image in the focal plane
i = α s, (\ displaystyle i = (\ frac (\ alpha) (s)),)
where i (\ displaystyle i) is the image scale, α (\ displaystyle \ alpha) is the angular size of the observed object, and s (\ displaystyle s) is the physical size of the projected image. In terms of focal length image scale is
i = 1 f, (\ displaystyle i = (\ frac (1) (f)),)
where i (\ displaystyle i) is measured in radians per meter (rad / m), and f (\ displaystyle f) is measured in meters. Normally i (\ displaystyle i) is given in units of arcseconds per millimeter ("/ mm). So if the focal length is measured in millimeters, the image scale is
i ('' / m m) = 1 f (m m) (180 × 3600 π). (\ displaystyle i (' ' / mm) = (\ frac (1) (f (mm))) \ left ((\ frac (180 \ times 3600) (\ pi)) \ right).)
The derivation of this equation is fairly straightforward and the result is the same for reflecting or refracting telescopes. However, conceptually it is easier to derive by considering a reflecting telescope. If an extended object with angular size α (\ displaystyle \ alpha) is observed through a telescope, then due to the Laws of reflection and Trigonometry the size of the image projected onto the focal plane will be
s = tan (α) f. (\ displaystyle s = \ tan (\ alpha) f.)
Thefore, the image scale (angular size of object divided by size of projected image) will be
i = α s = α tan (α) f, (\ displaystyle i = (\ frac (\ alpha) (s)) = (\ frac (\ alpha) (\ tan (\ alpha) f)),)
and by using the small angle relation tan (a) ≈ a (\ displaystyle \ tan (a) \ approx a), when a < < 1 (\ displaystyle a < < 1) (N.B. only valid if a (\ displaystyle a) is in radians), we obtain
i = α α f = 1 f. (\ displaystyle i = (\ frac (\ alpha) (\ alpha f)) = (\ frac (1) (f)).)
No telescope can form a perfect image. Even if a reflecting telescope could have a perfect mirror, or a refracting telescope could have a perfect lens, the effects of aperture diffraction are unavoidable. In reality, perfect mirrors and perfect lenses do not exist, so image aberrations in addition to aperture diffraction must be taken into account. Image aberrations can be broken down into two main classes, monochromatic, and polychromatic. In 1857, Philipp Ludwig von Seidel (1821 -- 1896) decomposed the first order monochromatic aberrations into five constituent aberrations. They are now commonly referred to as the five Seidel Aberrations.
Optical defects are always listed in the above order, since this expresses their interdependence as first order aberrations via moves of the exit / entrance pupils. The first Seidel aberration, Spherical Aberration, is independent of the position of the exit pupil (as it is the same for axial and extra-axial pencils). The second, coma, changes as a function of pupil distance and spherical aberration, hence the well - known result that it is impossible to correct the coma in a lens free of spherical aberration by simply moving the pupil. Similar dependencies affect the remaining aberrations in the list.
Optical telescopes have been used in astronomical research since the time of their invention in the early 17th century. Many types have been constructed over the years depending on the optical technology, such as refracting and reflecting, the nature of the light or object being imaged, and even where they are placed, such as space telescopes. Some are classified by the task they perform such as Solar telescopes.
Nearly all large research - grade astronomical telescopes are reflectors. Some reasons are:
Most large research reflectors operate at different focal planes, depending on the type and size of the instrument being used. These including the prime focus of the main mirror, the cassegrain focus (light bounced back down behind the primary mirror), and even external to the telescope all together (such as the Nasmyth and coudé focus).
A new era of telescope making was inaugurated by the Multiple Mirror Telescope (MMT), with a mirror composed of six segments synthesizing a mirror of 4.5 meters diameter. This has now been replaced by a single 6.5 m mirror. Its example was followed by the Keck telescopes with 10 m segmented mirrors.
The largest current ground - based telescopes have a primary mirror of between 6 and 11 meters in diameter. In this generation of telescopes, the mirror is usually very thin, and is kept in an optimal shape by an array of actuators (see active optics). This technology has driven new designs for future telescopes with diameters of 30, 50 and even 100 meters.
Relatively cheap, mass - produced ~ 2 meter telescopes have recently been developed and have made a significant impact on astronomy research. These allow many astronomical targets to be monitored continuously, and for large areas of sky to be surveyed. Many are robotic telescopes, computer controlled over the internet (see e.g. the Liverpool Telescope and the Faulkes Telescope North and South), allowing automated follow - up of astronomical events.
Initially the detector used in telescopes was the human eye. Later, the sensitized photographic plate took its place, and the spectrograph was introduced, allowing the gathering of spectral information. After the photographic plate, successive generations of electronic detectors, such as the charge - coupled device (CCDs), have been perfected, each with more sensitivity and resolution, and often with a wider wavelength coverage.
Current research telescopes have several instruments to choose from such as:
The phenomenon of optical diffraction sets a limit to the resolution and image quality that a telescope can achieve, which is the effective area of the Airy disc, which limits how close two such discs can be placed. This absolute limit is called the diffraction limit (and may be approximated by the Rayleigh criterion, Dawes limit or Sparrow 's resolution limit). This limit depends on the wavelength of the studied light (so that the limit for red light comes much earlier than the limit for blue light) and on the diameter of the telescope mirror. This means that a telescope with a certain mirror diameter can theoretically resolve up to a certain limit at a certain wavelength. For conventional telescopes on Earth, the diffraction limit is not relevant for telescopes bigger than about 10 cm. Instead, the seeing, or blur caused by the atmosphere, sets the resolution limit. But in space, or if adaptive optics are used, then reaching the diffraction limit is sometimes possible. At this point, if greater resolution is needed at that wavelength, a wider mirror has to be built or aperture synthesis performed using an array of nearby telescopes.
In recent years, a number of technologies to overcome the distortions caused by atmosphere on ground - based telescopes have been developed, with good results. See adaptive optics, speckle imaging and optical interferometry.
Media related to Optical telescopes at Wikimedia Commons
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where did you come from where are you going | Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? - Wikipedia
"Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? '' is a frequently anthologized short story written by Joyce Carol Oates. The story first appeared in the Fall 1966 edition of Epoch magazine. It was inspired by four Tucson, Arizona murders committed by Charles Schmid, which were profiled in Life magazine in an article written by Don Moser on March 4, 1966. Oates said that she dedicated the story to Bob Dylan because she was inspired to write it after listening to his song "It 's All Over Now, Baby Blue. ''
The story was originally named "Death and the Maiden ''. The main character of Oates ' story is Connie, a beautiful, self - absorbed 15 - year - old girl, who is at odds with her mother -- once a beauty herself -- and with her dutiful, "steady '', and homely older sister. Without her parents ' knowledge, she spends most of her evenings picking up boys at a Big Boy restaurant, and one evening captures the attention of a stranger in a gold convertible covered with cryptic writing. While her parents are away at her aunt 's barbecue, two men pull up in front of Connie 's house and call her out. She recognizes the driver, Arnold Friend, as the man from the drive - in restaurant, and is initially charmed by the smooth - talking, charismatic stranger. He tells Connie he is 18 and has come to take her for a ride in his car with his sidekick Ellie. Connie slowly realizes that he is actually much older, and grows afraid. When she refuses to go with them, Friend becomes more forceful and threatening, saying that he will harm her family, while at the same time appealing to her vanity, saying that she is too good for them. Connie is compelled to leave with him and do what he demands of her.
Considerable academic analysis has been written about the story, with scholars divided on whether it is intended to be taken literally or as allegory. Several writers focus on the series of numbers written on Friend 's car, which he indicates are a code of some sort, but which is never explained:
Literary scholars have interpreted this series of numbers as different Biblical references, as an underlining of Friend 's sexual deviancy, or as a reference to the ages of Friend and his victims.
The narrative has also been viewed as an allegory for initiation into sexual adulthood, an encounter with the devil, a critique of modern youth 's obsession with sexual themes in popular music, or as a dream sequence.
The story was loosely adapted into the 1985 film Smooth Talk, starring Laura Dern and Treat Williams. Oates has written an essay named "Smooth Talk: Short Story into Film '' about the adaptation.
The short story is the inspiration and basis for The Blood Brothers ' song "The Salesman, Denver Max ''.
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when did the british come to new zealand | History of New Zealand - wikipedia
The history of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship links and land. The first European explorer to sight New Zealand was Dutch navigator Abel Tasman on 13 December 1642. The Dutch were also the first non-natives to explore and chart New Zealand 's coastline. Captain James Cook, who reached New Zealand in October 1769 on the first of his three voyages, was the first European explorer to circumnavigate and map New Zealand. From the late 18th century, the country was regularly visited by explorers and other sailors, missionaries, traders and adventurers. In 1840 the Treaty of Waitangi was signed between the British Crown and various Māori chiefs, bringing New Zealand into the British Empire and giving Māori the same rights as British subjects. There was extensive British settlement throughout the rest of the century and into the early part of the next century. War and the imposition of a European economic and legal system led to most of New Zealand 's land passing from Māori to Pākehā (European) ownership, and most Māori subsequently became impoverished.
From the 1890s the New Zealand Parliament enacted a number of progressive initiatives, including women 's suffrage and old age pensions. The country remained an enthusiastic member of the British Empire, and 110,000 men fought in World War I (see New Zealand Expeditionary Force). After the war New Zealand signed the Treaty of Versailles (1919), joined the League of Nations, and pursued an independent foreign policy, while its defence was still controlled by Britain.
When World War II broke out in 1939, New Zealanders contributed to the defence of the British Empire; the country contributed some 120,000 troops. From the 1930s the economy was highly regulated and an extensive welfare state was developed. Meanwhile, Māori culture underwent a renaissance, and from the 1950s Māori began moving to the cities in large numbers. This led to the development of a Māori protest movement which in turn led to greater recognition of the Treaty of Waitangi in the late 20th century.
The country 's economy suffered in the aftermath of the 1973 global energy crisis, the loss of New Zealand 's biggest export market upon Britain 's entry to the European Economic Community, and rampant inflation. In 1984, the Fourth Labour Government was elected amid a constitutional and economic crisis. The interventionist policies of the Third National Government were replaced by "Rogernomics '', a commitment to a free market economy. Foreign policy after 1980 became more independent especially in pushing for a nuclear - free zone. Subsequent governments have generally maintained these policies, although tempering the free market ethos somewhat.
New Zealand was originally settled by Polynesians from Eastern Polynesia. Genetic and archaeological evidence suggests that humans emigrated from Taiwan to Melanesia and then travelled east through to the Society Islands; after a pause of 70 to 265 years, a new wave of exploration led to the discovery and settlement of New Zealand. The most current reliable evidence strongly indicates that initial settlement of New Zealand occurred around 1280 CE. Previous dating of some Kiore (Polynesian rat) bones at 50 -- 150 CE has now been shown to have been unreliable; new samples of bone (and now also of unequivocally rat - gnawed woody seed cases) match the 1280 CE date of the earliest archaeological sites and the beginning of sustained, anthropogenic deforestation.
The descendants of these settlers became known as the Māori, forming a distinct culture of their own. The separate settlement of the tiny Chatham Islands in the east of New Zealand about 1500 CE produced the Moriori; linguistic evidence indicates that the Moriori were mainland Māori who ventured eastward.
The original settlers quickly exploited the abundant large game in New Zealand, such as moa, which were large flightless ratites pushed to extinction by about 1500. As moa and other large game became scarce or extinct, Māori culture underwent major change, with regional differences. In areas where it was possible to grow taro and kūmara, horticulture became more important. This was not possible in the south of the South Island, but wild plants such as fernroot were often available and cabbage trees were harvested and cultivated for food. Warfare also increased in importance, reflecting increased competition for land and other resources. In this period, fortified pā became more common, although there is debate about the actual frequency of warfare. As elsewhere in the Pacific, cannibalism was part of warfare.
Leadership was based on a system of chieftainship, which was often but not always hereditary, although chiefs (male or female) needed to demonstrate leadership abilities to avoid being superseded by more dynamic individuals. The most important units of pre-European Māori society were the whānau or extended family, and the hapū or group of whānau. After these came the iwi or tribe, consisting of groups of hapū. Related hapū would often trade goods and co-operate on major projects, but conflict between hapū was also relatively common. Traditional Māori society preserved history orally through narratives, songs, and chants; skilled experts could recite the tribal genealogies (whakapapa) back for hundreds of years. Arts included whaikōrero (oratory), song composition in multiple genres, dance forms including haka, as well as weaving, highly developed wood carving, and tā moko (tattoo).
New Zealand has no native land mammals (apart from some rare bats) so birds, fish and sea mammals were important sources of protein. Māori cultivated food plants which they had brought with them from Polynesia, including sweet potatoes (called kūmara), taro, gourds, and yams. They also cultivated the cabbage tree, a plant endemic to New Zealand, and exploited wild foods such as fern root, which provided a starchy paste.
The first Europeans known to reach New Zealand were the crew of Dutch explorer Abel Tasman who arrived in his ships Heemskerck and Zeehaen. Tasman anchored at the northern end of the South Island in Golden Bay (he named it Murderers ' Bay) in December 1642 and sailed northward to Tonga following an attack by local Māori. Tasman sketched sections of the two main islands ' west coasts. Tasman called them Staten Landt, after the States General of the Netherlands, and that name appeared on his first maps of the country. In 1645 Dutch cartographers changed the name to Nova Zeelandia in Latin, from Nieuw Zeeland, after the Dutch province of Zeeland. It was subsequently anglicised as New Zealand by British naval captain James Cook of HM Bark Endeavour who visited the islands more than 100 years after Tasman during 1769 -- 1770. Cook returned to New Zealand on both of his subsequent voyages.
Various claims have been made that New Zealand was reached by other non-Polynesian voyagers before Tasman, but these are not widely accepted. Peter Trickett, for example, argues in Beyond Capricorn that the Portuguese explorer Cristóvão de Mendonça reached New Zealand in the 1520s, and the Tamil bell discovered by missionary William Colenso has given rise to a number of theories, but historians generally believe the bell ' is not in itself proof of early Tamil contact with New Zealand '.
From the 1790s, the waters around New Zealand were visited by British, French and American whaling, sealing and trading ships. Their crews traded European goods, including guns and metal tools, for Māori food, water, wood, flax and sex. Māori were reputed to be enthusiastic and canny traders, even though the levels of technology, institutions and property rights differed greatly from the standards in European societies. Although there were some conflicts, such as the killing of French explorer Marc - Joseph Marion du Fresne in 1772 and the destruction of the Boyd in 1809, most contact between Māori and European was peaceful.
European (Pākehā) settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century, with numerous trading stations established, especially in the North Island. Christianity was introduced to New Zealand in 1814 by Samuel Marsden, who travelled to the Bay of Islands where he founded a mission station on behalf of the Church of England 's Church Missionary Society. By 1840 over 20 stations had been established. From missionaries, the Māori learnt not just about Christianity but also about European farming practices and trades, and how to read and write. Beginning in 1820, linguist Samuel Lee worked with Māori chief Hongi Hika to transcribe the Māori language into written form.
The first full - blooded European infant in the territory, Thomas Holloway King, was born on 21 Feb 1815 at the Oihi Mission Station near Hohi Bay in the Bay of Islands. Kerikeri, founded in 1822, and Bluff founded in 1823, both claim to be the oldest European settlements in New Zealand. Many European settlers bought land from Māori, but misunderstanding and different concepts of land ownership led to conflict and bitterness. In 1839, the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in New Zealand. This alarmed the missionaries, who called for British control of European settlers in New Zealand.
The effect of contact on Māori varied. In some inland areas life went on more or less unchanged, although a European metal tool such as a fish - hook or hand axe might be acquired through trade with other tribes. At the other end of the scale, tribes that frequently encountered Europeans, such as Ngāpuhi in Northland, underwent major changes.
Pre-European Māori had no distance weapons except for tao (spears) and the introduction of the musket had an enormous impact on Māori warfare. Tribes with muskets would attack tribes without them, killing or enslaving many. As a result, guns became very valuable and Māori would trade huge quantities of goods for a single musket. From 1805 to 1843 the Musket Wars raged until a new balance of power was achieved after most tribes had acquired muskets. In 1835, the peaceful Moriori of the Chatham Islands were attacked, enslaved, and nearly exterminated by mainland Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama Māori. In the 1901 census, only 35 Moriori were recorded although the numbers subsequently increased.
Around this time, many Māori converted to Christianity. The reasons for this have been hotly debated, and may include social and cultural disruption caused by the Musket Wars and European contact. Other factors may have been the appeal of a religion that promotes peace and forgiveness, a desire to emulate the Europeans and to gain a similar abundance of material goods, and the Māori 's polytheistic culture that easily accepted the new God.
In 1788 the Colony of New South Wales had been founded. According to the future Governor, Captain Arthur Phillip 's amended Commission, dated 25 April 1787 the colony of New South Wales included "all the islands adjacent in the Pacific Ocean within the latitudes of 10 ° 37 'S and 43 ° 39 'S '' which included most of New Zealand except for the southern half of the South Island. In 1825 with Van Diemen 's Land becoming a separate colony, the southern boundary of New South Wales was altered to the islands adjacent in the Pacific Ocean with a southern boundary of 39 ° 12 'S which included only the northern half of the North Island. However, these boundaries had no real impact as the New South Wales administration had little interest in New Zealand.
New Zealand was first mentioned in British statute in the Murders Abroad Act 1817. It made it easier for a court to punish "murders or manslaughters committed in places not within His Majesty 's dominions '', and the Governor of New South Wales was given increased legal authority over New Zealand. The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of New South Wales over New Zealand was initiated in the New South Wales Act 1823, and lesser offences were included at that time. In response to complaints from missionaries, about lawless sailors and adventurers in New Zealand, the British government appointed James Busby as Official Resident in 1832. In 1834 he encouraged Māori chiefs to assert their sovereignty with the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1835. This was acknowledged by King William IV. Busby was provided with neither legal authority nor military support and was thus ineffective in controlling the European population.
In 1839, the New Zealand Company announced its plans to establish colonies in New Zealand. This and the increased commercial interests of merchants in Sydney and London spurred the British to take stronger action. Captain William Hobson was sent to New Zealand to persuade Māori to cede their sovereignty to the British Crown. In reaction to the New Zealand Company 's moves, on 15 June 1839 a new Letters patent was issued to expand the territory of New South Wales to include all of New Zealand. Governor of New South Wales George Gipps was appointed Governor over New Zealand. This was the first clear expression of British intent to annexe New Zealand.
On 6 February 1840, Hobson and about forty Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi at Waitangi in the Bay of Islands. Copies of the Treaty were subsequently taken around the country to be signed by other chiefs. A significant number refused to sign or were not asked but, in total, more than five hundred Māori eventually signed.
The Treaty gave Māori sovereignty over their lands and possessions and all of the rights of British citizens. What it gave the British in return depends on the language - version of the Treaty that is referred to. The English version can be said to give the British Crown sovereignty over New Zealand but in the Māori version the Crown receives kawanatanga, which, arguably, is a lesser power (see interpretations of the Treaty). Dispute over the true meaning and the intent of either party remains an issue.
Britain was motivated by the desire to forestall other European powers (France established a very small settlement at Akaroa in the South Island later in 1840), to facilitate settlement by British subjects and, possibly, to end the lawlessness of European (predominantly British and American) whalers, sealers and traders. Officials and missionaries had their own positions and reputations to protect.
Māori chiefs were motivated by a desire for protection from foreign powers, the establishment of governorship over European settlers and traders in New Zealand, and to allow for wider settlement that would increase trade and prosperity for Māori.
Hobson died in September 1842. Robert FitzRoy, the new governor, took some legal steps to recognise Māori custom. However, his successor, George Grey, promoted rapid cultural assimilation and reduction of the land ownership, influence and rights of the Māori. The practical effect of the Treaty was, in the beginning, only gradually felt, especially in predominantly Māori regions.
At first New Zealand was administered from Australia as part of the colony of New South Wales. On 1 July 1841 New Zealand became a colony in its own right.
British writer Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1796 -- 1862) exerted a far - reaching influence. His plans for systematic British colonisation focused on a free labour system, in contrast to the slavery in the United States and the convict labour in Australia. Inspired by evangelical Christianity and abolitionism, Wakefield 's essays (1829 to 1849), condemned both slavery and indentured and convict labour as immoral, unjust, and inefficient. Instead, he proposed a government sponsored system in which the price of farm land was set at a high enough level to prevent urban workers from easily purchasing it and thus leaving the labour market. His colonisation programmes were over-elaborate and operated on a much smaller scale than he hoped for, but his ideas influenced law and culture, especially his vision for the colony as the embodiment of post-Enlightenment ideals, the notion of New Zealand as a model society, and the sense of fairness in employer - employee relations.
Settlement continued under British plans, inspired by a vision of New Zealand as a new land of opportunity; the Pākehā population grew explosively from fewer than 1000 in 1831 to 500,000 by 1881. Some 400,000 settlers came from Britain, of whom 300,000 stayed permanently. Most were young people and 250,000 babies were born. The passage of 120,000 was paid by the colonial government. After 1880 immigration reduced, and growth was due chiefly to the excess of births over deaths.
In 1846, the British Parliament drafted eleborate plans for a form of self - government for the 13,000 settlers in New Zealand. The new Governor, George Grey, suspended the plans. He argued that the Pākehā could not be trusted to pass laws that would protect the interests of the Māori majority -- already there had been Treaty violations -- and persuaded his political superiors to postpone its introduction for five years.
When the British settlers petititoned for self - government, the British Parliament passed the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, setting up a central government with an elected General Assembly (Parliament) and six provincial governments. The General Assembly did not meet until 24 May 1854, 16 months after the Constitution Act had come into force. Provinces were reorganised in 1846 and in 1853, when they acquired their own legislatures, and then abolished with effect in 1877. The settlers soon won the right to responsible government (with an executive supported by a majority in the elected assembly). But the governor, and through him the Colonial Office in London, retained control of native policy until the mid-1860s.
The Māori tribes at first sold the land to the settlers, but the government voided the sales in 1840. Now only the government was allowed to purchase land from Māori, who received cash. The government bought practically all the useful land, then resold it to the New Zealand Company, which promoted immigration, or leased it for sheep runs. The Company resold the best tracts to British settlers; its profits were used to pay the travel of the immigrants from Britain.
Because of the vast distances involved, the first settlers were self - sufficient farmers. By the 1840s, however, large scale sheep stations were exporting large quantities of wool to the textile mills of England. Most of the early settlers were brought over by a programme operated by the New Zealand Company and were located in the central region on either side of Cook Strait, and at Wellington, Wanganui, New Plymouth and Nelson. These settlements had access to some of the richest plains in the country and after refrigerated ships appeared in 1882, they developed into closely settled regions of small - scale farming. Outside these compact settlements were the sheep runs. Pioneer pastoralists, often men with experience as squatters in Australia, leased lands from the government at the annual rate of £ 5 plus £ 1 for each 1,000 sheep above the first 5,000. The leases were renewed automatically, which gave the wealthy pastoralists a strong landed interest and made them a powerful political force. In all between 1856 and 1876, 8.1 million acres were sold for £ 7.6 million, and 2.2 million acres were given free to soldiers, sailors and settlers. With an economy based on agriculture, the landscape was transformed from forest to farmland.
Gold discoveries in Otago (1861) and Westland (1865), caused a worldwide gold rush that more than doubled the population in a short period, from 71,000 in 1859 to 164,000 in 1863. The value of trade increased fivefold from £ 2 million to £ 10 million. As the gold boom ended Premier Julius Vogel borrowed money from British investors and launched in 1870 an ambitious programme of public works and infrastructure investment, together with a policy of assisted immigration. Successive governments expanded the program with offices across Britain that enticed settlers and gave them and their families one - way tickets.
In the 1870s, the economy lapsed into a long depression as a result of Vogel 's borrowing and the associated debt burden (especially on land). Despite a brief boom in wheat, prices for farm products sagged. The market for land seized up. Hard times led to urban unemployment and sweated labour (exploitative labour conditions) in industry. The country lost people through emigration, mostly to Australia.
Although norms of masculinity were dominant, strong minded women originated a feminist movement starting in the 1860s, well before women gained the right to vote in 1893. Middle class women employed the media (especially newspapers) to communicate with each other and define their priorities. Prominent feminist writers included Mary Taylor, Mary Colclough (pseud. Polly Plum), and Ellen Ellis. The first signs of a politicised collective female identity came in crusades to pass the Contagious Diseases Prevention Act.
Feminists by the 1880s were using the rhetoric of "white slavery '' to reveal men 's sexual and social oppression of women. By demanding that men take responsibility for the right of women to walk the streets in safety, New Zealand feminists deployed the rhetoric of white slavery to argue for women 's sexual and social freedom. Middle class women successfully mobilised to stop prostitution, especially during the First World War.
Māori women developed their own form of feminism, derived from Māori nationalism rather than European sources.
In 1893 Elizabeth Yates was elected mayor of Onehunga, making her the first woman in the British Empire to hold the office. She was an able administrator: she cut the debt, reorganised the fire brigade, and improved the roads and sanitation. Many men were hostile however, and she was defeated for re-election. Hutching argues that after 1890 women were increasingly well organised through the National Council of Women, the Women 's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), the Women 's International League, and the Housewives Union, and others. By 1910 they were campaigning for peace, and against compulsory military training, and conscription. They demanded arbitration and the peaceful resolution of international disputes. The women argued that womenhood (thanks to motherhood) was the repository of superior moral values and concerns and from their domestic experience they knew best how to resolve conflicts.
Prior to 1877 schools were operated by the provincial government, churches, or by private subscription. Education was not a requirement and many children did not attend any school, especially farm children whose labour was important to the family economy. The quality of education provided varied substantially depending on the school. The Education Act of 1877 created New Zealand 's first free national system of primary education, establishing standards that educators should meet, and making education compulsory for children aged 5 to 15.
From 1840 there was considerable European settlement, primarily from England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland; and to a lesser extent the United States, India, China, and various parts of continental Europe, including the province of Dalmatia in what is now Croatia, and Bohemia in what is now the Czech Republic. Already a majority of the population by 1859, the number of Pākehā settlers increased rapidly to reach over one million by 1916.
In the 1870s and 1880s, several thousand Chinese men, mostly from Guangdong, migrated to New Zealand to work on the South Island goldfields. Although the first Chinese migrants had been invited by the Otago Provincial government they quickly became the target of hostility from white settlers and laws were enacted specifically to discourage them from coming to New Zealand.
Māori had welcomed Pākehā for the trading opportunities and guns they brought. However it soon became clear that they had underestimated the number of settlers that would arrive in their lands. Iwi (tribes) whose land was the base of the main settlements quickly lost much of their land and autonomy through government acts. Others prospered -- until about 1860 the city of Auckland bought most of its food from Māori who grew and sold it themselves. Many iwi owned flour mills, ships and other items of European technology, some exported food to Australia for a brief period during the 1850s gold rush. Although race relations were generally peaceful in this period, there were conflicts over who had ultimate power in particular areas -- the Governor or the Māori chiefs. One such conflict was the Northern or Flagstaff War of the 1840s, during which Kororareka was sacked.
As the Pākehā population grew, pressure grew on Māori to sell more land. Land is not only an economic resource, but also one basis of Māori identity and a connection with their ancestor 's bones. Land was used communally, but under the mana of chiefs. In Māori culture there was no such idea as selling land until the arrival of Europeans. The means of acquiring land was to defeat another hapu or iwi in battle and seize their land. Te Rauparaha seized the land of many lower North Island and upper South Island iwi during the musket wars. Land was usually not given up without discussion and consultation. When an iwi was divided over the question of selling this could lead to great difficulties as at Waitara.
Pākehā had little understanding of all that and accused Māori of holding onto land they did not use efficiently. Competition for land was one important cause of the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s and 1870s, in which the Taranaki and Waikato regions were invaded by colonial troops and Māori of these regions had some of their land taken from them. The wars and confiscation left bitterness that remains to this day. After the conclusion of the Land Wars some iwi, especially in the Waikato, such as Ngati Haua sold land freely. However, only the chiefs and their whanau benefited from this income. The 2013 Ngati Haua treaty settlement recognised that many Ngati Haua had not received any benefit from the large payments in the 1870s hence the government was paying compensation.
Some iwi sided with the government and, later, fought with the government. They were motivated partly by the thought that an alliance with the government would benefit them, and partly by old feuds with the iwi they fought against. One result of their co-operation strategy was the establishment of the four Māori electorates in the House of Representatives, in 1867.
After the wars, some Māori began a strategy of passive resistance, most famously at Parihaka in Taranaki. Most, such as NgaPuhi and Arawa continued co-operating with Pākehā. For example, tourism ventures were established by Te Arawa around Rotorua. Resisting and co-operating iwi both found that Pākehā desire for land remained. In the last decades of the century, most iwi lost substantial amounts of land through the activities of the Native Land Court. This was set up to give Māori land European - style titles and to establish exactly who owned it. Due to its Eurocentric rules, the high fees, its location remote from the lands in question, and unfair practices by some Pākehā land agents, its main effect was to allow Māori to sell their land without restraint from other tribal members.
The combination of war, confiscations, disease, assimilation and intermarriage, land loss leading to poor housing and alcohol abuse, and general disillusionment, caused a fall in the Māori population from around 86,000 in 1769 to around 70,000 in 1840 and around 48,000 by 1874, hitting a low point of 42,000 in 1896. Subsequently, their numbers began to recover.
While the North Island was convulsed by the Land Wars, the South Island, with its lower Māori population, was generally peaceful. In 1861 gold was discovered at Gabriel 's Gully in Central Otago, sparking a gold rush. Dunedin became the wealthiest city in the country and many in the South Island resented financing the North Island 's wars. In 1865 Parliament defeated a proposal to make the South Island independent by 17 to 31.
The South Island contained most of the Pākehā population until around 1911 when the North Island again took the lead and has supported an ever - greater majority of the country 's total population through the 20th century and into the 21st.
Scottish immigrants dominated the South Island and evolved ways to bridge the old homeland and the new. Many local Caledonian societies were formed. They organised sports teams to entice the young and preserved an idealised Scottish national myth (based on Robert Burns) for the elderly. They gave Scots a path to assimilation and cultural integration as Scottish New Zealanders.
The pre-war era saw the advent of party politics, with the establishment of the Liberal Government. The landed gentry and aristocracy ruled Britain at this time. New Zealand never had an aristocracy but it did have wealthy landowners who largely controlled politics before 1891. The Liberal Party set out to change that by a policy it called "populism. '' Richard Seddon had proclaimed the goal as early as 1884: "It is the rich and the poor; it is the wealthy and the landowners against the middle and labouring classes. That, Sir, shows the real political position of New Zealand. '' The Liberal strategy was to create a large class of small land - owning farmers who supported Liberal ideals.
To obtain land for farmers the Liberal government from 1891 to 1911 purchased 3.1 million acres of Māori land. The government also purchased 1.3 million acres from large estate holders for subdivision and closer settlement by small farmers. The Advances to Settlers Act of 1894 provided low - interest mortgages, while the Agriculture Department disseminated information on the best farming methods.
The 1909 Native Land Act allowed the Māori to sell land to private buyers. Māori still owned five million acres by 1920; they leased three million acres and used one million acres for themselves. The Liberals proclaimed success in forging an egalitarian, antimonopoly land policy. The policy built up support for the Liberal party in rural North Island electorates. By 1903 the Liberals were so dominant that there was no longer an organised opposition in Parliament.
The Liberal government laid the foundations of the later comprehensive welfare state: introducing old age pensions; maximum hour regulations; pioneering minimum wage laws; and developing a system for settling industrial disputes, which was accepted by both employers and trade unions. In 1893 it extended voting rights to women, making New Zealand the first country in the world to enact universal female suffrage.
New Zealand gained international attention for its reforms, especially how the state regulated labour relations. The impact was especially strong on the reform movement in the United States.
Coleman argues that the Liberals in 1891 lacked a clear - cut ideology to guide them. Instead they approached the nation 's problems pragmatically, keeping in mind the constraints imposed by democratic public opinion. To deal with the issue of land distribution, they worked out innovative solutions to access, tenure, and a graduated tax on unimproved values.
During the 1880s, New Zealand 's economy grew from one based on wool and local trade to the export of wool, cheese, butter and frozen beef and mutton to Britain. The change was enabled by the invention of refrigerated steamships in 1882 and a result of the large market demands overseas. In order to increase production, alongside a more intensive use of factor inputs a transformation of production techniques was necessary. The required capital came mainly from outside of New Zealand. Refrigerated shipping remained the basis of New Zealand 's economy until the 1970s. New Zealand 's highly productive agriculture gave it probably the world 's highest standard of living, with fewer at the rich and poor ends of the scale.
During this era (c. 1880 -- c. 1914) the banking system was weak and there was little foreign investment, so businessmen had to build up their own capital. Historians have debated whether the "long depression '' of the late 19th century stifled investment, but the New Zealanders found a way around adverse conditions. Hunter has studied the experiences of 133 entrepreneurs who started commercial enterprises between 1880 and 1910. The successful strategy was to deploy capital economising techniques, and reinvesting profits rather than borrowing. The result was slow but stable growth that avoided bubbles and led to long - lived family owned firms.
New Zealand initially expressed interest in joining the proposed Federation of the Australian colonies, attending the 1891 National Australia Convention in Sydney. Interest in the proposed Australian Federation faded and New Zealand decided against joining the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. New Zealand instead changed from being a colony to a separate "Dominion '' in 1907, equal in status to Australia and Canada. Dominion status was a public mark of the self - governance that had evolved over half a century through responsible government. Just under one million people lived in New Zealand in 1907 and cities such as Auckland and Wellington were growing rapidly.
In New Zealand, prohibition was a moralistic reform movement begun in the mid-1880s by the Protestant evangelical and Nonconformist churches and the Woman 's Christian Temperance Union and after 1890 by the Prohibition League. It never achieved its goal of national prohibition. It was a middle - class movement which accepted the existing economic and social order; the effort to legislate morality assumed that individual redemption was all that was needed to carry the colony forward from a pioneering society to a more mature one. However, both the Church of England and the largely Irish Catholic Church rejected prohibition as an intrusion of government into the church 's domain, while the growing labour movement saw capitalism rather than alcohol as the enemy. Reformers hoped that the women 's vote, in which New Zealand was a pioneer, would swing the balance, but the women were not as well organised as in other countries. Prohibition had a majority in a national referendum in 1911, but needed a 60 % majority to pass. The movement kept trying in the 1920s, losing three more referenda by close votes; it managed to keep in place a 6 pm closing hour for pubs and Sunday closing (leading to the so - called six o'clock swill). The Depression and war years effectively ended the movement.
The country remained an enthusiastic member of the British Empire, and 110,000 men fought in World War I (see New Zealand Expeditionary Force). 16,688 died. Conscription had been in force since 1909, and while it was opposed in peacetime there was less opposition during the war. The labour movement was pacifistic, opposed the war, and alleged that the rich were benefitting at the expense of the workers. It formed the New Zealand Labour Party in 1916. Māori tribes that had been close to the government sent their young men to volunteer. Unlike in Britain, relatively few women became involved. Women did serve as nurses; 640 joined the services and 500 went overseas.
