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which of the following cities in india have the headquarters of more than one railway zones | Indian Railways - Wikipedia
Indian Railways (reporting mark IR) is a State owned national transporter, and responsible for rail transport in India. It is owned and operated by the Government of India through the Ministry of Railways. It is the fourth largest railway network in the world comprising 119,630 kilometres (74,330 mi) of total track and 92,081 km (57,216 mi) of running track over a route of 66,687 km (41,437 mi) with 7,216 stations at the end of 2015 - 16. In 2015 - 16, IR carried 8.107 billion passengers annually or more than 22 million passengers a day and 1.101 billion tons of freight annually. As of the end of 2015 - 16, of the total 68,525 km (42,579 mi) route length, 28,327 km (17,602 mi) or 45 % were electrified and 28,371 km (17,629 mi) or 37 % were double or multiple line routes. The railway network is predominantly a broad gauge network. Small stretches of the network use metre and narrow gauges. All the electrified lines use 25 kV AC electric traction.
IR operates both long distance and suburban rail systems. IR ran on average 13,313 passenger trains daily in 2015 - 16. The trains have a five - digit numbering system. Mail or express trains, the most common types, run at an average speed of 50.9 km / hr. As of the end of 2015 - 16, IR 's rolling stock comprised over 254,006 freight wagons, 70,241 passenger coaches and 11,122 locomotives (39 powered by steam, 5,869 by diesel fuel and 5,214 by electricity). It also owns locomotive and coach production facilities at several places in India.
IR is the world 's eighth biggest employer and had 1.331 million employees at the end of 2015 - 16. In 2015 -- 2016, IR had revenues of ₹ 1.683 trillion (US $26 billion), consisting of ₹ 1.069 trillion (US $17 billion) freight earnings and ₹ 442.83 billion (US $6.9 billion) passengers earnings. It had an operating ratio of 90.5 % in 2015 - 16.
The history of rail transport in India began in the early nineteenth century.
The first proposals for railways in India were made in Madras in 1832. The first train in India ran from Red Hills to Chintadripet bridge in Madras in 1837. It was called Red Hill Railway. It was hauled by a rotary steam engine locomotive manufactured by William Avery. It was built by Sir Arthur Cotton. It was mainly used for transporting granite stones for road building work in Madras. In 1845, a railway was built at Dowleswaram in Rajahmundry. It was called Godavari Dam Construction Railway. It was also built by Arthur Cotton. It was used to supply stones for construction of a dam over Godavari. On 8 May 1845, Madras Railway was incorporated. In the same year East India Railway company was incorporated. On 1 August 1849, Great Indian Peninsular Railway was incorporated by an Act of Parliament. "Guarantee System '' providing free land and guaranteed rates of return (5 %) to the private English companies willing to work on building railways was finalized on 17 August 1849. In 1851, a railway was built in Roorkee. It was called Solani Aqueduct Railway. It was hauled by steam locomotive Thomason, named after a British officer in - charge of same name. It was used for transporting construction materials for building of aqueduct over Solani river. In 1852, the "Madras Guaranteed Railway Company '' was incorporated.
The first passenger train in India ran between Bombay (Bori Bunder) and Thane on 16 April 1853. The 14 - carriage train was hauled by three steam locomotives: Sahib, Sindh and Sultan. It ran for about 34 kilometers between these two cities carrying 400 people. The line was built and operated by GIPR. This railway line was built in 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in) broad gauge, which became the standard for the railways in the country. The first passenger railway train in eastern India ran from Howrah, near Calcutta to Hoogly, for distance of 24 miles, on 15 August 1854. The line was built and operated by EIR. In May 1854, the Bombay - Thane line was extended to Kalyan by building bridge over "Dapoorie viaduct '' over Ulhas river. This was also the first railway bridge in India. In the same year GIPR started its first workshops in Byculla. In 1855, BB&CI Railway was incorporated. In August 1855, EIR ' Express ' and Fairy Queen steam locomotives started hauling trains. The first passenger train in South India ran from Royapuram / Veyasarapady (Madras) to Wallajah Road (Arcot) on 1 July 1856, for a distance of 60 miles. It was built and operated by Madras Railway. In the same year, first workshop was set up by the Madras Railway at Perambur, near Madras. The Bombay - Thane line was extended to Khopoli in same year. In 1858, Eastern Bengal Railway was incorporated. On 24 February 1873, the first tramway (a horse - drawn tramway) opened in Calcutta between Sealdah and Armenian Ghat Street, a distance of 3.8 km. In 1874, GSIR and Carnatic Rly. merged to form the South Indian Railway. On 9 May 1874, horse - drawn tramway began operations in Bombay between Colaba and Parel. In 1880, Calcutta Tramways Company was incorporated. In 1890, East Coast State Railway was incorporated. In 1897, lighting in passenger coaches was introduced by many railway companies. In 1902, the Jodhpur Railway became the first to introduce electric lights as standard fixtures. In 1920, electric lighting of signals was introduced between Dadar and Currey Road in Bombay.
On 3 February 1925, first electric passenger train in India ran between Victoria terminus and Kurla. It ran on 1500V DC overhead traction. Cammell Laird and Uerdingenwagonfabrik companies provided the locomotives for the same. In the same year VT - Bandra section was also electrified and electric services began there, with an elevated platform at Sandhurst Road. In the same year, the Oudh and Rohilkhund Railway was merged with EIR. The first railway budget was also presented in 1925. East Indian Railway Company and Great Indian Peninsular Railway were taken over by the state in the same year. In 1926, Kurla - Kalyan section was electrified with 1500 V DC. Electrification to Poona and Igatpuri (both 1500V DC) over the Bhore and Thal Ghats was also completed in the same year. Charbagh railway station in Lucknow was built in the same year. On Jan 1928, Bandra - Virar section was electrified with 1500V DC. In the same year, the Frontier Mail made its inaugural run between Bombay VT and Peshawar. and first automatic colour - light signals became operational in India, on GIPR 's lines between Bombay VT and Byculla. In the same year, Kanpur Central and Lucknow stations were inaugurated. In 1929, the Grand Trunk Express began running between Peshawar and Mangalore, Punjab Limited Express began running between Mumbai and Lahore. Automatic colour - light signalling was extended to the Byculla - Kurla section in the same year. On 1 June 1930, the Deccan Queen began running, hauled by a WCP - 1 (No. 20024, old number EA / 1 4006) and with 7 coaches, on the GIPR 's electrified route from Bombay VT to Poona (Pune). In the same year, Hyderabad Godavary Valley Rly. was merged into Nizam 's State Rly. In the same year, the route of the Grand Trunk Exp. was changed to Delhi - Madras.
The re-organisation of railways in India into regional zones began in 1951. On 14 April 1951, Southern Railway was created. On 5 November, Central Railway and Western Railway were created. In the same year, the post of Chief Commissioner of Railways was abolished and the Railway Board adopted the practice of making the seniormost member Chairman of the board. In the same year, the government of West Bengal entered into an agreement with the Calcutta Tramways Co. to take over its administrative functions. On 14 April 1952, Northern Railway, Eastern Railway and North - Eastern Railway were created. In the same year, fans and lights were mandated for all compartments in all classes of passenger accommodation and sleeping accommodation was introduced in coaches. On 1 August 1955, Eastern Railway was split to form new South - Eastern Railway. In 1956, divisional system of administration was set up for the various regional zones. Also in 1956, the first fully air - conditioned train was introduced between Howrah and Delhi. In 1957, after successful trials in France, SNCF proposed 25kV AC electrification for railways. Railways took a decision to adopt 25kV AC electrification and chose SNCF as technical consultant. An organisation, Main Line Electrification Project (which later became the Railway Electrification Project and still later the Central Organization for Railway Electrification) was established in the same year. In 1958, the North - Eastern Railway split to form a new Northeast Frontier Railway. In 1959, the Raj Kharswan - Dongoposi section became the first section to be electrified with 25kV AC traction. The first scheduled train using 25kV AC traction ran on Raj Kharswan - Dongoposi section on 11 August 1960. In 1966, first containerized freight services were started, between Bombay and Ahmedabad. In the same year, electrification of several suburban tracks around Delhi, Madras and Calcutta was completed with the 25 kV AC system. In 1979, Main Line Electrification Project was reconstituted into Central Organization for Railway Electrification (CORE).
In 1986, computerized ticketing and reservation was introduced in India, for the first time, at New Delhi. In 1988, The first Shatabdi Express was introduced in the country between New Delhi and Jhansi (later extended to Bhopal), and also became the fastest train at the time. In 1990, first Self - Printing Ticket Machine (SPTM) was introduced, at New Delhi. In 1993, AC 3 - tier coaches were introduced for the first time in India. In the same year, Sleeper Class was introduced on IR for the first time, separate from Second Class. On 16 January 1995, first regularly scheduled services on trains hauled by locos using the 2 * 25kV system of traction started on Bina - Katni. In September 1996, CONCERT system of computerized reservations was fully deployed at New Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai. In 1998, Coupon Validating Machines (CVMs) were introduced at Mumbai CST. The complete networked nationwide CONCERT system became operational on 18 April 1999. In the same year, South East Central was constituted. Credit cards were started being accepted for booking tickets and reservations in some stations also in 1999. In February 2000, Indian Railways web site was deployed. On 6 July 2002, the East Coast, South Western, South East Central, North Central, and West Central zones were created. On 3 August 2002, IR began online train reservations and ticketing over the Internet. On 1 December 2002, Internet ticket booking was extended to many cities. On 5 February 2012, WR switched completely to 25kV AC traction, ending its use of 1.5 kV DC traction. On 26 September 2013, Tatkal system of ticketing extended to ordinary trains. On 5 April 2016, Gatiman Express, India 's fastest train with the maximum speed of 160 km / h, made its maiden journey from Delhi to Agra. On 11 April 2016, CR completely switched to 25 kV AC traction, ending the use of DC traction completely in Mumbai area as well as on entire main - line rail network in the country. On 31 March 2017, IR announced that the entire rail network in the country will be electrified by 2022.
The apex management organisation is the Railway Board, also called the Ministry of Railways. The board is headed by a Chairman who reports to the Minister of Railways. The board has five other members in addition to the chairman. The General Managers of the Zonal Railways and the production units report to the board.
IR is divided into 17 zones, which are further sub-divided into divisions. The number of zones in IR increased from six to eight in 1951, nine in 1966 and sixteen in 2003. Each zonal railway is made up of a certain number of divisions, each having a divisional headquarters. There are a total of sixty - eight divisions.
Each zone is headed by a general manager, who reports directly to the Railway Board. The zones are further divided into divisions, under the control of divisional railway managers (DRM). The divisional officers, of engineering, mechanical, electrical, signal and telecommunication, accounts, personnel, operating, commercial, security and safety branches, report to the respective Divisional Railway Manager and are in charge of operation and maintenance of assets. Further down the hierarchy tree are the station masters, who control individual stations and train movements through the track territory under their stations ' administration.
Locomotives in India consist of electric and diesel locomotives. The world 's first CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) locomotives are also being used. Steam locomotives are no longer used, except in heritage trains. In India, locomotives are classified according to their gauge, motive power, the work they are suited for and their power or model number. The class name includes this information about the locomotive. It comprises 4 or 5 letters. The first letter denotes the track gauge. The second letter denotes their motive power, Diesel or Alternating current (Electric), and the third letter denotes the kind of traffic for which they are suited (goods, passenger, Multi or shunting). The fourth letter used to denote locomotives ' chronological model number. However, from 2002 a new classification scheme has been adopted. Under this system, for newer diesel locomotives, the fourth letter will denote their horsepower range. Electric locomotives do n't come under this scheme, and even all diesel locos are not covered. For them, this letter denotes their model number as usual.
A locomotive may sometimes have the fifth letter in its name which denotes a technical variant or subclass or subtype. This fifth letter indicates some smaller variation in the basic model or series, perhaps different motors, or a different manufacturer. With the new scheme for classifying diesel locomotives (as mentioned above) the fifth item is a letter that further refines the horsepower indication in 100 hp increments: ' A ' for 100 hp, ' B ' for 200 hp, ' C ' for 300 hp, etc. So in this scheme, a WDM - 3A refers to a 3100 hp loco, while a WDM - 3D would be a 3400 hp loco and WDM - 3F would be 3600 hp loco.
Note: This classification system does not apply to steam locomotives in India as they have become non-functional now. They retained their original class names such as M class or WP class.
Diesel Locomotives are now fitted with Auxiliary Power Units which saves nearly 88 % of Fuel during the idle time when train is not running.
The number of goods wagons was 205,596 on 31 March 1951 and reached the maximum number 405,183 on 31 March 1980 after which it started declining and was 239,321 on 31 March 2012. The number is far less than the requirement, and the IR keeps losing freight traffic to road. IR carried 93 million tonnes of goods in 1950 -- 51, and it increased to 1010 million tonnes in 2012 -- 13.
However, its share in goods traffic is much lower than road traffic. In 1951, its share was 65 %, and the share of the road was 35 %. Now the shares have been reversed, and the proportion of railways has declined to 30 % and the share of road has increased to 70 %.
Since the 1990s, IR has stopped single - wagon consignments and provides only full rake freight trains.
Wagon types include:
IR has several types of passenger coaches.
The coaches used in IR are produced at Integral Coach Factory, Rail Coach Factory, Modern Coach Factory, Raebareli; including the new LHB coaches.
Electric Multiple Unit (EMU) coaches are used for suburban traffic in large cities -- mainly Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata, Pune, Hyderabad and Bangalore. These coaches numbered 7,793 on 31 March 2012. They have second class and first class seating accommodation.
Passenger coaches numbered 46,722 on 31 March 2012. Other coaches (luggage coach, parcel van, guard 's coach, mail coach, etc.) numbered 6,560 on 31 March 2012.
The Chittaranjan Locomotive Works in Chittaranjan makes electric locomotives. The Diesel Locomotive Works in Varanasi makes diesel locomotives. The Integral Coach Factory in Perambur, Chennai makes integral coaches. These have a monocoque construction, and the floor is an integral unit with the undercarriage. The Rail Coach Factory in Kapurthala also makes coaches. The Rail Wheel Factory at Yelahanka, Bangalore and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela, Chhapra, Bihar manufactures wheels and axles, Diesel - Loco Modernisation Works, Patiala upgrade the WDM - 2 Diesel loco from 2600 hp to 3100 hp. Some electric locomotives have been supplied by BHEL, Jhansi and Palakkad, and locomotive components are manufactured in several other plants around the country.
The total track length of network is 119,640 km (74,340 mi) while the total route length of the network is 66,687 km (41,437 mi). Track sections are rated for speeds ranging from 80 to 220 km / h (50 to 137 mph), though trains do n't really clock speeds of 200 km / h. Maximum speed attained by passenger trains is 177 km / h - 180 km / h (110 mph).
Indian gauge 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in) (a broad gauge) is the predominant gauge used by IR with 108,500 km (67,400 mi) of track length (94 % of entire track length of all the gauges) and 59,400 km (36,900 mi) of route - kilometre (91 % of entire route - kilometre of all the gauges). It is the widest gauge in passenger use in the world. The first railway line in India from Mumbai (Bori Bunder) to Thane in 1853 was built in broad gauge.
Urban rail transit lines which serve the urban areas are in 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 ⁄ in) standard gauge (except suburban rail which is in Indian gauge). These encompass metro, monorail and trams. As of 2016, lines in operation are Trams in Kolkata, Delhi Metro, Rapid MetroRail Gurgaon, the Bangalore Metro and the Mumbai Metro. These lines are not operated by IR.
On decreasing routes, the 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ⁄ in) metre gauge and 762 mm (2 ft 6 in) and 610 mm (2 ft) narrow gauges are present. These were initially introduced in hilly regions for cost considerations and simpler engineering. The metre gauge has about 5,000 km (3,100 mi) of track length (4 % of entire track length of all the gauges) and 4,100 km (2,500 mi) of route - kilometre (6 % of entire route - kilometre of all the gauges), while narrow gauges have 1,500 km (930 mi) route - kilometre (2 % of entire route - kilometre of all the gauges), as of 31 March 2016.
Sleepers (ties) are mostly made up of prestressed concrete. Metal and teak sleepers are still in use on a few lines. This are under conversion to concrete sleepers.
Around 23,555 km (14,636 mi) of the route - kilometre or 43,357 km (26,941 mi) of running track was electrified, as of 31 March 2016. India uses 25 kV AC traction on all of its electrified tracks.
Railway electrification in India began with the inauguration of the first electric train between Bombay Victoria Terminus and Kurla on Harbour Line on 3 February 1925 on the then existing Great Indian Peninsula Railway (GIPR) at 1500 V DC. Heavy gradients on the Western Ghats necessitated the introduction of electric traction on the GIPR up to Igatpuri on the North East line and to Pune on the South East line. 1500 V DC traction was introduced on the suburban section of the then existing Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway between Colaba and Borivili on 5 January 1928 and between Madras Beach and Tambaram of the then existing Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway on 11 May 1931. All this was primarily to meet the growing traffic on these metros.
The electrification of the Howrah - Burdwan section of the Eastern Railway was done at 3000 V DC and completed in 1958. The first 3000 V DC EMU services were inaugurated in Howrah - Sheoraphuli section on 14 December 1957.
The 25 kV AC system of traction emerged as an economical system of electrification as a result of research and trials in Europe, particularly on French Railways (SNCF). Railways decided in 1957 to adopt the 25 kV AC system of electrification as a standard, with SNCF as their consultant in the initial stages. The first section electrified on the 25 kV AC system was Raj Kharswan -- Dongoaposi on the South Eastern Railway in 1960. The first 25 kV AC EMUs which were for Kolkata suburban services were inaugurated in September 1962. With a view to provide continuity of traction system, the Howrah -- Burdwan section of the Eastern Railway and Madras Beach -- Tambaram section of the Southern Railway were converted to the 25 kV AC system by 1968.
Considering the limitations in the existing DC traction system, a decision was taken to convert to 25 kV AC traction during 1996 - 97. Conversion from DC traction to AC traction was completed in the year 2012 by Western Railway and in 2016 by Central Railway. With this, the entire electrified mainline rail network in India now uses 25kV AC. Since then, DC traction is used only for metros and trams.
The IR mostly use colour signal lights. Earlier the older semaphores and discs - based signalling (depending on the position or colour) were used, but these were replaced by colour signals. Except for some high - traffic sections around large cities and junctions, the network does not use automatic block systems. However, the signals at stations are almost invariably interlocked with the setting of points (routes) and so safety does not depend on the skill of the station masters. With the planned introduction of Cab signalling / Anti collision devices the element of risk on account of drivers overshooting signals will also be eliminated.
Coloured signalling uses multi-coloured lighting, and in many places is automatically controlled. There are three modes:
Multiple aspect signals, by providing several intermediate speed stages between ' clear ' and ' on ', allow high - speed trains sufficient time to brake safely if required. This becomes very important as train speeds rise. Without multiple - aspect signals, the stop signals must be placed far apart to allow sufficient braking distance and this reduces track utilisation. At the same time, slower trains can also be run closer together on track with multiple aspect signals.
Existing rail links:
Under construction / Proposed links:
IR has several classes of travel with or without air conditioning. A train may have just one or many classes of travel. Slow passenger trains have only unreserved seating class whereas Rajdhani, Shatabdi, Garib Rath, Duronto, Double Decker, Tejas, Humsafar and Yuva trains have only air - conditioned classes. The fares for all classes are different with unreserved seating class being the cheapest. The fare of Rajdhani, Duronto and Shatabdi trains includes food served in the train, but the fare for other trains does not include food that has to be bought separately. From September 2016, the IR have introduced dynamic fares for all accommodation classes for Rajdhani, Duronto and Shatabdi trains (except 1AC and EC classes) to shore up revenue. In long - distance trains a pantry car is usually included and the food is served at the berth or seat itself. Luxury trains such as Palace on Wheels have separate dining cars, but these trains cost as much as or more than a five - star hotel room.
A standard passenger rake has four unreserved (also called "general '') compartments, two at the front and two at the end, of which one may be exclusively for ladies. The exact number of other coaches varies according to the demand and the route. A luggage compartment can also exist at the front or the back. In some mail trains, a separate mail coach is attached. Lavatories are communal and feature both the Indian style as well as the Western style.
The following table lists the classes in operation. A train may not have all these classes.
At the rear of the train is a special compartment known as the guard 's cabin. It is fitted with a transceiver and is where the guard usually gives the all clear signal before the train departs.
Trains are sorted into various categories that dictate the number of stops along their route, the priority they enjoy on the network, and the fare structure. Each express train is identified by a five - digit number, the first digit as 1 and 2 for long - distance Express trains. If the first digit is 0, then the train is a Special. The first digit as 5 denotes a passenger train. The second digit indicates the zone that operates the train, the third the division within the zone that controls the train and is responsible for its regular maintenance and cleanliness, and the last two digits are the train 's serial number. The system was changed from four digits from 20 December 2010, to accommodate an increasing number of trains.
For super-fast trains, the second digit is always 2 (the first remains 1 or 2), the third digit is the zone, the fourth is the division and only the last digit is the serial number within the division. Trains travelling in opposite directions along the same route are usually labelled with consecutive numbers. However, there is considerable variation in train numbers and some zones, such as Central Railway, has a less systematic method for numbering trains. Most express trains also have a unique name that is usually exotic and taken from landmarks, famous people, rivers and so on.
Trains are classified by their average speed. A faster train has fewer stops ("halts '') than a slower one and usually caters to long - distance travel.
India has some of the lowest train fares in the world, and passenger traffic is heavily subsidised by more expensive higher class fares. Until the late 1980s, Indian Railway ticket reservations were done manually. In late 1987, the Railways started using a computerised ticketing system. The entire ticketing system went online in 1995 to provide up to date information on status and availability. Today the ticketing network is computerised to a large extent, with the exception of some remote places. Computerized tickets can be booked for any two points in the country. Tickets can also be booked through the internet and via mobile phones, though this method carries an additional surcharge.
Discounted tickets are available for senior citizens (above sixty years) and some other categories of passengers including the disabled, students, sports persons, persons affected by serious diseases, or persons appearing for competitive examinations. One compartment of the lowest class of accommodation is earmarked for ladies in every passenger carrying train. Some berths or seats in sleeper class and second class are also earmarked for ladies. Season tickets permitting unlimited travel on specific sections or specific trains for a specific time period may also be available. Foreign tourists can buy an Indrail Pass, which is modelled on the Eurail Pass, permitting unlimited travel in India for a specific time period.
For long - distance travel, reservation of a berth can be done for comfortable travel up to 120 days before the date of intended travel. Details such as the name, age and concession (if eligible) are required and are recorded on the ticket. The ticket price usually includes the base fare, which depends on the classification of the train (example: super-fast surcharge if the train is classified as a super-fast), the class in which one wishes to travel and the reservation charge for overnight journeys.
If a seat is not available, then the ticket is given a wait listed number; else the ticket is confirmed, and a berth number is printed on the ticket. A person receiving a wait listed ticket must wait until there are enough cancellations to enable him to move up the list and obtain a confirmed ticket. If his ticket is not confirmed on the day of departure, he may not board the train. Some of the tickets are assigned to the RAC or Reservation against Cancellation, which is between the waiting list and the confirmed list. These allow the ticket holder to board the train and obtain an allotted seat decided by a ticket collector, after the ticket collector has ascertained that there is a vacant (absentee) seat.
Reserved Railway Tickets can be booked through the website of Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Ltd. and also through mobile Phones and SMS. Tickets booked through this site are categorised into iTickets and eTickets. iTickets are booked by a passenger and then printed and delivered to the passenger for carrying during journey. eTickets are printed by the passenger and carried while travelling. While travelling on an eTicket, one must carry one of the authorised valid Photo Identity Cards. Cancellation of eTickets are also done online, without the requirement for the passenger to go to any counter. Unreserved tickets are available for purchase on the platform at any time before departure. An unreserved ticket holder may only board the general compartment class. All suburban networks issue unreserved tickets valid for a limited time period. For frequent commuters, a season pass (monthly or quarterly) guarantees unlimited travel between two stops.
In 1999, the Konkan Railway Corporation introduced the Roll on Roll off (RORO) service, a unique road - rail synergy system, on the section between Kolad in Maharashtra and Verna in Goa, which was extended up to Surathkal in Karnataka in 2004. The RORO service, the first of its kind in India, allowed trucks to be transported on flatbed trailers. It was highly popular, carrying about 110,000 trucks and bringing in about ₹ 740 million worth of earnings to the corporation till 2007.
Staff are classified into gazetted (Group ' A ' and ' B ') and non-gazetted (Group ' C ' and ' D ') employees. The recruitment of Group ' A ' gazetted employees is carried out by the Union Public Service Commission through exams conducted by it. The Recruitment of Group ' B ' for the following post Section Engineers, Junior Engineers, Depot Material Superintendent posts is conducted by Railway Recruitment Board. The recruitment to Group ' C ' and ' D ' employees on the IR is done through 21 Railway Recruitment Boards and Railway Recruitment Cells which are controlled by the Railway Recruitment Control Board (RRCB). The training of all cadres is entrusted and shared between six centralised training institutes.
IR recruits for lower level positions like ASM, Goods Guard, Clerk, TA, CA, JE, Staff Nurse, Group D etc. through it RRB NTPC (Railway Recruitment Board Non-Technical) Examination. For the year 2016, the examination was conducted to recruit around 18,000 positions however later IR reduced the vacancies by 4000.
IR is cash strapped and reported a loss of ₹ 300 billion (US $4.7 billion) in the passenger segment for the year ending March 2014. Operating ratio, a key metric used by IR to gauge financial health, is 109 % for the period April - Dec in 2016. Railways carry a social obligation of over ₹ 200 billion (US $3.1 billion). The loss per passenger - km increased to 23 paise (0.36 ¢ US) by the end of March 2014. IR is left with a surplus cash of just ₹ 6.9 billion (US $110 million) by the end of March 2014.
It was estimated in 2014 that over ₹ 5 trillion (US $78 billion) is required to complete the ongoing projects alone. The railway is consistently losing market share to other modes of transport both in freight and passengers.
New rail line projects are often announced during the Railway Budget annually without securing additional funding for them. Between 2004 and 2014, 99 New Line projects worth ₹ 600 billion (US $9.4 billion) were sanctioned out of which only one project is complete till date, and there are four projects that are as old as 30 years but are still not complete for one reason or another.
There are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites on IR, the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus and the Mountain Railways of India. The latter consists of three separate railway lines located in different parts of India, the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a 610 mm (2 ft) narrow gauge railway in Lesser Himalayas in West Bengal, the Nilgiri Mountain Railway, a 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ⁄ in) metre gauge rack railway in the Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu and the Kalka - Shimla Railway, a 762 mm (2 ft 6 in) narrow gauge railway in the Siwalik Hills in Himachal Pradesh.
IR has a full - fledged organisation known as Research Designs and Standards Organisation (RDSO), located at Lucknow for all research, designs and standardisation tasks.
In August 2013, IR entered into a partnership with Indian Institute of Technology (Madras) to develop technology to trap solar energy for lighting and air - conditioning in the coaches. This would significantly reduce the fossil fuel dependency for IR.
Recently it developed and tested the Improved Automated Fire Alarm System in Rajdhani Express Trains. It is intended that the system be applied to AC coaches of all regular trains.
In recent years, IR has undertaken several initiatives to upgrade its ageing infrastructure and enhance its quality of service. The Indian government plans to invest ₹ 9.05 trillion (US $140 billion) to upgrade the railways by 2020. IR is refurbishing 12 - 15 year old coaches at Carriage Rehabilitation Workshop in Bhopal to enhance passenger amenities and fire safety measures. Selected passengers with confirmed tickets will now be allowed to transfer them to someone else, but only once. IRCTC is now offering a pay - on - delivery option for train tickets on its website and app, where the customers can book the tickets and pay when it is delivered.
In July 2017 IR rolled out its first DEMU train with rooftop solar panels that power the lights, fans, and information display systems inside passenger coaches.
India does not have any railways classified as high - speed rail (HSR), which have operational speeds in excess of 200 km / h (120 mph). The fastest train in India is the Gatimaan Express with a top speed of 160 km / h (99 mph), which runs between Delhi and Agra.
Prior to the 2014 general election, the two major national parties (Bharatiya Janata Party and Indian National Congress (INC)) pledged to introduce high - speed rail. The INC pledged to connect all of India 's million - plus cities by high - speed rail, whereas BJP, which won the election, promised to build the Diamond Quadrilateral project, which would connect the cities of Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata, and Mumbai via high - speed rail. This project was approved as a priority for the new government in the incoming president 's speech. Construction of one kilometer of high speed railway track will cost ₹ 100 crore (US $16 million) - ₹ 140 crore (US $22 million) which is 10 - 14 times higher than the construction of standard railway.
India 's prime minister Narendra Modi approved the choice of Japan to build India 's first high - speed railway. The planned rail would run some 500 km (310 mi) between Mumbai and the western city of Ahmedabad, at a top speed of 320 km / h (200 mph). Under the proposal, construction is expected to begin in 2017 and be completed in 2023. It would cost about ₹ 980 billion (US $15 billion) and be financed by a low - interest loan from Japan. India will use the wheel - based 300 km / hr HSR technology, instead of new maglev 600 km / hr technology of the Japan used in Chuo Shinkansen. India is expected to have its HSR line operational from 2025 onwards, once the safety checks are completed.
The bio-toilets, which have been developed by the railways and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), have a colony of anaerobic bacteria, kept in a container under the lavatories that convert human waste into water and small amounts of gases. The gases are released into the atmosphere and the water is discharged after chlorination on to the track. The railways currently uses flush toilets in trains, in which human waste is dumped directly on the track. This makes the environment unhygienic and railway stations an eyesore, apart from the fact that the faecal matter corrodes the tracks.
Southern Railways officials say that except for the first - and two - tier AC coaches of Uzhavan Express, the remaining 34 coaches have been fitted with bio-toilets. "These toilets aim at zero defecation on the ground, '' says Vinay Srivastava, former director - in - charge of the bio-toilet project who is currently working as Director, Ministry of Environment and Forests.
More bio-toilets have been fitted into coaches in the year 2014, more than the total bio-toilets fitted in the last three years. According to an IR source, the number of bio-toilets fitted in passenger train coaches from April to July of the year 2014 was 2,285, against 1,337 bio-toilets fitted during 2012 - 13, 169 during 2011 - 12, and 57 during 2010 - 11.
Mahamana Express is one of the train which uses Bio-Toilet in all of its coaches.
In 2015, plans were disclosed for building two locomotive factories in the state of Bihar, at Madhepura (electric locomotive) and at Marhaura (Diesel Locomotive). Both factories involve foreign partnerships. The diesel locomotive works will be jointly operated in a partnership with General Electric, which has invested ₹ 20.52 billion (US $320 million) for its construction, and the electric locomotive works with Alstom, which has invested ₹ 12.935 billion (US $200 million). The factories will provide IR with 800 electric locomotives of 12,000 horse power each, and a mix of 1,000 diesel locomotives of 4,500 and 6,000 horsepower each. In November 2015, further details of the ₹ 146.56 billion (US $2.3 billion) partnership with GE were announced: IR and GE would engage in an 11 - year joint venture in which GE would hold a majority stake of 74 %. Under the terms of the joint venture, IR would purchase 100 goods locomotives a year for 10 years beginning in 2017; the locomotives would be modified versions of the GE Evolution series. The diesel locomotive works will be built by 2018; GE will import the first 100 locomotives and manufacture the remaining 900 in India from 2019, also assuming responsibility for their maintenance over a 13 - year period. In the same month, a ₹ 200 billion (US $3.1 billion) partnership with Alstom to supply 800 electric locomotives from 2018 to 2028 was announced.
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from the notebooks of a middle school princess summary | From the Notebooks of a Middle School Princess - Wikipedia
From the Notebooks of a Middle School Princess is a 2015 children 's novel written and illustrated by Meg Cabot and a spinoff of the author 's popular young adult fiction series, The Princess Diaries. The book was released on May 19, 2015 through Feiwel & Friends and follows Olivia, a bi-racial 12 - year - old who finds out she is the half - sister of Princess Mia Thermopolis.
The story of Olivia 's adventures is written diary - style with the author 's illustrations mixed in. Of the novel, Cabot has stated that the character of Olivia differs from Mia in that she 's "much less neurotic, much more stable '' and that her upbringing made the character have a greater appreciation for discovering that she 's a princess with previously unknown family members, as she "has n't been loved to the degree that Mia has. I mean, Olivia actually likes her grandmother, really appreciates her, and she 's very excited to have this happen to her. ''
Olivia, full name "Olivia Grace Clarisse Mignonette Harrison '', has always been completely average at everything other than art. Other than being an orphan, her life has been fairly uneventful.
This all changes when Princess Mia arrives and invites her to come and meet the father that she 's never met, Prince Phillipe, which makes Mia her half sister. Now Olivia is being whisked off to live with her father and half - sister in a world where she is now a princess in training. How will this change her and will it require leaving everything and more specifically everyone she has ever known behind?
Critical reception has been positive. The School Library Journal and the Horn Book Guide both reviewed From the Notebooks of a Middle School Princess, with the School Library Journal writing that the "bubble - gum flavored contemporary tale will be a perfect fit for Fancy Nancy alumni and readers not quite ready for Cabot 's longer novels ''. Booklist and Kirkus Reviews also gave favorable reviews, and Booklist felt that "this entertaining, quickly absorbing read will have readers anticipating the sequel. ''
The Bulletin of the Center for Children 's Books was more critical, as they commented that "fans of the earlier series may find this too familiar of a retread '' but also stated that "Olivia has an amusing and self - deprecating wit that makes the narration breezy and accessible, and Cabot 's black and white illustrations liven up the tale. ''
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who was the founder of the parker brothers | Parker Brothers - wikipedia
Parker Brothers was an American toy and game manufacturer which later became a brand of Hasbro. More than 1,800 games were published under the Parker Brothers name since 1883. Among its products were Monopoly, Cluedo (licensed from the British publisher and known as Clue in North America), Sorry!, Risk, Trivial Pursuit, Ouija, Aggravation, Bop It and Probe. The trade name is now defunct; former products are marketed under the "Hasbro Gaming '' label.
Parker Brothers was founded by George S. Parker. Parker 's philosophy deviated from the prevalent theme of board game design; he believed that games should be played for enjoyment and did not need to emphasize morals and values. He created his first game, called Banking, in 1883 when he was 16. Banking is a game in which players borrowed money from the bank and tried to generate wealth by guessing how well they could do. The game included 160 cards which foretold their failures or successes. The game was so popular among family and friends that his brother, Charles Parker, urged him to publish it. George approached two Boston publishers with the idea, but was unsuccessful. Not discouraged, he spent $40 to publish 500 sets of Banking. He eventually sold all but twelve copies, making a profit of $100.
Parker founded his game company, initially called the George S. Parker Company, in his hometown of Salem, Massachusetts in 1883. When George 's brother Charles joined the business in 1888, the company 's name was changed to its more familiar form. In 1898 a third brother, Edward H. Parker, joined the company. For many years, George designed most of the games himself, and wrote all the rules. Many games were based on important events of the day: Klondike was based on the Alaskan gold rush, and War in Cuba was based on the impending Spanish -- American War.
The game industry was growing, and the company was becoming very profitable. In 1906, Parker Brothers published the game Rook, their most successful card game to this day, and it quickly became the best - selling game in the country. During the Great Depression, a time when many companies went out of business, Parker Brothers released a new board game called Monopoly. Although the company had originally rejected the game in 1934, they decided to publish it the next year. It was an instant success, and the company had difficulty keeping up with demand. The company continued to grow throughout the next several decades, producing such lasting games as Clue, Risk, and Sorry!
Parker Brothers marketed its first puzzle in 1887. The most highly sought of Parker puzzles are the wooden Parker Pastimes. Parker also produced children 's puzzles, as well as the Climax, Jig - A-Jig, Jig Wood, and Paramount lines. According to Jigsaw Puzzles: An Illustrated History and Price Guide, by Anne D. Williams, Parker Bros. closed the Pastime line in the 1950s and their die - cut puzzles were phased out in the late 1970s.
Even after George Parker 's death, the company remained family - owned until 1968 when General Mills purchased the company. After this, Parker Brothers produced the first Nerf ball, which became another major national hit. In the UK during the 1970s, Parker Bros. was the games division of Palitoy (also a General Mills company), and produced a variety of releases such as Escape from Colditz. By the turn of the decade, the company relocated to Beverly, Massachusetts.
The company began to produce electronic versions of their popular board games in the late 1970s and early 1980s. At this time, the company ventured into the toy market with the electronic action figure, Rom the Spaceknight, in 1977. Although the toy proved a failure, the licensed comic book published by Marvel Comics ran for years after the toy was discontinued. They also produced video games for various systems during the early 1980s, with home ports of many popular arcade games like Konami 's Frogger, Popeye, Gottlieb games like Q * bert and Reactor, the first video games based on the Star Wars movies, The Empire Strikes Back, Jedi Arena, and Death Star Battle, and more.
In early 1983, Parker Brothers spent US $15 million establishing a book publishing branch; their first titles featured the American Greetings franchises, Care Bears and Strawberry Shortcake. The branch published twelve titles by February 1984; sales of these books totalled 3.5 million units. Parker Brothers also operated a record label around the same time; one of its releases, based on Coleco 's Cabbage Patch Kids and involving Tom and Stephen Chapin titled Cabbage Patch Dreams, was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in July 1984.
In 1985, General Mills merged the company with their subsidiary Kenner; this new company, Kenner Parker Toys Inc., was acquired by Tonka in 1987.
Tonka, including Parker Brothers, was bought in 1991 for about $516 million by Hasbro which also owned the Milton Bradley Company. Following the acquisition, Parker Brothers continued to have its corporate offices in Beverly, but production of the games were moved to Milton Bradley 's headquarters in East Longmeadow. In 1998, Parker Brothers and Milton Bradley were consolidated at the new Hasbro Games campus (based in Parker Brother 's former headquarters).
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name the multimedia elements that can be added to an electronic presentation | Multimedia - wikipedia
Multimedia is content that uses a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images, animations, video and interactive content. Multimedia contrasts with media that use only rudimentary computer displays such as text - only or traditional forms of printed or hand - produced material.
Multimedia can be recorded and played, displayed, interacted with or accessed by information content processing devices, such as computerized and electronic devices, but can also be part of a live performance. Multimedia devices are electronic media devices used to store and experience multimedia content. Multimedia is distinguished from mixed media in fine art; for example, by including audio it has a broader scope. In the early years of multimedia the term "rich media '' was synonymous with interactive multimedia, and "hypermedia '' was a application of multimedia.
The term multimedia was coined by singer and artist Bob Goldstein (later ' Bobb Goldsteinn ') to promote the July 1966 opening of his "LightWorks at L'Oursin '' show at Southampton, Long Island. Goldstein was perhaps aware of an American artist named Dick Higgins, who had two years previously discussed a new approach to art - making he called "intermedia ''.
On August 10, 1966, Richard Albarino of Variety borrowed the terminology, reporting: "Brainchild of songscribe - comic Bob (' Washington Square ') Goldstein, the ' Lightworks ' is the latest multi-media music - cum - visuals to debut as discothèque fare. '' Two years later, in 1968, the term "multimedia '' was re-appropriated to describe the work of a political consultant, David Sawyer, the husband of Iris Sawyer -- one of Goldstein 's producers at L'Oursin.
In the intervening forty years, the word has taken on different meanings. In the late 1970s, the term referred to presentations consisting of multi-projector slide shows timed to an audio track. However, by the 1990s ' multimedia ' took on its current meaning.
In the 1993 first edition of Multimedia: Making It Work, Tay Vaughan declared "Multimedia is any combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video that is delivered by computer. When you allow the user -- the viewer of the project -- to control what and when these elements are delivered, it is interactive multimedia. When you provide a structure of linked elements through which the user can navigate, interactive multimedia becomes hypermedia. ''
The German language society Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache recognized the word 's significance and ubiquitousness in the 1990s by awarding it the title of German ' Word of the Year ' in 1995. The institute summed up its rationale by stating "(Multimedia) has become a central word in the wonderful new media world ''.
In common usage, multimedia refers to an electronically delivered combination of media including video, still images, audio, and text in such a way that can be accessed interactively. Much of the content on the web today falls within this definition as understood by millions. Some computers which were marketed in the 1990s were called "multimedia '' computers because they incorporated a CD - ROM drive, which allowed for the delivery of several hundred megabytes of video, picture, and audio data. That era saw also a boost in the production of educational multimedia CD - ROMs.
The term "video '', if not used exclusively to describe motion photography, is ambiguous in multimedia terminology. Video is often used to describe the file format, delivery format, or presentation format instead of "footage '' which is used to distinguish motion photography from "animation '' of rendered motion imagery. Multiple forms of information content are often not considered modern forms of presentation such as audio or video. Likewise, single forms of information content with single methods of information processing (e.g. non-interactive audio) are often called multimedia, perhaps to distinguish static media from active media. In the fine arts, for example, Leda Luss Luyken 's ModulArt brings two key elements of musical composition and film into the world of painting: variation of a theme and movement of and within a picture, making ModulArt an interactive multimedia form of art. Performing arts may also be considered multimedia considering that performers and props are multiple forms of both content and media.
Multimedia presentations may be viewed by person on stage, projected, transmitted, or played locally with a media player. A broadcast may be a live or recorded multimedia presentation. Broadcasts and recordings can be either analog or digital electronic media technology. Digital online multimedia may be downloaded or streamed. Streaming multimedia may be live or on - demand.
Multimedia games and simulations may be used in a physical environment with special effects, with multiple users in an online network, or locally with an offline computer, game system, or simulator.
The various formats of technological or digital multimedia may be intended to enhance the users ' experience, for example to make it easier and faster to convey information. Or in entertainment or art, to transcend everyday experience.
Enhanced levels of interactivity are made possible by combining multiple forms of media content. Online multimedia is increasingly becoming object - oriented and data - driven, enabling applications with collaborative end - user innovation and personalization on multiple forms of content over time. Examples of these range from multiple forms of content on Web sites like photo galleries with both images (pictures) and title (text) user - updated, to simulations whose co-efficients, events, illustrations, animations or videos are modifiable, allowing the multimedia "experience '' to be altered without reprogramming. In addition to seeing and hearing, haptic technology enables virtual objects to be felt. Emerging technology involving illusions of taste and smell may also enhance the multimedia experience.
Multimedia may be broadly divided into linear and non-linear categories:
Multimedia presentations can be live or recorded:
Multimedia finds its application in various areas including, but not limited to, advertisements, art, education, entertainment, engineering, medicine, mathematics, business, scientific research and spatial temporal applications. Several examples are as follows:
Creative industries use multimedia for a variety of purposes ranging from fine arts, to entertainment, to commercial art, to journalism, to media and software services provided for any of the industries listed below. An individual multimedia designer may cover the spectrum throughout their career. Request for their skills range from technical, to analytical, to creative.
Much of the electronic old and new media used by commercial artists and graphic designers is multimedia. Exciting presentations are used to grab and keep attention in advertising. Business to business, and interoffice communications are often developed by creative services firms for advanced multimedia presentations beyond simple slide shows to sell ideas or liven up training. Commercial multimedia developers may be hired to design for governmental services and nonprofit services applications as well.
Multimedia is heavily used in the entertainment industry, especially to develop special effects in movies and animations (VFX, 3D animation, etc.). Multimedia games are a popular pastime and are software programs available either as CD - ROMs or online. Some video games also use multimedia features. Multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of just sitting by as passive recipients of information are called interactive multimedia. In the arts there are multimedia artists, whose minds are able to blend techniques using different media that in some way incorporates interaction with the viewer. One of the most relevant could be Peter Greenaway who is melding cinema with opera and all sorts of digital media. Another approach entails the creation of multimedia that can be displayed in a traditional fine arts arena, such as an art gallery. Although multimedia display material may be volatile, the survivability of the content is as strong as any traditional media. Digital recording material may be just as durable and infinitely reproducible with perfect copies every time.
In education, multimedia is used to produce computer - based training courses (popularly called CBTs) and reference books like encyclopedia and almanacs. A CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations, text about a particular topic, and associated illustrations in various information formats. Edutainment is the combination of education with entertainment, especially multimedia entertainment.
Learning theory in the past decade has expanded dramatically because of the introduction of multimedia. Several lines of research have evolved, e.g. cognitive load and multimedia learning.
From multimedia learning (MML) theory, David Roberts has developed a large group lecture practice using PowerPoint and based on the use of full - slide images in conjunction with a reduction of visible text (all text can be placed in the notes view ' section of PowerPoint). The method has been applied and evaluated in 9 disciplines. In each experiment, students ' engagement and active learning has been approximately 66 % greater, than with the same material being delivered using bullet points, text and speech, corroborating a range of theories presented by multimedia learning scholars like Sweller and Mayer. The idea of media convergence is also becoming a major factor in education, particularly higher education. Defined as separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity applications) and video that now share resources and interact with each other, media convergence is rapidly changing the curriculum in universities all over the world.
Newspaper companies all over are trying to embrace the new phenomenon by implementing its practices in their work. While some have been slow to come around, other major newspapers like The New York Times, USA Today and The Washington Post are setting the precedent for the positioning of the newspaper industry in a globalized world.
News reporting is not limited to traditional media outlets. Freelance journalists can make use of different new media to produce multimedia pieces for their news stories. It engages global audiences and tells stories with technology, which develops new communication techniques for both media producers and consumers. The Common Language Project, later renamed to The Seattle Globalist, is an example of this type of multimedia journalism production.
Multimedia reporters who are mobile (usually driving around a community with cameras, audio and video recorders, and laptop computers) are often referred to as mojos, from mobile journalist.
Software engineers may use multimedia in computer simulations for anything from entertainment to training such as military or industrial training. Multimedia for software interfaces are often done as a collaboration between creative professionals and software engineers.
In mathematical and scientific research, multimedia is mainly used for modeling and simulation. For example, a scientist can look at a molecular model of a particular substance and manipulate it to arrive at a new substance. Representative research can be found in journals such as the Journal of Multimedia.
In medicine, doctors can get trained by looking at a virtual surgery or they can simulate how the human body is affected by diseases spread by viruses and bacteria and then develop techniques to prevent it. Multimedia applications such as virtual surgeries also help doctors to get practical training.
In Europe, the reference organisation for the multimedia industry is the European Multimedia Associations Convention (EMMAC).
Scholarly conferences about multimedia include:
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the desert between the indus and jhelum river is named as | Indus river - wikipedia
The Indus River (also called the Sindhū) is one of the longest rivers in Asia. Originating in the Tibetan Plateau in the vicinity of Lake Manasarovar, the river runs a course through the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, towards Gilgit - Baltistan and the Hindukush ranges, and then flows in a southerly direction along the entire length of Pakistan to merge into the Arabian Sea near the port city of Karachi in Sindh. It is the longest river and national river of Pakistan.
The river has a total drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km (450,000 sq mi). Its estimated annual flow stands at around 243 km (58 cu mi), twice that of the Nile River and three times that of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers combined, making it the twenty - first largest river in the world in terms of annual flow. The Zanskar is its left bank tributary in Ladakh. In the plains, its left bank tributary is the Panjnad which itself has five major tributaries, namely, the Chenab, Jhelum, the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej. Its principal right bank tributaries are the Shyok, the Gilgit, the Kabul, the Gomal, and the Kurram. Beginning in a mountain spring and fed with glaciers and rivers in the Himalayas, the river supports ecosystems of temperate forests, plains and arid countryside.
The northern part of the Indus Valley, with its tributaries, forms the Punjab region, while the lower course of the Indus is known as Sindh and ends in a large delta. The river has historically been important to many cultures of the region. The 3rd millennium BC saw the rise of a major urban civilization of the Bronze Age. During the 2nd millennium BC, the Punjab region was mentioned in the hymns of the Hindu Rigveda as Sapta Sindhu and the Zoroastrian Avesta as Hapta Hindu (both terms meaning "seven rivers ''). Early historical kingdoms that arose in the Indus Valley include Gandhāra, and the Ror dynasty of Sauvīra. The Indus River came into the knowledge of the West early in the Classical Period, when King Darius of Persia sent his Greek subject Scylax of Caryanda to explore the river, ca. 515 BC.
This river was known to the ancient Indians in Sanskrit as Sindhu, which is literally interpreted to mean "large body of water, sea, or ocean ''. The Proto - Iranian sound change * s > h occurred between 850 -- 600 BCE, according to Asko Parpola, causing its Avestan name to become Hendu, From Iran, the name passed to the Greeks as Indós ("Ἰνδός '') and to the Romans as Indus. The Persian name for the river was Darya, which similarly has the connotations of large body of water and sea.
However, linguists state that the original meaning of Sindhu / Hindu was not a body of water, but rather a frontier or bank. The Indus river formed the frontier between the Iranian peoples and Indo - Aryan peoples.
Other variants of the name Sindhu include Assyrian Sinda (as early as the 7th century BC), Persian Ab - e-sind, Pashto Abasind, Arab Al - Sind, Chinese Sintow, and Javanese Santri.
India is a Greek and Latin term for "the country of the River Indus ''. The region through which the river drains into sea is called Sindh and owes its name to the river (Sanskrit Sindhu).
Megasthenes 's book Indica derives its name from the river 's Greek name, "Indós '' (Ἰνδός), and describes Nearchus 's contemporaneous account of how Alexander the Great crossed the river. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians (people of present - day northwest India and Pakistan) as "Indói '' (Ἰνδοί), literally meaning "the people of the Indus ''.
Rigveda also describes several mythical rivers, including one named "Sindhu ''. The Rigvedic "Sindhu '' is thought to be the present - day Indus river and is attested 176 times in its text -- 95 times in the plural, more often used in the generic meaning. In the Rigveda, notably in the later hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular, as in the list of rivers mentioned in the hymn of Nadistuti sukta. The Rigvedic hymns apply a feminine gender to all the rivers mentioned therein but "Sindhu '' is the only river attributed the masculine gender which means Sindhu is the warrior and greatest among all other rivers in whole world
In other languages of the region, the river is known as सिन्धु (Sindhu) in Hindi and Nepali, سنڌو (Sindhu) in Sindhi, سندھ (Sindh) in Shahmukhi Punjabi, ਸਿੰਧ ਨਦੀ (Sindh Nadī) in Gurmukhī Punjabi, اباسين (Abāsin lit. "Father of Rivers '') in Pashto, نهر السند (Nahar al - Sind) in Arabic, སེང ་ གེ ་ གཙང ་ པོ ། (seng ge gtsang po lit. "Lion River '' or Lion Spring) in Tibetan, 印度 (Yìndù) in Chinese, and Nilab in Turki.
The Indus River provides key water resources for Pakistan 's economy -- especially the breadbasket of Punjab province, which accounts for most of the nation 's agricultural production, and Sindh. The word Punjab means "land of five rivers '' and the five rivers are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, all of which finally flow into the Indus. The Indus also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of potable water in Pakistan.
The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet; the river begins at the confluence of the Sengge Zangbo and Gar Tsangpo rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri and Gangdise Shan (Gang Rinpoche, Mt. Kailas) mountain ranges. The Indus then flows northwest through Ladakh and Baltistan into Gilgit, just south of the Karakoram range. The Shyok, Shigar and Gilgit rivers carry glacial waters into the main river. It gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between Peshawar and Rawalpindi. The Indus passes gigantic gorges 4,500 -- 5,200 metres (15,000 -- 17,000 feet) deep near the Nanga Parbat massif. It flows swiftly across Hazara and is dammed at the Tarbela Reservoir. The Kabul River joins it near Attock. The remainder of its route to the sea is in the plains of the Punjab and Sindh, where the flow of the river becomes slow and highly braided. It is joined by the Panjnad at Mithankot. Beyond this confluence, the river, at one time, was named the Satnad River (sat = "seven '', nadī = "river ''), as the river now carried the waters of the Kabul River, the Indus River and the five Punjab rivers. Passing by Jamshoro, it ends in a large delta to the east of Thatta.
The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world to exhibit a tidal bore. The Indus system is largely fed by the snows and glaciers of the Himalayas, Karakoram and the Hindu Kush ranges of Tibet, the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh and Gilgit - Baltistan region of Pakistan. The flow of the river is also determined by the seasons -- it diminishes greatly in the winter, while flooding its banks in the monsoon months from July to September. There is also evidence of a steady shift in the course of the river since prehistoric times -- it deviated westwards from flowing into the Rann of Kutch and adjoining Banni grasslands after the 1816 earthquake. Presently, Indus water flows in to the Rann of Kutch during its floods breaching flood banks.
The traditional source of the river is the Senge Khabab or "Lion 's Mouth '', a perennial spring, not far from the sacred Mount Kailash marked by a long low line of Tibetan chortens. There are several other tributaries nearby, which may possibly form a longer stream than Senge Khabab, but unlike the Senge Khabab, are all dependent on snowmelt. The Zanskar River, which flows into the Indus in Ladakh, has a greater volume of water than the Indus itself before that point.
That night in the tent (next to Senge Khabab) I ask Sonmatering which of the Indus tributaries which we crossed this morning is the longest. All of them, he says, start at least a day 's walk away from here. The Bukhar begins near the village of Yagra. The Lamolasay 's source is in a holy place: there is a monastery there. The Dorjungla is a very difficult and long walk, three days perhaps, and there are many sharp rocks; but its water is clear and blue, hence the tributary 's other name, Zom - chu, which Karma Lama translates as "Blue Water ''. The Rakmajang rises from a dark lake called the Black Sea.
One of the longest tributaries -- and thus a candidate for the river 's technical source -- is the Kla - chu, the river we crossed yesterday by bridge. Also known as the Lungdep Chu, it flows into the Indus from the south - east, and rises a day 's walk from Darchen. But Sonamtering insists that the Dorjungla is the longest of the "three types of water '' that fall into the Seng Tsanplo ("Lion River '' or Indus).
The major cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation, such as Harappa and Mohenjo - daro, date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world. The Indus Valley Civilisation extended from across northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India, with an upward reach from east of Jhelum River to Ropar on the upper Sutlej. The coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor at the Pakistan, Iran border to Kutch in modern Gujarat, India. There is an Indus site on the Amu Darya at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan, and the Indus site Alamgirpur at the Hindon River is located only 28 km (17 mi) from Delhi. To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar - Hakra River and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa and Mohenjo - daro, as well as Lothal, Dholavira, Ganeriwala, and Rakhigarhi. Only 90 -- 96 of more than 800 known Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries. The Sutlej, now a tributary of the Indus, in Harappan times flowed into the Ghaggar - Hakra River, in the watershed of which were more Harappan sites than along the Indus.
Most scholars believe that settlements of Gandhara grave culture of the early Indo - Aryans flourished in Gandhara from 1700 BC to 600 BC, when Mohenjo - daro and Harappa had already been abandoned.
The word "India '' is derived from the Indus River. In ancient times, "India '' initially referred to those regions immediately along the east bank of the Indus, but by 300 BC, Greek writers including Herodotus and Megasthenes were applying the term to the entire subcontinent that extends much farther eastward.
The lower basin of the Indus forms a natural boundary between the Iranian Plateau and the Indian subcontinent; this region embraces all or parts of the Pakistani provinces Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Sindh and the countries Afghanistan and India. It was crossed by the invading armies of Alexander, but after his Macedonians conquered the west bank -- joining it to the Hellenic Empire, they elected to retreat along the southern course of the river, ending Alexander 's Asian campaign. The Indus plains were later dominated by the Persian empire and then the Kushan empire. Over several centuries Muslim armies of Muhammad bin Qasim, Mahmud of Ghazni, Mohammed Ghori, Tamerlane and Babur crossed the river to invade the inner regions of the Punjab and points farther south and east
The Indus river feeds the Indus submarine fan, which is the second largest sediment body on the Earth. It consists of around 5 million cubic kilometres of material eroded from the mountains. Studies of the sediment in the modern river indicate that the Karakoram Mountains in northern Pakistan and India are the single most important source of material, with the Himalayas providing the next largest contribution, mostly via the large rivers of the Punjab (Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas and Sutlej). Analysis of sediments from the Arabian Sea has demonstrated that prior to five million years ago the Indus was not connected to these Punjab rivers which instead flowed east into the Ganges and were captured after that time. Earlier work showed that sand and silt from western Tibet was reaching the Arabian Sea by 45 million years ago, implying the existence of an ancient Indus River by that time. The delta of this proto - Indus river has subsequently been found in the Katawaz Basin, on the Afghan - Pakistan border.
In the Nanga Parbat region, the massive amounts of erosion due to the Indus river following the capture and rerouting through that area is thought to bring middle and lower crustal rocks to the surface.
In November 2011, satellite images showed that the Indus river had re-entered India, feeding Great Rann of Kutch, Little Rann of Kutch and a lake near Ahmedabad known as Nal Sarovar. Heavy rains had left the river basin along with the Lake Manchar, Lake Hemal and Kalri Lake (all in modern - day Pakistan) inundated. This happened two centuries after the Indus river shifted its course westwards following the 1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake.
The Induan Age at start of the Triassic Period of geological time is named for the Indus region.
Accounts of the Indus valley from the times of Alexander 's campaign indicate a healthy forest cover in the region, which has now considerably receded. The Mughal Emperor Babur writes of encountering rhinoceroses along its bank in his memoirs (the Baburnama). Extensive deforestation and human interference in the ecology of the Shivalik Hills has led to a marked deterioration in vegetation and growing conditions. The Indus valley regions are arid with poor vegetation. Agriculture is sustained largely due to irrigation works. The Indus river and its watershed has a rich biodiversity. It is home to around 25 amphibian species and 147 species, 22 of which are only found in the Indus.
The blind Indus River Dolphin (Platanista indicus minor) is a sub-species of dolphin found only in the Indus River. It formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus river. According to the World Wildlife Fund it is one of the most threatened cetaceans with only about 1,000 still existing.
Palla fish Tenualosa ilisha of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river. The population of fish in the river is moderately high, with Sukkur, Thatta and Kotri being the major fishing centres -- all in the lower Sindh course. But damming and irrigation has made fish farming an important economic activity. Located southeast of Karachi, the large delta has been recognised by conservationists as one of the world 's most important ecological regions. Here the river turns into many marshes, streams and creeks and meets the sea at shallow levels. Here marine fishes are found in abundance, including pomfret and prawns.
The Indus is the most important supplier of water resources to the Punjab and Sindh plains -- it forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan. The river is especially critical since rainfall is meagre in the lower Indus valley. Irrigation canals were first built by the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, and later by the engineers of the Kushan Empire and the Mughal Empire. Modern irrigation was introduced by the British East India Company in 1850 -- the construction of modern canals accompanied with the restoration of old canals. The British supervised the construction of one of the most complex irrigation networks in the world. The Guddu Barrage is 1,350 m (4,430 ft) long -- irrigating Sukkur, Jacobabad, Larkana and Kalat. The Sukkur Barrage serves over 20,000 km (7,700 sq mi).
After Pakistan came into existence, a water control treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960 guaranteed that Pakistan would receive water from the Indus River and its two tributaries the Jhelum River & the Chenab River independently of upstream control by India.
The Indus Basin Project consisted primarily of the construction of two main dams, the Mangla Dam built on the Jhelum River and the Tarbela Dam constructed on the Indus River, together with their subsidiary dams. The Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority undertook the construction of the Chashma - Jhelum link canal -- linking the waters of the Indus and Jhelum rivers -- extending water supplies to the regions of Bahawalpur and Multan. Pakistan constructed the Tarbela Dam near Rawalpindi -- standing 2,743 metres (9,000 ft) long and 143 metres (470 ft) high, with an 80 - kilometre (50 mi) long reservoir. The Kotri Barrage near Hyderabad is 915 metres (3,000 ft) long and provides additional supplies for Karachi. It support the Chashma barrage near Dera Ismail Khan use for irrigation and flood control. for The Taunsa Barrage near Dera Ghazi Khan produces 100,000 kilowatts of electricity. The extensive linking of tributaries with the Indus has helped spread water resources to the valley of Peshawar, in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The extensive irrigation and dam projects provide the basis for Pakistan 's large production of crops such as cotton, sugarcane and wheat. The dams also generate electricity for heavy industries and urban centres.
The inhabitants of the regions are mainly Muslim as Pakistan is an Islamic country through which the Indus river passes and forms a major natural feature and resource are diverse in ethnicity, religion, national and linguistic backgrounds. On the northern course of the river in the state of Jammu and Kashmir in India, live the Buddhist people of Ladakh, of Tibetan stock, and the Dards of Indo - Aryan or Dardic stock and practising Islam. Then it descends into Baltistan, northern Pakistan passing the main Balti city of Skardu. A river from Dubair Bala also drains into it at Dubair Bazar. People living in this area are mainly Kohistani and speak the Kohistani language. Major areas through which the Indus river passes in Kohistan are Dasu, Pattan and Dubair. As it continues through Pakistan, the Indus river forms a distinctive boundary of ethnicity and cultures -- upon the western banks the population is largely Pashtun, Baloch, and of other Iranian stock. The eastern banks are largely populated by people of Indo - Aryan stock, such as the Punjabis and the Sindhis. In northern Punjab and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, ethnic Pashtun tribes live alongside Dardic people in the hills (Khowar, Kalash, Shina, etc.), Burushos (in Hunza), and Punjabi people.
The people living along the Indus river speak Punjabi and Sindhi on the eastern side (in Punjab and Sindh provinces respectively), Pushto plus Balochi as well as Barohi (in Khyber Pakhtoonkha and Baluchistan provinces). In the province of Sindh, the upper third of the river is inhabited by people speaking Saraiki; which is a somewhat transitional dialect of the Punjabi and Sindhi languages.
The Indus is a strategically vital resource for Pakistan 's economy and society. After Pakistan and India declared Independence from the British Raj, the use of the waters of the Indus and its five eastern tributaries became a major dispute between India and Pakistan. The irrigation canals of the Sutlej valley and the Bari Doab were split -- with the canals lying primarily in Pakistan and the headwork dams in India disrupting supply in some parts of Pakistan. The concern over India building large dams over various Punjab rivers that could undercut the supply flowing to Pakistan, as well as the possibility that India could divert rivers in the time of war, caused political consternation in Pakistan. Holding diplomatic talks brokered by the World Bank, India and Pakistan signed the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960. The treaty gave India control of the three easternmost rivers of the Punjab, the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi, while Pakistan gained control of the three western rivers, the Jhelum, the Chenab and the Indus. India retained the right to use of the western rivers for non-irrigation projects.