New Zealand forces captured Western Samoa from Germany in the early stages of the war, and New Zealand administered the country until Samoan Independence in 1962. However Samoans greatly resented the imperialism, and blamed inflation and the catastrophic 1918 flu epidemic on New Zealand rule.
The heroism of the soldiers in the failed Gallipoli Campaign made their sacrifices iconic in New Zealand memory, and is often credited with securing the psychological independence of the nation.
After the war New Zealand signed the Treaty of Versailles (1919), joined the League of Nations and pursued an independent foreign policy, while its defence was still controlled by Britain. New Zealand depended on Britain 's Royal Navy for its military security during the 1920s and 1930s. Officials in Wellington trusted Conservative Party governments in London, but not Labour. When the British Labour Party took power in 1924 and 1929, the New Zealand government felt threatened by Labour 's foreign policy because of its reliance upon the League of Nations. The League was distrusted and Wellington did not expect to see the coming of a peaceful world order under League auspices. What had been the Empire 's most loyal dominion became a dissenter as it opposed efforts the first and second British Labour governments to trust the League 's framework of arbitration and collective security agreements.
The governments of the Reform and United parties between 1912 and 1935 followed a "realistic '' foreign policy. They made national security a high priority, were sceptical of international institutions, and showed no interest on the questions of self - determination, democracy, and human rights. However the opposition Labour Party was more idealistic and proposed a liberal internationalist outlook on international affairs.
The Labour Party emerged as a force in 1919 with a socialist platform. It won about 25 % of the vote. However its appeals to working class solidarity were not effective because a large fraction of the working class voted for conservative candidates of the Liberal and Reform parties. (They merged in 1936 to form the New Zealand National Party.) As a consequence the Labour party was able to jettison its support for socialism in 1927 (a policy made official in 1951), as it expanded its reach into middle class constituencies. The result was a jump in strength to 35 % in 1931, 47 % in 1935, and peaking at 56 % in 1938. From 1935 the First Labour Government showed a limited degree of idealism in foreign policy, for example opposing the appeasement of Germany and Japan.
Like most other countries, New Zealand was hard hit by the Great Depression of the 1930s, which affected the country via its international trade, with farming export drops then going on to affect the money supply and in turn consumption, investment and imports. The country was most affected around 1930 -- 1932, when average farm incomes for a short time dipped below zero, and the unemployment rates peaked. Though actual unemployment numbers were not officially counted, the country was affected especially strongly in the North Island.
Unlike later years, there were no public benefit (' dole ') payments -- the unemployed were given ' relief work ', much of which was however not very productive, partly because the size of the problem was unprecedented. Women also increasingly registered as unemployed, while Māori received government help through other channels such as the land development schemes organised by Āpirana Ngata. In 1933, 8.5 % of the unemployed were organised in work camps, while the rest received work close to their homes. Typical occupations in relief work were road work (undertaken by 45 % of all part - time and 19 % of all full - time relief workers in 1934, with park improvement works (17 %) and farm work (31 %) being the other two most common types of work for part - time and full - time relief workers respectively).
Attempts by the United - Reform Coalition to deal with the situation with spending cuts and relief work were ineffective and unpopular. In 1935, the First Labour Government was elected, and the post-depression decade showed that average Labour support in New Zealand had roughly doubled comparable to pre-depression times. By 1935 economic conditions had improved somewhat, and the new government had more positive financial conditions. Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaimed that: "Social Justice must be the guiding principle and economic organization must adapt itself to social needs. ''
The new government quickly set about implementing a number of significant reforms, including a reorganisation of the social welfare system and the creation of the state housing scheme. Labour also gained Māori votes by working closely with the Rātana movement. Savage was idolised by the working classes, and his portrait hung on the walls of many houses around the country. The newly created welfare state promised government support to individuals "from the cradle to the grave '', according to the Labour slogan. It included free health care and education, and state assistance for the elderly, infirm, and unemployed. The opposition attacked the Labour Party 's more left - wing policies, and accused it of undermining free enterprise and hard work. The Reform Party and the United Party merged to become the National Party, and would be Labour 's main rival in future years. However the welfare state system was retained and expanded by successive National and Labour governments until the 1980s.
When World War II broke out in 1939, New Zealanders saw their proper role as defending their proud place in the British Empire. It contributed some 120,000 troops. They mostly fought in North Africa, Greece / Crete, and Italy, relying on the Royal Navy and later the United States to protect New Zealand from the Japanese forces. Japan had no interest in New Zealand in the first place; it had already over-reached when it invaded New Guinea in 1942. (There were a few highly publicised but ineffective Japanese scouting incursions.) The 3rd New Zealand Division fought in the Solomons in 1943 -- 44, but New Zealand 's limited manpower meant 2 Divisions could not be maintained, and it was disbanded and its men returned to civilian life or used to reinforce the 2nd Division in Italy. The armed forces peaked at 157,000 in September 1942; 135,000 served abroad, and 10,100 died.
New Zealand, with a population of 1.7 million, including 99,000 Māori, was highly mobilised during the war. The Labour party was in power and promoted unionisation and the welfare state. Agriculture expanded, sending record supplies of meat, butter and wool to Britain. When American forces arrived, they were fed as well.
The nation spent £ 574 million on the war, of which 43 % came from taxes, 41 % from loans and 16 % from American Lend Lease. It was an era of prosperity as the national income soared from £ 158 million in 1937 to £ 292 million in 1944. Rationing and price controls kept inflation to only 14 % during 1939 -- 45.
Over £ 50 million was spent on defence works and military accommodation and hospitals, including 292 mi (470 km) of roads.
Montgomerie shows that the war dramatically increased the roles of women, especially married women, in the labour force. Most of them took traditional female jobs. Some replaced men but the changes here were temporary and reversed in 1945. After the war, women left traditional male occupations and many women gave up paid employment to return home. There was no radical change in gender roles but the war intensified occupational trends under way since the 1920s.
Labour remained in power after the Second World War and in 1945, Labour Prime Minister Peter Fraser played an important role in the establishment of the United Nations, of which New Zealand was a founding member. However, domestically Labour had lost the reforming zeal of the 1930s and its electoral support ebbed after the war. After Labour lost power in 1949, the conservative National Party began an almost continuous thirty - year stint in government, interrupted by single - term Labour governments in 1957 to 60 and 1972 to 75. National Prime Minister Sidney Holland called a snap election as a result of the 1951 waterfront dispute, an incident that reinforced National 's dominance and severely weakened the union movement.
Cooperation with the United States set a direction of policy which resulted in the ANZUS Treaty between New Zealand, America and Australia in 1951, as well as participation in the Korean War.
Fedorowich and Bridge argue that the demands of the Second World War produced long - term consequences for New Zealand 's relationship with the government in London. The key component was the office of the high commissioner. By 1950 it was the main line of communications between the British and New Zealand governments.
1950s New Zealand culture was deeply British and conservative, with the concept of "fairness '' holding a central role. New immigrants, still mainly British, flooded in while New Zealand remained prosperous by exporting farm products to Britain. In 1953 New Zealanders took pride that a countryman, Edmund Hillary, gave Queen Elizabeth II a coronation gift by reaching the summit of Mount Everest.
From the 1890s, the economy had been based almost entirely on the export of frozen meat and dairy products to Britain, and in 1961, the share of New Zealand exports going to the United Kingdom was still at slightly over 51 %, with approximately 15 % more going to other European countries. The 1960s was a decade of rising prosperity for most New Zealanders, but from 1965 there were also protests -- in support of women 's rights and the nascent ecological movement, and against the Vietnam War. Irrespective of political developments, many New Zealanders still perceived themselves as a distinctive outlying branch of the United Kingdom until at least the 1970s. In 1973 Britain joined the European Community and abrogated its preferential trade agreements with New Zealand (see below), forcing New Zealand to not only find new markets, but also re-examine its national identity and place in the world.
Māori always had a high birth rate; that was neutralised by a high death rate until modern public health measures became effective in the 20th century when tuberculosis deaths and infant mortality declined sharply. Life expectancy grew from 49 years in 1926 to 60 years in 1961 and the total numbers grew rapidly. Many Māori served in the Second World War and learned how to cope in the modern urban world; others moved from their rural homes to the cities to take up jobs vacated by Pākehā servicemen. The shift to the cities was also caused by their strong birth rates in the early 20th century, with the existing rural farms in Māori ownership having increasing difficulty in providing enough jobs. Māori culture had meanwhile undergone a renaissance thanks in part to politician Āpirana Ngata. By the 1980s 80 % of the Māori population was urban, in contrast to only 20 % before the Second World War. The migration led to better pay, higher standards of living and longer schooling, but also exposed problems of racism and discrimination. By the late 1960s a protest movement had emerged to combat racism, promote Māori culture and seek fulfilment of the Treaty of Waitangi.
Urbanisation proceeded rapidly across the land. In the late 1940s, town planners noted that the country was "possibly the third most urbanised country in the world '', with two - thirds of the population living in cities or towns. There was also increasing concern that this trend was badly managed, with it being noted that there was an "ill - defined urban pattern that appears to have few of the truly desirable urban qualities and yet manifests no compensating rural characteristics. ''
The country 's economy suffered in the aftermath of the 1973 global energy crisis, the loss of New Zealand 's biggest export market upon Britain 's entry to the European Economic Community, and rampant inflation. Robert Muldoon, Prime Minister from 1975 to 1984, and his Third National Government responded to the crises of the 1970s by attempting to preserve the New Zealand of the 1950s. He attempted to maintain New Zealand 's "cradle to the grave '' welfare state, which dated to 1935. His government sought to give retirees 80 % of the current wage, which would require large - scale borrowing; critics said it would bankrupt the treasury. Muldoon 's response to the crisis also involved imposing a total freeze on wages, prices, interest rates and dividends across the national economy.
Muldoon 's conservatism and antagonistic style exacerbated an atmosphere of conflict in New Zealand, most violently expressed during the 1981 Springbok Tour. In the 1984 elections Labour promised to calm down the increasing tensions, while making no specific promises; it scored a landslide victory.
However, Muldoon 's government was not entirely backward looking. Some innovations did take place, for example the Closer Economic Relations (CER) free - trade programme with Australia to liberalise trade, starting in 1982. The aim of total free trade between the two countries was achieved in 1990, five years ahead of schedule.
In 1984, the Fourth Labour Government, led by David Lange, was elected amid a constitutional and economic crisis. The crisis led the incoming government to review New Zealand 's constitutional structures, which resulted in the Constitution Act 1986. In power from 1984 to 1990, the Labour government launched a major policy of restructuring the economy, radically reducing the role of government. A political scientist reports:
"Between 1984 and 1993, New Zealand underwent radical economic reform, moving from what had probably been the most protected, regulated and state - dominated system of any capitalist democracy to an extreme position at the open, competitive, free - market end of the spectrum. ''
The economic reforms were led by finance minister Roger Douglas (1984 -- 1988). Dubbed Rogernomics, it was a rapid programme of deregulation and public - asset sales. Subsidies were phased out to farmers and consumers. High finance was partly deregulated. Restrictions on foreign exchange were relaxed and the dollar was allowed to float and seek its natural level on the world market. The tax on high incomes was cut in half from 65 % to 33 %. The shares exchange entered a bubble, which then burst. Shares had a total value of $50 billion in 1987 and only $15 billion in 1991; at one point the crash was "the worst in world. '' Overall the economic growth fell from 2 % a year to 1 %. Douglas 's reforms resembled the contemporaneous policies of Margaret Thatcher in Britain and Ronald Reagan in the United States.
Strong criticism of Rogernomics came from the left, especially from Labour 's traditional trade union support - base; Lange broke with Douglas 's policies in 1987; both men were forced out and Labour was in confusion.
In keeping with the mood of the 1980s the government sponsored liberal policies and initiatives in a number of social areas; this included Homosexual Law Reform, the introduction of ' no - fault divorce ', reduction in the gender pay gap and the drafting of a Bill of Rights. Immigration policy was liberalised, allowing an influx of immigrants from Asia; previously most immigrants to New Zealand had been European and especially British.
The Fourth Labour Government also revolutionised New Zealand 's foreign policy, making the country a nuclear - free zone and effectively leaving the ANZUS alliance. The French intelligence service 's sinking of the Rainbow Warror, and the diplomatic ramifications following the incident, did much to promote the anti-nuclear stance as an important symbol of New Zealand 's national identity.
Voters unhappy with the rapid speed and far - reaching extent of reforms elected a National government in 1990, led by Jim Bolger. However the new government continued the economic reforms of the previous Labour government, in what was known as Ruthanasia. Unhappy with what seemed to be a pattern of governments failing to reflect the mood of the electorate, New Zealanders in 1992 and 1993 voted to change the electoral system to mixed - member proportional (MMP), a form of proportional representation. New Zealand 's first MMP election was held in 1996. Following the election National was returned to power in coalition with the New Zealand First Party.
With the end of the Cold War in 1991, the nation 's foreign policy turned increasingly to issues of its nuclear - free status and other military issues; its adjustment to neoliberalism in international trade relations; and its involvement in humanitarian, environmental, and other matters of international diplomacy.
The Fifth Labour Government led by Helen Clark was elected in 1999. In power for nine years, it maintained most of the previous governments ' economic reforms -- restricting government intervention in the economy much more so than previous governments -- while putting more of an emphasis on social policy and outcomes. For example, employment law was modified to give more protection to workers, and the student loan system was changed to eliminate interest payments for New Zealand resident students and graduates.
New Zealand retains strong but informal links to Britain, with many young New Zealanders travelling to Britain for their "OE '' (overseas experience) due to favourable working visa arrangements with Britain. Despite New Zealand 's immigration liberalisation in the 1980s, Britons are still the largest group of migrants to New Zealand, due in part to recent immigration law changes which privilege fluent speakers of English. One constitutional link to Britain remains -- New Zealand 's head of State, the Queen in Right of New Zealand, is a British resident. However, British imperial honours were discontinued in 1996, the Governor - General has taken a more active role in representing New Zealand overseas, and appeals from the Court of Appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council were replaced by a local Supreme Court of New Zealand in 2003. There is public debate about whether New Zealand should became a republic, and public sentiment is divided on the issue.
Foreign policy has been essentially independent since the mid-1980s. Under Prime Minister Clark, foreign policy reflected the priorities of liberal internationalism. She stressed the promotion of democracy and human rights; the strengthening of the role of the United Nations; the advancement of anti-militarism and disarmament; and the encouragement of free trade. She sent troops to the War in Afghanistan, but did not contribute combat troops to the Iraq War although some medical and engineering units were sent.
John Key led the National Party to victory in the November 2008. Key became Prime Minister of the Fifth National Government which entered government at the beginning of the late - 2000s recession. In February 2011, a major earthquake in Christchurch, the nation 's second largest city, significantly impacted the national economy and the government formed the Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority in response. In foreign policy, Key announced the withdrawal of New Zealand Defence Force personnel from their deployment in the war in Afghanistan, signed the Wellington Declaration with the United States and has pushed for more nations to join the Trans - Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership.
Tourism and agriculture are now the major industries that contribute to New Zealand 's economy. The traditional agricultural products of meat, dairy and wool has been supplemented by other products such as fruit, wine and timber as the economy has diversified.
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who said the greatest thing you'll ever learn | Nature Boy - wikipedia
"Nature Boy '' is a song first recorded by American jazz singer Nat King Cole. It was released on March 29, 1948, as a single by Capitol Records, and later appeared on the album, The Nat King Cole Story. The song was written in 1947 by eden ahbez and is partly autobiographical. It is a tribute to ahbez 's mentor Bill Pester, who had originally introduced him to Naturmensch and Lebensreform philosophies, which ahbez practised. When Cole was performing in 1947 at the Lincoln Theater, ahbez wanted to present the song to him, but was ignored. He left the copy with Cole 's valet, and from him the singer came to know of "Nature Boy ''. After receiving appreciation for his performance of the song, Cole wanted to record it.
The recording took place on August 22, 1947, and featured an orchestra conducted by Frank De Vol -- the in - house arranger of Capitol Records. He used strings and flute as instrumentation in the song, to capture the "enchanting '' vibe of the track. The lyrics are a self - portrait of ahbez and his life. The final line -- "The greatest thing you 'll ever learn, Is just to love and be loved in return '' -- is considered a poignant moment in the song, with multiple interpretations of it. "Nature Boy '' was released amidst the American Federation of Musicians (AFM) ban of 1948, but became commercially successful, reaching the top of the Billboard music charts and selling over a million copies. Receiving critical acclaim also, "Nature Boy '' helped to introduce Cole to a wider audience, especially the white music market, and generated royalties for ahbez. In 1999, the song was awarded the Grammy Hall of Fame Award. However, "Nature Boy '' was also the subject of lawsuits, with Yiddish composer Herman Yablokoff claiming that it was plagiarized from his song "Shvayg mayn harts '' ("Hush My Heart ''), which he wrote for his play Papirosn (1935). In the end, ahbez and Yablokoff settled out of court.
Following Cole 's success with the song, rival record companies released cover versions of "Nature Boy '' by other artists like Frank Sinatra and Sarah Vaughan, which were also successful. It ultimately became a pop and jazz standard, with many artists interpreting the song, including Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga, who recorded it for their jazz collaborative album, Cheek to Cheek (2014). It was also used in numerous films like The Boy with Green Hair, The Talented Mr. Ripley, and the 2001 musical Moulin Rouge!, for which singer David Bowie recorded a techno version.
In 1941, a 33 - year - old George McGrew arrived in Los Angeles and began playing piano in the Eutropheon, a small health food store and raw food restaurant on Laurel Canyon Boulevard. The café was owned by John and Vera Richter, who followed a Naturmensch and Lebensreform philosophy influenced by the Wandervogel movement in Germany. Their followers, known as "Nature Boys '', wore long hair and beards and ate only raw fruits and vegetables. McGrew adopted the philosophy and chose the name "eden ahbez '', writing and spelling his name with lower - case letters. It was there, while living in a cave near Palm Springs, that ahbez wrote "Nature Boy ''. Partly autobiographical, the song was a tribute to his mentor Bill Pester, who had originally introduced him to Naturmensch and Lebensreform.
In 1947, at the prompting of Cowboy Jack Patton and Johnny Mercer, ahbez approached Nat King Cole 's manager backstage at the Lincoln Theater in Los Angeles, handed him a tattered copy of "Nature Boy '', and asked him to show it to Cole. However, his pleas were ignored and a disappointed ahbez left the sheet music of "Nature Boy '' with Cole 's valet, Otis Pollard. From him, Cole came to know of the song and loved it. Cole began playing "Nature Boy '' for live audiences, and he received much acclaim. Irving Berlin, who was present during one of the performances, initially offered to buy the track from Cole, but Cole decided to record it for himself. He needed to get permission from ahbez, however, before releasing it as a single, but he was not able to find the songwriter since ahbez had disappeared without providing any contact details. After ahbez was discovered living under the Hollywood Sign, Cole got his permission and recorded the song.
Cole 's recording, which took place on August 22, 1947, featured an orchestra conducted by Frank De Vol -- the in - house arranger of Capitol Records. He used strings and flute as instrumentation in the song, to capture the "enchanting '' vibe of the track. The first two measures of the song 's melody parallel the melody of the second movement in composer Antonín Dvořák 's Piano Quintet No. 2 (1887). Written as a pop ballad, "Nature Boy '' follows an "A, B '' format, with the primary three notes descending on a minor triad above the pickup note. An ascending line over the diminished ii chord returns to the initial minor triad. The harmonic structure makes frequent use of the standard ii -- V -- I progression in the key of D minor. The second 4 - bar section featured a chromatic descending line based on the lowering of the tonic (Dm -- Dm -- Dm -- Dm). The same descending line then continues through Gm -- Dm, then finally ending with a whole - step down to the G in the chord Em ♭.
The lyrics of the song relate to a 1940s Los Angeles - based group called "Nature Boys '', a subculture of proto - hippies of which ahbez was a member. Instrumentalist Chris Tyle noted that the lyrics are a musical self - portrait of ahbez, with the lines like "There was a boy, A very strange, enchanted boy, They say he wandered very far, Very far, over land and sea ''. But he believed that it was the song 's last line that made it the most poignant: "The greatest thing you 'll ever learn, Is just to love and be loved in return ''. Various interpretations of the line are given by academics, with the eponymous nature boy being a child, advising on love and relationship, or an adult hippie talking about his journey and inner - love. According to author Jeffrey P. Dennis, the song presented a homo - romantic theme, with the eponymous nature boy visiting Cole on a "magic day '' and explaining that "the greatest thing you 'll ever learn, is just to love and be loved in return ''. Author Raymond Knapp described the track as a "mystically charged vagabond song '' whose lyrics evoked an intense sense of loss and haplessness, with the final line delivering a universal truth, described by Knapp as "indestructible '' and "salvaged somehow from the perilous journey of life ''.
According to Joe Romersa, an engineer / drummer in Los Angeles, whom ahbez bequeathed with master tapes, photos, and final works, ahbez wanted a correction made to the lyrics saying "To be loved in return, is too much of a deal, and there 's no deal in love. '', and that instead it should read "The greatest thing you 'll ever learn is to love and be loved, just to love, and be loved. '' Romersa has stated that because these lyrics did not fit with the original ending melody, ahbez re-wrote it.
In 1948, a second "Petrillo ban '' on music recording was enforced by American Federation of Musicians (AFM) in response to the Taft -- Hartley Act. Capitol Records was desperate to release something for sustaining any profit, and ultimately released "Nature Boy '' as a single on March 29, 1948, with catalog number 15054. Crestview Music, which owned publishing right for Cole 's songs, sold the rights for "Nature Boy '' to Burke - Van Heusen, who acted as distributor and selling agent. The record debuted on the Billboard charts of April 16, 1948, and stayed there for 15 weeks, ultimately peaking at number one. It also reached a peak of number two on the R&B charts. "Nature Boy '' went on to sell a million copies in 1948 and Billboard DJs listed it as the greatest record of the year, with the song accumulating a total of 743 points. The 1940s, American music market was divided by race and for a black artist to cross over to mainstream pop music was difficult. Author Krin Gabbard noted in his book Jammin ' at the Margins: Jazz and the American Cinema that Cole had to wear white makeup while filming for the performance of the song. Although he had come into prominence in 1930 as a leader of the jazz trio named King Cole Trio, it was with "Nature Boy '' that he received widespread recognition, and it was his rendition that appealed to the white audience. Cole would later use the success of the song to cancel the trio and pursue a solo recording career; he later described "Nature Boy '' as one of his favorites among his recordings. The success of the song allowed ahbez to accumulate about US $20,000 ($203,712 in 2017 dollars) in royalty. However, Billboard reported that ahbez kept only 50 % of the royalty for himself, and distributed the rest among people who had helped him in bringing the song to limelight. About 25 % was shared with Mrs. Loraine Tatum for helping him with the lyrics and the rest with Pollard, for bringing the song to Cole 's notice.
"Nature Boy '' has received wide acclaim from critics and contemporary reviewers. Author Ted Gioia noted in his book, The Jazz Standards: A Guide to the Repertoire, that all the musicians "who had created the golden age of American popular song had their quirks and idiosyncrasies, but eden ahbez demands pride and place as the most eccentric of them all ''. He added that along with promoting the hippie culture, with "Nature Boy '', ahbez and Cole was able to introduce a new era of black artists in white popular music. In his book Sinatra! the Song is You: A Singer 's Art, author Will Friedwald complimented Cole 's version, saying that it had been the "startingly fresh '' combination of the singer 's vocals along with the string section, which had made "Nature Boy '' a hit. Stephen Cook from AllMusic said that the song transformed Cole into "one of the most famous and beloved pop singing stars of the postwar years. '' Billboard noted that such was the popularity of the song that audiences would only stay in theaters to see Cole perform "Nature Boy '', and leave once he finished. A 1975 poll by the magazine listed it as the "Greatest All - Round Record '' as well as the "Favorite Pop Recording '' of the previous years. In 1999, the song was awarded the Grammy Hall of Fame, a special Grammy Award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least twenty - five years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance ''. Steve Erickson from Los Angeles magazine gave a detailed positive review of the song:
"Nature Boy '' is so otherworldly in its melody and lyric that any number of interpretations over the decades, from Nat Cole 's to Alex Chilton 's, have never been able to make it ordinary. It sounds like something that, from the minute it was written, existed out of time and place -- all thousand and one Arabian Nights compressed into two and a half minutes as mediated by a cracked Mojave Debussy slugging down the last of the absinthe from his canteen.
Yiddish theatre composer Herman Yablokoff claimed in his biography, Memoirs of the Yiddish Stage, that the melody to "Nature Boy '' was plagiarized from his song "Shvayg mayn harts '' ("Hush My Heart ''), which he wrote for his play Papirosn (1935). When met with a lawsuit in 1951 for the plagiarization, ahbez first proclaimed his innocence, and telephoned Yablokoff to explain that he "had heard the melody as if angels were singing it... in the California mountains. He offered me $10,000 to withdraw the suit. I said that the money was not important, but I wanted him to admit that the song was geganvet (stolen); and if he heard angels, they must have bought a copy of my song. '' Eventually ahbez 's lawyers offered to have an out - of - court settlement, offering $25,000 ($235,705 in 2017 dollars) to Yablokoff, which he accepted. Freidwald remarked that "it struck no one as ironic that a song with message of love and peace should come to symbolize how cutthroat the pop music business was becoming ''.
The success of "Nature Boy '' soon led to the release of a number of cover versions of the track. However, due to the AFM ban, other record companies could not release full versions with strings, only a cappella tracks. Following Cole 's version of "Nature Boy '', the Dick Haymes recording was released by Decca Records as catalog number 24439. The record first appeared on the Billboard charts on June 4, 1948, and peaked at number 11.
Frank Sinatra also recorded a musicianless version, which was his only recording during the ban. Sinatra 's version of "Nature Boy '' replaced the string sounds of the original recording with a choir conducted by Jeff Alexander, which, according to Friedwald, made the song sound like a Gregorian chant. The recording was released by Columbia Records as catalog number 38210. It debuted on the Billboard charts on May 28, 1948, and peaked at number seven. Sinatra later performed the song on the radio show, Your Hit Parade, accompanied by a choir and orchestral arrangement. RCA Records planned to release versions by singers Perry Como and Bing Crosby, but they were subsequently cancelled due to the ban. Musicraft Records released Sarah Vaughan 's a cappella version on April 8, 1948. It was a commercial success, selling 20,000 copies on the first day and peaking at number 11 on the Billboard chart. A parody named "Serutan Yob '' was recorded by The Unnatural Seven, an offshoot of Red Ingle and his Natural Seven that did not include Ingle due to the 1948 AFM recording ban. "Serutan Yob '' featured vocals from Karen Tedder and Los Angeles DJ Jim Hawthorne. It was released by Capitol with catalog number 15210, reached the Billboard charts on October 1, 1948, and stayed there for a total of four weeks, peaking at number 24.
In 1955, Miles Davis recorded the song with Charles Mingus as bassist. The recording for the song was filled with tension due to an ongoing conflict between Davis and Mingus, resulting in a charged version of the song. They were assisted by Teddy Charles on vibraphone and Elvin Jones on drums. Another version was recorded by singer Bobby Darin, released in 1961. A psychedelic rock version was recorded in 1965 by 1960s San Francisco rock band The Great Society, with lead vocals from singer Grace Slick, released on their 1968 post-breakup album How it Was. Same year, Marvin Gaye recorded and released his version on the Cole tribute album, A Tribute to the Great Nat "King '' Cole. Peggy Lee 's version of "Nature Boy '' was recorded in 1948, but released in 1995 as part of the compilation album, Why Do n't You Do Right? Peggy Lee, 1947 -- 1948. Abbey Lincoln recorded a version of the song for her 1995 album A Turtle 's Dream. Howard Reich from Chicago Tribune was impressed with the cover saying that "the mood of reverie and awe (that Lincoln) expresses in ' Nature Boy ' epitomize this album 's haunting appeal. ''
Celine Dion performed the song as part of her A New Day... concert at Caesars Palace. The song appeared on her 2002 studio album, A New Day Has Come, and on her 2004 live album, A New Day... Live in Las Vegas. Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic said that the decision to include "Nature Boy '' in A New Day Has Come was inspired by the song 's appearance in Baz Luhrmann 's musical, Moulin Rouge! (2001). With Billboard, Dion expressed her feelings while recording the track: "This is the one I had the most kick out of in the studio. I could hear the pedal of the piano and the touch of the keys while I was singing. We were following each other, this is the real thing. This was such my pleasure. '' Initially strings and other instrumentation were added in post-production, but were later removed to maintain the simplicity of Cole 's version.
Aaron Neville 's interpretation of the track was released in 2003 on his jazz standard album, titled Nature Boy: The Jazz Album. That year in December, Harry Connick, Jr. released a holiday themed rendition of "Nature Boy '', on his holiday album, Harry for the Holidays. At the tenth season of American Idol, contestant Casey Abrams presented a jazz version of the song, which was received with a standing ovation from the audience, but faced criticism from the media for the "strange '' musical arrangements.
After recording the jazz standard "The Lady Is a Tramp '', American singer Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga began working on a collaborative jazz album, titled Cheek to Cheek. The recording took place over a year in New York City, and featured jazz musicians associated with both artists. Bennett 's quartet was present, including Mike Renzi, Gray Sargent, Harold Jones and Marshall Wood as well as pianist Tom Lanier. Along with Evans, jazz trumpeter Brian Newman, a long - time friend and colleague of Gaga, played on the album with his New York City based jazz quintet. Tenor saxophonist Joe Lovano and flautist Paul Horn were also enlisted as musicians. The songs were handpicked by Bennett and Gaga; they selected tracks from the Great American Songbook including "Nature Boy ''. It features instrumentation from flutes and drums, and has an orchestral arrangement. According to Kory Grow of Rolling Stone, Gaga sings in a Liza Minnelli inspired voice with a breathy range, followed by Bennett complimenting her with the story of meeting the titular character.
"Nature Boy '' was released for streaming on Gaga 's Vevo channel from September 16, 2014. Preceding the release, Gaga tweeted about the background of the song, about the death of flautist Horn, as well as about ahbez, saying "This composer was part of a sub-culture of nomadic hippies! We channeled our own Gypsy lives in this performance ''. Gil Kaufman from MTV News gave a positive review, saying that "This song sounds like what you imagine a smoky jazz club in 1940s New York would feel like. '' Grow praised it as "sublime '', describing the track as a "loungier '' version Gaga and Bennett 's collaboration. Dave Lewis from HitFix believed that the "magic '' of the song really happened once Bennett 's vocals were heard, following Gaga 's singing and the orchestration. Lewis said that "It 's not exactly ' Do What You Want with My Body ', but Gaga and Bennett generate a different kind of heat. '' Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian said that the song was "treated with the greatest delicacy ''. He praised the flute sounds and the contrast between Gaga 's "vulnerable '' vocals and Bennett 's "assured '' one. Alexa Camp from Slant Magazine gave a negative review, saying that her timbre in "Nature Boy '' appeared inconsistent, "shifting from soft and almost pleasant to parodic and comical, often within just a few short bars. '' "Nature Boy '' debuted on the Billboard Trending 140 Chart at number five and within a few hours, rose to number one. It also debuted at number 22 on the Billboard Jazz Digital Songs chart. In Russia, it peaked at number 259 on the official Tophit airplay chart.
The song was a primary theme of the film score for The Boy with Green Hair (1948), for which the original version was used. The producers of the film reportedly paid $10,000 to ahbez for using the song, which was cumulatively more than what the author of the story, Betsy Beaton, was paid. A recording by Kate Ceberano was featured in the film The Crossing (1990). The tune and lyrics feature prominently in the film Untamed Heart (1993), for which Cole 's version was used during the closing credits, while a piano version by Roger Williams served as the opener for the film. The song was also played in intermediate scenes featuring the principal cast.
Miles Davis ' recording of "Nature Boy '' was used in the film The Talented Mr. Ripley (1999). In the book Music, Movies, Meanings, and Markets: Cinemajazzamatazz, author Morris Holbrook described the song as a "nondiegetic performance '', exemplifying the plot development and sexual tension in the scene featuring Matt Damon and Jude Law play chess, naked and later in a bathtub scene. The song is performed at a jazz club in the film Angel Eyes, (2001). A version recorded by Jon Hassell on trumpet and Ronu Majumdar on flute is featured on the soundtrack. The writing of "Nature Boy '' was the theme of a 2000 Canadian TV film of the same title, directed by Kari Skogland. Callum Keith Rennie played ahbez, writing the song for Cole, played by Terence Carson, after falling in love with a woman named Anna Jacobs, portrayed by Tanya Allen.
The song was a central theme in Luhrmann 's Moulin Rouge! "Nature Boy '' was initially arranged as a techno song with singer David Bowie 's vocals, before being sent to the group Massive Attack, whose remix was used in the film 's closing credits. Bowie described the rendition as "slinky and mysterious '', adding that Robert ' 3D ' Del Naja from the group had "put together a riveting piece of work, '' and that Bowie was "totally pleased with the end result. '' Both Bowie 's version and Massive Attack 's remix appeared on the soundtrack. The version used in Moulin Rouge! was sung by John Leguizamo, as Henri de Toulouse - Lautrec, during the introductory scenes, as well as by Ewan McGregor 's character, Christian. Some of the film 's premise was based on the lyrics, in particular the opening lines. The closing lyric, "The greatest thing you 'll ever learn is just to love and be loved in return '' is used throughout the film. While reviewing Moulin Rouge!, Erickson noted that "(by) itself, (' Nature Boy ') redeems the wonderful idea behind Luhrmann 's flawed but often wonderful movie. ''
The song was performed by Rodrigo Santoro in the film Heleno (2012), during the radio interview when he asks if he could sing a song for his wife and son. Cole 's version was again played at the start of Mike Tyson 's one - man show, Mike Tyson: Undisputed Truth, directed by Spike Lee that aired on HBO. On December 25, 2016, 20th Century Fox released a teaser trailer for the British - American science - fiction horror film, Alien: Covenant, using a cover of "Nature Boy '' by singer Aurora, as the background score.
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when is gang beasts coming out for xbox one | Gang Beasts - Wikipedia
Gang Beasts is a multiplayer beat ' em up party game developed by Boneloaf and published by Double Fine Presents. The game released for Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux, and PlayStation 4 on 12 December 2017, following an early access period for the PC platforms that began in August 2014.
Gang Beasts is a multiplayer beat ' em up party game with gelatinous characters, melee fight sequences, and hazardous environments, set in the fictional metropolis of Beef City. At initial release it contained 8 multiplayer stages. The core gameplay involves using various physical abilities such as punching or kicking an opponent until they are "knocked out '', and then attempting to toss them over one of the stage hazards. Opponents that have been knocked down are not completely defenseless however, as they can fight back to be released.
Already in its freeware alpha state, as well as upon Steam Early Access release, the game was met with positive response from critics and fans.
Outside of early access, Gang Beasts received mixed reviews from critics on both the PC and PlayStation 4 versions of the game. On Metacritic, the game holds a score of 67 / 100 for the PlayStation 4 version based on 8 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews. ''
The game was nominated for "Excellence in Multiplayer '' at the 2018 SXSW Gaming Awards, and for "Multiplayer '' at the upcoming 14th British Academy Games Awards.
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who plays emily's father on pretty little liars | Eric Steinberg - wikipedia
Eric D. Steinberg (born August 26, 1969 in Washington, D.C.) is an American actor who played the role of Emily Fields ' father in the Freeform hit series Pretty Little Liars.
Steinberg attended the University of Vermont and the University of Kent in England prior to receiving an acting fellowship at the University of California at Irvine.
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the trees producing the coffee bean were native to | Coffee bean - wikipedia
A coffee bean is a seed of the coffee plant and the source for coffee. It is the pit inside the red or purple fruit often referred to as a cherry. Just like ordinary cherries, the coffee fruit is also a so - called stone fruit. Even though the coffee beans are seeds, they are referred to as "beans '' because of their resemblance to true beans. The fruits -- coffee cherries or coffee berries -- most commonly contain two stones with their flat sides together. A small percentage of cherries contain a single seed, instead of the usual two. This is called a "peaberry ''. The peaberry occurs only between 10 and 15 % of the time, and it is a fairly common (yet scientifically unproven) belief that they have more flavour than normal coffee beans. Like Brazil nuts (a seed) and white rice, coffee beans consist mostly of endosperm.
The two most economically important varieties of coffee plant are the Arabica and the Robusta; ~ 60 % of the coffee produced worldwide is Arabica and ~ 40 % is Robusta. Arabica beans consist of 0.8 -- 1.4 % caffeine and Robusta beans consist of 1.7 -- 4 % caffeine. As coffee is one of the world 's most widely consumed beverages, coffee beans are a major cash crop and an important export product, counting for over 50 % of some developing nations ' foreign exchange earnings.
According to popular legend, the coffee plant was discovered in Ethiopia by a goatherd named Kaldi.
South America is now responsible for about 45 % of the world 's total coffee exports. Most of this coffee is grown in Brazil.
The United States imports more coffee than any other nation. The per capita consumption of coffee in the United States in 2011 was 4.24 kg (9 lbs), and the value of coffee imported exceeded $8 billion. As of 2015, Americans consumed approximately 400 million cups of coffee per day, making the United States the leading consumer of coffee in the world.
Coffee plants grow within a defined area between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, termed the bean belt or coffee belt.
The Oxford English Dictionary suggests that the European languages generally appear to have gotten the name from Turkish kahveh, about 1600, perhaps through Italian caffè. Arab qahwah, in Turkish pronounced kahveh, the name of the infusion or beverage; said by Arab lexicographers to have originally meant "wine '' or some type of wine, and to be a derivative of a verb - root qahiya "to have no appetite. '' Another common theory is that the name derives from Kaffa Province, Ethiopia, where the species may have originated.
The coffee tree averages from 5 -- 10 m (16 -- 33 ft) in height. As the tree gets older, it branches less and less and bears more leaves and fruits.
Coffee plants are grown in rows several feet apart. Some farmers plant fruit trees around them or plant the coffee on the sides of hills, because they need specific conditions to flourish. Ideally, Arabica coffee beans are grown at temperatures between 15 and 24 ° C (59 and 75 ° F) and Robusta at 24 -- 30 ° C (75 -- 86 ° F) and receive between 15 and 30 cm (5.9 and 11.8 in) of rainfall per year. Heavy rain is needed in the beginning of the season when the fruit is developing and less later in the season as it ripens.
When the fruit is ripe, it is almost always handpicked, using either "selective picking '', where only the ripe fruit is removed, or "strip - picking '', where all of the fruit is removed from a limb all at once. This selective picking gives the growers reason to give their coffee a certain specification called "operation cherry red '' (OCR). In rare circumstances, the Asian palm civet eats coffee berries and excretes the beans. These beans are called kopi luwak, and can be processed further into a rare and expensive coffee.
Two methods are primarily used to process coffee berries. The first, "wet '' or "washed '' process, has historically usually been carried out in Central America and areas of Africa. The flesh of the cherries is separated from the seeds and then the seeds are fermented -- soaked in water for about two days. This softens the mucilage which is a sticky pulp residue that is still attached to the seeds. Then this mucilage is washed off with water.
The "dry processing '' method, cheaper and simpler, was historically used for lower - quality beans in Brazil and much of Africa, but now brings a premium when done well. Twigs and other foreign objects are separated from the berries and the fruit is then spread out in the sun on concrete, bricks or raise beds for 2 -- 3 weeks, turned regularly for even drying.
The term "green coffee bean '' refers to unroasted mature or immature coffee beans. These have been processed by wet or dry methods for removing the outer pulp and mucilage and have an intact wax layer on the outer surface. When immature, they are green. When mature, they have a brown to yellow or reddish color and typically weigh 300 to 330 mg per dried coffee bean. Nonvolatile and volatile compounds in green coffee beans, such as caffeine, deter many insects and animals from eating them. Further, both nonvolatile and volatile compounds contribute to the flavor of the coffee bean when it is roasted. Nonvolatile nitrogenous compounds (including alkaloids, trigonelline, proteins, and free amino acids) and carbohydrates are of major importance in producing the full aroma of roasted coffee and for its biological action. Since the mid 2000s, green coffee extract has been sold as a nutritional supplement and has been clinically studied for its chlorogenic acid content and for its lipolytic and weight - loss properties.
Caffeine (1, 3, 7 - trimethyl - xanthine) is the alkaloid most present in green and roasted coffee beans. The content of caffeine is between 1.0 % and 2.5 % by weight of dry green coffee beans. The content of caffeine does not change during maturation of green coffee beans. Lower concentrations of theophylline, theobromine, paraxanthine, liberine, and methylliberine can be found. The concentration of theophylline, an alkaloid noted for its presence in green tea, is reduced during the roasting process, usually about 15 minutes at 230 ° C (446 ° F), whereas the concentrations of most other alkaloids are not changed. The solubility of caffeine in water increases with temperature and with the addition of chlorogenic acids, citric acid, or tartaric acid, all of which are present in green coffee beans. For example, 1 g (0.035 oz) of caffeine dissolves in 46 ml (1.6 US fl oz) of water at room temperature, and 5.5 ml (0.19 US fl oz) at 80 ° C (176 ° F). The xanthine alkaloids are odorless, but have a bitter taste in water, which is masked by organic acids present in green coffee, however.
Trigonelline (N - methyl - nicotinate) is a derivative of vitamin B that is not as bitter as caffeine. In green coffee beans, the content is between 0.6 % and 1.0 %. At a roasting temperature of 230 ° C (446 ° F), 85 % of the trigonelline is degraded to nicotinic acid, leaving small amounts of the unchanged molecule in the roasted beans. In green coffee beans, trigonelline is synthesized from nicotinic acid (pyridinium - 3 - carboxylic acid) by methylation from methionine, a sulfur - containing amino acid. Mutagenic activity of trigonelline has been reported.
Proteins account for 8 % to 12 % of dried green coffee beans. A majority of the proteins are of the 11 - S storage kind (alpha -- component of 32 kDa, beta -- component of 22 kDa), most of which are degraded to free amino acids during maturation of green coffee beans. Further, 11 - S storage proteins are degraded to their individual amino acids under roasting temperature, thus are an additional source of bitter components due to generation of Maillard reaction products. High temperature and oxygen concentration and low pH degrade 11 - S storage proteins of green coffee beans to low - molecular - weight peptides and amino acids. The degradation is accelerated in the presence of organic acids such as chlorogenic acids and their derivatives. Other proteins include enzymes, such as catalase and polyphenol oxidase, which are important for the maturation of green coffee beans. Mature coffee contains free amino acids (4.0 mg amino acid / g robusta coffee and up to 4.5 mg amino acid / g arabica coffee). In Coffea arabica, alanine is the amino acid with the highest concentration, i.e. 1.2 mg / g, followed by asparagine of 0.66 mg / g, whereas in C. robusta, alanine is present at a concentration of 0.8 mg / g and asparagine at 0.36 mg / g. The free hydrophobic amino acids in fresh green coffee beans contribute to the unpleasant taste, making it impossible to prepare a desirable beverage with such compounds. In fresh green coffee from Peru, these concentrations have been determined as: isoleucine 81 mg / kg, leucine 100 mg / kg, valine 93 mg / kg, tyrosine 81 mg / kg, phenylalanine 133 mg / kg. The concentration of gamma - aminobutyric acid (a neurotransmitter) has been determined between 143 mg / kg and 703 mg / kg in green coffee beans from Tanzania. Roasted coffee beans do not contain any free amino acids; the amino acids in green coffee beans are degraded under roasting temperature to Maillard products (reaction products between the aldehyde group of sugar and the alpha - amino group of the amino acids). Further, diketopiperazines, e.g. cyclo (proline - proline), cyclo (proline - leucine), and cyclo (proline - isoleucine), are generated from the corresponding amino acids, and are the major source of the bitter taste of roasted coffee. The bitter flavor of diketopiperazines is perceptible at around 20 mg / liter of water. The content of diketopiperazines in espresso is about 20 to 30 mg, which is responsible for its bitterness.
Carbohydrates make up about 50 % of the dry weight of green coffee beans. The carbohydrate fraction of green coffee is dominated by polysaccharides, such as arabinogalactan, galactomannan, and cellulose, contributing to the tasteless flavor of green coffee. Arabinogalactan makes up to 17 % of dry weight of green coffee beans, with a molecular weight of 90 kDa to 200 kDa. It is composed of beta - 1 - 3 - linked galactan main chains, with frequent members of arabinose (pentose) and galactose (hexose) residues at the side chains comprising immunomodulating properties by stimulating the cellular defense system (Th - 1 response) of the body. Mature brown to yellow coffee beans contain fewer residues of galactose and arabinose at the side chain of the polysaccharides, making the green coffee bean more resistant to physical breakdown and less soluble in water. The molecular weight of the arabinogalactan in coffee is higher than in most other plants, improving the cellular defense system of the digestive tract compared to arabinogalactan with lower molecular weight. Free monosaccharides are present in mature brown to yellow - green coffee beans. The free part of monosaccharides contains sucrose (gluco - fructose) up to 9000 mg / 100g of arabica green coffee bean, a lower amount in robustas, i.e. 4500 mg / 100g. In arabica green coffee beans, the content of free glucose was 30 to 38 mg / 100g, free fructose 23 to 30 mg / 100g; free galactose 35 mg / 100g and mannitol 50 mg / 100g dried coffee beans, respectively. Mannitol is a powerful scavenger for hydroxyl radicals, which are generated during the peroxidation of lipids in biological membranes.
The lipids found in green coffee include: linoleic acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid, stearic acid, arachidic acid, diterpenes, triglycerides, unsaturated long - chain fatty acids, esters, and amides. The total content of lipids in dried green coffee is between 11.7 and 14 g / 100 g. Lipids are present on the surface and in the interior matrix of green coffee beans. On the surface, they include derivatives of carboxylic acid - 5 - hydroxytryptamides with an amide bond to fatty acids (unsaturated C6 to C24) making up to 3 % of total lipid content or 1200 to 1400 microgram / g dried green coffee bean. Such compounds form a wax - like cover on the surface of the coffee bean (200 to 300 mg lipids / 100 g dried green coffee bean) protecting the interior matrix against oxidation and insects. Further, such molecules have antioxidative activity due to their chemical structure. Lipids of the interior tissue are triglycerides, linoleic acid (46 % of total free lipids), palmitic acid (30 % to 35 % of total free lipids), and esters. Arabica beans have a higher content of lipids (13.5 to 17.4 g lipids / 100 g dried green coffee beans) than robustas (9.8 to 10.7 g lipids / 100 g dried green coffee beans). The content of diterpenes is about 20 % of the lipid fraction. The diterpenes found in green coffee include cafestol, kahweol and 16 - O - methylcafestol. Some of these diterpenes have been shown in in vitro experiments to protect liver tissue against chemical oxidation. In coffee oil from green coffee beans the diterpenes are esterified with saturated long chain fatty acids.
Chlorogenic acids belong to a group of compounds known as phenolic acids, which are antioxidants. The content of chlorogenic acids in dried green coffee beans of robusta is 65 mg / g and of arabica 140 mg / g, depending on the timing of harvesting. At roasting temperature, more than 70 % of chlorogenic acids are destroyed, leaving a residue less than 30 mg / g in the roasted coffee bean. In contrast to green coffee, green tea contains an average of 85 mg / g polyphenols. These chlorogenic acids could be a valuable, inexpensive source of antioxidants. Chlorogenic acids are homologous compounds comprising caffeic acid, ferulic acid and 3, 4 - dimethoxycinnamic acid, which are connected by an ester bond to the hydroxyl groups of quinic acid. The antioxidant capacity of chlorogenic acid is more potent than of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) or mannitol, which is a selective hydroxy - radical scavenger. Chlorogenic acids have a bitter taste in low concentrations such as 50 mg / l water. At higher concentrations of 1 g / l water, they have a sour taste. Chlorogenic acids increase the solubility of caffeine and are important modulators of taste.
Volatile compounds of green coffee beans include short - chain fatty acids, aldehydes, and nitrogen - containing aromatic molecules, such as derivatives of pyrazines (green - herbeaceous - earthy odor). Briefly, such volatile compounds are responsible for the less pleasing odor and taste of green coffee versus roasted coffee. Commercial success was realized by Starbucks in creating Green Bean Refreshers using a process that primarily isolates the caffeine from the green beans but does not actually use steeped liquid from the beans. Many consumers experiment with creating green bean "extract '' by steeping green coffee beans in hot water. Often, the recommended times of steeping (20 minutes to 1 hour) extract too much caffeine to provide a pleasant taste. A steeping time of 12 minutes or under provides a more palatable liquid that can be used as a base for a drink containing more of the nutrients and less caffeine that using just isolated caffeine extract. The alkaline stock base that results can be paired with acidic or fruity extracts, with or without sweetener, to mask the vegetable - like taste of the extract.
When green coffee beans are roasted, other molecules with the typical pleasant aroma of coffee are generated, which are not present in fresh green coffee. During roasting, the major part of the unpleasant - tasting volatile compounds are neutralised. Unfortunately, other important molecules such as antioxidants and vitamins present in green coffee are destroyed. Volatile compounds with nauseating odor for humans have been identified, including acetic acid (pungent, unpleasant odor), propionic acid (odor of sour milk, or butter), butanoic acid (odor of rancid butter, present in green coffee with 2 mg / 100 g coffee beans), pentanoic acid (unpleasant fruity flavor, present in green coffee at 40 mg / 100 g in coffee beans), hexanoic acid (fatty - rancid odor), heptanoic acid (fatty odor), octanoic acid (repulsive oily rancid odor); nonanoic acid (mild nut - like fatty odor); decanoic acid (sour repulsive odor), and derivatives of such fatty acids -- 3 - methyl - valeric acid (sour, green - herbaceous, unpleasant odor), acetaldehyde (pungent - nauseating odor, even when highly diluted, present in dried green coffee beans at concentrations of about 5 mg / kg), propanal (choking effect on respiratory system, penetrating - nauseating), butanal (nauseating effect, present in dried green coffee beans at 2 to 7 mg / kg), or pentanal (very repulsive nauseating effect).
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when did iphone 6 come out in usa | IPhone 6 - wikipedia
September 19, 2014; 3 years ago (2014 - 09 - 19) (16, 64 and 128 GB models)
The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus are smartphones designed and marketed by Apple Inc. The devices are part of the iPhone series and were announced on September 9, 2014, and released on September 19, 2014. The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus jointly serve as successors to the iPhone 5S and were themselves replaced as flagship devices of the iPhone series by the iPhone 6S and iPhone 6S Plus on September 9, 2015. The iPhone 6 and 6 Plus include larger 4.7 and 5.5 inches (120 and 140 mm) displays, a faster processor, upgraded cameras, improved LTE and Wi - Fi connectivity and support for a near field communications - based mobile payments offering.
The iPhone 6 and 6 Plus received positive reviews, with critics regarding their improved design, specifications, camera, and battery life as being improvements over previous iPhone models. However, aspects of the design of iPhone 6 were also panned, including plastic strips on the rear of the device for its antenna that disrupted the otherwise metal exterior, and the screen resolution of the standard - sized iPhone 6 being lower than other devices in its class. Pre-orders of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus exceeded four million within its first 24 hours of availability -- an Apple record. More than ten million iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus devices were sold in the first three days, another Apple record. During its lifespan, the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus sold 220 million in total, making them the best selling iPhone models, so far, and one of the most successful phones to date.
Despite their positive reception, the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus have been the subject of several hardware issues, including most prominently, being susceptible to bending under pressure, such as in a pocket. the iPhone 6s and 6s Plus were made with 7000 series aluminum (a design flaw nicknamed "Bendgate ''), and as a byproduct of this lack of rigidity, the touchscreen 's internal hardware being susceptible to losing its connection to the phone 's logic board (nicknamed "Touch Disease ''). The iPhone 6 Plus was also the subject of camera issues, including some devices with malfunctioning optical image stabilization or otherwise defects on rear cameras.
The iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were moved to the midrange spot in Apple 's iPhone lineup when the iPhone 6S and 6S Plus were released in September 2015. The iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were discontinued in most countries on September 7, 2016 when Apple announced the iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus. Their spot as the entry - level iPhone was replaced by the iPhone SE, which was released earlier on March 31, 2016. The iPhone 6 was relaunched with 32 GB of storage in Asian markets in February 2017 as a midrange / budget iPhone. It was later expanded to Europe, before hitting the US markets in May 2017, and Canada in July 2017.
From the launch of the original iPhone to the iPhone 4S, iPhones used 3.5 - inch displays -- which are smaller than screens used by flagship phones from competitors. The iPhone 5 and its immediate successors featured a display that was taller, but the same width as prior models, measuring at 4 inches diagonally. Following Apple 's loss in smartphone market share to companies producing phones with larger displays, reports as early as January 2014 suggested that Apple was preparing to launch new iPhone models with larger, 4.7 - inch and 5.5 - inch displays. Reports prior to its unveiling also speculated that Apple might use a new iPhone model to introduce a mobile payments platform using near - field communications -- a technology that has been incorporated into many Android phones, but has experienced a low adoption rate among users.
The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus were officially unveiled during a press event at the Flint Center for Performing Arts in Cupertino, California on September 9, 2014 and released on September 19, 2014; pre-orders began on September 12, 2014, with the iPhone 6 starting at US $649 and the iPhone 6 Plus starting at US $749. In China, where the iPhone 5c and 5s were the first models in the iPhone series to be released in the country on the same day as their international launch, Apple notified local wireless carriers that it would be unable to release the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus on the 19th because there were "details which are not ready ''; local media reported that the devices had not yet been approved by the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and earlier in the year, a news report by state broadcaster China Central Television alleged that iPhone devices were a threat to national security because iOS 7 's "frequent locations '' function could expose "state secrets. ''
In August 2015, Apple admitted that some iPhone 6 Plus may have faulty cameras that could be causing photos to look blurry and initiated a replacement program.
On September 9, 2015, with the release of the iPhone 6S and iPhone 6S Plus, the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were moved to the mid-range of the iPhone lineup. The 128 GB versions of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus was discontinued along with the gold version of both phones, but the 16 GB and 64 GB versions of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus in silver and space gray remain available for sale at a reduced price.
In June 2016, Apple faced a potential sales ban in China, as Shenzhen Baili, a Chinese device maker, alleged that the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus infringed on its design patent.
The iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were discontinued on September 7, 2016, when Apple announced the iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus, and the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus 's spot as the entry - level iPhone has since been taken by the iPhone SE. As the iPhone SE has more powerful internal hardware than the midrange iPhone 6 (largely the same as the 6S) and had been released earlier on March 31, 2016, this created an unusual situation when it was sold alongside the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus until September 7 despite being marketed as a lower - tier iPhone.
In February 2017, the iPhone 6 was quietly relaunched in carrier stores and online, this time the storage has been changed to 32 GB. In India it was sold on Amazon 's website in Space Grey. In Taiwan, it was sold through Taiwan Mobile on March 10 in gold colour. In mid-March, it was released in the EU to Belarus via the i - Store web shop. It also makes an appearance in North America with Sprint based US prepaid carriers Boost Mobile and Virgin Mobile, along with AT&T GoPhone. These are not being distributed by Apple on their website or their retail stores.
The design of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus is influenced by that of the iPad Air with a glass front that is curved around the edges of the display, and an aluminum rear that contains two plastic strips for the antenna. Both models come in gold, silver, and "space gray '' finishes. The iPhone 6 has a thickness of 6.9 millimetres (0.27 in), while the iPhone 6 Plus is 7.1 mm (0.28 in) in thickness; both are thinner than the iPhone 5c and iPhone 5s, with the iPhone 6 being Apple 's thinnest phone to date. The most significant changes to the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus are its displays; both branded as "Retina HD Display '' and "ion - strengthened '', the iPhone 6 display is 4.7 inches in size with a 16: 9 resolution of 1334x750 (326 ppi, minus one row of pixels), while the iPhone 6 Plus includes a 5.5 - inch 1920x1080 (1080p) display (401 PPI). The displays use a multiple - domain LCD panel, dubbed "dual - domain pixels ''; the RGB pixels themselves are skewed in pattern, so that every pixel is seen from a different angle. This technique helps improve the viewing angles of the display.
To accommodate the larger physical size of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus, the power button was moved to the side of the phone instead of the top to improve its accessibility. The iPhone 6 features a 6.91 Wh (1810 mAh) battery, while the iPhone 6 Plus features an 11.1 Wh (2915 mAh) battery. Unlike the previous model, the rear - facing camera is not flush with the rear of the device, but instead protrudes slightly.
Both models include an Apple A8 system - on - chip, and an M8 motion co-processor -- an update of the M7 chip from the iPhone 5s. The primary difference between the M8 and the original M7 coprocessor is that the M8 also includes a barometer to measure altitude changes. Phil Schiller touted that the A8 chip would provide, in comparison to the 5s, a 25 % increase in CPU performance, a 50 % increase in graphics performance, and less heat output. Early hands - on reports suggested that the A8 's GPU performance might indeed break away from previous generations doubling of performance at each yearly release, scoring 21204.26 in Base mark X compared to 20253.80, 10973.36 and 5034.75 on respectively the 5s, 5 and 4s.
The expanded LTE connectivity on the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus is improved to LTE Advanced, with support for over 20 LTE bands (7 more than the iPhone 5s), for up to 150 Mbit / s download speed, and VoLTE support. Wi - Fi performance has been improved with support for 802.11 ac specifications, providing speeds up to 433.0581 Mbit / s -- which is up to 3 times faster than 802.11 n, along with Wi - Fi Calling support where available. The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus add support for near - field communications (NFC). It is initially used exclusively for Apple Pay -- a new mobile payments system which allows users to store their credit cards in Passbook for use with online payments and retail purchases over NFC. iOS 11 will provide support for uses of near - field communications besides Apple Pay.
The iPhone 6 's rear - facing camera now has the ability to shoot 1080p video at either 30 or 60 frames per second and slow - motion video at either 120 or 240 frames per second. The camera also includes phase detection autofocus. It can also record. The iPhone 6 Plus camera is nearly identical, but also includes optical image stabilization. The front - facing camera was also updated with a new sensor and f / 2.2 aperture, along with support for burst and HDR modes.
When first released, the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus were supplied pre-loaded with iOS 8, while the iPhone 5S was supplied pre-loaded with iOS 7. Apps are able to take advantage of the increased screen size in the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus to display more information on - screen; for example, the Mail app uses a dual - pane layout similar to its iPad version when the device is in landscape mode on the iPhone 6 Plus. As it uses an identical aspect ratio, apps designed for the iPhone 5, iPhone 5C, and 5S can be upscaled for use on the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus. To improve the usability of the devices ' larger screens, an additional "Reachability '' gesture was added; double - tapping the Home button will slide the top half of the screen 's contents down to the bottom half of the screen. This function allows users to reach buttons located near the top of the screen, such as a "Back '' button in the top - left corner.
Both iPhone 6 models received generally positive reviews. Re / code called it "the best smartphone you can buy ''. TechRadar praised the iPhone 6 's "brilliant '' design, improved battery life over the 5s, iOS 8 for being "smarter and more intuitive than ever '', along with the quality of its camera. However, the plastic antenna strips on the rear of the phone were criticized for resulting in poor aesthetics, the display for having lower resolution and pixel density in comparison to other recent smartphones -- including those with the same physical screen size as the iPhone 6, such as the HTC One, and for not having a sufficient justification for its significantly higher price in comparison to similar devices running Android or Windows Phone. The Verge considered the iPhone 6 to be "simply and cleanly designed '' in comparison to the 5s, noting that the phone still felt usable despite its larger size, but criticized the antenna plastic, the protruding camera lens (which prevents the device from sitting flat without a case), and the lack of additional optimization in the operating system for the bigger screen. Improvements such as performance, battery life, VoLTE support, and other tweaks were also noted. In conclusion, the iPhone 6 was considered "good, even great, but there 's little about it that 's truly ambitious or truly moving the needle. It 's just a refinement of a lot of existing ideas into a much more pleasant package ''.
In regards to the 6 Plus, Engadget panned its design for being uncomfortable to hold and harder to grip in comparison to other devices such as the Galaxy Note 3 and LG G3, but praised its inclusion of optical image stabilization and slightly better battery life than the 6.
The iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were affected by a number of notable hardware - related issues, including but not limited to concerns surrounding their rigidity (which led to incidents surrounding chassis bending, as well as degradation or outright loss of touchscreen functionality), performance issues on models with larger storage capacity, camera problems on the 6 Plus model, as well as an initially undocumented "error 53 '' that appeared under certain circumstances.
Shortly after its public release, it was reported that the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus chassis was susceptible to bending under pressure, such as when carried tightly in a user 's pocket. While such issues are not exclusive to the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus, the design flaw came to be known among users and the media as "Bendgate ''.
Apple responded to the bending allegations, stating that they had only received nine complaints of bent devices, and that the damage occurring due to regular use is "extremely rare. '' The company maintained that the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus went through durability testing to ensure they would stand up to daily use. The company offered to replace phones that were bent, if it is determined that the bending was unintentional.
On October 1, 2014, it was reported by Axel Telzerow, editor - in - chief of the German technology magazine Computer Bild, that following the posting of a video where a presenter was able to bend an iPhone 6 Plus, an Apple Germany representative informed the publication that it had been banned from future Apple events and that it would no longer receive devices directly from Apple for testing. Telzerow responded by saying that "we congratulate you to your fine new generation of iPhones, even if one of them has a minor weakness with its casing. But we are deeply disappointed about the lack of respect of your company. ''
On October 3, 2014 9to5Mac released a post claiming that certain iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus users complained on social networking sites that the phone ripped off their hair when they held the phone close to their ears when making phone calls. Twitter users claimed that the seam between the glass screen and aluminum back of the iPhone 6 is to blame, with hair becoming caught within it.
Some users reported that 64 and 128 GB iPhone 6 models had experienced performance issues, and that some 128 GB iPhone 6 Plus models would, in rare cases, randomly crash and reboot. Business Korea reported that the issues were connected to the triple - layer cell NAND storage of the affected models. Triple - layer cells can store three bits of data per cell of flash, and are cheaper than dual - layer cell solutions, but at the cost of performance. It was reported that Apple had planned to switch the affected model lines back to multi-layer cell flash, and address the performance issues on existing devices in a future iOS update.
It was reported that the optical image stabilization systems on some iPhone 6 Plus models were faulty, failing to properly stabilize when the phone is being held perfectly still, leading to blurry photos and "wavy '' - looking videos. The optical image stabilization system was also found to have been affected by accessories that use magnets, such as third - party lens attachments; Apple issued advisories to users and its licensed accessory makers, warning that magnetic or metallic accessories can cause the OIS to malfunction.
On August 21, 2015, Apple instituted a repair program for iPhone 6 Plus models released between September 2014 and January 2015, citing that faulty rear cameras on affected models may produce blurry pictures.
Some iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus models have an issue where the front facing camera is somehow "shifted '', or out of place. Apple stated that they would replace most affected iPhone 6 models with this issue, free of charge. Despite numerous complaints regarding this issue, it does not seem to actually affect the camera itself. It is said that the camera is not what has shifted, but a piece of protective foam around the camera module itself that has gone out of place.
If the iPhone 6 home button is repaired or modified by a third - party, the device will fail security checks related to Touch ID as the components had not been "re-validated '' for security reasons -- a process which can only be performed by an authorized Apple outlet. Failing these checks disables all features related to Touch ID. Such effects have sometimes happened as a result of damage as well.
It was reported these same hardware integrity checks would trigger an unrecoverable loop into "Recovery Mode '' if iOS is updated or restored, with attempts to restore the device via iTunes software resulting in an "error 53 '' message. Beyond the explanation that this is related to hardware integrity errors regarding Touch ID components, Apple provided no official explanation of what specifically triggers error 53 or how it can be fixed without replacing the entire device.
On February 18, 2016, Apple released an iOS 9.2. 1 patch through iTunes which addresses this issue, and admitted that error 53 was actually related to a diagnostic check for inspecting the Touch ID hardware before an iPhone is shipped from its factories.
Touchscreen control components on iPhone 6 logic boards have insufficient support, including a lack of underfill -- which strengthens and stabilizes integrated circuits, and a lack of rigid metal shielding on the logic board unlike previous iPhone models; the touchscreen controller is instead shielded by a flexible "sticker ''. Normal use of the device can cause the logic board to flex internally, which strains the touchscreen IC connectors and leads to a degradation or outright loss of touchscreen functionality. A symptom that has been associated with this type of failure is a flickering grey bar near the top of the display. iFixit reported that this issue, nicknamed "touch disease '', was a byproduct of the previous "Bendgate '' design flaw because of the device 's demonstrated lack of rigidity. As such, the larger iPhone 6 Plus is more susceptible to the flaw, but it has also been reported on a small percentage of iPhone 6 models. The devices ' successor, the iPhone 6S, is not afflicted by this flaw due to changes to their internal design, which included the strengthening of "key points '' in the rear casing, and the re-location of the touchscreen controllers to the display assembly from the logic board.
Initially, Apple did not officially acknowledge this issue. The issue was widely discussed on Apple 's support forum -- where posts discussing the issue have been subject to censorship. The touchscreen can be repaired via microsoldering: Apple Stores are not equipped with the tools needed to perform the logic board repair, which had led to affected users sending their devices to unofficial, third - party repair services. An Apple Store employee interviewed by Apple Insider reported that six months after they first started noticing the problem, Apple had issued guidance instructing them to tell affected users that this was a hardware issue which could not be repaired, and that their iPhone had to be replaced. However, some in - stock units have also been afflicted with this issue out of the box, leading to an employee stating that they were "tired of pulling service stock out of the box, and seeing the exact same problem that the customer has on the replacement ''. The issue received mainstream attention in August 2016 when it was reported upon by iFixit. On August 26, 2016, Apple Insider reported that based on data from four "high - traffic '' Apple Store locations, there was a spike in the number of iPhone 6 devices brought into them for repairs following mainstream reports of the "touch disease '' problem.
On August 30, 2016, a group of three iPhone 6 owners sued Apple Inc. in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California and filed for a proposed class action lawsuit, alleging that Apple was engaging in unfair business practices by having "long been aware '' of the defective design, yet actively refusing to acknowledge or repair it.
On November 17, 2016, Apple officially acknowledged the issue and announced a paid repair program for affected iPhone 6 Plus models, stating that "some iPhone 6 Plus devices may exhibit display flickering or Multi-Touch issues after being dropped multiple times on a hard surface and then incurring further stress on the device ''.
Apple Inc. announced that, within 24 hours of availability, over 4 million pre-orders of the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were made, exceeding the supply available. More than 10 million iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus devices were sold in the first three days.
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cinderella and four knights who is the main lead | Cinderella with Four Knights - wikipedia
Cinderella with Four Knights (Hangul: 신데렐라 와 네 명의 기사; RR: Sinderella - wa ne myeong - ui gisa; lit. Cinderella and Four Knights) is a South Korean television series starring Park So - dam, Jung Il - woo, Ahn Jae - hyun, Lee Jung - shin, Choi Min and Son Na - eun. It aired on tvN from August 12 to October 1, 2016.
Based on the novel with the same title published in 2011, the drama is about a group of passionate young people in their 20s who happen to live together. It drew parallels to the 2009 TV series Boys Over Flowers.
Eun Ha Won (Park So - dam) is a bright college student who dreams of becoming a teacher. Unfortunately, she loses her mother in a tragic accident, moves in with a cruel stepmother, and has no money for her education. One day, she helps an old man and as fate would have it, moves into a gorgeous mansion with three equally gorgeous men, who also happen to be billionaire cousins and heirs to the Kang family fortune. Between the rebel - minded loner Kang Ji Woon (Jung Il - woo), playboy money machine Kang Hyun Min (Ahn Jae - hyun) and the super-sweet singer Kang Seo Woo (Lee Jung - shin), Eun Ha Won finds herself in the middle of the hottest love quadrangle to ever befall a modern fairy tale princess. Rounding out the mansion 's chaebol lifestyle are Lee Yoon Sung (Choi Min), who serves as the cousins ' handsome bodyguard, and Park Hye Ji (Son Na - eun), a gorgeous girl who has her own interests in the Kang family and is not above manipulating one cousin to get closer to another.
The "Sky House '' is the clubhouse of the luxury golf resort South Cape Owners Club on the southern coast of Changseon Island in Namhae County in the Southern Gyeongsang Province in South Korea.
In the table below, the blue numbers represent the lowest ratings and the red numbers represent the highest ratings.
Note: This drama airs on a cable channel / pay TV which normally has a relatively smaller audience compared to free - to - air TV / public broadcasters (KBS, SBS & MBC & EBS).
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if loving you is wrong i don't want to be right by barbara mandrell | (If Loving You is Wrong) I Do n't Want to Be Right - wikipedia
"(If Loving You Is Wrong) I Do n't Want to Be Right '' is a song written by Stax Records songwriters Homer Banks, Carl Hampton and Raymond Jackson. Originally written for The Emotions, it has been performed by many singers, most notably by Luther Ingram, whose original recorded version topped the R&B chart for four weeks and rose to number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1972. Billboard ranked it as the No. 16 song for 1972.
In 1972 / 73, The Faces recorded the song as an outtake for Ooh La La, their final studio album. In 1974, Millie Jackson released her version of the song which received two Grammy Award nominations. In 1978, Barbara Mandrell 's version topped the U.S. country singles charts, reached number 31 on the Billboard Hot 100, number 27 on Cashbox Pop Hits, and was nominated for Single of the Year at the 1979 CMA (Country Music Association) Awards. Rod Stewart re-recorded the song for Foot Loose & Fancy Free, his eighth album; released as a single it peaked at # 23 in the UK singles chart in 1980.