There are concerns that extensive deforestation, industrial pollution and global warming are affecting the vegetation and wildlife of the Indus delta, while affecting agricultural production as well. There are also concerns that the Indus river may be shifting its course westwards -- although the progression spans centuries. On numerous occasions, sediment clogging owing to poor maintenance of canals has affected agricultural production and vegetation. In addition, extreme heat has caused water to evaporate, leaving salt deposits that render lands useless for cultivation.
The Tibetan Plateau contains the world 's third - largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term, but issued a strong warning:
"There is insufficient data to say what will happen to the Indus, '' says David Grey, the World Bank 's senior water advisor in South Asia. "But we all have very nasty fears that the flows of the Indus could be severely, severely affected by glacier melt as a consequence of climate change, '' and reduced by perhaps as much as 50 percent. "Now what does that mean to a population that lives in a desert (where), without the river, there would be no life? I do n't know the answer to that question, '' he says. "But we need to be concerned about that. Deeply, deeply concerned. ''
U.S. diplomat Richard Holbrooke said, shortly before his death in 2010, that he believed that falling water levels in the Indus River "could very well precipitate World War III. ''
Over the years factories on the banks of the Indus River have increased levels of water pollution in the river and the atmosphere around it. High levels of pollutants in the river have led to the deaths of endangered Indus River Dolphin. The Sindh Environmental Protection Agency has ordered polluting factories around the river to shut down under the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997. Death of the Indus River Dolphin has also been attributed to fishermen using poison to kill fish and scooping them up. As a result, the government banned fishing from Guddu Barrage to Sukkur.
In July 2010, following abnormally heavy monsoon rains, the Indus River rose above its banks and started flooding. The rain continued for the next two months, devastating large areas of Pakistan. In Sindh, the Indus burst its banks near Sukkur on 8 August, submerging the village of Mor Khan Jatoi. In early August, the heaviest flooding moved southward along the Indus River from severely affected northern regions toward western Punjab, where at least 1,400,000 acres (570,000 ha) of cropland was destroyed, and the southern province of Sindh. As of September 2010, over two thousand people had died and over a million homes had been destroyed since the flooding began.
The 2011 Sindh floods began during the Pakistani monsoon season in mid-August 2011, resulting from heavy monsoon rains in Sindh, eastern Balochistan, and southern Punjab. The floods caused considerable damage; an estimated 434 civilians were killed, with 5.3 million people and 1,524,773 homes affected. Sindh is a fertile region and often called the "breadbasket '' of the country; the damage and toll of the floods on the local agrarian economy was said to be extensive. At least 1.7 million acres (690,000 ha; 2,700 sq mi) of arable land were inundated. The flooding followed the previous year 's floods, which devastated a large part of the country. Unprecedented torrential monsoon rains caused severe flooding in 16 districts of Sindh.
In Pakistan currently there are three barrages on the Indus: Guddu barrage, Sukkur Barrage, and Kotri barrage (also called Ghulam Muhammad barrage). There are some bridges on river Indus, such as, Dadu Moro Bridge, Larkana Khairpur Indus River Bridge, Thatta - Sujawal bridge, Jhirk - Mula Katiar bridge and recently planned Kandhkot - Ghotki bridge.
Kala Bagh Barrage, Chasma Barrage, and Taunsa Barrage are also built in Punjab on the Indus.
Tarbela Dam in Pakistan is constructed on the Indus River, while the controversial Kalabagh dam is also being constructed on Indus river.
Video of River Indus at Kotri Barrage, Sindh, Pakistan.
Frozen Indus, Near Nyoma
Indus at Skardu
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where are tropical evergreen forest found in india | Tropical rainforests of India - wikipedia
Tropical rainforests of India are found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats, which fringe the Arabian Sea, the coastline of peninsular India, and the greater Assam region in the north - east. Small remnants of rainforest are found in Odisha state. Semi-evergreen rainforest is more extensive than the evergreen formation partly because evergreen forests tend to degrade to semi-evergreen with human interference. There are substantial differences in both the flora and fauna between the three major rainforest regions.
The Western Ghats monsoon forests occur both on the western (coastal) margins of the ghats and on the eastern side where there is less rainfall. These forests contain several tree species of great commercial significance (e.g. Indian rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), Malabar Kino (Pterocarpus marsupium), teak (Tectona grandis) and Indian laurel (Terminalia crenulata)), but they have now been cleared from many areas. In the rainforests, there is an enormous number of tree species; at least 60 percent of the trees of the upper canopy are of species which individually contribute not more than one percent of the total number. Clumps of bamboo occur along streams or in poorly drained hollows throughout the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of south - west India, probably in areas once cleared for transporting agriculture.
The tropical vegetation of north - east India (which includes the states of Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya as well as the plain regions of Arunachal Pradesh) typically occurs at elevations up to 900 metres (3,000 ft). It embraces evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforests, moist deciduous monsoon forests, riparian forests, swamps and grasslands. Evergreen rainforests are found in the Assam Valley, the foothills of the eastern Himalayas and the lower parts of the Naga Hills, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Manipur, where the rain fall exceeds 2,300 mm (91 in) per annum. In the Assam Valley the giant Hollong (Dipterocarpus macrocarpus) and Shorea assamica occur singly, occasionally attaining a girth of up to 7 metres (23 ft) and a height of up to 50 metres (160 ft). The monsoon forests are mainly moist sal (Shorea robusta) forests, which occur widely in this region.
The Andaman and Nicobar islands have tropical evergreen rainforests and tropical semi-evergreen rainforests as well as tropical monsoon forests. The dominant species of Keruing wood is Dipterocarpus grandiflorus in hilly areas, while Dipterocarpus kerrii is dominant on some islands in the southern parts of the archipelago. The monsoon forests of the Andamans are dominated by the Andaman Redwood (Pterocarpus dalbergioides) and Terminalia spp.
Tropical forests in India 's east present a total contrast with the pine and coniferous woodland of the Western Himalayas. The natural cover of India varies with altitude; these evergreen forests are bounded with high alpine meadows nearer to the snowline and temperate forests of short stout trees at lower elevations. In the Himalayan foothills are deciduous trees, with shrubs, bamboo, ferns and grass.
India 's northern plains, the course of the holy rivers Ganges and Yamuna; the Thar Desert in the west; the Sundarbans, the marshy swamplands, in the delta of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, in the east; the Deccan Plateau, lying in the rain shadow of the hills and the Western Ghats with their dense; luxuriant forests -- all provide fascinating variations in habitats. These forests sustain 350 species of mammals, 2,100 kinds of birds (both local and migratory), nearly 350 species of reptile and countless insects. Conservation preserves the ecological diversity and our life support systems - water, air and soil. It helps reserve the genetic diversity of plants and animals for better growth of species. The need for conservation of the environment and the forests has exercised the minds of Indian rulers from the earliest of times. In recent times, it was the administrators and princely rulers who demarcated and reserved forests as private preserves. Today many of the forested regions form the nucleus of India 's wildlife sanctuaries and parks. Still, increasing population, hunting and encroachments continues to threaten India 's forest lands.
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what is full form of em in css | Em (typography) - wikipedia
An em is a unit in the field of typography, equal to the currently specified point size. For example, one em in a 16 - point typeface is 16 points. Therefore, this unit is the same for all typefaces at a given point size.
Typographic measurements using this unit are frequently expressed in decimal notation (e.g., 0.7 em) or as fractions of 100 or 1000 (e.g., 70 / 100 em or 700 / 1000 em).
The name em was originally a reference to the width of the capital M in the typeface and size being used, which was often the same as the point size.
In metal type, the point size (and hence the em) was equal to the line height of the metal body from which the letter rises. In metal type, the physical size of a letter could not normally exceed the em.
In digital type, the em is a grid of arbitrary resolution that is used as the design space of a digital font. Imaging systems, whether for screen or for print, work by scaling the em to a specified point size.
In digital type, the relationship of the height of particular letters to the em is arbitrarily set by the typeface designer. However, as a very rough guideline, an "average '' font might have a cap height of 70 % of the em, and an x-height of 48 % of the em.
Although the size of the em ultimately depends on the point size, or height of the metal body of a letter, it is also used as a measure of horizontal spacing relative to the type size, with vertical spacing being measured in picas or points. One em was traditionally defined as the width of the capital M in the current typeface and point size, because the M was commonly cast the full - width of the square blocks, or em - quads (also mutton - quads), which are used in printing presses.
In modern typefaces, the character M is usually somewhat less than one em wide. Moreover, as type includes a wider variety of languages and character sets than just those based on Latin, and needs a consistent way to refer to size, its meaning evolved long ago; this allowed it to include fonts, typefaces, and character sets which do not include a capital M, such as Chinese and Arabic. Because of how digital type works, the em now always means the point size of the font in question.
In Cascading Style Sheets, the em unit is the height of the font in nominal points or inches. The actual, physical height of any given portion of the font depends on the user - defined DPI setting, current element font - size, and the particular font being used.
To make style rules that depend only on the default font size, another unit was developed: the rem. The rem, or root em, is the font size of the root element of the document. Unlike the em, which may be different for each element, the rem is constant throughout the document.
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according to the preface what is the main topic of the pluto files | The Pluto Files - Wikipedia
The Pluto Files: The Rise and Fall of America 's Favorite Planet is a book written by the astrophysicist and Hayden Planetarium director Neil deGrasse Tyson. The book is about Pluto, which was demoted to the status of dwarf planet in August 2006 by the International Astronomical Union, thereby depriving it of its planet - hood. The book also focuses on the fact that many Americans rallied their support for this icy dwarf on the edge of the Solar System because it was discovered by an American.
The book was given a good review by Jon Stewart in a guest segment with Tyson on The Daily Show. During the interview, Stewart humorously lauded the book as "the most exciting book about Pluto you will ever read in your life, '' as well as "the compelling story of how (Tyson) destroyed Pluto 's life. ''
The book explains in full detail the journey of Pluto 's life from its days as Planet X, to its discovery in the early 20th century and all the way to its current title as a Trans - Neptunian object.
The book appeared on the extended hardcover nonfiction bestseller list in The New York Times in February 2009.
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describe a steriochemical formula in terms of the vsepr theory | Stereochemistry - wikipedia
Stereochemistry, a subdiscipline of chemistry, involves the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules and their manipulation. The study of stereochemistry focuses on stereoisomers, which by definition have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms (constitution), but differ in the three - dimensional orientations of their atoms in space. For this reason, it is also known as 3D chemistry -- the prefix "stereo - '' means "three - dimensionality ''.
An important branch of stereochemistry is the study of chiral molecules. Stereochemistry spans the entire spectrum of organic, inorganic, biological, physical and especially supramolecular chemistry. Stereochemistry includes methods for determining and describing these relationships; the effect on the physical or biological properties these relationships impart upon the molecules in question, and the manner in which these relationships influence the reactivity of the molecules in question (dynamic stereochemistry).
Louis Pasteur could rightly be described as the first stereochemist, having observed in 1849 that salts of tartaric acid collected from wine production vessels could rotate plane polarized light, but that salts from other sources did not. This property, the only physical property in which the two types of tartrate salts differed, is due to optical isomerism. In 1874, Jacobus Henricus van ' t Hoff and Joseph Le Bel explained optical activity in terms of the tetrahedral arrangement of the atoms bound to carbon.
Cahn -- Ingold -- Prelog priority rules are part of a system for describing a molecule 's stereochemistry. They rank the atoms around a stereocenter in a standard way, allowing the relative position of these atoms in the molecule to be described unambiguously. A Fischer projection is a simplified way to depict the stereochemistry around a stereocenter.
An often cited example of the importance of stereochemistry relates to the thalidomide disaster. Thalidomide is a pharmaceutical drug, first prepared in 1957 in Germany, prescribed for treating morning sickness in pregnant women. The drug was discovered to be teratogenic, causing serious genetic damage to early embryonic growth and development, leading to limb deformation in babies. Some of the several proposed mechanisms of teratogenecity involve a different biological function for the (R) - and the (S) - thalidomide enantiomers. In the human body however, thalidomide undergoes racemization: even if only one of the two enantiomers is administered as a drug, the other enantiomer is produced as a result of metabolism. Accordingly, it is incorrect to state that one of the stereoisomer is safe while the other is teratogenic. Thalidomide is currently used for the treatment of other diseases, notably cancer and leprosy. Strict regulations and controls have been enabled to avoid its use by pregnant women and prevent developmental deformations. This disaster was a driving force behind requiring strict testing of drugs before making them available to the public.
Many definitions that describe a specific conformer (IUPAC Gold Book) exist, developed by William Klyne and Vladimir Prelog, constituting their Klyne -- Prelog system of nomenclature:
Torsional strain results from resistance to twisting about a bond.
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which animal acts as a reservoir for japanese encephalitis | Japanese encephalitis - wikipedia
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is an infection of the brain caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). While most infections result in little or no symptoms, occasional inflammation of the brain occurs. In these cases symptoms may include headache, vomiting, fever, confusion, and seizures. This occurs about 5 to 15 days after infection.
JEV is generally spread by mosquitoes, specifically those of the Culex type. Pigs and wild birds serve as a reservoir for the virus. The disease mostly occurs outside of cities. Diagnosis is based on blood or cerebrospinal fluid testing.
Prevention is generally with the Japanese encephalitis vaccine, which is both safe and effective. Other measures include avoiding mosquito bites. Once infected there is no specific treatment, with care being supportive. This is generally carried out in hospital. Permanent problems occur in up to half of people who recover from encephalopathy.
The disease occurs in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific. About 3 billion people live in areas where the disease occurs. About 68,000 symptomatic cases occur a year with about 17,000 deaths. Often cases occur in outbreaks. The disease was first described in 1871.
The Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) has an incubation period of 2 to 15 days and the vast majority of infections are asymptomatic: only 1 in 250 infections develop into encephalitis.
Severe rigors may mark the onset of this disease in humans. Fever, headache and malaise are other non-specific symptoms of this disease which may last for a period of between 1 and 6 days. Signs which develop during the acute encephalitic stage include neck rigidity, cachexia, hemiparesis, convulsions and a raised body temperature between 38 -- 41 ° C (100.4 -- 105.8 ° F). Mental retardation is usually developed.
Mortality of this disease varies but is generally much higher in children. Transplacental spread has been noted. Lifelong neurological defects such as deafness, emotional lability and hemiparesis may occur in those who have had central nervous system involvement. In known cases, some effects also include nausea, headache, fever, vomiting and sometimes swelling of the testicles.
Increased microglial activation following Japanese Encephalitis infection has been found to influence the outcome of viral pathogenesis. Microglia are the resident immune cell s of the central nervous system (CNS) and have a critical role in host defense against invading microorganisms. Activated microglia secrete cytokines, such as interleukin - 1 (IL - 1) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF - α), which can cause toxic effects in the brain. Additionally, other soluble factors such as neurotoxins, excitatory neurotransmitters, prostaglandin, reactive oxygen, and nitrogen species are secreted by activated microglia.
In a murine model of JE, it was found that in the hippocampus and the striatum, the number of activated microglia was more than anywhere else in the brain closely followed by that in the thalamus. In the cortex, the number of activated microglia was significantly less when compared with other regions of the mouse brain. An overall induction of differential expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines from different brain regions during a progressive Japanese Encephalitis infection was also observed.
Although the net effect of the proinflammatory mediators is to kill infectious organisms and infected cells as well as to stimulate the production of molecules that amplify the mounting response to damage, it is also evident that in a nonregenerating organ such as the brain, a dysregulated innate immune response would be deleterious. In JE the tight regulation of microglial activation appears to be disturbed, resulting in an autotoxic loop of microglial activation that possibly leads to bystander neuronal damage. In animals, key signs include infertility and abortion in pigs, neurological disease in horses and systemic signs including fever, lethargy and anorexia.
It is a disease caused by the mosquito - borne Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV).
JEV is a virus from the family Flaviviridae, part of the Japanese encephalitis serocomplex of 9 genetically and antigenically related viruses, some which are particularly severe in horses, and four known to infect humans including West Nile virus. The enveloped virus is closely related to the West Nile virus and the St. Louis encephalitis virus. The positive sense single - stranded RNA genome is packaged in the capsid which is formed by the capsid protein. The outer envelope is formed by envelope protein and is the protective antigen. It aids in entry of the virus into the inside of the cell. The genome also encodes several nonstructural proteins (NS1, NS2a, NS2b, NS3, N4a, NS4b, NS5). NS1 is produced as secretory form also. NS3 is a putative helicase, and NS5 is the viral polymerase. It has been noted that Japanese encephalitis infects the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and rapidly accumulates substantial amounts of viral proteins for the Japanese Encephalitis.
Based on the envelope gene, there are five genotypes (I -- V). The Muar strain, isolated from a patient in Malaya in 1952, is the prototype strain of genotype V. Genotype IV appears to be the ancestral strain, and the virus appears to have evolved in the Indonesian -- Malaysian region. The first clinical reports date from 1870, but the virus appears to have evolved in the mid-16th century. Over sixty complete genomes of this virus had been sequenced by 2010.
Japanese encephalitis is diagnosed by commercially available tests detecting JE virus - specific IgM antibodies in serum and / or cerebrospinal fluid, for example by IgM capture ELISA.
JE virus IgM antibodies are usually detectable 3 to 8 days after onset of illness and persist for 30 to 90 days, but longer persistence has been documented. Therefore, positive IgM antibodies occasionally may reflect a past infection or vaccination. Serum collected within 10 days of illness onset may not have detectable IgM, and the test should be repeated on a convalescent sample. For patients with JE virus IgM antibodies, confirmatory neutralizing antibody testing should be performed. Confirmatory testing in the US is only available at CDC and a few specialized reference laboratories. In fatal cases, nucleic acid amplification, and virus culture of autopsy tissues can be useful. Viral antigen can be shown in tissues by indirect fluorescent antibody staining.
Infection with Japanese encephalitis confers lifelong immunity. There are currently three vaccines available: SA14 - 14 - 2, IC51 (marketed in Australia and New Zealand as JESPECT and elsewhere as IXIARO) and ChimeriVax - JE (marketed as IMOJEV). All current vaccines are based on the genotype III virus.
A formalin - inactivated mouse - brain derived vaccine was first produced in Japan in the 1930s and was validated for use in Taiwan in the 1960s and in Thailand in the 1980s. The widespread use of vaccine and urbanization has led to control of the disease in Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore. The high cost of this vaccine, which is grown in live mice, means that poorer countries have not been able to afford to give it as part of a routine immunization program.
The most common adverse effects are redness and pain at the injection site. Uncommonly, an urticarial reaction can develop about four days after injection. Vaccines produced from mouse brain have a risk of autoimmune neurological complications of around 1 per million vaccinations. However where the vaccine is not produced in mouse brains but in vitro using cell culture there is little adverse effects compared to placebo, the main side effects are headache and myalgia.
The neutralizing antibody persists in the circulation for at least two to three years, and perhaps longer. The total duration of protection is unknown, but because there is no firm evidence for protection beyond three years, boosters are recommended every three years for people who remain at risk. Furthermore, there is also no data available regarding the interchangeability of other JE vaccines and IXIARO.
In September 2012 the Indian firm Biological E. Limited has launched an inactivated cell culture derived vaccine based on SA 14 - 14 - 2 strain which was developed in a technology transfer agreement with Intercell and is a thiomersal - free vaccine.
There is no specific treatment for Japanese encephalitis and treatment is supportive, with assistance given for feeding, breathing or seizure control as required. Raised intracranial pressure may be managed with mannitol. There is no transmission from person to person and therefore patients do not need to be isolated.
A breakthrough in the field of Japanese encephalitis therapeutics is the identification of macrophage receptor involvement in the disease severity. A recent report of an Indian group demonstrates the involvement of monocyte and macrophage receptor CLEC5A in severe inflammatory response in Japanese Encephalitis infection of the brain. This transcriptomic study provides a hypothesis of neuroinflammation and a new lead in development of appropriate therapeutic against Japanese encephalitis.
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia, with up to 70,000 cases reported annually. Case - fatality rates range from 0.3 % to 60 % and depend on the population and age. Rare outbreaks in U.S. territories in the Western Pacific have also occurred. Residents of rural areas in endemic locations are at highest risk; Japanese encephalitis does not usually occur in urban areas.
Countries which have had major epidemics in the past, but which have controlled the disease primarily by vaccination, include China, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan and Thailand. Other countries that still have periodic epidemics include Vietnam, Cambodia, Myanmar, India, Nepal, and Malaysia. Japanese encephalitis has been reported in the Torres Strait Islands and two fatal cases were reported in mainland northern Australia in 1998. There were reported cases in Kachin State, Myanmar in 2013. The spread of the virus in Australia is of particular concern to Australian health officials due to the unplanned introduction of Culex gelidus, a potential vector of the virus, from Asia. However, the current presence on mainland Australia is minimal. There had been 116 deaths reported in Odisha 's backward Malkangiri district of India in 2016.
Human, cattle, and horses are dead - end hosts as the disease manifests as fatal encephalitis. Swine acts as an amplifying host and has a very important role in the epidemiology of the disease. Infection in swine is asymptomatic, except in pregnant sows, when abortion and fetal abnormalities are common sequelae. The most important vector is Culex tritaeniorhynchus, which feeds on cattle in preference to humans. It has been proposed that moving swine away from human habitation can divert the mosquito away from humans and swine. The natural hosts of the Japanese encephalitis virus are birds, not humans, and many believe the virus will therefore never be completely eliminated. In November 2011, the Japanese encephalitis virus was reported in Culex bitaeniorhynchus in South Korea.
Recently whole genome microarray research of neurons infected with the Japanese Encephalitis virus has shown that neurons play an important role in their own defense against Japanese Encephalitis infection. Although this challenges the long - held belief that neurons are immunologically quiescent, an improved understanding of the proinflammatory effects responsible for immune - mediated control of viral infection and neuronal injury during Japanese Encephalitis infection is an essential step for developing strategies for limiting the severity of CNS disease.
A number of drugs have been investigated to either reduce viral replication or provide neuroprotection in cell lines or studies upon mice. None are currently advocated in treating human patients.
The virus appears to have originated from its ancestral virus in the mid-1500s in the Indonesia - Malaysia region and evolved there into five different genotypes and spread across Asia. The mean evolutionary rate has been estimated to be 4.35 × 10 (range: 3.4906 × 10 to 5.303 × 10) nucleotide substitutions per site per year.
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where was fiddler on the roof first performed | Fiddler on the Roof - wikipedia
Fiddler on the Roof is a musical with music by Jerry Bock, lyrics by Sheldon Harnick, and book by Joseph Stein, set in the Pale of Settlement of Imperial Russia in 1905. It is based on Tevye and his Daughters (or Tevye the Dairyman) and other tales by Sholem Aleichem. The story centers on Tevye, the father of five daughters, and his attempts to maintain his Jewish religious and cultural traditions as outside influences encroach upon the family 's lives. He must cope both with the strong - willed actions of his three older daughters, who wish to marry for love -- each one 's choice of a husband moves further away from the customs of his faith -- and with the edict of the Tsar that evicts the Jews from their village.
The original Broadway production of the show, which opened in 1964, had the first musical theatre run in history to surpass 3,000 performances. Fiddler held the record for the longest - running Broadway musical for almost 10 years until Grease surpassed its run. It remains the sixteenth longest - running show in Broadway history. The production was extraordinarily profitable and highly acclaimed. It won nine Tony Awards, including Best Musical, score, book, direction and choreography. It spawned five Broadway revivals and a highly successful 1971 film adaptation and has enjoyed enduring international popularity. It has also been a popular choice for school and community productions.
Fiddler on the Roof is based on Tevye and his Daughters (or Tevye the Dairyman), a series of stories by Sholem Aleichem that he wrote in Yiddish between 1894 and 1914 about Jewish life in a village in the Pale of Settlement of Imperial Russia at the turn of the 20th century. It is also influenced by Life Is with People, by Mark Zborowski and Elizabeth Herzog. Aleichem wrote a dramatic adaptation of the stories that he left unfinished at his death, but which was produced in Yiddish in 1919 by the Yiddish Art Theater and made into a film in the 1930s. In the late 1950s, a musical based on the stories, called Tevye and his Daughters, was produced Off - Broadway by Arnold Perl. Rodgers and Hammerstein and then Mike Todd briefly considered bringing this musical to Broadway but dropped the idea.
Investors and some in the media worried that Fiddler on the Roof might be considered "too Jewish '' to attract mainstream audiences. Other critics considered that it was too culturally sanitized, "middlebrow '' and superficial; Philip Roth, writing in The New Yorker, called it shtetl kitsch. For example, it portrays the local Russian officer as sympathetic, instead of brutal and cruel, as Sholom Aleichem had described him. Aleichem 's stories ended with Tevye alone, his wife dead and his daughters scattered; at the end of Fiddler, the family members are alive, and most are emigrating together to America. The show found the right balance for its time, even if not entirely authentic, to become "one of the first popular post-Holocaust depictions of the vanished world of Eastern European Jewry ''. Harold Prince replaced the original producer Fred Coe and brought in director / choreographer Jerome Robbins. The writers and Robbins considered naming the musical Tevye, before landing on a title suggested by various paintings by Marc Chagall that also inspired the original set design. Contrary to popular belief, the "title of the musical does not refer to any specific painting ''. During rehearsals, one of the stars, Jewish actor Zero Mostel, feuded with Robbins, whom he held in contempt because Robbins had testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee and hid his Jewish heritage from the public. Other cast members also had run - ins with Robbins, who reportedly "abused the cast, drove the designers crazy (and) strained the good nature of Hal Prince ''.
Tevye, a poor Jewish milkman with five daughters, explains the customs of the Jews in the Russian shtetl of Anatevka in 1905, where their lives are as precarious as the perch of a fiddler on a roof ("Tradition ''). At Tevye 's home, everyone is busy preparing for the Sabbath meal. His sharp - tongued wife, Golde, orders their daughters, Tzeitel, Hodel, Chava, Shprintze and Bielke, about their tasks. Yente, the village matchmaker, arrives to tell Golde that Lazar Wolf, the wealthy butcher, a widower older than Tevye, wants to wed Tzeitel, the eldest daughter. The next two daughters, Hodel and Chava, are excited about Yente 's visit, but Tzeitel is unenthusiastic ("Matchmaker, Matchmaker ''). A girl from a poor family must take whatever husband Yente brings, but Tzeitel wants to marry her childhood friend, Motel the tailor.
Tevye is delivering milk, pulling the cart himself, as his horse is lame. He asks God: Whom would it hurt "If I Were a Rich Man ''? News from the outside world tells of pogroms and expulsions. A stranger, Perchik, hears their conversation and scolds them for doing nothing more than talk. The men dismiss Perchik as a radical, but Tevye invites him home for the Sabbath meal and offers him food and a room in exchange for tutoring his two youngest daughters. Golde tells Tevye to meet Lazar after the Sabbath but does not tell him why, knowing that Tevye does not like Lazar. Tzeitel is afraid that Yente will find her a husband before Motel asks Tevye for her hand. But Motel resists: he is afraid of Tevye 's temper, and tradition says that a matchmaker arranges marriages. Motel is also very poor and is saving up to buy a sewing machine before he approaches Tevye, to show that he can support a wife. The family gathers for the "Sabbath Prayer. ''
After the Sabbath, Tevye meets Lazar for a drink at the village inn, assuming mistakenly that Lazar wants to buy his cow. Once the misunderstanding is cleared up, Tevye agrees to let Lazar marry Tzeitel -- with a rich butcher, his daughter will never want for anything. All join in the celebration of Lazar 's good fortune; even the Russian youths at the inn join in the celebration and show off their dancing skills ("To Life ''). Outside the inn, Tevye happens upon the Russian Constable, who has jurisdiction over the Jews in the town. The Constable warns him that there is going to be a "little unofficial demonstration '' in the coming weeks (a euphemism for a minor pogrom). The Constable has sympathy for the Jewish community but is powerless to prevent the violence.
The next morning, after Perchik 's lessons with her young sisters, Tevye 's second daughter Hodel mocks Perchik 's Marxist interpretation of a Bible story. He, in turn, criticizes her for hanging on to the old traditions of Judaism, noting that the world is changing. To illustrate this, he dances with her, defying the prohibition against opposite sexes dancing together. The two begin to fall in love. Later, a hungover Tevye announces that he has agreed that Tzeitel will marry Lazar Wolf. Golde is overjoyed, but Tzeitel is devastated and begs Tevye not to force her. Motel arrives and tells Tevye that he is the perfect match for Tzeitel and that he and Tzeitel gave each other a pledge to marry. He promises that Tzeitel will not starve as his wife. Tevye is stunned and outraged at this breach of tradition, but impressed at the timid tailor 's display of backbone. After some soul - searching ("Tevye 's Monologue ''), Tevye agrees to let them marry, but he worries about how to break the news to Golde. An overjoyed Motel celebrates with Tzeitel ("Miracle of Miracles '').
In bed with Golde, Tevye pretends to be waking from a nightmare. Golde offers to interpret his dream, and Tevye "describes '' it ("Tevye 's Dream ''). Golde 's grandmother Tzeitel returns from the grave to bless the marriage of her namesake, but to Motel, not to Lazar Wolf. Lazar 's formidable late wife, Fruma - Sarah, rises from her grave to warn, in graphic terms, of severe retribution if Tzeitel marries Lazar. The superstitious Golde is terrified, and she quickly counsels that Tzeitel must marry Motel. While returning from town, Tevye 's third daughter, the bookish Chava, is teased and intimidated by some gentile youths. One, Fyedka, protects her, dismissing the others. He offers Chava the loan of a book, and a secret relationship begins.
The wedding day of Tzeitel and Motel arrives, and all the Jews join the ceremony ("Sunrise, Sunset '') and the celebration ("The Wedding Dance ''). Lazar gives a fine gift, but an argument arises with Tevye over the broken agreement. Perchik ends the tiff by breaking another tradition: he crosses the barrier between the men and women to dance with Tevye 's daughter Hodel. The celebration ends abruptly when a group of Russians rides into the village to perform the "demonstration ''. They disrupt the party, damaging the wedding gifts and wounding Perchik, who attempts to fight back, and wreak more destruction in the village. Tevye instructs his family to clean up the mess.
Months later, Perchik tells Hodel he must return to Kiev to work for the revolution. He proposes marriage, admitting that he loves her, and says that he will send for her. She agrees ("Now I Have Everything ''). They tell Tevye that they are engaged, and he is appalled that they are flouting tradition by making their own match, especially as Perchik is leaving. When he forbids the marriage, Perchik and Hodel inform him that they do not seek his permission, only his blessing. After more soul searching, Tevye relents -- the world is changing, and he must change with it ("Tevye 's Rebuttal ''). He informs the young couple that he gives them his blessing and his permission.
Tevye explains these events to an astonished Golde. "Love, '' he says, "it 's the new style. '' Tevye asks Golde, despite their own arranged marriage, "Do You Love Me? '' After dismissing Tevye 's question as foolish, she eventually admits that, after 25 years of living and struggling together and raising five daughters, she does. Meanwhile, Yente tells Tzeitel that she saw Chava with Fyedka. News spreads quickly in Anatevka that Perchik has been arrested and exiled to Siberia ("The Rumor / I Just Heard ''), and Hodel is determined to join him there. At the railway station, she explains to her father that her home is with her beloved, wherever he may be, although she will always love her family ("Far From the Home I Love '').
Time passes. Motel has purchased a used sewing machine, and he and Tzeitel have had a baby. Chava finally gathers the courage to ask Tevye to allow her marriage to Fyedka. Again Tevye reaches deep into his soul, but marriage outside the Jewish faith is a line he will not cross. He forbids Chava to speak to Fyedka again. When Golde brings news that Chava has eloped with Fyedka, Tevye wonders where he went wrong ("Chavaleh Sequence ''). Chava returns and tries to reason with him, but he refuses to speak to her and tells the rest of the family to consider her dead. Meanwhile, rumors are spreading of the Russians expelling Jews from their villages. While the villagers are gathered, the Constable arrives to tell everyone that they have three days to pack up and leave the town. In shock, they reminisce about "Anatevka '' and how hard it will be to leave what has been their home for so long.
As the Jews leave Anatevka, Chava and Fyedka stop to tell her family that they are also leaving for Kraków, unwilling to remain among the people who could do such things to others. Tevye still will not talk to her, but when Tzeitel says goodbye to Chava, Tevye prompts her to add "God be with you. '' Motel and Tzeitel go to Poland as well but will join the rest of the family when they have saved up enough money. As Tevye, Golde and their two youngest daughters leave the village for America, the fiddler begins to play. Tevye beckons with a nod, and the fiddler follows them out of the village.
§ The 2004 revival featured a song for Yente and some women of the village (Rivka and Mirala) titled "Topsy Turvy '', discussing the disappearing role of the matchmaker in society. The number replaced "The Rumor / I Just Heard ''.
All of the characters are Jewish, except as noted:
Following its tryout at Detroit 's Fisher Theatre in July and August 1964, then Washington in August to September, the original Broadway production opened on September 22, 1964, at the Imperial Theatre, transferred in 1967 to the Majestic Theatre and in 1970 to The Broadway Theatre, and ran for a record - setting total of 3,242 performances. The production was directed and choreographed by Robbins -- his last original Broadway staging. The set, designed in the style of Marc Chagall 's paintings, was by Boris Aronson. A colorful logo for the production, also inspired by Chagall 's work, was designed by Tom Morrow. Chagall reportedly did not like the musical.
The cast included Zero Mostel as Tevye the milkman, Maria Karnilova as his wife Golde (each of whom won a Tony for their performances), Beatrice Arthur as Yente the matchmaker, Austin Pendleton as Motel, Bert Convy as Perchik the student revolutionary, Gino Conforti as the fiddler, and Julia Migenes as Hodel. Mostel ad - libbed increasingly as the run went on, "which drove the authors up the wall. '' Joanna Merlin originated the role of Tzeitel, which was later assumed by Bette Midler during the original run. Carol Sawyer was Fruma Sarah, Adrienne Barbeau took a turn as Hodel, and Pia Zadora played the youngest daughter, Bielke. Both Peg Murray and Dolores Wilson made extended appearances as Golde, while other stage actors who have played Tevye include Herschel Bernardi, Theodore Bikel and Harry Goz (in the original Broadway run), and Leonard Nimoy. Mostel 's understudy in the original production, Paul Lipson, went on to appear as Tevye in more performances than any other actor (until Chaim Topol), clocking over 2,000 performances in the role in the original run and several revivals. Florence Stanley took over the role of Yente nine months into the run. The production earned $1,574 for every dollar invested in it. It was nominated for ten Tony Awards, winning nine, including Best Musical, score, book, direction and choreography, and acting awards for Mostel and Karnilova.
The original London West End production opened on February 16, 1967, at Her Majesty 's Theatre and played for 2,030 performances. It starred Topol as Tevye, a role he had previously played in Tel Aviv, and Miriam Karlin as Golde. Alfie Bass, Lex Goudsmit and Barry Martin eventually took over as Tevye. Topol later played Tevye in the 1971 film adaptation, for which he was nominated for an Academy Award, and in several revivals over the next four decades. The show was revived in London for short seasons in 1983 at the Apollo Victoria Theatre and in 1994 at the London Palladium.
The first Broadway revival opened on December 28, 1976, and ran for 176 performances at the Winter Garden Theatre. Zero Mostel starred as Tevye. Robbins directed and choreographed. A second Broadway revival opened on July 9, 1981, and played for a limited run (53 performances) at Lincoln Center 's New York State Theater. It starred Herschel Bernardi as Tevye and Karnilova as Golde. Other cast members included Liz Larsen, Fyvush Finkel, Lawrence Leritz and Paul Lipson. Robbins directed and choreographed. The third Broadway revival opened on November 18, 1990, and ran for 241 performances at the George Gershwin Theatre. Topol starred as Tevye, and Marcia Lewis was Golde. Robbins ' production was reproduced by Ruth Mitchell and choreographer Sammy Dallas Bayes. The production won the Tony Award for Best Revival.
A fourth Broadway revival opened on February 26, 2004, and ran for 36 previews and 781 performances at the Minskoff Theatre. Alfred Molina, and later Harvey Fierstein, starred as Tevye, and Randy Graff, and later Andrea Martin and Rosie O'Donnell, was Golde. Barbara Barrie and later Nancy Opel played Yente, Laura Michelle Kelly played Hodel and Lea Michele played Sprintze. It was directed by David Leveaux. This production replaced Yente 's song "The Rumor '' with a song for Yente and two other women called "Topsy - Turvy ''. The production was nominated for six Tonys but did not win any. In June 2014, to celebrate the show 's 50th anniversary, a gala celebration and reunion was held at The Town Hall in New York City to benefit The National Yiddish Theatre -- Folksbiene, with appearances by many of the cast members of the various Broadway productions and the 1971 film.
The fifth Broadway revival began previews on November 20 and opened on December 20, 2015 at the Broadway Theatre, with concept and choreography based on the original by Jerome Robbins. Bartlett Sher directed, and Hofesh Shechter choreographed. The cast starred Danny Burstein as Tevye, with Jessica Hecht as Golde, Alexandra Silber as Tzeitel, Adam Kantor as Motel, Ben Rappaport as Perchik, Samantha Massell as Hodel and Melanie Moore as Chava. Judy Kuhn replaced Hecht as Golde on November 22, 2016, for the last five weeks of the run. Designers include Michael Yeargan (sets), Catherine Zuber (costumes) and Donald Holder (lighting). Initial reviews were mostly positive, finding Burstein and the show touching. The production was nominated for three Tony Awards but won none. It closed on December 31, 2016 after 463 performances.
Fiddler was first revived in London in 1983 at the Apollo Victoria Theatre (a four - month season starring Topol) and again in 1994 at the London Palladium for two months and then on tour, again starring Topol, and directed and choreographed by Sammy Dallas Bayes, recreating the Robbins production.
After a two - month tryout at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England, a London revival opened on May 19, 2007, at the Savoy Theatre starring Henry Goodman as Tevye, Beverley Klein as Golde, Alexandra Silber as Hodel, Damian Humbley as Perchik and Victor McGuire as Lazar Wolf. The production was directed by Lindsay Posner. Robbins ' choreography was recreated by Sammy Dallas Bayes (who did the same for the 1990 Broadway revival), with additional choreography by Kate Flatt.
A 2003 national tour played for seven months, with a radical design, directed by Julian Woolford and choreographed by Chris Hocking. The production 's minimalist set and costumes were monochromatic, and Fruma - Sarah was represented by a 12 - foot puppet. This production was revived in 2008 starring Joe McGann.
The show toured the UK again in 2013 and 2014 starring Paul Michael Glaser as Tevye with direction and choreography by Craig Revel Horwood.
The original Australian production opened on June 16, 1967, at Her Majesty 's Theatre in Sydney. It starred Hayes Gordon as Tevye and Brigid Lenihan as Golde. The production ran for two years. The first professional revival tour was staged by the Australian Opera in 1984 with Gordon again playing Tevye. A young Anthony Warlow played Fyedka.
In 2005 and 2007, Topol recreated his role as Tevye in Australian productions, with seasons in Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth, Wellington and Auckland. The musical was again revived in Melbourne and Sydney in 2015 -- 2016 with Anthony Warlow as Tevye, Sigrid Thornton as Golde and Lior as Motel.
Topol in ' Fiddler on the Roof ': The Farewell Tour opened on January 20, 2009, in Wilmington, Delaware. Topol left the tour in November 2009 due to torn muscles. He was replaced by Harvey Fierstein.
The musical was an international hit, with early productions playing throughout Europe, in South America, Africa and Australia; 100 different productions were mounted in the former West Germany in the first three decades after the musical 's premiere, and within five years after the collapse of the Berlin Wall, 23 productions were staged in the former East Germany; and it was the longest - running musical ever seen in Tokyo.
A Hebrew language staging was produced in Tel Aviv by the Israeli impresario Giora Godik in the 1960s. This version was so successful that Godik soon produced a Yiddish version translated by Shraga Friedman. A 2008 Hebrew language production ran at the Cameri Theatre in Tel Aviv for more than six years. It was directed by Moshe Kepten, choreographed by Dennis Courtney and starred Natan Datner.
Un violon sur le toît was produced in French at Paris 's théâtre Marigny from November 1969 to May 1970, resuming from September to January 1971 (a total of 292 performances) with Ivan Rebroff as Tevye and Maria Murano as Golde. Another adaptation was produced in 2005 at the théâtre Comédia in Paris with Franck Vincent as Tevye and Isabelle Ferron as Golde. The Stratford Shakespeare Festival produced the musical from April to October 2013 at the Festival Theatre directed and choreographed by Donna Feore. It starred Scott Wentworth as Tevye.
The musical receives about 500 amateur productions a year in the US alone.
The film version was released in 1971, directed and produced by Norman Jewison, and Stein adapted his own book for the screenplay. The casting of Chaim Topol over Zero Mostel for the role of Tevye caused controversy at first. The film received mostly positive reviews from film critics and became the highest - grossing film of 1971. Fiddler received eight Oscar nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director for Jewison, Best Actor in a Leading Role for Topol, and Best Actor in a Supporting Role for Leonard Frey (as Motel; in the original Broadway production, Frey was the rabbi 's son). It won three, including best score / adaptation for arranger - conductor John Williams.
In the film version, the character of Yente is reduced, and Perchik 's song to Hodel "Now I Have Everything '' is cut and replaced by a scene in Kiev. The "Chagall color palette '' of the original Broadway production was exchanged for a grittier, more realistic depiction of the village of Anatevka.
Theatre writer John Kenrick writes that the original Broadway cast album released by RCA Victor in 1964, "shimmers -- an essential recording in any show lover 's collection '', praising the cast. The remastered CD includes two recordings not on the original album, the bottle dance from the wedding scene and "Rumor '' performed by Beatrice Arthur. Kenrick writes that while the original Broadway cast version is the clear first choice among recordings of this musical, he also likes the Columbia Records studio cast album with Bernardi as Tevye; the film soundtrack, although he feels that the pace drags a bit; and some of the numerous foreign versions, including the Israeli, German and Japanese casts.
The musical 's popularity has led to numerous references in popular media and elsewhere. The show or its songs have been parodied and covered widely:
Parodies relating to the show have included Antenna on the Roof (Mad Magazine # 156, January 1973), which speculated about the lives of Tevye 's descendants living in an assimilated 1970s suburban America. The H.P. Lovecraft Historical Society published a musical theatre and album parody of Fiddler on the Roof called A Shoggoth on the Roof, which incorporates the works of H.P. Lovecraft. In the film Mrs. Doubtfire (1993), Robin Williams parodies "Matchmaker ''.
References to the musical on television have included a 2005 episode of Gilmore Girls titled "Jews and Chinese Food '', involving a production of the musical. A skit by The Electric Company about a village fiddler with a fear of heights, so he is deemed "Fiddler on the Chair ''. In the Family Guy episode "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein '' (2003), William Shatner is depicted as playing Tevye in a scene from Fiddler. The second episode of Muppets Tonight, in 1996, featured Garth Brooks doing a piece of "If I were a Rich Man '' in which he kicks several chickens off the roof. "The Rosie Show '', a 1996 episode of The Nanny, parodied the dream scene, when Mr. Sheffield fakes a dream to convince Fran not to be a regular on a TV show. A 2011 episode of NBC 's Community, entitled "Competitive Wine Tasting '', included a parody of Fiddler titled, "Fiddler, Please! '', with an all - black cast dressed in Fiddler on the Roof costumes singing "It 's Hard to Be Jewish in Russia, Yo ''. Chabad.org kicked off their 2008 "To Life '' Telethon with a pastiche of the fiddle solo and bottle dance from the musical.
Broadway references have included Spamalot, where a "Grail dance '' sends up the "bottle dance '' in Fiddler 's wedding scene. The Producers (2001) includes a musical number in the style of Jerry Bock that features an actual fiddler on a roof. Also in 2001, Chicago 's Improv Olympic produced a well - received parody, "The Roof Is on Fiddler '', that used most of the original book of the musical but replaced the songs with 1980 's pop songs. The original Broadway cast of the musical Avenue Q and the Broadway 2004 revival cast of Fiddler on the Roof collaborated for a Broadway Cares / Equity Fights AIDS benefit and produced an approximately 10 - minute - long show, "Avenue Jew '', that incorporated characters from both shows, including puppets.
Songs from the musical have been covered by notable artists. For example, in 1964, jazz saxophonist Cannonball Adderley recorded the album Fiddler on the Roof, which featured jazz arrangements of eight songs from the musical. AllMusic awarded the album 4 stars and states "Cannonball plays near his peak; this is certainly the finest album by this particular sextet ''. That same year, Eydie Gormé released a single of "Matchmaker ''. In 1999, Knitting Factory Records released Knitting on the Roof, a compilation CD featuring covers of Fiddler songs by alternative bands such as The Residents, Negativland, and The Magnetic Fields. Indie rock band Bright Eyes recorded an adaptation of "Sunrise, Sunset '' on their 2000 album Fevers and Mirrors. Allmusic gave the album a favorable review, and the online music magazine Pitchfork Media ranked it at number 170 on their list of top 200 albums of the 2000s. In 2005, Melbourne punk band Yidcore released a reworking of the entire show called Fiddling on Ya Roof.
Gwen Stefani and Eve covered "If I Were a Rich Man '' as "Rich Girl '' for Stefani 's 2004 debut solo album Love. Angel. Music. Baby. in 2004. The song was inspired by the 1993 British Louchie Lou & Michie One ragga version of the same name. Stefani 's version reached # 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, where it remained for over six months. It was certified gold by the RIAA and nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration. It was also covered in 2008 and 2009 by the Capitol Steps, poking fun at Illinois politics, especially then - Governor Rod Blagojevich. The Santa Clara Vanguard Drum and Bugle Corps performs the "Bottle Dance '' from Fiddler as a "recurring trademark '', including at the Drum Corps International World Championships.
The song "Sunrise, Sunset '' is often played at weddings, and in 2011 Sheldon Harnick wrote two versions of the song, suitable for same - sex weddings, with minor word changes. For example, for male couples, changes include "When did they grow to be so handsome ''.
Fiddler 's original Broadway production in 1964 was nominated for ten Tony Awards, winning nine, including Best Musical, score, and book, and Robbins won for best direction and choreography. Mostel and Karnilova won as best leading actor and best featured actress. In 1972, the show won a special Tony on becoming the longest - running musical in Broadway history.
Its revivals have also been honored. At the 1981 Tony Awards, Bernardi was nominated as best actor. Ten years later, the 1991 revival won for best revival, and Topol was nominated as best actor. The 2004 revival was nominated for six Tony Awards and three Drama Desk Awards but won none. The 2007 West End revival was nominated for Olivier Awards for best revival, and Goodman was nominated as best actor.
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who was the president during the jim crow laws | Jim Crow laws - wikipedia
Jim Crow laws were state and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted by white Democratic - dominated state legislatures in the late 19th century after the Reconstruction period, these laws continued to be enforced until 1965. They mandated racial segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America, starting in the 1870s and 1880s, and upheld by the United States Supreme Court 's "separate but equal '' doctrine for African Americans. Public education had essentially been segregated since its establishment in most of the South after the Civil War. This principle was extended to public facilities and transportation, including segregated cars on interstate trains and, later, buses. Facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to those which were then available to white Americans; sometimes they did not exist at all. This body of law institutionalized a number of economic, educational, and social disadvantages. Segregation by law existed mainly in the Southern states, while Northern segregation was generally a matter of fact -- patterns of housing segregation enforced by private covenants, bank lending practices, and job discrimination, including discriminatory labor union practices. "Jim Crow '' was a pejorative expression referring to a minstrel song called "Jump Jim Crow '' by a performer appearing in blackface.
Jim Crow laws -- sometimes, as in Florida, part of state constitutions -- mandated the segregation of public schools, public places, and public transportation, and the segregation of restrooms, restaurants, and drinking fountains for whites and blacks. The U.S. military was already segregated. President Woodrow Wilson, a Southerner, initiated segregation of federal workplaces at the request of southern Cabinet members in 1913.
These Jim Crow laws revived principles of the 1865 and 1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. Segregation of public (state - sponsored) schools was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education. In some states it took years to implement this decision. Generally, the remaining Jim Crow laws were overruled by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, but years of action and court challenges have been needed to unravel the many means of institutional discrimination.
The phrase "Jim Crow Law '' can be found as early as 1892 in the title of a New York Times article about Louisiana requiring segregated railroad cars. The origin of the phrase "Jim Crow '' has often been attributed to "Jump Jim Crow '', a song - and - dance caricature of blacks performed by white actor Thomas D. Rice in blackface, which first surfaced in 1832 and was used to satirize Andrew Jackson 's populist policies. As a result of Rice 's fame, "Jim Crow '' by 1838 had become a pejorative expression meaning "Negro ''. When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation directed against blacks at the end of the 19th century, these statutes became known as Jim Crow laws.
During the Reconstruction period of 1865 -- 1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U.S. South for freedmen, the African Americans who had formerly been slaves, and the minority of blacks who had been free before the war. In the 1870s, Democrats gradually regained power in the Southern legislatures, having used insurgent paramilitary groups, such as the White League and the Red Shirts, to disrupt Republican organizing, run Republican officeholders out of town, and intimidate blacks to suppress their voting. Extensive voter fraud was also used. Gubernatorial elections were close and had been disputed in Louisiana for years, with increasing violence against blacks during campaigns from 1868 onward.
In 1877, a national Democratic Party compromise to gain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the government 's withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained political power in every Southern state. These Southern, white, Democratic Redeemer governments legislated Jim Crow laws, officially segregating black people from the white population.
Blacks were still elected to local offices throughout the 1880s, but their voting was suppressed for state and national elections. Democrats passed laws to make voter registration and electoral rules more restrictive, with the result that political participation by most blacks and many poor whites began to decrease. Between 1890 and 1910, ten of the eleven former Confederate states, starting with Mississippi, passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised most blacks and tens of thousands of poor whites through a combination of poll taxes, literacy and comprehension tests, and residency and record - keeping requirements. Grandfather clauses temporarily permitted some illiterate whites to vote but gave no relief to most blacks.
Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures. In Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the state 's population. By 1910, only 730 blacks were registered, less than 0.5 % of eligible black men. "In 27 of the state 's 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer; in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was. '' The cumulative effect in North Carolina meant that black voters were completely eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896 -- 1904. The growth of their thriving middle class was slowed. In North Carolina and other Southern states, blacks suffered from being made invisible in the political system: "(W) ithin a decade of disfranchisement, the white supremacy campaign had erased the image of the black middle class from the minds of white North Carolinians. '' In Alabama tens of thousands of poor whites were also disenfranchised, although initially legislators had promised them they would not be affected adversely by the new restrictions.
Those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, and their interests were overlooked. While public schools had been established by Reconstruction legislatures for the first time in most Southern states, those for black children were consistently underfunded compared to schools for white children, even when considered within the strained finances of the postwar South where the decreasing price of cotton kept the agricultural economy at a low.
Like schools, public libraries for blacks were underfunded, if they existed at all, and they were often stocked with secondhand books and other resources. These facilities were not introduced for African Americans in the South until the first decade of the 20th century. Throughout the Jim Crow era, libraries were only available sporadically. Prior to the 20th century, most libraries established for African Americans were school - library combinations. Many public libraries for both European - American and African American patrons in this period were founded as the result of middle - class activism aided by matching grants from the Carnegie Foundation.
In some cases, progressive measures intended to reduce election fraud, such as the Eight Box Law in South Carolina, acted against black and white voters who were illiterate, as they could not follow the directions. While the separation of African Americans from the general population was becoming legalized and formalized during the Progressive Era (1890s -- 1920s), it was also becoming customary. For instance, even in cases in which Jim Crow laws did not expressly forbid black people to participate in sports or recreation, a segregated culture had become common.
In the Jim Crow context, the presidential election of 1912 was steeply slanted against the interests of black Americans. Most blacks still lived in the South, where they had been effectively disfranchised, so they could not vote at all. While poll taxes and literacy requirements banned many poor or illiterate Americans from voting, these stipulations frequently had loopholes that exempted European Americans from meeting the requirements. In Oklahoma, for instance, anyone qualified to vote before 1866, or related to someone qualified to vote before 1866 (a kind of "grandfather clause ''), was exempted from the literacy requirement; but the only persons who had the franchise before that year were white, or European - American males. European Americans were effectively exempted from the literacy testing, whereas black Americans were effectively singled out by the law.
Woodrow Wilson was a Democrat elected from New Jersey, but he was born and raised in the South, and was the first Southern - born president of the post-Civil War period. He appointed Southerners to his Cabinet. Some quickly began to press for segregated workplaces, although the city of Washington, D.C., and federal offices had been integrated since after the Civil War. In 1913, for instance, Secretary of the Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo -- an appointee of the President -- was heard to express his opinion of black and white women working together in one government office: "I feel sure that this must go against the grain of the white women. Is there any reason why the white women should not have only white women working across from them on the machines? ''
Wilson introduced segregation in federal offices, despite much protest from African - American leaders and national groups. He appointed segregationist Southern politicians because of his own firm belief that racial segregation was in the best interest of black and European Americans alike. At Gettysburg on July 4, 1913, the semi-centennial of Abraham Lincoln 's declaration that "all men are created equal '', Wilson addressed the crowd:
How complete the union has become and how dear to all of us, how unquestioned, how benign and majestic, as state after state has been added to this, our great family of free men!
In sharp contrast to Wilson, a Washington Bee editorial wondered if the "reunion '' of 1913 was a reunion of those who fought for "the extinction of slavery '' or a reunion of those who fought to "perpetuate slavery and who are now employing every artifice and argument known to deceit '' to present emancipation as a failed venture. Historian David W. Blight notes that the "Peace Jubilee '' at which Wilson presided at Gettysburg in 1913 "was a Jim Crow reunion, and white supremacy might be said to have been the silent, invisible master of ceremonies. '' (See also: Great Reunion of 1913)
In Texas, several towns adopted residential segregation laws between 1910 and the 1920s. Legal strictures called for segregated water fountains and restrooms. Jim Crow laws were a product of what had become the solidly Democratic South due to disfranchisement of blacks.
The Civil Rights Act of 1875, introduced by Charles Sumner and Benjamin F. Butler, stipulated a guarantee that everyone, regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was entitled to the same treatment in public accommodations, such as inns, public transportation, theaters, and other places of recreation. This Act had little effect. An 1883 Supreme Court decision ruled that the act was unconstitutional in some respects, saying Congress was not afforded control over private persons or corporations. With white southern Democrats forming a solid voting bloc in Congress, due to having outsize power from keeping seats apportioned for the total population in the South (although hundreds of thousands had been disenfranchised), Congress did not pass another civil rights law until 1957.
In 1887, Rev. W.H. Heard lodged a complaint with the Interstate Commerce Commission against the Georgia Railroad company for discrimination, citing its provision of different cars for white and black / colored passengers. The company successfully appealed for relief on the grounds it offered "separate but equal '' accommodation.
In 1890, Louisiana passed a law requiring separate accommodations for colored and white passengers on railroads. Louisiana law distinguished between "white '', "black '' and "colored '' (that is, people of mixed European and African ancestry). The law had already specified that blacks could not ride with white people, but colored people could ride with whites before 1890. A group of concerned black, colored and white citizens in New Orleans formed an association dedicated to rescinding the law. The group persuaded Homer Plessy to test it; he was a man of color who was of fair complexion and one - eighth "Negro '' in ancestry.
In 1892, Plessy bought a first - class ticket from New Orleans on the East Louisiana Railway. Once he had boarded the train, he informed the train conductor of his racial lineage and took a seat in the whites - only car. He was directed to leave that car and sit instead in the "coloreds only '' car. Plessy refused and was immediately arrested. The Citizens Committee of New Orleans fought the case all the way to the United States Supreme Court. They lost in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), in which the Court ruled that "separate but equal '' facilities were constitutional. The finding contributed to 58 more years of legalized discrimination against black and colored people in the United States.
In 1908 Congress defeated an attempt to introduce segregated streetcars into the capital.
White Southerners encountered problems in learning free labor management after the end of slavery, and they resented black Americans, who represented the Confederacy 's Civil War defeat: "With white supremacy being challenged throughout the South, many whites sought to protect their former status by threatening African Americans who exercised their new rights. '' White Democrats used their power to segregate public spaces and facilities in law and reestablish social dominance over blacks in the South.
One rationale for the systematic exclusion of black Americans from southern public society was that it was for their own protection. An early 20th - century scholar suggested that allowing blacks to attend white schools would mean "constantly subjecting them to adverse feeling and opinion '', which might lead to "a morbid race consciousness ''. This perspective took anti-black sentiment for granted, because bigotry was widespread in the South after slavery became a racial caste system.
After World War II, African Americans increasingly challenged segregation, as they believed they had more than earned the right to be treated as full citizens because of their military service and sacrifices. The Civil Rights Movement was energized by a number of flashpoints, including the 1946 police beating and blinding of World War II veteran Isaac Woodard while he was in U.S. Army uniform. In 1948 President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order 9981, desegregating the armed services.
As the Civil Rights Movement gained momentum and used federal courts to attack Jim Crow statutes, the white - dominated governments of many of the southern states countered by passing alternative forms of restrictions.
The NAACP Legal Defense Committee (a group that became independent of the NAACP) -- and its lawyer, Thurgood Marshall -- brought the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954) before the Supreme Court. In its pivotal 1954 decision, the Court unanimously overturned the 1896 Plessy decision. The Supreme Court found that legally mandated (de jure) public school segregation was unconstitutional. The decision had far - reaching social ramifications.
History has shown that problems of educating poor children are not confined to minority status, and states and cities have continued to grapple with approaches. The court ruling did not stop de facto or residentially based school segregation. Such segregation continues today in many regions. Some city school systems have also begun to focus on issues of economic and class segregation rather than racial segregation, as they have found that problems are more prevalent when the children of the poor of any ethnic group are concentrated.
Associate Justice Frank Murphy introduced the word "racism '' into the lexicon of U.S. Supreme Court opinions in Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944). He stated that by upholding the forced relocation of Japanese Americans during World War II, the Court was sinking into "the ugly abyss of racism ''. This was the first time that "racism '' was used in Supreme Court opinion (Murphy used it twice in a concurring opinion in Steele v Louisville & Nashville Railway Co 323 192 (1944) issued that day). Murphy used the word in five separate opinions, but after he left the court, "racism '' was not used again in an opinion for almost two decades. It next appeared in the landmark decision of Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967).
Interpretation of the Constitution and its application to minority rights continues to be controversial as Court membership changes. Observers such as Ian F. Lopez believe that in the 2000s, the Supreme Court has become more protective of the status quo.
In 1971, the Supreme Court, in Swann v. Charlotte - Mecklenburg Board of Education, upheld desegregation busing of students to achieve integration.
In 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a city bus to a white man in Montgomery, Alabama. This was not the first time this happened -- for example Parks was inspired by 15 year old Claudette Colvin doing the same thing nine months earlier -- but the Parks act of civil disobedience was chosen, symbolically, as an important catalyst in the growth of the Civil Rights Movement; activists built the Montgomery Bus Boycott around it, which lasted more than a year and resulted in desegregation of the privately run buses in the city. Civil rights protests and actions, together with legal challenges, resulted in a series of legislative and court decisions which contributed to undermining the Jim Crow system.
Numerous boycotts and demonstrations against segregation had occurred throughout the 1930s and 1940s. The NAACP had been engaged in a series of litigation cases since the early 20th century in efforts to combat laws that disenfranchised black voters across the South. Some of the early demonstrations achieved positive results, strengthening political activism, especially in the post-World War II years. Black veterans were impatient with social oppression after having fought for the United States and freedom across the world. In 1947 K. Leroy Irvis of Pittsburgh 's Urban League, for instance, led a demonstration against employment discrimination by the city 's department stores. It was the beginning of his own influential political career.
In January 1964, President Lyndon Johnson met with civil rights leaders. On January 8, during his first State of the Union address, Johnson asked Congress to "let this session of Congress be known as the session which did more for civil rights than the last hundred sessions combined. '' On June 21, civil rights workers Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman, and James Chaney disappeared in Neshoba County, Mississippi, where they were volunteering in the registration of African - American voters as part of the Mississippi Summer Project. The disappearance of the three activists captured national attention and the ensuing outrage was used by Johnson and civil rights activists to build a coalition of northern Democrats and Republicans and push Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
On July 2, 1964, Johnson signed the historic Civil Rights Act of 1964. It invoked the Commerce Clause to outlaw discrimination in public accommodations (privately owned restaurants, hotels, and stores, and in private schools and workplaces). This use of the Commerce Clause was upheld in Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States 379 US 241 (1964).
By 1965, efforts to break the grip of state disenfranchisement by education for voter registration in southern counties had been under way for some time, but had achieved only modest success overall. In some areas of the Deep South, white resistance made these efforts almost entirely ineffectual. The murder of the three voting - rights activists in Mississippi in 1964 and the state 's refusal to prosecute the murderers, along with numerous other acts of violence and terrorism against blacks, had gained national attention. Finally, the unprovoked attack on March 7, 1965, by county and state troopers on peaceful Alabama marchers crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge en route from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery, persuaded the President and Congress to overcome Southern legislators ' resistance to effective voting rights enforcement legislation. President Johnson issued a call for a strong voting rights law and hearings soon began on the bill that would become the Voting Rights Act.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 ended legally sanctioned state barriers to voting for all federal, state and local elections. It also provided for federal oversight and monitoring of counties with historically low minority voter turnout. Years of enforcement have been needed to overcome resistance, and additional legal challenges have been made in the courts to ensure the ability of voters to elect candidates of their choice. For instance, many cities and counties introduced at - large election of council members, which resulted in many cases of diluting minority votes and preventing election of minority - supported candidates.
Although sometimes counted among "Jim Crow laws '' of the South, such statutes as anti-miscegenation laws were also passed by other states. Anti-miscegenation laws were not repealed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 but were declared unconstitutional by the 1967 Supreme Court ruling in Loving v. Virginia.
The Jim Crow laws and the high rate of lynchings in the South were major factors which led to the Great Migration during the first half of the 20th century. Because opportunities were so limited in the South, African Americans moved in great numbers to northern cities to seek better lives, becoming an urbanized population.