The song is about an adulterous love affair, told from the point of view of either the mistress or the cheating spouse, depending on the gender of the performer. Regardless, both parties involved express their desire to maintain the affair, while at the same time acknowledging that the relationship is wrong according to conventional moral standards.
Millie Jackson, however, took a somewhat different approach. On both studio and live recordings, her version is typically divided into three parts: "(If Loving You Is Wrong) I Do n't Want to Be Right, '' "The Rap, '' and "(If Loving You Is Wrong) I Do n't Want to Be Right (Reprise), '' which together have a running time of over 11 minutes. The first and third parts include the song more or less as originally written, while the second part was written by Jackson herself. Titled "The Rap, '' the middle segment is a monologue in which an unrepentant Jackson discusses her status as the "other woman '' and why she loves it.
Although it was first recorded by The Emotions and Veda Brown, those recordings were never released. Other notable singers to cover it include country singer Jackie Burns (whose version made the Hot Country Songs chart in 1972), Isaac Hayes, Millie Jackson, Rod Stewart, Percy Sledge, Bobby "Blue '' Bland, David Ruffin, LeAnn Rimes, Renée Geyer, Ramsey Lewis, reggae singer Alton Ellis, Tom Jones, Cassandra Wilson, Nathan Cavaleri, Rania Zeriri and Johanne Desforges (French cover: Si je ne peux t'aimer a quoi bon exister).
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the name of ross o carroll kellys wife | Ross O'Carroll - Kelly - wikipedia
Ross O'Carroll - Kelly is a satirical fictional Irish character, a wealthy Dublin 4 rugby union jock created by journalist Paul Howard. The character first appeared in a January 1998 column in the Sunday Tribune newspaper and later transferred to The Irish Times. The series comprises fourteen novels, three plays, a CD, two other books and the newspaper column, as of 2014.
The novels are written entirely from Ross 's first - person perspective, written in an eye dialect representative of the intonation attributed to affluent areas of South Dublin, commonly called "Dortspeak '' (after the DART, a rail service covering the Dublin coast). This accent is one of the primary targets of satire in the columns and novels. Due to the wide variety of esoteric slang used in the novels, a glossary ("ThesauRoss '') appears as an appendix to Ross O'Carroll - Kelly 's Guide to (South) Dublin: How To Get By On, Like, € 10,000 A Day. Though the basic idioms are derived largely from standard Hiberno - English, the South Dublin accent as represented by Howard has distinctive features:
Although the main satirical targets of the columns are affluent South Dublin dwellers, elements of working - class culture (sometimes called skanger culture) are also parodied, again, primarily through language.
Eye dialect is also used to portray the accents of people from Northern Ireland, "culchies '' (rural people), and foreigners.
Ross O'Carroll - Kelly is something of a craze in Ireland, and his name has become a byword for all that is perceived to be wrong in Celtic Tiger Ireland. Though it is largely viewed as satire, there are those who view Ross O'Carroll - Kelly as a role model or an idol. Paul Howard has claimed some people have imitated Ross 's friends pastime of driving through disadvantaged areas in expensive cars, shouting "Affluence! '' at passers - by and throwing € 5 notes out the window. Following Ross 's move to The Irish Times, the Irish Independent began a similar column, OMG! featuring a female counterpart to Ross, in its Weekend supplement on 22 September 2007.
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who is the song you're so vain referring to | You 're So Vain - wikipedia
"You 're So Vain '' is a song written and performed by Carly Simon and released in November 1972. The song is a critical profile of a self - absorbed lover about whom Simon asserts "You 're so vain, you probably think this song is about you. '' The title subject 's identity has long been a matter of speculation, with Simon stating that the song refers to three men, only one of whom she has named publicly, actor Warren Beatty. The song is ranked at # 82 on Billboard 's Greatest Songs of All - Time. "You 're So Vain '' was voted # 216 in RIAA 's Songs of the Century, and in August 2014, the UK 's Official Charts Company crowned it the ultimate song of the 1970s.
The distinctive bass guitar intro is played by Klaus Voormann and the strings were arranged by Simon and orchestrated by Paul Buckmaster. Simon plays piano on the track.
Before the song became a hit single in 1972, Simon told an interviewer that the song was about "men, '' not a specific "man ''.
In 1983, she said it is not about Mick Jagger, who contributed uncredited backing vocals to the song. In a 1993 book, Angie Bowie claimed to be the "wife of a close friend '' mentioned in "You 're So Vain '', and that Jagger, for a time, had been "obsessed '' with her. Simon made another comment about the subject 's identity as a guest artist on Janet Jackson 's 2001 single, "Son of a Gun (I Betcha Think This Song Is About You) '', which sampled "You 're So Vain ''. Simon said about the song, "The apricot scarf was worn by Nick (Delbanco). Nothing in the words referred to Mick. ''
In a 2007 interview Warren Beatty said, "Let 's be honest. That song was about me. '' Simon had said in 1983 that Beatty "certainly thought it was about him -- he called me and said thanks for the song... '' In an interview for the 1978 / 1982 version of The History of Rock & Roll radio series, producer Richard Perry acknowledges that Simon was essentially referring to Beatty while also referencing other men in her life.
Over the years Simon has divulged "letter clues '' and has claimed that the subject 's name contains the letters A, E, and R.
Shortly before the writing of the song, Simon was married to James Taylor; she has said that he was "definitely not '' the subject of the song. David Bowie, David Cassidy and Cat Stevens have all been cited by the press as speculative candidates.
In August 2003 Simon agreed to reveal the name of the song 's subject to the highest bidder of the Martha 's Vineyard Possible Dreams charity auction. With the top bid of $50,000, Dick Ebersol, president of NBC Sports and a friend of Simon, won the right to know the name of the subject of "You 're So Vain ''. A condition of the prize was that Ebersol not reveal the name. Ebersol said Simon allowed him to divulge a clue about the person 's name: "Carly told me that I could offer up to the entire world a clue as to what she 'll tell me when we have this night in about two weeks. And the clue is: The letter ' E ' is in the person 's name. ''
In 2004 Simon told Regis Philbin, "If I tell it, it 's going to come out in dribs and drabs. And I 've given out two letters already, an ' A ' and an ' E. ' But I 'm going to add one to it. I 'm going to add an ' R, ' in honor of you. ''
In 2005 Simon 's ex-husband Jim Hart said he was sure that the song was not about anyone famous.
On June 19, 2008, Howard Stern stated that Simon had privately revealed to him about whom the song was written after her interview on his popular radio show on Sirius Satellite Radio. Stern commented, "There is an odd aspect to it... he 's not that vain. '' On March 17, 2009, Stern stated that she had said it was a "composite of three people. '' Stern repeated this on May 5, 2014, stating, "She takes me aside, pulls me close, whispers in my ear... three names. She goes, it was n't one person, it was three people. '' Simon herself confirmed that Stern was among "a few people '' that she had given the names to.
In her 2008 book Girls Like Us, author Sheila Weller includes a detailed account of Simon 's love affair with musician Dan Armstrong, and suggests that he was the inspiration for "You 're So Vain. '' Her heartbreak over eventually losing him inspired the song "Dan, My Fling, '' which appears on her first album. Armstrong 's full name, Daniel Kent Armstrong, contains all three letters of Simon 's clue.
On November 4, 2009, Simon said she had hidden the name of the subject in a certain version of the song. The next day, the program 's crew revealed the name concealed in a back - played whisper: David. Simon denied that the whisper was "David, '' saying she had spoken "Ovid '' both forwards and backwards, and that sounded like David. In February 2010, Simon reiterated that the name of the subject was whispered in a re-recording of "You 're So Vain '': "There 's a little whisper -- and it 's the answer to the puzzle. '' A representative for Simon confirmed that the name whispered during the song is "David ''. Multiple media outlets then speculated that the subject was Simon 's former boss at Elektra, David Geffen, The following day Jim Hart, Simon 's ex-husband and close friend, denied that the song was about Geffen. Simon said that when she wrote the song in 1971, she had not yet met Geffen. Simon 's publicist also confirmed the song was not about Geffen, but that there was indeed "a David who is connected to the song in some way, shape, or form, '' Vanity Fair noted that in addition to "David '', "Warren '' and an unintelligible name are whispered during the recording.
After her live performance of the song with Simon in July 2013, Taylor Swift stated that Simon had revealed the identity of the song 's subject to her in confidence.
In November 2015, Simon, promoting her about - to - be-published memoir, said, "I have confirmed that the second verse is Warren (Beatty) '' and added that while "Warren thinks the whole thing is about him, '' he is the subject of that verse only, with the remainder of the song referring to two other, still unnamed men.
The song was a number - one hit in the US, Canada and Australia and reached number four in Ireland and South Africa. Bowing at # 99 on the Billboard Hot 100 on 2 December 1972, the song took only five more weeks to rocket to the top of the chart, where it stayed for the first three weeks of 1973, also spending two weeks at the top of the Easy Listening chart in early 1973, her first number one on either chart. "You 're So Vain '' was Simon 's breakthrough hit in the United Kingdom, reaching number three on the UK chart on its original release in 1973. The song was re-released in the UK in 1991 to cash in on its inclusion in a commercial for Dunlop Tyres, peaking at number 41.
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when was the last time the dolphins started 3 and 0 | List of Miami Dolphins seasons - wikipedia
This is a list of seasons completed by the Miami Dolphins American football franchise of the National Football League (NFL). The list documents the season - by - season records of the Dolphins franchise from 1966 to present, including postseason records, and league awards for individual players or head coaches.
Although the Miami Dolphins were not successful before joining the NFL, from 1970 when they played their first season after the AFL -- NFL merger until 2001 they were one of the most successful teams in the league, playing in the postseason on 22 occasions over those 32 years and winning 335 and tying two of 528 games for an overall win percentage of 63.6. Early in this period the Dolphins won their only two Super Bowls in consecutive seasons, in the process achieving the only modern - day perfect season in any major professional sports league during only their third year in the NFL. Much of this success was orchestrated by coach Don Shula who joined the team in 1970 and stayed with them until his retirement in 1995.
After Shula retired in 1995, the Dolphins remained a force for six years under successors Jimmy Johnson and Dave Wannstedt, but since 2002 and especially since 2004 have fallen on harder times, reaching the postseason only twice in the twelve seasons since. In 2007, they nearly suffered an imperfect season, winning only one game in overtime.
For complete team history, see History of the Miami Dolphins.
Note: Statistics are correct through the end of the 2017 NFL season.
Due to a strike - shortened season in 1982, all teams were ranked by conference instead of division.
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which of the following correctly describes the function of micrornas | MicroRNA - wikipedia
A microRNA (abbreviated miRNA) is a small non-coding RNA molecule (containing about 22 nucleotides) found in plants, animals and some viruses, that functions in RNA silencing and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. While the majority of miRNAs are located within the cell, some miRNAs, commonly known as circulating miRNAs or extracellular miRNAs, have also been found in extracellular environment, including various biological fluids and cell culture media.
Encoded by eukaryotic nuclear DNA in plants and animals and by viral DNA in certain viruses whose genome is based on DNA, miRNAs function via base - pairing with complementary sequences within mRNA molecules. As a result, these mRNA molecules are silenced, by one or more of the following processes:
miRNAs resemble the small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) of the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway, except miRNAs derive from regions of RNA transcripts that fold back on themselves to form short hairpins, whereas siRNAs derive from longer regions of double - stranded RNA. The human genome may encode over 1000 miRNAs, which are abundant in many mammalian cell types and appear to target about 60 % of the genes of humans and other mammals.
miRNAs are well conserved in both plants and animals, and are thought to be a vital and evolutionarily ancient component of gene regulation. While core components of the microRNA pathway are conserved between plants and animals, miRNA repertoires in the two kingdoms appear to have emerged independently with different primary modes of action.
Plant miRNAs usually have near - perfect pairing with their mRNA targets, which induces gene repression through cleavage of the target transcripts. In contrast, animal miRNAs are able to recognize their target mRNAs by using as little as 6 -- 8 nucleotides (the seed region) at the 5 ' end of the miRNA, which is not enough pairing to induce cleavage of the target mRNAs. Combinatorial regulation is a feature of miRNA regulation in animals. A given miRNA may have hundreds of different mRNA targets, and a given target might be regulated by multiple miRNAs.
The first miRNA was discovered in the early 1990s. However, miRNAs were not recognized as a distinct class of biological regulators until the early 2000s. miRNA research revealed different sets of miRNAs expressed in different cell types and tissues and multiple roles for miRNAs in plant and animal development and in many other biological processes. Aberrant miRNA expression are implicated in disease states. MiRNA - based therapies are under investigation.
Estimates of the average number of unique messenger RNAs that are targets for repression by a typical miRNA vary, depending on the estimation method, but multiple approaches show that mammalian miRNAs can have many unique targets. For example, an analysis of the miRNAs highly conserved in vertebrates shows that each has, on average, roughly 400 conserved targets. Likewise, experiments show that a single miRNA species can reduce the stability of hundreds of unique messenger RNAs. Other experiments show that a single miRNA species may repress the production of hundreds of proteins, but that this repression often is relatively mild (much less than 2-fold). The first human disease associated with deregulation of miRNAs was chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Other B cell malignancies followed.
The first miRNA was discovered in 1993 by a group led by Ambros and including Lee and Feinbaum; but additional insight into its mode of action required simultaneously published work by Ruvkun 's team, including Wightman and Ha. These groups published back - to - back papers on the lin - 4 gene, which was known to control the timing of C. elegans larval development by repressing the lin - 14 gene. When Lee et al. isolated the lin - 4 gene, they found that instead of producing an mRNA encoding a protein, it produced short non-coding RNAs, one of which was a ~ 22 - nucleotide RNA that contained sequences partially complementary to multiple sequences in the 3 ' UTR of the lin - 14 mRNA. This complementarity was proposed to inhibit the translation of the lin - 14 mRNA into the LIN - 14 protein. At the time, the lin - 4 small RNA was thought to be a nematode idiosyncrasy.
In 2000, a second small RNA was characterized: let - 7 RNA, which represses lin - 41 to promote a later developmental transition in C. elegans. The let - 7 RNA was found to be conserved in many species, leading to the suggestion that let - 7 RNA and additional "small temporal RNAs '' might regulate the timing of development in diverse animals, including humans.
A year later, the lin - 4 and let - 7 RNAs were found to be part of a large class of small RNAs present in C. elegans, Drosophila and human cells. The many RNAs of this class resembled the lin - 4 and let - 7 RNAs, except their expression patterns were usually inconsistent with a role in regulating the timing of development. This suggested that most might function in other types of regulatory pathways. At this point, researchers started using the term "microRNA '' to refer to this class of small regulatory RNAs.
The first human disease associated with deregulation of miRNAs was chronic lymphocytic leukemia.
Under a standard nomenclature system, names are assigned to experimentally confirmed miRNAs before publication. The prefix "miR '' is followed by a dash and a number, the latter often indicating order of naming. For example, miR - 124 was named and likely discovered prior to miR - 456. A capitalized "miR - '' refers to the mature form of the miRNA, while the uncapitalized "mir - '' refers to the pre-miRNA and the pri - miRNA, and "MIR '' refers to the gene that encodes them.
miRNAs with nearly identical sequences except for one or two nucleotides are annotated with an additional lower case letter. For example, miR - 124a is closely related to miR - 124b.
Pre-miRNAs, pri - miRNAs and genes that lead to 100 % identical mature miRNAs but that are located at different places in the genome are indicated with an additional dash - number suffix. For example, the pre-miRNAs hsa - mir - 194 - 1 and hsa - mir - 194 - 2 lead to an identical mature miRNA (hsa - miR - 194) but are from genes located in different genome regions.
Species of origin is designated with a three - letter prefix, e.g., hsa - miR - 124 is a human (Homo sapiens) miRNA and oar - miR - 124 is a sheep (Ovis aries) miRNA. Other common prefixes include ' v ' for viral (miRNA encoded by a viral genome) and ' d ' for Drosophila miRNA (a fruit fly commonly studied in genetic research).
When two mature microRNAs originate from opposite arms of the same pre-miRNA and are found in roughly similar amounts, they are denoted with a - 3p or - 5p suffix. (In the past, this distinction was also made with ' s ' (sense) and ' as ' (antisense)). However, the mature microRNA found from one arm of the hairpin is usually much more abundant than that found from the other arm, in which case, an asterisk following the name indicates the mature species found at low levels from the opposite arm of a hairpin. For example, miR - 124 and miR - 124 * share a pre-miRNA hairpin, but much more miR - 124 is found in the cell.
As many as 40 % of miRNA genes may lie in the introns or even exons of other genes. These are usually, though not exclusively, found in a sense orientation, and thus usually are regulated together with their host genes.
The DNA template is not the final word on mature miRNA production: 6 % of human miRNAs show RNA editing (IsomiRs), the site - specific modification of RNA sequences to yield products different from those encoded by their DNA. This increases the diversity and scope of miRNA action beyond that implicated from the genome alone.
miRNA genes are usually transcribed by RNA polymerase II (Pol II). The polymerase often binds to a promoter found near the DNA sequence, encoding what will become the hairpin loop of the pre-miRNA. The resulting transcript is capped with a specially modified nucleotide at the 5 ' end, polyadenylated with multiple adenosines (a poly (A) tail), and spliced. Animal miRNAs are initially transcribed as part of one arm of an ∼ 80 nucleotide RNA stem - loop that in turn forms part of a several hundred nucleotide - long miRNA precursor termed a primary miRNA (pri - miRNA). When a stem - loop precursor is found in the 3 ' UTR, a transcript may serve as a pri - miRNA and a mRNA. RNA polymerase III (Pol III) transcribes some miRNAs, especially those with upstream Alu sequences, transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and mammalian wide interspersed repeat (MWIR) promoter units.
A single pri - miRNA may contain from one to six miRNA precursors. These hairpin loop structures are composed of about 70 nucleotides each. Each hairpin is flanked by sequences necessary for efficient processing.
The double - stranded RNA (dsRNA) structure of the hairpins in a pri - miRNA is recognized by a nuclear protein known as DiGeorge Syndrome Critical Region 8 (DGCR8 or "Pasha '' in invertebrates), named for its association with DiGeorge Syndrome. DGCR8 associates with the enzyme Drosha, a protein that cuts RNA, to form the Microprocessor complex. In this complex, DGCR8 orients the catalytic RNase III domain of Drosha to liberate hairpins from pri - miRNAs by cleaving RNA about eleven nucleotides from the hairpin base (one helical dsRNA turn into the stem). The product resulting has a two - nucleotide overhang at its 3 ' end; it has 3 ' hydroxyl and 5 ' phosphate groups. It is often termed as a pre-miRNA (precursor - miRNA). Sequence motifs downstream of the pre-miRNA that are important for efficient processing have been identified.
Pre-miRNAs that are spliced directly out of introns, bypassing the Microprocessor complex, are known as "Mirtrons. '' Originally thought to exist only in Drosophila and C. elegans, mirtrons have now been found in mammals.
As many as 16 % of pre-miRNAs may be altered through nuclear RNA editing. Most commonly, enzymes known as adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADARs) catalyze adenosine to inosine (A to I) transitions. RNA editing can halt nuclear processing (for example, of pri - miR - 142, leading to degradation by the ribonuclease Tudor - SN) and alter downstream processes including cytoplasmic miRNA processing and target specificity (e.g., by changing the seed region of miR - 376 in the central nervous system).
Pre-miRNA hairpins are exported from the nucleus in a process involving the nucleocytoplasmic shuttler Exportin - 5. This protein, a member of the karyopherin family, recognizes a two - nucleotide overhang left by the RNase III enzyme Drosha at the 3 ' end of the pre-miRNA hairpin. Exportin - 5 - mediated transport to the cytoplasm is energy - dependent, using GTP bound to the Ran protein.
In the cytoplasm, the pre-miRNA hairpin is cleaved by the RNase III enzyme Dicer. This endoribonuclease interacts with 5 ' and 3 ' ends of the hairpin and cuts away the loop joining the 3 ' and 5 ' arms, yielding an imperfect miRNA: miRNA * duplex about 22 nucleotides in length. Overall hairpin length and loop size influence the efficiency of Dicer processing. The imperfect nature of the miRNA: miRNA * pairing also affects cleavage. Some of the G - rich pre-miRNAs can potentially adopt the G - quadruplex structure as an alternative to the canonical stem - loop structure. For example, human pre-miRNA 92b adopts a G - quadruplex structure which is resistant to the Dicer mediated cleavage in the cytoplasm. Although either strand of the duplex may potentially act as a functional miRNA, only one strand is usually incorporated into the RNA - induced silencing complex (RISC) where the miRNA and its mRNA target interact.
miRNA biogenesis in plants differs from animal biogenesis mainly in the steps of nuclear processing and export. Instead of being cleaved by two different enzymes, once inside and once outside the nucleus, both cleavages of the plant miRNA are performed by a Dicer homolog, called Dicer - like1 (DL1). DL1 is expressed only in the nucleus of plant cells, which indicates that both reactions take place inside the nucleus. Before plant miRNA: miRNA * duplexes are transported out of the nucleus, its 3 ' overhangs are methylated by a RNA methyltransferaseprotein called Hua - Enhancer1 (HEN1). The duplex is then transported out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm by a protein called Hasty (HST), an Exportin 5 homolog, where they disassemble and the mature miRNA is incorporated into the RISC.
The mature miRNA is part of an active RNA - induced silencing complex (RISC) containing Dicer and many associated proteins. RISC is also known as a microRNA ribonucleoprotein complex (miRNP); A RISC with incorporated miRNA is sometimes referred to as a "miRISC. ''
Dicer processing of the pre-miRNA is thought to be coupled with unwinding of the duplex. Generally, only one strand is incorporated into the miRISC, selected on the basis of its thermodynamic instability and weaker base - pairing on the 5 ' end relative to the other strand. The position of the stem - loop may also influence strand choice. The other strand, called the passenger strand due to its lower levels in the steady state, is denoted with an asterisk (*) and is normally degraded. In some cases, both strands of the duplex are viable and become functional miRNA that target different mRNA populations.
Members of the Argonaute (Ago) protein family are central to RISC function. Argonautes are needed for miRNA - induced silencing and contain two conserved RNA binding domains: a PAZ domain that can bind the single stranded 3 ' end of the mature miRNA and a PIWI domain that structurally resembles ribonuclease - H and functions to interact with the 5 ' end of the guide strand. They bind the mature miRNA and orient it for interaction with a target mRNA. Some argonautes, for example human Ago2, cleave target transcripts directly; argonautes may also recruit additional proteins to achieve translational repression. The human genome encodes eight argonaute proteins divided by sequence similarities into two families: AGO (with four members present in all mammalian cells and called E1F2C / hAgo in humans), and PIWI (found in the germ line and hematopoietic stem cells).
Additional RISC components include TRBP (human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transactivating response RNA (TAR) binding protein), PACT (protein activator of the interferon - induced protein kinase), the SMN complex, fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP), Tudor staphylococcal nuclease - domain - containing protein (Tudor - SN), the putative DNA helicase MOV10, and the RNA recognition motif containing protein TNRC6B.
Gene silencing may occur either via mRNA degradation or preventing mRNA from being translated. For example, miR16 contains a sequence complementary to the AU - rich element found in the 3'UTR of many unstable mRNAs, such as TNF alpha or GM - CSF. It has been demonstrated that given complete complementarity between the miRNA and target mRNA sequence, Ago2 can cleave the mRNA and lead to direct mRNA degradation. Absent complementarity, silencing is achieved by preventing translation. The relation of miRNA and its target mRNA (s) can be based on the simple negative regulation of a target mRNA, but it seems that a common scenario is the use of a "coherent feed - forward loop '', "mutual negative feedback loop '' (also termed double negative loop) and "positive feedback / feed - forward loop '' Some miRNAs work as buffers of random gene expression changes arising due to stochastic events in transcription, translation and protein stability. Such regulation is typically achieved by the virtue of negative feedback loops or incoherent feed - forward loop uncoupling protein output from mRNA transcription.
Turnover of mature miRNA is needed for rapid changes in miRNA expression profiles. During miRNA maturation in the cytoplasm, uptake by the Argonaute protein is thought to stabilize the guide strand, while the opposite (* or "passenger '') strand is preferentially destroyed. In what has been called a "Use it or lose it '' strategy, Argonaute may preferentially retain miRNAs with many targets over miRNAs with few or no targets, leading to degradation of the non-targeting molecules.
Decay of mature miRNAs in Caenorhabditis elegans is mediated by the 5 _́ - to - 3 _́ exoribonuclease XRN2, also known as Rat1p. In plants, SDN (small RNA degrading nuclease) family members degrade miRNAs in the opposite (3 ' - to - 5 ') direction. Similar enzymes are encoded in animal genomes, but their roles have not been described.
Several miRNA modifications affect miRNA stability. As indicated by work in the model organism Arabidopsis thaliana (thale cress), mature plant miRNAs appear to be stabilized by the addition of methyl moieties at the 3 ' end. The 2 ' - O - conjugated methyl groups block the addition of uracil (U) residues by uridyltransferase enzymes, a modification that may be associated with miRNA degradation. However, uridylation may also protect some miRNAs; the consequences of this modification are incompletely understood. Uridylation of some animal miRNAs has been reported. Both plant and animal miRNAs may be altered by addition of adenine (A) residues to the 3 ' end of the miRNA. An extra A added to the end of mammalian miR - 122, a liver - enriched miRNA important in hepatitis C, stabilizes the molecule and plant miRNAs ending with an adenine residue have slower decay rates.
The function of miRNAs appears to be in gene regulation. For that purpose, a miRNA is complementary to a part of one or more messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Animal miRNAs are usually complementary to a site in the 3 ' UTR whereas plant miRNAs are usually complementary to coding regions of mRNAs. Perfect or near perfect base pairing with the target RNA promotes cleavage of the RNA. This is the primary mode of plant miRNAs. In animals the match - ups are imperfect.
For partially complementary microRNAs to recognise their targets, nucleotides 2 -- 7 of the miRNA (its ' seed region ') must be perfectly complementary. Animal miRNAs inhibit protein translation of the target mRNA (this is present but less common in plants). Partially complementary microRNAs can also speed up deadenylation, causing mRNAs to be degraded sooner. While degradation of miRNA - targeted mRNA is well documented, whether or not translational repression is accomplished through mRNA degradation, translational inhibition, or a combination of the two is hotly debated. Recent work on miR - 430 in zebrafish, as well as on bantam - miRNA and miR - 9 in Drosophila cultured cells, shows that translational repression is caused by the disruption of translation initiation, independent of mRNA deadenylation.
miRNAs occasionally also cause histone modification and DNA methylation of promoter sites, which affects the expression of target genes.
Nine mechanisms of miRNA action are described and assembled in a unified mathematical model:
It is often impossible to discern these mechanisms using experimental data about stationary reaction rates. Nevertheless, they are differentiated in dynamics and have different kinetic signatures.
Unlike plant microRNAs, the animal microRNAs target diverse genes. However, genes involved in functions common to all cells, such as gene expression, have relatively fewer microRNA target sites and seem to be under selection to avoid targeting by microRNAs.
dsRNA can also activate gene expression, a mechanism that has been termed "small RNA - induced gene activation '' or RNAa. dsRNAs targeting gene promoters can induce potent transcriptional activation of associated genes. This was demonstrated in human cells using synthetic dsRNAs termed small activating RNAs (saRNAs), but has also been demonstrated for endogenous microRNA.
Interactions between microRNAs and complementary sequences on genes and even pseudogenes that share sequence homology are thought to be a back channel of communication regulating expression levels between paralogous genes. Given the name "competing endogenous RNAs '' (ceRNAs), these microRNAs bind to "microRNA response elements '' on genes and pseudogenes and may provide another explanation for the persistence of non-coding DNA.
microRNAs are useful phylogenetic markers because of their apparently low rate of evolution. microRNAs ' origin as a regulatory mechanism developed from previous RNAi machinery that was initially used as a defense against exogenous genetic material such as viruses. Their origin may have permitted the development of morphological innovation, and by making gene expression more specific and ' fine - tunable ', permitted the genesis of complex organs and perhaps, ultimately, complex life. Rapid bursts of morphological innovation are generally associated with a high rate of microRNA accumulation.
New microRNAs are created in multiple ways. Novel microRNAs can originate from the random formation of hairpins in "non-coding '' sections of DNA (i.e. introns or intergene regions), but also by the duplication and modification of existing microRNAs. microRNAs can also form from inverted duplications of protein - coding sequences, which allows for the creation of a foldback hairpin structure. The rate of evolution (i.e. nucleotide substitution) in recently originated microRNAs is comparable to that elsewhere in the non-coding DNA, implying evolution by neutral drift; however, older microRNAs have a much lower rate of change (often less than one substitution per hundred million years), suggesting that once a microRNA gains a function, it undergoes purifying selection. Individual regions within an miRNA gene face different evolutionary pressures, where regions that are vital for processing and function have higher levels of conservation. At this point, a microRNA is rarely lost from an animal 's genome, although newer microRNAs (thus presumably non-functional) are frequently lost. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the net flux of miRNA genes has been predicted to be between 1.2 and 3.3 genes per million years. This makes them a valuable phylogenetic marker, and they are being looked upon as a possible solution to outstanding phylogenetic problems such as the relationships of arthropods. On the other hand, in multiple cases microRNAs correlate poorly with phylogeny, and it is possible that their phylogenetic concordance largely reflects a limited sampling of microRNAs.
microRNAs feature in the genomes of most eukaryotic organisms, from the brown algae to the animals. However, the difference in how these microRNAs function and the way they are processed suggests that microRNAs arose independently in plants and animals.
Focusing on the animals, the genome of Mnemiopsis leidyi appears to lack recognizable microRNAs, as well as the nuclear proteins Drosha and Pasha, which are critical to canonical microRNA biogenesis. It is the only animal thus far reported to be missing Drosha. MicroRNAs play a vital role in the regulation of gene expression in all non-ctenophore animals investigated thus far except for Trichoplax adhaerens, the only known member of the phylum Placozoa.
Across all species, in excess of 5000 different miRNAs had been identified by March 2010. Whilst short RNA sequences (50 -- hundreds of base pairs) of a broadly comparable function occur in bacteria, bacteria lack true microRNAs.
While researchers focused on miRNA expression in physiological and pathological processes, various technical variables related to microRNA isolation emerged. The stability of stored miRNA samples has been questioned. microRNAs degrade much more easily than mRNAs, partly due to their length, but also because of ubiquitously present RNases. This makes it necessary to cool samples on ice and use RNase - free equipment.
microRNA expression can be quantified in a two - step polymerase chain reaction process of modified RT - PCR followed by quantitative PCR. Variations of this method achieve absolute or relative quantification. miRNAs can also be hybridized to microarrays, slides or chips with probes to hundreds or thousands of miRNA targets, so that relative levels of miRNAs can be determined in different samples. microRNAs can be both discovered and profiled by high - throughput sequencing methods (microRNA sequencing). The activity of an miRNA can be experimentally inhibited using a locked nucleic acid (LNA) oligo, a Morpholino oligo or a 2 ' - O - methyl RNA oligo. A specific miRNA can be silenced by a complementary antagomir. microRNA maturation can be inhibited at several points by steric - blocking oligos. The miRNA target site of an mRNA transcript can also be blocked by a steric - blocking oligo. For the "in situ '' detection of miRNA, LNA or Morpholino probes can be used. The locked conformation of LNA results in enhanced hybridization properties and increases sensitivity and selectivity, making it ideal for detection of short miRNA.
High - throughput quantification of miRNAs is error prone, for the larger variance (compared to mRNAs) that comes with methodological problems. mRNA - expression is therefore often analyzed to check for miRNA - effects in their levels (e.g. in). Databases can be used to pair mRNA - and miRNA - data that predict miRNA - targets based on their base sequence. While this is usually done after miRNAs of interest have been detected (e.g. because of high expression levels), ideas for analysis tools that integrate mRNA - and miRNA - expression information have been proposed.
Just as miRNA is involved in the normal functioning of eukaryotic cells, so has dysregulation of miRNA been associated with disease. A manually curated, publicly available database, miR2Disease, documents known relationships between miRNA dysregulation and human disease.
A mutation in the seed region of miR - 96, causes hereditary progressive hearing loss.
A mutation in the seed region of miR - 184, causes hereditary keratoconus with anterior polar cataract.
Deletion of the miR - 17 ~ 92 cluster, causes skeletal and growth defects.
The first human disease known to be associated with miRNA deregulation was chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Many other miRNAs also have links with cancer and accordingly are sometimes referred to as "oncomirs ''. In malignant B cells miRNAs participate in pathways fundamental to B cell development like B - cell receptor (BCR) signalling, B - cell migration / adhesion, cell - cell interactions in immune niches and the production and class - switching of immunoglobulins. MiRNAs influence B cell maturation, generation of pre -, marginal zone, follicular, B1, plasma and memory B cells.
A study of mice altered to produce excess c - Myc -- a protein with mutated forms implicated in several cancers -- shows that miRNA affects the cancer development. Mice engineered to produce a surplus of types of miRNA found in lymphoma cells developed the disease within 50 days and died two weeks later. In contrast, mice without the surplus miRNA lived over 100 days. Leukemia can be caused by the insertion of a viral genome next to the 17 - 92 array of microRNAs, leading to increased expression of this microRNA.
Another study found that two types of miRNA inhibit the E2F1 protein, which regulates cell proliferation. miRNA appears to bind to messenger RNA before it can be translated to proteins that switch genes on and off.
By measuring activity among 217 genes encoding miRNAs, patterns of gene activity that can distinguish types of cancers were identified. miRNA profiling can determine whether patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia had slow growing or aggressive forms of the cancer.
A novel miRNA - profiling - based screening assay for the detection of early - stage colorectal cancer is undergoing a clinical trial. Early results showed that blood plasma samples collected from patients with early, resectable (Stage II) colorectal cancer could be distinguished from those of sex - and age - matched healthy volunteers. Sufficient selectivity and specificity could be achieved using small (less than 1 mL) samples of blood.
Another role for miRNA in cancers is to use their expression level for prognosis. For example, one study on NSCLC samples found that low miR - 324a levels could serve as an indicator of poor survival. Either high miR - 185 or low miR - 133b levels may correlate with metastasis and poor survival in colorectal cancer.
Furthermore, specific miRNAs may be associated with certain histological subtypes of colorectal cancer. For instance, expression levels of miR - 205 and miR - 373 have been shown to be increased in mucinous colorectal cancers and mucin - producing Ulcerative Colitis - associated colon cancers, but not in sporadic colonic adenocarcinoma that lack mucinous components. In - vitro studies suggested that miR - 205 and miR - 373 may functionally induce different features of mucinous - associated neoplastic progression in intestinal epithelial cells.