Despite the hardship and prejudice of the Jim Crow era, several black entertainers and literary figures gained broad popularity with white audiences in the early 20th century. They included luminaries such as tap dancers Bill "Bojangles '' Robinson and the Nicholas Brothers, jazz musicians such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington and Count Basie, and the actress Hattie McDaniel (in 1939 she was the first black to receive an Academy Award when she won the Best Supporting Actress Oscar for her performance as Mammy in Gone with the Wind).
African - American athletes faced much discrimination during the Jim Crow period. White opposition led to their exclusion from most organized sporting competitions. The boxers Jack Johnson and Joe Louis (both of whom became world heavyweight boxing champions) and track and field athlete Jesse Owens (who won four gold medals at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin) earned fame during this era. In baseball, a color line instituted in the 1880s had informally barred blacks from playing in the major leagues, leading to the development of the Negro Leagues, which featured many fine players. A major breakthrough occurred in 1947, when Jackie Robinson was hired as the first African American to play in Major League Baseball; he permanently broke the color bar. Baseball teams continued to integrate in the following years, leading to the full participation of black baseball players in the Major Leagues in the 1960s.
Ferris State University in Big Rapids, Michigan, houses the Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia, an extensive collection of everyday items that promoted racial segregation or presented racial stereotypes of African Americans, for the purpose of academic research and education about their cultural influence.
In 2012, civil rights advocate Michelle Alexander argued in The New Jim Crow that America 's War on Drugs, which disproportionately affected African - Americans, had produced discrimination comparable to that of the Jim Crow laws. Yale law professor James Forman Jr. countered that African - Americans, as represented by such cities as Washington D.C., have generally supported tough - on - crime policies, and that there appears to be a connection between drugs and violent crimes.
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where did off with their heads come from | Off with Their Heads - wikipedia
Off with Their Heads may refer to:
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who was she walks in beauty written about | She Walks in beauty - wikipedia
She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies; And all that 's best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes: Thus mellow 'd to that tender light Which heaven to gaudy day denies. One shade the more, one ray the less, Had half impaired the nameless grace Which waves in every raven tress, Or softly lightens o'er her face; Where thoughts serenely sweet express How pure, how dear their dwelling - place. And on that cheek, and o'er that brow, So soft, so calm, yet eloquent, The smiles that win, the tints that glow, But tell of days in goodness spent, A mind at peace with all below, A heart whose love is innocent!
"She Walks in Beauty '' is a short lyrical poem in iambic tetrameter written in 1813 by Lord Byron, and is one of his most famous works.
It is said to have been inspired by an event in Byron 's life; while at a ball, Byron met best friend Robert Wilmot, Mrs. Anne Beatrix Wilmot. She was in mourning, wearing a black dress set with spangle she was striking and he adored her and soon fell in love and she became his wife, as in the opening lines;
He was struck by her unusual beauty, and the next morning the poem was written.
It is thought that she was the first inspiration for his unfinished epic poem about Goethe, a personal hero of his. In this unpublished work, which Byron referred to in his letters as his magnum opus, he switches the gender of Goethe and gives him the same description of his cousin. This idea would have truly put Byron on the avant - garde.
The first two verses are cited in the novel The Philadelphian by Richard P. Powell. The poem is also referenced in a House of Night book, where Nathan, in his reminiscences of Byron, suggests (without any justification) that the subject of the poem may have been Byron 's half - sister, Augusta Leigh.
The poem has inspired various composers over time, including Roger Quilter, Gerald Finzi, Isaac Nathan, Connor J. Koppin and Chanticleer Men 's Chorus Conductor / Composer Eric Barnum.
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who is the band in the movie detroit | Detroit (film) - wikipedia
Detroit is a 2017 American period crime drama film directed by Kathryn Bigelow and written by Mark Boal. Based on the Algiers Motel incident during Detroit 's 1967 12th Street Riot, the film 's release commemorated the 50th anniversary of the event. The film stars John Boyega, Will Poulter, Algee Smith, Jason Mitchell, John Krasinski and Anthony Mackie.
Detroit premiered at the Fox Theatre, Detroit, on July 25, 2017, and began a limited theatrical release on July 28, 2017, before opening wide on August 4, 2017. The film received positive reviews from critics, with particular praise towards Bigelow 's direction, Boal 's script and the performances of Poulter, Boyega and Smith but was a box office failure, only grossing $21 million against its $34 million budget.
On July 23, 1967, the Detroit Police Department stage a raid on an unlicensed club during a celebration for returning black veterans from the Vietnam War. While suspects are being arrested, a mob forms and starts throwing rocks at the officers before looting nearby stores and starting fires, beginning the 12th Street Riot. With state authorities, elected representatives, and even emergency services unable to maintain any semblance of order, Governor George W. Romney authorizes the Michigan Army National Guard and President Lyndon B. Johnson authorizes Army paratroopers to enter Detroit in order to provide assistance. On the second day of rioting, two cops pursue a fleeing looter. One of them, Philip Krauss, kills the man with a shotgun against orders, but is allowed to remain on duty until his superiors can decide whether to file murder charges.
The Dramatics, a professional black R&B group, arrive in Detroit hoping to score a recording contract. Seconds before their scheduled performance at a music hall, the police shut down the venue and order them to leave the city. En route, their bus is attacked by rioters and the group subsequently splits up, with lead singer Larry Reed and his friend Fred Temple renting a room at the local Algiers Motel for the night. They meet two white girls, Julie Ann and Karen, who introduce them to their friends Carl Cooper and Aubrey Pollard. Carl and another friend stage a prank using a starter pistol, upsetting Julie and Karen, who move to the room of Greene, a Vietnam War veteran, while Larry and Fred return to their own room.
Melvin Dismukes, a private security guard, is assigned to protect a grocery store from looters and ingratiates himself with the Guardsmen. Carl decides to fire several blanks from his pistol in the direction of the troops to frighten them, but they mistake it for a sniper attack and pinpoints it coming from the Algiers due to the pistol 's muzzle flash. The Michigan State Police, National Guard, and Detroit Police arrives at the motel to investigate, led by Detroit police officer Krauss. Entering the building, they gun down Carl when he tries to escape, and plant a knife next to his body as he bleeds out and dies.
They round up everyone in the hotel and line them against the wall, demanding to know who the sniper was. Despite not finding any weapon during a search of the room, Krauss terrorizes and interrogates the occupants of the hotel. Dismukes arrives to try to help. Unwilling to get involved, most of the state police and National Guard leave without informing anyone of Krauss 's abuse.
Krauss orders several suspects to be moved to different rooms and subjected to mock executions in order to terrify the others into confessing. One police officer actually kills Aubrey, as he did n't understand the executions were supposed to be mock. Julie and Karen are taken to an upstairs room when they begin screaming, and Julie 's clothes are torn off. Disgusted, a Guardsman returns, and manages to get them released from custody. Fearing arrest, Krauss permits the remaining suspects to leave, but only if they swear to keep silent. Greene and Larry agree, but Fred is killed when he refuses.
As the riots die down, Dismukes, while working his other job in a factory, is arrested and charged with murder after Julie identifies him as being present at the Algiers that night. Krauss and his fellow officers are questioned as well, and when everyone except Krauss confesses, they are also charged. Larry, whose singing career has stalled due to the trauma he experienced, is summoned as a witness to testify. The judge ultimately refuses to accept any of the confessions as evidence, and without a solid case, the all - white jury acquits Dismukes, Krauss, and their co-defendants of all charges. Dismukes confronts Krauss with the truth, but finds himself powerless to get any justice for the victims.
The film ends by explaining what became of the participants: Dismukes moved to the suburbs to escape death threats and resumed work as a security guard, Krauss and his men remained on the force but never returned to active duty, Julie rebuilt her life and started a family, and Larry became a choir singer and still lives in Detroit to the present day.
On January 28, 2016, it was announced that Kathryn Bigelow and Mark Boal would reteam to make a film about the 1967 Detroit riots, with Bigelow directing from a script by Boal. Both would also produce the film, along with Annapurna Pictures ' Megan Ellison and Matthew Budman. Game of Thrones actress Hannah Murray was cast in a "key role '' in the film, although her character was then being kept under wraps. The film was scheduled to shoot in the summer of 2016, in order to be released in 2017 for the 50th anniversary of the riots. On June 21, 2016, John Boyega joined the cast. On August 3, 2016, Jack Reynor, Will Poulter, and Ben O'Toole were cast in lead roles. On August 4, 2016, Anthony Mackie joined the cast, and on August 5, 2016, Jacob Latimore and Algee Smith also joined. On August 8, 2016, Joseph David - Jones joined the cast, followed by Kaitlyn Dever on August 30, 2016. On September 9, 2016, Jason Mitchell joined the cast, and on September 13, 2016, John Krasinski was also added. In October 2016, Jeremy Strong, Chris Chalk, Austin Hébert, Ephraim Sykes, Laz Alonso, Nathan Davis Jr., Malcolm David Kelley, Peyton Alex Smith, and Leon Thomas III all joined the cast of the film.
It was reported at the end of July 2016 that the film had commenced principal photography in Boston during the previous week. Scenes were filmed inside Dedham District Court, in Dorchester, Massachusetts and in Brockton, Massachusetts. In addition, the movie filmed in Detroit during October 2016. The elimination of Michigan 's film incentives in 2015 affected the filming locations.
In May 2017, James Newton Howard was hired as the film 's composer. In July 2017, Detroit rapper Tee Grizzley released a song called "Teetroit '' for the soundtrack.. The Roots and Bilal released a song named "It Ai n't Fair '' for the soundtrack.
Detroit began a limited release in 10 markets on July 28, 2017, opening in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Dallas, Washington D.C., Detroit, San Francisco, Houston, Atlanta, and Baltimore. Annapurna Pictures then released the film nationally, its first as a distributor, on August 4, 2017. Annapurna handled the film 's North American distribution, while Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and Entertainment One handled distribution for its international release. On November 3, 2017, it was announced the film would get a ten city, 20 screen re-release on December 1, 2017 in an effort to push its award campaign.
Detroit grossed $16.8 million in the United States and Canada and $4.8 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $21.5 million, against a production budget of $34 million.
In North America, Detroit grossed $350,190 in its limited opening from 20 theaters (an average of $17,510), finishing 16th at the box office. The film then had its wide expansion alongside Kidnap and The Dark Tower, and was initially projected to gross $10 -- 15 million from 3,007 theaters over the weekend. The film made $525,000 from Thursday previews, which was more than the $515,482 it made in its entire week of limited release. It then made $2.6 million on its first day, lowering weekend projections to $7.5 million. It went on to open to $7.1 million, finishing 8th at the box office; 40 % of its opening weekend audience were African American. Deadline.com said that the film could have done better had it been released in the fall during festivals and awards season. In its second weekend the film grossed $2.9 million, dropping 59.5 % (above average for an adult drama) and finishing in 13th. In its third week of wide release the film was pulled from 1,579 theaters and grossed $850,000 (a drop of 70.9 %).
Detroit received praise for its direction, script and performances, especially those of Poulter, Boyega and Smith. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 84 % based on 252 reviews, and an average rating of 7.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Detroit delivers a gut - wrenching -- and essential -- dramatisation of a tragic chapter from America 's past that draws distressing parallels to the present. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 78 out of 100, based on 48 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A − '' on an A+ to F scale, while comScore reported filmgoers gave an 86 % overall positive score and a 63 % "definite recommend ''.
Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 4 out of 4 stars and called it one of 2017 's best, saying: "Journalist - screenwriter Mark Boal (Bigelow 's collaborator on The Hurt Locker and Zero Dark Thirty) does a magnificent job of juggling the multiple storylines and creating fully authentic characters -- some flawed, some basically decent, some evil. '' Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers praised the cast and script, giving the film 3.5 / 4 stars and saying, "... Detroit is far more than a liberal howl against the escalating toxicity of racism in America. Bigelow, with the same immersive intensity that Christopher Nolan brings to Dunkirk, smacks us down in the middle of a brutal historical event so we can see it -- and feel it -- for ourselves. ''
Conversely, Alexander Nazaryan of Newsweek said, "(Bigelow 's) characters never come alive, moving through the film less as people than entries in a sociology textbook... If Bigelow could get inside the minds of soldiers suffocated by post-traumatic stress disorder, as she did so capably in The Hurt Locker, she can get into the mind of anyone. In Zero Dark Thirty, she made even CIA interrogators likeable. The characters in Detroit, though, black and white, are as flat as the plains of the Upper Midwest. ''
Several critics noted the film 's questionable take on a predominantly African American - based story. A.O. Scott in The New York Times wrote, "It is curious that a movie set against a backdrop of black resistance and rebellion -- however inchoate and self - destructive its expression may have been -- should become a tale of black helplessness and passivity. The white men, the decent ones as much as the brutes, have the answers, the power, the agency. '' K. Austin Collins of The Ringer wrote, "This movie is n't really about black people as people, nor history as a lived experience, but is instead invested in a dutiful, ' just the facts, ma'am ' reenactment that pretends those other things are already a given. Boal, and Bigelow beside him, refuse to speculate about -- or imagine -- the rest. ''
The New Yorker 's Richard Brody called the film "a moral failure '', saying: "(Bigelow 's) intentions come through clearly: to depict an incident -- and a climate -- of racism, to show that the cruelty of these deeds was multiplied by their ultimate impunity, and to suggest that, in the intervening half - century since the events depicted in the film took place, little has changed. Movies are n't made with intentions, though; they 're made with people and with equipment, and what Bigelow has her actors do for the benefit of the camera is repellent to imagine. ''
Tim Grierson and Will Leitch from The New Republic mentioned the film as a possible Academy Award candidate in the main category Best Picture, and mentioned John Boyega as a possible nominee for Best Actor.
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where did london bridge nursery rhyme come from | London Bridge is falling down - wikipedia
"London Bridge Is Falling Down '' (also known as "My Fair Lady '' or "London Bridge '') is a traditional English nursery rhyme and singing game, which is found in different versions all over the world. It deals with the depredations of London Bridge and attempts, realistic or fanciful, to repair it. It may date back to bridge rhymes and games of the Late Middle Ages, but the earliest records of the rhyme in English are from the seventeenth century. The lyrics were first printed in close to their modern form in the mid-eighteenth century and became popular, particularly in Britain and the United States in the nineteenth century.
The modern melody was first recorded in the late nineteenth century and the game resembles arch games of the Middle Ages, but seems to have taken its modern form in the late nineteenth century. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 502. Several theories have been advanced to explain the meaning of the rhyme and the identity of the "fair lady '' of the refrain. The rhyme is one of the best known in the world and has been referenced in a variety of works of literature and popular culture.
There is considerable variation in the lyrics of the rhyme. The most frequently used first verse is:
London Bridge is falling down, Falling down, falling down. London Bridge is falling down, My fair lady.
In the version quoted by Iona and Peter Opie in 1951 the first verse is:
London Bridge is broken down, Broken down, broken down. London Bridge is broken down, My fair lady.
The rhyme is constructed of quatrains in trochaic tetrameter catalectic, (each line made up of four metrical feet of two syllables, with the stress falling on the first syllable in a pair; the last foot in the line missing the unstressed syllable), which is common in nursery rhymes. In its most common form it relies on a double repetition, rather than a rhyming scheme, which is a frequently employed device in children 's rhymes and stories. The Roud Folk Song Index, which catalogues folk songs and their variations by number, classifies the song as 502.
A melody is recorded for "London Bridge '' in an edition of John Playford 's The Dancing Master published in 1718, but it differs from the modern tune and no lyrics were given. An issue of Blackwood 's Magazine in 1821 noted the rhyme as a being sung to the tune of "Nancy Dawson '', now better known as "Nuts in May '' and the same tune was given in Richard Thomson 's Chronicles of London Bridge (1827).
Another tune was recorded in Samuel Arnold 's Juvenile Amusements in 1797. E.F. Rimbault 's Nursery Rhymes (1836) has the same first line, but then a different tune. The tune now associated with the rhyme was first recorded in 1879 in the US in A.H. Rosewig 's Illustrated National Songs and Games.
The rhyme is often used in a children 's singing game, which exists in a wide variety of forms, with additional verses. Most versions are similar to the actions used in the rhyme "Oranges and Lemons ''. The most common is that two players hold hands and make an arch with their arms while the others pass through in single file. The "arch '' is then lowered at the song 's end to "catch '' a player. In the United States it is common for two teams of those that have been caught to engage in a tug of war. In England until the nineteenth century the song may have been accompanied by a circle dance, but arch games are known to have been common across late medieval Europe.
Five of nine versions published by Alice Gomme in 1894 included references to a prisoner who has stolen a watch and chain. This may be a late nineteenth century addition from another game called "Hark the Robbers '', or "Watch and Chain ''. This rhyme is sung to the same tune and may be an offshoot of "London Bridge '' or the remnant of a distinct game. In one version the first two verses have the lyrics:
Who has stole my watch and chain, Watch and chain, watch and chain; Who has stole my watch and chain, My fair lady? Off to prison you must go, You must go, you must go; Off to prison you must go, My fair lady.
Similar rhymes can be found across Europe, pre-dating the records in England. These include "Knippelsbro Går Op og Ned '' from Denmark, "Die Magdeburger Brück '' from Germany, "pont chus '' from sixteenth - century France; and "Le porte '', from fourteenth - century Italy. It is possible that the rhyme was acquired from one of these sources and then adapted to fit the most famous bridge in England.
One of the earliest references to the rhyme in English is in the comedy The London Chaunticleres, printed in 1657, but probably written about 1636, in which the dairy woman Curds states that she had "danced the building of London - Bridge '' at the Whitsun Ales in her youth, although no words or actions are mentioned. Widespread familiarity with the rhyme is suggested by its use by Henry Carey in his satire Namby Pamby (1725), as:
Namby Pamby is no Clown,
London Bridge is broken down: Now he courts the gay Ladee Dancing o'er The Lady - Lee.
The oldest extant version could be that recalled by a correspondent to the Gentleman 's Magazine in 1823, which he claimed to have heard from a woman who was a child in the reign of Charles II (r. 1660 -- 85) and had the lyrics:
London Bridge is broken down, Dance over the Lady Lea; London Bridge is broken down, With a gay lady (la - dee).
The earliest printed English version is in the oldest extant collection of nursery rhymes, Tommy Thumb 's Pretty Song Book, printed by John Newbery in London (c. 1744), beginning with the following text:
London Bridge Is Broken down, Dance over my Lady Lee. London Bridge Is Broken down With a gay Lady.
A version from James Ritson 's Gammer Gurton 's Garland (1784) is similar but replaces the last verse with:
Build it up with stone so strong, Dance o'er my Lady lee, Huzza! ' twill last for ages long, With a gay lady.
The meaning of the rhyme is not certain. It may simply relate to the many difficulties experienced in bridging the River Thames, but a number of alternative theories have been put forward.
One theory of origin is that the rhyme relates to the supposed destruction of London Bridge by Olaf II of Norway in 1014 (or 1009). The nineteenth - century translation of the Norse saga the Heimskringla, published by Samuel Laing in 1844, included a verse by Óttarr svarti, that looks very similar to the nursery rhyme:
London Bridge is broken down. -- Gold is won, and bright renown. Shields resounding, War - horns sounding, Hild is shouting in the din! Arrows singing, Mail - coats ringing -- Odin makes our Olaf win!
However, modern translations make it clear that Laing was using the nursery rhyme as a model for his very free translation, and the reference to London Bridge does not appear at the start of the verse and it is unlikely that this is an earlier version of the nursery rhyme. Some historians have raised the possibility that the attack never took place. However, the original document detailing the attack was written only about 100 years after what would be a famous event in a highly populated area, leading the majority of historians to conclude that the account is at least relatively accurate. While it might or might not be the origin of the rhyme, this would make King Olaf 's victory the only historically recorded incidence of London Bridge "falling down. ''
The theory that the song refers to the burying, perhaps alive, of children in the foundations of the bridge was first advanced by Alice Bertha Gomme (later Lady Gomme) in The Traditional Games of England, Scotland and Ireland (1894 -- 1898) and perpetuated by the usually sceptical Iona and Peter Opie. This was based around the idea that a bridge would collapse unless the body of a human sacrifice were buried in its foundations and that the watchman is actually a human sacrifice, who will then watch over the bridge. However, there is no archaeological evidence for any human remains in the foundations of London Bridge.
Until the mid-eighteenth century the Old London Bridge was the only crossing on the Thames in London. It was damaged in a major fire in 1633, but in the fire of 1666 this damage acted as a fire break and prevented the flames from further damaging the bridge and crossing to the south side of the Thames. With its 19 narrow arches, it impeded river traffic and flow. Central piers were removed to create a wider navigational span. Widening and the removal of its houses was completed in 1763, but it remained relatively narrow and needed continual and expensive repairs. In the early nineteenth century it was decided to replace the bridge with a new construction. New London Bridge was opened in 1831 and survived until it was replaced in 1972. It was then transported and reconstructed in Lake Havasu City, Arizona.
Several attempts have been made to identify the ' fair lady ', ' lady gay ', or lady ' lee / lea ' of the rhyme. They include:
Since the late nineteenth century the rhyme has been seen as one of the most popular and well known in the English - speaking world. It has also been referenced in both literature and popular culture.
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where can adipose tissue be found in the body | Adipose tissue - wikipedia
In biology, adipose tissue, body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. In addition to adipocytes, adipose tissue contains the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells including preadipocytes, fibroblasts, vascular endothelial cells and a variety of immune cells such as adipose tissue macrophages. Adipose tissue is derived from preadipocytes. Its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Far from being hormonally inert, adipose tissue has, in recent years, been recognized as a major endocrine organ, as it produces hormones such as leptin, estrogen, resistin, and the cytokine TNFα. The two types of adipose tissue are white adipose tissue (WAT), which stores energy, and brown adipose tissue (BAT), which generates body heat. The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled in part by the adipose gene. Adipose tissue -- more specifically brown adipose tissue -- was first identified by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1551.
In humans, adipose tissue is located: beneath the skin (subcutaneous fat), around internal organs (visceral fat), in bone marrow (yellow bone marrow), intermuscular (Muscular system) and in the breast tissue. Adipose tissue is found in specific locations, which are referred to as adipose depots. Apart from adipocytes, which comprise the highest percentage of cells within adipose tissue, other cell types are present, collectively termed stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells. SVF includes preadipocytes, fibroblasts, adipose tissue macrophages, and endothelial cells. Adipose tissue contains many small blood vessels. In the integumentary system, which includes the skin, it accumulates in the deepest level, the subcutaneous layer, providing insulation from heat and cold. Around organs, it provides protective padding. However, its main function is to be a reserve of lipids, which can be oxidised to meet the energy needs of the body and to protect it from excess glucose by storing triglycerides produced by the liver from sugars, although some evidence suggests that most lipid synthesis from carbohydrates occurs in the adipose tissue itself. Adipose depots in different parts of the body have different biochemical profiles. Under normal conditions, it provides feedback for hunger and diet to the brain.
Mice have eight major adipose depots, four of which are within the abdominal cavity. The paired gonadal depots are attached to the uterus and ovaries in females and the epididymis and testes in males; the paired retroperitoneal depots are found along the dorsal wall of the abdomen, surrounding the kidney, and, when massive, extend into the pelvis. The mesenteric depot forms a glue - like web that supports the intestines and the omental depot (which originates near the stomach and spleen) and - when massive - extends into the ventral abdomen. Both the mesenteric and omental depots incorporate much lymphoid tissue as lymph nodes and milky spots, respectively. The two superficial depots are the paired inguinal depots, which are found anterior to the upper segment of the hind limbs (underneath the skin) and the subscapular depots, paired medial mixtures of brown adipose tissue adjacent to regions of white adipose tissue, which are found under the skin between the dorsal crests of the scapulae. The layer of brown adipose tissue in this depot is often covered by a "frosting '' of white adipose tissue; sometimes these two types of fat (brown and white) are hard to distinguish. The inguinal depots enclose the inguinal group of lymph nodes. Minor depots include the pericardial, which surrounds the heart, and the paired popliteal depots, between the major muscles behind the knees, each containing one large lymph node. Of all the depots in the mouse, the gonadal depots are the largest and the most easily dissected, comprising about 30 % of dissectible fat.
In an obese person, excess adipose tissue hanging downward from the abdomen is referred to as a panniculus. A panniculus complicates surgery of the morbidly obese individual. It may remain as a literal "apron of skin '' if a severely obese person quickly loses large amounts of fat (a common result of gastric bypass surgery). This condition can not be effectively corrected through diet and exercise alone, as the panniculus consists of adipocytes and other supporting cell types shrunken to their minimum volume and diameter. Reconstructive surgery is one method of treatment.
Visceral fat or abdominal fat (also known as organ fat or intra-abdominal fat) is located inside the abdominal cavity, packed between the organs (stomach, liver, intestines, kidneys, etc.). Visceral fat is different from subcutaneous fat underneath the skin, and intramuscular fat interspersed in skeletal muscles. Fat in the lower body, as in thighs and buttocks, is subcutaneous and is not consistently spaced tissue, whereas fat in the abdomen is mostly visceral and semi-fluid. Visceral fat is composed of several adipose depots, including mesenteric, epididymal white adipose tissue (EWAT), and perirenal depots. Visceral fat is often expressed in terms of its area in cm (VFA, visceral fat area).
An excess of visceral fat is known as central obesity, or "belly fat '', in which the abdomen protrudes excessively. New developments such as the Body Volume Index (BVI) are specifically designed to measure abdominal volume and abdominal fat. Excess visceral fat is also linked to type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance, inflammatory diseases, and other obesity - related diseases. Likewise, the accumulation of neck fat (or cervical adipose tissue) has been shown to be associated with mortality. Several studies have suggested that visceral fat can be predicted from simple anthropometic measures, and predicts mortality more accurately than body mass index or waist circumference.
Men are more likely to have fat stored in the abdomen due to sex hormone differences. Female sex hormone causes fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips in women. When women reach menopause and the estrogen produced by the ovaries declines, fat migrates from the buttocks, hips and thighs to the waist; later fat is stored in the abdomen.
High - intensity exercise is one way to effectively reduce total abdominal fat. One study suggests at least 10 MET - hours per week of aerobic exercise is required for visceral fat reduction.
Epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) is a particular form of visceral fat deposited around the heart and found to be a metabolically active organ that generates various bioactive molecules, which might significantly affect cardiac function. Marked component differences have been observed in comparing EAT with subcutaneous fat, suggesting a depot specific impact of stored fatty acids on adipocyte function and metabolism.
Most of the remaining nonvisceral fat is found just below the skin in a region called the hypodermis. This subcutaneous fat is not related to many of the classic obesity - related pathologies, such as heart disease, cancer, and stroke, and some evidence even suggests it might be protective. The typically female (or gynecoid) pattern of body fat distribution around the hips, thighs, and buttocks is subcutaneous fat, and therefore poses less of a health risk compared to visceral fat.
Like all other fat organs, subcutaneous fat is an active part of the endocrine system, secreting the hormones leptin and resistin.
The relationship between the subcutaneous adipose layer and total body fat in a person is often modelled by using regression equations. The most popular of these equations was formed by Durnin and Wormersley, who rigorously tested many types of skinfold, and, as a result, created two formulae to calculate the body density of both men and women. These equations present an inverse correlation between skinfolds and body density -- as the sum of skinfolds increases, the body density decreases.
Factors such as sex, age, population size or other variables may make the equations invalid and unusable, and, as of 2012, Durnin and Wormersley 's equations remain only estimates of a person 's true level of fatness. New formulae are still being created.
Marrow fat, also known as marrow adipose tissue (MAT), is a poorly understood adipose depot that resides in the bone and is interspersed with hematopoietic cells as well as bony elements. The adipocytes in this depot are derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) which can give rise to fat cells, bone cells as well as other cell types. The fact that MAT increases in the setting of calorie restriction / anorexia is a feature that distinguishes this depot from other fat depots. Exercise regulates MAT, decreasing MAT quantity and diminishing the size of marrow adipocytes. The exercise regulation of marrow fat suggests that it bears some physiologic similarity to other white adipose depots. Moreover, increased MAT in obesity further suggests a similarity to white fat depots.
Ectopic fat is the storage of triglycerides in tissues other than adipose tissue, that are supposed to contain only small amounts of fat, such as the liver, skeletal muscle, heart, and pancreas. This can interfere with cellular functions and hence organ function and is associated with insulin resistance in type - 2 diabetes. It is stored in relatively high amounts around the organs of the abdominal cavity, but is not to be confused as visceral fat.
The specific cause for the accumulation of ectopic fat is unknown. The cause is likely a combination of genetic, environmental, and behavioral factors that are involved in excess energy intake and decreased physical activity. Substantial weight loss can reduce ectopic fat stores in all organs and this is associated with an improvement of the function of that organ.
In the latter case, non-invasive weight loss interventions like diet or exercise have the ability to decrease ectopic fat (particularly in heart and liver) in children and adults with overweight or obesity.
Free fatty acids are liberated from lipoproteins by lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and enter the adipocyte, where they are reassembled into triglycerides by esterifying it onto glycerol. Human fat tissue contains about 87 % lipids.
There is a constant flux of FFA (Free Fatty Acids) entering and leaving adipose tissue. The net direction of this flux is controlled by insulin and leptin -- if insulin is elevated, then there is a net inward flux of FFA, and only when insulin is low can FFA leave adipose tissue. Insulin secretion is stimulated by high blood sugar, which results from consuming carbohydrates.
In humans, lipolysis (hydrolysis of triglycerides into free fatty acids) is controlled through the balanced control of lipolytic B - adrenergic receptors and a2A - adrenergic receptor - mediated antilipolysis.
Fat cells have an important physiological role in maintaining triglyceride and free fatty acid levels, as well as determining insulin resistance. Abdominal fat has a different metabolic profile -- being more prone to induce insulin resistance. This explains to a large degree why central obesity is a marker of impaired glucose tolerance and is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (even in the absence of diabetes mellitus and hypertension). Studies of female monkeys at Wake Forest University (2009) discovered that individuals suffering from higher stress have higher levels of visceral fat in their bodies. This suggests a possible cause - and - effect link between the two, wherein stress promotes the accumulation of visceral fat, which in turn causes hormonal and metabolic changes that contribute to heart disease and other health problems.
Recent advances in biotechnology have allowed for the harvesting of adult stem cells from adipose tissue, allowing stimulation of tissue regrowth using a patient 's own cells. In addition, adipose - derived stem cells from both human and animals reportedly can be efficiently reprogrammed into induced pluripotent stem cells without the need for feeder cells. The use of a patient 's own cells reduces the chance of tissue rejection and avoids ethical issues associated with the use of human embryonic stem cells. A growing body of evidence also suggests that different fat depots (i.e. abdominal, omental, pericardial) yield adipose - derived stem cells with different characteristics. These depot - dependent features include proliferation rate, immunophenotype, differentiation potential, gene expression, as well as sensitivity to hypoxic culture conditions.
Adipose tissue is the greatest peripheral source of aromatase in both males and females, contributing to the production of estradiol.
Adipose derived hormones include:
Adipose tissues also secrete a type of cytokines (cell - to - cell signalling proteins) called adipokines (adipocytokines), which play a role in obesity - associated complications. Perivascular adipose tissue releases adipokines such as adiponectin that affect the contractile function of the vessels that they surround.
Brown fat or brown adipose tissue (BAT) is a specialized form of adipose tissue important for adaptive thermogenesis in humans and other mammals. BAT can generate heat by "uncoupling '' the respiratory chain of oxidative phosphorylation within mitochondria through tissue - specific expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). BAT is primarily located around the neck and large blood vessels of the thorax, where may effectively act in heat exchange. BAT is robustly activated upon cold exposure by the release of catecholamines from sympathetic nerves that results in UCP1 activation. BAT activation may also occur in response to overfeeding. UCP1 activity is stimulated by long chain fatty acids that are produced subsequent to β - adrenergic receptor activation. UCP1 is proposed to function as a fatty acid proton symporter, although the exact mechanism has yet to be elucidated. In contrast, UCP1 is inhibited by ATP, ADP, and GTP.
Attempts to simulate this process pharmacologically have so far been unsuccessful. Techniques to manipulate the differentiation of "brown fat '' could become a mechanism for weight loss therapy in the future, encouraging the growth of tissue with this specialized metabolism without inducing it in other organs.
Until recently, brown adipose tissue was thought to be primarily limited to infants in humans, but new evidence has now overturned that belief. Metabolically active tissue with temperature responses similar to brown adipose was first reported in the neck and trunk of some human adults in 2007, and the presence of brown adipose in human adults was later verified histologically in the same anatomical regions.
Browning of WAT, also referred to as "beiging '', occurs when adipocytes within WAT depots develop features of BAT. Beige adipocytes take on a multilocular appearance (containing several lipid droplets) and increase expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). In doing so, these normally energy - storing adipocytes become energy - releasing adipocytes.
The calorie - burning capacity of brown and beige fat has been extensively studied as research efforts focus on therapies targeted to treat obesity and diabetes. The drug 2, 4 - dinitrophenol, which also acts as a chemical uncoupler similarly to UCP1, was used for weight loss in the 1930s. However, it was quickly discontinued when excessive dosing led to adverse side effects including hyperthermia and death. β3 agonists, like CL316, 243, have also been developed and tested in humans. However, the use of such drugs has proven largely unsuccessful due to several challenges, including varying species receptor specificity and poor oral bioavailability.
Cold is a primary regulator of BAT processes and induces WAT browning. Browning in response to chronic cold exposure has been well documented and is a reversible process. A study in mice demonstrated that cold - induced browning can be completely reversed in 21 days, with measurable decreases in UCP1 seen within a 24 - hour period. A study by Rosenwald et al. revealed that when the animals are re-exposed to a cold environment, the same adipocytes will adopt a beige phenotype, suggesting that beige adipocytes are retained.
Transcriptional regulators, as well as a growing number of other factors, regulate the induction of beige fat. Four regulators of transcription are central to WAT browning and serve as targets for many of the molecules known to influence this process. These include peroxisome proliferator - activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), PR domain containing 16 (PRDM16), peroxisome proliferator - activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PGC - 1α), and Early B - Cell Factor - 2 (EBF2).
The list of molecules that influence browning has grown in direct proportion to the popularity of this topic and is constantly evolving as more knowledge is acquired. Among these molecules are irisin and fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), which have been well - studied and are believed to be important regulators of browning. Irisin is secreted from muscle in response to exercise and has been shown to increase browning by acting on beige preadipocytes. FGF21, a hormone secreted mainly by the liver, has garnered a great deal of interest after being identified as a potent stimulator of glucose uptake and a browning regulator through its effects on PGC - 1α. It is increased in BAT during cold exposure and is thought to aid in resistance to diet - induced obesity FGF21 may also be secreted in response to exercise and a low protein diet, although the latter has not been thoroughly investigated. Data from these studies suggest that environmental factors like diet and exercise may be important mediators of browning. In mice, it was found that beiging can occur through the production of methionine - enkephalin peptides by type 2 innate lymphoid cells in response to interleukin 33.
Due to the complex nature of adipose tissue and a growing list of browning regulatory molecules, great potential exists for the use of bioinformatics tools to improve study within this field. Studies of WAT browning have greatly benefited from advances in these techniques, as beige fat is rapidly gaining popularity as a therapeutic target for the treatment of obesity and diabetes.
DNA microarray is a bioinformatics tool used to quantify expression levels of various genes simultaneously, and has been used extensively in the study of adipose tissue. One such study used microarray analysis in conjunction with Ingenuity IPA software to look at changes in WAT and BAT gene expression when mice were exposed to temperatures of 28 and 6 ° C. The most significantly up - and downregulated genes were then identified and used for analysis of differentially expressed pathways. It was discovered that many of the pathways upregulated in WAT after cold exposure are also highly expressed in BAT, such as oxidative phosphorylation, fatty acid metabolism, and pyruvate metabolism. This suggests that some of the adipocytes switched to a beige phenotype at 6 ° C. Mössenböck et al. also used microarray analysis to demonstrate that insulin deficiency inhibits the differentiation of beige adipocytes but does not disturb their capacity for browning. These two studies demonstrate the potential for the use of microarray in the study of WAT browning.
RNA sequencing (RNA - Seq) is a powerful computational tool that allows for the quantification of RNA expression for all genes within a sample. Incorporating RNA - Seq into browning studies is of great value, as it offers better specificity, sensitivity, and a more comprehensive overview of gene expression than other methods. RNA - Seq has been used in both human and mouse studies in an attempt characterize beige adipocytes according to their gene expression profiles and to identify potential therapeutic molecules that may induce the beige phenotype. One such study used RNA - Seq to compare gene expression profiles of WAT from wild - type (WT) mice and those overexpressing Early B - Cell Factor - 2 (EBF2). WAT from the transgenic animals exhibited a brown fat gene program and had decreased WAT specific gene expression compared to the WT mice. Thus, EBF2 has been identified as a potential therapeutic molecule to induce beiging.
Chromatin immunoprecipitation with sequencing (ChIP - seq) is a method used to identify protein binding sites on DNA and assess histone modifications. This tool has enabled examination of epigenetic regulation of browning and helps elucidate the mechanisms by which protein - DNA interactions stimulate the differentiation of beige adipocytes. Studies observing the chromatin landscapes of beige adipocytes have found that adipogenesis of these cells results from the formation of cell specific chromatin landscapes, which regulate the transcriptional program and, ultimately, control differentiation. Using ChIP - seq in conjunction with other tools, recent studies have identified over 30 transcriptional and epigenetic factors that influence beige adipocyte development.
The thrifty gene hypothesis (also called the famine hypothesis) states that in some populations the body would be more efficient at retaining fat in times of plenty, thereby endowing greater resistance to starvation in times of food scarcity. This hypothesis, originally advanced in the context of glucose metabolism and insulin resistance, has been discredited by physical anthropologists, physiologists, and the original proponent of the idea himself with respect to that context, although according to its developer it remains "as viable as when (it was) first advanced '' in other contexts.
In 1995, Jeffrey Friedman, in his residency at the Rockefeller University, together with Rudolph Leibel, Douglas Coleman et al. discovered the protein leptin that the genetically obese mouse lacked. Leptin is produced in the white adipose tissue and signals to the hypothalamus. When leptin levels drop, the body interprets this as a loss of energy, and hunger increases. Mice lacking this protein eat until they are four times their normal size.
Leptin, however, plays a different role in diet - induced obesity in rodents and humans. Because adipocytes produce leptin, leptin levels are elevated in the obese. However, hunger remains, and -- when leptin levels drop due to weight loss -- hunger increases. The drop of leptin is better viewed as a starvation signal than the rise of leptin as a satiety signal. However, elevated leptin in obesity is known as leptin resistance. The changes that occur in the hypothalamus to result in leptin resistance in obesity are currently the focus of obesity research.
Gene defects in the leptin gene (ob) are rare in human obesity. As of July, 2010, only 14 individuals from five families have been identified worldwide who carry a mutated ob gene (one of which was the first ever identified cause of genetic obesity in humans) -- two families of Pakistani origin living in the UK, one family living in Turkey, one in Egypt, and one in Austria -- and two other families have been found that carry a mutated ob receptor. Others have been identified as genetically partially deficient in leptin, and, in these individuals, leptin levels on the low end of the normal range can predict obesity.
Several mutations of genes involving the melanocortins (used in brain signaling associated with appetite) and their receptors have also been identified as causing obesity in a larger portion of the population than leptin mutations.
In 2007, researchers isolated the adipose gene, which those researchers hypothesize serves to keep animals lean during times of plenty. In that study, increased adipose gene activity was associated with slimmer animals. Although its discoverers dubbed this gene the adipose gene, it is not a gene responsible for creating adipose tissue.
Pre-adipocytes are undifferentiated fibroblasts that can be stimulated to form adipocytes. Recent studies shed light into potential molecular mechanisms in the fate determination of pre-adipocytes although the exact lineage of adipocyte is still unclear.
Adipose tissue has a density of ~ 0.9 g / ml. Thus, a person with more adipose tissue will float more easily than a person of the same weight with more muscular tissue, since muscular tissue has a density of 1.06 g / ml.
A body fat meter is a widely available tool used to measure the percentage of fat in the human body. Different meters use various methods to determine the body fat to weight ratio. They tend to under - read body fat percentage.
In contrast with clinical tools, one relatively inexpensive type of body fat meter uses the principle of bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) in order to determine an individual 's body fat percentage. To achieve this, the meter passes a small, harmless, electric current through the body and measures the resistance, then uses information on the person 's weight, height, age, and sex to calculate an approximate value for the person 's body fat percentage. The calculation measures the total volume of water in the body (lean tissue and muscle contain a higher percentage of water than fat), and estimates the percentage of fat based on this information. The result can fluctuate several percentage points depending on what has been eaten and how much water has been drunk before the analysis.
Within the fat (adipose) tissue of CCR2 deficient mice, there is an increased number of eosinophils, greater alternative Macrophage activation, and a propensity towards type 2 cytokine expression. Furthermore, this effect was exaggerated when the mice became obese from a high fat diet.
Diagrammatic sectional view of the skin (magnified).
White adipose tissue in paraffin section
Electronic instrument of body fat meter
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when did the army air corps become the us air force | History of the United States Air Force - wikipedia
The United States Air Force became a separate military service on 18 September 1947 with the implementation of the National Security Act of 1947. The Act created the National Military Establishment, later renamed the United States Department of Defense, which was composed of four of the five branches, the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and a newly created Air Force. Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was divided between the Army for land - based operations and the Navy and Marine Corps for sea - based operations from aircraft carrier and amphibious aircraft. The Army created the first antecedent of the Air Force on 1 August 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual separation 40 years later. The predecessor organizations leading up to today 's U.S. Air Force are:
* The Air Corps became a subordinate element of the Army Air Forces on 20 June 1941, and was abolished as an administrative organization on 9 March 1942. It continued to exist as a branch of the Army (similar to the infantry, quartermaster, or artillery) until reorganization provisions of the National Security Act of 1947 (61 Stat. 495), 26 July 1947.
* * The Army Air Forces were abolished by Transfer Order 1, Office of the Secretary of Defense, 26 September 1947, implementing the same provisions. Transfer Order 1 was the first of 200 Army - Air Force transfer agreements drawn up in June and July 1947, and ordered the transfer of all military and civilian personnel of the Army Air Forces to the Department of the Air Force and the USAF. The final transfer order was signed 22 June 1949.
In 1917, upon the United States ' entry into World War I, the first major U.S. aviation combat force was created when an Air Service was formed as part of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). Major General Mason Patrick commanded the Air Service of the AEF; his deputy was Brigadier General Billy Mitchell. These aviation units, some of which were trained in France, provided tactical support for the U.S. Army, especially during the Battle of Saint - Mihiel and the Meuse - Argonne offensives. Among the aces of the AEF Air Service were Captain Eddie Rickenbacker and 2nd Lieutenant Frank Luke. Concurrent with the creation of this combat force, the U.S. Army 's aviation establishment in the United States was removed from control of the Signal Corps and placed directly under the United States Secretary of War. An assistant secretary was created to direct the Army Air Service, which had dual responsibilities for development and procurement of aircraft, and raising and training of air units. With the end of the First World War, the AEF 's Air Service was dissolved and the Army Air Service in the United States largely demobilized.
In 1920, the Air Service became a branch of the Army and in 1926 was renamed the Army Air Corps. During this period, the Air Corps began experimenting with new techniques, including air - to - air refueling and the development of the B - 9 and the Martin B - 10, the first all - metal monoplane bombers, and new fighters.
Americans were fascinated with aviation in the 1920s and 1930s and refused to allow War Department conservatism to block innovation. General Billy Mitchell, the deputy director of the Air Service sought to wrest control of coastal defense away from the Navy. He went public insisting that his planes could sink battleships any day, a claim proven with a series of tests that culminated in the sinking of the Ostfriesland. Mitchell lost his self - control in 1925 when he accused the Navy in a press release of "incompetency, criminal negligence and almost treasonable administration of the national defense. '' He received the highly publicized court martial he wanted, and was allowed to expound his theory that air power alone would suffice to win the next big war. He was convicted, and resigned. He became a popular hero and public opinion forced the War Department to strengthen the Air Corps. Mitchell 's main argument was air power had to be autonomous -- had to be controlled by fliers who understood the new technology, new tactics, new strategies, and who would not waste precious air assets in trying to assist old - fashioned armies and navies. Until his death in 1936 Mitchell, as a civilian, was a tireless prophet of airpower before numerous civilian audiences, but he lost touch with aviation developments and ceased to be influential inside the services. Indeed, his almost hysterical attacks made many generals hostile. The Air Corps managed a few publicity stunts, but always seemed to be overshadowed by glamorous civilians like Charles Lindbergh, Howard Hughes or Amelia Earhart. In 1934 President Franklin Roosevelt, feuding with the airline industry, suddenly turned the delivery of air mail over to the Air Corps. Multiple crashes by inexperienced Air Corps pilots in mediocre planes with poor navigation gear emphasized the fragility of the new service, and undercut its claims that in wartime it could perform miracles. Roosevelt, however, had become a firm believer in air power and had behind him both public opinion and Congress. When mobilization began in spring 1940 Roosevelt was as energetic as anyone in expanding the Air Corps role, calling for 50,000 planes a year, and sending the best new models to Britain for its war against the Luftwaffe.
In 1935, as a result of recommendations from two civilian review boards, the next advancement toward independence for the Air Force occurred when all flying units, which heretofore had been distributed to various ground commands, were grouped together as an aerial task force under one air commander as the General Headquarters Air Force. The Air Corps, headed by the Chief of the Air Corps, continued as before but now held responsibility only for supply, airfields, and training, in effect splitting the Air Force into two parts. Both were commanded by major generals (Frank Andrews and Oscar Westover, followed by Henry H. ("Hap '') Arnold).
In 1937, the B - 17 Flying Fortress made its first appearance. In a feat of navigation impressive for the time, three B - 17s intercepted the Italian passenger liner Rex at sea. Though intended to demonstrate the ability of the Air Corps to defend the nation 's coasts, the mission also indicated the emerging doctrine within the Air Corps of the supremacy of strategic bombing.
During World War I, aviation technology developed rapidly; however, the Army 's reluctance to use the new technology began to make airmen think that as long as the Army controlled aviation, development would be stunted and a potentially valuable force neglected. Air Service senior officer Billy Mitchell began to campaign for an independent Air Force, co-equal to the Army and Navy. But his campaign offended many and resulted in a court martial in 1925 that effectively ended his career. His followers, including future aviation leaders "Hap '' Arnold and Carl Spaatz, saw the lack of public, congressional, and military support that Mitchell received and decided that America was not ready for an independent air force. Under the leadership of its chief of staff Mason Patrick and, later, Arnold, the Air Corps waited until the time to fight for independence arose again.
The Air Force came of age in World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt took the lead, calling for a vastly enlarged air force based on long - range strategic bombing. Organizationally it became largely independent from the Army in 1941, when the Army Air Corps became a part of the new U.S. Army Air Forces (AAF), and the GHQ Air Force was redesignated the subordinate Combat Command. In the major reorganization of the Army by War Department Circular 59, effective March 9, 1942, the newly created Army Air Forces gained equal voice with the Army and Navy on the Joint Chiefs of Staff and complete autonomy from the Army Ground Forces and the Services of Supply, serving as a separate service in all but name. The reorganization also eliminated both Combat Command and the Air Corps as organizations (the latter remained a combat branch of the Army until 1947) in favor of a streamlined system of commands and numbered air forces for decentralized management of the burgeoning Army Air Forces.
The reorganization merged all aviation elements of the former Air Corps into the Army Air Forces. Although the Air Corps still legally existed as an Army branch, the position and Office of the Chief of the Air Corps was dissolved.
Major General Carl A. Spaatz took command of the Eighth Air Force in London in 1942; with Brigadier General Ira Eaker as second in command, he supervised the strategic bombing campaign. In late 1943, Spaatz was made commander of the new U.S. Strategic Air Forces, reporting directly to the Combined Chiefs of Staff. Spaatz began daylight bombing operations using the prewar doctrine of flying bombers in close formations, relying on their combined defensive firepower for protection from attacking enemy aircraft rather than supporting fighter escorts. The doctrine proved flawed when deep - penetration missions beyond the range of escort fighters were attempted, because German fighter planes overwhelmed U.S. formations, shooting down bombers in excess of "acceptable '' loss rates, especially in combination with the vast number of flak anti-aircraft batteries defending Germany 's major targets. American fliers took heavy casualties during raids on the oil refineries of Ploieşti, Romania, and the ball - bearing factories at Schweinfurt and Regensburg, Germany, and it was the loss rate in crews and not materiel that brought about a pullback from the strategic offensive in the autumn of 1943.
The Eighth Air Force had attempted to use both the P - 47 and P - 38 as escorts, but while the Thunderbolt was a capable dog - fighter it lacked the range, even with the addition of drop tanks to extend its range, and the Lightning proved mechanically unreliable in the frigid altitudes at which the missions were fought. Bomber protection was greatly improved after the introduction of North American P - 51 Mustang fighters in Europe. With its built - in extended range and competitive or superior performance characteristics in comparison to all existing German piston - engined fighters, the Mustang was an immediately available solution to the crisis. In January 1944 the Eighth Air Force obtained priority in equipping its groups, so that ultimately 14 of its 15 groups fielded Mustangs. P - 51 escorts began operations in February 1944 and increased their numbers rapidly, so that the Luftwaffe suffered increasing fighter losses in aerial engagements beginning with Big Week in early 1944. Allied fighters were also granted free rein in attacking German fighter airfields, both in pre-planned missions and while returning to base from escort duties, and the major Luftwaffe threat against Allied bombers was severely diminished by D - Day.
In the Pacific Theater of Operations, the AAF provided major tactical support under General George Kenney to Douglas MacArthur in the Southwest Pacific theater. Kenney 's pilots invented the skip - bombing technique against Japanese ships. Kenney 's forces claimed destruction of 11,900 Japanese planes and 1.7 million tons of shipping. The first development and sustained implementation of airlift by American air forces occurred between May 1942 and November 1945 as hundreds of transports flew more than half a million tons of supplies from India to China over the Hump.
The AAF created the Twentieth Air Force to employ long - range B - 29 Superfortress bombers in strategic attacks on Japanese cities. The use of forward bases in China (needed to be able to reach Japan by the heavily laden B - 29 's) was ineffective because of the difficulty in logistically supporting the bases entirely by air from its main bases in India, and because of a persistent threat against the Chinese airfields by the Japanese army. After the Mariana Islands were captured in mid-1944, providing locations for air bases that could be supplied by sea, Arnold moved all B - 29 operations there by April 1945 and made General Curtis LeMay his bomber commander (reporting directly to Arnold, who personally commanded Twentieth Air Force until July). LeMay reasoned that the Japanese economy, much of which was cottage industry in dense urban areas where manufacturing and assembly plants were also located, was particularly vulnerable to area attack and abandoned inefficient high - altitude precision bombing in favor of low - level incendiary bombings aimed at destroying large urban areas. On the night of March 9 -- 10, 1945, the bombing of Tokyo and the resulting conflagration resulted in the death of over 100,000 persons. 350,000 people died in 66 other Japanese cities as a result of this shift to incendiary bombing. At the same time, the B - 29 was also employed in widespread mining of Japanese harbors and sea lanes. In early August 1945, the Twentieth Air Force conducted atomic bomb attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in response to Japan 's rejection of the Potsdam Declaration which outlined the terms of surrender for Japan. Both cities were destroyed with enormous loss of life and psychological shock. On August 15, Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender of Japan, stating:
Moreover, the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel bomb, the power of which to do damage is indeed incalculable, taking the toll of many innocent lives. Should We continue to fight, it would not only result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization. Such being the case, how are We to save the millions of Our subjects; or to atone Ourselves before the hallowed spirits of Our Imperial Ancestors? This is the reason why We have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the Joint Declaration of the Powers.
In practice, the Army Air Forces became virtually independent of the Army during World War II, but its leaders wanted formal independence. In November 1945, General Dwight D. Eisenhower became Army Chief of Staff, while General Carl Spaatz began to assume the duties of Commanding General, Army Air Forces, in anticipation of General Arnold 's announced retirement. One of General Eisenhower 's first actions was to appoint a board of officers, headed by Lieutenant General William H. Simpson, to prepare a definitive plan for the reorganization of the Army and the Air Force that could be effected without enabling legislation and would provide for the separation of the Air Force from the Army. On 29 January 1946 "Generals Eisenhower and Spaatz agreed on an Air Force organization composed of Strategic Air Command, Air Defense Command, Tactical Air Command, Air Transport Command, Air Technical Service Command, Air Training Command, the Air University, and the Air Force Center. ''
Over the continuing objections of the Navy, which feared losing its air arm and strategic role to the new service, the United States Department of the Air Force was created by the National Security Act of 1947. That act became effective 18 September 1947 when the first secretary of the Air Force, Stuart Symington, took office. In 1948, the service chiefs agreed on usage of air assets under the Key West Agreement.
"In 1947 President Truman signed the National Security Act which established this new defense organization, and along with it the creation of the US Air Force as an independent service, equal to the US Army and US Navy. The official birthday of the US Air Force is 18 September 1947. ''
On 18 September 1947, the Army Air Forces became the United States Air Force as a separate and equal element of the United States Armed Forces. The fledgling Air Force quickly established its own identity. Army Air Fields were renamed Air Force Bases and personnel were soon being issued new uniforms with new rank insignia. Once the new Air Force was free of army domination, its first job was to discard the old and inadequate ground army organizational structure. This was the "Base Plan '' where the combat group commander reported to the base commander, who was often regular army, with no flying experience.
General Carl A. Spaatz established a new policy, "No tactical commander should be subordinate to the station commander. '' This resulted in a search for a better arrangement. The commander of the 15th Air Force, Major General Charles Born, proposed the Provisional Wing Plan, which basically reversed the situation and put the wing commander over the base commander. The USAF basic organizational unit became the Base - Wing.
Under this plan, the base support functions -- supply, base operations, transportation, security, and medical were assigned to squadrons, usually commanded by a Major or Lieutenant Colonel. All of these squadrons were assigned to a Combat Support Group, commanded by a Base Commander, usually a Colonel. Combat fighter or bomber squadrons were assigned to the Combat Group, a retention of the USAAF Group. All of these groups, both combat and combat support, were in turn assigned to the Wing, commanded by a Wing Commander. This way the Wing Commander commanded both the combat operational elements on the base as well as the non-operational elements. The Wing Commander was an experienced air combat leader, usually a Colonel or Brigadier General. All of the hierarchical organizations carried the same numerical designation. In this manner, for example, the 28th became the designation for the Wing and all the subordinate groups and squadrons beneath it. As a result, the base and the wing became one and the same unit. On 16 June 1952, the legacy combat groups were inactivated and the operational Combat Squadrons were assigned directly to the Wing. The World War II history, lineage and honors of the combat group were bestowed on the Wing upon its inactivation.
The USAAF Wing then was redesignated as an Air Division, which was commanded Brigadier General or higher, who commanded two or more wings usually, but not always, on a single base. Numbered Air Forces (NAF) commanded both Air Divisions or Wings directly, and the NAF was under the Major Command (SAC, TAC, ADC, etc.).
After World War II, relations between the United States and the Soviet Union began to deteriorate, and the period in history known as the Cold War began. The United States entered an arms race with the Soviet Union and competition aimed at increasing each nation 's influence throughout the world. In response, the United States expanded its military presence throughout the world. The USAF opened air bases throughout Europe, and later in Japan and South Korea. The United States also built air bases on the British overseas territories of British Indian Ocean Territory and Ascension Island in the South Atlantic.
The first test for the USAF during the Cold War came in 1948, when Communist authorities in East Germany cut off road and air transportation to West Berlin. The USAF, along with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and Commonwealth air forces, supplied the city during the Berlin airlift under Operation Vittles, using C - 54 Skymasters. The efforts of these air forces saved the city from starvation and forced the Soviets to back down in their blockade.
Conflict over post-war military administration, especially with regard to the roles and missions to be assigned to the Air Force and the U.S. Navy, led to an episode called the "Revolt of the Admirals '' in the late 1940s, in which high - ranking Navy officers argued unsuccessfully for the case for carrier - based aircraft rather than strategic bombers.
In 1947, the USAF began Project Sign, a study of unidentified flying objects what would be twice revived (first as Project Grudge and finally as Project Blue Book) and which would last until 1969.
In 1948 the Women 's Armed Services Integration Act gave women permanent status in the Regular and Reserve forces of the Air Force. On 8 July 1948, Esther McGowin Blake became the first woman in the Air Force, enlisting the first minute of the first hour of the first day regular Air Force duty was authorized for women.
During the Korean War, which began in June 1950, the Far East Air Forces (FEAF) were among the first units to respond to the invasion by North Korea, but quickly lost its main airbase at Kimpo, South Korea. Designated to provide close air support to the defenders of the Pusan pocket from bases in Japan, the FEAF also conducted a strategic bombing campaign against North Korea 's war - making potential simultaneously. General Douglas MacArthur 's landing at Inchon in September 1950 enabled the FEAF to return to Korea and develop bases from which they supported MacArthur 's drive to the Korean - Chinese border.
When the Chinese People 's Liberation Army attacked in December 1950, the USAF provided tactical air support. The introduction of Soviet - made MiG - 15 jet fighters caused problems for the B - 29s used to bomb North Korea, but the USAF countered the MiGs with its new F - 86 Sabre jet fighters. Although both air superiority and close air support missions were successful, a lengthy attempt to interdict communist supply lines by air attack was not as successful and was replaced by a systematic campaign to inflict as much economic cost to North Korea and the Chinese forces as long as war persisted, including attacks on the capital city of Pyongyang and against the North Korean hydroelectric system.
The USAF was heavily deployed during the Vietnam War. The first bombing raids against North Vietnam occurred in 1964, following the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. In March 1965, a sustained bombing campaign began, code - named Operation Rolling Thunder. This campaign 's purpose was to destroy the will of the North Vietnamese to fight, destroy industrial bases and air defenses, and to stop the flow of men and supplies down the Ho Chi Minh Trail, while forcing North Vietnam into peace negotiations. The USAF dropped more bombs in all combat operations in Vietnam during the period 1965 -- 68 than it did during World War II, and the Rolling Thunder campaign lasted until the U.S. presidential election of 1968. Except for heavily damaging the North Vietnamese economy and infrastructure, Rolling Thunder failed in its political and strategic goals.
The USAF also played a critical role in defeating the Easter Offensive of 1972. The rapid redeployment of fighters, bombers, and attack aircraft help the South Vietnamese Army repel the invasion. Operation Linebacker demonstrated to both the North and South Vietnamese that even without significant U.S. Army ground forces, the United States could still influence the war. The air war for the United States ended with Operation Linebacker II, also known as the "Christmas Bombings. '' These helped to finalize the Paris peace negotiations.
The insurgent nature of combat operations early in the war, and the necessity of interdicting the North Vietnamese regular army and its supply lines in third - party countries of Southeast Asia led to the development of a significant special operations capability within the USAF. Provisional and experimental concepts such as air commandos and aerial gunships, tactical missions such as the partially successful Operation Ivory Coast deep inside enemy territory, and a dedicated Combat Search and Rescue mission resulted in development of operational doctrines, units, and equipment.
The USAF modernized its tactical air forces in the late 1970s with the introduction of the F - 15, A-10, and F - 16 fighters, and the implementation of realistic training scenarios under the aegis of Red Flag. In turn, it also upgraded the equipment and capabilities of its Air Reserve Components (ARC) by the equipping of both the Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve with first - line aircraft.
Expanding its force structure in the 1980s to 40 fighter wings and drawing further on the lessons of the Vietnam War, the USAF also dedicated units and aircraft to Electronic Warfare (EW) and the Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD). The humiliating failure in April 1980 of the Operation Eagle Claw rescue mission in Iran resulted directly in an increased USAF emphasis on participation in the doctrine, equipment, personnel, and planning of Joint Special Operations.
The USAF provided attack, airlift, and combat support capability for operations in Grenada in 1983 (Operation Urgent Fury), Libya in 1986 (Operation El Dorado Canyon), and Panama in 1989 (Operation Just Cause). Lessons learned in these operations were applied to its force structure and doctrine, and became the basis for successful air operations in the 1990s and after September 11, 2001.
The development of satellite reconnaissance during the Cold War, the extensive use of both tactical and strategic aerial reconnaissance during numerous combat operations, and the nuclear war deterrent role of the USAF resulted in the recognition of space as a possible combat arena. An emphasis on "aerospace '' operations and doctrine grew in the 1980s. Missile warning and space operations were combined to form Air Force Space Command in 1982. In 1991, Operation Desert Storm provided emphasis for the command 's new focus on supporting combat operations.
The creation of the internet and the universality of computer technology as a basic warfighting tool resulted in the priority development of cyber warfare techniques and defenses by the USAF.
The USAF provided the bulk of the Allied air power during the Gulf War in 1991, flying alongside aircraft of the U.S. Navy and the RAF. The F - 117 Nighthawk stealth fighter 's capabilities were shown on the first night of the air war when it was able to bomb central Baghdad and avoid the sophisticated Iraqi anti-aircraft defenses. The USAF, along with the U.S. Navy and the RAF, later patrolled the skies of northern and southern Iraq after the war to ensure that Iraq 's air defense capability could not be rebuilt. Operation Provide Comfort 1991 - 96 and Operation Northern Watch 1997 - 2003 - no - fly zones north of the 36th parallel north and Operation Southern Watch - no - fly zone south of the 33rd parallel north.
In 1996, Operation Desert Strike and 1998 Operation Desert Fox, the USAF bombed Saddam Hussein 's Iraq.
The USAF led NATO action in Bosnia with no - fly zones (Operation Deny Flight) 1993 - 96 and in 1995 with air strikes against the Bosnian Serbs (Operation Deliberate Force). This was the first time that USAF aircraft took part in military action as part of a NATO mission. The USAF led the strike forces as the NATO Air Force (otherwise mainly composed of RAF and Luftwaffe aircraft) with the greatest capability to launch air strikes over a long period of time. In 1999, the USAF led NATO air strikes against Serbia during the Kosovo War (Operation Allied Force).
In 2001, the USAF was deployed against the Taliban forces in Afghanistan. Operating from Diego Garcia, B - 52 Stratofortress and B - 1 Lancer bombers attacked Taliban positions. The USAF deployed daisy cutter bombs, dropped from C - 130 Hercules cargo planes, for the first time since the Vietnam War. During this conflict, the USAF opened up bases in Central Asia for the first time.