Hepatocellular carcinoma cell proliferation may arise from miR - 21 interaction with MAP2K3, a tumor repressor gene. Optimal treatment for cancer involves accurately identifying patients for risk - stratified therapy. Those with a rapid response to initial treatment may benefit from truncated treatment regimens, showing the value of accurate disease response measures. Cell - free miRNA are highly stable in blood, are overexpressed in cancer and are quantifiable within the diagnostic laboratory. In classical Hodgkin lymphoma, plasma miR - 21, miR - 494, and miR - 1973 are promising disease response biomarkers. Circulating miRNAs have the potential to assist clinical decision making and aid interpretation of positron emission tomography combined with computerized tomography. They can be performed at each consultation to assess disease response and detect relapse.
A 2009 study explored miR - 205 targeted for inhibiting the metastatic nature of breast cancer. Five members of the microRNA - 200 family (miR - 200a, miR - 200b, miR - 200c, miR - 141 and miR - 429) are down - regulated in tumour progression of breast cancer.
The specific microRNA, miR - 506 has been found to work as a tumor antagonist in several studies. In a 2014 study, a significant number of cervical cancer samples were found to have down - regulated expression of miR - 506. Additionally, studies found that miR - 506 works to promote apoptosis of cervical cancer cells, through its direct target hedgehog pathway transcription factor, Gli3.
A 2015 study used a triple helix of three miRNAs embedded in a dextran aldehyde / dendrimer gel in a mouse model of triple negative breast cancer. mir - 205 and mir - 212 targeted specific RNAs, while the other miRNA stabilized the others. The treatment reduced tumor sizes by 90 % with survival times of 75 days.
MicroRNAs have the potential to be used as targets for treatment of different cancers. The specific microRNA, miR - 506 has been found to work as a tumor antagonist in several studies. In a 2014 study, a significant number of cervical cancer samples were found to have downregulated expression of miR - 506. Additionally, studies found that miR - 506 works to promote apoptosis of cervical cancer cells, through its direct target hedgehog pathway transcription factor, Gli3.
DNA damage is considered to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. If DNA repair is deficient, damage can accumulate. Such damage can cause mutational errors during DNA replication due to error - prone translesion synthesis. Accumulated damage can also cause epigenetic alterations due to errors during DNA repair. Such mutations and epigenetic alterations can give rise to cancer (see malignant neoplasms).
Germ line mutations in DNA repair genes cause only 2 -- 5 % of colon cancer cases. However, altered expression of microRNAs, causing DNA repair deficiencies, are frequently associated with cancers and may be an important causal factor.
Among 68 sporadic colon cancers with reduced expression of the DNA mismatch repair protein MLH1, most were found to be deficient due to epigenetic methylation of the CpG island of the MLH1 gene. However, up to 15 % of MLH1 - deficiencies in sporadic colon cancers appeared to be due to over-expression of the microRNA miR - 155, which represses MLH1 expression.
In 29 -- 66 % of glioblastomas, DNA repair is deficient due to epigenetic methylation of the MGMT gene, which reduces protein expression of MGMT. However, for 28 % of glioblastomas, the MGMT protein is deficient, but the MGMT promoter is not methylated. In glioblastomas without methylated MGMT promoters, the level of microRNA miR - 181d is inversely correlated with protein expression of MGMT and the direct target of miR - 181d is the MGMT mRNA 3'UTR (the three prime untranslated region of MGMT mRNA). Thus, in 28 % of glioblastomas, increased expression of miR - 181d and reduced expression of DNA repair enzyme MGMT may be a causal factor.
HMGA proteins (HMGA1a, HMGA1b and HMGA2) are implicated in cancer, and expression of these proteins is regulated by microRNAs. HMGA expression is almost undetectable in differentiated adult tissues, but is elevated in many cancers. HMGA proteins are polypeptides of ~ 100 amino acid residues characterized by a modular sequence organization. These proteins have three highly positively charged regions, termed AT hooks, that bind the minor groove of AT - rich DNA stretches in specific regions of DNA. Human neoplasias, including thyroid, prostatic, cervical, colorectal, pancreatic and ovarian carcinomas, show a strong increase of HMGA1a and HMGA1b proteins. Transgenic mice with HMGA1 targeted to lymphoid cells develop aggressive lymphoma, showing that high HMGA1 expression is associated with cancers and that HMGA1 can act as an oncogene. A 2003 study showed that HMGA1 protein binds to the promoter region of DNA repair gene BRCA1 and inhibits BRCA1 promoter activity. They also showed that while only 11 % of breast tumors had hypermethylation of the BRCA1 gene, 82 % of aggressive breast cancers have low BRCA1 protein expression, and most of these reductions were due to chromatin remodeling by high levels of HMGA1 protein.
HMGA2 protein specifically targets the promoter of ERCC1, thus reducing expression of this DNA repair gene. ERCC1 protein expression was deficient in 100 % of 47 evaluated colon cancers (though the extent to which HGMA2 was involved is not known). A 2012 study showed that in normal tissues, HGMA1 and HMGA2 genes are targeted (and thus strongly reduced in expression) by miR - 15, miR - 16, miR - 26a, miR - 196a2 and Let - 7a. However, each of these HMGA - targeting miRNAs are drastically reduced in almost all human pituitary adenomas studied, when compared with the normal pituitary gland. Consistent with the down - regulation of these HMGA - targeting miRNAs, an increase in the HMGA1 and HMGA2 - specific mRNAs was observed. Three of these microRNAs (miR - 16, miR - 196a and Let - 7a) have methylated promoters and therefore low expression in colon cancer. For two of these, miR - 15 and miR - 16, the coding regions are epigenetically silenced in cancer due to histone deacetylase activity. When these microRNAs are expressed at a low level, then HMGA1 and HMGA2 proteins are expressed at a high level. HMGA1 and HMGA2 target (reduce expression of) BRCA1 and ERCC1 DNA repair genes. Thus DNA repair can be reduced, likely contributing to cancer progression.
In contrast to the previous example, where under - expression of miRNAs indirectly caused reduced expression of DNA repair genes, in some cases over-expression of certain miRNAs may directly reduce expression of specific DNA repair proteins. A 2011 study referred to 6 DNA repair genes that are directly targeted by the miRNAs indicated: ATM (miR - 421), RAD52 (miR - 210, miR - 373), RAD23B (miR - 373), MSH2 (miR - 21), BRCA1 (miR - 182) and P53 (miR - 504, miR - 125b). More recently, A 2014 study listed multiple DNA repair genes directly targeted by these additional miRNAs: ATM (miR - 100, miR18a, miR - 101), DNA - PK (miR - 101), ATR (mir - 185), Wip1 (miR - 16), MLH1, MSH2, MSH6 (miR - 155), ERCC3, ERCC4 (miR - 192) and UNG2 (miR - 16, miR - 34c). Among these miRNAs, miR - 16, miR - 18a, miR - 21, miR - 34c, miR - 101, miR - 125b, miR - 155, miR - 182, miR - 185, miR - 192 and miR - 373 were identified as over-expressed in colon cancer through epigenetic hypomethylation. Over expression of any one of these miRNAs can cause reduced expression of its target DNA repair gene.
The global role of miRNA function in the heart has been addressed by conditionally inhibiting miRNA maturation in the murine heart. This revealed that miRNAs play an essential role during its development. miRNA expression profiling studies demonstrate that expression levels of specific miRNAs change in diseased human hearts, pointing to their involvement in cardiomyopathies. Furthermore, animal studies on specific miRNAs identified distinct roles for miRNAs both during heart development and under pathological conditions, including the regulation of key factors important for cardiogenesis, the hypertrophic growth response and cardiac conductance. miRNA 's in animal models have also been linked to cholesterol metabolism and regulation.
Murine microRNA - 712 is a potential biomarker (i.e. predictor) for atherosclerosis, a cardiovascular disease of the arterial wall associated with lipid retention and inflammation. Non-laminar blood flow also correlates with development of atherosclerosis as mechanosenors of endothelial cells respond to the shear force of disturbed flow (d - flow). A number of pro-atherogenic genes including matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are upregulated by d - flow, mediating pro-inflammatory and pro-angiogenic signals. These findings were observed in ligated carotid arteries of mice to mimic the effects of d - flow. Within 24 hours, pre-existing immature miR - 712 formed mature miR - 712 suggesting that miR - 712 is flow - sensitive. Coinciding with these results, miR - 712 is also upregulated in endothelial cells exposed to naturally occurring d - flow in the greater curvature of the aortic arch.
Pre-mRNA sequence of miR - 712 is generated from the murine ribosomal RN45s gene at the internal transcribed spacer region 2 (ITS2). XRN1 is an exonuclease that degrades the ITS2 region during processing of RN45s. Reduction of XRN1 under d - flow conditions therefore leads to the accumulation of miR - 712.
MiR - 712 targets tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 3 (TIMP3). TIMPs normally regulate activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) which degrade the extracellular matrix (ECM). Arterial ECM is mainly composed of collagen and elastin fibers, providing the structural support and recoil properties of arteries. These fibers play a critical role in regulation of vascular inflammation and permeability, which are important in the development of atherosclerosis. Expressed by endothelial cells, TIMP3 is the only ECM - bound TIMP. A decrease in TIMP3 expression results in an increase of ECM degradation in the presence of d - flow. Consistent with these findings, inhibition of pre-miR712 increases expression of TIMP3 in cells, even when exposed to turbulent flow.
TIMP3 also decreases the expression of TNFα (a pro-inflammatory regulator) during turbulent flow. Activity of TNFα in turbulent flow was measured by the expression of TNFα - converting enzyme (TACE) in blood. TNFα decreased if miR - 712 was inhibited or TIMP3 overexpressed, suggesting that miR - 712 and TIMP3 regulate TACE activity in turbulent flow conditions.
Anti-miR - 712 effectively suppresses d - flow - induced miR - 712 expression and increases TIMP3 expression. Anti-miR - 712 also inhibits vascular hyperpermeability, thereby significantly reducing atherosclerosis lesion development and immune cell infiltration.
The human homolog of miR - 712 was found on the RN45s homolog gene, which maintains similar miRNAs to mice. MiR - 205 of humans sshare similar sequences with miR - 712 of mice and is conserved across most vertebrates. MiR - 205 and miR - 712 also share more than 50 % of the cell signaling targets, including TIMP3.
When tested, d - flow decreased the expression of XRN1 in humans as it did in mice endothelial cells, indicating a potentially common role of XRN1 in humans.
Targeted deletion of Dicer in the FoxD1 - derived renal progenitor cells in a murine model resulted in a complex renal phenotype including expansion of nephron progenitors, fewer renin cells, smooth muscle arterioles, progressive mesangial loss and glomerular aneurysms. High throughput whole transcriptome profiling of the FoxD1 - Dicer knockout mouse model revealed ectopic upregulation of pro-apoptotic gene, Bcl2L11 (Bim) and dysregulation of the p53 pathway with increase in p53 effector genes including Bax, Trp53inp1, Jun, Cdkn1a, Mmp2, and Arid3a. p53 protein levels remained unchanged, suggesting that FoxD1 stromal miRNAs directly repress p53 - effector genes. Using a lineage tracing approach followed by Fluorescent - activated cell sorting, miRNA profiling of the FoxD1 - derived cells not only comprehensively defined the transcriptional landscape of miRNAs that are critical for vascular development, but also identified key miRNAs that are likely to modulate the renal phenotype in its absence. These miRNAs include miRs ‐ 10a, 18a, 19b, 24, 30c, 92a, 106a, 130a, 152, 181a, 214, 222, 302a, 370, and 381 that regulate Bcl2L11 (Bim) and miRs ‐ 15b, 18a, 21, 30c, 92a, 106a, 125b ‐ 5p, 145, 214, 222, 296 ‐ 5p and 302a that regulate p53 - effector genes. Consistent with the profiling results, ectopic apoptosis was observed in the cellular derivatives of the FoxD1 derived progenitor lineage and reiterates the importance of renal stromal miRNAs in cellular homeostasis.
miRNAs appear to regulate the development and function of the nervous system. Neural miRNAs are involved at various stages of synaptic development, including dendritogenesis (involving miR - 132, miR - 134 and miR - 124), synapse formation and synapse maturation (where miR - 134 and miR - 138 are thought to be involved). Some studies find altered miRNA expression in schizophrenia, as well as bipolar disorder and major depression and anxiety disorders.
The vital role of miRNAs in gene expression is significant to addiction, specifically alcoholism. Chronic alcohol abuse results in persistent changes in brain function mediated in part by alterations in gene expression. miRNA global regulation of many downstream genes deems significant regarding the reorganization or synaptic connections or long term neuroadaptions involving the behavioral change from alcohol consumption to withdrawal and / or dependence. Up to 35 different miRNAs have been found to be altered in the alcoholic post-mortem brain, all of which target genes that include the regulation of the cell cycle, apoptosis, cell adhesion, nervous system development and cell signaling. Altered miRNA levels were found in the medial prefrontal cortex of alcohol - dependent mice, suggesting the role of miRNA in orchestrating translational imbalances and the creation of differentially expressed proteins within an area of the brain where complex cognitive behavior and decision making likely originate.
miRNAs can be either upregulated or downregulated in response to chronic alcohol use. miR - 206 expression increased in the prefrontal cortex of alcohol - dependent rats, targeting the transcription factor brain - derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and ultimately reducing its expression. BDNF plays a critical role in the formation and maturation of new neurons and synapses, suggesting a possible implication in synapse growth / synaptic plasticity in alcohol abusers. miR - 155, important in regulating alcohol - induced neuroinflammation responses, was found to be upregulated, suggesting the role of microglia and inflammatory cytokines in alcohol pathophysiology. Downregulation of miR - 382 was found in the nucleus accumbens, a structure in the basal forebrain significant in regulating feelings of reward that power motivational habits. miR - 382 is the target for the dopamine receptor D1 (DRD1), and its overexpression results in the upregulation of DRD1 and delta fosB, a transcription factor that activates a series of transcription events in the nucleus accumbens that ultimately result in addictive behaviors. Alternatively, overexpressing miR - 382 resulted in attenuated drinking and the inhibition of DRD1 and delta fosB upregulation in rat models of alcoholism, demonstrating the possibility of using miRNA - targeted pharmaceuticals in treatments.
miRNAs play crucial roles in the regulation of stem cell progenitors differentiating into adipocytes. Studies to determine what role pluripotent stem cells play in adipogenesis, were examined in the immortalized human bone marrow - derived stromal cell line hMSC - Tert20. Decreased expression of miR - 155, miR - 221, and miR - 222, have been found during the adipogenic programming of both immortalized and primary hMSCs, suggesting that they act as negative regulators of differentiation. Conversely, ectopic expression of the miRNAs 155,221, and 222 significantly inhibited adipogenesis and repressed induction of the master regulators PPARγ and CCAAT / enhancer - binding protein alpha (CEBPA). This paves the way for possible genetic obesity treatments.
Another class of miRNAs that regulate insulin resistance, obesity, and diabetes, is the let - 7 family. Let - 7 accumulates in human tissues during the course of aging. When let - 7 was ectopically overexpressed to mimic accelerated aging, mice became insulin - resistant, and thus more prone to high fat diet - induced obesity and diabetes. In contrast when let - 7 was inhibited by injections of let - 7 - specific antagomirs, mice become more insulin - sensitive and remarkably resistant to high fat diet - induced obesity and diabetes. Not only could let - 7 inhibition prevent obesity and diabetes, it could also reverse and cure the condition. These experimental findings suggest that let - 7 inhibition could represent a new therapy for obesity and type 2 diabetes.
When the human genome project mapped its first chromosome in 1999, it was predicted the genome would contain over 100,000 protein coding genes. However, only around 20,000 were eventually identified. Since then, the advent of bioinformatics approaches combined with genome tiling studies examining the transcriptome, systematic sequencing of full length cDNA libraries and experimental validation (including the creation of miRNA derived antisense oligonucleotides called antagomirs) have revealed that many transcripts are non protein - coding RNA, including several snoRNAs and miRNAs.
Viral microRNAs play an important role in the regulation of gene expression of viral and / or host genes to benefit the virus. Hence, miRNAs play a key role in host -- virus interactions and pathogenesis of viral diseases. The expression of transcription activators by human herpesvirus - 6 DNA is believed to be regulated by viral miRNA.
miRNAs can bind to target messenger RNA (mRNA) transcripts of protein - coding genes and negatively control their translation or cause mRNA degradation. It is of key importance to identify the miRNA targets accurately. A comparison of the predictive performance of eighteen in silico algorithms is available.
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what is the size of europe in comparison to the other continents | Continent - wikipedia
A continent is one of several very large landmasses of the world. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in size to smallest, they are: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia.
Geologically the continents largely correspond to areas of continental crust that are found on the continental plates. However, some areas of continental crust are regions covered with water not usually included in the list of continents. The area referred to as Zealandia is one such area (see submerged continents below).
Islands are frequently grouped with a neighbouring continent to divide all the world 's land into geopolitical regions. Under this scheme, most of the island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean are grouped together with the continent of Australia to form a geopolitical region called Oceania.
By convention, "continents are understood to be large, continuous, discrete masses of land, ideally separated by expanses of water. '' Several of the seven conventionally recognized continents are not discrete landmasses separated completely by water. The criterion "large '' leads to arbitrary classification: Greenland, with a surface area of 2,166,086 square kilometres (836,330 sq mi) is considered the world 's largest island, while Australia, at 7,617,930 square kilometres (2,941,300 sq mi) is deemed the smallest continent.
Earth 's major landmasses all have coasts on a single, continuous World Ocean, which is divided into a number of principal oceanic components by the continents and various geographic criteria.
The most restricted meaning of continent is that of a continuous area of land or mainland, with the coastline and any land boundaries forming the edge of the continent. In this sense the term continental Europe (sometimes referred to in Britain as "the Continent '') is used to refer to mainland Europe, excluding islands such as Great Britain, Ireland, Malta and Iceland, and the term continent of Australia may refer to the mainland of Australia, excluding Tasmania and New Guinea. Similarly, the continental United States refers to the 48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia in central North America and may include Alaska in the northwest of the continent (the two being separated by Canada), while excluding Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Guam in the oceans.
From the perspective of geology or physical geography, continent may be extended beyond the confines of continuous dry land to include the shallow, submerged adjacent area (the continental shelf) and the islands on the shelf (continental islands), as they are structurally part of the continent.
From this perspective the edge of the continental shelf is the true edge of the continent, as shorelines vary with changes in sea level. In this sense the islands of Great Britain and Ireland are part of Europe, while Australia and the island of New Guinea together form a continent.
As a cultural construct, the concept of a continent may go beyond the continental shelf to include oceanic islands and continental fragments. In this way, Iceland is considered part of Europe and Madagascar part of Africa. Extrapolating the concept to its extreme, some geographers group the Australian continental plate with other islands in the Pacific into one continent called Oceania. This divides the entire land surface of Earth into continents or quasi-continents.
The ideal criterion that each continent be a discrete landmass is commonly relaxed due to historical conventions. Of the seven most globally recognized continents, only Antarctica and Australia are completely separated from other continents by ocean. Several continents are defined not as absolutely distinct bodies but as "more or less discrete masses of land ''. Asia and Africa are joined by the Isthmus of Suez, and North and South America by the Isthmus of Panama. In both cases, there is no complete separation of these landmasses by water (disregarding the Suez Canal and Panama Canal, which are both narrow and shallow, as well as being artificial). Both these isthmuses are very narrow compared to the bulk off the landmasses they unite.
North America and South America are treated as separate continents in the seven - continent model. However, they may also be viewed as a single continent known as America or the Americas. This viewpoint was common in the United States until World War II, and remains prevalent in some Asian six - continent models. This remains the more common vision in Latin American countries, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy and Greece, where they are taught as a single continent.
The criterion of a discrete landmass is completely disregarded if the continuous landmass of Eurasia is classified as two separate continents: Europe and Asia. Physiographically, Europe and South Asia are peninsulas of the Eurasian landmass. However, Europe is widely considered a continent with its comparatively large land area of 10,180,000 square kilometres (3,930,000 sq mi), while South Asia, with less than half that area, is considered a subcontinent. The alternative view -- in geology and geography -- that Eurasia is a single continent results in a six - continent view of the world. Some view separation of Eurasia into Asia and Europe as a residue of Eurocentrism: "In physical, cultural and historical diversity, China and India are comparable to the entire European landmass, not to a single European country. (...). '' However, for historical and cultural reasons, the view of Europe as a separate continent continues in several categorizations.
If continents are defined strictly as discrete landmasses, embracing all the contiguous land of a body, then Africa, Asia, and Europe form a single continent which may be referred to as Afro - Eurasia. This produces a four - continent model consisting of Afro - Eurasia, America, Antarctica and Australia.
When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice ages, greater areas of continental shelf were exposed as dry land, forming land bridges. At those times Australia -- New Guinea was a single, continuous continent. Likewise the Americas and Afro - Eurasia were joined by the Bering land bridge. Other islands such as Great Britain were joined to the mainlands of their continents. At that time there were just three discrete continents: Afro - Eurasia - America, Antarctica, and Australia - New Guinea.
There are several ways of distinguishing the continents:
The term Oceania refers to a group of island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean, together with the continent of Australia. Pacific islands with ties to other continents (such as Japan, Hawaii or Easter Island) are usually grouped with those continents rather than Oceania. This term is used in several different continental models instead of Australia.
The following table summarizes area and population of each continental region using the seven continent model.
The total land area of all continents is 148,647,000 square kilometres (57,393,000 sq mi), or 29.1 % of earth 's surface (510,065,600 km or 196,937,400 sq mi).
Aside from the conventionally known continents, the scope and meaning of the term continent varies. Supercontinents, largely in evidence earlier in the geological record, are landmasses that comprise more than one craton or continental core. These have included Laurasia, Gondwana, Vaalbara, Kenorland, Columbia, Rodinia, and Pangaea.
Certain parts of continents are recognized as subcontinents, especially the large peninsulas separated from the main continental landmass by geographical features. The most notable examples are the Indian subcontinent and the Arabian Peninsula. The southern cone of South America and Alaskan peninsula of North America are other examples.
In many of these cases, the "subcontinents '' concerned are on different tectonic plates from the rest of the continent, providing a geological justification for the terminology. Greenland, generally reckoned as the world 's largest island on the northeastern periphery of the North American Plate, is sometimes referred to as a subcontinent. This is a significant departure from the more conventional view of a subcontinent as comprising a very large peninsula on the fringe of a continent.
Where the Americas are viewed as a single continent (America), it is divided into two subcontinents (North America and South America) or three (with Central America being the third). When Eurasia is regarded as a single continent, Europe is treated as a subcontinent.
Some areas of continental crust are largely covered by the sea and may be considered submerged continents. Notable examples are Zealandia, emerging from the sea primarily in New Zealand and New Caledonia, and the almost completely submerged Kerguelen Plateau in the southern Indian Ocean.
Some islands lie on sections of continental crust that have rifted and drifted apart from a main continental landmass. While not considered continents because of their relatively small size, they may be considered microcontinents. Madagascar, the largest example, is usually considered an island of Africa but has been referred to as "the eighth continent '' from a biological perspective.
"Continents '' may be defined differently for specific purposes. The Biodiversity Information Standards organization has developed the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions, used in many international plant databases. This scheme divides the world into nine "botanical continents ''. Some match the traditional geographical continents, but some differ significantly. Thus the Americas are divided between Northern America (Mexico northwards) and Southern America (Central America and the Caribbean southwards) rather than between North America and South America.
The term "continent '' translates Greek ἤπειρος, properly "landmass, terra firma '', the proper name of Epirus and later especially used of Asia (i.e. Asia Minor), The first distinction between continents was made by ancient Greek mariners who gave the names Europe and Asia to the lands on either side of the waterways of the Aegean Sea, the Dardanelles strait, the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus strait and the Black Sea. The names were first applied just to lands near the coast and only later extended to include the hinterlands. But the division was only carried through to the end of navigable waterways and "... beyond that point the Hellenic geographers never succeeded in laying their finger on any inland feature in the physical landscape that could offer any convincing line for partitioning an indivisible Eurasia... ''
Ancient Greek thinkers subsequently debated whether Africa (then called Libya) should be considered part of Asia or a third part of the world. Division into three parts eventually came to predominate. From the Greek viewpoint, the Aegean Sea was the center of the world; Asia lay to the east, Europe to the north and west, and Africa to the south. The boundaries between the continents were not fixed. Early on, the Europe -- Asia boundary was taken to run from the Black Sea along the Rioni River (known then as the Phasis) in Georgia. Later it was viewed as running from the Black Sea through Kerch Strait, the Sea of Azov and along the Don River (known then as the Tanais) in Russia. The boundary between Asia and Africa was generally taken to be the Nile River. Herodotus in the 5th century BC, however, objected to the unity of Egypt being split into Asia and Africa ("Libya '') and took the boundary to lie along the western border of Egypt, regarding Egypt as part of Asia. He also questioned the division into three of what is really a single landmass, a debate that continues nearly two and a half millennia later.
Eratosthenes, in the 3rd century BC, noted that some geographers divided the continents by rivers (the Nile and the Don), thus considering them "islands ''. Others divided the continents by isthmuses, calling the continents "peninsulas ''. These latter geographers set the border between Europe and Asia at the isthmus between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, and the border between Asia and Africa at the isthmus between the Red Sea and the mouth of Lake Bardawil on the Mediterranean Sea.
Through the Roman period and the Middle Ages, a few writers took the Isthmus of Suez as the boundary between Asia and Africa, but most writers continued to consider it the Nile or the western border of Egypt (Gibbon). In the Middle Ages, the world was usually portrayed on T and O maps, with the T representing the waters dividing the three continents. By the middle of the 18th century, "the fashion of dividing Asia and Africa at the Nile, or at the Great Catabathmus (the boundary between Egypt and Libya) farther west, had even then scarcely passed away ''.
Christopher Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to the West Indies in 1492, sparking a period of European exploration of the Americas. But despite four voyages to the Americas, Columbus never believed he had reached a new continent -- he always thought it was part of Asia.
In 1501, Amerigo Vespucci and Gonçalo Coelho attempted to sail around what they considered the southern end of the Asian mainland into the Indian Ocean, passing through Fernando de Noronha. After reaching the coast of Brazil, they sailed a long way further south along the coast of South America, confirming that this was a land of continental proportions and that it also extended much further south than Asia was known to. On return to Europe, an account of the voyage, called Mundus Novus ("New World ''), was published under Vespucci 's name in 1502 or 1503, although it seems that it had additions or alterations by another writer. Regardless of who penned the words, Mundus Novus credited Vespucci with saying, "I have discovered a continent in those southern regions that is inhabited by more numerous people and animals than our Europe, or Asia or Africa '', the first known explicit identification of part of the Americas as a continent like the other three.
Within a few years the name "New World '' began appearing as a name for South America on world maps, such as the Oliveriana (Pesaro) map of around 1504 -- 1505. Maps of this time though, still showed North America connected to Asia and showed South America as a separate land.
In 1507 Martin Waldseemüller published a world map, Universalis Cosmographia, which was the first to show North and South America as separate from Asia and surrounded by water. A small inset map above the main map explicitly showed for the first time the Americas being east of Asia and separated from Asia by an ocean, as opposed to just placing the Americas on the left end of the map and Asia on the right end. In the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, Waldseemüller noted that the earth is divided into four parts, Europe, Asia, Africa and the fourth part, which he named "America '' after Amerigo Vespucci 's first name. On the map, the word "America '' was placed on part of South America.
From the 16th century the English noun continent was derived from the term continent land, meaning continuous or connected land and translated from the Latin terra continens. The noun was used to mean "a connected or continuous tract of land '' or mainland. It was not applied only to very large areas of land -- in the 17th century, references were made to the continents (or mainlands) of Isle of Man, Ireland and Wales and in 1745 to Sumatra. The word continent was used in translating Greek and Latin writings about the three "parts '' of the world, although in the original languages no word of exactly the same meaning as continent was used.
While continent was used on the one hand for relatively small areas of continuous land, on the other hand geographers again raised Herodotus 's query about why a single large landmass should be divided into separate continents. In the mid-17th century, Peter Heylin wrote in his Cosmographie that "A Continent is a great quantity of Land, not separated by any Sea from the rest of the World, as the whole Continent of Europe, Asia, Africa. '' In 1727, Ephraim Chambers wrote in his Cyclopædia, "The world is ordinarily divided into two grand continents: the old and the new. '' And in his 1752 atlas, Emanuel Bowen defined a continent as "a large space of dry land comprehending many countries all joined together, without any separation by water. Thus Europe, Asia, and Africa is one great continent, as America is another. '' However, the old idea of Europe, Asia and Africa as "parts '' of the world ultimately persisted with these being regarded as separate continents.
From the late 18th century, some geographers started to regard North America and South America as two parts of the world, making five parts in total. Overall though, the fourfold division prevailed well into the 19th century.
Europeans discovered Australia in 1606, but for some time it was taken as part of Asia. By the late 18th century, some geographers considered it a continent in its own right, making it the sixth (or fifth for those still taking America as a single continent). In 1813, Samuel Butler wrote of Australia as "New Holland, an immense island, which some geographers dignify with the appellation of another continent '' and the Oxford English Dictionary was just as equivocal some decades later.
Antarctica was sighted in 1820 during the First Russian Antarctic Expedition and described as a continent by Charles Wilkes on the United States Exploring Expedition in 1838, the last continent identified, although a great "Antarctic '' (antipodean) landmass had been anticipated for millennia. An 1849 atlas labelled Antarctica as a continent but few atlases did so until after World War II.
From the mid-19th century, atlases published in the United States more commonly treated North and South America as separate continents, while atlases published in Europe usually considered them one continent. However, it was still not uncommon for American atlases to treat them as one continent up until World War II.
From the 1950s, most U.S. geographers divided the Americas into two continents. With the addition of Antarctica, this made the seven - continent model. However, this division of the Americas never appealed to Latin Americans, who saw their region spanning an América as a single landmass, and there the conception of six continents remains dominant, as it does in scattered other countries.
Some geographers regard Europe and Asia together as a single continent, dubbed Eurasia. In this model, the world is divided into six continents, with North America and South America considered separate continents.
Geologists use the term continent in a different manner from geographers, where a continent is defined by continental crust: a platform of metamorphic and igneous rock, largely of granitic composition. Some geologists restrict the term ' continent ' to portions of the crust built around stable Precambrian "shield '', typically 1.5 to 3.8 billion years old, called a craton. The craton itself is an accretionary complex of ancient mobile belts (mountain belts) from earlier cycles of subduction, continental collision and break - up from plate tectonic activity. An outward - thickening veneer of younger, minimally deformed sedimentary rock covers much of the craton. The margins of geologic continents are characterized by currently active or relatively recently active mobile belts and deep troughs of accumulated marine or deltaic sediments. Beyond the margin, there is either a continental shelf and drop off to the basaltic ocean basin or the margin of another continent, depending on the current plate - tectonic setting of the continent. A continental boundary does not have to be a body of water. Over geologic time, continents are periodically submerged under large epicontinental seas, and continental collisions result in a continent becoming attached to another continent. The current geologic era is relatively anomalous in that so much of the continental areas are "high and dry ''; that is, many parts of the continents that were once below sea level are now elevated well above it due to changes in sea levels and the subsequent uplifting of those continental areas from tectonic activity.
Some argue that continents are accretionary crustal "rafts '' that, unlike the denser basaltic crust of the ocean basins, are not subjected to destruction through the plate tectonic process of subduction. This accounts for the great age of the rocks comprising the continental cratons. By this definition, Eastern Europe, India and some other regions could be regarded as continental masses distinct from the rest of Eurasia because they have separate ancient shield areas (i.e. East European craton and Indian craton). Younger mobile belts (such as the Ural Mountains and Himalayas) mark the boundaries between these regions and the rest of Eurasia.
There are many microcontinents, or continental fragments, that are built of continental crust but do not contain a craton. Some of these are fragments of Gondwana or other ancient cratonic continents: Zealandia, which includes New Zealand and New Caledonia; Madagascar; the northern Mascarene Plateau, which includes the Seychelles. Other islands, such as several in the Caribbean Sea, are composed largely of granitic rock as well, but all continents contain both granitic and basaltic crust, and there is no clear boundary as to which islands would be considered microcontinents under such a definition. The Kerguelen Plateau, for example, is largely volcanic, but is associated with the breakup of Gondwanaland and is considered a microcontinent, whereas volcanic Iceland and Hawaii are not. The British Isles, Sri Lanka, Borneo, and Newfoundland are margins of the Laurasian continent -- only separated by inland seas flooding its margins.
Plate tectonics offers yet another way of defining continents. Today, Europe and most of Asia constitute the unified Eurasian Plate, which is approximately coincident with the geographic Eurasian continent excluding India, Arabia, and far eastern Russia. India contains a central shield, and the geologically recent Himalaya mobile belt forms its northern margin. North America and South America are separate continents, the connecting isthmus being largely the result of volcanism from relatively recent subduction tectonics. North American continental rocks extend to Greenland (a portion of the Canadian Shield), and in terms of plate boundaries, the North American plate includes the easternmost portion of the Asian land mass. Geologists do not use these facts to suggest that eastern Asia is part of the North American continent, even though the plate boundary extends there; the word continent is usually used in its geographic sense and additional definitions ("continental rocks, '' "plate boundaries '') are used as appropriate.
The movement of plates has caused the formation and break - up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a supercontinent that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent Columbia or Nuna formed during a period of 2.0 -- 1.8 billion years and broke up about 1.5 -- 1.3 billion years ago. The supercontinent Rodinia is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth 's continents, and broken up into eight continents around 600 million years ago. The eight continents later re-assembled into another supercontinent called Pangaea; Pangaea broke up into Laurasia (which became North America and Eurasia) and Gondwana (which became the remaining continents).
The following table lists the seven continents with their highest and lowest points on land, sorted in decreasing highest points.
† The lowest exposed points are given for North America and Antarctica. The lowest non-submarine bedrock elevations in these continents are the trough beneath Jakobshavn Glacier (− 1,512 metres (− 4,961 ft)) and Bentley Subglacial Trench (− 2,540 metres (− 8,330 ft)), but these are covered by kilometers of ice.
Some sources list the Kuma -- Manych Depression (a remnant of the Paratethys) as the geological border between Europe and Asia. This would place the Caucasus outside of Europe, thus making Mont Blanc (elevation 4810 m) in the Graian Alps the highest point in Europe - the lowest point would still be the shore of the Caspian Sea.
Africa
Antarctica
Asia
Australia
Europe
North America
South America
Afro - Eurasia
America
Eurasia
Oceania
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who sang the song gloria in the 1960s | Gloria (Them song) - wikipedia
"Gloria '' is a song written by Northern Irish singer - songwriter Van Morrison and originally recorded by Morrison 's band Them in 1964 and released as the B - side of "Baby, Please Do n't Go ''. The song became a garage rock staple and a part of many rock bands ' repertoires. It is particularly memorable for its "Gloria! '' chorus. It is easy to play, as a simple three - chord song, and thus is popular with those learning to play guitar.
Morrison said that he wrote "Gloria '' while he performed with the Monarchs in Germany in the summer of 1963, at just about the time he turned 18 years old. He started to perform it at the Maritime Hotel when he returned to Belfast and joined up with the Gamblers to form the band Them. He would ad - lib lyrics as he performed, sometimes stretching the song to 15 or 20 minutes. After signing a contract with Dick Rowe and Decca, Them went to London for a recording session at Decca Three Studios in West Hampstead on 5 April 1964; "Gloria '' was one of the seven songs recorded that day. Besides Morrison, present were Billy Harrison on guitar, Alan Henderson on bass, Ronnie Millings on drums and Patrick John McCauley on keyboards. Rowe brought in session musicians Arthur Greenslade on organ and Bobby Graham on drums, since he considered the Them members too inexperienced. There remains some dispute about whether Millings and McCauley were miked up, but Alan Henderson contends that Them constituted the first rock group to use two drummers on a recording. Although some sources claim that Jimmy Page played second guitar, other sources deny this.
"Gloria '' was the B - side when "Baby, Please Do n't Go '' was released in the U.K. on 6 November 1964. It was re-released in 1973 on the Deram label, but did not chart.
One explanation for the timeless popularity of the song was offered in AllMusic 's review by Bill Janovitz:
The beauty of the original is that Van Morrison needs only to speak - sing, in his Howlin ' Wolf growl, "I watch her come up to my house / She knocks upon my door / And then she comes up to my room / I want to say she makes me feel all right / G-L-O-R-I-A! '' to convey his teenage lust. The original Latin meaning of the name is not lost on Morrison. Them never varies from the three chords, utilizing only dynamic changes to heighten the tension.
"Gloria '' was rated number 69 on Dave Marsh 's list in the 1989 book The Heart of Rock & Soul: The 1001 Greatest Singles Ever Made. He described the song as "one of the few rock songs that 's actually as raunchy as its reputation. ''
In his book Rock and Roll: The 100 Best Singles, Paul Williams said about the two sides of the "Baby Please Do n't Go / Gloria '' recording: "Into the heart of the beast... here is something so good, so pure, that if no other hint of it but this record existed, there would still be such a thing as rock and roll... Van Morrison 's voice a fierce beacon in the darkness, the lighthouse at the end of the world. Resulting in one of the most perfect rock anthems known to humankind. ''
Humourist Dave Barry joked that "You can throw a guitar off a cliff, and as it bounces off rocks on the way down, it will, all by itself, play Gloria. ''
In 1999, "Gloria '' by Them received the Grammy Hall of Fame Award. In 2000, "Gloria '' by Them was listed as number 81 on VH1 's list of The 100 Greatest Rock Songs of All Time. In 2004, "Gloria '' by Them was ranked # 208 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, moving down to # 211 in the 2010 updated list. "Gloria '' was also included in The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll twice: by Patti Smith and by Shadows of Knight.
Them 's recording of the song appeared in an episode of TV series The Sopranos, "Pine Barrens '', accompanying the appearance of Annabella Sciorra 's character Gloria Trillo. "Gloria '' by Them was played a number of times in the 1983 film The Outsiders and also sung while fending off the monster in the jukebox musical, Return to the Forbidden Planet. It was also professional skateboarder Jim Greco 's song in the video "Baker 2g ''.
Them
Shadows of Knight
Van Morrison and John Lee Hooker
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uniform partnership act vs revised uniform partnership act | Uniform partnership Act - wikipedia
The Uniform Partnership Act (UPA), which includes revisions that are sometimes called the Revised Uniform Partnership Act (RUPA), is a uniform act (similar to a model statute), proposed by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws ("NCCUSL '') for the governance of business partnerships by U.S. States. Several versions of UPA have been promulgated by the NCCUSL, the earliest having been put forth in 1914, and the most recent in 1997.
The NCCUSL 's first revision of UPA was promulgated in 1992 and amended in 1993 and 1994. The 1994 revision was often referred to as the Revised Uniform Partnership Act (RUPA). Confusion arose when the 1996 and 1997 versions were also called RUPA. Because of this confusion, the NCCUSL now officially refers to each UPA version as "Uniform Partnership Act (year), '' where "year '' is replaced by the actual year that NCCUSL approved it. Many people still use the term "RUPA '' to mean any version from 1994 forward. Thus, "RUPA '' may actually imply any version of UPA except the 1914 version.
The UPA and RUPA provide rules as to many aspects of a partnership relationship including formation, the ownership of partnership assets, the assessment of fiduciary duties, the settlement of partnership disputes, and termination. Each allows modification of these rules in the individual agreement among the partners. RUPA is significantly more detailed than is the UPA as to the degree to which the partnership agreement may modify the default rules set forth in the statute. RUPA also clarifies the nature of a partnership itself by clearly defining it as an entity rather than an aggregation of individuals. There are also a number of other important differences between UPA (1914) and subsequent versions.
The 1914 version of the UPA was enacted into law in every state except Louisiana. The most recent revision has been enacted into law by 37 states. The NCCUSL website lists the states that it considers to have adopted these and other uniform acts. However, due to state variations it is not appropriate to rely upon this listing.
The NCCUSL website lists these states as having adopted UPA (1997): Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota (substantially similar), Tennessee, Texas (substantially similar), U.S. Virgin Islands, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wyoming.
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why did the heavens not darken the final solution in history | Arno J. Mayer - wikipedia
Arno Joseph Mayer (born June 19, 1926) is a Luxembourg - born American historian who specializes in modern Europe, diplomatic history, and the Holocaust, and is currently Dayton - Stockton Professor of History, Emeritus, at Princeton University.
Mayer was born in 1926 into a Jewish family that fled to the United States during the Nazi invasion of Luxembourg in May 1940. He became a naturalized United States citizen in 1944; that same year he was drafted into the United States Army and served as an intelligence officer. He eventually became a morale officer for high - ranking German prisoners of war. He received his education at the City College of New York, the Graduate Institute of International Studies in Geneva and Yale University. He has been professor at Wesleyan University (1952 -- 53), Brandeis University (1954 -- 58) and Harvard University (1958 -- 61). He has taught at Princeton University since 1961.
A self - proclaimed "left dissident Marxist '', Mayer 's major interests are in modernization theory and what he calls "The Thirty Years ' Crisis '' between 1914 and 1945. Mayer posits that Europe was characterized in the 19th century by a rapid modernization in the economic field by industrialization and retardation in the political field. He has argued that what he refers to as "The Thirty Years ' Crisis '' was caused by the problems of a dynamic new society produced by industrialization facing a rigid political order. He feels that the aristocracy in all of the European countries held far too much power, and it was their efforts to keep power that led to World War I, the rise of fascism, World War II, and the Holocaust.
In a 1967 essay "The Primacy of Domestic Politics '', Mayer made a Primat der Innenpolitik ("primacy of domestic politics '') argument for the origins of World War I. Mayer rejected the traditional Primat der Außenpolitik ("primacy of foreign politics '') argument of traditional diplomatic history on the grounds that it failed to take into account that in Mayer 's opinion, all of the major European countries were in a "revolutionary situation '' in 1914, and thus ignores what Mayer considers to be the crucial impact that domestic politics had on foreign - policy making elites. In Mayer 's opinion, in 1914, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was on the verge of civil war and massive industrial unrest, Italy had been rocked by the Red Week of June 1914, the French Left and Right were waging a war to the death with each other, Germany was faced with ever - increasing political strife, Russia was facing a huge strike wave, and Austria - Hungary was confronted with rising ethnic and class tensions. Mayer insists that liberalism and centrist ideologies in general were disintegrating in face of the challenge from the extreme right in the UK, France and Italy while being a non-existent force in Germany, Austria - Hungary and Russia. Mayer ended his essay by arguing that World War I should be best understood as a pre-emptive "counterrevolutionary '' strike by ruling elites in Europe to preserve their power by distracting public attention onto foreign affairs.
Mayer argued in his Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking (1967), which won the American Historical Association 's 1968 Herbert Baxter Adams Prize, that the Paris Peace Conference was a struggle between what he called the "Old Diplomacy '' of the alliance system, secret treaties and brutal power politics and the "New Diplomacy '' as represented by Vladimir Lenin 's Decree on Peace of 1917 and Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points, which Mayer sees as promoting peaceful and rational diplomacy. He described the world of 1919 as divided between the "forces of movement '', representing liberal and left - wing forces, behind the "New Diplomacy '' and the "forces of order '', representing conservative and reactionary forces, behind the "Old Diplomacy ''. Mayer sees all foreign policy as basically a projection of domestic politics, and much of his writing on international relations is devoted towards explaining just what domestic lobby was exerting the most influence on foreign policy at that particular moment of time. In Mayer 's view, the "New Diplomacy '', associated with Lenin and Wilson, was associated with Russia and America, both societies that Mayer has argued either had destroyed or lacked the partial "modernized '' societies that characterized the rest of Europe. He sees the United States ' diplomacy at Versailles as an attempt to establish a "new '', but "counter-revolutionary '' style of diplomacy against "revolutionary '' Soviet diplomacy.
In Mayer 's view, the greatest failure of the Treaty of Versailles was that it was a triumph for the "Old Diplomacy '' with a thin "New Diplomacy '' veneer. According to Mayer, the irrational fears generated by the Russian Revolution led to an international system designed to contain the Soviet Union. A major influence on Mayer is the British historian E.H. Carr, who was his friend and mentor. In 1961, Mayer played a key role in the American publication of Carr 's book What Is History?. Many of Mayer 's writings on international affairs in the interwar era take as their starting point Carr 's 1939 book The Twenty Year 's Crisis.
In his 1981 book, The Persistence of the Old Regime, Mayer argued that there was an "umbilical cord '' linking all the events of European history from 1914 to 1945. In Mayer 's opinion, World War I was proof that, "(t) hough losing ground to the forces of industrial capitalism, the forces of the old order were still sufficiently willful and powerful to resist and slow down the course of history, if necessary by recourse to violence. '' Mayer argued that because of its ownership of the majority of the land in Europe and because the middle class were divided and politically undeveloped, the nobility continued as the dominant class in Europe. Mayer argued that faced with the challenge of a world in which they had lost their function, the aristocracy both embraced and promoted reactionary beliefs such as Nietzsche and Social Darwinism together with a belief in dictatorship and fascist dictatorship in particular. In Mayer 's view, "It would take two world wars and the Holocaust (...) finally to dislodge the feudal and aristocratic presumption from Europe 's civil and political societies. ''
In his 1988 book Why Did the Heavens Not Darken? Mayer argues that Adolf Hitler ordered the Final Solution in December 1941 in response to the realisation that the Wehrmacht could not take Moscow, hence ensuring Nazi Germany 's defeat at the hands of the Soviet Union. In Mayer 's opinion, the Judeocide (Mayer 's preferred term for the Holocaust) was the horrific climax of the "Thirty Years ' Crisis '' that had been raging in Europe since 1914. The book views the Holocaust as primarily an expression of anti-communism:
Anti-Semitism did not play a decisive or even significant role in the growth of the Nazi movement and electorate. The appeals of Nazism were many and complex. People rallied to a syncretic creed of ultra-nationalism, Social Darwinism, anti-Marxism, anti-bolshevism, and anti-Semitism, as well as to a party program calling for the revision of Versailles, the repeal of reparations, the curb of industrial capitalism, and the establishment of a völkisch welfare state.
Mayer stated that one purpose of his in writing Why Did the Heavens Not Darken? was to put an end to a "cult of remembrance '' that, in his view, had "become overly sectarian ''. Mayer has often accused Israel of exploiting the memory of the Holocaust to further its foreign policy objectives. In his opinion, Hitler 's war was first and foremost against the Soviets, not the Jews. According to Mayer, the original German plan was to defeat the Soviet Union, and then to deport all the Soviet Jews to a reservation behind the Urals.
In regards to the functionalist - intentionalist divide that once pervaded Holocaust historiography, Mayer 's work can be seen as a bridge between the two schools. Mayer argues that there was no masterplan for genocide, and that the Holocaust can not be explained solely in regards to Hitler 's world view. At the same time, Mayer does agree with intentionalist historians such as Andreas Hillgruber (with whom Mayer otherwise has little in common) in seeing Operation Barbarossa, and the Nazi crusade to annihilate "Judeo - Bolshevism '' as the key development in the genesis of the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question ''.
Why Did the Heavens Not Darken? met with hostile reviews. The British historian Richard J. Evans, in summing up their reviews of the book, noted that some of their more "printable '' responses included: "a mockery of memory and history '' and "bizarre and perverse ''.
Two prominent critics of Why Did the Heavens Not Darken? were Daniel Goldhagen and Lucy Dawidowicz. Both questioned Mayer 's account of the murder of Jews during the early phases of World War II, arguing the organized and systemic role played by the Nazis was much greater. Both accused Mayer of attempting to rationalize the Holocaust, comparing him to the right - wing historian Ernst Nolte. The American historian Peter Baldwin considered that Goldhagen had missed Mayer 's overall point about the connection between the war against the Soviet Union and the Holocaust, while Guttenplan described their "distortion '' of Mayer 's views as "disgraceful '', going on to note that
Arno Mayer 's book opens with "A Personal Preface '' telling of his own hair - raising escape from Luxembourg and occupied France, and of the fate of his grandfather, who refused to leave Luxembourg and died in Theresienstadt. Such personal bona fides did n't prevent the Anti-Defamation League from including Mayer in its 1993 "Hitler 's Apologists: The Anti-Semitic Propaganda of Holocaust Revisionism '', where his work is cited as an example of "legitimate historical scholarship which relativizes the genocide of the Jews. '' Mayer 's crime is to "have argued, with no apparent anti-Semitic motivation '' -- note how the absence of evidence itself becomes incriminating -- "that though millions of Jews were killed during WWII, there was actually no premeditated policy for this destruction. ''
Reviewers criticized Mayer 's account of the Holocaust as focused too heavily on Nazi anti-communism at the expense of a focus on antisemitism. Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer alleged that
when a Holocaust survivor such as Arno J. Mayer of Princeton University... popularizes the nonsense that the Nazis saw in Marxism and bolshevism their main enemy, and the Jews unfortunately got caught up in this; when he links the destruction of the Jews to the ups and downs of German warfare in the Soviet Union, in a book that is so cocksure of itself that it does not need a proper scientific apparatus, he is really engaging in a much more subtle form of Holocaust denial. He in effect denies the motivation for murder and flies in the face of well - known documentation.
Much of the controversy around Why Did the Heavens Not Darken? was due to the simple fact that through this book the general public first learned of the functionalist view that there was no masterplan for the Holocaust going back to the days when Hitler wrote Mein Kampf. Timothy Snyder 's Black Earth: The Holocaust as History and Warning fails to cite Mayer 's work but similarly emphasizes the role of the invention of Judeobolshevism as an ideological foundation and public justification for the slaughter of Jews.
Another area of controversy centered on what Robert Jan van Pelt called Mayer 's "well - meant but ill - considered reflection on the causes of death in Auschwitz ''. Mayer concluded his reflection as follows: "certainly at Auschwitz, but probably overall, more Jews were killed by so - called ' natural ' causes than by ' unnatural ' ones. '' This conclusion removed the lingering restraints -- if any actually remained -- preventing David Irving from publicly announcing he did not believe the gas chambers at Nazi camps like Auschwitz existed. Guttenplan called Mayer 's musing on differences between ' natural ' and ' unnatural ' deaths, even if the terms were deployed in quote marks, "indefensible ''.
Holocaust deniers have often quoted out of context Mayer 's sentences in the book: "Sources for the study of the gas chambers are at once rare and unreliable ''. As the authors Michael Shermer and Alex Grobman have noted, the entire paragraph from which the sentence comes from states that the SS destroyed the majority of the documention relating to the operation of the gas chambers in the death camps, which is why Mayer feels that sources for the operation of the gas chambers are "rare '' and "unreliable ''.
Mayer has been critical of the policies of the United States government. In 2001, after the September 11 attacks, he wrote an essay stating that "since 1947 America has been the chief and pioneering perpetrator of ' preemptive ' state terror, exclusively in the Third World and therefore widely dissembled. '' When interviewed for a 2003 documentary, he described the Roman Empire as a "tea party '' in comparison to its American counterpart.
Mayer 's book, Plowshares into Swords (2008) is an anti-Zionist and pro-Palestinian account of Israeli history, tracing what Mayer regards as the degradation of Jewry in general and Zionism in particular in face of what Mayer sees as Israeli colonial aggression against the Palestinians. In a largely favorable review, the British writer Geoffrey Wheatcroft called Plowshares into Swords an enlightening account of Israeli history that traces such figures as Martin Buber, Judah Magnes, Yeshayahu Leibowitz and, perhaps unexpectedly, Vladimir Jabotinsky and critiques the "chauvinistic and brutalising tendencies of Zionism ''. In a negative review of the book, British scholar Simon Goldhill said it was of little value as history and criticized Mayer for his political bias, arguing that Mayer ignored Arab acts and media rhetoric against Jewish settlers and Israelis, falsely portrayed the Six - Day War in 1967 as a "calculated imperialist plot '', claimed that all Western criticism of the Islamic world for human rights issues is nothing more than self - interested and described Arab feeling toward Jews buying property in Palestine in the 1920s as "righteous anger ''.
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when was the first walmart opened in florida | History of Walmart - wikipedia
This article covers the history of Walmart, the large international discount retail chain.
In 1950, Sam Walton purchased a store from Luther E. Harrison in Bentonville, Arkansas, and opened Walton 's 5 & 10. Thus, the Ozark Mountain town of 2,900 residents would become the headquarters for the world 's largest retailer.
At some point Sam Walton made the decision to achieve higher sales volumes by keeping sales prices lower than his competitors by reducing his profit margin. Inspired by the successes of other discount department store chains, Walton opened the second store in Harrison, Arkansas that year. Responsible for the purchase and maintenance of signage, Walton 's assistant, Bob Bogle, came up with the name "Wal - Mart '' for the new chain. By 1967, the company grew to 24 stores across the state of Arkansas, and had reached $ 12.6 million in sales, and by 1968, the company opened its first stores outside of Arkansas in Sikeston, Missouri and Claremore, Oklahoma.
The company 's first stock split occurred in May 1972 at a market price of $47. By this time, Walmart was operating in five states: Arkansas, Kansas, Louisiana, Missouri and Oklahoma, and expanded into Tennessee in 1973, and Kentucky and Mississippi in 1974. As the company expanded into Texas in 1975, there were 125 stores with 7,500 associates, and total sales of $340.3 million.
By 1977, Wal - Mart expanded into Illinois and made its first corporate acquisition, assuming ownership and operation of the Mohr - Value stores, which operated in Missouri and Illinois. This was followed by the acquisition of the Hutcheson Shoe Company in 1978. In the same year Walmart also branched out into several new markets, launching its pharmacy, auto service center, and jewelry divisions.
In 1981, Wal - Mart expanded into the southeastern US market, opening stores in Georgia and South Carolina, and acquiring 92 Kuhn 's Big K stores. They expanded into Florida and Nebraska in 1982.
In April 1983, the company opened its first Sam 's Club store, a membership - based discount warehouse club, in Midwest City, Oklahoma. They also expanded into Indiana, Iowa, New Mexico, and North Carolina and implemented "people greeters '' in all of their stores. The first stores opened in Virginia in 1984.
In 1985, with 882 stores with sales of $8.4 billion and 104,000 associates, the company expanded into Wisconsin and Colorado, and the first stores opened in Minnesota in 1986.
By the company 's 25th anniversary in 1987, there were offices to track inventory, sales, and send instant communication to their stores. Continuing their technological upgrades, they had equipped 90 % of their stores with barcode readers by 1988, to further assist in keeping track of their large inventory.
In February 1988, company founder Sam Walton stepped down as Chief Executive Officer, and David Glass was named to succeed him. Walton remained on as Chairman of the Corporate Board of Directors, and the company also restructured their senior management positions, elevating a cadre of executives to positions of greater responsibility.
Also in 1988, the first Wal - Mart Supercenter was opened in Washington, Missouri. The supercenter concept features everything contained in an average Walmart discount store, in addition to a tire and oil change shop, optical center, one - hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, and numerous alcove shops such as banks, cellular telephone stores, hair and nail salons, video rental stores, and fast food outlets.
By 1988, Wal - Mart was the most profitable retailer in the United States, though it did not outsell K - Mart and Sears in terms of value of items purchased until late 1990 or early 1991.
By 1988, Walmart was operating in 27 states, having expanded into Arizona, Michigan, Ohio, West Virginia, New Jersey, and Wyoming. By 1990, they expanded into California (which marked Walmart officially becoming a fully nationwide retailer), Nevada, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, and Utah. The Walmart Visitor 's Center also opened this year on the site of Sam Walton 's original store.
The 1990s saw an era of furious growth on an unprecedented scale and the incorporation of several new ideas and technology into the business.
In 1990, US sales had quadrupled to $32 billion over the previous five years (4) and Walmart acquired The McLane Company, a food service distributor, which was later sold to Berkshire Hathaway in 2003.
In 1991, the company expanded into Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and New York. Walmart expanded worldwide this year, with the opening of their first store outside the United States in Mexico City. They also acquired Western Merchandisers, Inc. of Amarillo, Texas. 1991 also saw the launch of the Sam 's American Choice brand of products.
On March 17, 1992 US President George H.W. Bush presented Sam Walton with the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Walton died on April 5, 1992. His eldest son, S. Robson Walton, succeeded him as Chairman of the corporate board of directors, on April 7, 1992. This year, Walmart had a presence in 45 states which by this time expanded into Idaho, Montana, and Oregon, as well as Puerto Rico.
In 1993, the Walmart International Division was formed with Bobby Martin as its president. The company also expanded into Alaska, Hawaii, Rhode Island and Washington. Their stores also achieve the billion - dollar sales mark in one week in December 1993.
In 1994, the National Advertising Review Board challenged the Walmart slogan, "Always the low price. Always, '' contending that it implied that Walmart 's prices were always the lowest and could mislead some shoppers. In response, Walmart adopted a new slogan, "Always low prices. Always. ''
Also in 1994, the Code Adam program was instituted in Walmart stores. That same year, Walmart acquired 91 PACE Membership Warehouse clubs from Kmart and 122 Woolco stores in Canada in 1994. In addition, it opened 3 value clubs in Hong Kong, and had 96 stores in Mexico.
By 1995, Walmart had 1,995 discount stores, 239 Supercenters, 433 SAM 'S CLUBS and 276 international stores with sales at $93.6 billion (including US sales of $78 billion) and 675,000 associates. Walmart expanded into its final state (Vermont), and also expanded into South America, with three new units in Argentina and five in Brazil.
The company entered the Chinese market in 1996 through a joint - venture agreement. IN 1996 WalMart opened in Fairbanks Alaska, soon after the Sam 's Club of Fairbanks opened. In 1997, Walmart replaced Woolworth on the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The company had its first $100 billion sales year, with sales totaling $118.1 billion. Also this year, they acquired 21 Wertkauf stores in Germany, and introduced their OneSource nutrition centers.
In 1998, Walmart introduced the Neighborhood Market concept at three stores in Arkansas. Neighborhood Market stores are predominantly grocery stores, and are intended to attract customers with easier parking, less crowded aisles, and quicker checkout compared to an average grocery store. Internationally Walmart enters South Korea by acquiring 4 stores operated by Korea Makro.
Also in 1998, Walmart launched its Wal - Mart Television Network, a vast, in - store advertising network showing commercials for products sold in the stores, concert clips and music videos for a recording artist 's media, trailers for upcoming movie releases, and news.
The Asda chain in the United Kingdom became a subsidiary in 1999, and is the second largest chain in the UK after Tesco.
In 2000, Lee Scott was named president and CEO and US sales had doubled to $156 billion since 1995. That same year, Walmart was ranked fifth by Fortune magazine on its Global Most Admired All - Stars list and in 2003 and 2004, it was named as the most admired company in America.
In 2002, Walmart entered the Japanese market by acquiring a minor stake in Seiyu Group, who would become a wholly owned subsidiary of Walmart by 2008.
In 2005, Walmart had $312.4 billion in sales, more than 6,200 facilities around the world, including 3,800 stores in the United States and 3,800 international units, and more than 1.6 million associates employed worldwide. Their US presence had grown so rapidly that there were only small pockets of the country that remained further than 60 miles away from the nearest Walmart. Approximately 138 million customers visited Walmart stores each week all over the world. Their corporate philanthropy efforts also assisted the US hurricane relief efforts with $18 million in cash donations. Through a purchase of stock in Central American Retail Holding Company (CARHCO), Walmart also entered the countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.
On 22 May 2006, Walmart announced the sale of its 16 stores in South Korea to Shinsegae Co, which rebranded the stores to E-Mart. Then on 26 July 2006 Walmart announced a complete pull - out from the German market; all existing 85 stores were sold to the Metro Group, which rebranded most of them to Real (hypermarket).
On September 12, 2007, for the first time in 13 years, Walmart introduced new advertising with the slogan, "Save Money Live Better, '' instead of "Always Low Prices, Always. '' It commissioned Global Insight for the ads and the report stated that as of 2006, the retailer saves American families $2,500 yearly (up 7.3 % from $2,329, 2004). The new research found that the reduction in price levels due to Walmart resulted to savings for consumers of $287 billion in 2006, equivalent to $957 per person and $2,500 per household.
On June 30, 2008, Walmart unveiled the company 's new logo, which stylized the name as "Walmart ''. A spark, a symbol chosen to represent Walmart associates, replaces the star. In early 2009, Walmart entered Chile by acquiring Distribucion y Servicio D&S SA. In May 2009 Walmart entered into a 50 / 50 partnership with Bharti to gain access to the Indian market.
On February 22, 2010, the company confirmed it was acquiring the video streaming company Vudu, Inc. for an estimated $100 million.
In June 2011, Walmart acquired 51 % of Massmart Holdings. This acquisition gives the company access to the African countries of: South Africa, Botswana, Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia.
The Massmart acquisition received final governmental approval in early 2012. The single store Mauritius was closed in January 2012.
In June 2014, Walmart employees went on strike in several major cities in the United States.
In late 2005, Walmart designed two experimental stores, one in McKinney, Texas and the other in Aurora, Colorado, which featured wind turbines, photovoltaic solar panels, biofuel - capable boilers, water - cooled refrigerators, and xeriscape gardens.
In March 2006, Walmart sought to appeal to a more affluent demographic, with the opening of a new supercenter in Plano, Texas at the corner of Park Blvd. and the Dallas North Tollway which was intended to compete against stores that some viewed as more upscale and appealing. The new store features wooden floors, wider aisles, a sushi bar, a coffee / sandwich shop (with free Wi - Fi Internet access), a Subway, and higher - end items such as microbrew beer, expensive wines, and high - end electronics. The exterior sports the less - common hunter green background behind the Walmart letters instead of the trademark blue.
In response to the popularity of organic food supermarkets, such as Whole Foods and Wild Oats, Walmart announced plans in May 2006, to increase the amount of organic food available in its stores. They announced that both conventionally grown and organic versions of certain products would be available, and the price of organic versions would not be more than 10 % over the price of conventionally grown products. Since Walmart is one of the nation 's largest grocery retailers, there was some concern expressed that their push to lower prices would not be sustainable for inexpensive organic food.
Over the last decade or so Walmart has become involved in numerous lawsuits for a variety of reasons. The majority of the suits are class action lawsuits in which employees are suing for unpaid wages. They have also run into numerous discrimination cases in which employees are suing for being profiled out of money or out of jobs. For example, there were two separate cases, one in 2004 and one in 2005, in which black employees were suing two different Walmarts for denying them jobs based on race. These became so popular that the reverend Jesse Jackson intervened and spoke during both of the proceedings. There are also many lawsuits in which women are suing Wal - Mart for discriminating against them. In one article written in 2004 USA today mentioned 32 different lawsuits that involved women suing Walmart. But still Walmart has prevailed. All of this has not had any effects on Walmart financially however, according to Fortune 500, Walmart still had $351 billion in revenue ($11 billion in profit) in 2007, a new high for the corporation.
On December 3, 2008, the family of Walmart service worker Jdimytai Damour, who was killed by a stampede of shoppers frantically entering a Walmart store in Valley Stream, New York on Black Friday (November 28), filed a wrongful death lawsuit against the corporation; Damour 's family alleged Walmart of encouraging a mass number of customers to come to the store simultaneously. In addition, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration cited Walmart for "... inadequate crowd management following the Nov. 28, 2008, death of an employee at its Valley Stream, New York, store. The worker died of asphyxiation after being knocked to the ground and trampled by a crowd of about 2,000 shoppers who surged into the store for its annual ' Blitz Friday ' pre-holiday sales event. '' The company went on to spend an estimated $2 million in legal fees fighting OSHA 's $7,000 fine, because it apparently wished to prevent OSHA from establishing a precedent that would enable OSHA to influence Walmart 's crowd control measures in the future.
As of October 2009, Walmart stores operate in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, India, Japan, Mexico, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
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song i came from the land down under | Down Under (song) - Wikipedia
"Down Under '' is a song recorded by Australian rock band Men at Work. It was originally released in 1980 as the B - side to their first local single titled "Keypunch Operator '', released before the band signed with Columbia Records. Both early songs were written by the group 's co-founders, Colin Hay and Ron Strykert. The early version of "Down Under '' has a slightly different tempo and arrangement from the later Columbia release. The most well known version was then released on Columbia in October 1981 as the third single from their debut album Business as Usual (1981).
The hit song went to number one in their home country of Australia in December 1981, and then topped the New Zealand charts in February 1982. The song topped the Canadian charts in October 1982. In the United States, the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 on 6 November 1982 at No. 79, and reached No. 1 in January 1983 where it spent four non-consecutive weeks. It eventually sold over two million copies in the US alone. Billboard ranked it at No. 4 for 1983.
In the UK, the song topped the charts in January and February 1983, and is the only Men at Work song to make the UK top 20. The song also went to No. 1 in Denmark, Ireland, Italy and Switzerland, and was a top 10 hit in many other countries. "Down Under '' is perceived as a patriotic song in Australia; it remains popular and is often played at sporting events.
The lyrics to Down Under depict an Australian man travelling the globe, who meets a number of people who are interested in his home country. The story is based in part on singer Colin Hay 's own experiences, including a prominent reference to a Vegemite sandwich (a popular snack in Australia), which derived from an encounter, during Hay 's travels abroad, with a baker who emigrated from Brunswick, Melbourne. Hay has also said that the lyrics were partly inspired by Barry Humphries ' character Barry McKenzie, a comically stereotypical Australian who tours abroad.
Slang and drug terms are featured in the lyrics. They open with the singer travelling in a fried - out Kombi, on a hippie trail, head full of zombie. In Australian slang "fried - out '' means overheated, Kombi refers to the Volkswagen Type 2 combination van, and having "a head full of zombie '' refers to the use of a type of marijuana. Hippie trail refers to a subcultural tourist route popular in 1960s and 70s which stretched from Western Europe to South - East Asia. The song also contains the refrain, where beer does flow and men chunder. To "chunder '' means to vomit.
Speaking to Songfacts about the overall meaning of the lyrics, Hay remarked:
The promotional video comically plays out the events of the lyrics, showing Hay and other members of the band riding in a VW van, eating muesli with a ' strange lady ', eating and drinking in a café, and lying in an opium den. The band are moved along at one point by a man in a shirt and tie who places a ' Sold ' sign in the ground. The exterior shots for the music video were filmed at the Cronulla sand dunes in Sydney. The band are seen carrying a coffin across the dunes at the end. This, Hay has explained, was a warning to his fellow Australians that their country 's identity was dying as a result of overdevelopment and Americanization. Hay has also stated that the same ominous sentiment lies behind the choral line, Ca n't you hear that thunder? You 'd better run; you 'd better take cover.
The song is a perennial favourite on Australian radio and television, and topped the charts in the US and UK simultaneously in early 1983. It was later used as a theme song by the crew of Australia II in their successful bid to win the America 's Cup in 1983, and a remixed version appears during the closing credits of Crocodile Dundee in Los Angeles. Men at Work played this song in the closing ceremony of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, alongside other Australian artists.
In May 2001, Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA) celebrated its 75th anniversary by naming the Best Australian Songs between 1926 and 2001, as decided by a 100 strong industry panel, "Down Under '' was ranked as the fourth song on the list.
The song was ranked number 96 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the 1980s in October 2006.
In 2007, on the ABC - TV quiz show Spicks and Specks the question was posed "What children 's song is contained in the song Down Under? '' The answer, "Kookaburra '', a song whose rights were owned by Larrikin Music, resulted in phone calls and emails to Larrikin the next day. Larrikin Music subsequently decided to take legal action against the song 's writers Colin Hay and Ron Strykert.
Sections of the flute part of the recording of the song were found to be based on "Kookaburra '', written in 1932 by Marion Sinclair. Sinclair died in 1988 and the rights to the Kookaburra song were deemed to have been transferred to publisher Larrikin Music on 21 March 1990. In the United States, the rights are administered by Music Sales Corporation in New York City.
In June 2009, 28 years after the release of the recording, Larrikin Music sued Men At Work for copyright infringement, alleging that part of the flute riff of "Down Under '' was copied from "Kookaburra ''. The counsel for the band 's record label and publishing company (Sony BMG Music Entertainment and EMI Songs Australia) claimed that, based on the agreement under which the song was written, the copyright was actually held by the Girl Guides Association. On 30 July, Justice Peter Jacobson of the Federal Court of Australia made a preliminary ruling that Larrikin did own copyright on the song, but the issue of whether or not Hay and Strykert had plagiarised the riff was set aside to be determined at a later date.
On 4 February 2010, Justice Jacobson ruled that Larrikin 's copyright had been infringed because "Down Under '' reproduced "a substantial part of Kookaburra ''.
When asked how much Larrikin would be seeking in damages, Larrikin 's lawyer Adam Simpson replied: "anything from what we 've claimed, which is between 40 and 60 per cent, and what they suggest, which is considerably less. '' In court, Larrikin 's principal Norman Lurie gave the opinion that, had the parties negotiated a licence at the outset as willing parties, the royalties would have been between 25 and 50 per cent. On 6 July 2010, Justice Jacobson handed down a decision that Larrikin receive 5 % of royalties from 2002. In October 2011, the band lost its final court bid when the High Court of Australia refused to hear an appeal.
Until this high - profile case, "Kookaburra '' 's standing as a traditional song combined with the lack of visible policing of the song 's rights by its composer had led to the general public perception that the song was within the public domain.
The revelation of "Kookaburra '' 's copyright status, and more so the pursuit of royalties from it, has generated a negative response among sections of the Australian public. In response to unsourced speculation of a Welsh connection, Dr Rhidian Griffiths pointed out that the Welsh words to the tune were published in 1989 and musicologist Phyllis Kinney stated neither the song 's metre nor its lines were typical Welsh.
Colin Hay has since suggested that the deaths of his father, Jim, in 2010, and of Men at Work flautist Greg Ham in 2012 were directly linked to the stress of the court case.
A new version of the song was produced by Colin Hay, coinciding with the thirtieth anniversary of the original 's release. Requested by Telstra for use in an Australian advertising campaign during the 2012 Summer Olympics period, the song was available through iTunes on 31 July.