The USAF was deployed in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Following the defeat of Saddam Hussein 's regime, the USAF took over Baghdad International Airport as a base. USAF aircraft are used to provide support to Coalition and Iraqi forces in major operations to eliminate insurgent centers of activity and supply in north and west Iraq. Operations in both Afghanistan and Iraq demonstrated the effective utility of Unmanned air vehicles, the most prominent of which was the MQ - 1 Predator. Fifty - four USAF personnel died in the Iraq War.
The USAF maintains a Combined Air & Space Operations Center in Qatar to direct air combat operations and Predator actions.
In March 2011, USAF jets bombed military targets in Libya as part of the international effort to enforce a United Nations resolution that imposed no - fly zone over the country and protected its people from the civil war that occurred when its dictator, Muammar Gaddafi suppressed the protests calling for the end of his regime. Protests were inspired by the revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt.
In the summer of 2014 President Obama announced the return of US Forces to Iraq. The US Air Force is undertaking a significant humanitarian effort in order to assist Iraq 's imperiled minority groups. When permission was later granted for USAF airstrikes, it was on condition that the types of aircraft not be announced so as to obscure which countries they were based in.
Today, the United States Air Force is the largest, most capable, and most technologically advanced air force in the world, with about 5,778 manned aircraft in service, approximately 156 Unmanned Combat Air Vehicles, 2,130 Air - Launched Cruise Missiles, and 450 intercontinental ballistic missiles. The USAF has 328,439 personnel on active duty, 74,000 in the Selected and Individual Ready Reserves, and 106,000 in the Air National Guard. In addition, the Air Force employs 168,900 civilian personnel including indirect hire of foreign nationals. However, after two decades of failure to recapitalize its aircraft under Clinton and the two Bushes, the USAF has its oldest and most outdated fleet ever. Tactical aircraft purchases were put off while Fifth - generation jet fighters were facing delays, cost overruns and cutbacks and the programs to replace the 1950s bomber and tanker fleets have just been started over again after many aborted attempts.
An Air Force fighter pilot died 20 February 2008 after two F - 15C jets collided during a training exercise over the Gulf of Mexico.
The U.S. Air Force on 29 February 2008 announced one of the largest military acquisition programs in U.S. history, saying the service had chosen Northrop Grumman over Boeing to replace its aging air refueling tanker fleet.
The pilot of an F - 16C fighter General Dynamics F - 16 Fighting Falcon # F - 16C / D jet that crashed in a remote area about 80 miles northwest of Phoenix, Arizona was killed when his plane went down. The plane was spotted late 13 March 2008. Rescuers could reach the site only by helicopter and arrived at daybreak 15 March 2008. There have been 17 other crashes of Luke Air Force Base F - 16s since 1998, and only one of those resulted in a fatality. That crash happened in May 2004, when a pilot with the Republic of Singapore Air Force died after his jet went down during a training mission at an Air Force bombing range in southwest Arizona. The most recent crashes came in 2006. A pilot ejected safely from an F - 16 in April 2006 after the lone engine on the jet exploded just after takeoff from the base. The aircraft came down in a cornfield.
On 5 June 2008 Robert Gates announced the results of an investigation into the misshipment of four MK - 12 forward - section reentry vehicle assemblies to Taiwan. The investigation, conducted by Admiral Kirkland H. Donald, director of the US Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program, found that the Taiwan missile incident was, in Gates ' words, "A degradation of the authority, standards of excellence and technical competence within the nation 's ICBM force. Similar to the bomber - specific August 2007 Minot - Barksdale nuclear weapons transfer incident, this incident took place within the larger environment of declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance '' and that "the investigation identified commonalities between the August 2007 Minot incident and this (the Taiwan) event. '' In his investigation report, Donald stated that the issues identified by his investigation were, "Indicative of an overall decline in Air Force nuclear weapons stewardship, a problem that has been identified but not effectively addressed for over a decade. Both the Minot - Barksdale nuclear weapons transfer incident and the Taiwan misshipment, while different in specifics, have a common origin: the gradual erosion of nuclear standards and a lack of effective oversight by Air Force leadership ''
As a result of the investigation, Gates announced that, "A substantial number of Air Force general officers and colonels have been identified as potentially subject to disciplinary measures, ranging from removal from command to letters of reprimand, '' and that he had accepted the resignations of USAF Secretary Michael Wynne and USAF Chief of Staff Michael Moseley. Gates added that he had asked James R. Schlesinger to lead a senior - level task force to recommend improvements in the stewardship and operation of nuclear weapons, delivery vehicles and sensitive components by the US DoD. Members of the task force came from the Defense Policy Board and the Defense Science Board.
In 2012, the USAF discovered that their billion dollar investment in the Expeditionary Combat Support System "has not yielded any significant military capability '' and that it would take another billion dollar investment to gain even one quarter of the planned capability.
In 2012 the USAF received push back from the Congress over a plan to retire multiple reserve squadrons, leading to the formation of the National Commission on the Structure of the Air Force to resolve the proper balance between active and reserve air forces. This was followed in 2013 by the Total Force Task Force in an attempt to handle budget disagreements between the active and reserve forces.
In 2014, the USAF 's 30 year strategy document cited a need for both low end and high end capabilities, and so called for cuts in high demand UAVs in favor of retaining "outdated fighter aircraft that would not be survivable in a high end conflict ''.
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the qrs complex of an electrocardiogram is a result of | QRS complex - wikipedia
The QRS complex is a name for the combination of three of the graphical deflections seen on a typical electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG). It is usually the central and most visually obvious part of the tracing; in other words, it 's the main spike seen on an ECG line. It corresponds to the depolarization of the right and left ventricles of the human heart and contraction of the large ventricular muscles.
In adults, the QRS complex normally lasts 0.06 -- 0.10 s; in children and during physical activity, it may be shorter. The Q, R, and S waves occur in rapid succession, do not all appear in all leads, and reflect a single event and thus are usually considered together. A Q wave is any downward deflection immediately following the P wave. An R wave follows as an upward deflection, and the S wave is any downward deflection after the R wave. The T wave follows the S wave, and in some cases, an additional U wave follows the T wave.
Depolarization of the heart ventricles occurs almost simultaneously, via the bundle of His and Purkinje fibers. If they are working efficiently, the QRS complex is 80 to 120 ms in duration. This is represented by three small squares or less at the standard paper speed of 25 mm / s.
Any abnormality of conduction takes longer and causes "widened '' QRS complexes. In bundle branch block, there can be an abnormal second upward deflection within the QRS complex. In this case, such a second upward deflection is referred to as R ' (pronounced "R prime ''). This would be described as an RSR ' pattern.
Ventricles contain more muscle mass than the atria. Therefore, the QRS complex is considerably larger than the P wave. The QRS complex is often used to determine the axis of the electrocardiogram, although it is also possible to determine a separate P wave axis.
The duration, amplitude, and morphology of the QRS complex are useful in diagnosing cardiac arrhythmias, conduction abnormalities, ventricular hypertrophy, myocardial infarction, electrolyte derangements, and other disease states.
High frequency analysis of the QRS complex may be useful for detection of coronary artery disease during an exercise stress test.
The QRS complex is also included in estimating the QT interval.
Normal Q waves, when present, represent depolarization of the interventricular septum. For this reason, they are referred to as septal Q waves and can be appreciated in the lateral leads I, aVL, V5 and V6.
Pathologic Q waves occur when the electrical signal passes through stunned or scarred heart muscle; as such, they are usually markers of previous myocardial infarctions, with subsequent fibrosis. A pathologic Q wave is defined as having a deflection amplitude of 25 % or more of the subsequent R wave, or being > 0.04 s (40 ms) in width and > 2 mm in amplitude. However, diagnosis requires the presence of this pattern in more than one corresponding lead.
Myocardial infarctions with pathological Q waves are referred to as ST elevation MIs.
Looking at the precordial leads, the R wave usually progresses from showing an rS - type complex in V with an increasing R and a decreasing S wave when moving toward the left side. There is usually an qR - type of complex in V and V with the R - wave amplitude usually taller in V than in V. It is normal to have a narrow QS and rSr ' patterns in V, and this is also the case for qRs and R patterns in V and V. The transition zone is where the QRS complex changes from predominately negative to predominately positive (R / S ratio becoming > 1), and this usually occurs at V or V. It is normal to have the transition zone at V (called "early transition '') and at V (called "delayed transition ''). In biomedical engineering, the maximum amplitude in the R wave is usually called "R peak amplitude '', or just "R peak ''. Accurate R peak detection is essential in signal processing equipment for heart rate measurement and it is the main feature used for arrhythmia detection.
The definition of poor R wave progression (PRWP) varies in the literature, but a common one is when the R wave is less than 2 -- 4 mm in leads V or V and / or there is presence of a reversed R wave progression, which is defined as R in V < R in V or R in V < R in V or R in V < R in V, or any combination of these. Poor R wave progression is commonly attributed to anterior myocardial infarction, but it may also be caused by left bundle branch block, Wolff -- Parkinson -- White syndrome, right and left ventricular hypertrophy, or a faulty ECG recording technique.
The point where the QRS complex meets the ST segment is the J - point. The J - point is easy to identify when the ST segment is horizontal and forms a sharp angle with the last part of the QRS complex. However, when the ST segment is sloped or the QRS complex is wide, the two features do not form a sharp angle and the location of the J - point is less clear. There is no consensus on the precise location of the J - point in these circumstances. Two possible definitions are:
Not every QRS complex contains a Q wave, an R wave, and an S wave. By convention, any combination of these waves can be referred to as a QRS complex. However, correct interpretation of difficult ECGs requires exact labeling of the various waves. Some authors use lowercase and capital letters, depending on the relative size of each wave. For example, an Rs complex would be positively deflected, while an rS complex would be negatively deflected. If both complexes were labeled RS, it would be impossible to appreciate this distinction without viewing the actual ECG.
Monomorphic refers to all QRS waves in a single lead being similar in shape. Polymorphic means that the QRS change from complex to complex. These terms are used in the description of ventricular tachycardia.
A common algorithm used for QRS complex detection is the Pan-Tompkins algorithm (or method); another is based on the Hilbert transform. Numerous other algorithms have been proposed and investigated.
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the major cause of insulin resistance is related to ____. | Insulin resistance - wikipedia
Insulin resistance (IR) is a pathological condition in which cells fail to respond normally to the hormone insulin. To prevent hyperglycemia and noticeable organ damage over time, the body produces insulin when glucose starts to be released into the bloodstream from the digestion of carbohydrates (primarily) in the diet. Under normal conditions of insulin reactivity, this insulin response triggers glucose being taken into body cells, to be used for energy, and inhibits the body from using fat for energy, thereby causing the concentration of glucose in the blood to decrease as a result, staying within the normal range even when a large amount of carbohydrates is consumed. A habitually high intake of carbohydrates, simple sugars, and particularly fructose, e.g. with sweetened beverages, contributes to insulin resistance and has been linked to weight gain and obesity. If high and excess blood sugar from the digestion of primarily carbohydrates in the diet is not sufficiently absorbed by cells even in the presence of insulin, the increase in the level of blood sugar can result in the classic hyperglycemic triad of polyphagia (increased appetite), polydipsia (increased thirst), and polyuria (increased urination). Avoiding carbohydrates and sugars, a no - carbohydrate diet or fasting can reverse insulin resistance.
When the body produces insulin under conditions of insulin resistance, the cells are resistant to the insulin and are unable to use it as effectively, leading to high blood sugar. Beta cells in the pancreas subsequently increase their production of insulin, further contributing to a high blood insulin level. This often remains undetected and can contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes, obesity or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults. Although this type of chronic insulin resistance is harmful, during acute illness it is actually a well - evolved protective mechanism.
Recent investigations have revealed that insulin resistance helps to conserve the brain 's glucose supply by preventing muscles from taking up excessive glucose. In theory, insulin resistance should even be strengthened under harsh metabolic conditions such as pregnancy, during which the expanding fetal brain demands more glucose.
People who develop type 2 diabetes usually pass through earlier stages of insulin resistance and prediabetes, although those often go undiagnosed. Insulin resistance is a syndrome (a set of signs and symptoms) resulting from reduced insulin activity; it is also part of a larger constellation of symptoms called the metabolic syndrome.
Insulin resistance may also develop in patients who have recently experienced abdominal or bariatric procedures. This acute form of insulin resistance that may result post-operatively tends to increase over the short term, with sensitivity to insulin typically returning to patients after about five days.
These depend on poorly understood variations in individual biology and consequently may not be found with all people diagnosed with insulin resistance.
Several associated risk factors include the following:
Insulin resistance implies that the body 's cells (primarily muscle) lose sensitivity to insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas to promote glucose utilization. At the molecular level, a cell senses insulin through insulin receptors, with the signal propagating through a cascade of molecules collectively known as PI3K / Akt / mTOR signaling pathway. Recent studies suggested that the pathway may operate as a bistable switch under physiologic conditions for certain types of cells, and insulin response may well be a threshold phenomenon. The pathway 's sensitivity to insulin may be blunted by many factors such as free fatty acids, causing insulin resistance. From a broader perspective, however, sensitivity tuning (including sensitivity reduction) is a common practice for an organism to adapt to the changing environment or metabolic conditions. Pregnancy, for example, is a prominent change of metabolic conditions, under which the mother has to reduce her muscles ' insulin sensitivity to spare more glucose for the brains (the mother 's brain and the fetal brain). This can be achieved through raising the response threshold (i.e., postponing the onset of sensitivity) by secreting placental growth factor to interfere with the interaction between insulin receptor substrate (IRS) and PI3K, which is the essence of the so - called adjustable threshold hypothesis of insulin resistance.
It is well known that insulin regulates the conversion of carbohydrates into fats (triglycerides) by promoting the absorption of, especially, glucose from the blood into fat cells. The intake of simple sugars, and particularly fructose, is a factor that contributes to insulin resistance. Fructose is metabolized by the liver into triglycerides, and, as mentioned above, tends to raise their levels in the blood stream. High levels of fructose or sucrose (table sugar) induce insulin resistance in rats, and this insulin resistance is alleviated by fish oil supplementation.
Once established, insulin resistance would result in increased circulating levels of insulin. Since insulin is the primary hormonal signal for energy storage into fat cells, which tend to retain their sensitivity in the face of hepatic and skeletal muscle resistance, IR stimulates the formation of new fatty tissue and accelerates weight gain.
Insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes are associated with excess body weight. A possible explanation is that both insulin resistance and obesity often have the same cause, systematic overeating, which has the potential to lead to insulin resistance and obesity due to repeated administration of excess levels of glucose, which stimulate insulin secretion; excess levels of fructose, which raise triglyceride levels in the bloodstream; and fats, which may be absorbed easily by the adipose cells, and tend to end up as fatty tissue in a hypercaloric diet. Some scholars go as far as to claim that neither insulin resistance, nor obesity really are metabolic disorders per se, but simply adaptive responses to sustained caloric surplus, intended to protect bodily organs from lipotoxicity (unsafe levels of lipids in the bloodstream and tissues): "Obesity should therefore not be regarded as a pathology or disease, but rather as the normal, physiologic response to sustained caloric surplus... As a consequence of the high level of lipid accumulation in insulin target tissues including skeletal muscle and liver, it has been suggested that exclusion of glucose from lipid - laden cells is a compensatory defense against further accumulation of lipogenic substrate. ''
Fast food meals combined with drinks containing sugar typically possess several characteristics, all of which have independently been linked to IR: they are sugar rich, palatable, and cheap, increasing risk of overeating and leptin resistance; simultaneously, they are high in dietary fat and fructose, and low in omega - 3 and fiber; and they usually have high glycemic indices. Overconsumption of cheap sugar rich meals and beverages have been proposed as a fundamental factor behind the metabolic syndrome epidemic and all its constituents.
An American study has shown that glucosamine (often prescribed for joint problems) may cause insulin resistance. Other studies, however, could not confirm a significant effect on blood glucose or insulin resistance.
Vitamin D deficiency also is associated with insulin resistance.
Elevated levels of free fatty acids and triglycerides in the blood stream and tissues also have been found in many studies to occur in states of insulin resistance. Triglyceride levels are driven by a variety of dietary factors.
In studies on animals caloric intake that is far in excess of animals ' energy needs results in rapid weight gain and significant insulin resistance after just three weeks (in rats).
Sedentary lifestyle increases the likelihood of development of insulin resistance. It has been estimated that each 500 kcal / week increment in physical activity related energy expenditure, reduces the lifetime risk of type 2 diabetes by 9 %. A different study found that vigorous exercise at least once a week reduced the risk of type 2 diabetes in women by 33 %.
Protease inhibitors found in HIV drugs are linked to insulin resistance.
At the cellular level, much of the variance in insulin sensitivity between untrained, non-diabetic humans may be explained by two mechanisms: differences in phospholipid profiles of skeletal muscle cell membranes, and in intramyocellular lipid (ICML) stores within these cells. High levels of lipids in the bloodstream have the potential to result in accumulation of triglycerides and their derivatives within muscle cells, which activate proteins Kinase C - ε and C - θ, ultimately reducing the glucose uptake at any given level of insulin. This mechanism is quite fast - acting and may induce insulin resistance within days or even hours in response to a large lipid influx. Draining the intracellular reserves, on the other hand, is more challenging: moderate caloric restriction alone, even over a period of several months, appears to be ineffective, and it must be combined with physical exercise to have any effect.
In the long term, diet has the potential to change the ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated phospholipids in cell membranes, correspondingly changing cell membrane fluidity; full impact of such changes is not fully understood, but it is known that the percentage of polyunsaturated phospholipids is strongly inversely correlated with insulin resistance. It is hypothesized that increasing cell membrane fluidity by increasing PUFA concentration might result in an enhanced number of insulin receptors, an increased affinity of insulin to its receptors, and a reduced insulin resistance, and vice versa.
Many stressing factors may lead to increased cortisol in the bloodstream. Cortisol counteracts insulin, contributes to hyperglycemia - causing hepatic gluconeogenesis, and inhibits the peripheral utilization of glucose, which eventually leads to insulin resistance. It does this by decreasing the translocation of glucose transporters (especially GLUT4) to the cell membrane.
Inflammation by itself also seems to be implicated in causing insulin resistance. Mice without JNK1 - signaling do not develop insulin resistance under dietary conditions that normally produce it. Recent study have found out the specific role of the MLK family of protein in the activation of JNK during obesity and insulin resistance.
Rare type 2 diabetes cases sometimes use high levels of exogenous insulin. As short - term overdosing of insulin causes short - term insulin resistance, it has been hypothesized that chronic high dosing contributes to more permanent insulin resistance.
At a molecular level, insulin resistance has been proposed to be a reaction to excess nutrition by superoxide dismutase in cell mitochondria that acts as an antioxidant defense mechanism. This link seems to exist under diverse causes of insulin resistance. It also is based on the finding that insulin resistance may be reversed rapidly by exposing cells to mitochondrial uncouplers, electron transport chain inhibitors, or mitochondrial superoxide dismutase mimetics.
Recent research and experimentation has uncovered a non-obesity related connection to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. It has long been observed that patients who have had some kinds of bariatric surgery have increased insulin sensitivity and even remission of type 2 diabetes. It was discovered that diabetic / insulin resistant non-obese rats whose duodenum has been removed surgically, also experienced increased insulin sensitivity and remission of type 2 diabetes. This suggested similar surgery in humans, and early reports in prominent medical journals are that the same effect is seen in humans, at least the small number who have participated in the experimental surgical program. The speculation is, that some substance is produced in the mucosa of that initial portion of the small intestine that signals body cells to become insulin resistant. If the producing tissue is removed, the signal ceases and body cells revert to normal insulin sensitivity. No such substance has been found as yet, and the existence of such a substance remains speculative.
Insulin resistance is associated with PCOS.
Hepatitis C also makes people three to four times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance. In addition, "people with Hepatitis C who develop diabetes probably have susceptible insulin - producing cells, and probably would get it anyway, but much later in life. The extra insulin resistance caused by Hepatitis C apparently brings on diabetes at age 35 or 40, instead of 65 or 70. ''
One of insulin 's functions is to regulate delivery of glucose into cells to provide them with energy. Insulin resistant cells can not take in glucose, amino acids and fatty acids. Thus, glucose, fatty acids and amino acids ' leak ' out of the cells. A decrease in insulin / glucagon ratio inhibits glycolysis which in turn decreases energy production. The resulting increase in blood glucose may raise levels outside the normal range and cause adverse health effects, depending on dietary conditions. Certain cell types such as fat and muscle cells require insulin to absorb glucose. When these cells fail to respond adequately to circulating insulin, blood glucose levels rise. The liver helps regulate glucose levels by reducing its secretion of glucose in the presence of insulin. This normal reduction in the liver 's glucose production may not occur in people with insulin resistance.
Insulin resistance in muscle and fat cells reduces glucose uptake (and also local storage of glucose as glycogen and triglycerides, respectively), whereas insulin resistance in liver cells results in reduced glycogen synthesis and storage and also a failure to suppress glucose production and release into the blood. Insulin resistance normally refers to reduced glucose - lowering effects of insulin. However, other functions of insulin can also be affected. For example, insulin resistance in fat cells reduces the normal effects of insulin on lipids and results in reduced uptake of circulating lipids and increased hydrolysis of stored triglycerides. Increased mobilization of stored lipids in these cells elevates free fatty acids in the blood plasma. Elevated blood fatty - acid concentrations (associated with insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus Type 2), reduced muscle glucose uptake, and increased liver glucose production all contribute to elevated blood glucose levels. High plasma levels of insulin and glucose due to insulin resistance are a major component of the metabolic syndrome. If insulin resistance exists, more insulin needs to be secreted by the pancreas. If this compensatory increase does not occur, blood glucose concentrations increase and type 2 diabetes or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults occurs.
Any food or drink containing glucose (or the digestible carbohydrates that contain it, such as sucrose, starch, etc.) causes blood glucose levels to increase. In normal metabolism, the elevated blood glucose level instructs beta (β) cells in the Islets of Langerhans, located in the pancreas, to release insulin into the blood. The insulin, in turn, makes insulin - sensitive tissues in the body (primarily skeletal muscle cells, adipose tissue, and liver) absorb glucose, and thereby lower the blood glucose level. The beta cells reduce insulin output as the blood glucose level falls, allowing blood glucose to settle at a constant of approximately 5 mmol / L (mM) (90 mg / dL). In an insulin - resistant person, normal levels of insulin do not have the same effect in controlling blood glucose levels. During the compensated phase on insulin resistance, insulin levels are higher, and blood glucose levels are still maintained. If compensatory insulin secretion fails, then either fasting (impaired fasting glucose) or postprandial (impaired glucose tolerance) glucose concentrations increase. Eventually, type 2 diabetes or latent autoimmune diabetes occurs when glucose levels become higher throughout the day as the resistance increases and compensatory insulin secretion fails. The elevated insulin levels also have additional effects (see insulin) that cause further abnormal biological effects throughout the body.
The most common type of insulin resistance is associated with overweight and obesity in a condition known as the metabolic syndrome. Insulin resistance often progresses to full Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults. This often is seen when hyperglycemia develops after a meal, when pancreatic β - cells are unable to produce sufficient insulin to maintain normal blood sugar levels (euglycemia) in the face of insulin resistance. The inability of the β - cells to produce sufficient insulin in a condition of hyperglycemia is what characterizes the transition from insulin resistance to T2DM.
Various disease states make body tissues more resistant to the actions of insulin. Examples include infection (mediated by the cytokine TNFα) and acidosis. Recent research is investigating the roles of adipokines (the cytokines produced by adipose tissue) in insulin resistance. Certain drugs also may be associated with insulin resistance (e.g., glucocorticoids).
The presence of insulin leads to a kind of insulin resistance; every time a cell is exposed to insulin, the production of GLUT4 (Glucose transporter type 4) on the membrane of the cell decreases somewhat. In the presence of a higher than usual level of insulin (generally caused by insulin resistance), this down - regulation acts as a kind of positive feedback, increasing the need for insulin. Exercise reverses this process in muscle tissue, but if it is left unchecked, it may contribute to insulin resistance.
Elevated blood levels of glucose -- regardless of cause -- lead to increased glycation of proteins with changes, only a few of which are understood in any detail, in protein function throughout the body.
Insulin resistance often is found in people with visceral adiposity (i.e., a high degree of fatty tissue within the abdomen -- as distinct from subcutaneous adiposity or fat between the skin and the muscle wall, especially elsewhere on the body, such as hips or thighs), hypertension, hyperglycemia, and dyslipidemia involving elevated triglycerides, small dense low - density lipoprotein (sdLDL) particles, and decreased HDL cholesterol levels. With respect to visceral adiposity, a great deal of evidence suggests two strong links with insulin resistance. First, unlike subcutaneous adipose tissue, visceral adipose cells produce significant amounts of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor - alpha (TNF - a), and Interleukins - 1 and − 6, etc. In numerous experimental models, these proinflammatory cytokines disrupt normal insulin action in fat and muscle cells, and may be a major factor in causing the whole - body insulin resistance observed in patients with visceral adiposity. Much of the attention on production of proinflammatory cytokines has focused on the IKK - beta / NF - kappa - B pathway, a protein network that enhances transcription of inflammatory markers and mediators that may cause insulin resistance. Second, visceral adiposity is related to an accumulation of fat in the liver, a condition known as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The result of NAFLD is an excessive release of free fatty acids into the bloodstream (due to increased lipolysis), and an increase in hepatic glycogenolysis and hepatic glucose production, both of which have the effect of exacerbating peripheral insulin resistance and increasing the likelihood of Type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Also, insulin resistance often is associated with a hypercoagulable state (impaired fibrinolysis) and increased inflammatory cytokine levels.
A fasting serum insulin level greater than 25 mIU / L or 174 pmol / L is considered insulin resistance. The same levels apply three hours after the last meal.
During a glucose tolerance test (GTT), which may be used to diagnose diabetes mellitus, a fasting patient takes a 75 gram oral dose of glucose. Then blood glucose levels are measured over the following two hours.
Interpretation is based on WHO guidelines. After two hours a glycemia less than 7.8 mmol / L (140 mg / dL) is considered normal, a glycemia of between 7.8 and 11.0 mmol / L (140 to 197 mg / dL) is considered as impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), and a glycemia of greater than or equal to 11.1 mmol / L (200 mg / dL) is considered diabetes mellitus.
An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) may be normal or mildly abnormal in simple insulin resistance. Often, there are raised glucose levels in the early measurements, reflecting the loss of a postprandial peak (after the meal) in insulin production. Extension of the testing (for several more hours) may reveal a hypoglycemic "dip, '' that is a result of an overshoot in insulin production after the failure of the physiologic postprandial insulin response.
The gold standard for investigating and quantifying insulin resistance is the "hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp, '' so - called because it measures the amount of glucose necessary to compensate for an increased insulin level without causing hypoglycemia. It is a type of glucose clamp technique. The test is rarely performed in clinical care, but is used in medical research, for example, to assess the effects of different medications. The rate of glucose infusion commonly is referred to in diabetes literature as the GINF value.
The procedure takes about two hours. Through a peripheral vein, insulin is infused at 10 -- 120 mU per m per minute. In order to compensate for the insulin infusion, glucose 20 % is infused to maintain blood sugar levels between 5 and 5.5 mmol / L. The rate of glucose infusion is determined by checking the blood sugar levels every five to ten minutes.
The rate of glucose infusion during the last thirty minutes of the test determines insulin sensitivity. If high levels (7.5 mg / min or higher) are required, the patient is insulin - sensitive. Very low levels (4.0 mg / min or lower) indicate that the body is resistant to insulin action. Levels between 4.0 and 7.5 mg / min are not definitive, and suggest "impaired glucose tolerance, '' an early sign of insulin resistance.
This basic technique may be enhanced significantly by the use of glucose tracers. Glucose may be labeled with either stable or radioactive atoms. Commonly used tracers are 3 - H glucose (radioactive), 6, 6 H - glucose (stable) and 1 - C Glucose (stable). Prior to beginning the hyperinsulinemic period, a 3h tracer infusion enables one to determine the basal rate of glucose production. During the clamp, the plasma tracer concentrations enable the calculation of whole - body insulin - stimulated glucose metabolism, as well as the production of glucose by the body (i.e., endogenous glucose production).
Another measure of insulin resistance is the modified insulin suppression test developed by Gerald Reaven at Stanford University. The test correlates well with the euglycemic clamp, with less operator - dependent error. This test has been used to advance the large body of research relating to the metabolic syndrome.
Patients initially receive 25 μg of octreotide (Sandostatin) in 5 mL of normal saline over 3 to 5 minutes via intravenous infusion (IV) as an initial bolus, and then, are infused continuously with an intravenous infusion of somatostatin (0.27 μg / m / min) to suppress endogenous insulin and glucose secretion. Next, insulin and 20 % glucose are infused at rates of 32 and 267 mg / m / min, respectively. Blood glucose is checked at zero, 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes, and thereafter, every 10 minutes for the last half - hour of the test. These last four values are averaged to determine the steady - state plasma glucose level (SSPG). Subjects with an SSPG greater than 150 mg / dL are considered to be insulin - resistant.
Given the complicated nature of the "clamp '' technique (and the potential dangers of hypoglycemia in some patients), alternatives have been sought to simplify the measurement of insulin resistance. The first was the Homeostatic Model Assessment (HOMA), and a more recent method is the Quantitative insulin sensitivity check index (QUICKI). Both employ fasting insulin and glucose levels to calculate insulin resistance, and both correlate reasonably with the results of clamping studies. Wallace et al. point out that QUICKI is the logarithm of the value from one of the HOMA equations.
The primary treatment for insulin resistance is exercise and weight loss. Research shows that a low - carbohydrate diet may help. Both metformin and thiazolidinediones improve insulin resistance, but only are approved therapies for type 2 diabetes, not for insulin resistance. By contrast, growth hormone replacement therapy may be associated with increased insulin resistance.
Metformin has become one of the more commonly prescribed medications for insulin resistance. Unfortunately, Metformin also masks Vitamin B12 deficiency, so accompanying sub-lingual Vitamin B12 tablets are recommended.
Insulin resistance is often associated with abnormalities in lipids particularly high blood triglycerides and low high density lipoprotein.
The Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP) showed that exercise and diet were nearly twice as effective as metformin at reducing the risk of progressing to type 2 diabetes. However, the participants in the DPP trial regained about 40 % of the weight that they had lost at the end of 2.8 years, resulting in a similar incidence of diabetes development in both the lifestyle intervention and the control arms of the trial. One 2009 study found that carbohydrate deficit after exercise, but not energy deficit, contributed to insulin sensitivity increase.
Resistant starch from high - amylose corn, amylomaize, has been shown to reduce insulin resistance in healthy individuals, in individuals with insulin resistance, and in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Animal studies demonstrate that it can not reverse damage already done by high glucose levels, but that it reduces insulin resistance and reduces the development of further damage.
Some types of polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega - 3) may moderate the progression of insulin resistance into type 2 diabetes, however, omega - 3 fatty acids appear to have limited ability to reverse insulin resistance, and they cease to be efficacious once type 2 diabetes is established.
Caffeine intake limits insulin action, but not enough to increase blood - sugar levels in healthy persons. People who already have type 2 diabetes may see a small increase in levels if they take 2 or 2 - 1 / 2 cups of coffee per day.
The concept that insulin resistance may be the underlying cause of diabetes mellitus type 2 was first advanced by Professor Wilhelm Falta and published in Vienna in 1931, and confirmed as contributory by Sir Harold Percival Himsworth of the University College Hospital Medical Centre in London in 1936, however, type 2 diabetes does not occur unless there is concurrent failure of compensatory insulin secretion.
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who has won the most trophies in spanish football | List of Spanish football champions - wikipedia
The Spanish football champions are the winners of the primary football competition in Spain, La Liga. The league is contested on a round robin basis and the championship awarded to the team that is top of the league at the end of the season. La Liga, first established in 1929, originally contained ten teams. Before La Liga 's organization, the Copa del Rey -- a regionalised cup competition -- was effectively the national championship. La Liga is contested in by 20 teams; the three lowest - placed teams are relegated to the Segunda División and replaced by the top three teams in that division. Of the founding teams in La Liga, only Athletic Bilbao, Barcelona and Real Madrid have not been relegated. The league was cancelled between 1936 and 1939 because of the Spanish Civil War.
Real Madrid is the most successful club with 33 titles. The most recent club other than Real Madrid and Barcelona to win the league is Atlético Madrid in the 2013 -- 14 season. With their 30 May Copa del Rey defeat of Athletic Bilbao, Barcelona has won the Spanish version of the double the most times, having won the league and cup in the same year eight times in its history, breaking its tie with Athletic 's five. Barcelona is the only Spanish team that has won the treble, which includes the UEFA Champions League along with the league and Copa del Rey, and the only UEFA club to have won the treble twice after accomplishing that feat in 2015. The current champions are Barcelona, who won the 2017 -- 18 competition.
There are 9 clubs have been champions.
Titles won by club (%)
A. Atlético Madrid were known as Atlético Aviación from 1939 until 1947.
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what is the bottom of a pendulum called | Pendulum - wikipedia
A pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing freely. When a pendulum is displaced sideways from its resting, equilibrium position, it is subject to a restoring force due to gravity that will accelerate it back toward the equilibrium position. When released, the restoring force acting on the pendulum 's mass causes it to oscillate about the equilibrium position, swinging back and forth. The time for one complete cycle, a left swing and a right swing, is called the period. The period depends on the length of the pendulum and also to a slight degree on the amplitude, the width of the pendulum 's swing.
From the first scientific investigations of the pendulum around 1602 by Galileo Galilei, the regular motion of pendulums was used for timekeeping, and was the world 's most accurate timekeeping technology until the 1930s. The pendulum clock invented by Christian Huygens in 1658 became the world 's standard timekeeper, used in homes and offices for 270 years, and achieved accuracy of about one second per year before it was superseded as a time standard by the quartz clock in the 1930s. Pendulums are also used in scientific instruments such as accelerometers and seismometers. Historically they were used as gravimeters to measure the acceleration of gravity in geophysical surveys, and even as a standard of length. The word "pendulum '' is new Latin, from the Latin pendulus, meaning ' hanging '.
The simple gravity pendulum is an idealized mathematical model of a pendulum. This is a weight (or bob) on the end of a massless cord suspended from a pivot, without friction. When given an initial push, it will swing back and forth at a constant amplitude. Real pendulums are subject to friction and air drag, so the amplitude of their swings declines.
The period of swing of a simple gravity pendulum depends on its length, the local strength of gravity, and to a small extent on the maximum angle that the pendulum swings away from vertical, θ, called the amplitude. It is independent of the mass of the bob. If the amplitude is limited to small swings, the period T of a simple pendulum, the time taken for a complete cycle, is:
where L (\ displaystyle L) is the length of the pendulum and g (\ displaystyle g) is the local acceleration of gravity.
For small swings the period of swing is approximately the same for different size swings: that is, the period is independent of amplitude. This property, called isochronism, is the reason pendulums are so useful for timekeeping. Successive swings of the pendulum, even if changing in amplitude, take the same amount of time.
For larger amplitudes, the period increases gradually with amplitude so it is longer than given by equation (1). For example, at an amplitude of θ = 23 ° it is 1 % larger than given by (1). The period increases asymptotically (to infinity) as θ approaches 180 °, because the value θ = 180 ° is an unstable equilibrium point for the pendulum. The true period of an ideal simple gravity pendulum can be written in several different forms (see Pendulum (mathematics)), one example being the infinite series:
where θ 0 (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (0)) is in radians.
The difference between this true period and the period for small swings (1) above is called the circular error. In the case of a typical grandfather clock whose pendulum has a swing of 6 ° and thus an amplitude of 3 ° (0.05 radians), the difference between the true period and the small angle approximation (1) amounts to about 15 seconds per day.
For small swings the pendulum approximates a harmonic oscillator, and its motion as a function of time, t, is approximately simple harmonic motion:
where φ (\ displaystyle \ varphi) is a constant value, dependent on initial conditions.
For real pendulums, the period varies slightly with factors such as the buoyancy and viscous resistance of the air, the mass of the string or rod, the size and shape of the bob and how it is attached to the string, and flexibility and stretching of the string. In precision applications, corrections for these factors may need to be applied to eq. (1) to give the period accurately.
Any swinging rigid body free to rotate about a fixed horizontal axis is called a compound pendulum or physical pendulum. The appropriate equivalent length L (\ displaystyle L \;) for calculating the period of any such pendulum is the distance from the pivot to the center of oscillation. This point is located under the center of mass at a distance from the pivot traditionally called the radius of oscillation, which depends on the mass distribution of the pendulum. If most of the mass is concentrated in a relatively small bob compared to the pendulum length, the center of oscillation is close to the center of mass.
The radius of oscillation or equivalent length L (\ displaystyle L \;) of any physical pendulum can be shown to be
where I (\ displaystyle I \;) is the moment of inertia of the pendulum about the pivot point, m (\ displaystyle m \;) is the mass of the pendulum, and R (\ displaystyle R \;) is the distance between the pivot point and the center of mass. Substituting this expression in (1) above, the period T (\ displaystyle T \;) of a compound pendulum is given by
for sufficiently small oscillations.
For example, a rigid uniform rod of length L (\ displaystyle L \;) pivoted about one end has moment of inertia I = m L 2 / 3 (\ displaystyle I = mL ^ (2) / 3 \;). The center of mass is located at the center of the rod, so R = L / 2 (\ displaystyle R = L / 2 \;) Substituting these values into the above equation gives T = 2 π 2 L / 3 g (\ displaystyle T = 2 \ pi (\ sqrt (2L / 3g)) \;). This shows that a rigid rod pendulum has the same period as a simple pendulum of 2 / 3 its length.
Christiaan Huygens proved in 1673 that the pivot point and the center of oscillation are interchangeable. This means if any pendulum is turned upside down and swung from a pivot located at its previous center of oscillation, it will have the same period as before and the new center of oscillation will be at the old pivot point. In 1817 Henry Kater used this idea to produce a type of reversible pendulum, now known as a Kater pendulum, for improved measurements of the acceleration due to gravity.
One of the earliest known uses of a pendulum was a 1st - century seismometer device of Han Dynasty Chinese scientist Zhang Heng. Its function was to sway and activate one of a series of levers after being disturbed by the tremor of an earthquake far away. Released by a lever, a small ball would fall out of the urn - shaped device into one of eight metal toad 's mouths below, at the eight points of the compass, signifying the direction the earthquake was located.
Many sources claim that the 10th - century Egyptian astronomer Ibn Yunus used a pendulum for time measurement, but this was an error that originated in 1684 with the British historian Edward Bernard.
During the Renaissance, large hand - pumped pendulums were used as sources of power for manual reciprocating machines such as saws, bellows, and pumps. Leonardo da Vinci made many drawings of the motion of pendulums, though without realizing its value for timekeeping.
Italian scientist Galileo Galilei was the first to study the properties of pendulums, beginning around 1602. The earliest extant report of his research is contained in a letter to Guido Ubaldo dal Monte, from Padua, dated November 29, 1602. His biographer and student, Vincenzo Viviani, claimed his interest had been sparked around 1582 by the swinging motion of a chandelier in Pisa Cathedral. Galileo discovered the crucial property that makes pendulums useful as timekeepers, called isochronism; the period of the pendulum is approximately independent of the amplitude or width of the swing. He also found that the period is independent of the mass of the bob, and proportional to the square root of the length of the pendulum. He first employed freeswinging pendulums in simple timing applications. His physician friend, Santorio Santorii, invented a device which measured a patient 's pulse by the length of a pendulum; the pulsilogium. In 1641 Galileo conceived and dictated to his son Vincenzo a design for a pendulum clock; Vincenzo began construction, but had not completed it when he died in 1649. The pendulum was the first harmonic oscillator used by man.
In 1656 the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens built the first pendulum clock. This was a great improvement over existing mechanical clocks; their best accuracy was improved from around 15 minutes deviation a day to around 15 seconds a day. Pendulums spread over Europe as existing clocks were retrofitted with them.
The English scientist Robert Hooke studied the conical pendulum around 1666, consisting of a pendulum that is free to swing in two dimensions, with the bob rotating in a circle or ellipse. He used the motions of this device as a model to analyze the orbital motions of the planets. Hooke suggested to Isaac Newton in 1679 that the components of orbital motion consisted of inertial motion along a tangent direction plus an attractive motion in the radial direction. This played a part in Newton 's formulation of the law of universal gravitation. Robert Hooke was also responsible for suggesting as early as 1666 that the pendulum could be used to measure the force of gravity.
During his expedition to Cayenne, French Guiana in 1671, Jean Richer found that a pendulum clock was 2 ⁄ minutes per day slower at Cayenne than at Paris. From this he deduced that the force of gravity was lower at Cayenne. In 1687, Isaac Newton in Principia Mathematica showed that this was because the Earth was not a true sphere but slightly oblate (flattened at the poles) from the effect of centrifugal force due to its rotation, causing gravity to increase with latitude. Portable pendulums began to be taken on voyages to distant lands, as precision gravimeters to measure the acceleration of gravity at different points on Earth, eventually resulting in accurate models of the shape of the Earth.
In 1673, 17 years after he invented the pendulum clock, Christiaan Huygens published his theory of the pendulum, Horologium Oscillatorium sive de motu pendulorum. Marin Mersenne and René Descartes had discovered around 1636 that the pendulum was not quite isochronous; its period increased somewhat with its amplitude. Huygens analyzed this problem by determining what curve an object must follow to descend by gravity to the same point in the same time interval, regardless of starting point; the so - called tautochrone curve. By a complicated method that was an early use of calculus, he showed this curve was a cycloid, rather than the circular arc of a pendulum, confirming that the pendulum was not isochronous and Galileo 's observation of isochronism was accurate only for small swings. Huygens also solved the problem of how to calculate the period of an arbitrarily shaped pendulum (called a compound pendulum), discovering the center of oscillation, and its interchangeability with the pivot point.
The existing clock movement, the verge escapement, made pendulums swing in very wide arcs of about 100 °. Huygens showed this was a source of inaccuracy, causing the period to vary with amplitude changes caused by small unavoidable variations in the clock 's drive force. To make its period isochronous, Huygens mounted cycloidal - shaped metal ' chops ' next to the pivots in his clocks, that constrained the suspension cord and forced the pendulum to follow a cycloid arc. This solution did n't prove as practical as simply limiting the pendulum 's swing to small angles of a few degrees. The realization that only small swings were isochronous motivated the development of the anchor escapement around 1670, which reduced the pendulum swing in clocks to 4 ° -- 6 °.
During the 18th and 19th century, the pendulum clock 's role as the most accurate timekeeper motivated much practical research into improving pendulums. It was found that a major source of error was that the pendulum rod expanded and contracted with changes in ambient temperature, changing the period of swing. This was solved with the invention of temperature compensated pendulums, the mercury pendulum in 1721 and the gridiron pendulum in 1726, reducing errors in precision pendulum clocks to a few seconds per week.
The accuracy of gravity measurements made with pendulums was limited by the difficulty of finding the location of their center of oscillation. Huygens had discovered in 1673 that a pendulum has the same period when hung from its center of oscillation as when hung from its pivot, and the distance between the two points was equal to the length of a simple gravity pendulum of the same period. In 1818 British Captain Henry Kater invented the reversible Kater 's pendulum which used this principle, making possible very accurate measurements of gravity. For the next century the reversible pendulum was the standard method of measuring absolute gravitational acceleration.
In 1851, Jean Bernard Léon Foucault showed that the plane of oscillation of a pendulum, like a gyroscope, tends to stay constant regardless of the motion of the pivot, and that this could be used to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth. He suspended a pendulum free to swing in two dimensions (later named the Foucault pendulum) from the dome of the Panthéon in Paris. The length of the cord was 67 m (220 ft). Once the pendulum was set in motion, the plane of swing was observed to precess or rotate 360 ° clockwise in about 32 hours. This was the first demonstration of the Earth 's rotation that did n't depend on celestial observations, and a "pendulum mania '' broke out, as Foucault pendulums were displayed in many cities and attracted large crowds.
Around 1900 low - thermal - expansion materials began to be used for pendulum rods in the highest precision clocks and other instruments, first invar, a nickel steel alloy, and later fused quartz, which made temperature compensation trivial. Precision pendulums were housed in low pressure tanks, which kept the air pressure constant to prevent changes in the period due to changes in buoyancy of the pendulum due to changing atmospheric pressure. The best pendulum clocks achieved accuracy of around a second per year.
The timekeeping accuracy of the pendulum was exceeded by the quartz crystal oscillator, invented in 1921, and quartz clocks, invented in 1927, replaced pendulum clocks as the world 's best timekeepers. Pendulum clocks were used as time standards until World War 2, although the French Time Service continued using them in their official time standard ensemble until 1954. Pendulum gravimeters were superseded by "free fall '' gravimeters in the 1950s, but pendulum instruments continued to be used into the 1970s.
For 300 years, from its discovery around 1582 until development of the quartz clock in the 1930s, the pendulum was the world 's standard for accurate timekeeping. In addition to clock pendulums, freeswinging seconds pendulums were widely used as precision timers in scientific experiments in the 17th and 18th centuries. Pendulums require great mechanical stability: a length change of only 0.02 %, 0.2 mm in a grandfather clock pendulum, will cause an error of a minute per week.
Pendulums in clocks (see example at right) are usually made of a weight or bob (b) suspended by a rod of wood or metal (a). To reduce air resistance (which accounts for most of the energy loss in precision clocks) the bob is traditionally a smooth disk with a lens - shaped cross section, although in antique clocks it often had carvings or decorations specific to the type of clock. In quality clocks the bob is made as heavy as the suspension can support and the movement can drive, since this improves the regulation of the clock (see Accuracy below). A common weight for seconds pendulum bobs is 15 pounds (6.8 kg). Instead of hanging from a pivot, clock pendulums are usually supported by a short straight spring (d) of flexible metal ribbon. This avoids the friction and ' play ' caused by a pivot, and the slight bending force of the spring merely adds to the pendulum 's restoring force. A few precision clocks have pivots of ' knife ' blades resting on agate plates. The impulses to keep the pendulum swinging are provided by an arm hanging behind the pendulum called the crutch, (e), which ends in a fork, (f) whose prongs embrace the pendulum rod. The crutch is pushed back and forth by the clock 's escapement, (g, h).
Each time the pendulum swings through its centre position, it releases one tooth of the escape wheel (g). The force of the clock 's mainspring or a driving weight hanging from a pulley, transmitted through the clock 's gear train, causes the wheel to turn, and a tooth presses against one of the pallets (h), giving the pendulum a short push. The clock 's wheels, geared to the escape wheel, move forward a fixed amount with each pendulum swing, advancing the clock 's hands at a steady rate.
The pendulum always has a means of adjusting the period, usually by an adjustment nut (c) under the bob which moves it up or down on the rod. Moving the bob up decreases the pendulum 's length, causing the pendulum to swing faster and the clock to gain time. Some precision clocks have a small auxiliary adjustment weight on a threaded shaft on the bob, to allow finer adjustment. Some tower clocks and precision clocks use a tray attached near to the midpoint of the pendulum rod, to which small weights can be added or removed. This effectively shifts the centre of oscillation and allows the rate to be adjusted without stopping the clock.
The pendulum must be suspended from a rigid support. During operation, any elasticity will allow tiny imperceptible swaying motions of the support, which disturbs the clock 's period, resulting in error. Pendulum clocks should be attached firmly to a sturdy wall.
The most common pendulum length in quality clocks, which is always used in grandfather clocks, is the seconds pendulum, about 1 metre (39 inches) long. In mantel clocks, half - second pendulums, 25 cm (9.8 in) long, or shorter, are used. Only a few large tower clocks use longer pendulums, the 1.5 second pendulum, 2.25 m (7.4 ft) long, or occasionally the two - second pendulum, 4 m (13 ft) which is used in Big Ben.
The largest source of error in early pendulums was slight changes in length due to thermal expansion and contraction of the pendulum rod with changes in ambient temperature. This was discovered when people noticed that pendulum clocks ran slower in summer, by as much as a minute per week (one of the first was Godefroy Wendelin, as reported by Huygens in 1658). Thermal expansion of pendulum rods was first studied by Jean Picard in 1669. A pendulum with a steel rod will expand by about 11.3 parts per million (ppm) with each degree Celsius increase, causing it to lose about 0.27 seconds per day for every degree Celsius increase in temperature, or 9 seconds per day for a 33 ° C (59 ° F) change. Wood rods expand less, losing only about 6 seconds per day for a 33 ° C (59 ° F) change, which is why quality clocks often had wooden pendulum rods. The wood had to be varnished to prevent water vapor from getting in, because changes in humidity also affected the length.
The first device to compensate for this error was the mercury pendulum, invented by George Graham in 1721. The liquid metal mercury expands in volume with temperature. In a mercury pendulum, the pendulum 's weight (bob) is a container of mercury. With a temperature rise, the pendulum rod gets longer, but the mercury also expands and its surface level rises slightly in the container, moving its centre of mass closer to the pendulum pivot. By using the correct height of mercury in the container these two effects will cancel, leaving the pendulum 's centre of mass, and its period, unchanged with temperature. Its main disadvantage was that when the temperature changed, the rod would come to the new temperature quickly but the mass of mercury might take a day or two to reach the new temperature, causing the rate to deviate during that time. To improve thermal accommodation several thin containers were often used, made of metal. Mercury pendulums were the standard used in precision regulator clocks into the 20th century.
The most widely used compensated pendulum was the gridiron pendulum, invented in 1726 by John Harrison. This consists of alternating rods of two different metals, one with lower thermal expansion (CTE), steel, and one with higher thermal expansion, zinc or brass. The rods are connected by a frame, as shown in the drawing at the right, so that an increase in length of the zinc rods pushes the bob up, shortening the pendulum. With a temperature increase, the low expansion steel rods make the pendulum longer, while the high expansion zinc rods make it shorter. By making the rods of the correct lengths, the greater expansion of the zinc cancels out the expansion of the steel rods which have a greater combined length, and the pendulum stays the same length with temperature.
Zinc - steel gridiron pendulums are made with 5 rods, but the thermal expansion of brass is closer to steel, so brass - steel gridirons usually require 9 rods. Gridiron pendulums adjust to temperature changes faster than mercury pendulums, but scientists found that friction of the rods sliding in their holes in the frame caused gridiron pendulums to adjust in a series of tiny jumps. In high precision clocks this caused the clock 's rate to change suddenly with each jump. Later it was found that zinc is subject to creep. For these reasons mercury pendulums were used in the highest precision clocks, but gridirons were used in quality regulator clocks.
Gridiron pendulums became so associated with good quality that, to this day, many ordinary clock pendulums have decorative ' fake ' gridirons that do n't actually have any temperature compensation function.
Around 1900, low thermal expansion materials were developed which could be used as pendulum rods in order to make elaborate temperature compensation unnecessary. These were only used in a few of the highest precision clocks before the pendulum became obsolete as a time standard. In 1896 Charles Édouard Guillaume invented the nickel steel alloy Invar. This has a CTE of around 0.5 μin / (in ° F), resulting in pendulum temperature errors over 71 ° F of only 1.3 seconds per day, and this residual error could be compensated to zero with a few centimeters of aluminium under the pendulum bob (this can be seen in the Riefler clock image above). Invar pendulums were first used in 1898 in the Riefler regulator clock which achieved accuracy of 15 milliseconds per day. Suspension springs of Elinvar were used to eliminate temperature variation of the spring 's restoring force on the pendulum. Later fused quartz was used which had even lower CTE. These materials are the choice for modern high accuracy pendulums.
The effect of the surrounding air on a moving pendulum is complex and requires fluid mechanics to calculate precisely, but for most purposes its influence on the period can be accounted for by three effects:
Increases in barometric pressure increase a pendulum 's period slightly due to the first two effects, by about 0.11 seconds per day per kilopascal (0.37 seconds per day per inch of mercury or 0.015 seconds per day per torr). Researchers using pendulums to measure the acceleration of gravity had to correct the period for the air pressure at the altitude of measurement, computing the equivalent period of a pendulum swinging in vacuum. A pendulum clock was first operated in a constant - pressure tank by Friedrich Tiede in 1865 at the Berlin Observatory, and by 1900 the highest precision clocks were mounted in tanks that were kept at a constant pressure to eliminate changes in atmospheric pressure. Alternatively, in some a small aneroid barometer mechanism attached to the pendulum compensated for this effect.
Pendulums are affected by changes in gravitational acceleration, which varies by as much as 0.5 % at different locations on Earth, so precision pendulum clocks have to be recalibrated after a move. Even moving a pendulum clock to the top of a tall building can cause it to lose measurable time from the reduction in gravity.
The timekeeping elements in all clocks, which include pendulums, balance wheels, the quartz crystals used in quartz watches, and even the vibrating atoms in atomic clocks, are in physics called harmonic oscillators. The reason harmonic oscillators are used in clocks is that they vibrate or oscillate at a specific resonant frequency or period and resist oscillating at other rates. However, the resonant frequency is not infinitely ' sharp '. Around the resonant frequency there is a narrow natural band of frequencies (or periods), called the resonance width or bandwidth, where the harmonic oscillator will oscillate. In a clock, the actual frequency of the pendulum may vary randomly within this resonance width in response to disturbances, but at frequencies outside this band, the clock will not function at all.
The measure of a harmonic oscillator 's resistance to disturbances to its oscillation period is a dimensionless parameter called the Q factor equal to the resonant frequency divided by the resonance width. The higher the Q, the smaller the resonance width, and the more constant the frequency or period of the oscillator for a given disturbance. The reciprocal of the Q is roughly proportional to the limiting accuracy achievable by a harmonic oscillator as a time standard.
The Q is related to how long it takes for the oscillations of an oscillator to die out. The Q of a pendulum can be measured by counting the number of oscillations it takes for the amplitude of the pendulum 's swing to decay to 1 / e = 36.8 % of its initial swing, and multiplying by 2π.
In a clock, the pendulum must receive pushes from the clock 's movement to keep it swinging, to replace the energy the pendulum loses to friction. These pushes, applied by a mechanism called the escapement, are the main source of disturbance to the pendulum 's motion. The Q is equal to 2π times the energy stored in the pendulum, divided by the energy lost to friction during each oscillation period, which is the same as the energy added by the escapement each period. It can be seen that the smaller the fraction of the pendulum 's energy that is lost to friction, the less energy needs to be added, the less the disturbance from the escapement, the more ' independent ' the pendulum is of the clock 's mechanism, and the more constant its period is. The Q of a pendulum is given by:
where M is the mass of the bob, ω = 2π / T is the pendulum 's radian frequency of oscillation, and Γ is the frictional damping force on the pendulum per unit velocity.
ω is fixed by the pendulum 's period, and M is limited by the load capacity and rigidity of the suspension. So the Q of clock pendulums is increased by minimizing frictional losses (Γ). Precision pendulums are suspended on low friction pivots consisting of triangular shaped ' knife ' edges resting on agate plates. Around 99 % of the energy loss in a freeswinging pendulum is due to air friction, so mounting a pendulum in a vacuum tank can increase the Q, and thus the accuracy, by a factor of 100.
The Q of pendulums ranges from several thousand in an ordinary clock to several hundred thousand for precision regulator pendulums swinging in vacuum. A quality home pendulum clock might have a Q of 10,000 and an accuracy of 10 seconds per month. The most accurate commercially produced pendulum clock was the Shortt - Synchronome free pendulum clock, invented in 1921. Its Invar master pendulum swinging in a vacuum tank had a Q of 110,000 and an error rate of around a second per year.
Their Q of 10 -- 10 is one reason why pendulums are more accurate timekeepers than the balance wheels in watches, with Q around 100 -- 300, but less accurate than the quartz crystals in quartz clocks, with Q of 10 -- 10.
Pendulums (unlike, for example, quartz crystals) have a low enough Q that the disturbance caused by the impulses to keep them moving is generally the limiting factor on their timekeeping accuracy. Therefore, the design of the escapement, the mechanism that provides these impulses, has a large effect on the accuracy of a clock pendulum. If the impulses given to the pendulum by the escapement each swing could be exactly identical, the response of the pendulum would be identical, and its period would be constant. However, this is not achievable; unavoidable random fluctuations in the force due to friction of the clock 's pallets, lubrication variations, and changes in the torque provided by the clock 's power source as it runs down, mean that the force of the impulse applied by the escapement varies.
If these variations in the escapement 's force cause changes in the pendulum 's width of swing (amplitude), this will cause corresponding slight changes in the period, since (as discussed at top) a pendulum with a finite swing is not quite isochronous. Therefore, the goal of traditional escapement design is to apply the force with the proper profile, and at the correct point in the pendulum 's cycle, so force variations have no effect on the pendulum 's amplitude. This is called an isochronous escapement.
In 1826 British astronomer George Airy proved what clockmakers had known for centuries; that the disturbing effect of a drive force on the period of a pendulum is smallest if given as a short impulse as the pendulum passes through its bottom equilibrium position. Specifically, he proved that if a pendulum is driven by an impulse that is symmetrical about its bottom equilibrium position, the pendulum 's period will be unaffected by changes in the drive force. The most accurate escapements, such as the deadbeat, approximately satisfy this condition.
The presence of the acceleration of gravity g in the periodicity equation (1) for a pendulum means that the local gravitational acceleration of the Earth can be calculated from the period of a pendulum. A pendulum can therefore be used as a gravimeter to measure the local gravity, which varies by over 0.5 % across the surface of the Earth. The pendulum in a clock is disturbed by the pushes it receives from the clock movement, so freeswinging pendulums were used, and were the standard instruments of gravimetry up to the 1930s.
The difference between clock pendulums and gravimeter pendulums is that to measure gravity, the pendulum 's length as well as its period has to be measured. The period of freeswinging pendulums could be found to great precision by comparing their swing with a precision clock that had been adjusted to keep correct time by the passage of stars overhead. In the early measurements, a weight on a cord was suspended in front of the clock pendulum, and its length adjusted until the two pendulums swung in exact synchronism. Then the length of the cord was measured. From the length and the period, g could be calculated from equation (1).
The seconds pendulum, a pendulum with a period of two seconds so each swing takes one second, was widely used to measure gravity, because its period could be easily measured by comparing it to precision regulator clocks, which all had seconds pendulums. By the late 17th century, the length of the seconds pendulum became the standard measure of the strength of gravitational acceleration at a location. By 1700 its length had been measured with submillimeter accuracy at several cities in Europe. For a seconds pendulum, g is proportional to its length:
The precision of the early gravity measurements above was limited by the difficulty of measuring the length of the pendulum, L. L was the length of an idealized simple gravity pendulum (described at top), which has all its mass concentrated in a point at the end of the cord. In 1673 Huygens had shown that the period of a rigid bar pendulum (called a compound pendulum) was equal to the period of a simple pendulum with a length equal to the distance between the pivot point and a point called the center of oscillation, located under the center of gravity, that depends on the mass distribution along the pendulum. But there was no accurate way of determining the center of oscillation in a real pendulum.
To get around this problem, the early researchers above approximated an ideal simple pendulum as closely as possible by using a metal sphere suspended by a light wire or cord. If the wire was light enough, the center of oscillation was close to the center of gravity of the ball, at its geometric center. This "ball and wire '' type of pendulum was n't very accurate, because it did n't swing as a rigid body, and the elasticity of the wire caused its length to change slightly as the pendulum swung.
However Huygens had also proved that in any pendulum, the pivot point and the center of oscillation were interchangeable. That is, if a pendulum were turned upside down and hung from its center of oscillation, it would have the same period as it did in the previous position, and the old pivot point would be the new center of oscillation.
British physicist and army captain Henry Kater in 1817 realized that Huygens ' principle could be used to find the length of a simple pendulum with the same period as a real pendulum. If a pendulum was built with a second adjustable pivot point near the bottom so it could be hung upside down, and the second pivot was adjusted until the periods when hung from both pivots were the same, the second pivot would be at the center of oscillation, and the distance between the two pivots would be the length L of a simple pendulum with the same period.
Kater built a reversible pendulum (shown at right) consisting of a brass bar with two opposing pivots made of short triangular "knife '' blades (a) near either end. It could be swung from either pivot, with the knife blades supported on agate plates. Rather than make one pivot adjustable, he attached the pivots a meter apart and instead adjusted the periods with a moveable weight on the pendulum rod (b, c). In operation, the pendulum is hung in front of a precision clock, and the period timed, then turned upside down and the period timed again. The weight is adjusted with the adjustment screw until the periods are equal. Then putting this period and the distance between the pivots into equation (1) gives the gravitational acceleration g very accurately.
Kater timed the swing of his pendulum using the "method of coincidences '' and measured the distance between the two pivots with a micrometer. After applying corrections for the finite amplitude of swing, the buoyancy of the bob, the barometric pressure and altitude, and temperature, he obtained a value of 39.13929 inches for the seconds pendulum at London, in vacuum, at sea level, at 62 ° F. The largest variation from the mean of his 12 observations was 0.00028 in. representing a precision of gravity measurement of 7 × 10 (7 mGal or 70 μm / s). Kater 's measurement was used as Britain 's official standard of length (see below) from 1824 to 1855.
Reversible pendulums (known technically as "convertible '' pendulums) employing Kater 's principle were used for absolute gravity measurements into the 1930s.
The increased accuracy made possible by Kater 's pendulum helped make gravimetry a standard part of geodesy. Since the exact location (latitude and longitude) of the ' station ' where the gravity measurement was made was necessary, gravity measurements became part of surveying, and pendulums were taken on the great geodetic surveys of the 18th century, particularly the Great Trigonometric Survey of India.
Relative pendulum gravimeters were superseded by the simpler LaCoste zero - length spring gravimeter, invented in 1934 by Lucien LaCoste. Absolute (reversible) pendulum gravimeters were replaced in the 1950s by free fall gravimeters, in which a weight is allowed to fall in a vacuum tank and its acceleration is measured by an optical interferometer.
Because the acceleration of gravity is constant at a given point on Earth, the period of a simple pendulum at a given location depends only on its length. Additionally, gravity varies only slightly at different locations. Almost from the pendulum 's discovery until the early 19th century, this property led scientists to suggest using a pendulum of a given period as a standard of length.