In the new version, Hay intentionally changed the flute part that caused the copyright lawsuit.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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who reigned when christianity was adopted as the official religion of the roman empire | Constantine the Great and Christianity - wikipedia
During the reign of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great (306 -- 337 AD), Christianity began to transition to the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. Historians remain uncertain about Constantine 's reasons for favoring Christianity, and theologians and historians have often argued about which form of Early Christianity he subscribed to. There is no consensus among scholars as to whether he adopted his mother Helena 's Christianity in his youth, or, as claimed by Eusebius, encouraged her to convert to the faith himself. Some scholars question the extent to which he should be considered a Christian emperor: "Constantine saw himself as an ' emperor of the Christian people '. If this made him a Christian is the subject of... debate, '' although he allegedly received a baptism shortly before his death.
Constantine 's decision to cease the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire was a turning point for Early Christianity, sometimes referred to as the Triumph of the Church, the Peace of the Church or the Constantinian shift. In 313, Constantine and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan decriminalizing Christian worship. The emperor became a great patron of the Church and set a precedent for the position of the Christian emperor within the Church and the notion of orthodoxy, Christendom, ecumenical councils, and the state church of the Roman Empire declared by edict in 380. He is revered as a saint and isapostolos in the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church, and various Eastern Catholic Churches for his example as a "Christian monarch. ''
The first recorded official persecution of Christians on behalf of the Roman Empire was in AD 64, when, as reported by the Roman historian Tacitus, Emperor Nero attempted to blame Christians for the Great Fire of Rome. According to Church tradition, it was during the reign of Nero that Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome. However, modern historians debate whether the Roman government distinguished between Christians and Jews prior to Nerva 's modification of the Fiscus Judaicus in 96, from which point practicing Jews paid the tax and Christians did not.
Christians suffered from sporadic and localized persecutions over a period of two and a half centuries. Their refusal to participate in Imperial cult was considered an act of treason and was thus punishable by execution. The most widespread official persecution was carried out by Diocletian. During the Great Persecution (303 -- 311), the emperor ordered Christian buildings and the homes of Christians torn down and their sacred books collected and burned. Christians were arrested, tortured, mutilated, burned, starved, and condemned to gladiatorial contests to amuse spectators. The Great Persecution officially ended in April 311, when Galerius, senior emperor of the Tetrarchy, issued an edict of toleration, which granted Christians the right to practice their religion, though it did not restore any property to them. Constantine, Caesar in the Western empire, and Licinius, Caesar in the East, also were signatories to the edict of toleration. It has been speculated that Galerius ' reversal of his long - standing policy of Christian persecution has been attributable to one or both of these co-Caesars.
It is possible (but not certain) that Constantine 's mother, Helena, exposed him to Christianity; in any case he only declared himself a Christian after issuing the Edict of Milan. Writing to Christians, Constantine made clear that he believed that he owed his successes to the protection of that High God alone.
Eusebius of Caesarea and other Christian sources record that Constantine experienced a dramatic event in 312 at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, after which Constantine claimed the emperorship in the West. According to these sources, Constantine looked up to the sun before the battle and saw a cross of light above it, and with it the Greek words "Ἐν Τούτῳ Νίκα '' (in this sign, conquer), often rendered in a Latin version, "in hoc signo vinces '' (in this sign, you will conquer). Constantine commanded his troops to adorn their shields with a Christian symbol (the Chi - Rho), and thereafter they were victorious.
Following the battle, the new emperor ignored the altars to the gods prepared on the Capitoline and did not carry out the customary sacrifices to celebrate a general 's victorious entry into Rome, instead heading directly to the imperial palace. Most influential people in the empire, however, especially high military officials, had not been converted to Christianity and still participated in the traditional religions of Rome; Constantine 's rule exhibited at least a willingness to appease these factions. The Roman coins minted up to eight years after the battle still bore the images of Roman gods. The monuments he first commissioned, such as the Arch of Constantine, contained no reference to Christianity.
In 313 Constantine and Licinius announced "that it was proper that the Christians and all others should have liberty to follow that mode of religion which to each of them appeared best, '' thereby granting tolerance to all religions, including Christianity. The Edict of Milan went a step further than the earlier Edict of Toleration by Galerius in 311, returning confiscated Church property. This edict made the empire officially neutral with regard to religious worship; it neither made the traditional religions illegal nor made Christianity the state religion, as occurred later with the Edict of Thessalonica of 380. The Edict of Milan did, however, raise the stock of Christianity within the empire and it reaffirmed the importance of religious worship to the welfare of the state.
The accession of Constantine was a turning point for early Christianity. After his victory, Constantine took over the role of patron of the Christian faith. He supported the Church financially, had an extraordinary number of basilicas built, granted privileges (e.g., exemption from certain taxes) to clergy, promoted Christians to high - ranking offices, returned property confiscated during the Great Persecution of Diocletian, and endowed the church with land and other wealth. Between 324 and 330, Constantine built a new imperial capital at Byzantium on the Bosporos, which would be named Constantinople for him. Unlike "old '' Rome, the city began to employ overtly Christian architecture, contained churches within the city walls, and had no pre-existing temples from other religions.
In doing this, however, Constantine required those who had not converted to Christianity to pay for the new city. Christian chroniclers tell that it appeared necessary to Constantine "to teach his subjects to give up their rites... and to accustom them to despise their temples and the images contained therein, '' This led to the closure of temples because of a lack of support, their wealth flowing to the imperial treasure; Constantine did not need to use force to implement this. Only the chronicler Theophanes has added that temples "were annihilated '', but this was considered "not true '' by contemporary historians.
Many times imperial favor was granted to Christianity by the Edict; new avenues were opened to Christians, including the right to compete with other Romans in the traditional cursus honorum for high government positions, and greater acceptance into general civil society. Constantine respected cultivated persons, and his court was composed of older, respected, and honored men. Men from leading Roman families who declined to convert to Christianity were denied positions of power yet still received appointments; even up to the end of his life, two - thirds of his top government were non-Christian.
Constantine 's laws enforced and reflected his Christian attitudes. Crucifixion was abolished for reasons of Christian piety, but was replaced with hanging, to demonstrate the preservation of Roman supremacy. On March 7, 321, Sunday, already sacred to Christians and to the Roman Sun God Sol Invictus, was declared an official day of rest. On that day markets were banned and public offices were closed, except for the purpose of freeing slaves. There were, however, no restrictions on performing farming work, which was the work of the great majority of the population, on Sundays.
Some laws made during his reign were even humane in the modern sense, possibly inspired by his Christianity: a prisoner was no longer to be kept in total darkness but must be given the outdoors and daylight; a condemned man was allowed to die in the arena, but he could not be branded on his "heavenly beautified '' face, since God was supposed to have made man in his image, but only on the feet. Publicly displayed Gladiatorial games were ordered to be eliminated in 325.
In 331, Constantine commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius (Apol. Const. 4) recorded around 340 Alexandrian scribes preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known. It has been speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.
The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the position of the Christian emperor in the Church. Emperors considered themselves responsible to the gods for the spiritual health of their subjects, and after Constantine they had a duty to help the Church define orthodoxy and maintain orthodoxy. The Church generally regarded the definition of doctrine as the responsibility of the bishops; the emperor 's role was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity. The emperor ensured that God was properly worshiped in his empire; what proper worship (orthodoxy) and doctrines and dogma consisted of was for the Church to determine.
Constantine had become a worshiper of the Christian God, but he found that there were many opinions on that worship and indeed on who and what that God was. In 316, Constantine was asked to adjudicate in a North African dispute between the Donatist sect (who began by refusing obedience to any bishops who had yielded in any way to persecution, later regarding all bishops but their own sect as utterly contaminated). More significantly, in 325 he summoned the First Council of Nicaea, effectively the first Ecumenical Council (unless the Council of Jerusalem is so classified). The Council of Nicaea is the first major attempt by Christians to define orthodoxy for the whole Church. Until Nicaea, all previous Church Councils had been local or regional synods affecting only portions of the Church.
Nicaea dealt primarily with the Arian controversy. Constantine himself was torn between the Arian and Trinitarian camps. After the Nicene council, and against its conclusions, he eventually recalled Arius from exile and banished Athanasius of Alexandria to Trier.
Just before his death in May 337, Constantine was baptised into Christianity. Up until this time he had been a catechuman for most of his adult life. He believed that if he waited to get baptized on his death bed he was in less danger of polluting his soul with sin and not getting to heaven. He was baptized by an Arian sympathizer, but this was a result of attempting to create reconciliation in the Church, not acceptance of Arianism. He was baptized by his distant relative Arian Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia. During Eusebius of Nicomedia 's time in the Imperial court, the Eastern court and the major positions in the Eastern Church were held by Arians or Arian sympathizers. With the exception of a short period of eclipse, Eusebius enjoyed the complete confidence both of Constantine and Constantius II and was the tutor of Emperor Julian the Apostate. After Constantine 's death, his son and successor Constantius II was an Arian, as was Emperor Valens.
Constantine 's position on the religions traditionally practiced in Rome evolved during his reign. In fact, his coinage and other official motifs, until 325, had affiliated him with the pagan cult of Sol Invictus. At first, Constantine encouraged the construction of new temples and tolerated traditional sacrifices; by the end of his reign, he had begun to order the pillaging and tearing down of Roman temples.
Beyond the limes, east of the Euphrates, the Sasanian rulers of the Persian Empire, perennially at war with Rome, had usually tolerated Christianity. Constantine is said to have written to Shapur II in 324 and urged him to protect Christians under his rule. With the establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire, Christians in Persia would be regarded as allies of Persia 's ancient enemy. According to an anonymous Christian account, Shapur II wrote to his generals:
You will arrest Simon, chief of the Christians. You will keep him until he signs this document and consents to collect for us a double tax and double tribute from the Christians... for we Gods have all the trials of war and they have nothing but repose and pleasure. They inhabit our territory and agree with Caesar, our enemy.
The "Great Persecution '' of the Persian Christian churches occurred between 340 - 363 CE, after the Persian Wars that reopened upon Constantine 's death.
Constantinian shift is a term used by Anabaptist and Post-Christendom theologians to describe the political and theological aspects of Constantine 's legalization of Christianity in the 4th century. The term was popularized by the Mennonite theologian John H. Yoder.
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when did the wsop move to the rio | World Series of Poker - wikipedia
The World Series of Poker (WSOP) is a series of poker tournaments held annually in Paradise and, since 2005, sponsored by Caesars Entertainment Corporation (known as Harrah 's Entertainment until 2010). It dates its origins to 1970, when Benny Binion invited seven of the best - known poker players to the Horseshoe Casino for a single tournament, with a set start and stop time, and a winner determined by a secret ballot of the seven players.
The winner of each event receives a World Series of Poker bracelet and a monetary prize based on the number of entrants and buy - in amounts. Over the years, the tournament has grown in both the number of events and in the number of participants. Each year, the WSOP culminates with the $10,000 no - limit hold'em "Main Event, '' which, since 2004, has attracted entrants numbering in the thousands. The victor receives a multi-million dollar cash prize and a bracelet, which has become the most coveted award a poker player can win. The winner of the World Series of Poker Main Event is considered to be the World Champion of Poker.
As of 2017, the WSOP consists of 74 events, with most major poker variants featured. However, in recent years, over half of the events have been variants of Texas hold ' em. Events traditionally take place during one day or over several consecutive days during the series in June and July. However, starting in 2008, the Main Event final table was delayed until November. The 2012 and 2016 Main Event final tables commenced in October because of the United States presidential election.
As of May 2017, the World Series of Poker has done away with the November Nine concept and instead went back to the old format of crowning the Main Event winner in July.
Since 1971, all WSOP events have been tournaments with cash prizes. In 1973, a five - card stud event was added. Since then, new events have been added and removed. Since 1976, a bracelet has been awarded to the winner of every event at the annual WSOP; later on, the winners of events before 1976 were retroactively given bracelets.
The tournament grew slowly for over a decade, reaching 52 participants in 1982. In the early 1980s, satellite tournaments were introduced, allowing people to win their way into the various events. By 1987, there were over 2,100 entrants in the entire series.
At the 2006 World Series of Poker, there were 45 events, covering the majority of poker variants. Participation in the Main Event peaked that year, with 8,773 players.
Currently, Texas hold ' em, Omaha hold ' em and Seven - card stud and their lowball variants are played. H.O.R.S.E. has been played in the past and returned in 2006. Also, S.H.O.E. has been played in the past, and returned in 2007. Other events played in the past include Chinese poker, Five card stud, and many others. Like most tournaments, the sponsoring casino takes an entry fee (a percentage between 6 % and 10 %, depending on the buy - in) and distributes the rest, hence the prize money increasing with more players. In the 2005 Main Event, US $52,818,610 in prize money was distributed among 560 players, with US $7.5 million as the first prize. The 2006 Main Event, won by Jamie Gold, is the largest single poker tournament by prize pool or by entrant numbers in history; Gold pocketed US $12 million for his victory. In July 2010, it was announced that the winner of the 2010 Main Event would receive just under US $9 million.
On June 2, 2011, the World Series of Poker and Cirque du Soleil founder Guy Laliberté announced plans for an officially sanctioned special fundraising event, known as The Big One for One Drop, starting on July 1, 2012 with a record US $1 million entry fee. 11 % of the money (more precisely, $111,111 from each buy - in) went to Laliberté 's charity, the One Drop Foundation, and the WSOP waived its normal 10 % rake of the entry fees. At the time of the original announcement, 15 of the maximum 48 seats had been taken. By early December 2011, the field size had increased to 22, the minimum required for an official bracelet tournament. Among those who committed early to the event were Johnny Chan, Daniel Negreanu, Jonathan Duhamel, Tom Dwan, Laliberté, billionaire businessman Phil Ruffin and Erik Seidel. On April 12, 2012, the WSOP announced that 30 players had committed to the tournament, which brought the first prize to $12.3 million, exceeding the record amount won by Jamie Gold. In the end, all 48 seats were filled, resulting in a first prize of $18.3 million. Poker professional Antonio Esfandiari won the event, also receiving a special platinum WSOP bracelet.
The number of participants in the WSOP grew every year from 2000 until 2006. Following 2006, new online gambling legislation restricted the number of online qualifiers to the event. 2007 was the first dip in numbers in the 21st century while in 2008 more people participated than the previous year. In 2000, there were 4,780 entrants in the various events, but in 2005, the number rose to over 23,000 players. In the main event alone, the number of participants grew from 839 in 2003 to 8,773 in 2006, and has hovered between 6,300 and 7,200 entrants in the eleven years since. Phil Hellmuth has won the most bracelets with 15 followed by Doyle Brunson, Johnny Chan, and Phil Ivey with ten bracelets each. Crandell Addington is the only player to place in the top ten of the World Series of Poker Main Event eight times, albeit in earlier years with small fields compared to modern times. Four players have won the Main Event multiple times: Johnny Moss (1970, 1971, and 1974), Doyle Brunson (1976 and 1977), Stu Ungar (1980, 1981, and 1997) and Johnny Chan (1987 and 1988). Bracelet winners who first achieved fame in other fields include French actor / singer Patrick Bruel (in 1998), Danish soccer player Jan Vang Sørensen (in 2002), American actress Jennifer Tilly (in 2005), and American musician / record producer Steve Albini (in 2018). In recent years, there have been non-bracelet events at the WSOP; two of the most notable are the "World Series of Rock Paper Scissors '' and "Ante Up for Africa. ''
The idea of a World Series of Poker began in 1969 with an event called the Texas Gambling Reunion. It was an invitational event sponsored by Tom Moore of San Antonio, Texas, and held at the Holiday Hotel and Casino in Reno. This inaugural event was won by Crandell Addington. The set of tournaments that the World Series of Poker (WSOP) would evolve into was the brainchild of Las Vegas casino owner and poker player Benny Binion. In 1970, the first WSOP at Binion 's Horseshoe took place as a series of cash games that included five - card stud, deuce to seven low - ball draw, razz, seven - card stud, and Texas hold ' em. The format for the Main Event as a freeze - out Texas hold ' em game came the next year. The winner in 1970, Johnny Moss, was elected by his peers as the first "World Champion of Poker '' and received a silver cup as a prize.
In 2004, Harrah 's Entertainment (now Caesars Entertainment) purchased Binion 's Horseshoe, retained the rights to the Horseshoe and World Series of Poker brands, sold the hotel and casino to MTR Gaming Group, and announced that the 2005 Series events would be held at the Harrah 's - owned Rio Hotel and Casino, located just off the Las Vegas Strip. The final two days of the main event in 2005 were held downtown at what is now the MTR - operated "Binion 's '' in celebration of the centennial of the founding of Las Vegas. The WSOP also added a made - for - television $2 million "freeroll '' invitational Tournament of Champions (TOC) event first won by Annie Duke as a "winner - take - all '' event.
Since 1972, the Main Event of the WSOP has been the $10,000 buy - in no - limit Texas Hold ' em (NLHE) tournament (in 1971 the buy - in was $5,000 and the inaugural 1970 event was an invitational with winner determined by a vote from the players). Winners of the event not only get the largest prize of the tournament and a gold bracelet, but additionally their picture is placed in the Gallery of Champions at Binion 's.
The winner of the Main Event has traditionally been given the unofficial title of World Champion. However, some believe that no - limit hold ' em is not the optimal structure for determining a champion poker player. In 2002, Daniel Negreanu argued that the Main Event should switch to pot - limit hold ' em, believing that pot - limit required a more complete set of poker skills than no - limit, although he admitted that such a change would likely never be made. However, after the $50,000 H.O.R.S.E. / Poker Players Championship event was added, many of the game 's top professionals, including Negreanu, have since stated that this tournament ultimately decides the world 's best player. The $50,000 buy - in, being five times larger than the buy - in for the Main Event, has thus far tended to deter amateurs from playing in this event, and the variety of games played require a broader knowledge of poker. The first $50,000 event, conducted as a H.O.R.S.E. tournament, was won by Chip Reese in 2006. In 2010, the $50,000 event changed from H.O.R.S.E. to an "8 - game '' format, adding no - limit hold ' em, pot - limit Omaha, and 2 -- 7 triple draw to the mix, and was rechristened The Poker Players Championship, with Michael Mizrachi winning the first edition of the revamped event. Since Reese 's death in December 2007, the winner of this event receives the David ' Chip ' Reese Memorial Trophy in addition to the bracelet and the prize money.
There have been many memorable moments during the main events, including Jack Straus 's 1982 comeback win after discovering he had one $500 chip left when he thought he was out of the tournament. The end of the 1988 main event was featured in the movie Rounders. Chris Moneymaker and Greg Raymer, the winners in 2003 and 2004, both qualified for the main event through satellite tournaments at the PokerStars online card room. Jerry Yang, the winner in 2007, had only been playing poker for two years prior to his victory. He won his seat at a $225 satellite tournament at Pechanga Resort & Casino, in California. With passage of the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act (UIGEA) of 2006 online poker sites have been barred from purchasing entrance directly for their users.
(Flag indicates the country of residency of the player at the time of the event)
Since its inception, Stu Ungar and Johnny Moss are the only players to have won the Main Event three times. However, Moss 's first victory came in a different format, as he was elected winner by vote of his fellow players at the conclusion of what was then a timed event. Moss (if the first time win by vote is counted), Ungar, Doyle Brunson, and Johnny Chan are the only people who have won the Main Event in consecutive years. Chan 's second victory in 1988 was featured in the 1998 film Rounders.
Phil Hellmuth holds multiple WSOP records including most bracelets, most WSOP cashes, and most WSOP final tables. He is also the only player to have won the Main Events of both the WSOP and WSOP Europe.
In recent years, the prize pool for the WSOP Main Event has become so large that the winner instantly becomes one of the top money winners of WSOP and even in tournament poker history. Before July 2012, the top seven players on the all - time WSOP Earnings list were Main Event champions from 2005 to 2011, among whom Jamie Gold topped those seven, he won the 2006 Main Event, which had then the biggest first prize for a single tournament, and still is the largest poker tournament by prize pool in history. However, the all - time leader is currently poker professional Daniel Negreanu, who has not won a Main Event, although he won the inaugural WSOP Asia Pacific Main Event in 2013. He is followed by professionals Antonio Esfandiari and Daniel Colman, both also yet to win a Main Event in Las Vegas.
The list below includes the WSOP Europe and WSOP Asia - Pacific, but excludes WSOP Circuit events and other non-bracelet events. The results are updated through the 2014 WSOP APAC.
Overall:
WSOP Main Events:
Since 2004, a Player of the Year (POY) award has been given to the player with the most points accumulated throughout the WSOP. As of 2013, nine different players have won the ten awards, with Daniel Negreanu as the only two - time winner.
Only "open '' events in which all players can participate count in the standings; this eliminates the Seniors, Ladies, and Casino Employee events. Beginning with the 2006 World Series of Poker, the Main Event and the $50,000 H.O.R.S.E. competition had no effect on the outcome of the winner of the Player of the Year award. In the 2008 World Series of Poker, the $50,000 H.O.R.S.E. event counted toward the Player of the Year award, but the Main Event did not. Since 2009, all open events, including the Main Event, count towards Player of the Year. The Player of the Year standings were based upon performance solely at the WSOP in Las Vegas up until 2010, but beginning in 2011 have also taken the World Series of Poker Europe into account, and starting in 2013 also include events in the World Series of Poker Asia Pacific. The 2011 WSOP Player of the Year organized by Bluff Magazine used a different scoring system which took into account field sizes and buy - in amounts when calculating points earned. This scoring system has been used ever since.
Since 2016, the WSOP payout a bigger percentage of the field (15 % instead of 10 % until then).
Since its inception in 1979, the WSOP Poker Hall of Fame has honored 42 individuals. Selection criteria for players include having competed against acknowledged top competition, played for high stakes, and played consistently well to gain the respect of their peers. For non-players, selection is based on positive and lasting contributions to the overall growth and success of poker.
Starting in 2005, the WSOP began the World Series of Poker Circuit, a satellite series held at Harrah 's - owned properties in the United States. In addition to the $10,000 buy - in tournament at each site, qualifying players became eligible for a revamped Tournament of Champions. The 2005 TOC, made up of the top twenty qualifying players at each circuit event, along with the final table from the 2005 Main Event and the winners of nine or more bracelets (Johnny Chan, Doyle Brunson, and Phil Hellmuth) would participate in the revamped TOC at Caesars Palace. Mike Matusow won the first prize of $1 million (US), and all the players at the final table were guaranteed a minimum of $25,000 for the eighth and ninth - place finishers.
During a break in the final table of the 2005 Main Event on July 16, Harrah 's announced that eleven properties -- including the recently added Bally 's and Caesar 's properties -- would host 2005 -- 06 WSOP Circuit events that started on August 11 in Tunica, Mississippi. One event that was scheduled for Biloxi, Mississippi, was canceled after the Grand Casino Biloxi, which was scheduled to host the event, suffered major damage from Hurricane Katrina. The Rio also hosted the 2006 World Series of Poker, which began on June 25 with satellite events and formally began the day after with the annual Casino Employee event, won in 2006 by Chris Gros. 2006 featured the Tournament of Champions on June 25 and 26, won by Mike Sexton. Various events led up to the Main Event, which was held from July 28 until August 10. The first prize of $12 million was awarded to Jamie Gold.
The World Series of Poker Europe (WSOPE) is the first expansion of the World Series of Poker in series history. In September 2007, the first WSOP championship events outside of Las Vegas, complete with bracelets, were held. The inaugural WSOPE consisted of three events held in London from September 6 -- 17, 2007. The main event, a GBP 10,000 buy - in no - limit hold ' em tournament, was won by Norwegian online prodigy Annette Obrestad on the day before her 19th birthday. This made her the youngest person ever to win a WSOP bracelet, a record that can not be broken in the Las Vegas WSOP under current laws because the minimum legal age for casino gaming in Nevada is 21. Obrestad could play in the WSOPE because the minimum age for casino gaming in the United Kingdom is 18. While no definitive plans have been announced, WSOP Commissioner Jeffrey Pollack has indicated that in the next one to three years that other venues may start holding WSOP events. Two locations that have been mentioned as possible expansion sites are Egypt and South Africa, and the World Series of Poker Africa was ultimately launched in South Africa in 2010. However, it is currently treated as a WSOP Circuit event, with no bracelets awarded. The next expansion of the WSOP that included bracelet events was ultimately to Australia.
The WSOPE moved from London to Cannes, France in 2011. At that time, the buy - ins and payouts changed from being fixed in pounds to euros. The event moved again in 2013, this time to the Paris suburb of Enghien - les - Bains.
In November 2013, it was announced that the WSOPE would in the future alternate with the World Series of Poker Asia Pacific (WSOP APAC), which launched in 2013. The WSOPE will now be held only in odd - numbered years, with WSOP APAC conducted in even - numbered years.
In 2010, the WSOP expanded overseas once again, only this time to Gauteng, South Africa. Although the 2010 event was part of the WSOP Circuit, winners did not earn a gold ring or standing for the WSOP Circuit National Championship, both of which were common for other circuit events. This policy changed in 2012. The WSOPA did not occur in 2011 but would come back in 2012.
On April 30, 2012, the WSOP and Australian casino Crown Melbourne jointly announced the creation of the World Series of Poker Asia - Pacific (WSOP APAC). The first edition of the event was held at Crown 's Melbourne Casino from April 4 -- 15, 2013 and featured five bracelet events in the series.
In 2015, the WSOP International Circuit was launched, with rounds in Canada, Latin America, the Caribbean, Europe, Asia - Pacific and Africa. The winners of each tournament join the WSOP Circuit winners to play the WSOP Global Casino Championship. The International Circuit has expanded to 13 tournaments for the 2017 / 18 season.
The earliest filming of the World Series was a special produced by Binion 's Horseshoe in 1973 and narrated by Jimmy "The Greek '' Snyder. CBS began covering the World Series in the late 1970s.
In the early 1980s, the event was again broadcast as specials. In the late 1980s, the World Series returned to television as ESPN took over broadcasting. Initially, coverage only consisted of just a single one - hour taped - delay broadcast of the Main Event.
ESPN Classic currently airs many of the old broadcasts from the mid-1990s and beyond. Since no "pocket cam '' existed, very few hole cards were actually shown to television viewers. Generally, ESPN used poker - playing actors such as Dick Van Patten, Vince Van Patten, and Gabe Kaplan, with either the tournament director (usually Jim Albrecht) or a poker professional, of which one was Phil Hellmuth, joining the team. Unlike today 's coverage, ESPN featured no pre-taped interviews or profiles on the players. In addition, the commentators were generally on the casino floor itself.
In the 1994 coverage of the final hand of the Main Event shows Hugh Vincent holding 8 ♣ 5 ♥. The flop was 8 ♣ 2 ♠ 6, indicating that there were two 8 ♣ in the deck. The tournament director announces that Hugh Vincent needed two running spades to win. The likely hand for Hugh Vincent was 8 ♠ 5 ♠, but there is no known video of the actual hand turned over by Hugh Vincent.
From 1999 to 2001, the World Series of Poker was broadcast by The Discovery Channel. These hour - long programs presented more of an overview or recap of the WSOP as opposed to broadcasting an actual live event with play - by - play analysis and color commentary. The Discovery Channel 's broadcast also featured final table players interviews interlaced throughout the show. ESPN would resume coverage the following year.
ESPN 's coverage in 2002 was typical of their coverage in the 1990s (recorded in video, little or no post-production commentary or player profiles, no card cams). However, the final table broadcast was expanded over two one - hour episodes. The 2002 WSOP was the first with the "sneak peek '' (later called the pocket cam, or hole cam).
In 2003, Fred Christenson secured the long - term rights acquisition for ESPN, and the channel expanded their coverage to new heights with their coverage of the WSOP. They included coverage of the entire tournament, with a "Featured Table ''. At this table, the viewers could see the player 's hole cards and subsequent strategy. The action was also broadcast as if live, though on tape - delay. 2003 was the first year that the broadcast covered action preceding the final table. Since then, ESPN has greatly expanded its coverage to include many of the preliminary events of the WSOP, especially Texas Hold ' Em. Also, their coverage of the main event now typically includes at least one hour program on each day. For the first two years of its existence, ESPN was broadcasting one hour programs of the "circuit '' events that the WSOP has at various Harrah 's - owned casinos, but ESPN did not renew these events. ESPN 's coverage now includes many of the trappings of sports coverage, such as lighter segments (called "The Nuts '') and interviews. ESPN 's coverage has been largely driven by Matt Maranz, Executive Producer for the WSOP telecasts. Maranz previously worked on ESPN 's football pre-game show, and has also produced taped segments for NBC 's Olympic coverage.
Coverage would increase in 2004 and 2005 to include preliminary events from the WSOP, in addition to the "Main Event ''. ESPN has expanded poker to all - new levels, especially with their coverage of the 2006 WSOP, including providing the entire final table of the 2006 Main Event via pay - per - view airing. In 2008, ESPN experimented with the idea of a delayed final table. This idea presented greater sponsorship opportunities and notoriety, culminating in a recap of the Main Event and the conclusion of the 2008 Main Event final table. In 2009, ESPN announced they would again move the final table to November 2009. The WSOP also decided there would be no rebuy events in 2009. The decision was reached because of complaints that rebuy events provided an unfair advantage to professionals with no limitation on how much money they can spend for an event. There were 57 bracelet events that year. The 2010 WSOP had the same number of bracelet events as in 2009, again with no rebuy events.
With 58 bracelet events and no rebuy events, the 2011 WSOP featured unprecedented "nearly live '' coverage, with broadcasts being delayed by much smaller amounts of time while still satisfying Nevada Gaming Commission regulators. Caesars Entertainment, via WSOP.com, streamed final - table coverage of all bracelet events on a 5 - minute delay, although without pocket cams. The ESPN family of networks aired 36 hours of Main Event coverage leading up to the November Nine on a 30 - minute delay, showing the hole cards of all players who voluntarily entered the pot once the hand ended. The Main Event final table was broadcast on a 15 - minute delay with the same policy regarding hole cards. The first day of the final table was aired on ESPN2 and the final day on ESPN, with both days also streamed on ESPN3 and WSOP.com.
POKER PROductions, led by Mori Eskandani, a former poker player turned television executive, has produced the World Series of Poker Europe since 2008 and World Series of Poker since 2011. Eskandani pioneered the live broadcast format seen at the WSOP Final Table since 2011. Once a 2 - day format, the Final Table is now carried over 3 nights, after several years of a "November Nine '', the Final Table was held in July for the 2018 Main Event. Ratings for the Final Table have remained consistent with poker 's boom despite Black Friday.
The WSOP has corporate sponsors and licensed products which pay fees to market themselves as an official sponsors and / or licensees and exclusively use the WSOP insignia and cross-promote with their events. Besides the Harrah 's properties and ESPN, major sponsors have included Jack Links Beef Jerky, Miller Brewing 's "Milwaukee 's Best '' brand of beers, Pepsi 's SoBe Adrenaline Rush energy drink (sponsors of the 2005 TOC), Helene Curtis 's Degree brand of anti-perspirant / deodorant, United States Playing Card 's Bicycle Pro Cards, Bluff Magazine, GlaxoSmithKline / Bayer 's Levitra erectile dysfunction medicine, and The Hershey Company. Licensees include Glu Mobile, Activision (video games for different platforms such as Nintendo 's GameCube, Microsoft 's Xbox, Sony 's PlayStation 2, and PC, featuring computer - generated versions of stars like Chris Ferguson), and products made by different companies ranging from chip sets, playing cards, hand - held games, and clothing like caps and shirts. The official playing cards and chips are manufactured by Excalibur Electronics, Inc. which is based out of Miami, Florida and has been the main chip licensee since 2005. The fees and licenses bring in more than a million dollars to Harrah 's.
In 2003 and 2004, DVD sets were released by ESPN of the Main Event.
In 2005, a video game based on the tournament series, titled World Series of Poker, was released for several consoles and PC. A sequel called World Series of Poker: Tournament of Champions came out in 2006. In 2007, World Series of Poker 2008: Battle for the Bracelets was released. WSOP video poker machines now appear at some Harrah 's casinos; the machines are standard video poker machines, but have a bonus feature which allows a player to play a modified game of Texas Hold ' em against the machine.
Beginning in 2007, Harrah 's announced the creation of the World Series of Poker Academy, a poker school aimed at providing poker players with the skills needed to win a WSOP bracelet. The instructors for the Academy include Annie Duke, Phil Hellmuth, Jr., Greg Raymer, Scott Fischman, Mark Kroon, Mark Seif, Alex Outhred, and former FBI interrogator Joe Navarro. Initial academies were launched in Tunica, Mississippi, Indiana, and Las Vegas.
In September 2009, Harrah 's signed an agreement with Dragonfish, the B2B arm of 888 Holdings, to provide its online gaming services. The offering went live in the UK later that year, allowing UK users to play for real money. Real money online poker is available in the United States, but only in Delaware, Nevada, and New Jersey.
In December 2010, the Arizona Lottery issued Game Number 739: World Series of Poker $5 Scratchers (sm) with a $50,000 top prize. Played on two tables, the game included a second chance drawing for non-winning tickets to win one of two Grand Prize Trip Packages that included a seat at the 2011 World Series of Poker Main Event or one of eight WSOP Poker Party Prize Packs.
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an object that belongs to a set. sometimes the word member is used | Set (mathematics) - wikipedia
In mathematics, a set is a well - defined collection of distinct objects, considered as an object in its own right. For example, the numbers 2, 4, and 6 are distinct objects when considered separately, but when they are considered collectively they form a single set of size three, written (2, 4, 6). Sets are one of the most fundamental concepts in mathematics. Developed at the end of the 19th century, set theory is now a ubiquitous part of mathematics, and can be used as a foundation from which nearly all of mathematics can be derived. In mathematics education, elementary topics such as Venn diagrams are taught at a young age, while more advanced concepts are taught as part of a university degree. The German word Menge, rendered as "set '' in English, was coined by Bernard Bolzano in his work The Paradoxes of the Infinite.
A set is a well - defined collection of distinct objects. The objects that make up a set (also known as the elements or members of a set) can be anything: numbers, people, letters of the alphabet, other sets, and so on. Georg Cantor, the founder of set theory, gave the following definition of a set at the beginning of his Beiträge zur Begründung der transfiniten Mengenlehre:
A set is a gathering together into a whole of definite, distinct objects of our perception (Anschauung) or of our thought -- which are called elements of the set.
Sets are conventionally denoted with capital letters. Sets A and B are equal if and only if they have precisely the same elements.
Cantor 's definition turned out to be inadequate; instead, the notion of a "set '' is taken as a primitive notion in axiomatic set theory, and the properties of sets are defined by a collection of axioms. The most basic properties are that a set can have elements, and that two sets are equal (one and the same) if and only if every element of each set is an element of the other; this property is called the extensionality of sets.
There are two ways of describing, or specifying the members of, a set. One way is by intensional definition, using a rule or semantic description:
The second way is by extension -- that is, listing each member of the set. An extensional definition is denoted by enclosing the list of members in curly brackets:
One often has the choice of specifying a set either intensionally or extensionally. In the examples above, for instance, A = C and B = D.