Until the 19th century, countries based their systems of length measurement on prototypes, metal bar primary standards, such as the standard yard in Britain kept at the Houses of Parliament, and the standard toise in France, kept at Paris. These were vulnerable to damage or destruction over the years, and because of the difficulty of comparing prototypes, the same unit often had different lengths in distant towns, creating opportunities for fraud. During the Enlightenment scientists argued for a length standard that was based on some property of nature that could be determined by measurement, creating an indestructible, universal standard. The period of pendulums could be measured very precisely by timing them with clocks that were set by the stars. A pendulum standard amounted to defining the unit of length by the gravitational force of the Earth, for all intents constant, and the second, which was defined by the rotation rate of the Earth, also constant. The idea was that anyone, anywhere on Earth, could recreate the standard by constructing a pendulum that swung with the defined period and measuring its length.
Virtually all proposals were based on the seconds pendulum, in which each swing (a half period) takes one second, which is about a meter (39 inches) long, because by the late 17th century it had become a standard for measuring gravity (see previous section). By the 18th century its length had been measured with sub-millimeter accuracy at a number of cities in Europe and around the world.
The initial attraction of the pendulum length standard was that it was believed (by early scientists such as Huygens and Wren) that gravity was constant over the Earth 's surface, so a given pendulum had the same period at any point on Earth. So the length of the standard pendulum could be measured at any location, and would not be tied to any given nation or region; it would be a truly democratic, worldwide standard. Although Richer found in 1672 that gravity varies at different points on the globe, the idea of a pendulum length standard remained popular, because it was found that gravity only varies with latitude. Gravitational acceleration increases smoothly from the equator to the poles, due to the oblate shape of the Earth, so at any given latitude (east - west line), gravity was constant enough that the length of a seconds pendulum was the same within the measurement capability of the 18th century. Thus the unit of length could be defined at a given latitude and measured at any point along that latitude. For example, a pendulum standard defined at 45 ° north latitude, a popular choice, could be measured in parts of France, Italy, Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Russia, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, the United States and Canada. In addition, it could be recreated at any location at which the gravitational acceleration had been accurately measured.
By the mid 19th century, increasingly accurate pendulum measurements by Edward Sabine and Thomas Young revealed that gravity, and thus the length of any pendulum standard, varied measurably with local geologic features such as mountains and dense subsurface rocks. So a pendulum length standard had to be defined at a single point on Earth and could only be measured there. This took much of the appeal from the concept, and efforts to adopt pendulum standards were abandoned.
One of the first to suggest defining length with a pendulum was Flemish scientist Isaac Beeckman who in 1631 recommended making the seconds pendulum "the invariable measure for all people at all times in all places ''. Marin Mersenne, who first measured the seconds pendulum in 1644, also suggested it. The first official proposal for a pendulum standard was made by the British Royal Society in 1660, advocated by Christiaan Huygens and Ole Rømer, basing it on Mersenne 's work, and Huygens in Horologium Oscillatorium proposed a "horary foot '' defined as 1 / 3 of the seconds pendulum. Christopher Wren was another early supporter. The idea of a pendulum standard of length must have been familiar to people as early as 1663, because Samuel Butler satirizes it in Hudibras:
In 1671 Jean Picard proposed a pendulum - defined ' universal foot ' in his influential Mesure de la Terre. Gabriel Mouton around 1670 suggested defining the toise either by a seconds pendulum or a minute of terrestrial degree. A plan for a complete system of units based on the pendulum was advanced in 1675 by Italian polymath Tito Livio Burratini. In France in 1747, geographer Charles Marie de la Condamine proposed defining length by a seconds pendulum at the equator; since at this location a pendulum 's swing would n't be distorted by the Earth 's rotation. James Steuart (1780) and George Skene Keith were also supporters.
By the end of the 18th century, when many nations were reforming their weight and measure systems, the seconds pendulum was the leading choice for a new definition of length, advocated by prominent scientists in several major nations. In 1790, then US Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed to Congress a comprehensive decimalized US ' metric system ' based on the seconds pendulum at 38 ° North latitude, the mean latitude of the United States. No action was taken on this proposal. In Britain the leading advocate of the pendulum was politician John Riggs Miller. When his efforts to promote a joint British -- French -- American metric system fell through in 1790, he proposed a British system based on the length of the seconds pendulum at London. This standard was adopted in 1824 (below).
In the discussions leading up to the French adoption of the metric system in 1791, the leading candidate for the definition of the new unit of length, the metre, was the seconds pendulum at 45 ° North latitude. It was advocated by a group led by French politician Talleyrand and mathematician Antoine Nicolas Caritat de Condorcet. This was one of the three final options considered by the French Academy of Sciences committee. However, on March 19, 1791 the committee instead chose to base the metre on the length of the meridian through Paris. A pendulum definition was rejected because of its variability at different locations, and because it defined length by a unit of time. (However, since 1983 the metre has been officially defined in terms of the length of the second and the speed of light.) A possible additional reason is that the radical French Academy did n't want to base their new system on the second, a traditional and nondecimal unit from the ancien regime.
Although not defined by the pendulum, the final length chosen for the metre, 10 of the pole - to - equator meridian arc, was very close to the length of the seconds pendulum (0.9937 m), within 0.63 %. Although no reason for this particular choice was given at the time, it was probably to facilitate the use of the seconds pendulum as a secondary standard, as was proposed in the official document. So the modern world 's standard unit of length is certainly closely linked historically with the seconds pendulum.
Britain and Denmark appear to be the only nations that (for a short time) based their units of length on the pendulum. In 1821 the Danish inch was defined as 1 / 38 of the length of the mean solar seconds pendulum at 45 ° latitude at the meridian of Skagen, at sea level, in vacuum. The British parliament passed the Imperial Weights and Measures Act in 1824, a reform of the British standard system which declared that if the prototype standard yard was destroyed, it would be recovered by defining the inch so that the length of the solar seconds pendulum at London, at sea level, in a vacuum, at 62 ° F was 39.1393 inches. This also became the US standard, since at the time the US used British measures. However, when the prototype yard was lost in the 1834 Houses of Parliament fire, it proved impossible to recreate it accurately from the pendulum definition, and in 1855 Britain repealed the pendulum standard and returned to prototype standards.
A pendulum in which the rod is not vertical but almost horizontal was used in early seismometers for measuring earth tremors. The bob of the pendulum does not move when its mounting does, and the difference in the movements is recorded on a drum chart.
As first explained by Maximilian Schuler in a 1923 paper, a pendulum whose period exactly equals the orbital period of a hypothetical satellite orbiting just above the surface of the earth (about 84 minutes) will tend to remain pointing at the center of the earth when its support is suddenly displaced. This principle, called Schuler tuning, is used in inertial guidance systems in ships and aircraft that operate on the surface of the Earth. No physical pendulum is used, but the control system that keeps the inertial platform containing the gyroscopes stable is modified so the device acts as though it is attached to such a pendulum, keeping the platform always facing down as the vehicle moves on the curved surface of the Earth.
In 1665 Huygens made a curious observation about pendulum clocks. Two clocks had been placed on his mantlepiece, and he noted that they had acquired an opposing motion. That is, their pendulums were beating in unison but in the opposite direction; 180 ° out of phase. Regardless of how the two clocks were started, he found that they would eventually return to this state, thus making the first recorded observation of a coupled oscillator.
The cause of this behavior was that the two pendulums were affecting each other through slight motions of the supporting mantlepiece. This process is called entrainment or mode locking in physics and is observed in other coupled oscillators. Synchronized pendulums have been used in clocks and were widely used in gravimeters in the early 20th century. Although Huygens only observed out - of - phase synchronization, recent investigations have shown the existence of in - phase synchronization, as well as "death '' states wherein one or both clocks stops.
Pendulum motion appears in religious ceremonies as well. The swinging incense burner called a censer, also known as a thurible, is an example of a pendulum. Pendulums are also seen at many gatherings in eastern Mexico where they mark the turning of the tides on the day which the tides are at their highest point. See also pendulums for divination and dowsing.
Pendulums are widely used in science education as an example of a harmonic oscillator, to teach dynamics and oscillatory motion. One use is to demonstrate the law of conservation of energy. A heavy object such as a bowling ball or wrecking ball is attached to a string. The weight is then moved to within a few inches of a volunteer 's face, then released and allowed to swing and come back. In most instances, the weight reverses direction and then returns to (almost) the same position as the original release location -- i.e. a small distance from the volunteer 's face -- thus leaving the volunteer unharmed. On occasion the volunteer is injured if either the volunteer does not stand still or the pendulum is initially released with a push (so that when it returns it surpasses the release position).
It is claimed that the pendulum was used as an instrument of torture and execution by the Spanish Inquisition in the 18th century. The allegation is contained in the 1826 book The history of the Inquisition of Spain by the Spanish priest, historian and liberal activist Juan Antonio Llorente. A swinging pendulum whose edge is a knife blade slowly descends toward a bound prisoner until it cuts into his body. This method of torture came to popular consciousness through the 1842 short story "The Pit and the Pendulum '' by American author Edgar Allan Poe but there is considerable skepticism that it actually was used.
Most knowledgeable sources are skeptical that this torture was ever actually used. The only evidence of its use is one paragraph in the preface to Llorente 's 1826 History, relating a second - hand account by a single prisoner released from the Inquisition 's Madrid dungeon in 1820, who purportedly described the pendulum torture method. Modern sources point out that due to Jesus ' admonition against bloodshed, Inquisitors were only allowed to use torture methods which did not spill blood, and the pendulum method would have violated this stricture. One theory is that Llorente misunderstood the account he heard; the prisoner was actually referring to another common Inquisition torture, the strappado (garrucha), in which the prisoner has his hands tied behind his back and is hoisted off the floor by a rope tied to his hands. This method was also known as the "pendulum ''. Poe 's popular horror tale, and public awareness of the Inquisition 's other brutal methods, has kept the myth of this elaborate torture method alive.
The value of g reflected by the period of a pendulum varies from place to place. The gravitational force varies with distance from the center of the Earth, i.e. with altitude - or because the Earth 's shape is oblate, g varies with latitude. A more important cause of this reduction in g at the equator is because the equator is spinning at one revolution per day, reducing the gravitational force there.
Note: most of the sources below, including books, can be viewed online through the links given.
Matthys, Robert J. (2004). Accurate Pendulum Clocks. UK: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 852971 - 2.
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what percent of data with a normal distribution is within one standard deviation of the mean | 68 -- 95 -- 99.7 rule - wikipedia
In statistics, the 68 -- 95 -- 99.7 rule is a shorthand used to remember the percentage of values that lie within a band around the mean in a normal distribution with a width of two, four and six standard deviations, respectively; more accurately, 68.27 %, 95.45 % and 99.73 % of the values lie within one, two and three standard deviations of the mean, respectively. In mathematical notation, these facts can be expressed as follows, where X is an observation from a normally distributed random variable, μ is the mean of the distribution, and σ is its standard deviation:
In the empirical sciences the so - called three - sigma rule of thumb expresses a conventional heuristic that nearly all values are taken to lie within three standard deviations of the mean, and thus it is empirically useful to treat 99.7 % probability as near certainty. The usefulness of this heuristic depends significantly on the question under consideration. In the social sciences, a result may be considered "significant '' if its confidence level is of the order of a two - sigma effect (95 %), while in particle physics, there is a convention of a five - sigma effect (99.99994 % confidence) being required to qualify as a discovery.
The "three - sigma rule of thumb '' is related to a result also known as the three - sigma rule, which states that even for non-normally distributed variables, at least 88.8 % of cases should fall within properly calculated three - sigma intervals. It follows from Chebyshev 's Inequality. For unimodal distributions the probability of being within the interval is at least 95 %. There may be certain assumptions for a distribution that force this probability to be at least 98 %.
These numerical values "68 %, 95 %, 99.7 % '' come from the cumulative distribution function of the normal distribution.
The prediction interval for any standard score z corresponds numerically to (1 − (1 − Φ (z)) 2).
For example, Φ (2) ≈ 0.9772, or Pr (X ≤ μ + 2σ) ≈ 0.9772, corresponding to a prediction interval of (1 − (1 − 0.97725) 2) = 0.9545 = 95.45 %. Note that this is not a symmetrical interval -- this is merely the probability that an observation is less than μ + 2σ. To compute the probability that an observation is within two standard deviations of the mean (small differences due to rounding):
This is related to confidence interval as used in statistics: X _̄ ± 2 σ n (\ displaystyle (\ bar (X)) \ pm 2 (\ frac (\ sigma) (\ sqrt (n)))) is approximately a 95 % confidence interval when X _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ bar (X))) is the average of a sample of size n (\ displaystyle n).
The "68 -- 95 -- 99.7 rule '' is often used to quickly get a rough probability estimate of something, given its standard deviation, if the population is assumed to be normal. It is also as a simple test for outliers if the population is assumed normal, and as a normality test if the population is potentially not normal.
To pass from a sample to a number of standard deviations, one first computes the deviation, either the error or residual depending on whether one knows the population mean or only estimates it. The next step is standardizing (dividing by the population standard deviation), if the population parameters are known, or studentizing (dividing by an estimate of the standard deviation), if the parameters are unknown and only estimated.
To use as a test for outliers or a normality test, one computes the size of deviations in terms of standard deviations, and compares this to expected frequency. Given a sample set, one can compute the studentized residuals and compare these to the expected frequency: points that fall more than 3 standard deviations from the norm are likely outliers (unless the sample size is significantly large, by which point one expects a sample this extreme), and if there are many points more than 3 standard deviations from the norm, one likely has reason to question the assumed normality of the distribution. This holds ever more strongly for moves of 4 or more standard deviations.
One can compute more precisely, approximating the number of extreme moves of a given magnitude or greater by a Poisson distribution, but simply, if one has multiple 4 standard deviation moves in a sample of size 1,000, one has strong reason to consider these outliers or question the assumed normality of the distribution.
For example, a 6σ event corresponds to a chance of about two parts per billion. For illustration, if events are taken to occur daily, this would correspond to an event expected every 1.4 million years. This gives a simple normality test: if one witnesses a 6σ in daily data and significantly fewer than 1 million years have passed, then a normal distribution most likely does not provide a good model for the magnitude or frequency of large deviations in this respect.
In The Black Swan, Nassim Nicholas Taleb gives the example of risk models according to which the Black Monday crash would correspond to a 36 - σ event: the occurrence of such an event should instantly suggest that the model is flawed, i.e. that the process under consideration is not satisfactorily modelled by a normal distribution. Refined models should then be considered, e.g. by the introduction of stochastic volatility. In such discussions it is important to be aware of problem of the gambler 's fallacy, which states that a single observation of a rare event does not contradict that the event is in fact rare. It is the observation of a plurality of purportedly rare events that increasingly undermines the hypothesis that they are rare, i.e. the validity of the assumed model. A proper modelling of this process of gradual loss of confidence in a hypothesis would involve the designation of prior probability not just to the hypothesis itself but to all possible alternative hypotheses. For this reason, statistical hypothesis testing works not so much by confirming a hypothesis considered to be likely, but by refuting hypotheses considered unlikely.
Because of the exponential tails of the normal distribution, odds of higher deviations decrease very quickly. From the rules for normally distributed data for a daily event:
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you are my destiny my love from the star | My Love from the Star - wikipedia
My Love from the Star (Hangul: 별 에서 온 그대; RR: Byeoreseo on geudae; literally You Who Came from the Stars) is a South Korean television series starring Jun Ji - hyun, Kim Soo - hyun, Park Hae - jin and Yoo In - na in lead. Written by Park Ji - eun, it is a romantic fantasy story about an alien who landed on Earth in the Joseon Dynasty and, 400 years later, falls in love with a top actress in the modern era. It aired on SBS from December 18, 2013 to February 27, 2014 on Wednesdays and Thursdays at 22: 00 for 21 episodes; the production company extended the original 20 - episode run with one episode, due to high viewers ' demand.
This is the second collaboration between Kim and Jun, who previously worked together in the blockbuster heist film The Thieves. It is also Jun 's small screen comeback after 14 years.
The series was a major hit in South Korea and received immense popularity across Asia. Jun won the Daesang (or "Grand Prize ''), the highest award for television, at the Baeksang Arts Awards and the SBS Drama Awards, and as did Kim at the Korea Drama Awards.
Do Min - joon (Kim Soo - hyun) is an alien that landed on Earth in the year 1609, during the Joseon Dynasty. As he tries to help a young girl, Yi - hwa, from falling off a cliff, he misses his trip back to his planet and is stranded on Earth for the next four centuries. He possesses a near - perfect appearance, enhanced physical abilities involving his vision, hearing, and speed, and a cynical, jaded view regarding human beings. As time goes by, Min - joon is forced to take on a new identity every ten years, as his human appearance never ages.
In the present, he works as a college professor. With only three months left before his long - awaited departure back to space, he meets Cheon Song - yi (Jun Ji - hyun), a famous Hallyu actress who suddenly becomes his next - door neighbour. Slowly, he finds himself entangled in Song - yi 's crazy and unpredictable situations, and finds out that she looks like the young girl he fell in love with in the Joseon era. Min - joon tries to keep himself away from Song - yi as he needs to leave the planet, but often finds himself failing to do so.
However, Song - yi gets entangled in the dangerous game of Lee Jae - kyung (Shin Sung - rok), the elder brother of Lee Hee - kyung (Park Hae - jin), who has been her friend since middle school and is in love with her. Yoo Se - mi (Yoo In - na) is Song - yi 's childhood best friend who has a crush on Hee - Kyung since middle school. Realizing her love is just one - sided, later Se - mi gives up her feeling on Hee - kyung and starts to focus on her career as an actress. As Jae - kyung tries to silence Song - yi, Min - joon finds himself saving her multiple times, and eventually, the neighbours fall for each other. But Jae - kyung turns out to be much more dangerous than Min - joon suspected, as he hurts Se - mi 's older brother, who is investigating an actress murder case in which Jae - kyung is actively involved, and he also mysteriously starts to lose control of his powers. However, in the end, Jae - kyung finally gets what he deserves.
As the protagonist of the series possesses superpowers, like the ability to teleport and stop time, special effects had to be employed. The crew used 60 small, special cameras for bullet time effect creation. The GoPro camera was installed in 180 degrees and "stopped '' characters were filmed from various angles. The final scene is a montage of various smaller details and then enhanced digitally. This was the first time that HD cameras were used to produce a television series in South Korea.
Among the filming locations were two newly built luxury buildings, Dongdaemun Design Plaza & Park (DDP) and Boutique Monaco. The Korea Tourism Organization later held a 3D exhibit at the DDP Art Hall from 10 June to 15 August 2014 which featured one of the house sets used, with the display rooms titled "Start, '' "Fate, '' "Shaking '' and "Longing '' in line with the plot of the drama.
"My Destiny '', the theme song of the drama performed by Lyn, became very popular in South Korea and peaked at number 2 on the Gaon Music Chart. A Sinhalese version entitled "Ananthayen Aa Tharu Kumara '' performed by Radeesh Vandebona and Indeewari Hettiarachchi was released for the Sri Lankan release of the drama on 2 October 2015.
My Love from the Star influenced Korean fashion, with clothes, accessories and make - up products worn by Jun Ji - hyun seeing an "unprecedented '' surge in orders. It also placed first as "Korea 's most favorite program '' in a poll conducted by Gallup Korea in February 2014, with 11.5 percent of the votes. The Miraculous Journey of Edward Tulane by Kate DiCamillo, a children 's novel, was propelled to the top of the bestseller lists in major Korean bookstores after the male protagonist repeatedly quotes from it throughout the series.
Besides high viewership ratings in South Korea, the series also proved to be successful in China, where it became the most expensive Korean drama sold at US $35,000 per episode until it was surpassed by Descendants of the Sun in 2016. It also became one of the most viewed streaming shows on Chinese platform iQiyi, where it was streamed more than 14.5 billion times from December 2013 to February 2014. The series struck up a craze for chimaek (chicken and maekju), a popular Korean snack of chicken and beer, which is the favorite snack of the female protagonist. Despite declining chicken consumption in China due to fear of H7N9 bird flu, fried chicken restaurants in cities saw an increase in orders since the running of the show. Meanwhile, Korean instant noodle maker Nongshim said sales in January and February 2014 ― while the drama aired ― rose to a record high in its more than 15 - year history of business in China; this, too, was attributed to a scene in the drama where the couple enjoyed a bowl of noodles on a trip.
TV professionals in China have likewise weighed in on the Korean drama 's positive reception in their country. In an op - ed piece published by the China Daily, writer Xiao Lixin attributed its success to "great innovations in South Korean TV productions in terms of themes and narrative patterns, '' praising the plot as "logical and fast - paced '' interspersed with "whimsy and romantic punch lines, '' and that "high - speed photography and computer - generated effects '' helped "create a lifelike visual impact. '' Yu Zheng, another writer, found My Love from the Star worthy of being studied, and thought the plot was "simple but has tension. A good combination of outdoor and indoor scenes. '' Variety show director Pang Bo remarked that the makers of the series paid attention to technical details even in the shortest scenes involving special effects. Chinese celebrities such as Zhao Wei and Gao Yuanyuan also followed and actively posted about the series on Sina Weibo, boosting its popularity. The Washington Post reported in March 2014 that the Korean drama was discussed at China 's National People 's Congress, particularly in a committee of political advisory body Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), where it reportedly topped the agenda among delegates from the culture and entertainment industry.
In the tables below, the blue numbers represent the lowest ratings and the red numbers represent the highest ratings.
It aired on GMA Network from April 21 to June 30, 2014, on weeknights at 5: 45 PM PST for 51 episodes. Each episode runs 45 minutes including commercial breaks. A 150 - minute special with the subtitle The Kilig Throwback recapped the episodes of each preceding week, and aired every Sunday from 18 May to 29 June 2014, at 10: 45 AM, then later moved to 11: 15 AM PST. The entire series was dubbed in Filipino. It was the highest rated Korean drama in the Philippines for 2014.
Due to its popularity in mainland China, the series was re-edited into a two - hour feature - length film by Chinese production company Meng Jiang Wei, and was released in theaters in summer 2014.
In 2014, an American remake was under development at American Broadcasting Company, to be written by Elizabeth Craft and Sarah Fain, and produced by HB Entertainment and EnterMedia Contents in association with Sony Pictures Television. Executive producers will be Craft and Fain, creator of the original series Park Ji - eun, CEO of HB Entertainment Moon Bo - mi, and Sebastian Lee and David Kim from EnterMedia Contents.
A Philippine remake was broadcast and produced by GMA Network. One of the top leading ladies in the Philippines, Jennylyn Mercado was tapped to portray Jun Ji - hyun 's character, Steffi Cheon (Cheon Song - yi). On December 9, 2016, Filipino - Spanish model and first time actor Gil Cuerva was confirmed to be the leading man, replacing Alden Richards of AlDub, who was initially announced to star as the male lead but later turned down the role for another project. The series was under the direction of Bb. Joyce Bernal and was released on May 29, 2017. My Love from the Star was a success in the Philippines after hitting high ratings and dubbed as "One of the most loved Korean drama in the Philippines ''.
In Thailand remake by Broadcast Thai Television Co., Ltd. and Channel 3, lead role by Nadech Kugimiya and Peranee Kongthai.
In a statement posted on her blog on 20 December 2013, author Kang Kyung - ok alleged that the series ' concept was plagiarized from her 2008 comic book Seol - hee, claiming that the background, setup, jobs, and relationships between characters were similar. The spokesperson from production company HB Entertainment denied the plagiarism charge, calling it "nonsensical '' since the male protagonist in Kang 's story is human, not an alien, and that screenwriter Park Ji - eun "had never read or heard of '' Seol - hee. A representative from SBS told news outlets that the network would investigate the matter. On 20 May 2014, Kang filed her lawsuit in court against Park Ji - eun and HB Entertainment, asking for ₩ 600 million in damages. HB Entertainment responded that it was prepared to "strongly confront '' the lawsuit with their own evidence and witnesses, calling the charges of plagiarism "synonymous to a death sentence '' to creators which must be "eradicated. '' Kang dropped her lawsuit on 3 July 2014 after an out - of - court settlement.
Indonesian television network RCTI aired a TV series in 2014 titled Kau Yang Berasal Dari Bintang, first thought to be an authorized remake of My Love from the Star, but was then found to be a plagiarized version, with the Indonesian series having exactly the same set up and storyline as the Korean drama. In an interview with Korean media outlet TV Report, a representative from SBS Contents Hub said, "The drama was created without the obtainment of legal publication rights. You could view it as plagiarism. (...) While we were in the process of discussing the sale of legal publication rights with another Indonesian enterprise, this drama came out. We are in the midst of finding what course of action to take. ''
In 2014, it was noted on the internet that the Thai television drama Praw (Thai: พราว) on Channel 7, lead role by Pachrapa Chaichua and Sukollawat Kanarot plagiarized this series.
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who has the most walk off home runs | List of Major League Baseball home run records - wikipedia
This is a list of some of the records relating to home runs hit in baseball games played in the Major Leagues. Some Major League records are sufficiently notable to have their own page, for example the single - season home run record, the progression of the lifetime home run record, and the members of the 500 home run club. A few other records are kept on separate pages, they are listed below.
In the tables below, players denoted in boldface are still actively contributing to the record noted, while (r) denotes a player 's rookie season.
see note
see note
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what is the presented essence of modernity and its consequences | Modernity - wikipedia
Modernity, a topic in the humanities and social sciences, is both a historical period (the modern era), as well as the ensemble of particular socio - cultural norms, attitudes and practices that arose in the wake of the Renaissance -- in the "Age of Reason '' of 17th - century thought and the 18th - century "Enlightenment ''. Some commentators consider the era of modernity to have ended by 1930, with World War II in 1945, or the 1980s or 1990s; the following era is called postmodernity. The term "contemporary history '' is also used to refer to the post-1945 timeframe, without assigning it to either the modern or postmodern era. (Thus "modern '' may be used as a name of a particular era in the past, as opposed to meaning "the current era ''.)
Depending on the field, "modernity '' may refer to different time periods or qualities. In historiography, the 17th and 18th centuries are usually described as early modern, while the long 19th century corresponds to "modern history '' proper. While it includes a wide range of interrelated historical processes and cultural phenomena (from fashion to modern warfare), it can also refer to the subjective or existential experience of the conditions they produce, and their ongoing impact on human culture, institutions, and politics (Berman 2010, 15 -- 36).
As an analytical concept and normative ideal, modernity is closely linked to the ethos of philosophical and aesthetic modernism; political and intellectual currents that intersect with the Enlightenment; and subsequent developments such as existentialism, modern art, the formal establishment of social science, and contemporaneous antithetical developments such as Marxism. It also encompasses the social relations associated with the rise of capitalism, and shifts in attitudes associated with secularisation and post-industrial life (Berman 2010, 15 -- 36).
In the view of Michel Foucault (1975) (classified as a proponent of postmodernism though he himself rejected the "postmodernism '' label, considering his work as a "a critical history of modernity '' -- see, e.g., Call 2002, 65), "modernity '' as a historical category is marked by developments such as a questioning or rejection of tradition; the prioritization of individualism, freedom and formal equality; faith in inevitable social, scientific and technological progress, rationalization and professionalization, a movement from feudalism (or agrarianism) toward capitalism and the market economy, industrialization, urbanization and secularization, the development of the nation - state, representative democracy, public education (etc) (Foucault 1977, 170 -- 77).
In the context of art history, "modernity '' (modernité) has a more limited sense, "modern art '' covering the period of c. 1860 -- 1970. Use of the term in this sense is attributed to Charles Baudelaire, who in his 1864 essay "The Painter of Modern Life '', designated the "fleeting, ephemeral experience of life in an urban metropolis '', and the responsibility art has to capture that experience. In this sense, the term refers to "a particular relationship to time, one characterized by intense historical discontinuity or rupture, openness to the novelty of the future, and a heightened sensitivity to what is unique about the present '' (Kompridis 2006, 32 -- 59).
The Late Latin adjective modernus, a derivation from the adverb modo "presently, just now '', is attested from the 5th century, at first in the context of distinguishing the Christian era from the pagan era. In the 6th century, Cassiodorus appears to have been the first writer to use modernus "modern '' regularly to refer to his own age (O'Donnell 1979, 235 n9). The terms antiquus and modernus were used in a chronological sense in the Carolingian era. For example, a magister modernus referred to a contemporary scholar, as opposed to old authorities such as Benedict of Nursia. In early medieval usage, modernus referred to authorities younger than pagan antiquity and the early church fathers, but not necessarily to the present day, and could include authors several centuries old, from about the time of Beda, i.e. referring to the time after the foundation of the Order of Saint Benedict and / or the fall of the Western Roman Empire (Hartmann 1973, passim).
The Latin adjective was adopted in Middle French, as moderne, by the 15th century, and hence, in the early Tudor period, into Early Modern English. The early modern word meant "now existing '', or "pertaining to the present times '', not necessarily with a positive connotation. Shakespeare uses modern in the sense of "every - day, ordinary, commonplace ''.
The word entered wide usage in the context of the late 17th - century quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns within the Académie française, debating the question of "Is Modern culture superior to Classical (Græco -- Roman) culture? '' In the context of this debate, the "ancients '' (anciens) and "moderns '' (modernes) were proponents of opposing views, the former believing that contemporary writers could do no better than imitate the genius of classical antiquity, while the latter, first with Charles Perrault (1687), proposed that more than a mere "Renaissance '' of ancient achievements, the "Age of Reason '' had gone beyond what had been possible in the classical period. The term modernity, first coined in the 1620s, in this context assumed the implication of a historical epoch following the Renaissance, in which the achievements of antiquity were surpassed (Delanty 2007).
Modernity has been associated with cultural and intellectual movements of 1436 -- 1789 and extending to the 1970s or later (Toulmin 1992, 3 -- 5).
According to Marshall Berman (1982, 16 -- 17), modernity is periodized into three conventional phases (dubbed "Early, '' "Classical, '' and "Late, '' respectively, by Peter Osborne (1992, 25)):
In the second phase Berman draws upon the growth of modern technologies such as the newspaper, telegraph and other forms of mass media. There was a great shift into modernization in the name of industrial capitalism. Finally in the third phase, modernist arts and individual creativity marked the beginning of a new modernist age as it combats oppressive politics, economics as well as other social forces including mass media (Laughey 2007, 30).
Some authors, such as Lyotard and Baudrillard, believe that modernity ended in the mid - or late 20th century and thus have defined a period subsequent to modernity, namely Postmodernity (1930s / 1950s / 1990s -- present). Other theorists, however, regard the period from the late 20th century to the present as merely another phase of modernity; Zygmunt Bauman (1989) calls this phase "liquid '' modernity, Giddens (1998) labels it "high '' modernity (see High modernism).
Politically, modernity 's earliest phase starts with Niccolò Machiavelli 's works which openly rejected the medieval and Aristotelian style of analyzing politics by comparison with ideas about how things should be, in favour of realistic analysis of how things really are. He also proposed that an aim of politics is to control one 's own chance or fortune, and that relying upon providence actually leads to evil. Machiavelli argued, for example, that violent divisions within political communities are unavoidable, but can also be a source of strength which law - makers and leaders should account for and even encourage in some ways (Strauss 1987).
Machiavelli 's recommendations were sometimes influential upon kings and princes, but eventually came to be seen as favoring free republics over monarchies (Rahe 2006, 1). Machiavelli in turn influenced Francis Bacon (Kennington 2004, chapt. 4), Marchamont Needham (Rahe 2006, chapt. 1), James Harrington (Rahe 2006, chapt. 1), John Milton (Bock, Skinner, and Viroli 1990, chapt. 11), David Hume (Rahe 2006, chapt. 4), and many others (Strauss 1958).
Important modern political doctrines which stem from the new Machiavellian realism include Mandeville 's influential proposal that "Private Vices by the dextrous Management of a skilful Politician may be turned into Publick Benefits '' (the last sentence of his Fable of the Bees), and also the doctrine of a constitutional "separation of powers '' in government, first clearly proposed by Montesquieu. Both these principles are enshrined within the constitutions of most modern democracies. It has been observed that while Machiavelli 's realism saw a value to war and political violence, his lasting influence has been "tamed '' so that useful conflict was deliberately converted as much as possible to formalized political struggles and the economic "conflict '' encouraged between free, private enterprises (Rahe 2006, chapt. 5; Mansfield 1989).
Starting with Thomas Hobbes, attempts were made to use the methods of the new modern physical sciences, as proposed by Bacon and Descartes, applied to humanity and politics (Berns 1987). Notable attempts to improve upon the methodological approach of Hobbes include those of John Locke (Goldwin 1987), Spinoza (Rosen 1987), Giambattista Vico (1984, xli), and Rousseau (1997, part 1). David Hume made what he considered to be the first proper attempt at trying to apply Bacon 's scientific method to political subjects (Hume & 1896 (1739), intro.), rejecting some aspects of the approach of Hobbes.
Modernist republicanism openly influenced the foundation of republics during the Dutch Revolt (1568 -- 1609) (Bock, Skinner, and Viroli 1990, chapt. 10, 12), English Civil War (1642 -- 1651) (Rahe 2006, chapt. 1), American Revolution (1775 -- 1783) (Rahe 2006, chapt. 6 -- 11), the French Revolution (1789 -- 1799), and the Haitian revolution (1791 -- 1804). (Orwin and Tarcov 1997, chapt. 8).
A second phase of modernist political thinking begins with Rousseau, who questioned the natural rationality and sociality of humanity and proposed that human nature was much more malleable than had been previously thought. By this logic, what makes a good political system or a good man is completely dependent upon the chance path a whole people has taken over history. This thought influenced the political (and aesthetic) thinking of Immanuel Kant, Edmund Burke and others and led to a critical review of modernist politics. On the conservative side, Burke argued that this understanding encouraged caution and avoidance of radical change. However more ambitious movements also developed from this insight into human culture, initially Romanticism and Historicism, and eventually both the Communism of Karl Marx, and the modern forms of nationalism inspired by the French Revolution, including, in one extreme, the German Nazi movement (Orwin and Tarcov 1997, chapt. 4).
On the other hand, the notion of modernity has been contested also due to its Euro - centric underpinnings. This is further aggravated by the re-emergence of non-Western powers. Yet, the contestations about modernity are also linked with Western notions of democracy, social discipline, and development (Regilme 2012, 96).
In sociology, a discipline that arose in direct response to the social problems of "modernity '' (Harriss 2000, 325), the term most generally refers to the social conditions, processes, and discourses consequent to the Age of Enlightenment. In the most basic terms, Anthony Giddens describes modernity as
... a shorthand term for modern society, or industrial civilization. Portrayed in more detail, it is associated with (1) a certain set of attitudes towards the world, the idea of the world as open to transformation, by human intervention; (2) a complex of economic institutions, especially industrial production and a market economy; (3) a certain range of political institutions, including the nation - state and mass democracy. Largely as a result of these characteristics, modernity is vastly more dynamic than any previous type of social order. It is a society -- more technically, a complex of institutions -- which, unlike any preceding culture, lives in the future, rather than the past (Giddens 1998, 94).
Other writers have criticized such definitions as just being a listing of factors. They argue that modernity, contingently understood as marked by an ontological formation in dominance, needs to be defined much more fundamentally in terms of different ways of being.
The modern is thus defined by the way in which prior valences of social life... are reconstituted through a constructivist reframing of social practices in relation to basic categories of existence common to all humans: time, space, embodiment, performance and knowledge. The word ' reconstituted ' here explicitly does not mean replaced. (James 2015, 51 -- 52)
This means that modernity overlays earlier formations of traditional and customary life without necessarily replacing them.
The era of modernity is characterised socially by industrialisation and the division of labour and philosophically by "the loss of certainty, and the realization that certainty can never be established, once and for all '' (Delanty 2007). With new social and philosophical conditions arose fundamental new challenges. Various 19th - century intellectuals, from Auguste Comte to Karl Marx to Sigmund Freud, attempted to offer scientific and / or political ideologies in the wake of secularisation. Modernity may be described as the "age of ideology. '' (Calinescu 1987, 2006).
For Marx, what was the basis of modernity was the emergence of capitalism and the revolutionary bourgeoisie, which led to an unprecedented expansion of productive forces and to the creation of the world market. Durkheim tackled modernity from a different angle by following the ideas of Saint - Simon about the industrial system. Although the starting point is the same as Marx, feudal society, Durkheim emphasizes far less the rising of the bourgeoisie as a new revolutionary class and very seldom refers to capitalism as the new mode of production implemented by it. The fundamental impulse to modernity is rather industrialism accompanied by the new scientific forces. In the work of Max Weber, modernity is closely associated with the processes of rationalization and disenchantment of the world. (Larraín 2000, 13)
Critical theorists such as Theodor Adorno and Zygmunt Bauman propose that modernity or industrialization represents a departure from the central tenets of the Enlightenment and towards nefarious processes of alienation, such as commodity fetishism and the Holocaust (Adorno 1973,; Bauman 1989). Contemporary sociological critical theory presents the concept of "rationalization '' in even more negative terms than those Weber originally defined. Processes of rationalization -- as progress for the sake of progress -- may in many cases have what critical theory says is a negative and dehumanising effect on modern society. (Adorno 1973,; Bauman 2000)
Enlightenment, understood in the widest sense as the advance of thought, has always aimed at liberating human beings from fear and installing them as masters. Yet the wholly enlightened earth radiates under the sign of disaster triumphant. (Adorno 1973, 210)
What prompts so many commentators to speak of the ' end of history ', of post-modernity, ' second modernity ' and ' surmodernity ', or otherwise to articulate the intuition of a radical change in the arrangement of human cohabitation and in social conditions under which life - politics is nowadays conducted, is the fact that the long effort to accelerate the speed of movement has presently reached its ' natural limit '. Power can move with the speed of the electronic signal -- and so the time required for the movement of its essential ingredients has been reduced to instantaneity. For all practical purposes, power has become truly exterritorial, no longer bound, or even slowed down, by the resistance of space (the advent of cellular telephones may well serve as a symbolic ' last blow ' delivered to the dependency on space: even the access to a telephone market is unnecessary for a command to be given and seen through to its effect. (Bauman 2000, 10)
Consequent to debate about economic globalization, the comparative analysis of civilizations, and the post-colonial perspective of "alternative modernities, '' Shmuel Eisenstadt introduced the concept of "multiple modernities '' (Eisenstadt 2003; see also Delanty 2007). Modernity as a "plural condition '' is the central concept of this sociologic approach and perspective, which broadens the definition of "modernity '' from exclusively denoting Western European culture to a culturally relativistic definition, thereby: "Modernity is not Westernization, and its key processes and dynamics can be found in all societies '' (Delanty 2007).
Modernity, or the Modern Age, is typically defined as a post-traditional, and post-medieval historical period (Heidegger 1938, 66 -- 67, 66 -- 67). Central to modernity is emancipation from religion, specifically the hegemony of Christianity, and the consequent secularization. Modern thought repudiates the Judeo - Christian belief in the Biblical God as a mere relic of superstitious ages (Fackenheim 1957, 272 - 73; Husserl 1931,). It all started with Descartes ' revolutionary methodic doubt, which transformed the concept of truth in the concept of certainty, whose only guarantor is no longer God or the Church, but Man 's subjective judgement (Alexander 1931, 484 - 85; Heidegger 1938,).
Theologians have tried to cope with their worry that Western modernism has brought the world to no longer being well - disposed towards Christianity (Kilby 2004, 262, 262; Davies 2004, 133, 133; Cassirer 1944, 13 -- 14 13 -- 14). Modernity aimed towards "a progressive force promising to liberate humankind from ignorance and irrationality '' (Rosenau 1992, 5).
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and others developed a new approach to physics and astronomy which changed the way people came to think about many things. Copernicus presented new models of the solar system which no longer placed humanity 's home, on Earth, in the centre. Kepler used mathematics to discuss physics and described regularities of nature this way. Galileo actually made his famous proof of uniform acceleration in freefall using mathematics (Kennington 2004, chapt. 1, 4).
Francis Bacon, especially in his Novum Organum, argued for a new experimental based approach to science, which sought no knowledge of formal or final causes, and was therefore materialist, like the ancient philosophy of Democritus and Epicurus. But he also added a theme that science should seek to control nature for the sake of humanity, and not seek to understand it just for the sake of understanding. In both these things he was influenced by Machiavelli 's earlier criticism of medieval Scholasticism, and his proposal that leaders should aim to control their own fortune (Kennington 2004, chapt. 1, 4).
Influenced both by Galileo 's new physics and Bacon, René Descartes argued soon afterward that mathematics and geometry provided a model of how scientific knowledge could be built up in small steps. He also argued openly that human beings themselves could be understood as complex machines (Kennington 2004, chapt. 6).
Isaac Newton, influenced by Descartes, but also, like Bacon, a proponent of experimentation, provided the archetypal example of how both Cartesian mathematics, geometry and theoretical deduction on the one hand, and Baconian experimental observation and induction on the other hand, together could lead to great advances in the practical understanding of regularities in nature (d'Alembert & 2009 (1751); Henry 2004).
After modernist political thinking had already become widely known in France, Rousseau 's re-examination of human nature led to a new criticism of the value of reasoning itself which in turn led to a new understanding of less rationalistic human activities, especially the arts. The initial influence was upon the movements known as German Idealism and Romanticism in the 18th and 19th century. Modern art therefore belongs only to the later phases of modernity (Orwinand Tarcov 1997, chapt. 2, 4).
For this reason art history keeps the term "modernity '' distinct from the terms Modern Age and Modernism -- as a discrete "term applied to the cultural condition in which the seemingly absolute necessity of innovation becomes a primary fact of life, work, and thought ''. And modernity in art "is more than merely the state of being modern, or the opposition between old and new '' (Smith 2009).
In the essay "The Painter of Modern Life '' (1864), Charles Baudelaire gives a literary definition: "By modernity I mean the transitory, the fugitive, the contingent '' (Baudelaire 1964, 13).
Advancing technological innovation, affecting artistic technique and the means of manufacture, changed rapidly the possibilities of art and its status in a rapidly changing society. Photography challenged the place of the painter and painting. Architecture was transformed by the availability of steel for structures.
From theologian Thomas C. Oden 's perspective, "modernity '' is marked by "four fundamental values '' (Hall 1990):
Modernity rejects anything "old '' and makes "novelty... a criterion for truth. '' This results in a great "phobic response to anything antiquarian. '' In contrast, "classical Christian consciousness '' resisted "novelty '' (Hall 1990).
Of the available conceptual definitions in sociology, modernity is "marked and defined by an obsession with ' evidence ', '' visual culture, and personal visibility (Leppert 2004, 19). Generally, the large - scale social integration constituting modernity, involves the:
But there does seem to be a necessary conflict between modern thought and the Biblical belief in revelation. All claims of revelation, modern science and philosophy seem agreed, must be repudiated, as mere relics of superstitious ages... (to a modern phylosopher) The Biblical God... was a mere myth of bygone ages.
When, with the beginning of modern times, religious belief was becoming more and more externalized as a lifeless convention, men of intellect were lifted by a new belief, their great belief in an autonomous philosophy and science.
The essence of modernity can be seen in humanity 's freeing itself from the bonds of Middle Ages... Certainly the modern age has, as a consequence of the liberation of humanity, introduced subjectivism and indivisualism... For up to Descartes... The claim (of a self - supported, unshakable foundation of truth, in the sense of certainty) originates in that emancipation of man in which he frees himself from obligation to Christian revelational truth and Church doctrine to a legislating for himself that takes its stand upon itself.
... a cluster of issues surrounding the assessment of modernity and of the apologetic task of theology in modernity. Both men (Rahner and Balthasar) were deeply concerned with apologetics, with the question of how to present Christianity in a world which is no longer well - disposed towards it... both thought that modernity raised particular problems for being a believing Christian, and therefore for apologetics.
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who did the original version of i heard it through the grapevine | I Heard it Through the Grapevine - wikipedia
"I Heard It Through the Grapevine '' is a song written by Norman Whitfield and Barrett Strong for Motown Records in 1966. The first recording of the song to be released was produced by Whitfield for Gladys Knight & the Pips and released as a single in September 1967; it went to number two in the Billboard chart.
The Miracles recorded the song first and included their version on their 1968 album, Special Occasion. The Marvin Gaye version was placed on his 1968 album In the Groove, where it gained the attention of radio disc jockeys, and Motown founder Berry Gordy finally agreed to its release as a single in October 1968, when it went to the top of the Billboard Pop Singles chart for seven weeks from December 1968 to January 1969 and became for a time the biggest hit single on the Motown label (Tamla).
The Gaye recording has since become an acclaimed soul classic, and in 2004, it was placed 81 on the Rolling Stone list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. On the commemorative fortieth anniversary of the Billboard Hot 100 issue of Billboard magazine in June 2008, Marvin Gaye 's "Grapevine '' was ranked sixty - fifth. It was also inducted to the Grammy Hall of Fame for "historical, artistic and significant '' value.
In addition to being released several times by Motown artists, the song has been recorded by a range of musicians including Creedence Clearwater Revival, who made an eleven - minute interpretation for their 1970 album, Cosmo 's Factory; and has been used twice in television commercials -- each time using session musicians recreating the style of the Marvin Gaye version: the 1985 Levi 's commercial, "Launderette '', featuring male model Nick Kamen, and the 1986 California raisins promotion with Buddy Miles as the singer for the clay animation group The California Raisins.
The lyrics tell the story in the first person of the singer 's feelings of betrayal and disbelief when he hears of his girlfriend 's infidelity only indirectly "through the "grapevine ''.
By 1966, Barrett Strong, the singer on Motown Records ' breakthrough hit, "Money (That 's What I Want) '', had the basics of a song he had started to write in Chicago, where the idea had come to him while walking down Michigan Avenue that people were always saying "I heard it through the grapevine ''. The phrase is associated with black slaves during the Civil War, who had their form of telegraph: the human grapevine. Producer Norman Whitfield worked with Strong on the song, adding lyrics to Strong 's basic Ray Charles influenced gospel tune and the single chorus line of "I heard it through the grapevine ''. This was to be the first of a number of successful collaborations between Strong and Whitfield.
Producer Norman Whitfield recorded "I Heard It Through the Grapevine '' with various Motown artists. The first known recording is with the Miracles on August 6, 1966, though there may also have been a recording with the Isley Brothers, or at least Whitfield intended to record it with them; however a track has not turned up -- some Motown historians believe that a session may have been scheduled but cancelled. The Miracles ' version was not released as a single due to Berry Gordy 's veto during Motown 's weekly quality control meetings; Gordy advised Whitfield and Strong to create a stronger single. The Miracles version later appeared on their 1968 Special Occasion album, and a slightly different take, possibly from the same session but unreleased, appeared on the 1998 compilation album, Motown Sings Motown Treasures.
Marvin Gaye 's version was recorded in spring 1967, and is the second known recording, though was also rejected by Gordy as a single, and would also later go onto an album, In the Groove. The third recording was in 1967 with Gladys Knight and the Pips in a new, faster arrangement. Gordy accepted the new arrangement and the Gladys Knight version was released as a single in September 1967, reaching number 2 in the charts. When Gaye 's album with his version of Grapevine was released in August 1968, radio disc jockeys were playing the song, so Gordy had it released as a single in October, and it went to number one in December.
In 1968, Bobby Taylor & the Vancouvers recorded a version for their debut album based on Gladys ' recent hit; however, after hearing the Marvin Gaye version, they felt they 'd made the wrong choice. In 1969, Whitfield produced a version for the Temptations "psychedelic soul '' album, Cloud Nine, in which he "brought compelling percussion to the fore, and relegated the piano well into the wings ''. In 1971, the Undisputed Truth recorded the song in a Marvin - styled version as did Bettye Lavette on her 1982 Motown album, Tell Me a Lie.
Whitfield recorded the song with Marvin Gaye over five sessions, the first on February 3, 1967, and the last on April 10, 1967. Recordings of this version took more than a month due to Whitfield overdubbing Gaye 's vocals with that of the Andantes ' background vocals, mixing in several tracks featuring the Funk Brothers on the rhythm track, and adding the string section from the Detroit Symphony Orchestra with an arrangement by Paul Riser.
The session featuring Gaye led to an argument between the producer and singer. Whitfield wanted Gaye to perform the song in a higher key than his normal range, a move that had worked on David Ruffin during the recording of the Temptations ' hit, "Ai n't Too Proud to Beg ''. The mixture of Gaye 's raspy vocals and the Andantes ' sweeter harmonies made Whitfield confident that he had a hit; however, despite approval from Motown 's Quality Control Department, Gordy blocked the release.
Gladys Knight & the Pips recorded "Grapevine '' on June 17, 1967 in Motown 's Studio A, with Norman Whitfield as producer. After hearing Aretha Franklin 's version of "Respect '', Whitfield rearranged "Grapevine '' to include some of the funk elements of the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section. According to David Ritz, Whitfield set to record a song that would "out - funk '' Aretha. After Whitfield presented the demo tapes, Gladys Knight, Bubba Knight, William Guest, and Edward Patten worked for several weeks on their vocal arrangement. To make the song suitable for Gladys, the first line of the second verse ("I know a man ai n't supposed to cry / But these tears I ca n't hold inside '') was altered to ("Take a good look at these tears in my eyes / Baby, these tears I ca n't hold inside ''). After much talk, Gordy reluctantly allowed the Pips ' version to be a single on September 28, 1967 on Motown 's Soul label.
The Gladys Knight & the Pips version released on September 28, 1967 was on Motown 's Soul label, with "It 's Time to Go Now '' on the B - side. Motown put little support behind it and the Pips relied on connections with DJs across the United States to get the record played. The Pips ' version of "Grapevine '' reached number one on the Billboard R&B chart on November 25, 1967, and stayed there for six weeks, making it the group 's second R&B number one after 1961 's "Every Beat of My Heart ''. It reached two on the Billboard Pop Singles chart the same month, with the Monkees ' "Daydream Believer '' holding top spot. It was Motown 's best - selling single to that point. The song was later placed on the Gladys Knight & the Pips album Everybody Needs Love.
Whitfield wanted Gordy to release Gaye 's "Grapevine '' as a single, but Gordy did n't want to release another version after the Pips had already made a hit out of it. In September 1968, Whitfield added "Grapevine '' to Gaye 's new album In the Groove. On release "Grapevine '' became a radio hit and, according to Gordy himself, "The DJs played it so much off the album that we had to release it as a single ''. So Gaye 's version was released as a single on October 30, 1968. Gaye 's "I Heard It Through the Grapevine '' eventually outsold the Pips ', and until The Jackson 5 's "I 'll Be There '' 20 months later, was the biggest hit single of all time on the Motown label. It stayed at the top of the Billboard Pop Singles chart for seven weeks, from December 14, 1968 to January 25, 1969. Gaye 's "Grapevine '' also held number one on the R&B chart during the same seven weeks, and stayed at number one in the United Kingdom for three weeks starting on March 26, 1969. The label was pleased with the success, although Gaye, depressed because of issues such as the illness of singing partner Tammi Terrell (which would kill her less than a year later), was quoted as saying that his success "did n't seem real '' and that he "did n't deserve it ''.
Due to the song 's success, In the Groove was re-issued as I Heard It Through the Grapevine and peaked at number two on the R&B album chart and number sixty - three on the album chart, which was at the time Marvin 's highest - charted solo studio effort to date. Because of the success of both versions, "I Heard It Through the Grapevine '' was the first and last number one on the Billboard R&B chart in 1968: the Pips version was the first week of January, the Gaye version the last week of December. Gladys Knight was not pleased that Gaye 's version usurped her own, and claimed that Gaye 's version was recorded over an instrumental track Whitfield had prepared for a Pips song, an allegation Gaye denied. In 1985, one year following Gaye 's death, the song was re-released in the UK reaching number eight thanks to a Levi 's commercial (starring Nick Kamen).
The Gaye recording has become an acclaimed soul classic. In 2004, it was placed at number 80 on Rolling Stone 's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, with the comment that Whitfield had produced the song with a number of artists using different arrangements, and that on the Marvin Gaye recording he had a "golden idea '' when he set the song "in a slower, more mysterious tempo ''. In a new Rolling Stone list published in 2011, the single was placed slightly lower at number 81.
On the commemorative fiftieth anniversary of the Billboard Hot 100 issue of Billboard magazine in June 2008, the Marvin Gaye version was ranked as the sixty - fifth biggest song on the chart. It was also inducted to the Grammy Hall of Fame for "historical, artistic and significant '' value.
In addition to being recorded several times by Motown artists, the song has been covered by musicians including Creedence Clearwater Revival who recorded an 11 - minute version for their 1970 album, Cosmo 's Factory, that was released as a single, reaching 43 on Billboard 's chart, with more modest success in other countries, and funk musician Roger Troutman whose extended version (nearly 11 minutes itself) lifted off his 1981 solo album, The Many Facets of Roger, brought the song back to number one on the R&B chart in early 1982 marking the third time the single reached the top spot on that chart. It also made the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number 79. Queen Latifah used the music as a basis for her 1998 single "Paper '', produced by Pras Michel for her album Order in the Court.
"I Heard It Through the Grapevine '' has been used twice in television commercials -- each time using session musicians recreating the style of the Marvin Gaye version. For the 1985 Levi 's 501 commercial, "Launderette '', featuring male model Nick Kamen, agency BBH and director Roger Lyons, owing to budgetary constraints, brought in Karl Jenkins and Mike Ratledge to recreate the sound of the Marvin Gaye original with Tony Jackson, a Barbadian background singer for Paul Young, handling vocals and P.P. Arnold on backing vocals. The commercial 's success prompted Tamla - Motown to re-release Gaye 's single with the Levi 's 501 logo on the sleeve -- "an example of integrated marketing almost before the term was invented ''. The record went to number eight on the UK Singles chart, marking its second chart performance. A year later, in 1986, Buddy Miles was the singer for the clay animation group The California Raisins which sang it as part a TV advertising campaign.
Marvin Gaye 's version of the song is used in the opening credits of The Big Chill (1983) as each of the main characters gets to hear (through the "grapevine '') about the death of their college friend, and then travels to his funeral; the song serves in an extradiegetic fashion to both unite the main characters ' friendship and to locate it nostalgically for the viewer.
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who played andrea the android on star trek | Sherry Jackson - wikipedia
Sherry D. Jackson (born February 15, 1942) is an American actress and former child star.
Jackson was born in Wendell in Gooding County in southern Idaho to Maurita (or Maurite) Kathleen Gilbert and Curtis Loys Jackson, Sr. Her mother provided drama, singing, and dancing lessons for Sherry and her two brothers, Curtis L. Jackson, Jr., and Gary L. Jackson, beginning in their formative years. After her husband died in 1948, Maurita moved the family from Wendell to Los Angeles, California.
By one account Maurita, who had been told while still in Idaho that her children should be in films, was referred to a theatrical agent by a tour bus driver whom they met in Los Angeles. According to another, she was referred by the friend of an agent who saw Sherry eating ice cream on the Sunset Strip. Apocryphal perhaps, but within the year Sherry had her first screen test, for The Snake Pit with Olivia De Havilland, and by the age of seven appeared in her first feature film, the 1949 musical You 're My Everything, which starred Anne Baxter and Dan Dailey.
In 1950, young Sherry became friends with actor Steve Cochran while working with him on The Lion and the Horse. Steve introduced his friend, writer Montgomery Pittman, to Sherry 's widowed mother. A romance developed, and Pittman married Maurita Jackson in a small ceremony on June 4, 1952, in Torrance, California, with Sherry as flower girl and younger brother Gary as ring - bearer; Cochran himself was Pittman 's best man. In 1955 Cochran hired Pittman to write his next film, Come Next Spring, the first that Cochran produced himself. Sherry played the part of Cochran 's mute daughter Annie Ballot, a role Pittman wrote specifically for his step - daughter.
During the course of appearing in several of the Ma and Pa Kettle movies during the 1950s as Susie Kettle, one of the titular couple 's numerous children, she also appeared in The Breaking Point, which starred John Garfield in the actor 's penultimate film role. In 1952, she portrayed the emotionally volatile visionary and ascetic Jacinta Marto in The Miracle of Our Lady of Fatima, and the following year played John Wayne 's daughter in the football - themed Trouble Along the Way.
Jackson may be best remembered for her role as older daughter Terry Williams on The Danny Thomas Show (known as Make Room for Daddy during the first three seasons) from 1953 -- 1958. During the course of her five years on the series, she established a strong bond with her on - screen mother, Jean Hagen, but Hagen left the series after the third season in 1956.
Worn out from the relentless pace of the program, Jackson left the program once her five - year contract ended two years later. Jackson received a star at 6324 Hollywood Blvd. on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on February 8, 1960 for her work in television. Penny Parker replaced her in the 1959 - 60 season, but the character was written out of the series after Parker married.
Over the next few years, Jackson broadened her range of acting roles, appearing as a hit woman on 77 Sunset Strip, a freed Apache captive who yearns to return to the reservation on The Tall Man, an alcoholic on Mr. Novak, a woman accused of murder on Perry Mason, and an unstable mother - to - be on Wagon Train. After a 1965 appearance on Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C., she then made guest appearances on Lost in Space ("The Space Croppers '' (1966 March 30)), My Three Sons, The Wild Wild West ("The Night of the Vicious Valentine '' and "The Night of the Gruesome Games '', as two different characters), Batman, and the original Star Trek series. On the latter program, she made one of her more memorable portrayals as the android Andrea in the episode "What Are Little Girls Made Of? ''.
In 1966, Jackson was cast as Katherine "Kate '' Turner, a young woman from Boston who takes over a wagon train after the death of the trailmaster, in the episode "Lady of the Plains '' of the syndicated series Death Valley Days. DeForest Kelley plays a gambler, Elliott Webster, who falls in love with her though she is engaged to marry once the wagon train reaches Salt Lake City.
When Blake Edwards remade the television series Peter Gunn as a feature film entitled Gunn (1967), Jackson was filmed in a nude scene that appeared only in the international version, not the U.S. release. Stills of the nude scene appeared in the August 1967 issue of Playboy magazine, in a pictorial entitled "Make Room For Sherry ''. The movie has not yet been released on VHS or DVD.
In 1967, Jackson began a five - year relationship with business executive and horse breeder, Fletcher R. Jones, a union that ended on November 7, 1972, when Jones was killed in a plane crash eight miles east of Santa Ynez Airport in Santa Barbara County, California. Five months after Jones ' death, Jackson filed suit against his estate, asking for more than $1 million, with her attorneys stating that Jones had promised to provide her with at least $25,000 a year for the rest of her life. The litigation proved unsuccessful.
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who was the dea agent who brought down the cali cartel | Cali Cartel - wikipedia
The Cali Cartel was based in southern Colombia, around the city of Cali and the Valle del Cauca Department. Its founders were the Rodríguez Orejuela brothers, Gilberto and Miguel, and José Santacruz Londoño, also known as "Chepe ''. They broke away from Pablo Escobar and his Medellin associates in the late 1980s when Hélmer Herrera, also known as "Pacho '', joined what became a four - man executive board that ran the cartel.
With connections to British and Israeli mercenaries, allies among countries, countless spies and informants in the government, and its vast intelligence and surveillance network throughout the city of Santiago de Cali, the cartel was once renowned and compared to the Soviet KGB by the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), which called it, "One of the most powerful crime syndicates in history '', later dubbed "The Cali KGB ''.
At the height of the Cali Cartel 's reign, they were cited as having control over 90 % of the world 's cocaine market and were said to be directly responsible for the growth of the cocaine market in Europe, where they also controlled 90 % of the market. By the mid-1990s, the trafficking empire of the Cali Cartel was a multibillion - dollar enterprise.
The Cali Cartel was formed by the Rodriguez Orejuela brothers and Santacruz, all coming from what is described as a higher social background than most other traffickers of the time. The recognition of this social background was displayed in the group 's nickname as "Los Caballeros de Cali ('' Gentlemen of Cali '' or "Cali 's Gentlemen '').
The group originally assembled as a ring of kidnappers known as Las Chemas, which was led by Luis Fernando Tamayo Garcia. Las Chemas were implicated in numerous kidnappings including those of two Swiss citizens: a diplomat, Herman Buff, and a student, Zack "Jazz Milis '' Martin. The kidnappers reportedly received $700,000 in ransom, which is believed to have been used to fund their drug trafficking empire.
The assembled group first involved itself in trafficking marijuana. Due to the product 's low profit rate and large amounts required to traffic to cover resources, the fledgling group decided to shift their focus to a more lucrative drug, cocaine.
In the early 1970s, the cartel sent Helmer "Pacho '' Herrera to New York City to establish a distribution center. This action came during a time when the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) was not fully pursuing cocaine and viewed the drug as less critical than heroin; at one point they released a report stating cocaine "is not physically addictive... and does not usually result in serious consequences, such as crime, hospital emergency room admissions or both. ''
The Cali Cartel leadership comprised Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela El Ajedrecista ("The Chess Player ''), Miguel Rodriguez Orejuela El Señor ("The Lord ''), José Santacruz Londoño El Estudiante ("The Student '') or Chepe Santacruz, Jorge Alberto Rodríguez "Don Cholito '', and Helmer Herrera Buitrago Pacho. Some top associates were Victor Patiño - Fomeque El Quimico ("The Chemist '') or La Fiera ("The Beast ''), Henry Loaiza Ceballos El Alacrán ("The Scorpion ''), José Fedor Rey ex-guerrilla, and Phanor Arizabaleta - Arzayus.
The relaxed attitude of the DEA towards cocaine is believed to be what allowed the group to prosper. The group developed and organized itself into multiple "cells '' that appeared to operate independently yet reported to a "celeno '' (manager), who reported to Jorge Alberto Rodríguez, who in turn reported back to Cali. In the mid-1980s, Jorge formed an independent drug cell called The 400 Cartel, which grew to eventually oversee all shipments and distributions of narcotics imported into the United States by the Cali Cartel.
The independent cells structure is what set the Cali Cartel apart from the Medellín Cartel. The Cali Cartel operated as a tight group of independent criminal organizations, as opposed to the Medellíns ' structure of a central leader, Pablo Escobar.
It was believed each cell would report to a larger group, who would then report to the leaders of the cartel. The groups as cited by former Cali accountant Guillermo Pallomari are:
The Cali Cartel eventually became known by then DEA chief Thomas Constantine as "The biggest, most powerful crime syndicate we 've ever known. ''
The Cali Cartel, whose brief roots began in trafficking marijuana, soon shifted to cocaine due to its ease of transporting and greater profit margin. The cartel would be known for innovation in trafficking and production by moving its refining operations out of Colombia to Peru and Bolivia, as well as for pioneering new trafficking routes through Panama. The Cartel also diversified into opium and was reported to have brought in a Japanese chemist to help its refining operation.
According to reports and testimony of Thomas Constantine to the United States Congress, "Cali would be the dominant group in trafficking South American heroin due to their access to the opium growing areas of Colombia. '' Debate over the cartel 's participation in heroin trafficking remains. It is believed the cartels leaders were not involved in heroin trading; however close associates to them were, such as Ivan Urdinola - Grajales. It is believed that their relationships led to cooperation with heroin distribution centers.
At the height of the Cali Cartel 's reign, they were cited as having control over 90 % of the world 's cocaine market and for being directly responsible for the growth of the cocaine market in Europe, controlling 90 % of the market. By the mid-1990s, the trafficking empire of the Cali Cartel was a multibillion - dollar enterprise.
In order to launder the incoming money of the trafficking operations, the Cali cartel heavily invested its funds into legitimate business ventures as well as front companies to mask the money. In 1996, it was believed the Cartel was grossing $7 billion in annual revenue from the US alone.
With the influx of cash comes the need to launder the funds. One of the first instances of the Cali Cartel 's laundering operations came when Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela was able to secure the position of Chairman of the Board of Banco de Trabajadores. The bank was believed to have been used to launder funds for the Cali cartel, as well as Pablo Escobar 's Medellín Cartel. Cartel members were permitted, through their affiliation with Gilberto, to overdraft accounts and take out loans without repayment.
Capitalizing on this basis, Gilberto was able to found the First InterAmericas Bank operating out of Panama. In an interview with Time, Gilberto admitted to money 's being laundered through the bank; however, he attributed the process to only legal actions. The laundering, which Gilberto states was "in accordance with Panamanian law '', is what led to the US authorities ' pursuing him. Gilberto later started, in 1979, the Grupo Radial Colombiano, a network of over 30 radio stations and a pharmaceutical chain named Drogas la Rebaja, which at its height amassed over 400 stores in 28 cities, employing 4200. The pharmaceutical chain 's value was estimated at $216 million. As a consequence of the Cali Cartel 's ownership of the chain, from January 1988 to May 4, 1990 it was targeted for 85 bombings by Pablo Escobar and the Medellin Cartel, leaving a combined total of 27 people dead.
St. Petersburg Immobilien und Beteiligungs AG or SPAG is a real estate company registered in Germany in 1992 and suspected by German police of facilitating Saint Petersburg mobsters, Colombian drug lords, and transcontinental money laundering. The company 's co-founder Rudolf Ritter was arrested in Liechtenstein for laundering cocaine cash for the Cali cartel.
Former Ukrainian presidential bodyguard Nikolai Melnichenko bugged the following conversation between Ukrainian President Leonid Kuchma and his security chief Leonid Derkach about SPAG:
Later in the conversation Derkach states that "they 've bought up all these documents throughout Europe and only the rest are in our hands ''.
Political violence was largely discounted by the Cali Cartel, as the threat of violence often sufficed. The organization of the cartel was structured so that only people who had family in Colombia would handle operations that involved both Cali and U.S. sites, keeping the family within reach of the cartel. Family members became the cartel 's insurance against members going to assisting officials or refusing payments of product received. The threat of death also hung over those who made mistakes. It is believed the cartel would often kill junior members who made gross errors.
In his book End of Millennium, Manuel Castells states the Cali Cartel had participated in social cleansing of hundreds of "desechables '' (English: discardables). The desechables included prostitutes, street children, petty thieves, homosexuals and the homeless. Along with some of the locals, the Cali Cartel formed parties self - named grupos de limpieza social (English: social cleansing groups) who murdered the "desechables, '' often leaving them with signs on them stating: "Cali limpia, Cali linda '' (English: clean Cali, beautiful Cali). The bodies of those murdered were often tossed into the Cauca River, which later became known as the River of Death. The municipality of Marsella in Risaralda was eventually bankrupted by the cost of recovering corpses and conducting autopsies.
In the early 1980s and 1990s, the communist guerrillas had struck at the drug cartels. In 1981, the then - guerrilla group, Movimiento 19 de Abril (English: 19th of April Movement) (M - 19), kidnapped Marta Nieves Ochoa, the sister of the Medellín Cartel 's Ochoa brothers, Jorge, Fabio and Juan David. M - 19 demanded a ransom of $15 million for Marta 's safe release, but were rejected. In response to the kidnapping, the Medellín and Cali cartels, as well as associated traffickers, formed the group Muerte a Secuestradores (English: Death to Kidnappers) (MAS). Traffickers contributed funds, rewards, equipment and manpower for MAS operations. Leaflets soon after were dropped in a football pitch in Cali announcing the formation of the group. MAS began to capture and torture M - 19 members in retaliation. Within 3 days, Marta Nieves was released. The group MAS, however, would continue to operate, with hundreds of killings attributed to them.
In 1992, the guerrilla faction Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (English: Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) (FARC) kidnapped Christina Santa Cruz, the daughter of Cali Cartel leader José Santacruz Londoño. FARC demanded in exchange for the safe return of Christina a ransom of $10 million. In response, the Cali Cartel kidnapped 20 or more members of the Colombian Communist Party, Patriotic Union, the United Workers Union, and the sister of Pablo Catatumbo, a representative of the Simón Bolívar Guerrilla Coordinating Board. Eventually, after talks, Christina and the sister of Catatumbo were released. It is unknown what happened to the other hostages taken by the cartel.
During the narco - terror war waged by Pablo Escobar on the Colombian government, it is believed a hired assassin attempted to kill Herrera while he was attending a sports event. The gunman opened fire using a machine gun on the crowd where Herrera was sitting, killing 19. However, he did not hit Herrera. Herrera is believed to be a founding member of Los Pepes, a group who operated alongside authorities with the intention of killing or capturing Pablo Escobar.
The Cali cartel then hired a member of Colombia 's military and civil engineer named Jorge Salcedo. They wanted him to help them plot an assassination on Pablo Escobar. They hired him because they heard that Salcedo had in the past, befriended and hired a group of mercenaries to wage war against the left - wing guerrilla forces in an operation sanctioned by Colombia 's military. The mercenary group was made up of twelve former special operations soldiers, including the British Special Air Service. Jorge Salcedo felt it was his patriotic duty and accepted the deal to bring the mercenaries back to Colombia and help plan the operation to kill Pablo Escobar. The group of British ex-soldiers accepted the offer. The cartel provided food, housing, and weapons to the mercenaries. The plan was to attack Escobar at his Hacienda Nápoles compound. They trained for a few months until they heard Escobar was going to be staying at the compound, celebrating the fact that his soccer team had won a tournament. They were going to be inserted by use of two heavily armed Hughes 500 helicopters and surprise - attack Escobar during the early morning. They painted the helicopters to look like police helicopters to further confuse them. They took off and headed towards the compound but one of the helicopters ended up crashing onto a mountainside, minutes away from the compound. The pilot was killed during the crash. The plan was aborted and they had to conduct a rescue mission up the dense mountainside.
Finally, Escobar went to prison, where he continued to run his Medellin Cartel and menace rivals from his cell. The second plot to kill Escobar was to bomb the prison by using an A-37 Dragonfly surplus ground - attack jet bomber in private ownership. The Cali Cartel had a connection in El Salvador, a general of El Salvador 's military who illegally sold them four 500 pound bombs for about half a million dollars. Jorge Salcedo flew over to El Salvador to oversee the plan to pick up the bombs and take them to an airfield where a civilian jet would land to pick them up and take them to Colombia. But when the jet landed at the airfield they found that it was a small executive jet. They attempted to load the four bombs, and what was planned to be a few minutes, it took them over 20 minutes. By this time there was a crowd of civilians that had gathered at the airfield curious about what was happening. Only three bombs fit, stacked in the small passenger cabin. The jet took off and Salcedo abandoned the fourth bomb and went back to his hotel. The morning after, the activities of the night before were all over the news. Salcedo barely escaped El Salvador and arrest before the botched pickup was exposed. Law enforcement had discovered the bomb and some of the people involved in the operation were arrested, and they told authorities about the plot to kill Escobar with the bombs. The Cali Cartel then decided to abort the air bombing plot.
There was no turning back for Salcedo. The Colombian government labeled him a criminal now working for the Cali Cartel, and his employers would not let him go anyway. Salcedo then settled into managing security for the Orejuela family, but then he was forced to witness an execution of four Panamenians, and tasked with organizing the murder of Guillermo Pallomari, their own cartel accountant. Salcedo faced a choice: to kill or risk being killed along with his family. Salcedo then decided to retaliate and save Pallomari and himself by contacting the US Central Intelligence Agency and work as an informant. This proved to be the death blow to the Cali Cartel. For his service, Salcedo and his extended family were relocated to the US and he received rewards of about $1.7 million.
The counter-intelligence TN Education Centre of the Cali Cartel often surprised the DEA and Colombian officials. It was discovered in a 1995 raid of Cali Cartel offices, that the cartel had been monitoring all phone calls made in and out of Bogotá and Cali including the U.S. Embassy in Bogotá and the Ministry of Defense. The laptop allowed Londoño to eavesdrop on phone calls being made as well as analyze phone lines for wiretaps. While officials were able to discover the use of the laptop, it is reported they were unable to decrypt many of the files due to sophisticated encryption techniques. Londoño was also believed to have a person within the phone company itself, which the officials realized when he was able to recognize a phone tap, one that had been placed directly at the phone company, instead of at his residence. Londoño 's lawyer soon sent an official notice requesting the legality and requesting the warrant if one was produced.
Included in the list of government officials and officers on the Cali Cartel payroll were a reported 5,000 taxi drivers. The taxi drivers would allow the cartel to know who was arriving in the city and when, as well as where they were staying. By having numerous taxi drivers on the payroll, the cartel was able to monitor the movements of officials and dignitaries. It is reported by Time magazine, in 1991, DEA and U.S. Customs Service (now ICE) agents were monitoring a shipment being offloaded in Miami, only to find out later that the DEA agents were the target of Cali surveillance at the same time.
Jorge Salcedo, a member of Colombia 's military, was put in charge of the cartel 's intelligence and later provide security to Miguel. He would later, ironically, be crucial in helping destroy the cartel and pinpointing where Miguel was hiding. He designed and set up a large hidden radio network across the city allowing members to communicate wherever they were. They also had many people inside law enforcement working for them. Including a high - ranking member of the Bloque de Búsqueda (search block) who were looking for the Cali Cartel 's top leaders. When law enforcement had finally cornered Miguel inside an apartment, the double agent was there (along with other law enforcement including two DEA agents) trying to find the secret compartment in which Miguel was hiding. Law enforcement failed to find him in time and were forced to leave the apartment. They maintained a perimeter around the building to prevent his escape. The double agent was crucial in helping Miguel escape, as he hid Miguel in his car and drove away from the scene untroubled.
Jorge Ochoa, a high ranking Medellín financier and the godfather to Jorge Alberto Rodríguez, and Gilberto Rodriguez had been childhood friends who years later co-owned the Panamanian First InterAmericas Bank. The institution was later cited by United States officials as a money laundering operation, which allowed both the Cali Cartel and the Medellín Cartel to move and launder large amounts of funds. Only through diplomatic pressure on then Panamanian Dictator Manuel Noriega could the U.S. put an end to the bank 's use as a money laundering front. In a TIME magazine interview, Gilberto Rodriguez admitted to laundering money through the bank but noted that the process broke no Panamanian laws.
The two cartels participated in other joint ventures in later years, such as the founding of Muerte a Secuestradores (MAS), who successfully returned Ochoa 's kidnapped sister, Marta Nieves Ochoa. Expanding on the prior success of MAS, the cartels and independent traffickers would meet again.
The second meeting is believed to have been the start of an organization trafficking between the primary participants, the Medellín Cartel and Cali Cartel. The two cartels divided up the major United States distribution points: the Cali Cartel took New York City and the Medellín Cartel took South Florida and Miami; Los Angeles was left up for grabs.
Through their affiliation in MAS, it is also believed the cartels decided to work together to stabilize prices, production, and shipments of the cocaine market. However, the strategic alliance formed with the foundation of MAS in 1981 began to crumble by 1983 - 1984, due to the ease of competition. As the cartels set up infrastructure, routes, transport methods, and bribes, it became easier for competitors to either establish similar deals or make use of those already put in place by other cartels. By 1987, the cooperation forged by the formation of MAS no longer existed. Contributing to the demise was the Medellín Cartel 's Rodriguez Gacha, who attempted to move in on the New York City market, previously ceded to the Cali Cartel, and the 1986 arrest of Jorge Ochoa at a police roadblock, which arrest the Medellín Cartel deemed suspicious and attributed partly to the Cali Cartel.
In later years as Pablo Escobar 's narco - terror war escalated against the Colombian government, the government began to strike back in ever escalating battles. As the Medellín Cartel weakened due to the fighting and constant pressure, the Cali Cartel grew in strength, eventually founding Los Pepes or Perseguidos por Pablo Escobar (English: People Persecuted by Pablo Escobar). Los Pepes was specifically formed to target the Medellín Cartel and bring about the downfall of Pablo Escobar. It is believed Los Pepes provided information to Bloque de Busqueda (English: Search Bloc) a joint police and army unit specifically created to track down Medellín leaders. In exchange for information, Los Pepes received assistance from the United States counter-terrorism unit, Delta Force, through its links to Search Bloc. By the time of Escobar 's capture and eventual death in December 1993, Los Pepes had been responsible for the deaths or executions of over 60 associates or members of the Medellín Cartel. The death of Pablo Escobar led to the dismantling of the Medellín Cartel and the rise of the Cali Cartel.
While the Cali Cartel operated with a degree of immunity early on, due to its ties to the government, and the Medellín Cartel 's narco - terrorism war on the Colombian government, they were still subjected to drug seizures. In 1991 alone, law enforcement agencies seized 67 tons of cocaine, 75 % originating from the Cali Cartel. In total, the US Customs Service (USCS) alone had spent 91,855 case hours and 13 years in investigations against the Cali Cartel, seizing 50 tons of cocaine and $15 million in assets.
The involvement of U.S. Customs Service in the Cali Cartel 's trafficking came in July 1990 after Jorge Alberto Rodríguez, under federal investigation, was arrested after attempting to import 100 kilos of cocaine into Tallahassee, Florida through the assistance of an undercover U.S. Customs agent. Jorge was brought to trial in October 1990, and refused to testify or identify anyone he was criminally affiliated with. He was convicted and sentenced to serve 25 years in federal prison, where he continued to operate and manage his criminal empire. In 1991 a shipment was intercepted with the aid of a drug sniffing dog. The cocaine was hidden inside concrete posts. The interception of the concrete posts at the Miami seaport led to seizure of 12,000 kilograms of cocaine and several arrests, as well as the beginning of what the US Customs Service would dub "Operation Cornerstone ''. A year later in another seizure, an USCS wiretap on Harold Ackerman, whose affiliation was derived from the ' 91 seizure, enabled the arrest of 7 individuals and 6,000 kilograms of cocaine hidden in a load of broccoli. Accounting ledgers were seized in related arrests which allowed the identification of another shipment being sent to Panama hidden in tiles, this information was passed to Panamanian authorities and led to the seizure of 5,100 kilograms.
The following year in 1993, the US Customs Service struck again at the Cali cartel, this time seizing 5,600 kilograms while pursuing Raul Marti, the only member of the defunct Miami cell to remain. It is believed these successive raids forced the cartel to funnel its shipments through Mexico, however that did not stop the US Customs Service. Three maritime ships were intercepted in ' 93 with a total of 17,000 kilograms. Operation Cornerstone lasted 14 years, targeting the Cali Cartel 's drug trafficking operations.
Between June and July 1995, the remaining six of the seven heads of the cartel were arrested. Gilberto was arrested in his home, and Henry Loaiza - Ceballos, Victor Patiño - Fomeque and Phanor Arizabaleta - Arzayus surrendered to authorities. Jose Santa Cruz Londoño was captured in a restaurant, and a month later Miguel Rodriguez was apprehended during a raid. It is widely believed that the cartel continued to operate and run trafficking operations from within prison.
The Rodríguez brothers were extradited in 2006 to the United States and pleaded guilty in Miami, Florida to charges of conspiracy to import cocaine into the United States. Upon their confession they agreed to forfeit $2.1 billion in assets. The agreement, however, did not require them to cooperate in other investigations. They were solely responsible for identification of assets stemming from their cocaine trafficking. Colombian officials raided and seized the Drogas la Rebaja pharmacy chain, replacing 50 of its 4,200 workers on grounds they were "serving the interests of the Cali Cartel ''.
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where does us get most of its aluminum | Aluminum industry in the United States - Wikipedia
The aluminum industry in the United States in 2014 produced 1.72 million metric tons of primary aluminum, worth 3.97 billion dollars, at nine aluminum smelters. In addition, the US produced 1.70 million tons of secondary aluminum from old (post-consumer) scrap, and 1.93 million tons of aluminum from new (manufacturing) scrap. The US was the world 's 6th largest producer of primary aluminum in 2014. The industry employed 29,000 people.
In 2014, primary aluminum, which is produced from bauxite, was produced by three companies at nine smelters. Primary aluminum is preferred for high - quality uses such as aircraft. The leader in US production was Alcoa. Also operating multiple primary plants was Century Aluminum.
Primary Aluminum Smelters in the US
Secondary production is the recycling of metallic aluminum derived from scrap. Secondary production can be from either new scrap (from aluminum manufacturing), or from old scrap (post-consumer scrap such as recycled aluminum cans).
The principal raw materials for aluminum production are bauxite (for primary production) and scrap (for secondary production).
Primary aluminum production consumes a great deal of electricity, which makes up about a third of the cost. Making a ton of primary aluminum consumes at least 12,500 kW - hr, and most plants consume 14,500 to 15,000 kW - hr per ton of primary aluminum.
Secondary production of a given unit of aluminum requires about 10 % of the electricity of primary production.
The United States mined production of bauxite for primary aluminum production is insignificant. In 2013, the US mined only 1.3 percent of the bauxite it used, US mined production being less than 0.1 percent of world production.
The US imported nearly all the bauxite (the only commercial aluminum ore) used in producing primary aluminum. For years, the US has produced less than 1 % of the bauxite used to make aluminum.
The US also imported 33 percent of the aluminum metal that was used in 2014. Of the imported aluminum, 63 % came from Canada.
The US used to be a much more important factor in the world primary aluminum market. As recently as 1981, the US produced 30 % of the world 's primary aluminum, and for many years up through 2000, the US was the world 's largest producer of primary aluminum. In 2014, by contrast, the US ranked sixth in primary aluminum production, and provided only 3.5 % of world production.
US production of primary aluminum peaked in 1980 at 4.64 million metric tons. Since then, US primary aluminum production has fallen by more than half, but secondary production has increased, making up much of the difference. In the 1950s and 1960s, primary production made up about 80 % of the aluminum output. In 2014, primary production made up 32 %, while secondary from new scrap made up 36 % and secondary from old scrap made up 32 % of US aluminum production.
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who presented in parliament the last separate rail budget of india | Rail budget - Wikipedia
Rail Budget of India is the Annual Financial Statement of the state - owned Indian Railways, which handles rail transport in India. It was presented every year by the Minister of Railways, representing the Ministry of Railways, in the Parliament.
The Railway Budget was presented every year, a few days before the Union budget of India, till 2016. The Government on 21 September 2016 approved merger of the Rail and General budgets from next year, ending a 92 - year - old practice of a separate budget for the nation 's largest transporter.
Following the recommendation of the Acworth Committee in 1920 - 21, headed by British railway economist William Acworth The "Acworth Report '' led to reorganisation of railways, the railway finances were separated from the general government finances in 1921. After that in 1924 the budget was announced, a practice that continued till 2016.
The first live telecast took place on 24 March 1994.
Lalu Prasad Yadav, who remained Railways Minister from 2004 to May 2009, presented the railway budget 6 times in a row. In 2009, under his tenure a ₹ 108 billion (US $1.7 billion) budget was passed.
In the year 2000, Mamata Banerjee (later Chief Minister of West Bengal) became the first female Railway Minister. In 2002, she became the first female to present the Railway budget and is the only woman to do so for two different governing coalitions (NDA and UPA).
In 2014 budget, Railway Minister D.V. Sadananda Gowda announced the first bullet train and 9 High - Speed Rail routes.
The last Railway Budget was presented on 25 February 2016 by Mr. Suresh Prabhu.
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films with the word story in the title | List of films: S - wikipedia
This is an alphabetical list of film articles (or sections within articles about films). It includes made for television films. See the talk page for the method of indexing used.
Previous: List of films: Q -- R Next: List of films: T
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who sang you cant get me im part of the union | Part of the Union - wikipedia
"Part of the Union '' is a song by English band Strawbs featured on their 1973 album Bursting at the Seams and was the band 's most successful single, peaking at number 2 in the UK Singles Chart. It also reached number 10 in the Irish Singles Chart.
The writing credits are given to Richard Hudson and John Ford, but the song may be an adaptation of the Woody Guthrie / Almanac Singers ' song "Union Maid ''. The lyrical resemblance is striking although the tune is different.
The song was included on the album Bursting at the Seams but is not considered typical of the songs on that album. Indeed, the track was originally recorded without a contribution by band leader Dave Cousins and was to be released under the name of "The Brothers ''. It demonstrates the different, more commercial direction the writing partnership of Hudson and Ford was taking within the band.
Although it was believed that the song was intended to ridicule the powerful British trades unions of the time, the song (especially its chorus "You do n't get me I 'm part of the Union '') quickly became popular as an unofficial anthem of the trades union movement. Subsequently, however, the Strawbs have stated that the song was written with genuine celebratory intent.
The song resurfaced on the UK television advertisement for insurance company Norwich Union in 1998. The song is also currently being played in the stadium at the conclusion of Major League Soccer 's Philadelphia Union games.
The B - side track "Will You Go '' is an arrangement of the Irish folk song "Wild Mountain Thyme '' written by Belfast musician Francis McPeake, dating back to the repertoire of The Strawberry Hill Boys (the original name of Strawbs)
In the band 's appearance on BBC 's Top of the Pops, keyboardist Blue Weaver appeared with both piano and pedal harmonium and drummer Richard Hudson appeared with a marching bass drum emblazoned with the words "The Associated Union of Strawbs Workers ''.
The original "Brothers '' recording can be found on the box set A Taste of Strawbs. Cockerel Chorus (of "Nice One Cyril '' fame) also recorded the song for inclusion on their 1973 Party Sing - a-long album.
Recorded by The Hindle Strikers with T.B.E. in 1984 on the Catch 22 label (CTT001A) - originally they recorded it on cassette unaware that DJs required it on vinyl to play it on the radio.
Since 2007 the song whas been included as a standard part of the Strawbs ' live set and was included in their live DVD The Strawbs - Lay Down With The Strawbs, filmed and recorded live at The Robin 2 in Bilston, UK on 5 March 2006.
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who won canadas first medal in 2018 olympics | Canada at the 2018 Winter Olympics - Wikipedia
Canada competed at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea, from February 9 to 25, 2018. It was the nation 's 23rd appearance at the Winter Olympics, having competed at every Games since their inception in 1924. Canada competed in all sports disciplines, except Nordic combined. The chef de mission was Isabelle Charest, who was appointed in February 2017.
On January 16, 2018, figure skaters Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir were announced as the country 's flag bearers during the opening ceremony. This was the first time two athletes were named as Canada 's opening ceremony flag bearer. On February 24, 2018, short track speed skater Kim Boutin was named the flag bearer for the closing ceremony.
Instead of setting a specific medal count as a target, the Canadian Olympic Committee aimed "to contend for No. 1 '' in the medal count. Private data analytics company Gracenote projected that the Canadian team would win 28 medals. Canada finished with 11 gold medals and 29 overall (ranking 3rd in both categories). This was the most successful Canadian performance in terms of overall medals, surpassing the 26 won at the 2010 Winter Olympics.
For the first time since its official introduction at the 1998 Winter Olympics, Canada failed to medal in men 's and women 's curling, but did win gold in mixed doubles curling, a category making its Olympic debut.
On Day 2 of the Games, Mark McMorris won the bronze medal in the men 's slopestyle. This was eleven months after the snowboarder ended up in a coma.
Pairs skater Eric Radford became the first openly gay man to win a gold medal at any Winter Olympics, as part of the Canadian team that won the team figure skating competition. A corner of Canada Olympic House was set aside as Pride House for the duration of the Olympics.
Alex Gough won Canada 's first ever permanent luge medal on February 13. She had been part of the 2014 luge relay team which briefly won a previous Olympic bronze due to a Russian doping disqualification, but that finding had been overturned on appeal.
On February 23, Canada broke its record for most ever Winter Olympic medals, previously at 26, with figure skater Kaetlyn Osmond winning the 27th medal.
A day before the closing ceremony, on February 24, Canada won its 28th medal when Sebastien Toutant took gold in the first ever "big air '' competition in snowboarding. That medal was Canada 's 500th Olympic medal (not counting two medals (gold and silver) at the 1906 Olympic Games).
Canada maintained its record for the most gold medals at a single Games -- 14 at Vancouver 2010 -- and now shares the honor with Norway and Germany, which equalled that mark at these Games.
The following is the list of number of competitors participating at the Games per sport / discipline.
Canada qualified a total of 15 male and female athletes for alpine skiing. However they declined one spot. On January 31, 2018 Alpine Canada announced that Erik Guay was not able to return to health due to continuing severe back pain. Therefore, he will not compete at the upcoming Winter Olympics.
Based on their Nations Cup rankings in the 2016 -- 17 Biathlon World Cup, Canada qualified five men and five women. The official team of ten athletes was named on January 16, 2018.
Canada qualified a full team of three sleds in the two - man, four - man and women 's bobsleigh competitions each. The team will consist of 18 athletes, and also marked the largest bobsleigh team the country has ever sent to the Winter Olympics. The official team was named on January 24, 2018.
* -- Denotes the driver of each sled
- Sam Giguere and Joey Nemet will serve as the team 's alternates.
* -- Denotes the driver of each sled
- Cynthia Appiah and Kristen Bujnowski will serve as the team 's alternates.
Canada qualified a total of 8 male and female athletes for cross-country skiing and receive three additional quota places based on the reallocation process. Seven male and four female competitors were announced on January 29.
Canada qualified a full team of 12 athletes (6 men and 6 women). The country will compete in all three events, including the debuting mixed doubles event. The teams and the alternates for the men 's and women 's tournaments were announced officially on January 8, 2017.
Canada qualified a men 's team by earning enough points in the last two World Curling Championships. The Olympic team was decided at the 2017 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials.
The Canadian team consists of Kevin Koe, Marc Kennedy, Brent Laing, Ben Hebert, and Scott Pfeifer.
Final round robin standings
Canada has a bye in draws 4, 8 and 11.
Wednesday, 14 February, 09: 05
Wednesday, 14 February, 20: 05
Thursday, 15 February, 14: 05
Friday, 16 February, 20: 05
Saturday, 17 February, 14: 05
Sunday, 18 February, 09: 05
Monday, 19 February, 14: 05
Tuesday, 20 February, 09: 05
Wednesday, 21 February, 14: 05
Thursday, 22 February, 20: 05
Friday, 23 February, 15: 35
Canada qualified a women 's team by earning enough points in the last two World Curling Championships. The Olympic team was decided at the 2017 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials.
The Canadian team consists of Rachel Homan, Emma Miskew, Joanne Courtney, Lisa Weagle, and Cheryl Bernard.
Final round robin standings
Canada has a bye in draws 1, 5 and 9.
Thursday, 15 February, 09: 05
Thursday, 15 February, 20: 05
Friday, 16 February, 14: 05
Saturday, 17 February, 20: 05
Sunday, 18 February, 14: 05
Monday, 19 February, 09: 05
Tuesday, 20 February, 14: 05
Wednesday, 21 February, 09: 05
Wednesday, 21 February, 20: 05
Canada qualified a mixed doubles team by earning enough points in the last two World Mixed Doubles Curling Championships. The Olympic team was decided at the 2018 Canadian Mixed Doubles Curling Olympic Trials. Former Olympic gold medallists John Morris and Kaitlyn Lawes won the trials, and were the mixed doubles representative for Canada.
Final round robin standings
Thursday, February 8, 9: 05
Thursday, February 8, 20: 04
Friday, February 9, 8: 35
Friday, February 9, 13: 35
Saturday, February 10, 9: 05
Saturday, February 10, 20: 04
Sunday, February 11, 9: 05
Monday, February 12, 9: 05
Tuesday, February 13, 20: 05
Based on placements at the 2017 World Figure Skating Championships in Helsinki, Finland, Canada qualified 17 athletes (8 male and 9 female) across all four individual and pairs events. This meant Canada qualified the most figure skaters out of all nations. The team was announced after the conclusion of the 2018 Canadian Figure Skating Championships. Canada also qualified in the team event after finishing in first place in the overall qualification rankings.
Qualification legend: FA -- Qualify to medal round; FB -- Qualify to consolation round
Canada qualified a men 's and women 's team for a total of 48 athletes (25 men and 23 women).
Key:
Canada men 's national ice hockey team qualified by finishing 1st in the 2015 IIHF World Ranking. The official roster of the games was announced on January 11, 2018. The team did not include any of Canada 's National Hockey League players as the league decided to not participate at the games. This meant about 300 of the country 's top players did not make the team.
The following is the Canadian roster for the men 's ice hockey tournament at the 2018 Winter Olympics.
Head coach: Willie Desjardins Assistant coaches: Dave King, Scott Walker, Craig Woodcroft
Canada women 's national ice hockey team qualified by finishing 2nd in the 2016 IIHF World Ranking.
The following is the Canadian roster for the women 's ice hockey tournament at the 2018 Winter Olympics.
Head coach: Laura Schuler Assistant coaches: Dwayne Gylywoychuk, Troy Ryan
Based on results of the 2017 -- 18 Luge World Cup, Canada qualified eight athletes and a relay team. The team consists of three athletes each in the individual events and a doubles sled. The team was officially named on December 20, 2017.
Canada named its team of short track speed skaters in August 2017. Later in 2017 after the conclusion of the 2017 -- 18 ISU Short Track Speed Skating World Cup, Canada qualified a full team of ten athletes (five per gender), allowing all athletes named to the team to compete. On January 25, 2018, Speed Skating Canada officially unveiled the team and which events each athlete would compete in.
Qualification legend: ADV -- Advanced due to being impeded by another skater; AA -- Advanced to final round due to being impeded by another skater; FA -- Qualify to medal round; FB -- Qualify to consolation round; OR -- Olympic record
Canada qualified the maximum team size of three men and three women. The team was officially announced on January 24, 2018.
Canada qualified two ski jumpers, one male and one female. The team was officially announced on January 24, 2018.
Canada qualified 21 athletes (ten men and eleven women), however returned its only quota for the women 's parallel giant slalom, meaning only 20 athletes were officially named to the team (ten per gender). Canada 's slopestyle and big air team of seven athletes was named on January 9, 2018. Canada 's halfpipe, snowboard cross and alpine team of thirteen athletes was named on January 25, 2018. On January 30, 2018 Canada received an additional spot in men 's snowboard cross, allowing Éliot Grondin to compete as the fourth Canadian in this event.
Qualification Legend: QF -- Qualify directly to final
Qualification Legend: QF -- Qualify directly to final
Qualification Legend: W -- Winner; L -- Loser
Qualification legend: FA -- Qualify to medal round; FB -- Qualify to consolation round
Canada earned the following quotas at the conclusion of the four World Cup 's used for qualification. Five athletes were pre-selected for the games after their results from the World Cup (Alex Boisvert - Lacroix, Ivanie Blondin, Ted - Jan Bloemen, Olivier Jean and Keri Morrison). The rest of the team will be named after the Canadian trials held in Calgary from January 4 to 9, 2018. The official team was named on January 10, 2018. The team consists of 19 athletes (10 men and 9 women), which is one less than the maximum the country could have sent to the games. Canada also did not nominate a third skater in the women 's 500 and 1000 metres events.
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which of the following is an example of an event leading to primary succession | Ecological succession - wikipedia
Ecological succession is the process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time. The time scale can be decades (for example, after a wildfire), or even millions of years after a mass extinction.
The community begins with relatively few pioneering plants and animals and develops through increasing complexity until it becomes stable or self - perpetuating as a climax community. The "engine '' of succession, the cause of ecosystem change, is the impact of established species upon their own environments. A consequence of living is the sometimes subtle and sometimes overt alteration of one 's own environment.
It is a phenomenon or process by which an ecological community undergoes more or less orderly and predictable changes following a disturbance or the initial colonization of a new habitat. Succession may be initiated either by formation of new, unoccupied habitat, such as from a lava flow or a severe landslide, or by some form of disturbance of a community, such as from a fire, severe windthrow, or logging. Succession that begins in new habitats, uninfluenced by pre-existing communities is called primary succession, whereas succession that follows disruption of a pre-existing community is called secondary succession.
Succession was among the first theories advanced in ecology. The study of succession remains at the core of ecological science. Ecological succession was first documented in the Indiana Dunes of Northwest Indiana which led to efforts to preserve the Indiana Dunes. Exhibits on ecological succession are displayed in the Hour Glass, a museum in Ogden Dunes.
Precursors of the idea of ecological succession go back to the beginning of the 19th century. The French naturalist Adolphe Dureau de la Malle was the first to make use of the word succession concerning the vegetation development after forest clear - cutting. In 1859 Henry David Thoreau wrote an address called "The Succession of Forest Trees '' in which he described succession in an oak - pine forest. "It has long been known to observers that squirrels bury nuts in the ground, but I am not aware that any one has thus accounted for the regular succession of forests. '' The Austrian botanist Anton Kerner published a study about the succession of plants in the Danube river basin in 1863.
Henry Chandler Cowles, at the University of Chicago, developed a more formal concept of succession. Inspired by studies of Danish dunes by Eugen Warming, Cowles studied vegetation development on sand dunes on the shores of Lake Michigan (the Indiana Dunes). He recognized that vegetation on dunes of different ages might be interpreted as different stages of a general trend of vegetation development on dunes (an approach to the study of vegetation change later termed space - for - time substitution, or chronosequence studies). He first published this work as a paper in the Botanical Gazette in 1899 ("The ecological relations of the vegetation of the sand dunes of Lake Michigan ''). In this classic publication and subsequent papers, he formulated the idea of primary succession and the notion of a sere -- a repeatable sequence of community changes specific to particular environmental circumstances.
From about 1900 to 1960, however, understanding of succession was dominated by the theories of Frederic Clements, a contemporary of Cowles, who held that seres were highly predictable and deterministic and converged on a climatically determined stable climax community regardless of starting conditions. Clements explicitly analogized the successional development of ecological communities with ontogenetic development of individual organisms, and his model is often referred to as the pseudo-organismic theory of community ecology. Clements and his followers developed a complex taxonomy of communities and successional pathways.
Henry Gleason offered a contrasting framework as early as the 1920s. The Gleasonian model was more complex and much less deterministic than the Clementsian. It differs most fundamentally from the Clementsian view in suggesting a much greater role of chance factors and in denying the existence of coherent, sharply bounded community types. Gleason argued that species distributions responded individualistically to environmental factors, and communities were best regarded as artifacts of the juxtaposition of species distributions. Gleason 's ideas, first published in 1926, were largely ignored until the late 1950s.
Two quotes illustrate the contrasting views of Clements and Gleason. Clements wrote in 1916:
The developmental study of vegetation necessarily rests upon the assumption that the unit or climax formation is an organic entity. As an organism the formation arises, grows, matures, and dies. Furthermore, each climax formation is able to reproduce itself, repeating with essential fidelity the stages of its development.
while Gleason, in his 1926 paper, said:
An association is not an organism, scarcely even a vegetational unit, but merely a coincidence.
Gleason 's ideas were, in fact, more consistent with Cowles ' original thinking about succession. About Clements ' distinction between primary succession and secondary succession, Cowles wrote (1911):
This classification seems not to be of fundamental value, since it separates such closely related phenomena as those of erosion and deposition, and it places together such unlike things as human agencies and the subsidence of land.
A more rigorous, data - driven testing of successional models and community theory generally began with the work of Robert Whittaker and John Curtis in the 1950s and 1960s. Succession theory has since become less monolithic and more complex. J. Connell and R. Slatyer attempted a codification of successional processes by mechanism. Among British and North American ecologists, the notion of a stable climax vegetation has been largely abandoned, and successional processes have come to be seen as much less deterministic, with important roles for historical contingency and for alternate pathways in the actual development of communities. Debates continue as to the general predictability of successional dynamics and the relative importance of equilibrial vs. non-equilibrial processes. Former Harvard professor F.A. Bazzaz introduced the notion of scale into the discussion, as he considered that at local or small area scale the processes are stochastic and patchy, but taking bigger regional areas into consideration, certain tendencies can not be denied.
The trajectory of successional change can be influenced by site conditions, by the character of the events initiating succession (perturbations), by the interactions of the species present, and by more stochastic factors such as availability of colonists or seeds or weather conditions at the time of disturbance. Some of these factors contribute to predictability of succession dynamics; others add more probabilistic elements. Two important perturbation factors today are human actions and climatic change.
In general, communities in early succession will be dominated by fast - growing, well - dispersed species (opportunist, fugitive, or r - selected life - histories). As succession proceeds, these species will tend to be replaced by more competitive (k - selected) species.
Trends in ecosystem and community properties in succession have been suggested, but few appear to be general. For example, species diversity almost necessarily increases during early succession as new species arrive, but may decline in later succession as competition eliminates opportunistic species and leads to dominance by locally superior competitors. Net Primary Productivity, biomass, and trophic properties all show variable patterns over succession, depending on the particular system and site.
Ecological succession was formerly seen as having a stable end - stage called the climax, sometimes referred to as the ' potential vegetation ' of a site, and shaped primarily by the local climate. This idea has been largely abandoned by modern ecologists in favor of nonequilibrium ideas of ecosystems dynamics. Most natural ecosystems experience disturbance at a rate that makes a "climax '' community unattainable. Climate change often occurs at a rate and frequency sufficient to prevent arrival at a climax state. Additions to available species pools through range expansions and introductions can also continually reshape communities.
The development of some ecosystem attributes, such as soil properties and nutrient cycles, are both influenced by community properties, and, in turn, influence further successional development. This feed - back process may occur only over centuries or millennia. Coupled with the stochastic nature of disturbance events and other long - term (e.g., climatic) changes, such dynamics make it doubtful whether the ' climax ' concept ever applies or is particularly useful in considering actual vegetation.
Successional dynamics beginning with colonization of an area that has not been previously occupied by an ecological community, such as newly exposed rock or sand surfaces, lava flows, newly exposed glacial tills, etc., are referred to as primary succession. The stages of primary succession include pioneer plants (lichens and mosses), grassy stage, smaller shrubs, and trees. Animals begin to return when there is food there for them to eat. When it is a fully functioning ecosystem, it has reached the climax community stage. For example, parts of Acadia National Park in Maine went through primary succession.
Successional dynamics following severe disturbance or removal of a pre-existing community are called secondary succession. Dynamics in secondary succession are strongly influenced by pre-disturbance conditions, including soil development, seed banks, remaining organic matter, and residual living organisms. Because of residual fertility and pre-existing organisms, community change in early stages of secondary succession can be relatively rapid. In a fragmented old field habitat created in eastern Kansas, woody plants "colonized more rapidly (per unit area) on large and nearby patches ''.
Secondary succession is much more commonly observed and studied than primary succession. Particularly common types of secondary succession include responses to natural disturbances such as fire, flood, and severe winds, and to human - caused disturbances such as logging and agriculture. As an example, secondary succession has been occurring in Shenandoah National Park following the 1995 flood of the Mormon River, which destroyed plant and animal life. Today, plant and animal species are beginning to return.
Unlike secondary succession, these types of vegetation change are not dependent on disturbance but are periodic changes arising from fluctuating species interactions or recurring events. These models modify the climax concept towards one of dynamic states.
Autogenic succession can be brought by changes in the soil caused by the organisms there. These changes include accumulation of organic matter in litter or humic layer, alteration of soil nutrients, or change in the pH of soil due to the plants growing there. The structure of the plants themselves can also alter the community. For example, when larger species like trees mature, they produce shade on to the developing forest floor that tends to exclude light - requiring species. Shade - tolerant species will invade the area.
Allogenic succession is caused by external environmental influences and not by the vegetation. For example, soil changes due to erosion, leaching or the deposition of silt and clays can alter the nutrient content and water relationships in the ecosystems. Animals also play an important role in allogenic changes as they are pollinators, seed dispersers and herbivores. They can also increase nutrient content of the soil in certain areas, or shift soil about (as termites, ants, and moles do) creating patches in the habitat. This may create regeneration sites that favor certain species.
Climatic factors may be very important, but on a much longer time - scale than any other. Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns will promote changes in communities. As the climate warmed at the end of each ice age, great successional changes took place. The tundra vegetation and bare glacial till deposits underwent succession to mixed deciduous forest. The greenhouse effect resulting in increase in temperature is likely to bring profound Allogenic changes in the next century. Geological and climatic catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, avalanches, meteors, floods, fires, and high wind also bring allogenic changes.
In 1916, Frederic Clements published a descriptive theory of succession and advanced it as a general ecological concept. His theory of succession had a powerful influence on ecological thought. Clements ' concept is usually termed classical ecological theory. According to Clements, succession is a process involving several phases:
A seral community is an intermediate stage found in an ecosystem advancing towards its climax community. In many cases more than one seral stage evolves until climax conditions are attained. A prisere is a collection of seres making up the development of an area from non-vegetated surfaces to a climax community. Depending on the substratum and climate, different seres are found.
Succession theory was developed primarily by botanists. The study of succession applied to whole ecosystems initiated in the writings of Ramon Margalef, while Eugene Odum 's publication of The Strategy of Ecosystem Development is considered its formal starting point.
Animal life also exhibit changes with changing communities. In lichen stage the fauna is sparse. It comprises few mites, ants and spiders living in the cracks and crevices. The fauna undergoes a qualitative increase during herb grass stage. The animals found during this stage include nematodes, insects larvae, ants, spiders, mites, etc. The animal population increases and diversifies with the development of forest climax community. The fauna consists of invertebrates like slugs, snails, worms, millipedes, centipedes, ants, bugs; and vertebrates such as squirrels, foxes, mice, moles, snakes, various birds, salamanders and frogs.
Succession of micro-organisms including fungi and bacteria occurring within a microhabitat is known as microsuccession or serule. This type of succession occurs in recently disturbed communities or newly available habitat, for example in recently dead trees, animal droppings, exposed glacial till, etc. Microbial communities may also change due to products secreted by the bacteria present. Changes of pH in a habitat could provide ideal conditions for a new species to inhabit the area. In some cases the new species may outcompete the present ones for nutrients leading to the primary species demise. Changes can also occur by microbial succession with variations in water availability and temperature. Theories of macroecology have only recently been applied to microbiology and so much remains to be understood about this growing field. A recent study of microbial succession evaluated the balances between stochastic and deterministic processes in the bacterial colonization of a salt marsh chronosequence. The results of this study show that, much like in macro succession, early colonization (primary succession) is mostly influenced by stochasticity while secondary succession of these bacterial communities was more strongly influenced by deterministic factors.
According to classical ecological theory, succession stops when the sere has arrived at an equilibrium or steady state with the physical and biotic environment. Barring major disturbances, it will persist indefinitely. This end point of succession is called climax.
The final or stable community in a sere is the climax community or climatic vegetation. It is self - perpetuating and in equilibrium with the physical habitat. There is no net annual accumulation of organic matter in a climax community. The annual production and use of energy is balanced in such a community.
There are three schools of interpretations explaining the climax concept:
The theory of alternative stable states suggests there is not one end point but many which transition between each other over ecological time.
The forests, being an ecological system, are subject to the species succession process. There are "opportunistic '' or "pioneer '' species that produce great quantities of seed that are disseminated by the wind, and therefore can colonize big empty extensions. They are capable of germinating and growing in direct sunlight. Once they have produced a closed canopy, the lack of direct sun radiation at soil makes it difficult for their own seedlings to develop. It is then the opportunity for shade - tolerant species to become established under the protection of the pioneers. When the pioneers die, the shade - tolerant species replace them. These species are capable of growing beneath the canopy, and therefore, in the absence of catastrophes, will stay. For this reason it is then said the stand has reached its climax. When a catastrophe occurs, the opportunity for the pioneers opens up again, provided they are present or within a reasonable range.
An example of pioneer species, in forests of northeastern North America are Betula papyrifera (White birch) and Prunus serotina (Black cherry), that are particularly well - adapted to exploit large gaps in forest canopies, but are intolerant of shade and are eventually replaced by other shade - tolerant species in the absence of disturbances that create such gaps.
Things in nature are not black and white, and there are intermediate stages. It is therefore normal that between the two extremes of light and shade there is a gradient, and there are species that may act as pioneer or tolerant, depending on the circumstances. It is of paramount importance to know the tolerance of species in order to practice an effective silviculture.
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alif allah aur insaan full cast and crew | Alif Allah Aur Insaan (TV series) - Wikipedia
Alif Allah Aur Insaan (Urdu: الف اللہ اور انسان ; lit: "A '' Allah and Human) is a Pakistani spiritual drama series which aired on Hum TV from 25 April 2017 to 13 February 2018. It holds the title of the longest running weekly of Hum TV with 44 episodes. It was created by Momina Duraid, as part of a night programming all under Duraid 's MD production company and was written by Qaisra Hayat based on her novel of the same name. It was Hayat 's second screenplay and story in a row after she penned Saya - e-Dewar Bhi Nahi and presented it as a Television series for the same channel. The series was directed by Ahson Talish.
Alif Allah Aur Insaan revolved around five different people from five totally different backgrounds and their faith and conviction. It highlighted the concept of how the creator rewards the people who believe in hard work and patience. It Stars Ushna Shah, Mikaal Zulfiqar, Kubra Khan, Shehzad Sheikh, Imran Ashraf and Sana Nawaz
Alif Allah Aur Insaan is the story of trust and relationships, story revolves around five different people from five totally different backgrounds and their faith and conviction. It highlights the concept of how the creator rewards the people who believe in hard work and patience. It depicts the story of a young landlord Shahzeb (Mikaal Zulfiqar) who once saw Nazneen Malik (Kubra Khan) on her sisters wedding and fell in love with her, similarly Nazneen happens to be the spoilt child of her rich father Hashmat Malik (Usman Peerzada). On the same wedding, Nazneen insults Shamu (Imran Ashraf) and his fellows who were invited by her parents to perform their dance. Nazi insults them for being Transgenders after which Shammu curses her that one day she will lose all her fate. Simultaneously Basit (Shehzad Sheikh) happens to be son of Malik 's most respected workers / servants. On the other hand, Story depicts the life of Rani (Ushna Shah) a street beggar who is forced to beg and bring money to her father (Saife Hassan), she believes in Human equality and saved Shamu from mocking goons which left him in love with her. One day Rani comes across a beautiful place where a florist tells her about the beauty and fate of the towns well known woman ' Nigar Begum ' (Sana Nawaz), this fascinates Rani who constantly prays to be like her one day. It is revealed that Nigar begum is a head courtesan who shelters homeless girls in her brothel to work for her, it is also revealed in flashbacks that Shahzeb was once forced by his friends to see Nigar Begum 's Mujra dance. Despite going there on his friend 's consent, Shahzeb was least interested and remained decent which made Negar falling in love with him, but he rejects her love and insults her after which a heartbroken Nigar curses him that one day he will be rejected by the same way he rejected her.
Rani 's father decides to get her marriage to Rasheed who would in - return pay him extra Mahr Payment. In order to finish begging and to deny her fathers command for marriage, Rani decides to fulfil her only dream of becoming Nigar Begum. She decides to visit Nigar and asks her to keep her as her maid thinking that she will live a luxurious life better than a that of a beggar which she considers a mess. She rejects Shamu 's love, insults him for being a transgender and approaches Nigar Begum keeping in mind that once she has arrived she can never go back. Facing her rejection, Shamu is left heartbroken and decides to earn and work with necessity thus joining a local barber 's shop. Nigar Begum keeps Rani as her maid and renames her as Reena Begum. Simultaneously Shahzeb takes his marriage proposal for Nazneen and gets engaged with her who is least interested to marry him. Later she opens up about her wish of studying in the city, she is sent to Lahore on Shahzeb 's consent and her parents hold Basit as her guardian. With growing time Shahzeb begins questioning himself and God that why Nazneen does n't love him back, with his questions he faces religious confusions and regularly visits an Islamic Molvi (Qavi Khan) whose knowledge and words help him with religious knowledge. Similarly Shamu earns fame and becomes a popular hairstylist where as Rani starts to realise that her life has not changed the way she wanted. Nazneen on the other hand falls in love with Basit who holds his parents self - respect as his highest priority.
One day Nigar Begam punishes one of her workers and orders to kill her which is overseen by Rani after which she regrets to enter the brothel and realises that the life she was living as a beggar was far better than where she is now. She realises that God has given her a chance to escape but also vows to accomplish her dreams. The next day Nigar Begum is overwhelmed and fascinated since Nawazish Ali (Farhan Ali Agha) is visiting the brothel to decide if she should be picked for his next film. There he sees Rani and selects her for his next film which irks Nigar Begum, following her anger he insults her character and leaves after which she brutally punishes Rani. The next day her family contacts Shamu to bring her back, he convinces Nigar Begum to fire Rani so he safely can take her back. Rani is told to leave immediately, she realises that once again God has given her chance to leave but she again vows to fulfill her dream, for this she poisons Nigar Begum and kills her. Where as Naazneen on the other hand reveals about Shahzeb visiting Nigar Begum after which her father furiously cancels the wedding and fixes Naazneen 's marriage with Basit. Chaman Begum along with Chandu decides to finalise Rani as the next head courtesan, she is constantly warned by Shamu but she once again insults him and takes Nigar begums place finally becoming Reena Begum. On the night of her first Mujra, Reena Begum finds out that after the dance a courtesan must begin prostitution for the Brothel 's revenue. She is forced and the same day she regrets about taking Nigar Begum 's place. Moreover, Basit 's father reveals to Malik Hashmat about Naazneen and Basit 's love affair after which he furiously cancels the wedding and accepts Shahzeb 's apology and explanation. A furious Naazneen visits Basit and begs him to accept her love but gets rejected. Basit moves to another city for job whereas Naazneen gets married to Shahzeb. Reena Begum on the other hand sees Nigar Begum 's ghost who promises to punish her.
One day Producer Nawazish Ali comes to the brothel again and asks Reena Begum to be cast in his film. After her acceptance he begins spending more time in the brothel with her and the two eventually engage in a negative relationship which influences all other prostitutes to go against her. Simultaneously Basit loses his job and his parents are banished from the village on Malik 's order. On the other hand, Nazneen confronts Shahzeb that she loved someone else. She gave Shahzeb no right to touch her and asks him to continue a non-physical relationship, this hurts Shahzeb who visit baba ji and questions about God again. He is told that he must never praise his love above God.
Set in the city of Lahore, the story introduces two more characters, Zimal (Nimra Khan) and Shaheer (Omer Shehzad), who study at an art institute. After Zimal 's Nikkah, her fiancé went abroad for education and they plan to have their marriage upon the completion of his studies. However, Shaheer falls in love with her and soon, Zimal is divorced, leaving her in great shock. Zimal is a decent person, and unlike Nazneen, she loves and respects her parents and friends. Roshni and Arsalan are two of her friends. Arsalan proposes to Zimal and, after a great deal of thought, she accepts. Shaheer is enraged that she refused his proposal, and kills Arsalan by striking him with his car.
There in Punjab, Shahzeb decides to build a Mosque and discusses the architecture with Baba ji. He calls the most talented architect and coincidentally finds Basit, who is already aware of him being Nazneen 's husband yet accepts his job since he was unemployed. Complications begin when he takes him to live in his house and Nazneen has no control over her feelings. Simultaneously, Reena Begum accepts Nawazish Ali 's marriage proposal, she is however warned several times by Chaman Begum against him but despite her concern she marry him and leaves the brothel where Shireen bai succeeds her as the new head courtesan. Zimal 's husband mails her divorce paper which shocks her and her family. Zimal 's class fellow Shaheer develops feelings for her though she rejects it. Reena Begum and Nawazish Ali remain happy for the first months of their marriage but as Reena becomes pregnant, he becomes angry on her not aborting Nazwazish Ali 's baby as the ball will be the identity that he married Reena. Reena leaves him and goes to Shamo who gives her accommodation before Shamo is also removed from his home by Nawazish Ali 's goons. As a result, pregnant Reen goes to the brothel ' Kotha ' again where Shirin Bai is the head courtesan but lowers the business of the brothel as people do not like her. Reena gives birth to a baby girl named Pakeeza. Sharing Bai urges that Reena can only remain in the brothel if she gives her daughter as a promise to the brothel. Reena does not wants her daughter to be a prostitute so she runs to Nawazish Ali 's house; and leaves the baby there. When Nawazish discovers this, he goes to Reena and tells her that if she did not claims to her baby that Nawazish is her father, he can give her monthly expenses and accommodation to live with her daughter. Reena agrees. She now lives with her daughter in a flat but never claims to anyone that she was a beggar or a prostitute but says that her husband is in America. She starts to interact with her neighbours. Though, her respect is short lived. Soon people realise who she is, ignore her and taunt him to leave the flat. Reena is then harassed by her husband after Shammo persuades her to tell everyone the truth about her secret marriage. At a press conference reena is ridiculed and receives no support after telling the truth. After a series of events where reena regrets all her decisions she goes to see her mother who has missed her terribly but after her fame also finds out about her past as a courtesan. Reena is also rejected by her mother and lost one day while shammo is playing with Pakeeza (reena 's Daughter) reena jumps off a building killing her self. Navasish and his wife who had been trying to conceive takes Pakeeza in after accepting the fact that her husband has betrayed her and decided to care for the child herself.
Alif Allah Aur Insaan is developed by Hum TV 's senior producer Momina Duraid of MD Productions, the channel hired director Ahson Talish to direct the series. Story of serial is based on Qaisra Hayat 's Novel of the same name. Screenplay is also written by Hayat while script composing is done by Muhammad Wasi - ul - Din who is best known for his compositions for channels series Diyar - e-Dil and Mann Mayal. Hayat has previously worked with Momina, when she wrote Saya - e-Dewar Bhi Nahi.
Song composition is done by Naveed Nashad while background scores are given by MAD Music, lyrics for the OST were penned by the director himself who chose Shafqat Amanat Ali for singing, thus marking Ali 's comeback for Hum TV after performing the OST of channels hit series Alvida in 2015. the channel released the first teaser promo on 13 April 2017 and premiered the series on 25 April 2017, it was given the prime slot on 8: 00pm airing a weekly episode every Tuesdays. Under the production, Amir Shehzad and Saleem Sumrah were the production managers, while Akbar Balouch, Muhammad Bhatti and Amir Rehman khan were under the set department. Along with the director, Mehreen Suhail and Syed Sajad Habib were the executive directors.
Producer Momina Duraid, and director Ahson Talish mutually chose the cast which includes Mikaal Zulfiqar, Ushna Shah, Sana Nawaz Kubra Khan, Shehzad Sheikh and Imran Ashraf to portray the leading roles. Mikaal Zulfiqar and Kubra Khan marked their second appearance together after success in Duraid 's Sang - e-Mar Mar. From 2015, actor Mikaal Zulfiqar was given several shows for the channel including Diyar - e-Dil, Maan, Sangat and Sang - e-Mar Mar all of which were a commercial success for the channel itself, after channels success in 2016 's Sang - e-Mar Mar, Zulfiqar once again was finalised to portray the role of Shahzeb. Alongside Zulfiqar Kubra Khan was finalised to portray the role of Nazneen after her success in her debut for Sange Mar Mar. The actress completed her series Muqabil and Andaz - e-Sitam for Ary Digital and Urdu1 and joined Alif Allah aur Insaan in 2017. Actor Shehzad Sheikh was finalised to portray the role of Basit right after the finale of his 2016 series Choti Si Zindagi.
Actress Ushna Shah was approached by the production head Mahesh Waswani from MD productions and Raza Moosavee, the head of casting department for Hum TV. The actress was offered to portray the role of Rani which later earned her critical acclaim and success, Shah was interviewed by HIP and answered why she accepted the offer of Raani 's role, she says "When I read the script I knew I had to do it. Rani was just the one I had been looking for. The depth, the change, the crudeness, the rawness and the reality is something the artist inside me had been craving since I joined the industry. Rani reminded me of why I became an actor '' Speaking about her role Shah said "Rani evolves a lot as she is an amalgamation of things: The walk was inspired by a lady who used to work in our house when I was a child; ironically her name was also Rani. The dialect was watching the working class growing up in Lahore. A lot of the mannerisms were things I observed in young girls begging on the street. So yes there was some character research involved at my end but everything else was thanks to the genius, Ahson Talish. He crafted the crassness of Rani beautifully, he created her. '' Alongside Shah, Lollywood film actress Sana Nawaz was approached by Mahesh Waswani for the role of Nigar Begum. The series was her second Hum TV project where she portrayed a challenging role, speaking about her character Nawaz says "I play a character called Nigar, I really liked this role because it was very challenging and quite different from what I have done up till now... It was an honour for me to work with Ahsan, as an actor it was a dream come true to work along a man who is so talented and understands his actors so well and gets the best performance out of them ''.
Apart from primary casting, production team also finalised several veteran actors for secondary casts. Director Saife Hassan who regularly directs several series for Hum TV. was finalised to portray the role of Raani 's father, the actor had brief appearances in the introduction since he was busy directing Sammi for Hum TV, similarly Actor Noor - ul - Hassan and Actress Kinza Malik were shooting for Sammi but in November 2016 there roles were finished and they were finalised for Alif Allah aur Insaan. Similarly. Veteran actor Usman Peerzada was selected to portray the role of Malik Ashar Khan alongside Ainy Zaidi who portrayed Nazneen 's mother. Actress Azra Mansoor previously slelected in Diyar - e-Dil and Bin Roye was finalised to portray the role of Zaitoon, Shahzeb 's mother. Actor Qavi Khan was finalised to portray the role of a noble priest who has brief appearances within the play. Farhan Ally Agha was chosen to play Nawazish Ali.
In June 2017, Actor Omer Shehzad and actress Nimra Khan joined the leading cast of the series. Speaking about his role, Shehzad says "Also, my part is very strong, so I 'm keeping my fingers crossed... I 'm also coming with a whole new look, I have a moustache, I 'm wearing a bracelet in my hand and am always in shalwar kameez, so it 's kind of a wadera look and that 's something I 've never done before... I 'm also very confident about it because my director told me that this particular character was in line with my presence. ''
Principal photography commenced on 18 January 2017 and was concluded on 17 November 17, the eleven month shooting period marked Alif Allah Aur Insaan as the longest running serial of 20: 00 (GMT) slot on Hum TV. During its filming it had more than average episodes under production and to run it within the 2017 season the production heads decided to release it in April 2017 despite its ongoing shoot. The shooting was finished on 17 November 2017.
Before the shoot the title of Alif Allah was used but within the shoot it was changed to Alif Allah aur Insaan. Shooting was extensively done in remote areas of Hyderabad, Sindh and in Punjab areas. All the location units were overseen by Waqar Baloch who was leading the set department which includes Akbar Balouch, Muhammad Jathi Khan and Muhammad Rehman Khan.
Set - location of Nigar Begum 's Haveli was a real traditional Haveli which was used by the production house for the filming of their 2016 series Mann Mayal for the same channel. Shooting locations were overseen by art director Mirza Zeeshan Baig with cinematographer Zeb Rao and editor Mehmood Ali who return as director of photography and chief editing respectively. All three of them previously worked with Duraid 's Diyar - e-Dil, Mann Mayal, Sanam and Dil Banjaara that earned their skills critical praise and acclaim. Graphics were done by Hasnain Diswali and Syed Furqaan Ali Qazi of Hum TV. Several sets - locations were real including Nazneen 's Haveli and Basit 's house, since the series was also filmed in Punjab village its few filming locations were real. Actors Mikaal Zulfiqar, Shehzad Sheikh, Kubra Khan, Qavi Khan, Noor - ul - Hassan, Azra Mansoor, Kinza Malik, Usman Peerzada and Ainy Zaidi have mostly filmed in the Punjab region.
The title song of Alif Allah Aur Insaan is composed by musician Naveed Nashad, while the director Ahson Talish penned the series while the background score for the series is done by Mad Music. The OST was performed by Shafqat Amanat Ali. It marks the return of the singer to Hum TV, since performed the channels hit drama series Alvida 's OST in 2015. The OST dominated the fourth position of Top four OST 's of 2017 season where Sanam dominated the # 1 rank, Rang Dey (of Orangreza) dominated the # 2 rank and Main Hojaoun Na Baaghi (of Baaghi) dominated # 3 Rank.
All lyrics written by Ahson Talish and Ali Raza; all music composed by Naveed Nashad and Mad Music.
Alif Allah Aur Insaanl premiered on 25 April 2017. Alif Allah Aur Insaanl airs a weekly episode on every Tuesday succeeding Choti Si Zindagi, starting from its premiere date, with time slot of 8: 00 pm. It was aired on Hum Europe in UK, on Hum TV USA in USA and Hum TV Mena on UAE, with same timings and premiered date. All International broadcasting aired the series in accordance with their standard times. It was broadcast by Hum Network 's new channel Hum World HD for US and Canada.
In late January 2017, Hum Network protected all its episodes from YouTube and the series had no episodes available in the Pakistani region. All episodes of Alif Allah Aur Insaan were available on Hum 's official site. But by June 2017, the channel opened there episodes on YouTube once again and as a result all the episodes were available in Pakistan. iflix contracted Hum Network and screened all of Hum TV 's Shows after syndication, the series remained the part of the same contract.
After Alif Allah Aur Insaan 's premier, Hum TV claimed on their Facebook page that they had received highest rating with Alif Allah Aur Insaan gaining 5.5 TV Rating Points (TRP) leading the 8: 00 pm PST / 20: 00 GMT time slot just within the pilot episode. On 4 May 2017, Hum TV provided another rating information given by Media Logic and Kantar Media according to which Alif Allah Aur Insaan once again dominated the Tuesday Timslot with 5.4 TRP on its second episode, the next week, series received 5 Ratings. On 16 May 2017 there was a high competition amongst the TV Channels where ' ' Alif Allah Aur Insaan ' ' once again dominated the time slot with 4.5 TRP on its fourth episode, despite facing a 0.5 rating decrease (to last week) the channel still managed to receive the first rank. According to the same source there was a competition with the channel ARY Digital which came in second delivering 2.0 TRP.