There are two important points to note about sets. First, in an extensional definition, a set member can be listed two or more times, for example, (11, 6, 6). However, per extensionality, two definitions of sets which differ only in that one of the definitions lists set members multiple times, define, in fact, the same set. Hence, the set (11, 6, 6) is exactly identical to the set (11, 6). The second important point is that the order in which the elements of a set are listed is irrelevant (unlike for a sequence or tuple). We can illustrate these two important points with an example:
For sets with many elements, the enumeration of members can be abbreviated. For instance, the set of the first thousand positive integers may be specified extensionally as
where the ellipsis ("... '') indicates that the list continues in the obvious way. Ellipses may also be used where sets have infinitely many members. Thus the set of positive even numbers can be written as (2, 4, 6, 8,...).
The notation with braces may also be used in an intensional specification of a set. In this usage, the braces have the meaning "the set of all... ''. So, E = (playing card suits) is the set whose four members are ♠,, ♥, and ♣. A more general form of this is set - builder notation, through which, for instance, the set F of the twenty smallest integers that are four less than perfect squares can be denoted
In this notation, the colon (": '') means "such that '', and the description can be interpreted as "F is the set of all numbers of the form n − 4, such that n is a whole number in the range from 0 to 19 inclusive. '' Sometimes the vertical bar ("") is used instead of the colon.
If B is a set and x is one of the objects of B, this is denoted x ∈ B, and is read as "x belongs to B '', or "x is an element of B ''. If y is not a member of B then this is written as y ∉ B, and is read as "y does not belong to B ''.
For example, with respect to the sets A = (1, 2, 3, 4), B = (blue, white, red), and F = (n − 4: n is an integer; and 0 ≤ n ≤ 19) defined above,
If every member of set A is also a member of set B, then A is said to be a subset of B, written A ⊆ B (also pronounced A is contained in B). Equivalently, we can write B ⊇ A, read as B is a superset of A, B includes A, or B contains A. The relationship between sets established by ⊆ is called inclusion or containment.
If A is a subset of, but not equal to, B, then A is called a proper subset of B, written A ⊊ B (A is a proper subset of B) or B ⊋ A (B is a proper superset of A).
Note that the expressions A ⊂ B and B ⊃ A are used differently by different authors; some authors use them to mean the same as A ⊆ B (respectively B ⊇ A), whereas others use them to mean the same as A ⊊ B (respectively B ⊋ A).
Example:
The empty set is a subset of every set and every set is a subset of itself:
An obvious but useful identity, which can often be used to show that two seemingly different sets are equal:
A partition of a set S is a set of nonempty subsets of S such that every element x in S is in exactly one of these subsets.
The power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S. Note that the power set contains S itself and the empty set because these are both subsets of S. For example, the power set of the set (1, 2, 3) is ((1, 2, 3), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), (1), (2), (3), ∅). The power set of a set S is usually written as P (S).
The power set of a finite set with n elements has 2 elements. For example, the set (1, 2, 3) contains three elements, and the power set shown above contains 2 = 8 elements.
The power set of an infinite (either countable or uncountable) set is always uncountable. Moreover, the power set of a set is always strictly "bigger '' than the original set in the sense that there is no way to pair every element of S with exactly one element of P (S). (There is never an onto map or surjection from S onto P (S).)
Every partition of a set S is a subset of the powerset of S.
The cardinality S of a set S is "the number of members of S. '' For example, if B = (blue, white, red), then B = 3.
There is a unique set with no members, called the empty set (or the null set), which is denoted by the symbol ∅ (other notations are used; see empty set). The cardinality of the empty set is zero. For example, the set of all three - sided squares has zero members and thus is the empty set. Though it may seem trivial, the empty set, like the number zero, is important in mathematics. Indeed, the existence of this set is one of the fundamental concepts of axiomatic set theory.
Some sets have infinite cardinality. The set N of natural numbers, for instance, is infinite. Some infinite cardinalities are greater than others. For instance, the set of real numbers has greater cardinality than the set of natural numbers. However, it can be shown that the cardinality of (which is to say, the number of points on) a straight line is the same as the cardinality of any segment of that line, of the entire plane, and indeed of any finite - dimensional Euclidean space.
There are some sets that hold great mathematical importance and are referred to with such regularity that they have acquired special names and notational conventions to identify them. One of these is the empty set, denoted () or ∅. Another is the unit set (x), which contains exactly one element, namely x. Many of these sets are represented using blackboard bold or bold typeface. Special sets of numbers include
Positive and negative sets are denoted by a superscript - or +. For example, Q represents the set of positive rational numbers.
Each of the above sets of numbers has an infinite number of elements, and each can be considered to be a proper subset of the sets listed below it. The primes are used less frequently than the others outside of number theory and related fields.
There are several fundamental operations for constructing new sets from given sets.
Two sets can be "added '' together. The union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all things that are members of either A or B.
Examples:
Some basic properties of unions:
A new set can also be constructed by determining which members two sets have "in common ''. The intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all things that are members of both A and B. If A ∩ B = ∅, then A and B are said to be disjoint.
Examples:
Some basic properties of intersections:
Two sets can also be "subtracted ''. The relative complement of B in A (also called the set - theoretic difference of A and B), denoted by A \ B (or A − B), is the set of all elements that are members of A but not members of B. Note that it is valid to "subtract '' members of a set that are not in the set, such as removing the element green from the set (1, 2, 3); doing so has no effect.
In certain settings all sets under discussion are considered to be subsets of a given universal set U. In such cases, U \ A is called the absolute complement or simply complement of A, and is denoted by A ′.
Examples:
Some basic properties of complements:
An extension of the complement is the symmetric difference, defined for sets A, B as
For example, the symmetric difference of (7, 8, 9, 10) and (9, 10, 11, 12) is the set (7, 8, 11, 12). The power set of any set becomes a Boolean ring with symmetric difference as the addition of the ring (with the empty set as neutral element) and intersection as the multiplication of the ring.
A new set can be constructed by associating every element of one set with every element of another set. The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by A × B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a is a member of A and b is a member of B.
Examples:
Some basic properties of Cartesian products:
Let A and B be finite sets; then the cardinality of the Cartesian product is the product of the cardinalities:
Set theory is seen as the foundation from which virtually all of mathematics can be derived. For example, structures in abstract algebra, such as groups, fields and rings, are sets closed under one or more operations.
One of the main applications of naive set theory is constructing relations. A relation from a domain A to a codomain B is a subset of the Cartesian product A × B. Given this concept, we are quick to see that the set F of all ordered pairs (x, x), where x is real, is quite familiar. It has a domain set R and a codomain set that is also R, because the set of all squares is subset of the set of all reals. If placed in functional notation, this relation becomes f (x) = x. The reason these two are equivalent is for any given value, y that the function is defined for, its corresponding ordered pair, (y, y) is a member of the set F.
Although initially naive set theory, which defines a set merely as any well - defined collection, was well accepted, it soon ran into several obstacles. It was found that this definition spawned several paradoxes, most notably:
The reason is that the phrase well - defined is not very well defined. It was important to free set theory of these paradoxes because nearly all of mathematics was being redefined in terms of set theory. In an attempt to avoid these paradoxes, set theory was axiomatized based on first - order logic, and thus axiomatic set theory was born.
For most purposes however, naive set theory is still useful.
The inclusion -- exclusion principle is a counting technique that can be used to count the number of elements in a union of two sets, if the size of each set and the size of their intersection are known. It can be expressed symbolically as
A more general form of the principle can be used to find the cardinality of any finite union of sets:
Augustus De Morgan stated two laws about sets.
If A and B are any two sets then,
The complement of A union B equals the complement of A intersected with the complement of B.
The complement of A intersected with B is equal to the complement of A union to the complement of B.
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who plays reese from malcolm in the middle | Justin Berfield - wikipedia
Justin Tyler Berfield (born February 25, 1986) is an American actor, writer and producer, best known for his portrayal of Malcolm 's second - oldest brother, Reese, in the Fox sitcom Malcolm in the Middle. He also starred on The WB sitcom Unhappily Ever After as Ross Malloy. As of 2010, Berfield is Chief Creative Officer of Virgin Produced, a film and television development, packaging, and production company announced in 2010 by the Virgin Group. Virgin Produced is based in Los Angeles, California.
Berfield was born in Agoura Hills, California, the son of Gail Berfield (née Stark) and Eric "Rick '' Berfield. He is the younger brother of actor Lorne Berfield. Berfield is Jewish. He bought and then later sold the house previously owned by Newlyweds: Nick and Jessica stars Jessica Simpson and Nick Lachey.
Berfield 's first screen appearance was in a Folgers coffee commercial at age five. He went on to appear in 20 other nationally broadcast American commercials as a young child. His TV debut came in the short - lived series The Good Life (1994) in which he co-starred with Drew Carey. More TV appearances followed in Hardball, The Boys Are Back, The Mommies (1994 -- 1995).
His first long - running TV role was as Ross Malloy in Unhappily Ever After (1995 -- 1999), in which he notched up 100 episode appearances. Beginning in 2000 he gained international prominence with his role as Malcolm 's trouble - making older brother Reese in Malcolm in the Middle, despite being younger than Frankie Muniz. He appeared in all 151 episodes of that series, and with the recording of the 100th episode became the youngest actor in screen history to have appeared in 100 episodes of two different TV series. Since the conclusion of Malcolm in the Middle in 2006, Berfield has concentrated on production work, although he made a one - off appearance in the series Sons of Tucson in 2010.
In 2001, Berfield was asked to serve as a National Youth Ambassador for Ronald McDonald House Charities, in which he participated for three years until turning 18. He has been active with St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital and most recently Virgin Unite, the charitable arm of Virgin Group.
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how many fighter jets does the united states have | List of active United States military aircraft - wikipedia
Active United States military aircraft is a list of military aircraft that are used by the United States military. For aircraft no longer in - service see List of military aircraft of the United States.
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where did the red sea crossing take place | Crossing the Red Sea - wikipedia
The Crossing of the Red Sea (Hebrew: קריעת ים סוף Kriat Yam Suph - Crossing of the Red Sea or Sea of Reeds) is part of the biblical narrative of the Exodus, the escape of the Israelites, led by Moses, from the pursuing Egyptians in the Book of Exodus. This story is also mentioned in the Quran in Surah 26: Al - Shu'ara ' (The Poets) in verses 60 - 67.
According to the Exodus account, Moses held out his staff and the Red Sea was parted by God. The Israelites walked on the exposed dry ground and crossed the sea, followed by the Egyptian army. Moses again moved his staff once the Israelites had crossed and the sea closed again, drowning the whole Egyptian army.
No archaeological evidence has been found that confirms the crossing of the Red Sea ever took place.
God chooses Moses to lead the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt and into the land of Canaan, which God has promised to them. The Egyptian pharaoh, who previously said the opposite, agrees to let them go, and they travel from Ramesses to Succoth and then to Etham on the edge of the desert, led by a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night. There God tells Moses to turn back and camp by the sea at Pi - hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, directly opposite Baal - zephon.
God causes the pharaoh to pursue the Israelites with chariots, and he overtakes them at Pi - hahiroth. When the Israelites see the Egyptian army they are afraid, but the pillar of fire and the cloud separates the Israelites and the Egyptians. At God 's command Moses holds his staff out over the water, and throughout the night a strong east wind divides the sea, and the Israelites pass through with a wall of water on either side. The Egyptians pursue, but at daybreak God clogs their chariot - wheels and throws them into a panic, and with the return of the water the pharaoh and his entire army are destroyed. When the Israelites see the power of God they put their faith in God and in Moses, and sing a song of praise to the Lord for the crossing of the sea and the destruction of their enemies. (This song, at Exodus 15, is called the Song of the Sea).
The narrative contains at least three and possibly four layers. In the first layer (the oldest), God blows the sea back with a strong east wind, allowing the Israelites to cross on dry land; in the second, Moses stretches out his hand and the waters part in two walls; in the third, God clogs the chariot wheels of the Egyptians and they flee (in this version the Egyptians do not even enter the water); and in the fourth, the Song of the Sea, God casts the Egyptians into tehomat, the mythical abyss.
The Israelites ' first journey is from Ramesses to Succoth. Ramesses is generally identified with modern Qantir, the site of the 19th dynasty capital Per - Ramesses, and Succoth with Tell el - Maskhuta in Wadi Tumilat, the biblical Land of Goshen. From Sukkoth the Israelites travel to Etham "on the edge of the desert, '' then turn back to Pi - hahiroth, located between Migdol and the sea and directly opposite Baal Zephon. None of these have been identified with certainty. One theory with a wide following is that they refer collectively to the region of Lake Timsah, a salt lake north of the Gulf of Suez, and the nearest large body of water after Wadi Tumilat. Lake Timsah was connected to Pithom in Gesem at various times by a canal, and a late 1st millennium text refers to Migdol Baal Zephon as a fort on the canal.
The Hebrew term for the place of the crossing is "Yam Suph ''. Although this has traditionally been thought to refer to the salt water inlet located between Africa and the Arabian peninsula, known in English as the Red Sea, this is a mistranslation from the Greek Septuagint, and Hebrew suph never means "red '' but rather "reeds ''. (While it is not relevant to the identification of the body of water, suph also puns on the Hebrew suphah ("storm '') and soph ("end ''), referring to the events of the Exodus).
General scholarly opinion is that the Exodus story combines a number of traditions, one of them at the "Reed Sea '' (Lake Timsah, with the Egyptians defeated when the wheels of their chariots become clogged) and another at the far deeper Red Sea, allowing the more dramatic telling of events.
Reeds tolerant of salt water flourish in the shallow string of lakes extending from Suez north to the Mediterranean Sea. Kenneth Kitchen and James Hoffmeier state that these reedy lakes and marshes along the isthmus of Suez are acceptable locations for yam suf. The ancient yam suf is not confined to the modern Red Sea. Hoffmeier equates yam suf with the Egyptian term pa - tjufy (also written p3 twfy) from the Ramsside period, which refers to lakes in the eastern Nile delta. He also describes references to p3 twfy in the context of the Island of Amun, thought to be modern Tell el - Balamun. Tell el - Balamun was the most northerly city of Pharaonic Egypt about 29 km southwest of Damietta, located at 31.2586 North, 31.5714 East.
No archaeological evidence has been found that confirms the crossing of the Red Sea ever took place. Zahi Hawass, an Egyptian archaeologist and formerly Egypt 's Minister of State for Antiquities Affairs, said of the Exodus and Passover story, the Israelite 's ' biblical flight from Egypt and the 40 years of wandering the desert in search of the Promised Land, "Really, it 's a myth... Sometimes as archaeologists we have to say that never happened because there is no historical evidence. ''
The theme of Moses crossing the Red Sea was taken up by the panegyrists of Constantine the Great and applied to the battle of the Milvian Bridge (312). The theme enjoyed a vogue during the fourth century on carved sarcophagi: at least twenty - nine have survived in full or in fragments. Eusebius of Caesarea cast Maxentius, drowned in the Tiber, in the role of Pharaoh, both in his Ecclesiastical History and in his eulogistic Life of Constantine.
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what does a and b stand for in van der waals equation | Van der Waals equation - wikipedia
The van der Waals equation (or van der Waals equation of state; named after Johannes Diderik van der Waals) is based on plausible reasons that real gases do not follow the ideal gas law. The ideal gas law treats gas molecules as point particles that do not interact except in elastic collisions. In other words, they do not take up any space, and are not attracted or repelled by other gas molecules.
To account for the volume that a real gas molecule takes up, the van der Waals equation replaces V in the ideal gas law with (V-b), where b is the volume per mole that is occupied by the molecules. This leads to;
The second modification made to the ideal gas law accounts for the fact that gas molecules do in fact attract each other and that real gases are therefore more compressible than ideal gases. Van der Waals provided for intermolecular attraction by adding to the observed pressure P in the equation of state a term a / V m 2 (\ displaystyle a / V_ (m) ^ (2)), where a is a constant whose value depends on the gas. The van der Waals equation is therefore written as;
and can also be written as
where V is the molar volume of the gas, R is the universal gas constant, T is temperature, P is pressure, and V is volume. When the molar volume V is large, b becomes negligible in comparison with V, a / V becomes negligible with respect to P, and the van der Waals equation reduces to the ideal gas law, PV = RT.
It is available via its traditional derivation (a mechanical equation of state), or via a derivation based in statistical thermodynamics, the latter of which provides the partition function of the system and allows thermodynamic functions to be specified. It successfully approximates the behavior of real fluids above their critical temperatures and is qualitatively reasonable for their liquid and low - pressure gaseous states at low temperatures. However, near the transitions between gas and liquid, in the range of p, V, and T where the liquid phase and the gas phase are in equilibrium, the van der Waals equation fails to accurately model observed experimental behaviour, in particular that p is a constant function of V at given temperatures. As such, the van der Waals model is not useful only for calculations intended to predict real behavior in regions near the critical point. Empirical corrections to address these predictive deficiencies have been inserted into the van der Waals model, e.g., by James Clerk Maxwell in his equal area rule, and related but distinct theoretical models, e.g., based on the principle of corresponding states, have been developed to achieve better fits to real fluid behaviour in equations of comparable complexity.
The van der Waals equation is a thermodynamic equation of state is based on the theory that fluids are composed of particles with non-zero volumes, and subject to a (not necessarily pairwise) inter-particle attractive force. It was based on work in theoretical physical chemistry performed in the late 19th century by Johannes Diderik van der Waals, who did related work on the attractive force that also bears his name. The equation is known to be based on a traditional set of derivations deriving from van der Waals ' and related efforts, as well as a set of derivation based in statistical thermodynamics, see below.
Van der Waals ' early, primary interests were in the field of thermodynamics, where a first influence was the published work by Rudolf Clausius on heat, in 1857; other significant influences were the writings by James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, and Willard Gibbs. After initial pursuit of teaching credentials, Clausius ' undergraduate coursework in mathematics and physics at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands led, with significant hurdles, to his acceptance for doctoral studies at Leiden under Pieter Rijke. His dissertation was guided by a desire to explain the late - career experimental observation, in 1869 by Irish professor of chemistry Thomas Andrews (Queen 's University Belfast), of the existence of critical temperatures in fluids. van der Waals doctoral research culminated in an 1873 dissertation that provided a semi-quantitative theory describing the gas - liquid change of state and the origin of a critical temperature, Over de Continuïteit van den Gas - en Vloeistof (-) toestand (Dutch; in English, On the Continuity of the Gas - and Liquid - State); it was in this dissertation that the first derivations of what we now refer to as the van der Waals equation appeared. James Clerk Maxwell reviewed and lauded its published content in the British science journal Nature, and van der Waals began independent work that would result in his receipt of the Nobel Prize in 1910, which emphasized the contribution of his formulation of this "equation of state for gases and liquids. ''
The equation relates four state variables: the pressure of the fluid p, the total volume of the fluid 's container V, the number of particles N, and the absolute temperature of the system T.
The intensive, microscopic form of the equation is:
where
is the volume of the container occupied by each particle (not the velocity of a particle), and k is the Boltzmann constant. It introduces two new parameters: a ', a measure of the average attraction between particles, and b ', the volume excluded from v by one particle.
The equation can be also written in extensive, molar form:
where
is a measure of the average attraction between particles,
is the volume excluded by a mole of particles,
is the number of moles,
is the universal gas constant, k is Boltzmann 's constant = 1.381 * 10 ^ - 23 J / K, and N is Avogadro 's constant.
A careful distinction must be drawn between the volume available to a particle and the volume of a particle. In the intensive equation, v equals the total space available to each particle, while the parameter b ' is proportional to the proper volume of a single particle - the volume bounded by the atomic radius. This is subtracted from v because of the space taken up by one particle. In van der Waals ' original derivation, given below, b ' is four times the proper volume of the particle. Observe further that the pressure p goes to infinity when the container is completely filled with particles so that there is no void space left for the particles to move; this occurs when V = nb.
The van der Waals equation can also be expressed in terms of reduced properties:
This yields a critical compressibility factor of 3 / 8.
The van der Waals equation is mathematically simple, but it nevertheless predicts the experimentally observed transition between vapor and liquid, and predicts critical behaviour.
Above the critical temperature, T, the van der Waals equation is an improvement over the ideal gas law, and for lower temperatures, i.e., T < T, the equation is also qualitatively reasonable for the liquid and low - pressure gaseous states; however, with respect to the first - order phase transition, i.e., the range of (p, V, T) where a liquid phase and a gas phase would be in equilibrium, the equation appears to fail to predict observed experimental behaviour, in the sense that p is typically observed to be constant as a function of V for a given temperature in the two - phase region. This apparent discrepancy is resolved in the context of vapour -- liquid equilibrium: at a particular temperature, there exist two points on the van der Waals isotherm that have the same chemical potential, and thus a system in thermodynamic equilibrium will appear to traverse a straight line on the p -- V diagram as the ratio of vapour to liquid changes. However, in such a system, there are really only two points present (the liquid and the vapour) rather than a series of states connected by a line, so connecting the locus of points is incorrect: it is not an equation of multiple states, but an equation of (a single) state. It is indeed possible to compress a gas beyond the point at which it would typically condense, given the right conditions, and it is also possible to expand a liquid beyond the point at which it would usually boil. Such states are called "metastable '' states. Such behaviour is qualitatively (though perhaps not quantitatively) predicted by the van der Waals equation of state.
However, the values of physical quantities as predicted with the van der Waals equation of state "are in very poor agreement with experiment, '' so the model 's utility is limited to qualitative rather than quantitative purposes. Empirically - based corrections can easily be inserted into the van der Waals model (see Maxwell 's correction, below), but in so doing, the modified expression is no longer as simple an analytical model; in this regard, other models, such as those based on the principle of corresponding states, achieve a better fit with roughly the same work. Even with its acknowledged shortcomings, the pervasive use of the van der Waals equation in standard university physical chemistry textbooks makes clear its importance as a pedagogic tool to aid understanding fundamental physical chemistry ideas involved in developing theories of vapour -- liquid behavior and equations of state. In addition, other (more accurate) equations of state such as the Redlich -- Kwong and Peng -- Robinson equation of state are essentially modifications of the van der Waals equation of state.
Textbooks in physical chemistry generally give two derivations of the title equation. One is the conventional derivation that goes back to van der Waals, a mechanical equation of state that can not be used to specify all thermodynamic functions; the other is a statistical mechanics derivation that makes explicit the intermolecular potential neglected in the first derivation. A particular advantage of the statistical mechanical derivation is that it yields the partition function for the system, and allows all thermodynamic functions to be specified (including the mechanical equation of state).
Consider one mole of gas composed of non-interacting point particles that satisfy the ideal gas law: (see any standard Physical Chemistry text, op. cit.)
Next assume that all particles are hard spheres of the same finite radius r (the van der Waals radius). The effect of the finite volume of the particles is to decrease the available void space in which the particles are free to move. We must replace V by V − b, where b is called the excluded volume or "co-volume ''. The corrected equation becomes
The excluded volume b (\ displaystyle b) is not just equal to the volume occupied by the solid, finite - sized particles, but actually four times that volume. To see this, we must realize that a particle is surrounded by a sphere of radius 2r (two times the original radius) that is forbidden for the centers of the other particles. If the distance between two particle centers were to be smaller than 2r, it would mean that the two particles penetrate each other, which, by definition, hard spheres are unable to do.
The excluded volume for the two particles (of average diameter d or radius r) is
which divided by two (the number of colliding particles) gives the excluded volume per particle:
So b ′ is four times the proper volume of the particle. It was a point of concern to van der Waals that the factor four yields an upper bound; empirical values for b ′ are usually lower. Of course, molecules are not infinitely hard, as van der Waals thought, and are often fairly soft.
Next, we introduce a (not necessarily pairwise) attractive force between the particles. van der Waals assumed that, notwithstanding the existence of this force, the density of the fluid is homogeneous; furthermore, he assumed that the range of the attractive force is so small that the great majority of the particles do not feel that the container is of finite size. Given the homogeneity of the fluid, the bulk of the particles do not experience a net force pulling them to the right or to the left. This is different for the particles in surface layers directly adjacent to the walls. They feel a net force from the bulk particles pulling them into the container, because this force is not compensated by particles on the side where the wall is (another assumption here is that there is no interaction between walls and particles, which is not true as can be seen from the phenomenon of droplet formation; most types of liquid show adhesion). This net force decreases the force exerted onto the wall by the particles in the surface layer. The net force on a surface particle, pulling it into the container, is proportional to the number density
The number of particles in the surface layers is, again by assuming homogeneity, also proportional to the density. In total, the force on the walls is decreased by a factor proportional to the square of the density, and the pressure (force per unit surface) is decreased by
so that
Upon writing n for the number of moles and nV = V, the equation obtains the second form given above,
It is of some historical interest to point out that van der Waals, in his Nobel prize lecture, gave credit to Laplace for the argument that pressure is reduced proportional to the square of the density.
The canonical partition function Z of an ideal gas consisting of N = nN identical (non-interacting) particles, is:
where Λ (\ displaystyle \ Lambda) is the thermal de Broglie wavelength,
with the usual definitions: h is Planck 's constant, m the mass of a particle, k Boltzmann 's constant and T the absolute temperature. In an ideal gas z is the partition function of a single particle in a container of volume V. In order to derive the van der Waals equation we assume now that each particle moves independently in an average potential field offered by the other particles. The averaging over the particles is easy because we will assume that the particle density of the van der Waals fluid is homogeneous. The interaction between a pair of particles, which are hard spheres, is taken to be
r is the distance between the centers of the spheres and d is the distance where the hard spheres touch each other (twice the van der Waals radius). The depth of the van der Waals well is ε (\ displaystyle \ epsilon).
Because the particles are not coupled under the mean field Hamiltonian, the mean field approximation of the total partition function still factorizes,
but the intermolecular potential necessitates two modifications to z. First, because of the finite size of the particles, not all of V is available, but only V − Nb ', where (just as in the conventional derivation above)
Second, we insert a Boltzmann factor exp (- φ / 2kT) to take care of the average intermolecular potential. We divide here the potential by two because this interaction energy is shared between two particles. Thus
The total attraction felt by a single particle is
where we assumed that in a shell of thickness dr there are N / V 4π r dr particles. This is a mean field approximation; the position of the particles is averaged. In reality the density close to the particle is different than far away as can be described by a pair correlation function. Furthermore, it is neglected that the fluid is enclosed between walls. Performing the integral we get
Hence, we obtain,
From statistical thermodynamics we know that
so that we only have to differentiate the terms containing V. We get
Below the critical temperature, the van der Waals equation seems to predict qualitatively incorrect relationships. Unlike for ideal gases, the p-V isotherms oscillate with a relative minimum (d) and a relative maximum (e). Any pressure between p and p appears to have 3 stable volumes, contradicting the experimental observation that two state variables completely determine a one - component system 's state. Moreover, the isothermal compressibility is negative between d and e (equivalently (∂ P / ∂ V) T, N > 0 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ left (((\ partial P) / (\ partial V)) \ right) _ (T, N) > 0)), which can not describe a system at equilibrium.
To address these problems, James Clerk Maxwell replaced the isotherm between points a and c with a horizontal line positioned so that the areas of the two shaded regions would be equal (replacing the a-d - b - e-c curve with a straight line from a to c); this portion of the isotherm corresponds to the liquid - vapor equilibrium. The regions of the isotherm from a -- d and from c -- e are interpreted as metastable states of super-heated liquid and super-cooled vapor, respectively. The equal area rule can be expressed as:
where p is the vapor pressure (flat portion of the curve), V is the volume of the pure liquid phase at point a on the diagram, and V is the volume of the pure gas phase at point c on the diagram. A two - phase mixture at p will occupy a total volume between V and V, as determined by Maxwell 's lever rule.
Maxwell justified the rule based on the fact that the area on a pV diagram corresponds to mechanical work, saying that work done on the system in going from c to b should equal work released on going from a to b. This is because the change in free energy A (T, V) equals the work done during a reversible process, and, as a state variable, the free energy must be path - independent. In particular, the value of A at point b should be the same regardless of whether the path taken is from left or right across the horizontal isobar, or follows the original van der Waals isotherm.
This derivation is not entirely rigorous, since it requires a reversible path through a region of thermodynamic instability, while b is unstable. Nevertheless, modern derivations from chemical potential reach the same conclusion, and it remains a necessary modification to the van der Waals and to any other analytic equation of state.
The Maxwell equal area rule can also be derived from an assumption of equal chemical potential μ of coexisting liquid and vapour phases. On the isotherm shown in the above plot, points a and c are the only pair of points which fulfill the equilibrium condition of having equal pressure, temperature and chemical potential. It follows that systems with volumes intermediate between these two points will consist of a mixture of the pure liquid and gas with specific volumes equal to the pure liquid and gas phases at points a and c.
The van der Waals equation may be solved for V and V as functions of the temperature and the vapor pressure p. Since:
where A is the Helmholtz free energy, it follows that the equal area rule can be expressed as:
Since the gas and liquid volumes are functions of p and T only, this equation is then solved numerically to obtain p as a function of temperature (and number of particles N), which may then be used to determine the gas and liquid volumes.
A pseudo-3D plot of the locus of liquid and vapor volumes versus temperature and pressure is shown in the accompanying figure. One sees that the two locii meet at the critical point (1, 1, 1) smoothly. An isotherm of the van der Waals fluid taken at T = 0.90 is also shown where the intersections of the isotherm with the loci illustrate the construct 's requirement that the two areas (red and blue, shown) are equal.
We reiterate that the extensive volume V is related to the volume per particle v = V / N where N = nN is the number of particles in the system. The equation of state does not give us all the thermodynamic parameters of the system. We can take the equation for the Helmholtz energy A
From the equation derived above for lnQ, we find
Where Φ is an undetermined constant, which may be taken from the Sackur -- Tetrode equation for an ideal gas to be:
This equation expresses A in terms of its natural variables V and T, and therefore gives us all thermodynamic information about the system. The mechanical equation of state was already derived above
The entropy equation of state yields the entropy (S)
from which we can calculate the internal energy
Similar equations can be written for the other thermodynamic potential and the chemical potential, but expressing any potential as a function of pressure p will require the solution of a third - order polynomial, which yields a complicated expression. Therefore, expressing the enthalpy and the Gibbs energy as functions of their natural variables will be complicated.
Although the material constant a and b in the usual form of the van der Waals equation differs for every single fluid considered, the equation can be recast into an invariant form applicable to all fluids.
Defining the following reduced variables (f, f are the reduced and critical variable versions of f, respectively),
where
as shown by Salzman.
The first form of the van der Waals equation of state given above can be recast in the following reduced form:
This equation is invariant for all fluids; that is, the same reduced form equation of state applies, no matter what a and b may be for the particular fluid.
This invariance may also be understood in terms of the principle of corresponding states. If two fluids have the same reduced pressure, reduced volume, and reduced temperature, we say that their states are corresponding. The states of two fluids may be corresponding even if their measured pressure, volume, and temperature are very different. If the two fluids ' states are corresponding, they exist in the same regime of the reduced form equation of state. Therefore, they will respond to changes in roughly the same way, even though their measurable physical characteristics may differ significantly.
The van der Waals equation is a cubic equation of state; in the reduced formulation the cubic equation is:
At the critical temperature, where T R = p R = 1 (\ displaystyle T_ (R) = p_ (R) = 1) we get as expected
For T < 1, there are 3 values for v. For T > 1, there is 1 real value for v.
The solution of this equation for the case where there are three separate roots may be found at Maxwell construction
The equation is also usable as a PVT equation for compressible fluids (e.g. polymers). In this case specific volume changes are small and it can be written in a simplified form:
where p is the pressure, V is specific volume, T is the temperature and A, B, C are parameters.
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where did the devil is beating his wife come from | Sunshower - wikipedia
A sunshower or sun shower is a meteorological phenomenon in which rain falls while the sun is shining. A sunshower is usually the result of accompanying winds associated with a rain storm sometimes miles away, blowing the airborne raindrops into an area where there are no clouds, therefore causing a sunshower. Sometimes a sunshower is created when a single rain cloud passes overhead, and the Sun 's angle keeps the sunlight from being obstructed by overhead clouds.
Sunshower conditions often lead to the appearance of a rainbow, if the sun is at a low enough angle. Although used in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and the UK, the term "sunshower '' is rarely found in dictionaries. Additionally, the phenomenon has a wide range of sometimes remarkably similar folkloric names in cultures around the world. A common theme is that of clever animals and tricksters getting married or related to the devil, although many variations of this theme are in existence.
In the Southern United States, as well as in Hungary a sunshower is traditionally believed to be when "the devil is beating his wife '' (or, more rarely, "the devil is beating his wife with a walking stick '') because he is angry God created a beautiful day. The rain is said to be his wife 's tears. A local belief from Tennessee is "the devil is kissing his wife ''. In French, the indigenous belief is "Le diable bat sa femme et marie sa fille '' (i.e., "the devil is beating his wife and marrying his daughter '').
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who is the oldest man on earth and how old is he | Oldest people - wikipedia
This is a list of tables of the oldest people in the world in ordinal ranks. To avoid including false or unconfirmed claims of extreme old age, names here are restricted to those people whose ages have been validated by an international body that specifically deals in longevity research, such as the Gerontology Research Group (GRG) or Guinness World Records (GWR), and others who have otherwise been reliably sourced.
According to this criterion, the longest human lifespan is that of Jeanne Calment of France (1875 -- 1997), who lived to the age of 122 years, 164 days. She met Vincent van Gogh when she was 12 or 13. She received news media attention in 1985, after turning 110. Subsequent investigation found documentation for Calment 's age, beyond any reasonable question, in the records of her native city, Arles, France. More evidence of Calment 's lifespan has been produced than for any other supercentenarian; her case serves as an archetype in the methodology for verifying the ages of the world 's oldest people.
As women live longer than men on average, combined records for both sexes are dominated by women. The longest undisputed lifespan for a man is that of Jiroemon Kimura of Japan (1897 -- 2013), who died at age 116 years, 54 days.
Since the death of 117 - year - old Emma Morano of Italy on 15 April 2017, 117 - year - old Violet Brown of Jamaica, born 10 March 1900, is the oldest living person in the world whose age has been documented.
Systematic verification of longevity has only been practiced in recent decades and only in certain parts of the world. Note: All ten oldest people ever are women.
Deceased Living † ^ denotes age at death, or, if living, age as of 11 September 2017
a ^ Mortensen was born in Denmark. b ^ Kristal was born in Poland, then a part of the Russian Empire.
Note: All ten oldest living people are women.
a ^ Engle was born in Saratov Oblast, Russia, then Borgardt, Russian Empire.
This list is copied from the Gerontology Research Group 's list of the World 's Oldest Person Titleholders. As the oldest living person is usually a woman, a sequence of oldest women would be nearly redundant to this list. A sequence of oldest living men follows this sequence.
This list is copied from the Gerontology Research Group 's list of the World 's Oldest Man Titleholders.
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