On its fifth episode the series once again averaged higher ratings of 5.0 TRP but there was a competition seen where ARY increased to 4.0 TRP. On its sixth episode it increased a TRP reach to 5.1. In June 2017 there was no rating information provided by the channel since it had transmissions for the month of Ramadan. During the entire month, ARY Digital dominated the top rank with its game show Jeeto Pakistan, followed by Bol News as second rank, Alif Allah Aur Insaan dominated the third rank. On 7 July, Hum TV announced that they have received 4.5 TRP on average with Alif Allah Aur Insaan 's eleventh episode and had also dominated the top rank. With its thirteenth episode the series received its highest ratings of all bringing 7.4 TRPs on average. Where as on its fourteenth episode it led the Tuesday day slot with 5.9 TRPs on Average.
By the end of August 2017, Alif Allah Aur Insaan 's ' Timeslot ranking fell to the fourth position, the Tuesday time slot was then dominated by Ary Digital for three weeks. The series was termed as a drag by the critics and further fell in terms of viewership. However on September 9, it was announced that the series once dominated the # 1 rank with an average TRP of 4.4 on its Twentieth episode, the next week it further increased to a rating of 4.9 on its Twenty - first episode, and 4.8 on its Twenty - Second episode respectively. On the Twenty - fourth episode Alif Allah Aur Insaan 's rating saw another increase of 7.0 TRPs. Despite receiving mixed reviews after Twenty episodes, Alif Allah Aur Insaan 's managed to receive 6.1 TRPs on its Twenty - sixth episode.
On Alif Allah Aur Insaan 's Twenty - seventh episode Hum TV received a record breaking rating of 8.6 TRPs leaving behind Ary Digital, Geo TV, Filmazia and all rival channels. Onwards the same episode the series began receiving positive reviews once again. The next week it averaged 7.3 TRPs on its Twenty - third episode. On November 13, a decline of 3.9 TRPs was seen on Alif Allah Aur Insaan 's Thirtieth episode, despite its decline it still managed to lead the Tuesday 8: 00 pm PST / 20: 00 GMT time - slot. However after two weeks Alif Allah Aur Insaan jumped to 7.4 TRPs on its Thirty - second episode.
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where are crocodiles located in the united states | American crocodile - wikipedia
The American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) is a species of crocodilian found in the Neotropics. It is the most widespread of the four extant species of crocodiles from the Americas. Populations occur from southern Florida and the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of southern Mexico to South America as far south as Peru and Venezuela. It also lives on many of the Caribbean islands such as Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola and Grand Cayman.
Within the United States, the American crocodile 's distribution is limited to the southern tip of Florida, though at least two have been found as far north as the Tampa Bay area. The current US population, estimated at 2,000, represents a significant recovery from a few hundred in the 1970s.
The habitat of the American crocodile consists largely of coastal areas. It is also found in river systems, but has a tendency to prefer, not merely to tolerate, some level of salinity, resulting in the species congregating in brackish lakes, mangrove swamps, lagoons, cays, and small islands. Other crocodiles also have tolerance to salt water due to salt glands underneath the tongue, but the American crocodile is the only species other than the saltwater crocodile (C. porosus) to commonly live and thrive in salt water. They can be found on beaches and small island formations without any freshwater source, such as some of the many cays and islets across the Bahamas and the Caribbean. They are also found in hypersaline lakes; one of the largest known populations inhabits the Lago Enriquillo.
The American is one of the larger crocodile species. Males can reach lengths of 6.1 m (20 ft), weighing up to 907 kg (2,000 lb). On average, mature males are more in the range of 4.1 m (13.5 ft) to 4.8 m (15.7 ft) in length weighing about 400 kg (880 lb). As with other crocodile species, females are smaller; rarely exceeding 3.8 m (12.5 ft) in length.
This species has a more V - shaped snout, compared to other large crocodiles, which usually have a slightly wider snout. Adults have a uniform grayish - green coloration with white or yellow undersides, while juveniles have dark cross-banding on the tail and back. Despite their large size, American crocodiles do not regularly attack large animals, as most large crocodilians do. Fish, reptiles, birds and small mammals make up the majority of their diet. On occasion, large mammals such as deer and cattle are taken. Their dietary habits in coastal regions are not well studied. Like any other large crocodilian, the American crocodile is potentially dangerous to humans, though it tends not to be as aggressive as some other species.
Cuvier originally described the species as Crocodylus acutus in 1807. Over time, it commonly became known as the "sharp - snout alligator ''. In 1822, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque postulated that the species was in fact a crocodile.
The species was redescribed as Crocodylus floridanus by William T. Hornaday in 1875, when Hornaday and C.E. Jackson were sent from Washington, DC to Florida to collect alligator hides. Upon hearing of a "big old gator '' in Arch Creek at the head of Biscayne Bay, Hornaday and his companions searched for it and reported:
In a few hours we got sight of him, out on the bank in a saw - grass wallow. He was a monster for size -- a perfect whale of a saurian, gray in color -- and by all the powers, he was a genuine crocodile!
Crocodylus floridanus is now considered an invalid junior synonym of C. acutus.
Like all true crocodilians, the American crocodile is a quadruped, with four short, stocky legs, a long, powerful tail and a scaly hide with rows of ossified scutes running down its back and tail. Its snout is elongated and includes a strong pair of jaws. Its eyes have nictitating membranes for protection along with lacrimal glands, which produce tears.
The nostrils, eyes, and ears are situated on the top of its head, so the rest of the body can be concealed underwater for surprise attacks. Camouflage also helps it prey on food. The snout is relatively longer and narrower than that of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), although broader on average than that of the Orinoco crocodile (C. intermedius). American crocodiles are also paler and more grayish than the relatively dark - hued American alligator. This crocodile species normally crawls on its belly, but it can also "high walk ''. Larger specimens can charge up to nearly 10 mph (16 km / h). They can swim at as much as 20 mph (32 km / h) by moving their bodies and tails in a sinuous fashion, but they can not sustain this speed.
The American crocodile is sometimes confused with the smaller, Central American Morelet 's crocodile, a smaller species that is native to Mexico.
New hatchlings are about 27 cm (10.6 in) in length and about 60 g (2.1 oz) in mass. The average adult in the continental rivers can range from 2.9 to 4 m (9 ft 6 in to 13 ft 1 in) long and weigh up to 382 kg (842 lb) in males, while females can range from 2.5 to 3 m (8 ft 2 in to 9 ft 10 in) and weigh up to 173 kg (381 lb), the lower total length representing their average size at sexual maturity, the upper representing the expected upper size limit for the respective sex in most known populations.
In the Tárcoles River in Costa Rica, dozens of 4 m (13 ft 1 in) and a few 5 m (16 ft 5 in) individuals frequent bridge crossings (where they are fed daily, which may have helped them reach such consistently large sizes) and are a popular tourist attraction. This species is said to grow largest in the South American river basins, but rarely exceed 5 m (16 ft 5 in) or reach 6 m (19 ft 8 in) even there. American crocodiles on the islands or coasts are usually much smaller in size. Adult weight in coastal Belize averaged 77.8 kg (172 lb) per one study. In their Florida range, adult length has been recorded as high as 5.2 m (17 ft 1 in), but adult males on average measure 3.35 m (11 ft 0 in) long, perhaps slightly smaller than mature males from other continental populations. A skull of this species was found to measure 72.6 cm (28.6 in) and is estimated to have belonged to an American crocodile of 6.6 m (21 ft 8 in) in length. Large, mature males regularly weigh about 400 -- 500 kg (880 -- 1100 lb), with the individuals of six or more meters surpassing 1000 kg (2,200 lb). Two biologists working with the History Channel series MonsterQuest spotted and filmed an American crocodile they estimated to be 5 to 5.5 m (16 ft 5 in to 18 ft 1 in), deep within Everglades National Park in Florida.
C. acutus is the most widespread of the four extant species of crocodiles from the Americas. It inhabits waters such as mangrove swamps, river mouths, fresh waters, and salt lakes, and can even be found at sea, hence its wide distribution throughout the Caribbean islands, southern Florida, the Greater Antilles, southern Mexico, Central America, and the South American countries of Colombia and Ecuador. The American crocodile is especially plentiful in Costa Rica. One of its largest documented populations is in Lago Enriquillo, a hypersaline lake in the Dominican Republic. The species has also been recorded from Jamaica. American crocodiles have recently been sighted in Grand Cayman, leading experts to believe the species may be swimming from Cuba (which is home to a massive American crocodile population) and slowly repopulating Grand Cayman. In addition, an American crocodile / Cuban crocodile hybrid was recently discovered in the Cancun area. The crocodile likely originated in the Zapata Swamp of Cuba (the only place where these wild hybrids exist) and swam to the Yucatán Peninsula. Their saline tolerance also allowed the American crocodile to colonize limited portions of the United States (extreme southern Florida). Contrary to popular misinformation, the presence of the American alligator is not the reason the American crocodile was unable to populate brackish waters north of Florida, but rather the climate.
American crocodiles, unlike American alligators, are extremely susceptible to cold temperatures and live exclusively within tropical waters. During 2009, unusually cold weather in southern Florida resulted in the deaths of about 150 wild American crocodiles, including a well - known crocodile which inhabited Sanibel Island far north of their natural range.
American crocodiles in the United States coexist with the American alligator, and are primarily found south of the latitude of Miami, in Everglades National Park, Florida Bay, Biscayne Bay, and the Florida Keys. A sizable population occurs near Homestead, Florida, at the Turkey Point Nuclear Generating Station. Some individuals wander northward to warm summer waters and have been sighted in Sarasota County and Palm Beach County. In the summer of 2008, a crocodile was captured in the surf on Isle of Palms, South Carolina. In 2013, a 700 - pound crocodile was captured in Tarpon Springs, Florida. Florida Fish & Wildlife Conservation Commission program staff note that the crocodile was not weighed to be 700 lbs. The weight was estimated by the nuisance alligator trapper who inadvertently caught the animal using a baited hook. American crocodiles of similar lengths have been accurately weighed at 450 -- 500 lbs.
The American crocodile is saltwater - tolerant and have thus been capable of colonizing a multitude of islands within the Caribbean islands and on some coastal Pacific islands as well. They coexist with the rather smaller spectacled caiman within Central America. The only other crocodiles present within the American crocodile 's range are two species smaller than this species on average: the critically endangered Cuban crocodile, along with the Morelet 's crocodile in southern Mexico and Guatemala.
American crocodiles are more susceptible to cold than American alligators. While an American alligator can survive in water of 7.2 ° C (45.0 ° F) for some time, an American crocodile in that environment would become helpless and drown. American crocodiles, however, have a faster growth rate than alligators, and are much more tolerant of salt water.
Cleaning symbiosis involving the American crocodile as client has been described. Unlike the Old World crocodiles, which are sometimes cleared of parasites by birds, the American crocodile relies more on fish for parasite removal.
American crocodiles are apex predators, and any aquatic or terrestrial animal they encounter in freshwater, riparian and coastal saltwater habitats is potential prey. Their only threat is the American alligator, which are seen killing and eating American crocodiles. For a long time, primary prey throughout their lifetime was thought to be fish; due to the relatively narrow snout as indicative of this piscivorous preference. However new studies shed light into the dietary preference of this species. The snout of the American crocodile is broader than some specialized fish - eating crocodilians (i.e. gharials (Gavialis gangeticus), freshwater crocodile (C. johnsoni), etc.), allowing it to supplement its diet with a wider variety of prey. In addition the snout gets even broader and bulkier as the animal matures, a sign for a shift in prey items. Prey species have ranged in size from the insects taken by young American crocodiles to full - grown cattle taken by large adults, and can include various birds, mammals, turtles, crabs, snails, frogs, and occasionally carrion. In Haiti, hatchling and juvenile American crocodiles lived primarily off of fiddler crabs (Uca ssp.), making up 33.8 % and 62.3 % of the diet by weight, respectively. Elsewhere, aquatic insects and their larvae and snails are near the top of the food list for American crocodiles at this very early age. Immature and subadult American crocodiles, per a study in Mexico, have a more diverse diet that can include insects, fish, frogs, small turtles, birds and small mammals. One specimen of 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) had a catfish, a mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) and a bare - tailed woolly opossum (Caluromys philander) in its stomach. In Florida, bass, tarpon (Megalops atlanticus) and especially mullet, large crabs, snakes, mammals that habit the riparian and coastal regions of the Everglades, such as opossums and raccoons appeared to be the primary prey of subadult and adult American crocodiles. In Haiti, adults appeared to live largely off of various birds (many of which are breeding large waders and other water birds such as heron, storks, flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber), pelicans (Pelecanus ssp.), grebes, coots (Fulica americana) and moorhens (Gallinula chloropus)), followed by concentrations of marine fish including Tilapia and Cichlasoma, at times being seen to capture turtles, dogs and goats. One 3 m (9 ft 10 in) adult from Honduras had stomach contents consisting of a 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) crocodile of its own species, a turtle shell and peccary hooves. It was noted that historically in Mexico that, among several local farmers, the capturing of livestock by American crocodiles has been a source of some conflict between humans and American crocodiles and large adults occasionally can become habitual predators of goats, dogs, pigs and cattle. In Quintana Roo, Mexico, most prey that could be determined was fish for sub-adults and adults with sub-adults having a broader prey base than either younger or adult crocodiles. In Costa Rica, American crocodiles have been recorded hunting and killing adult female olive ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) when they come to nest around beaches. Reportedly, these American crocodiles hunt primarily in the first few hours after nightfall, especially on moonless nights, although they will feed at any time. It hunts in the typical way for most crocodilian, ambushing terrestrial prey when it comes to edge of the water or is sitting in shallows and dragging it down to be drowned or attempting to ambush aquatic prey from near the surface of the water.
Adult American crocodiles have no natural predators and almost any terrestrial or riparian animal they encounter is potential prey. American crocodiles are known predators of lemon sharks, and sharks avoid areas with American crocodiles. Usually American crocodiles are dominant over American alligators. However, on one occasion, an American crocodile in a Florida zoo escaped its cage and started a fight with a large male American alligator in a bordering pen and was killed by the American alligator. Conversely, there is one confirmed case of an American crocodile preying on a sub-adult American alligator in the wild in Florida. American alligators and American crocodiles do not often come into conflict in the wild normally, due largely to habitat partitioning and largely separate distributions. There are several records of American crocodiles killing and eating spectacled caimans (Caiman crocodilus) in South America as well as additional records of cannibalism there. Areas with healthy American crocodile populations often hold only limited numbers of spectacled caimans, while conversely areas that formerly held American crocodiles but where they are now heavily depleted or are locally extinct show a growth of caiman numbers, due to less competition as well as predation. In areas where the two species coexist, the smaller but more aggressive Cuban crocodile is behaviorally dominant over the larger American crocodile. In Mexico some Morelet 's crocodile individuals have escaped from captivity, establishing feral populations and creating a problem for the populations of American crocodile, which must compete with this invasive species.
American crocodiles breed in late fall or early winter, engaging in drawn - out mating ceremonies in which males emit very low frequency bellows to attract females. Body size is more important than age in determining reproductive capabilities, and females reach sexual maturity at a length of about 2.8 m (9.2 ft). In February or March, gravid females will begin to create nests of sand, mud, and dead vegetation along the water 's edge. Nest location is crucial, and with the correct amount of vegetation, the eggs will develop within a small temperature range. Because sex determination is temperature - dependent in crocodilians, slight aberrations in temperature may result in all - male or all - female clutches, which would possibly harm the health of the population. About one month later, when it is time to lay, the female will dig a wide hole diagonally into the side of the nest and lay 30 to 70 eggs in it, depending on her size. After laying, the female may cover the eggs with debris or leave them uncovered. The white, elongated eggs are 8 cm (3.1 in) long and 5 cm (2.0 in) wide and have a number of pores in the brittle shell. During the 75 - to 80 - day incubation period, the parents will guard the nest, often inhabiting a hole in the bank nearby. Females especially have been known to guard their nests with ferocity. But in spite of these precautions, American crocodile eggs sometimes fall prey to raccoons (Procyon sp.) (arguably the most virulent natural predator of crocodilian nests in the Americas), coatis, foxes, skunks or other scavenging mammals (even coyotes (Canis latrans) in Mexico and American black bears (Ursus americanus)) in south Florida), as well as large predatory ants, crabs and vultures. In Panama, green iguana (Iguana iguana) were seen to dig up and prey on American crocodile eggs occasionally, although in several cases were caught by the mother American crocodile and subsequently consumed. Crocodilian eggs are somewhat brittle, but softer than bird eggs. Young of this species hatch after 75 -- 80 days.
This species exists mostly in tropical areas with distinct rainy seasons, and the young hatch near the time of the first rains of the summer (July -- August), after the preceding dry season and before the bodies of water where they live flood. In this stage of development of their young, mother American crocodiles exhibit a unique mode of parental care. During the hatching process, when the young American crocodiles are most vulnerable to predation, they will instinctively call out in soft, grunt - like croaks. These sounds trigger the female to attend to the nest, uncovering the eggs if they have been covered. Then she will aid the hatchlings in escaping their eggs and scoop them up with her mouth, carrying them to the closest water source.
The hatchlings, which are 24 to 27 cm (9.4 to 10.6 in) in length, have been reported to actively hunt prey within a few days of hatching. It is not uncommon for the mother to care for her young even weeks after they have hatched, remaining attentive to their calls and continuing to provide transportation. About five weeks after hatching, the young American crocodiles disband in search of their own independent lives. Most of them, of course, will not survive, being preyed upon by several types of raptorial birds and larger fishes (e.g. barred catfish (Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum), Atlantic tarpons (Megalops atlanticus), common snook (Centropomis undecimalis) and lemon sharks (Negaprion brevirostris)), boa constrictors (Boa constrictor), black spiny - tailed iguana (Ctenosaura similis), spectacled caimans, as well as raccoons. Those that do survive the early stages of life will grow rapidly, feeding on insects, fish and frogs. Additionally, some young American crocodiles reportedly will feed on each other.
Due to hide hunting, pollution, loss of habitat, and removal of adults for commercial farming, the American crocodile is endangered in parts of its range. In 1972, Venezuela banned commercial crocodile skin harvesting for a decade, as a result of 1950s and 1960s overhunting.
One thousand to 2,000 American crocodiles live in Mexico and Central and South America, but populations are data deficient. The American crocodile is considered a vulnerable species, but has not been assessed since 1996. It has an estimated wild population of 500 to 1,200 in southern Florida. On March 20, 2007, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service declassified the American crocodile as an endangered species, downgrading its status to "threatened ''; the reptile remains protected from illegal harassing, poaching, or killing under the federal Endangered Species Act. In southern Florida, 67.8 % of American crocodile mortality was attributed most likely to road collisions (found dead by the road), 10.5 % were due to intentional killing and only 4.9 % could be contributed to natural causes (the remaining balance were causes unknown).
American crocodiles are dangerous to humans; attacks in Mexico, Costa Rica, and Panama are not unprecedented. These attacks rarely make international news, so this species is not as well - documented as a man - eater, as are its relatives. The species is often reportedly timid, and seemingly lacks the propensity to attack people as regularly as Old World crocodiles do. Crocodiles are, as a general rule, more aggressive than alligators, at least towards humans. The American crocodile rates, temperamentally somewhere in the middle of all crocodilians. A study by the IUCN found that the American crocodile has the highest incidence of reported attacks on humans of any of the crocodilians from the Americas, but fatalities were rare. The estimated number of attacks is considerably smaller than those by the saltwater and Nile crocodiles (C. niloticus). The saltwater and Nile crocodiles are considered to be the most aggressive and dangerous species towards humans, with their large sizes and aggressive behavior combined with low - income socio - economic situations of local people in Africa and Asia resulting in frequent unsafe encounters and high numbers of fatal attacks that may annually range into the hundreds. Reportedly, the Cuban crocodile (C. rhombifer) is rather more aggressive in interspecies interactions than the American crocodile and apparently attacks and displaces American crocodiles when they are kept in mixed species enclosures at zoos or at crocodile farms together, even though it is smaller than the American species. However, attacks on humans are rarely reportedly in Cuban crocodiles, undoubtedly due its much more limited habitat and range. In May 2007, two instances occurred within one week of children being attacked and killed by this species -- one in Mexico just south of Puerto Vallarta and one in Costa Rica. On August 24, 2014, a man and a woman were swimming in a canal in Gables by the Sea, a community in Coral Gables, Florida, at 2: 00 AM, in a canal where crocodiles were known to occur, when they were bitten in the shoulder and the hand by an American crocodile. Although the crocodile was 12 ' 1 '' in length, and weighed an estimated 550 lbs, it did not press the attack, but released and moved away from its victims. (Florida Fish & Wildlife Conservation Commission, Crocodile Response Program) This was the first documented wild crocodile attack on humans in Florida since records of human - crocodile conflict have been kept. On May 19, 2015, a seven - year - old boy was attacked and killed by an American Crocodile in the Barra Santa Ana estuary near the city of Lazaro Cardenas, Mexico. This was reportedly the eighth crocodile attack in the Barra Santa Ana estuary in the last two years. There have reportedly been 36 American crocodile attacks on humans from 1995 to 2017 in the Cancun area of southeastern Mexico.
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who is the assistant director of my name is khan | My Name is Khan - wikipedia
My Name Is Khan is a 2010 Indian drama film, directed by Karan Johar, produced by Hiroo Johar and Gauri Khan, and starring Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol in lead roles. The film was jointly produced by Dharma Productions and Red Chillies Entertainment and was distributed by FOX Star Entertainment, which had bought the rights for the film for a sum of ₹ 100 crore (US $16 million), making it the most expensive Bollywood film of 2010. It is also the highest buyover for any Indian film, surpassing Ghajini 's record of ₹ 90 crore (equivalent to ₹ 176 crore or US $27 million in 2016).
Before its release, the film generated a great deal of publicity for itself due to three main reasons: first, the multiple political controversies surrounding the film and its lead actor; second, Khan 's presence in the film (he was last seen in a leading actor role in December 2008, when Rab Ne Bana Di Jodi was released); and third, the reunion of the "golden pair '' of Khan and Kajol, who last appeared together in the film Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham in 2001.
My Name Is Khan debuted in Abu Dhabi, UAE, on 10 February 2010. It premiered globally in cinemas on 12 February 2010. It was also screened as part of the 60th Berlin International Film Festival 's official selection the same month.
Upon its release, the film broke many box office records. My Name Is Khan was the highest - grossing Indian film overseas at the time, the first to gross over ₹ 100 crore overseas, before it was overtaken by 3 Idiots (2009) in 2011. Within four weeks, the film crossed the ₹ 70 crore (US $11 million) mark in India and became the first film of 2010 to do so. In overseas markets, the film grossed US23. 5 million. My Name Is Khan earned a worldwide gross of ₹ 207.78 crore (US $45.5 million). The film was released in India on DVD on 28 April 2010. Blu - ray in India, plus a DVD release worldwide followed on 10 August 2010.
Rizwan Khan is a Muslim child who lived with his brother Zakir (Jimmy Shergill) and his mother (Zarina Wahab) in a middle - class family in the Borivali section of Mumbai. Rizwan has autism. However, he has certain gifts, particularly a special ability to repair things. His difference leads to special tutoring from a reclusive scholar and extra attention from his mother, all which leads to a heightened level of jealousy from his brother Zakir, who eventually leaves his family for a life in the United States.
Despite this initial resentment, as an adult Zakir sponsors Rizwan to come and live with him in San Francisco after the death of their mother. It is at this time that Zakir 's wife, Haseena diagnoses Rizwan as having Asperger 's syndrome. Rizwan also begins to work for Zakir and in the process he meets a Hindu woman, Mandira (Kajol) and her young son, Sameer, from a previous marriage. Despite Zakir 's hostility to the match, they marry and settle down in the fictional town of Banville, where both Mandira and Sameer take Rizwan 's last name as their own. They also live next door to the Garrick family, consisting of Mark, who is a reporter, his wife Sarah and son Reese.
The couples perfect existence is disrupted after the September 11 attacks on the twin towers in New York City. Mark goes to cover the war in Afghanistan and dies there. At the same time, the Khan family begins to experience post 9 - 11 prejudice in their community and Reese begins to turn against Sameer as well. One afternoon, an argument between them turns into a racially motivated schoolyard fight between Sameer and a number of older students. Reese tries to stop the fight but is held back and Sameer dies from his injuries. A shattered Mandira blames Rizwan for his death stating that Sameer "died only because his name was Khan. '' She then tells Rizwan that she no longer wants to be with him. When he asks her what he has to do in order for them to be together, she tells him that he has to tell the people of the United States and the President that his name is Khan and that he is not a terrorist.
Rizwan thus sets out on a journey that takes him from one US state to another, in order to first meet President George W. Bush and later President - elect Barack Obama. During this quest, he travels to a small town in Georgia and befriends Mama Jenny and her son Joel. Later, in Los Angeles, he prays in a Mosque and overhears violent rhetoric from Faisal Rahman. He reports this to the FBI but there is no response at that moment. Later, while waiting in a crowd to meet President Bush and repeating again and again, "My name is Khan and I am not a terrorist, '' Rizwan is arrested and placed in a prison by police who misinterpret his statement.
While in the prison he is interrogated as a terrorist suspect and meets the psychiatrist Radha who believes he is innocent. He is later released after a media campaign by some Indian student reporters, who prove his innocence by unearthing his attempts to inform the FBI about Faisal Rahman. After his release, he returns to hurricane - hit Wilhemina to help Mama Jenny and her son. His efforts attract media attention and numerous Muslims come to help as well. At the same time, Reese confesses to Mandira and reveals the identity of the boys who beat up Sam. She informs Detective Garcia who has been assisting her on the case, and the boys are arrested.
After they are brought to justice, she joins Rizwan in Georgia. At the moment she arrives, Rizwan is stabbed by a follower of Faisal Rahman who accuses him of being a traitor to Islam. He is then rushed to the hospital. With Mandira 's help, Rizwan survives and meets President - elect Barack Obama who tells him: "Your name is Khan and you are not a terrorist. ''
According to Karan Johar, writer, co-producer and director of My Name Is Khan, the film is about a multitude of perspectives of the various opinions, facts, and propaganda that comes with the global issue of discrimination and intolerance towards a race of people completely unassociated with the evils of terrorism. In an August 2009 interview, Shah Rukh Khan stated that My Name Is Khan is "not about terrorism, or 9 / 11. It 's about a relationship between two people, between an individual and the State, and between an individual and the country. In short, there are the three important components: a love story, Islam, and a mild form of autism. ''
In an earlier July 2009 interview, Khan also noted that the film focuses on themes concerning "the relationship between the Western world and Islam and how that has changed over the past few years. '' He describes the film as about "the journey of one family and how it changes because of 9 / 11 '' and suggests "we touch upon that in a very unbiased and educated way. '' In another early interview, he also stated that, "it 's not about a disabled man 's fight against disability. It 's a disabled man 's fight against the disability that exists in the world -- terrorism, hatred, fighting... My Name Is Khan is also about Islam and the way the world looks at Islam but we are not taking any sides. We are only trying to say that there are only good people and bad people. There are no good Hindus, bad Hindus, good Christians, bad Christians. Either you are a good person or a bad person. Religion is not the criterion, humanity is. ''
Karan Johar said in an interview with Bollywood Hungama: "MNIK is an unusual Bollywood film, if at all, and does n't have those quintessential pre-requisite elements that any Bollywood film has. It 's telling a story with a strong message, professing humanity and goodness and putting it out on a big cinematic scale. So all put together it is definitely a different experience for mainstream India (...) All I can say is that MNIK is going to open windows and doors to many people who have stories to tell and are shy to put their story on the celluloid '' When asked about comparisons between the film and the 2009 release Kurbaan, noting that both have dealt with similar topics, he added: "I 'd say that Kurbaan did n't have ' hope ', whereas MNIK had ' hope '. Kurbaan was more darker, grittier and a grey look at a situation, whereas MNIK is a hopeful, far more positive and a lot more positivity in its finishing reels with a triumph to the human spirit. Kurbaan was very cinematic and interesting in its approach but it did n't offer a solution. Rather it just tells the problem. MNIK offers you that solution. ''
Production of the film took place in India and the United States. Filming began in Los Angeles during December 2008 and one of the locations used was UCLA. Johar next continued production in Mumbai during April 2009. During June 2009, production moved to San Francisco and the Bay Area, where they filmed a key scene at the Children 's Discovery Museum of San Jose.
Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol were cast in the lead roles, reuniting them after many years. The film faced a temporary setback in late December when actor Aamir Bashir was denied a visa to the United States. He was eventually replaced by Jimmy Shergill as Khan 's younger brother. Although Shabana Azmi was originally cast as Shahrukh Khan 's mother she left the production after his shoulder injury delayed the filming schedule. She was replaced in the role by Zarina Wahab. Tanay Chheda portrayed Shahrukh Khan 's character as a child living in the Borivali section of Mumbai. Chheda was chosen because he resembles Khan and because he is recognizable to an international audience after portraying "middle Jamal '' in Slumdog Millionaire. He had earlier worked with Khan in the remake of the 1970s film Don: The Chase Begins Again. American actor Christopher B. Duncan was chosen to portray President Barack Obama. Duncan is known for his impression of Obama on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno.
Johar had difficulties finding a mosque to film in. According to actor Arif Zakaria, "I do n't know if Karan tried to get permission in Mumbai. But we were to shoot in a mosque in Los Angeles and hard as Karan tried to convince the authorities that his film would not propagate anti-social values, he was denied permission (...) We finally shot the two - day scene with Shahrukh Khan on the set of a mosque constructed at The Club in Andheri. '' Johar also shot for an important scene inside of the studio of CBS 5. San Francisco 's Film Commission Director Stephanie Coyote was responsible for giving permission to the crew to shoot in the film studio.
While shooting for the film, Khan suffered from severe pain in the neck and headaches which were caused by the expressions and posture of Rizwan Khan. His character in the film who has Asperger 's Syndrome, has a way of jutting his neck out at a particular angle and wears an expression which has his eyebrows raised in every scene. As he would shoot for hours, he 'd get severe migraines. Director Karan Johar admitted that "Shahrukh 's character Rizwan had to arch his eyebrows and focus his eyes on a certain place before every take. Halfway through the shooting of the film, Shah Rukh developed severe headaches as result of all the pressure it would put on his head so he had to see a neurosurgeon for that. ''
After filming in Los Angeles was completed, Johar stated that, "in all my 11 years as a filmmaker I 've never felt the experience to be so different. The content of My Name Is Khan is diametrically opposite to whatever I 've done in the past. '' He described working with both Shahrukh Khan and Kajol again as "magic. They build an inexplicable energy on screen. '' Johar also stated that he was "blown away by Shahrukh who had done monumental research on his autistic character in the film. I was zapped by how much he knew about the subject. ''
Johar also asked Khan to co-produce the film under his production company Red Chillies Entertainment, Talking about the initiative, the director said: "we were both passionate about the subject, we said why not co-produce the film? We 've known each other so long... that this new initiative is just an extension of our emotions. Besides, I can never make a film without Shah Rukh. ''
My Name Is Khan debuted in Abu Dhabi, UAE on 10 February 2010. It released globally in cinemas on 12 February 2010. MNIK had a two phase release. To begin with, it had a mainstream release in India coupled with a regular Diaspora release in UK, US, Gulf, Australia and various other countries. "After that in the months of April and May, we would be looking at a mainstream theatrical release in countries like Germany, Poland and other parts of North America, '' detailed Johar.
My Name Is Khan was screened as part of 60th Berlin International Film Festival 's Official Selection in February 2010, out of competition. The website eBay auctioned the tickets for the film 's screening at the Berlin Film Festival for a record price of £ 1.000 (INR 60.000) each. All the tickets were sold out in five seconds.
The first look of My Name Is Khan unveiled at a grand function at Mumbai by Johar, Khan and Kajol and was then be beamed across 70 countries worldwide on the Star TV Network. Says Karan, "This is a first in the history of Bollywood -- that the promos of a film will play across such a wide platform. And, this has mainly been made possible because of our synergy with Fox Star Studios... and also the first time a Bollywood company is tying up with a mainstream Hollywood studio. So, there are many firsts to this venture. '' The trailer of the film was released at the premiere of the Hollywood film, Avatar. My Name Is Khan marked the first instance of a film using the Roadblock advertising technique to market a film, in which the three - minute trailer was aired on all leading television channels simultaneously.
The makers of the film made various brand tie - ups to for the promotion of the film. Dish TV entered into a strategic marketing alliance with Fox Star and spend approximately Rs4 crore in a month - long 360 degree integrated marketing campaign which ran across all India to co-promote the brand and the movie. Reebok created an entire MNIK footwear and apparel collection to promote the film.
On 1 February 2010, Khan and Kajol became the first Indian movie stars to ring the opening bell of the New York stock exchange NASDAQ. They were invited by Fox Searchlight Pictures to do so as part of their promotion for My Name Is Khan. Shahrukh Khan also appeared on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross as part of its promotion in the UK, becoming only the second Indian after Shilpa Shetty to do so.
On 7 August 2009, Karan Johar signed a deal for INR 1 billion with Fox Searchlight Pictures, who will market and distribute it in India (FOXSTAR) and worldwide (Fox Searchlight). It covers all rights except music, which has been secured by Sony Music.
The film received highly positive reviews. Subhash K. Jha (film critic and author of The Essential Guide to Bollywood) gave My Name Is Khan a rave review arguing that Rizwan Khan "repairs almost anything, including irreparably damaged relationships. But this film about damaged lives needs no repairing. My Name Is Khan is a flawless work, as perfect in content, tone and treatment as any film can get (...) My Name Is Khan is no ordinary film. Long after the wary - of - physical - touch Rizwan has finally shaken hands with President Obama, long after the heat and dust of racial and communal hatred has settled down the core of humanism that the film secretes stays with you. Yes, we finally know what they mean by a feelgood film. '' Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India also gave it five stars, describing My Name Is Khan as, "indubitably one of the most meaningful and moving films to be rolled out from the Bollywood mills in recent times. '' Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave My Name Is Khan four and a half out of five stars and argues, "When a film stars two of the finest talents of the country, you expect nothing but the best. SRK, well, how does one describe his performance? To state that this is his best work so far would be cutting short the praise he truly deserves (...) Kajol is pure dynamite and casting her for this character was the most appropriate decision. No other actress could 've matched SRK in histrionics the way Kajol has. In fact, SRK and Kajol complement each other wonderfully well and this film only proves it yet again. It 's a powerhouse performance from this supremely talented actress. '' Sarita Tanwar of Mid-Day gave the film four and a half out of five stars and described it as "near - perfect '', concluding that "The Karan - Shah Rukh - Kajol combo strikes once more. ''
Rajeev Masand of CNN - IBN gave My Name Is Khan three and a half out of five stars, arguing that "the film shamelessly tugs at your heartstrings and on more than one occasion wallops you to weep. Aided by solid camerawork, tight editing and a layered story, Johar crafts an engaging, stirring saga that is earnest and noble. With this message movie in the mainstream format, the director takes a step in the right direction. '' Sudhish Kamath from The Hindu wrote, "My Name Is Khan is populist, yet layered with rich political subtext. It 's all about types, yet every character feels real. It 's about generalisations and yet it chooses to dwell on the specifics. It 's all heart and spirit that you ca n't help but overlook the flaws and admire it. '' According to BBC critic Manish Gajjar, who gave the film four out of five stars, the film is "a fiction - based film refreshingly told with realism of racial profiling on American soil. It 's a rare treat for Hindi commercial cinema and a crossover audience. '' Pratim D. Gupta from The Telegraph in a positive review concluded, "My Name Is Khan has conscience and courage and two heartfelt performances. It can try your patience a bit but it will not leave you untouched. '' Namrata Joshi from Outlook, giving the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, described it as "a gentle, affecting and heart - warming film that makes you smile through your tears. It looks at contentious issues but offers overwhelming hope and renewal. ''
Rotten Tomatoes lists an approval rating of 81 %, with 18 positive and 4 negative reviews. As of 21 February 2010, the film has a score of 50 out of a scale of 100 on the review aggregate website Metacritic, based on 7 reviews.
Rachel Saltz of The New York Times states, "Khan is one of a handful of Hindi films (New York, Kurbaan) about Indians living in a paranoid, post-9 / 11 America, and there 's something fascinating about looking at this country through a Bollywood lens, even when the story is a kind of fairy tale. (Most interesting here is the link made between black Americans and Indians, especially Muslims.) Skilfully directed by Karan Johar and with an evocative score by Shankar, Ehsaan & Loy, Khan jerks tears with ease, while teaching lessons about Islam and tolerance. '' According to Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter, My Name Is Khan is, "a film that delves compellingly into Americans ' anti-Muslim hysteria '' as it tackles "a subject American movies have mostly avoided -- that of racial profiling and the plight of Muslim - Americans. It also allows Shah Rukh Khan to display his talent to an even wider audience. It 's well worth the 162 - minute journey. ''
Jay Wesissberg of Variety describes My Name Is Khan as a "riotously overstuffed and enormously enjoyable drama '' with "confident camerawork (which) is matched by exceptional production design '' He also states that Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol are a "delight together and her natural warmth makes the relationship even more believable. ''
My Name Is Khan was not India 's official entry to the Oscars as best foreign language film, but it made it to the reminder list of films eligible for the 83rd Academy Awards.
My Name Is Khan opened very well in most places across the world, and set many records in the process. However, the performance of the film could not sustain beyond the first or second week in some places, including India and USA. The film 's performance in India was quite good but still is generally regarded as "below expectations '' due to the high price, while the overseas performance of the film has been record breaking. By 4 April 2010, the worldwide gross revenue for My Name Is Khan from the box office was US $ 36,145,870. Domestically, My Name Is Khan generated ₹ 727 million net in India (equating to ₹ 967 million gross). The film 's final worldwide gross was ₹ 207.78 crore (US $45.5 million), including ₹ 99.68 crore (US $22 million) in India and US $23.5 million (₹ 108.1 crore) overseas.
In India, the film opened with a massive INR 295 million (US $6,356,688), which was the third - highest weekend net for a Bollywood film, behind 3 Idiots and Ghajini. It recorded the third - highest first day business across India, behind 3 Idiots and Ghajini at the time of release. The film broke the record of Race for the biggest opening weekend in the first quarter of the year. The film was reported to have done very well in multiplexes, but comparatively on the lower side in single screens. The film managed to net INR460. 8 million (US $9,952,857) in its first week
In rankings based on distributor share, My Name Is Khan comes in fifth behind Dabangg, Raajneeti, Golmaal 3 and Housefull; in a way bearing out Sajid Khan 's boast that Housefull will surpass MNIK in India. The film managed to retain the No. 1 spot at the Indian box office for two consecutive weeks, and remained in the top five for six consecutive weeks. At the end of its theatrical run, the film earned ₹ 82.51 crore (US $12,698,289) in India.
My Name Is Khan grossed US $23.5 million in the overseas markets. making it the highest - grossing Indian film overseas at the time, the first Indian film to gross over ₹ 100 crore overseas, and currently one of the top ten highest - grossing Indian films in overseas markets. The film grossed the biggest opening day overseas, taking an estimated INR 170 million, beating the overseas opening day collections of 3 Idiots. The film also grossed the biggest opening weekend overseas, taking an estimated INR 255 million, again beating the overseas opening weekend collections of 3 Idiots which grossed INR 185 million. In its first week, it grossed INR393 million (US $8.5 million). As of August 2010, the film has grossed $4,018,771 in the United States and $37,001,087 elsewhere for a worldwide total of $41,019,858.
In the UK, it made £ 123,000 on its opening day, which was more than the combined total of 3 Idiots in its first two days (£ 121,000). By the end of the second week, MNIK became only the third Bollywood film to cross the £ 2 million mark in the UK, after Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna and Veer - Zaara, according to the exchange rates prevailing at their respective times of release.
My Name Is Khan debuted in USA in 120 theatres, breaking the record set by 3 Idiots which debuted in 119 theatres. The film broke the record for an opening weekend in the US, earning US $1,994,027. The film debuted at No. 13 at the American box office. By the end of the first week, the film grossed US $2,552,283, second only to 3 Idiots which had a Christmas holiday week. By the fourth week, the film earned US $3,868,891 (INR193, 820,016), breaking Shahrukh Khan 's previous record set by Om Shanti Om. On the 51st day of screening in the US, My Name Is Khan broke the US $4 million barrier, and became only the second Bollywood film ever to cross this mark, after 3 Idiots.
In Australia, the film earned A $ 39,000 (INR16. 1 lakhs) on its opening day, and was ranked No. 11 in the market. By the first weekend, the film earned US $437,687, defeating the previous record set by 3 Idiots (US $350,000). In New Zealand and Fiji, the film earned NZ $ 13,627 on its opening day, and earned NZ $144,831 (US $100,698) in its first week. By the end of its theatrical run, the film earned NZ $232,586.
In the Middle East the response to the film has been described as "huge '' and it earned approximately US $300,000 on its opening day. In Egypt it earned one million Egyptian pounds. By the end of its theatrical run, the film grossed US $517,018.
My Name Is Khan also opened well in Sri Lanka, Pakistan and the Far East. The film is the highest - grossing film in Pakistan, breaking the records set by Avatar, 3 Idiots and Wanted. By its third week, MNIK has become the highest - grossing Bollywood film in the Middle East, earning US $3.3 million. In South Africa, the film earned US $85,214 (Rs. 39.28 lakhs) in its opening weekend. In Malaysia, it earned MYR 105,527 (US $31,106) in its opening weekend, and by the second weekend, the film had earned MYR410, 864 (US $120,452). In Nigeria, the film earned an "impressive '' NGN 2,310,137 (US $15,362) in its opening weekend. In Ghana, the film earned GHS 10,599 (US $7,443) by the second weekend. In Indonesia, the film has grown from six to 14 screens and has seen a jump of 300 percent in week three. The film has also grossed $425,825 in 7 weeks at the Bahrain box office. The film has also grossed an impressive $55,073 in Poland in its opening weekend. The film grossed $270,698 in South Africa. The film also made $58,683 in Lebanon region. My name is Khan released in Hong Kong on 5 January 2012 and collected $107,197.
My Name Is Khan created several records, both in India and around the world. In India, the film smashed the record for a Bollywood release in the month of February, breaking the previous two - year record held by Jodhaa Akbar. The film also broke the record for a Bollywood release in the first quarter of the year, breaking the previous two - year record held by Race. In the UK, the film broke the four - year record of Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna, and became the highest - grossing Bollywood film in the UK. In the Middle East it is also the highest grossing Bollywood film.
The film faced considerable falls in collections after its first week. The drops in collections is evident from the fact that 63 % of the film 's net collections came from the first week, as compared to 54 % for Race, 56 % for Ghajini, 49 % for Rab Ne Bana Di Jodi and 39 % for 3 Idiots. In spite of this, the film managed to retain the No. 1 position at the box office for two consecutive weeks. It was in the top 5 list of the Indian box office for six consecutive weeks. Though the mid-week collections saw a drop of 60 % from the opening weekend, it held up well against other major releases and secured the highest first quarter collections, a record previously held by the 2008 film Race. Thus, the film is a financial success owing to its record - breaking overseas collections and healthy domestic collections.
In 2017 -- Khan was honoured at the San Francisco Film festival for his role in My Name is Khan seven years after the film 's release.
The soundtrack is composed by the critically acclaimed Shankar - Ehsaan - Loy, who previously teamed up with Karan Johar to give hit music for his movies like Kal Ho Naa Ho (2003) and Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna (2006). The lyrics are penned by Niranjan Iyengar. The music was released on 5 January 2010, by Sony Music Entertainment (India) who has also previously released the music for Karan Johar 's movies Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... (2001) and Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna, which gained global musical success. The musical soundtrack consists of 6 original songs and 4 bonus tracks that are taken from Karan Johar 's previous successful films that have featured Shahrukh Khan. The soundtrack includes one instrumental called "Khan Theme '', composed by Indrajit Sharma and the strings for the song are performed by the Bombay Film Orchestra. The songs such as "Noor - e-Khuda '' blend western bar blues and techno sounds with Indian classical styles such as Sufi and Hindustani. The song "Allah hi Rahem '' sung by Ustad Rashid Khan is another example of Sufi thematic song. The soundtrack is thus representative of the "indie fusion genre ''. Unlike Karan Johar 's other films, this film has no lip - sync songs. All the songs are in background.
Upon its release, the album received generally positive reviews from most music critics. Gianysh Toolsee of Planet Bollywood states that the soundtrack is "very much about transcending the boundaries set by Bollywood by venturing into an emotional state through Sufism and spirituality. '' Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama gives the album a three out of five stars, suggests that director Karan Johar along with musicians Shankar - Ehsaan - Loy and lyricist Niranjan Iyengar "have brought not a partial but a substantial difference to the way music in (Johar 's) films is being looked at. ''
Although Niranjan Iyengar is alone credited for writing the lyrics for the songs, Niranjan penned the only two Sufi songs in the film, "Sajda '' and "Allah Hi Rahem ''. The famous lyricist, Javed Akhtar was approached to write the lyrics for the remaining three songs. Earlier it was reported that he refused to write lyrics, because Javed Akhtar did not want to share the credits with another lyricist since Niranjan Iyengar has written two songs for the film. Later Karan Johar confirmed that Javed Akhtar penned the remaining songs, but Javed did not want him to be credited as the lyricist when the soundtrack released as he had to share the credits with Nirinjan Iyenger. Javed confirmed this and said, "I do n't like to share the credits. I would have got the publicity but the other person, who has done a fine job, would n't have. I have read the songs penned by Niranjan and I think he has done a great job. ''
Khan has stated that due to his last name and religion, he (like Rizwan Khan) is frequently subject to excess security checks at airports. On 14 August 2009, Khan arrived in the United States to promote My Name Is Khan and to participate in South Asian - related events around the country (including Indian Independence Day). Upon arriving at Newark Airport in New Jersey, he was pulled aside by immigration officers after his name popped up on their computers, questioned for over an hour (Khan claims it was at least two hours) about the nature of his visit, and was later released. According to the Times Online, "In Delhi, Timothy J. Roemer, the American Ambassador to India, said that the embassy was trying to ' ascertain the facts of the case. ' He added: ' Shah Rukh Khan, the actor and global icon, is a welcome guest in the United States. ' ''
Khan said he was told that it was because "they said my name was common to some name that popped up on the computer. '' The officials asked if he could provide names of people to vouch for him. Khan noted that he "had all the documents; they were asking me where I was going to be staying. I gave the name of FOX people with whom I had finalised a deal a few days ago as contacts. '' However, because they wanted to check his luggage which the airline had lost, Khan said that he "was taken to a room where many people were awaiting a secondary check on visa, most were South Asians. In fact many officers were reluctantly vouching for me, some people were asking for autographs and a Pakistani fan even said he knew who I was. But the officers said it was procedure and kept taking numbers from me. ''
While he was not allowed to use his own phone, Khan was permitted one phone call. He was thus released after officials from the Indian Consulate intervened. Civil Aviation Minister Praful Patel stated that the event will be further explored with U.S. officials. According to the BBC, "Elmer Camacho, a spokesman for the US Bureau of Customs and Border Protection, said the questioning was part of the agency 's routine process to screen foreign travellers. '' When asked if he would demand an apology, Khan replied that he would not.
The director of My Name Is Khan, Karan Johar, was asked during an August 2009 interview with MiD DAY if the event was a publicity stunt for the film. Johar denied that it was and responded: "It 's upsetting because I got a text message this morning asking me if it was publicity plug for my movie. (Sarcastically) I mean, if I had that much power over the Homeland Security, why would I allow Shah Rukh to go through something like this? (...) What 's really shocking is the fact that when I was writing the film, I never thought that what happened to the protagonist of the film would happen to Shah Rukh. '' During a January 2010 interview, Khan referred to the implication that the event was a publicity stunt for the film as "lowdown and cheap. '' Christopher B. Duncan, who portrays President Obama in My Name Is Khan, also commented on the incident stating: "I was very disappointed with what SRK experienced at the airport. We 're living in times where the levels of fear can sometimes spill over into paranoia. Here 's a man who is an international superstar, being detained for an excessive amount of time at an airport in the United States. It had to be very upsetting for him. Imagine Oprah (Winfrey) being detained at an airport in India for a long time, during a kind of interrogation. ''
In addition, the incident sparked debate and commentary among Indian politicians, actors, and others. It also led to demonstrations in India. California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger later invited Khan to have dinner with him "in a bid to diffuse what has become a slight diplomatic row. ''
In another event, on 5 February 2010, while promoting My Name Is Khan on the British talk show Friday Night with Jonathan Ross, Khan claimed that female security staff at Heathrow Airport in London had printed a naked image of him taken using the newly installed body scanner that he was asked to go through. He said that he autographed it for them, though it is not clear if his comments were intended as a joke. A BAA spokeswoman for Heathrow Airport has denied his claim. She claimed that it was "completely factually incorrect '', stressing that images captured using the equipment could not be stored or distributed in any form and that his claims "simply could not be true. ''
In relation to Khan 's comments, The Economic Times has raised concerns over the new body scanners and the possibilities of it being abused to distribute naked pictures of celebrities. His comments have restarted the debate in Britain over whether the new scanners violate individual privacy.
After Shahrukh Khan (who owns the Kolkata Knight Riders cricket team) criticised the fact that members of the Pakistani Cricket Team were not bought by the clubs competing in the 2010 Indian Premier League (IPL), he was condemned by Shiv Sena, a Hindu nationalist political party. There were consequent protests and demonstrations against him and demands that cinemas in India refuse to screen My Name Is Khan. Khan responded by stating, "What did I say that was wrong? All I said was that I wanted people to come to my country. '' Khan continued by stating that: "I have no idea what I am supposed to apologise for (...) If I am in wrong I would like to apologise but someone needs to explain to me what is wrong. '' He also stated that he does "not want any confrontation. I am trying to explain myself on every platform (...) I have not said anything that is anti-national. '' Khan said that he was willing to meet with Bal Thackeray to discuss the issue.
Initially, Shiv Sena rescinded its demand to block release of My Name Is Khan after it was announced that Khan would be allowed to release it "in as many theatres '' as he would like. However, on 10 January 2010, when cinemas opened for advanced bookings, individuals disguised as "cinegoers '' began to attack cinemas and booking centres. Director Karan Johar and distributors met with police to ask for additional security. In response, Chief Minister of Maharashtra Ashok Chavan threatened to withdraw security cover for party leader Uddhav Thackeray. Later, some security was withdrawn and the Maharashtra government has "called in five battalions of the State Reserve Police Force to protect 63 cinemas in the city that will screen the film directed by Karan Johar from this Friday. '' There were multiple arrests and leave of all police officials were cancelled. The distributor, Fox Star, stated that the film would still be released on its scheduled opening date, 12 February. It opened to full cinema houses across India.
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how does a pension fund act as an investor answers.com | Chief investment officer - wikipedia
The chief investment officer (CIO) is a job title for the board level head of investments within an organization. The CIO 's purpose is to understand, manage, and monitor their organization 's portfolio of assets, devise strategies for growth, act as the liaison with investors, and recognize and avoid serious risks, including those never before encountered.
According to a press release on October 22, 2008, the United States Treasury Department named James H. Lambright to serve as the interim Chief Investment Officer for the Troubled Asset Relief Program. "He will provide counsel to Secretary Henry M. Paulson, Jr. and Interim Assistant Secretary for the Office of Financial Stability Neel Kashkari as they develop and implement the program. ''
Whenever the role of the chief investment officer is active within an insurance company (either life or non-life) and / or pension fund, the role is to manage and coordinate the investment, liquidity (treasury) and / or asset liability management (ALM) in order to optimize investment performance within the risk appetite as defined by actuarial studies ("Asset Liability Management '' (ALM)) of risk management guidelines. The role of a chief investment officer within a corporate pension organization is similar, although the end - goal for the chief investment officer is often not profit, but matching the organization 's pension assets with its pension liabilities. Chief investment officers at endowments and foundations also consider the liabilities of the organization, with an added focus on liquidity and alternative assets.
Jonathan Hirtle, Chief Executive Officer for Hirtle, Callaghan & Co., pioneered the outsourced chief investment officer (OCIO) model, which serves family groups and organizations that do not employ fully staffed investment departments. For his OCIO innovations, Hirtle has been dubbed the "'' Oracle of Outsource ".
The model by which outsourced CIOs service clients is still evolving in this nascent business. The most common model is to outsource all decision making including asset allocation, manager selection and monitoring. The OCIO reports back to the client but the burden is largely lifted from the client and placed on the new provider. Among OCIOs utilizing this approach, there is a "continuum of outsourcing approaches and providers: manager - of - manager programs; funds - of - funds; former CIOs offering a diversified model portfolio ''. The common thread amongst these approaches is the use of commingled funds or model portfolios which creates economies of scale for the OCIO.
A different model is pursued by a small subset of the OCIO universe. The members of this group work alongside the client 's staff -- not as a replacement to them. According to investment industry newsletter FundFire, "An increasing number of CIOs see outsourcing not as a threat to their job, but as a source of complementary expertise and advice, as well as investment opportunities. '' Like much of the nomenclature around the OCIO business, this more customized, bespoke solution does not yet have a widely recognized name. Fiduciary Research (FRC), an OCIO who oversees about $9 billion on behalf of a small list of pension fund clients, calls itself an iCIO for integrated chief investment office.
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what happens in the last episode of breaking bad | Felina (Breaking Bad) - wikipedia
"Felina '' is the series finale of the American drama television series Breaking Bad. It is the sixteenth episode of season five and the 62nd overall episode of the series. Written and directed by series creator Vince Gilligan, it aired on AMC in the United States and Canada on September 29, 2013.
The plot involves Walt evading a nationwide manhunt for him in order to return to New Mexico and deliver the remaining profits from his illegal methamphetamine empire to his family. He also avenges upon the neo-Nazi gang who double - crossed him, killed his brother - in - law Hank, took Jesse captive and presented a threat to his family. Knowing the cancer will soon kill him, Walt revisits his former acquaintances to settle his affairs and prepare himself for the conflict and his death.
Upon airing, "Felina '' was met with widespread acclaim from critics. Several critics have called it one of the greatest series finales of all time.
After leaving the bar, Walt leaves New Hampshire in a Volvo, with Marty Robbins ' song "El Paso '' playing on the tape deck. He returns to New Mexico and tracks down Gretchen and Elliott Schwartz (Jessica Hecht and Adam Godley) at their new house in Santa Fe, after posing as a reporter for The New York Times. To circumvent the suspicions of the DEA and his family, he orders them to give his remaining $9.72 million to Walt Jr... He will inherit it upon turning eighteen, saying this is their chance to "make things right ''. Walt reveals there are snipers waiting outside, aiming at the Schwartzes after Walt tells them they will always be watched to ensure they keep to his instructions. They agree to his terms and Walt leaves, paying Badger Mayhew (Matt L. Jones) and Skinny Pete (Charles Baker) for aiming red laser pointers at the Schwartzes and posing as hitmen. Walt learns from Badger and Skinny Pete that Jack Welker 's (Michael Bowen) gang has been cooking and distributing blue meth and realizes Jesse (Aaron Paul) is still alive.
On his 52nd birthday, Walt purchases an M60 machine gun and retrieves the ricin from his abandoned house, connecting the machine gun to a pivoting turret rigged to the car - key 's unlock button. He intercepts Todd (Jesse Plemons) and Lydia 's (Laura Fraser) meeting at a coffee shop and makes a business proposal, offering a new formula for methylamine - free meth. Todd turns him down, but Lydia feigns interest to lure Walt into getting killed by Jack. Later, Skyler (Anna Gunn) receives a phone call from Marie (Betsy Brandt), who informs her Walt has returned, but Walt is already with Skyler. He leaves her with the lottery ticket on which the coordinates of Hank (Dean Norris) and Steve 's (Steven Michael Quezada) grave is printed and advises her to use it to negotiate a plea bargain with the authorities. Walt admits to Skyler his life as a drug kingpin was for himself rather than his family, stating that he did it because he enjoyed it, was good at it, and made him feel alive. Skyler allows Walt to see Holly one last time while she sleeps. After leaving, Walt watches Walter Jr. (RJ Mitte) arrive home from school from afar.
Walt meets with Jack and his men at their hideout, where Jesse is still performing slave labor for the gang in an adjacent Quonset hut. Jack refuses Walt 's meth offer and orders him killed. Walt diverts Jack 's attention by accusing him of partnering with Jesse; to which Jack responds by ordering that Jesse join them. Upon seeing Jesse, Walt tackles him and uses his car keys to remote - fire the machine gun from his car. Everybody except Jack, Todd, Jesse and Walt are dead. As Todd stares out the window in amazement at the now - empty machine gun pivoting in its turret, Jesse strangles and kills Todd with the chain attached to his handcuffs, and then frees himself by taking a key from Todd 's pocket. After Walt picks up a dropped handgun, Jack attempts to bargain with the location of the stolen money, but Walt coldly kills him as Jack pleads. Walt gives the gun to Jesse and asks Jesse to kill him. Jesse notices Walt 's wound from the gunfire and refuses, telling Walt to kill himself. As Jesse and Walt leave Jack 's house, Walt answers a call on Todd 's phone from an audibly ill Lydia. He informs her that her business partners are dead and reveals that he had put ricin in her stevia at the coffee shop. Jesse and Walt glance before Jesse flees in Todd 's El Camino. He breaks through the gates, screaming and crying with joy.
Walt enters the lab and smiles nostalgically as he admires the equipment, holding a gas mask and rubbing a kettle. His fingers leave a bloody trail on the kettle as he falls to the floor, collapsing from the wound. Police rush in with guns drawn as he lies motionless with slight satisfaction. An officer takes Walt 's pulse.
On September 18, 2013, it was announced that both "Granite State '' and "Felina '' would run 75 minutes, including commercials. The actual runtime of the episodes is 55 minutes. The episode was written and directed by series creator Vince Gilligan.
The episode title, "Felina '', is inspired by the character Feleena from the song "El Paso '' by Marty Robbins, which plays a major role during the episode. The writers changed the name from Feleena to Felina so that it would also be an anagram of Finale. Moreover, the word Felina can also be broken up into three different symbols of chemical elements found in the periodic table: iron (Fe), lithium (Li), and sodium (Na). Since iron is a predominant element in blood, lithium is sometimes used in methamphetamine production, and sodium is a component of tears, the title was interpreted by some as "blood, meth and tears ''. According to Eric Brown of International Business Times:
"In its pure form... methamphetamine is composed solely of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N), no lithium involved. However, there are multiple ways to synthesize meth from other ingredients, and several involve lithium. The Birch reduction, also called the "Nazi method, '' mixes lithium and ammonia to create a reaction. Another, called the "Shake ' n ' Bake '' method, involved throwing lithium and several other ingredients into a single pot to create the drug. Both methods are extremely dangerous, as lithium is a highly volatile element. Unfortunately, there 's a big hole in this theory: Walt never uses a lithium - based synthesis in the show... Walt uses two methods throughout the show: first the Nagai method involving red phosphorus and later a methylamine P2P reaction resulting in the famous blue meth. Neither one uses lithium at any point, shooting a big hole in this theory. ''
Another theory is that "Felina '' is a reference to Schrödinger 's cat. Erwin Schrödinger was a pioneering developer of quantum theory whose approach stood in opposition to Werner Heisenberg, whose surname Walt used as his alias. Felinae is a subfamily of the cat family which includes the domestic cat. In Schrödinger 's thought experiment, a cat trapped in a sealed box is killed by a flask of hydrocyanic acid, but by the principles of quantum mechanics is considered to be both alive and dead at the same time.
Badfinger 's "Baby Blue '' is played during the final scene. According to series creator Vince Gilligan, this is reference to the high - quality blue meth Walt had produced over the previous seasons and his life as a drug kingpin which the main character at last recognizes he had enjoyed. According to Rolling Stone, the music supervisors on the show disagreed with Gilligan 's choice for the final song; however, music supervisor Thomas Golubić stated that "journalists sometimes try to create drama where there is n't any '' and that his quotes were "mis - represented ''. "Baby Blue '' became an obvious choice as the editing came closer to completion with Golubić describing the process of finalizing the song:
Before I saw the scene, I pulled together a number of ideas -- one which I thought worked pretty beautifully against picture: The Bees "No More Excuses '' -- but once I saw that beautiful shot, and saw the scene in context, I realized why Vince was so strongly attached to the Badfinger song. It 's tricky for us as music supervisors in that we keep pulling together ideas and revising them. None of us know the right answer until we are at the very end of that process and have cut and locked picture to work with. Vince is just really talented at knowing what the final effect he is looking for, and knew early on that Badfinger 's "Baby Blue '' was the right choice for what he was looking to do. It took until the final picture was assembled that I was able to also see what a fantastic choice it was.
"Felina '' had the highest ratings of any episode of Breaking Bad: 10.28 million in the United States, including 5.3 million adults aged 18 -- 49. The episode generated millions of online comments and Nielsen Holdings rankings established that it was the most - discussed episode on Twitter for that week. The popularity of the episode resulted in a 2,981 percent increase of sales of the Badfinger song "Baby Blue '' as well as a 9,000 percent increase in streaming over Spotify.
Upon airing, the episode received nearly universal critical acclaim. In her review of "Felina '', Donna Bowman of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A rating, writing that "Walt 's purpose is fulfilled, and he just stops ''. Seth Amitin at IGN also praised the episode, calling it "fully satisfying '' and awarding it a score of 9.8 out of 10. Katey Rich agreed with these sentiments, calling the episode "a deeply satisfying and surprisingly emotional finale ''. However, Emily Nussbaum, writing in the New Yorker, criticized the episode, claiming it so neatly wrapped up the series in Walt 's favor that it seemed more like "the dying fantasy on the part of Walter White, not something that was actually happening ''.
The MythBusters tested the machine - gun turret and proved that it was possible in real life.
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can you build up a tolerance to arsenic | Mithridatism - wikipedia
Mithridatism is the practice of protecting oneself against a poison by gradually self - administering non-lethal amounts. The word is derived from Mithridates VI, the King of Pontus, who so feared being poisoned that he regularly ingested small doses, aiming to develop immunity.
Mithridates VI 's father, Mithridates V, was assassinated by poisoning, said to be at his mother 's orders. After this, Mithridates VI 's mother held regency over Pontus until a male heir came of age. Mithridates was in competition with his brother for the throne and his mother began to favor his brother. Supposedly, during his youth, he began to suspect plots against him at his own mother 's orders and was aware of her possible connection with his father 's death. He then began to notice pains in his stomach during his meals and suspected his mother had ordered small amounts of poison to be added to his food to slowly kill him off. With other assassination attempts, he fled into the wild.
While in the wild, it is said that he began ingesting non-lethal amounts of poisons and mixing many into a universal remedy to make him immune to all known poisons.
After Mithridates ' death, many Roman physicians claimed to possess and improve the formula. In keeping with most medical practices of his era, Mithridates ' anti-poison routines included a religious component, supervised by the Agari; a group of Scythian shamans derived from Indian Aghoris who never left him.
It has been suggested that Russian mystic Rasputin 's survival of a poisoning attempt was due to mithridatism, but this has not been proven.
Indian epics talk about this practice too. It has been said that, during the rule of the king Chandragupta Maurya (320 -- 298 BC), there was a practice of selecting beautiful girls and administering poison in small amounts until they grew up, thus making them insensitive to poison. These maidens were called vishakanyas (visha = poison, kanya = maiden). It was believed that making love with vishakanyas could result in the death of their partners, hence they were employed to kill enemies.
The emperor Bindusara was the son of the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya and his queen Durdhara. According to the Rajavalikatha, a Jain work, the original name of this emperor was Simhasena. According to a legend mentioned in the Jain texts, Chandragupta 's Guru and advisor Chanakya used to feed the emperor with small doses of poison to build his immunity against possible poisoning attempts by the enemies. One day, Chandragupta, not knowing about the poison, shared his food with his pregnant wife, Queen Durdhara, who was 7 days away from delivery. The queen not immune to the poison collapsed and died within a few minutes. Chanakya entered the room the very time she collapsed, and in order to save the child in the womb, he immediately cut open the dead queen 's belly and took the baby out, by that time a drop of poison had already reached the baby and touched its head due to which the child got a permanent blueish spot (a "bindu '') on his forehead. Thus, the newborn was named "Bindusara ''.
It is important to note that mithridatism is not effective against all types of poison, and, depending on the toxin, the practice can lead to the lethal accumulation of a poison in the body. Results depend on how each poison is processed by the body, ie, on how the toxic compound is metabolized. Exposure to certain toxic substances, such as hydrofluoric acid and heavy metals, is either lethal or has little to no effect, and thus can not be used in this way at all.
There are only a few, if any, practical uses of mithridatism. It can be used by zoo handlers, researchers, and circus artists who deal closely with venomous animals. Mithridatism has been tried with success in Australia and Brazil and total immunity has been achieved even to multiple bites of extremely venomous cobras and pit vipers. Venomous snake handler Bill Haast used this method. Snake handlers from Burma are said to tattoo themselves with snake venom for the same reason.
Mithridatism has been used as a plot device in novels, films, video games, and television shows, including Nirja Guleri 's Shiv Dutt in Chandrakanta, Alexandre Dumas 's The Count of Monte Cristo, Nathaniel Hawthorne 's "Rappaccini 's Daughter '', Yoshiaki Kawajiri 's Ninja Scroll, Dorothy Sayers 's Strong Poison, Agatha Christie 's Curtain, William Goldman 's The Princess Bride (and the film of the same name), The Borgias, Babylon 5, Riddick, and a Japanese manga called Dokuhime (Poison Princess) by Mihara Mitsukazu, Ekta Kapoor 's Jodha Akbar, and the Zoldyck family in Hunter X Hunter.
In Michael Curtis Ford 's novel The Last King, on the life and conquests of Mithridates VI, the author clearly depicts Mithridates ' efforts to use this technique to protect himself and ensure his safety.
A.E. Housman 's "Terence, this is stupid stuff '' (originally published in A Shropshire Lad) invokes mithridatism as a metaphor for the benefit that serious poetry brings to the reader. The final section is a poetic rendition of the Mithridates legend. (See the text on Wikisource by itself and collected with A Shropshire Lad.)
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where did it takes a village to raise a child come from | It takes a village - wikipedia
It takes a village to raise a child is a proverb which means that it takes an entire community of different people interacting with children in order for children to experience and grow in a safe environment. The villages would look out for the children. This does not mean an entire village is responsible for raising your children.
The proverb has been attributed to African cultures. In 2016, NPR decided to research the origins of the proverb, and concluded it was unable to pinpoint its origins, though academics said the proverb nevertheless holds the true spirits of some African cultures.
Examples of African societies with proverbs which translate to ' It takes a village... ' include the following:
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lawn tennis is national game of which country | Tennis - wikipedia
Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses a tennis racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent 's court. The object of the game is to play the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite player will.
Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society and at all ages. The sport can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, including wheelchair users. The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England, in the late 19th century as "lawn tennis ''. It had close connections both to various field ("lawn '') games such as croquet and bowls as well as to the older racket sport of real tennis. During most of the 19th century, in fact, the term "tennis '' referred to real tennis, not lawn tennis: for example, in Disraeli 's novel Sybil (1845), Lord Eugene De Vere announces that he will "go down to Hampton Court and play tennis. ''
The rules of tennis have changed little since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that from 1908 to 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times, and the adoption of the tiebreak in the 1970s. A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point challenge system, which allows a player to contest the line call of a point, a system known as Hawk - Eye.
Tennis is played by millions of recreational players and is also a popular worldwide spectator sport. The four Grand Slam tournaments (also referred to as the "Majors '') are especially popular: the Australian Open played on hard courts, the French Open played on red clay courts, Wimbledon played on grass courts, and the US Open played also on hard courts.
Historians believe that the game 's ancient origin lay in 12th century northern France, where a ball was struck with the palm of the hand. Louis X of France was a keen player of jeu de paume ("game of the palm ''), which evolved into real tennis, and became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made in Paris "around the end of the 13th century ''. In due course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe. In June 1316 at Vincennes, Val - de-Marne and following a particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a large quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of either pneumonia or pleurisy, although there was also suspicion of poisoning. Because of the contemporary accounts of his death, Louis X is history 's first tennis player known by name. Another of the early enthusiasts of the game was King Charles V of France, who had a court set up at the Louvre Palace.
It was n't until the 16th century that rackets came into use, and the game began to be called "tennis '', from the French term tenez, which can be translated as "hold! '', "receive! '' or "take! '', an interjection used as a call from the server to his opponent. It was popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors where the ball could be hit off the wall. Henry VIII of England was a big fan of this game, which is now known as real tennis. During the 18th century and early 19th century, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England.
Further, the patenting of the first lawn mower in 1830, in Britain, is strongly believed to have been the catalyst, worldwide, for the preparation of modern - style grass courts, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls and others.
Between 1859 and 1865 Harry Gem and his friend Augurio Perera developed a game that combined elements of racquets and the Basque ball game pelota, which they played on Perera 's croquet lawn in Birmingham, England, United Kingdom. In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the world 's first tennis club in Leamington Spa.
In December 1873, British army officer Major Walter Clopton Wingfield designed and patented a similar game; -- which he called sphairistikè (Greek: σφαιριστική, meaning "ball - playing ''), and was soon known simply as "sticky '' -- for the amusement of guests at a garden party on his friend 's estate of Nantclwyd Hall, in Llanelidan, Wales. According to R.D.C. Evans, turfgrass agronomist, "Sports historians all agree that (Wingfield) deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis. '' According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield "popularized this game enormously. He produced a boxed set which included a net, poles, rackets, balls for playing the game -- and most importantly you had his rules. He was absolutely terrific at marketing and he sent his game all over the world. He had very good connections with the clergy, the law profession, and the aristocracy and he sent thousands of sets out in the first year or so, in 1874. '' The world 's oldest tennis tournament, the Wimbledon Championships, were first played in London in 1877. The first Championships culminated a significant debate on how to standardize the rules.
In the U.S. in 1874 Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned from Bermuda with a sphairistikè set. She became fascinated by the game of tennis after watching British army officers play. She laid out a tennis court at the Staten Island Cricket Club at Camp Washington, Tompkinsville, Staten Island, New York. The first American National championship was played there in September 1880. An Englishman named O.E. Woodhouse won the singles title, and a silver cup worth $100, by defeating Canadian I.F. Hellmuth. There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in New York. On 21 May 1881, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now the United States Tennis Association) was formed to standardize the rules and organize competitions. The U.S. National Men 's Singles Championship, now the US Open, was first held in 1881 at the Newport Casino, Newport, Rhode Island. The U.S. National Women 's Singles Championships were first held in 1887 in Philadelphia.
Tennis also became popular in France, where the French Championships dates to 1891 although until 1925 it was open only to tennis players who were members of French clubs. Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open, and the Australian Open (dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis. Together these four events are called the Majors or Slams (a term borrowed from bridge rather than baseball).
The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the International Lawn Tennis Federation, now known as the International Tennis Federation (ITF), have remained largely stable in the ensuing eighty years, the one major change being the addition of the tiebreak system designed by Jimmy Van Alen. That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the 1924 Games but returned 60 years later as a 21 - and - under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the efforts by the then ITF President Philippe Chatrier, ITF General Secretary David Gray and ITF Vice President Pablo Llorens, and support from IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full medal sport at Seoul in 1988.
The Davis Cup, an annual competition between men 's national teams, dates to 1900. The analogous competition for women 's national teams, the Fed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF.
In 1926, promoter C.C. Pyle established the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences. The most notable of these early professionals were the American Vinnie Richards and the Frenchwoman Suzanne Lenglen. Once a player turned pro he or she could not compete in the major (amateur) tournaments.
In 1968, commercial pressures and rumors of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating the Open Era, in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis. With the beginning of the Open Era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis 's popularity has spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its middle - class English - speaking image (although it is acknowledged that this stereotype still exists).
In 1954, Van Alen founded the International Tennis Hall of Fame, a non-profit museum in Newport, Rhode Island. The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honouring prominent members and tennis players from all over the world. Each year, a grass court tournament and an induction ceremony honoring new Hall of Fame members are hosted on its grounds.
Part of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play. Beginners need only a racket and balls.
The components of a tennis racket include a handle, known as the grip, connected to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, rackets were made of wood and of standard size, and strings were of animal gut. Laminated wood construction yielded more strength in rackets used through most of the 20th century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power. Meanwhile, technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of gut yet with added durability.
Under modern rules of tennis, the rackets must adhere to the following guidelines;
The rules regarding rackets have changed over time, as material and engineering advances have been made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been 32 inches (81 cm) until 1997, when it was shortened to 29 inches (74 cm).
Many companies manufacture and distribute tennis rackets. Wilson, Head and Babolat are some of the more commonly used brands; however, many more companies exist. The same companies sponsor players to use these rackets in the hopes that the company name will become more well known by the public.
Tennis balls were originally made of cloth strips stitched together with thread and stuffed with feathers. Modern tennis balls are made of hollow vulcanized rubber with a felt coating. Traditionally white, the predominant colour was gradually changed to optic yellow in the latter part of the 20th century to allow for improved visibility. Tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size, weight, deformation, and bounce to be approved for regulation play. The International Tennis Federation (ITF) defines the official diameter as 65.41 -- 68.58 mm (2.575 -- 2.700 in). Balls must weigh between 56.0 and 59.4 g (1.98 and 2.10 oz). Tennis balls were traditionally manufactured in the United States and Europe. Although the process of producing the balls has remained virtually unchanged for the past 100 years, the majority of manufacturing now takes place in the Far East. The relocation is due to cheaper labour costs and materials in the region.
Advanced players improve their performance through a number of accoutrements. Vibration dampeners may be interlaced in the proximal part of the string array for improved feel. Racket handles may be customized with absorbent or rubber - like materials to improve the players ' grip. Players often use sweat bands on their wrists to keep their hands dry and head bands or bandanas to keep the sweat out of their eyes as well. Finally, although the game can be played in a variety of shoes, specialized tennis shoes have wide, flat soles for stability and a built - up front structure to avoid excess wear.
Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface. The court is 78 feet (23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.2 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft (11 m) for doubles matches. Additional clear space around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It is held up by either a metal cable or cord that can be no more than 0.8 cm (⁄ in). The net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (0.91 m) high in the center. The net posts are 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net, 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the singles court on each side.
The modern tennis court owes its design to Major Walter Clopton Wingfield. In 1873, Wingfield patented a court much the same as the current one for his stické tennis (sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield 's version, but with the hourglass shape of his court changed to a rectangle.
Tennis is unusual in that it is played on a variety of surfaces. Grass, clay, and hardcourts of concrete or asphalt topped with acrylic are the most common. Occasionally carpet is used for indoor play, with hardwood flooring having been historically used. Artificial turf courts can also be found.
The lines that delineate the width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the service line (middle of the court). The short mark in the center of each baseline is referred to as either the hash mark or the center mark. The outermost lines that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines. These are the boundaries used when doubles is being played. The lines to the inside of the doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines and are used as boundaries in singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles sideline is called the doubles alley, which is considered playable in doubles play. The line that runs across the center of a player 's side of the court is called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not where a player legally stands when making a serve.
The line dividing the service line in two is called the center line or center service line. The boxes this center line creates are called the service boxes; depending on a player 's position, he or she will have to hit the ball into one of these when serving. A ball is out only if none of it has hit the line or the area inside the lines upon its first bounce. All the lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (25 and 51 mm) in width. The baseline can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide.
The players (or teams) start on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated the server, and the opposing player is the receiver. The choice to be server or receiver in the first game and the choice of ends is decided by a coin toss before the warm - up starts. Service alternates game by game between the two players (or teams). For each point, the server starts behind the baseline, between the center mark and the sideline. The receiver may start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server will serve, although the receiver must play to the pace of the server.
In a legal service, the ball travels over the net (without touching it) and into the diagonally opposite service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is a let or net service, which is void, and the server retakes that serve. The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a "foot fault '', which occurs when a player 's foot touches the baseline or an extension of the center mark before the ball is hit. If the second service is also a fault, the server double faults, and the receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service.
A legal service starts a rally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return consists of the player or team hitting the ball before it has bounced twice or hit any fixtures except the net, provided that it still falls in the server 's court. A player or team can not hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel past the net into the other players ' court. A ball that hits the net during a rally is still considered a legal return as long as it crosses into the opposite side of the court. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses the point. The server then moves to the other side of the service line at the start of a new point.
A game consists of a sequence of points played with the same player serving. A game is won by the first player to have won at least four points in total and at least two points more than the opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner peculiar to tennis: scores from zero to three points are described as "love '', "15 '', "30 '', and "40 '', respectively. If at least three points have been scored by each player, making the player 's scores equal at 40 apiece, the score is not called out as "40 - 40 '', but rather as "deuce ''. If at least three points have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than his opponent, the score of the game is "advantage '' for the player in the lead. During informal games, "advantage '' can also be called "ad in '' or "van in '' when the serving player is ahead, and "ad out '' or "van out '' when the receiving player is ahead.
The score of a tennis game during play is always read with the serving player 's score first. In tournament play, the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., "15 - love '') after each point. At the end of a game, the chair umpire also announces the winner of the game and the overall score.
A set consists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a player wins a set by winning at least six games and at least two games more than the opponent. If one player has won six games and the opponent five, an additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins the set 7 -- 5. If the trailing player wins the game, a tie - break is played. A tie - break, played under a separate set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7 -- 6. A "love '' set means that the loser of the set won zero games, colloquially termed a ' jam donut ' in the USA. In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set and the overall score. The final score in sets is always read with the winning player 's score first, e.g. "6 -- 2, 4 -- 6, 6 -- 0, 7 -- 5 ''.
A match consists of a sequence of sets. The outcome is determined through a best of three or five sets system. On the professional circuit, men play best - of - five - set matches at all four Grand Slam tournaments, Davis Cup, and the final of the Olympic Games and best - of - three - set matches at all other tournaments, while women play best - of - three - set matches at all tournaments. The first player to win two sets in a best - of - three, or three sets in a best - of - five, wins the match. Only in the final sets of matches at the Australian Open, the French Open, Wimbledon, the Olympic Games, Davis Cup (until 2015), and Fed Cup are tie - breaks not played. In these cases, sets are played indefinitely until one player has a two - game lead, leading to some remarkably long matches.
In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the end of the match with the well - known phrase "Game, set, match '' followed by the winning person 's or team 's name.
A game point occurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one more point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40 - love, the player has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as the player has three consecutive chances to win the game. Game points, set points, and match points are not part of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play.
A break point occurs if the receiver, not the server, has a chance to win the game with the next point. Break points are of particular importance because serving is generally considered advantageous, with servers being expected to win games in which they are serving. A receiver who has one (score of 30 -- 40 or advantage), two (score of 15 -- 40) or three (score of love - 40) consecutive chances to win the game has break point, double break point or triple break point, respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win their break point, the game is awarded to the receiver, and the receiver is said to have converted their break point. If the receiver fails to win their break point it is called a failure to convert. Winning break points, and thus the game, is also referred to as breaking serve, as the receiver has disrupted, or broken the natural advantage of the server. If in the following game the previous server also wins a break point it is referred to as breaking back. Except where tie - breaks apply, at least one break of serve is required to win a set.
Another, however informal, tennis format is called Canadian doubles. This involves three players, with one person playing a doubles team. The single player gets to utilize the alleys normally reserved only for a doubles team. Conversely, the doubles team does not use the alleys when executing a shot. The scoring is the same as a regular game. This format is not sanctioned by any official body.
"Australian doubles '', another informal and unsanctioned form of tennis, is played with similar rules to the Canadian doubles style, only in this version, players rotate court position after each game. As such, each player plays doubles and singles over the course of a match, with the singles player always serving. Scoring styles vary, but one popular method is to assign a value of 2 points to each game, with the server taking both points if he or she holds serve and the doubles team each taking one if they break serve.
Wheelchair tennis can be played by able - bodied players as well as people who require a wheelchair for mobility. An extra bounce is permitted. This rule makes it possible to have mixed wheelchair and able - bodied matches. It is possible for a doubles team to consist of a wheelchair player and an able - bodied player (referred to as "one - up, one - down ''), or for a wheelchair player to play against an able - bodied player. In such cases, the extra bounce is permitted for the wheelchair users only.
In most professional play and some amateur competition, there is an officiating head judge or chair umpire (usually referred to as the umpire), who sits in a raised chair to one side of the court. The umpire has absolute authority to make factual determinations. The umpire may be assisted by line judges, who determine whether the ball has landed within the required part of the court and who also call foot faults. There also may be a net judge who determines whether the ball has touched the net during service. The umpire has the right to overrule a line judge or a net judge if the umpire is sure that a clear mistake has been made.
In some tournaments, line judges who would be calling the serve, were assisted by electronic sensors that beeped to indicate the serve was out. This system was called "Cyclops ''. Cyclops has since largely been replaced by the Hawk - Eye system. In professional tournaments using this system, players are allowed three unsuccessful appeals per set, plus one additional appeal in the tie - break to challenge close line calls by means of an electronic review. The US Open, Miami Masters, US Open Series, and World Team Tennis started using this challenge system in 2006 and the Australian Open and Wimbledon introduced the system in 2007. In clay - court matches, such as at the French Open, a call may be questioned by reference to the mark left by the ball 's impact on the court surface.
The referee, who is usually located off the court, is the final authority about tennis rules. When called to the court by a player or team captain, the referee may overrule the umpire 's decision if the tennis rules were violated (question of law) but may not change the umpire 's decision on a question of fact. If, however, the referee is on the court during play, the referee may overrule the umpire 's decision (This would only happen in Davis Cup or Fed Cup matches, not at the World Group level, when a chair umpire from a non-neutral country is in the chair).
Ball boys and girls may be employed to retrieve balls, pass them to the players, and hand players their towels. They have no adjudicative role. In rare events (e.g., if they are hurt or if they have caused a hindrance), the umpire may ask them for a statement of what actually happened. The umpire may consider their statements when making a decision. In some leagues, especially junior leagues, players make their own calls, trusting each other to be honest. This is the case for many school and university level matches. The referee or referee 's assistant, however, can be called on court at a player 's request, and the referee or assistant may change a player 's call. In unofficiated matches, a ball is out only if the player entitled to make the call is sure that the ball is out.
In tennis, a junior is a player under 18 who is still legally protected by a parent or guardian. Players on the main adult tour who are under 18 must have documents signed by a parent or guardian. These players, however, are still eligible to play in junior tournaments.
The International Tennis Federation (ITF) conducts a junior tour that allows juniors to establish a world ranking and an Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) or Women 's Tennis Association (WTA) ranking. Most juniors who enter the international circuit do so by progressing through ITF, Satellite, Future, and Challenger tournaments before entering the main circuit. The latter three circuits also have adults competing in them. Some juniors, however, such as Australian Lleyton Hewitt and Frenchman Gaël Monfils, have catapulted directly from the junior tour to the ATP tour by dominating the junior scene or by taking advantage of opportunities given to them to participate in professional tournaments.
In 2004, the ITF implemented a new rankings scheme to encourage greater participation in doubles, by combining two rankings (singles and doubles) into one combined tally. Junior tournaments do not offer prize money except for the Grand Slam tournaments, which are the most prestigious junior events. Juniors may earn income from tennis by participating in the Future, Satellite, or Challenger tours. Tournaments are broken up into different tiers offering different amounts of ranking points, culminating with Grade A.
Leading juniors are allowed to participate for their nation in the Junior Fed Cup and Davis Cup competitions. To succeed in tennis often means having to begin playing at a young age. To facilitate and nurture a junior 's growth in tennis, almost all tennis playing nations have developed a junior development system. Juniors develop their play through a range of tournaments on all surfaces, accommodating all different standards of play. Talented juniors may also receive sponsorships from governing bodies or private institutions.
A tennis match is intended to be continuous. Because stamina is a relevant factor, arbitrary delays are not permitted. In most cases, service is required to occur no more than 20 seconds after the end of the previous point. This is increased to 90 seconds when the players change ends (after every odd - numbered game), and a 2 - minute break is permitted between sets. Other than this, breaks are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players ' control, such as rain, damaged footwear, damaged racket, or the need to retrieve an errant ball. Should a player be determined to be stalling repeatedly, the chair umpire may initially give a warning followed by subsequent penalties of "point '', "game '', and default of the match for the player who is consistently taking longer than the allowed time limit.
In the event of a rain delay, darkness or other external conditions halting play, the match is resumed at a later time, with the same score as at the time of the delay, and the players at the same end of the court when rain halted play, or at the same position (north or south) if play is resumed on a different court.
Balls wear out quickly in serious play and, therefore, in ATP and WTA tournaments, they are changed after every nine games with the first change occurring after only seven games, because the first set of balls is also used for the pre-match warm - up. As a courtesy to the receiver, the server will often signal to the receiver before the first serve of the game in which new balls are used as a reminder that they are using new balls. However, in ITF tournaments like Fed Cup, the balls are changed in a 9 -- 11 style. Continuity of the balls ' condition is considered part of the game, so if a re-warm - up is required after an extended break in play (usually due to rain), then the re-warm - up is done using a separate set of balls, and use of the match balls is resumed only when play resumes.
A recent rule change is to allow coaching on court on a limited basis during a match. This has been introduced in women 's tennis for WTA Tour events in 2009 and allows the player to request her coach once per set.
A competent tennis player has eight basic shots in his or her repertoire: the serve, forehand, backhand, volley, half - volley, overhead smash, drop shot, and lob.
A grip is a way of holding the racket in order to hit shots during a match. The grip affects the angle of the racket face when it hits the ball and influences the pace, spin, and placement of the shot. Players use various grips during play, including the Continental (The "Handshake Grip ''), Eastern (Can be either semi-eastern or full eastern. Usually used for backhands.), and Western (semi-western or full western, usually for forehand grips) grips. Most players change grips during a match depending on what shot they are hitting; for example, slice shots and serves call for a Continental grip.
A serve (or, more formally, a "service '') in tennis is a shot to start a point. The serve is initiated by tossing the ball into the air and hitting it (usually near the apex of its trajectory) into the diagonally opposite service box without touching the net. The serve may be hit under - or overhand although underhand serving remains a rarity. If the ball hits the net on the first serve and bounces over into the correct diagonal box then it is called a "let '' and the server gets two more additional serves to get it in. There can also be a let if the server serves the ball and the receiver is n't prepared. If the server misses his or her first serve and gets a let on the second serve, then they get one more try to get the serve in the box.
Experienced players strive to master the conventional overhand serve to maximize its power and placement. The server may employ different types of serve including flat serve, topspin serve, slice serve, and kick (American twist) serve. A reverse type of spin serve is hit in a manner that spins the ball opposite the natural spin of the server, the spin direction depending upon right - or left - handedness. If the ball is spinning counterclockwise, it will curve right from the hitter 's point of view and curve left if spinning clockwise.
Some servers are content to use the serve simply to initiate the point; however, advanced players often try to hit a winning shot with their serve. A winning serve that is not touched by the opponent is called an "ace ''.
For a right - handed player, the forehand is a stroke that begins on the right side of the body, continues across the body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the left side of the body. There are various grips for executing the forehand, and their popularity has fluctuated over the years. The most important ones are the continental, the eastern, the semi-western, and the western. For a number of years, the small, frail 1920s player Bill Johnston was considered by many to have had the best forehand of all time, a stroke that he hit shoulder - high using a western grip. Few top players used the western grip after the 1920s, but in the latter part of the 20th century, as shot - making techniques and equipment changed radically, the western forehand made a strong comeback and is now used by many modern players. No matter which grip is used, most forehands are generally executed with one hand holding the racket, but there have been fine players with two - handed forehands. In the 1940s and 50s, the Ecuadorian / American player Pancho Segura used a two - handed forehand to achieve a devastating effect against larger, more powerful players. Players such as Monica Seles or France 's Fabrice Santoro and Marion Bartoli are also notable players known for their two - handed forehands.
For right - handed players, the backhand is a stroke that begins on the left side of their body, continues across their body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the right side of their body. It can be executed with either one hand or with both and is generally considered more difficult to master than the forehand. For most of the 20th century, the backhand was performed with one hand, using either an eastern or a continental grip. The first notable players to use two hands were the 1930s Australians Vivian McGrath and John Bromwich, but they were lonely exceptions. The two - handed grip gained popularity in the 1970s as Björn Borg, Chris Evert, Jimmy Connors, and later Mats Wilander and Marat Safin used it to great effect, and it is now used by a large number of the world 's best players, including Rafael Nadal and Serena Williams.
Two hands give the player more control, while one hand can generate a slice shot, applying backspin on the ball to produce a low trajectory bounce. Reach is also limited with the two - handed shot. The player long considered to have had the best backhand of all time, Don Budge, had a powerful one - handed stroke in the 1930s and 1940s that imparted topspin onto the ball. Ken Rosewall, another player noted for his one - handed backhand, used a very accurate slice backhand through the 1950s and 1960s. A small number of players, notably Monica Seles, use two hands on both the backhand and forehand sides.
A volley is a shot returned to the opponent in mid-air before the ball bounces, generally performed near the net, and is usually made with a stiff - wristed punching motion to hit the ball into an open area of the opponent 's court. The half volley is made by hitting the ball on the rise just after it has bounced, also generally in the vicinity of the net, and played with the racket close to the ground. The swinging volley is hit out of the air as the player approaches the net. It is an offensive shot used to take preparation time away from the opponent, as it returns the ball into the opponent 's court much faster than a standard volley.
From a poor defensive position on the baseline, the lob can be used as either an offensive or defensive weapon, hitting the ball high and deep into the opponent 's court to either enable the lobber to get into better defensive position or to win the point outright by hitting it over the opponent 's head. If the lob is not hit deeply enough into the other court, however, an opponent near the net may then hit an overhead smash, a hard, serve - like shot, to try to end the point.
A difficult shot in tennis is the return of an attempted lob over the backhand side of a player. When the contact point is higher than the reach of a two - handed backhand, most players will try to execute a high slice (under the ball or sideways). Fewer players attempt the backhand sky - hook or smash. Rarely, a player will go for a high topspin backhand, while themselves in the air. A successful execution of any of these alternatives requires balance and timing, with less margin of error than the lower contact point backhands, since this shot is a break in the regular pattern of play.
If an opponent is deep in his court, a player may suddenly employ an unexpected drop shot, by softly tapping the ball just over the net so that the opponent is unable to run in fast enough to retrieve it. Advanced players will often apply back spin to a drop shot, causing the ball to "skid '' upon landing and bounce sideways, with less forward momentum toward their opponent, or even backwards towards the net, thus making it even more difficult to return.
Muscle strain is one of the most common injuries in tennis. When an isolated large - energy appears during the muscle contraction and at the same time body weight apply huge amount of pressure to the lengthened muscle which can result in the occurrence of muscle strain. Inflammation and bleeding are triggered when muscle strain occur which resulted in redness, pain and swelling. Overuse is also common in tennis players from all level. Muscle, cartilage, nerves, bursae, ligaments and tendons may be damaged from overuse. The repetitive use of a particular muscle without time for repair and recover in the most common case among the injury.
Tournaments are often organized by gender and number of players. Common tournament configurations include men 's singles, women 's singles, and doubles, where two players play on each side of the net. Tournaments may be organized for specific age groups, with upper age limits for youth and lower age limits for senior players. Example of this include the Orange Bowl and Les Petits As junior tournaments. There are also tournaments for players with disabilities, such as wheelchair tennis and deaf tennis. In the four Grand Slam tournaments, the singles draws are limited to 128 players for each gender.
Most large tournaments seed players, but players may also be matched by their skill level. According to how well a person does in sanctioned play, a player is given a rating that is adjusted periodically to maintain competitive matches. For example, the United States Tennis Association administers the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP), which rates players between 1.0 and 7.0 in 1 / 2 point increments. Average club players under this system would rate 3.0 -- 4.5 while world class players would be 7.0 on this scale.
The four Grand Slam tournaments are considered to be the most prestigious tennis events in the world. They are held annually and comprise, in chronological order, the Australian Open, the French Open, Wimbledon, and the US Open. Apart from the Olympic Games, Davis Cup, Fed Cup, and Hopman Cup, they are the only tournaments regulated by the International Tennis Federation (ITF). The ITF 's national associations, Tennis Australia (Australian Open), the Fédération Française de Tennis (French Open), the Lawn Tennis Association (Wimbledon) and the United States Tennis Association (US Open) are delegated the responsibility to organize these events.
Aside from the historical significance of these events, they also carry larger prize funds than any other tour event and are worth double the number of ranking points to the champion than in the next echelon of tournaments, the Masters 1000 (men) and Premier events (women). Another distinguishing feature is the number of players in the singles draw. There are 128, more than any other professional tennis tournament. This draw is composed of 32 seeded players, other players ranked in the world 's top 100, qualifiers, and players who receive invitations through wild cards. Grand Slam men 's tournaments have best - of - five set matches while the women play best - of - three. Grand Slam tournaments are among the small number of events that last two weeks, the others being the Indian Wells Masters and the Miami Masters.
Currently, the Grand Slam tournaments are the only tour events that have mixed doubles contests. Grand Slam tournaments are held in conjunction with wheelchair tennis tournaments and junior tennis competitions. These tournaments also contain their own idiosyncrasies. For example, players at Wimbledon are required to wear predominantly white. Andre Agassi chose to skip Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 citing the event 's traditionalism, particularly its "predominantly white '' dress code. Wimbledon has its own particular methods for disseminating tickets, often leading tennis fans to follow complex procedures to obtain tickets.
* The international tournament began in 1925
The ATP World Tour Masters 1000 is a group of nine tournaments that form the second - highest echelon in men 's tennis. Each event is held annually, and a win at one of these events is worth 1000 ranking points. When the ATP, led by Hamilton Jordan, began running the men 's tour in 1990, the directors designated the top nine tournaments, outside of the Grand Slam events, as "Super 9 '' events. In 2000 this became the Tennis Masters Series and in 2004 the ATP Masters Series. In November at the end of the tennis year, the world 's top eight players compete in the ATP World Tour Finals, a tournament with a rotating locale. It is currently held in London, England.
In August 2007 the ATP announced major changes to the tour that were introduced in 2009. The Masters Series was renamed to the "Masters 1000 '', the addition of the number 1000 referring to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of each tournament. Contrary to earlier plans, the number of tournaments was not reduced from nine to eight and the Monte Carlo Masters remains part of the series although, unlike the other events, it does not have a mandatory player commitment. The Hamburg Masters has been downgraded to a 500 - point event. The Madrid Masters moved to May and onto clay courts, and a new tournament in Shanghai took over Madrid 's former indoor October slot. As of 2011 six of the nine "1000 '' level tournaments are combined ATP and WTA events.
The third and fourth tier of men 's tennis tournaments are formed by the ATP World Tour 500 series, consisting of 11 tournaments, and the ATP World Tour 250 series with 40 tournaments. Like the ATP World Tour Masters 1000, these events offer various amounts of prize money and the numbers refer to the amount of ranking points earned by the winner of a tournament. The Dubai Tennis Championships offer the largest financial incentive to players, with total prize money of US $ 2,313,975 (2012). These series have various draws of 28, 32, 48 and 56 for singles and 16 and 24 for doubles. It is mandatory for leading players to enter at least four 500 events, including at least one after the US Open.
The Challenger Tour for men is the lowest level of tournament administered by the ATP. It is composed of about 150 events and, as a result, features a more diverse range of countries hosting events. The majority of players use the Challenger Series at the beginning of their career to work their way up the rankings. Andre Agassi, between winning Grand Slam tournaments, plummeted to World No. 141 and used Challenger Series events for match experience and to progress back up the rankings. The Challenger Series offers prize funds of between US $ 25,000 and US $150,000.
Below the Challenger Tour are the Futures tournaments, events on the ITF Men 's Circuit. These tournaments also contribute towards a player 's ATP rankings points. Futures Tournaments offer prize funds of between US $10,000 and US $15,000. Approximately 530 Futures Tournaments are played each year.
Premier events for women form the most prestigious level of events on the Women 's Tennis Association Tour after the Grand Slam tournaments. These events offer the largest rewards in terms of points and prize money. Within the Premier category are Premier Mandatory, Premier 5, and Premier tournaments. The Premier events were introduced in 2009 replacing the previous Tier I and II tournament categories. Currently four tournaments are Premier Mandatory, five tournaments are Premier 5, and twelve tournaments are Premier. The first tiering system in women 's tennis was introduced in 1988. At the time of its creation, only two tournaments, the Lipton International Players Championships in Florida and the German Open in Berlin, comprised the Tier I category.
International tournaments are the second main tier of the WTA tour and consist of 31 tournaments, with a prize money for every event at U.S. $220,000, except for the year - ending Commonwealth Bank Tournament of Champions in Bali, which has prize money of U.S. $600,000.
Professional tennis players enjoy the same relative perks as most top sports personalities: clothing, equipment and endorsements. Like players of other individual sports such as golf, they are not salaried, but must play and finish highly in tournaments to obtain money.
In recent years, some controversy has surrounded the involuntary or deliberate noise caused by players ' grunting.
The following players have won at least five singles titles at Grand Slam tournaments:
A frequent topic of discussion among tennis fans and commentators is who was the greatest male singles player of all time. By a large margin, an Associated Press poll in 1950 named Bill Tilden as the greatest player of the first half of the 20th century. From 1920 to 1930, Tilden won singles titles at Wimbledon three times and the U.S. Championships seven times. In 1938, however, Donald Budge became the first person to win all four major singles titles during the same calendar year, the Grand Slam, and won six consecutive major titles in 1937 and 1938. Tilden called Budge "the finest player 365 days a year that ever lived. '' In his 1979 autobiography, Jack Kramer said that, based on consistent play, Budge was the greatest player ever. Some observers, however, also felt that Kramer deserved consideration for the title. Kramer was among the few who dominated amateur and professional tennis during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Tony Trabert has said that of the players he saw before the start of the open era, Kramer was the best male champion.
By the 1960s, Budge and others had added Pancho Gonzales and Lew Hoad to the list of contenders. Budge reportedly believed that Gonzales was the greatest player ever. Gonzales said about Hoad, "When Lew 's game was at its peak nobody could touch him... I think his game was the best game ever. Better than mine. He was capable of making more shots than anybody. His two volleys were great. His overhead was enormous. He had the most natural tennis mind with the most natural tennis physique. ''
During the open era, first Rod Laver and more recently Björn Borg and Pete Sampras were regarded by many of their contemporaries as among the greatest ever. Andre Agassi, the first of two male players in history to have achieved a Career Golden Slam in singles tennis (followed by Rafael Nadal), has been called the best service returner in the history of the game. He is the first man to win slams on all modern surfaces (previous holders of all slams played in an era of grass and clay only), and is regarded by a number of critics and fellow players to be among the greatest players of all time.
As of 2017, Roger Federer is considered by many observers to have the most "complete '' game in modern tennis. He has won 19 grand slam titles and 6 World Tour Finals, the most for any male player. Many experts of tennis, former tennis players and his own tennis peers believe Federer is the greatest player in the history of the game. Federer 's biggest rival Rafael Nadal is regarded as the greatest competitor in tennis history by some former players and is regarded to have the potential to be the greatest of all time. Nadal is regarded as the greatest clay court player of all time.
As with the men there are frequent discussions about who is the greatest female singles player of all time with Steffi Graf, Martina Navratilova and Serena Williams being the three players most often nominated.
In March 2012 the TennisChannel published a combined list of the 100 greatest men and women tennis players of all time. It ranked Steffi Graf as the greatest female player (in 3rd place overall), followed by Martina Navratilova (4th place) and Margaret Court (8th place). The rankings were determined by an international panel.
Sportwriter John Wertheim of Sports Illustrated stated in an article in July 2010 that Serena Williams is the greatest female tennis player ever with the argument that "Head - to - head, on a neutral surface (i.e. hard courts), everyone at their best, I ca n't help feeling that she crushes the other legends. ''. In a reaction to this article Yahoo sports blog Busted Racket published a list of the top - 10 women 's tennis players of all time placing Martina Navratilova in first spot. This top - 10 list was similar to the one published in June 2008 by the Bleacher Report who also ranked Martina Navratilova as the top female player of all time.
Steffi Graf is considered by some to be the greatest female player. Billie Jean King said in 1999, "Steffi is definitely the greatest women 's tennis player of all time. '' Martina Navratilova has included Graf on her list of great players. In December 1999, Graf was named the greatest female tennis player of the 20th century by a panel of experts assembled by the Associated Press. Tennis writer Steve Flink, in his book The Greatest Tennis Matches of the Twentieth Century, named her as the best female player of the 20th century, directly followed by Martina Navratilova.
Tennis magazine selected Martina Navratilova as the greatest female tennis player for the years 1965 through 2005. Tennis historian and journalist Bud Collins has called Navratilova "arguably, the greatest player of all time. '' Billie Jean King said about Navratilova in 2006, "She 's the greatest singles, doubles and mixed doubles player who 's ever lived. ''
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what's the population of the twin cities metro area | Minneapolis -- Saint Paul - wikipedia
Minnesota
Minneapolis -- Saint Paul is a major metropolitan area built around the Mississippi, Minnesota and St. Croix rivers in east central Minnesota. The area is commonly known as the Twin Cities after its two largest cities, Minneapolis, the most populous city in the state, and Saint Paul, the state capital. It is an example of twin cities in the sense of geographical proximity. Minnesotans living outside of Minneapolis and Saint Paul often refer to the two together (or the seven - county metro area collectively) as The Cities.
There are several different definitions of the region. Many refer to the Twin Cities as the seven - county region which is governed under the Metropolitan Council regional governmental agency and planning organization. The Office of Management and Budget officially designates 16 counties as the Minneapolis -- St. Paul -- Bloomington MN - WI Metropolitan Statistical Area, the 16th largest in the United States. The entire region known as the Minneapolis -- St. Paul MN - WI Combined Statistical Area, has a population of 3,866,768, the 14th largest, according to 2015 Census estimates.
Despite the Twin moniker, both cities are independent municipalities with defined borders. Minneapolis is somewhat younger with more modern skyscrapers downtown, while Saint Paul has been likened to an East Coast city, with quaint neighborhoods and a vast collection of well - preserved late - Victorian architecture.
Minneapolis was influenced by its early Scandinavian and Lutheran heritage. St. Paul was influenced by its early French, Irish and German Catholic roots.
The Minneapolis - St. Paul metropolitan area includes 16 counties, of which 14 are in Minnesota and two in Wisconsin.
Note: Counties that are bolded are under jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Council. Numbers in parentheses are 2013 census estimates. Counties that are italicized were added to the metropolitan area when the Office of Management and Budget revised its delineations of metropolitan statistical areas in 2013.
There are approximately 218 incorporated municipalities within the Twin Cities metropolitan region. This includes census - designated places along with villages in Wisconsin, but excludes unincorporated towns in Wisconsin, known as civil townships in other states. Estimates are as of 2016 for cities with 25,000 or more inhabitants.
Places with over 100,000 inhabitants (2016 estimates)
Places with 50,000 to 99,999 inhabitants
Places with 25,000 to 49,999 inhabitants
Places with 10,000 to 24,999 inhabitants
Places with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants
The Minneapolis -- St. Paul, MN -- WI Combined Statistical Area is made up of 19 counties in Minnesota and two counties in Wisconsin. The statistical area includes two metropolitan areas and three micropolitan areas. As of the 2010 Census, the CSA had a population of 3,684,928 (though a July 1, 2012 estimate placed the population at 3,691,918). The CSA definition encompasses 11,132.44 sq mi (28,832.9 km) of area.
Minneapolis and St. Paul have competed since they were founded, resulting in some duplication of effort. After St. Paul completed its elaborate Cathedral in 1915, Minneapolis quickly followed up with the equally ornate Basilica of St. Mary in 1926. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the rivalry became so intense that an architect practicing in one city was often refused business in the other. The 1890 United States Census even led to the two cities arresting and / or kidnapping each other 's census takers, in an attempt to keep either city from outgrowing the other.
The rivalry could occasionally erupt into inter-city violence, as happened at a 1923 game between the Minneapolis Millers and the St. Paul Saints, both baseball teams of the American Association. In the 1950s, both cities competed for a major league baseball franchise (which resulted in two rival stadiums being built), and there was a brief period in the mid-1960s where the two cities could not agree on a common calendar for daylight saving time, resulting in a period of a few weeks where people in Minneapolis were one hour "behind '' anyone living or traveling in St. Paul.
The cities ' mutual antagonism was largely healed by the end of the 1960s, aided by the simultaneous arrival in 1961 of the Minnesota Twins of the American League and the Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League, both of which identified themselves with the state as a whole (the former explicitly named for both Twin Cities) and not with either of the major cities (unlike the earlier Minneapolis Lakers). Since 1961, it has been common practice for any major sports team based in the Twin Cities to be named for Minnesota as a whole. In terms of development, the two cities remain distinct in their progress, with Minneapolis absorbing new and avant - garde architecture while St. Paul continues to carefully integrate new buildings into the context of classical and Victorian styles.
The Minneapolis - Saint Paul metropolitan area fine art museums include the Minneapolis Institute of Art, the Walker Art Center, and the Frederick R. Weisman Art Museum. The Minnesota Orchestra and the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra are full - time professional musical ensembles. The Guthrie Theater moved into a new building in 2006 overlooking the Mississippi River. The Minnesota Fringe Festival is an annual celebration of theatre, dance, improvisation, puppetry, kids ' shows, visual art, and musicals.
The Public Radio program A Prairie Home Companion, hosted by Minnesota native Garrison Keillor aired live for many years from the Fitzgerald Theater in Saint Paul. The show ended its run in 2016, with its successor Live from Here also airing from the same venue.
There are numerous lakes in the region, and cities in the area have some very extensive park systems for recreation. Organized recreation includes the Great River Energy bicycle festival, the Twin Cities Marathon, and the U.S. pond hockey championships. Some studies have shown that area residents take advantage of this, and are among the most physically fit in the country, though others have disputed that. Nonetheless, medicine is a major industry in the region and the southeasterly city of Rochester, as the University of Minnesota has joined other colleges and hospitals in doing significant research, and major medical device manufacturers started in the region (the most prominent is Medtronic). Technical innovators have brought important advances in computing, including the Cray line of supercomputers.
It is common for residents of the Twin Cities area to own or share cabins and other properties along lakes and forested areas in the central and northern regions of the state, and weekend trips "up North '' happen through the warmer months. Ice fishing is also a major pastime in the winter, although each year some overambitious fishermen find themselves in dangerous situations when they venture out onto the ice too early or too late. Hunting, snowmobiling, ATV riding and numerous other outdoor activities are also popular. This connectedness with the outdoors also brings a strong sense of environmentalism to many Minnesotans.
In 2011 and 2012, the American College of Sports Medicine named Minneapolis -- Saint Paul the healthiest metropolitan area in America.
Approximately 93.2 % of the metropolitan area 's population was native to the United States. Approximately 92.6 % were born in the U.S. while 0.6 % were born in Puerto Rico, a U.S. territory, or born abroad to American parents. The rest of the population (6.8 %) were foreign - born.
The highest percentages of immigrants came from Asia (38.2 %), Latin America (25.4 %), and Africa (20.1 %); smaller percentages of newcomers came from Europe (13.1 %), other parts of North America (3.0 %), and Oceania (0.2 %).
Minneapolis -- Saint Paul is also a major center for religion in the state, especially Christianity. The state headquarters of five major Christian churches are found here: the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Saint Paul and Minneapolis, the Episcopal Diocese of Minnesota, the Presbyterian Synod of Lakes and Prairies, and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church). The Presbyterian and LDS churches both have missions in Saint Paul, Minneapolis and Bloomington as well as the orthodox church in America
The headquarters of the former American Lutheran Church (ALC), Evangelical Lutheran Church, Lutheran Free Church and the Augustana Evangelical Lutheran Church were located in Minneapolis; the headquarters of Augsburg Fortress publishing house still is. The Minneapolis Area Synod and the Saint Paul Area Synod are the first and third largest synods of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA), respectively.
The Evangelical Free Church of America has its headquarters in Bloomington, and the Association of Free Lutheran Congregations is headquartered in Plymouth, along with its seminary and a Bible School.
The Twin Cities are home to several synagogues serving the Jewish population, which is concentrated in the western Minneapolis suburbs of Golden Valley, St. Louis Park, Plymouth and Minnetonka. There is also a Hindu temple located in the Twin Cities suburb of Maple Grove. A recent influx of immigrants from Laos and Northern Africa has brought many more religions to the area. There are several Islamic Masjids in the area. There is a temple for the religion of Eckankar in the suburb of Chanhassen known as the Temple of Eck. In addition, many Hmong and Tibetan Buddhist peoples live in Saint Paul; a Hmong Buddhist temple opened in suburban Roseville in 1995. The LDS St. Paul Minnesota Temple opened in Oakdale, a suburb east of Saint Paul, in 2000. There are several very strong Unitarian Universalist communities such as the First Unitarian Society of Minneapolis, as well as several Pagan and Buddhist groups. The cities of St. Paul and Minneapolis have been called Paganistan due to the large numbers of Pagans living there. There are an estimated 20,000 Pagans living in the Twin Cities area.
Minneapolis is where the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association started and was its home for more than fifty years.
The following table shows the professional sports teams in the Minneapolis -- Saint Paul MSA:
The Twin Cities is one of thirteen American metropolitan areas to have teams in all four major sports -- MLB, NFL, NBA and NHL. Including Major League Soccer (MLS), it is one of ten metro areas to have five major sports. To avoid favoring either of the Twin Cities, most teams based in the area use only the word Minnesota in their name, rather than Minneapolis or St. Paul.
Minneapolis was the site of two Super Bowls - Super Bowl XXVI in 1992 and Super Bowl LII in 2018. It was the farthest north that a Super Bowl has ever been played.
The World Series has been played in the Twin Cities three times - 1965, 1987 and 1991 as well as three MLB All - Star Games - 1965, 1985 and 2014. All - Star games in the NHL were hosted in 1972 and 2004, the NBA in 1994 and the WNBA in 2018.
The Final Four Men 's NCAA basketball tournament has been hosted by Minneapolis four times - 1951, 1992, 2001 and 2019 and Women 's one time - 1995.
Major golf tournaments hosted in the Twin Cities include - US Open - 1916, 1930, 1970, 1991; US Women 's Open - 1966, 1977, 2008; PGA Championship - 1932, 1954, 2002, 2009; Walker Cup - 1957; Solheim Cup - 2002 and the Ryder Cup - 2016. The Ryder Cup is scheduled to return in 2028.
The 1998 World Figure Skating Championships was held at Target Center in Minneapolis.
The Twin Cities host three nationally competing Roller Derby leagues: The Minnesota RollerGirls of the Women 's Flat Track Derby Association Division 1, the North Star Roller Girls of WFTDA Division 2, and Minnesota Men 's Roller Derby, a league of the Men 's Roller Derby Association. MNRG and NSRG possess four home teams each: the Dagger Dolls, Garda Belts, Rockits, and Atomic Bombshells of MNRG and the Banger Sisters, Delta Delta Di, Kilmore Girls and Violent Femmes of NSRG, as well as two traveling teams each. MMRD possesses three home teams: The Gentlemen 's Club, Destruction Workers, and Thunderjacks, and two traveling teams.
The annual Twin Cities Marathon is held in the fall with a course running through Minneapolis and St. Paul. Minneapolis was the birthplace of Rollerblade and is a center for inline skating, as well as home to the most golfers per capita of any city in the U.S. Additionally, water skiing got its start on Lake Pepin, a short distance southeast of the metropolitan area.
Some other sports teams gained their names from being in Minnesota before relocating. The Los Angeles Lakers get their name from once being based in Minneapolis, the City of Lakes. The Dallas Stars also derived their present name from their tenure as a Minnesota team, the Minnesota North Stars.
The 2008 Republican National Convention was held at the Xcel Energy Center in St. Paul. Minneapolis and St. Paul submitted combined bids to host the 2008 Democratic National Convention and the Republican National Convention. Minneapolis was host to the 1892 Republican National Convention.
The Minneapolis -- Saint Paul area is home to 16 of Minnesota 's 17 Fortune 500 headquarters - UnitedHealth Group, Target, Best Buy, CHS, 3M, US Bancorp, Supervalu, General Mills, Land O'Lakes, Ecolab, CH Robinson Worldwide, Ameriprise Financial, Xcel Energy, Thrivent Financial, Mosaic, and Patterson. A number of private companies are also headquartered in the Twin Cities area, including Cargill, the country 's largest private company, Carlson, Mortenson, Holiday Stationstores, and Andersen. Foreign companies with U.S. headquarters in the Twin Cities include Aimia, Allianz, Canadian Pacific, Coloplast, Medtronic, Pearson VUE, Pentair and RBC.
The Twin Cities 's economy is the 13th largest in the U.S. and ranks second in the Midwest. The Minneapolis - St. Paul area also ranks as the second largest medical device manufacture center in North America and the fourth - biggest U.S. banking center, based on total assets of banks headquartered in the metro area, ranking behind the New York, San Francisco, and Charlotte, N.C. metropolitan areas.
The first European settlement in the region was near what is now known as the town of Stillwater, Minnesota. The city is approximately 20 miles (30 km) from downtown Saint Paul and lies on the western bank of the St. Croix River, which forms the border of central Minnesota and Wisconsin. Another settlement that began fueling early interest in the area was the outpost at Fort Snelling, which was constructed from 1820 to 1825 at the confluence of the Minnesota River and the Mississippi River.
Fort Snelling held jurisdiction over the land south of Saint Anthony Falls, thus a town known as Saint Anthony grew just north of the river. For several years, the only European resident to live on the south bank of the river was Colonel John H. Stevens, who operated a ferry service across the river. As soon as the land area controlled by Fort Snelling was reduced, new settlers began flocking across to the new village of Minneapolis. The town grew quickly, and Minneapolis and Saint Anthony eventually merged. On the eastern side of the Mississippi, a few villages such as Pig 's Eye and Lambert 's Landing developed and would soon grow to become Saint Paul.
Natural geography played a role in the settlement and development of the two cities. The Mississippi River Valley in this area is defined by a series of stone bluffs that line both sides of the river. Saint Paul grew up around Lambert 's Landing, the last place to unload boats coming upriver at an easily accessible point, some seven miles (11 km) downstream from Saint Anthony Falls, the geographic feature that, due to the value of its immense water power for industry, defined the location of Minneapolis and its prominence as the Mill City. The falls can be seen today from the Mill City Museum, housed in the former Washburn "A '' Mill, which was among the world 's largest mills in its time.
The oldest farms in the state are located in Washington County, the eastern most county on the Minnesota side of the metropolitan area. Joseph Haskell was Minnesota 's first farmer, harvesting the first crops in the state in 1840 on what is now part of Afton Township on Trading Post Trail.
The Grand Excursion, a trip into the Upper Midwest sponsored by the Rock Island Railroad, brought more than a thousand curious travelers into the area by rail and steamboat in 1854. The next year, in 1855, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow published The Song of Hiawatha, an epic poem based on the Ojibwe legends of Hiawatha. A number of natural area landmarks were included in the story, such as Lake Minnetonka and Minnehaha Falls. Tourists inspired by the coverage of the Grand Excursion in eastern newspapers and those who read Longfellow 's story flocked to the area in the following decades.
At one time, the region also had numerous passenger rail services, including both interurban streetcar systems and interstate rail. Due to the width of the river at points further south, the Minneapolis -- Saint Paul area was briefly one of the few places where the Mississippi could be crossed by railroad. A great amount of commercial rail traffic also ran through the area, often carrying grain to be processed at mills in Minneapolis or delivering other goods to Saint Paul to be transported along the Mississippi. Saint Paul had long been at the head of navigation on the river, prior to a new lock and dam facility being added upriver in Minneapolis.
Passenger travel hit its peak in 1888 with nearly eight million traversing to and from the Saint Paul Union Depot. This amounted to approximately 150 trains daily. Before long, other rail crossings were built farther south and travel through the region began to decline. In an effort by the rail companies to combat the rise of the automobile, some of the earliest streamliners ran from Chicago to Minneapolis / Saint Paul and eventually served distant points in the Pacific Northwest. Today, the only vestige of this interstate service comes by Amtrak 's Empire Builder train, running once daily in each direction. It is the railroad 's busiest long - distance train and is named after James J. Hill, a railroad tycoon who settled on Summit Avenue in Saint Paul at what is now known as the James J. Hill House.
Like many Northern cities that grew up with the Industrial Revolution, Minneapolis and St. Paul experienced shifts in their economic base as heavy industry declined, especially in the 1960s and 1970s. Along with the economic decline of the 60s and 70s came population decline in the central city areas, white flight to suburbs, and, in the summer of 1967, race riots on Minneapolis 's North Side. By the 1980s and 1990s, however, Minneapolis and St. Paul were frequently cited as former Rust Belt cities that had made successful transitions to service, high - technology, finance, and information economies.
Along with much of Minnesota, the Twin Cities area was shaped by water and ice over the course of millions of years. The land of the area sits on top of thick layers of sandstone and limestone laid down as seas encroached upon and receded from the region. Erosion caused natural caves to develop, which were expanded into mines when white settlers came to the area. In the time of Prohibition, at least one speakeasy was built into these hidden spaces -- eventually refurbished as the Wabasha Street Caves in Saint Paul.
Lakes across the area were formed and altered by the movement of glaciers. This left many bodies of water in the region, and unusual shapes may appear. For example, Lake Minnetonka out toward the western side of the Twin Cities consists of a complex arrangement of channels and large bays. Elevations in the metropolitan area range from 1,376 feet (419 m) above sea level in the northwest metro to 666 feet (203 m) at the edge of the Mississippi River in the southeast.
Because it is comparatively easy to dig through limestone and there are many natural and man - made open spaces, it has often been proposed that the area should examine the idea of building subways for public transportation. In theory, it could be less expensive in the Twin Cities than in many other places, but the cost would still be much greater than surface projects.
Owing to its northerly latitude and inland location, the Twin Cities experience the coldest climate of any major metropolitan area in the United States. However, due to its southern location in the state and aided further by the urban heat island, the Twin Cities is one of the warmest locations in Minnesota. The average annual temperature at the Minneapolis -- St. Paul International Airport is 45.4 ° F (7.4 ° C); 3.5 ° F (1.9 ° C) colder than Winona, Minnesota, and 8.8 ° F (4.9 ° C) warmer than Roseau, Minnesota. Monthly average daily high temperatures range from 21.9 ° F (− 5.6 ° C) in January to 83.3 ° F (28.5 ° C) in July; the average daily minimum temperatures for the two months are 4.3 ° F (− 15.4 ° C) and 63.0 ° F (17.2 ° C) respectively.
Minimum temperatures of 0 ° F (− 18 ° C) or lower are seen on an average of 29.7 days per year, and 76.2 days do not have a maximum temperature exceeding the freezing point. Temperatures above 90 ° F (32 ° C) occur an average of 15 times per year. High temperatures above 100 ° F (38 ° C) have been common in recent years; the last occurring on July 6, 2012. The lowest temperature ever reported at the Minneapolis -- St. Paul International Airport was − 34 ° F (− 37 ° C) on January 22, 1936; the highest, 108 ° F (42 ° C), was reported on July 14 of the same year. Early settlement records at Fort Snelling show temperatures as low as − 42 ° F (− 41 ° C). Recent records include − 40 ° F (− 40 ° C) at Vadnais Lake on February 2, 1996 (National Climatic Data Center)
Precipitation averages 29.41 inches (74.7 cm) per year, and is most plentiful in June (4.34 inches (11.0 cm)) and February (0.79 inches (2.0 cm)) the least so. The greatest one - day rainfall amount was 9.15 inches (23.2 cm), reported on July 23, 1987. The city 's record for lowest annual precipitation was set in 1910, when 11.54 inches (29.3 cm) fell throughout the year; coincidentally, the opposite record was set the following year, which observed a total 40.15 inches (1,020 mm). At an average of 56.3 inches (1,430 mm) per year, snowfall is generally abundant (though some recent years have proved an exception).
The Twin Cities area takes the brunt of many types of extreme weather, including high - speed straight - line winds, tornadoes, flash floods, drought, heat, bitter cold, and blizzards. The costliest weather disaster in Twin Cities history was a derecho event on May 15, 1998. Hail and Wind damage exceeded $ 950 million, much of it in the Twin Cities. Other memorable Twin Cities weather - related events include the tornado outbreak on May 6, 1965, the Armistice Day Blizzard on November 11, 1940, and the Halloween Blizzard of 1991. In 2014, Minnesota experienced temperatures below those in areas of Mars when a polar vortex dropped temperatures as low as − 40 ° F (− 40 ° C) in Brimson and Babbitt with a windchill as low as − 63 ° F (− 53 ° C) in Grand Marais.
A normal growing season in the metro extends from late April or early May through the month of October. The USDA places the area in the 4a plant hardiness zone.
The four tallest buildings in the area are located in downtown Minneapolis. The first skyscraper built west of the Mississippi in 1929 was the Foshay Tower. Today there is some contention over exactly which building is the tallest -- most Minnesotans would immediately think of the IDS Center if queried on the point, although most sources seem to agree that Capella Tower is slightly taller. But in early 2005, it was found that the IDS Center is taller by a 16 - foot (5 m) washroom garage on top, which brings its total height to 792 feet (241 m). Capella Tower and the Wells Fargo Center only differ in height by a foot or two, a rather negligible amount.
Buildings have gone up and been torn down rapidly across the region. Some city blocks have been demolished six or seven times since the mid-19th century, and will undoubtedly reach an eighth or ninth cycle in short order. No single architectural style dominates the region. Instead, the cities have a mish - mash of different designs, although structures from a few eras stand out. There were once a great many stone buildings constructed in the Richardsonian Romanesque style (or at least Romanesque - inspired variants). Minneapolis City Hall is one prominent example of this, though buildings of all types -- including personal residences such as the James J. Hill House -- were similarly designed. A few decades later, Art Deco brought several structures that survive today, including St. Paul City Hall, the Foshay Tower, and the Minneapolis Post Office. The style of buildings in the two cities varies greatly. In Minneapolis, the trend has been buildings with sleek lines and modern glass facades while St. Paul tends to follow a more traditional style of buildings so as to better accompany its older structures.
St. Paul and Minneapolis in particular went through some massive urban renewal projects in the post-World War II era, so a vast number of buildings are now lost to history. Some of the larger and harder to demolish structures have survived. In fact, the area might be signified more by bridges than buildings. A series of reinforced concrete arch spans crossing the Mississippi River were built in the 1920s and 1930s. They still carry daily traffic, but remain pleasing to the eye despite their age (a number have undergone major repair work, but retain the original design). Several of the bridges are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. They include the 10th Avenue Bridge, Intercity Bridge (Ford Parkway), Robert Street Bridge, and the longest, the 4119 ft (1255 m) Mendota Bridge next to Fort Snelling. The area is also noted for having the first known permanent crossing of the Mississippi. That structure is long gone, but a series of Hennepin Avenue Bridges have been built since then at the site. Both downtowns have extensive networks of enclosed pedestrian bridges known as skyways.
Several prominent buildings in Minneapolis have helped modernize the city. These include the Walker Art Center, Central Public Library, Weisman Art Museum and the Guthrie Theater. Opened in April 2005, the new Walker Art Center, nearly double in size, includes increased indoor and outdoor facilities. The Walker is recognized internationally as a singular model of a multidisciplinary arts organization and as a national leader for its innovative approaches to audience engagement. The Guthrie received a large amount of media coverage for its opening in June, 2006. The design is the work of architect Jean Nouvel and is a 285,000 square foot (26,500 m2) facility that houses three theaters: (1) the theater 's signature thrust stage, seating 1,100, (2) a 700 - seat proscenium stage, and (3) a black - box studio with flexible seating. In 2002 the National Trust for Historic Preservation put the old Guthrie building on its list of the most endangered historic properties in the United States in response to plans announced by the Walker Art Center to expand on the land occupied by the theater. However, the original Guthrie building was torn down in 2006. These building projects have rejuvenated the downtown area.
In the 20th century, the Twin Cities area expanded outward significantly. Automobiles made it possible for suburbs to grow greatly. The area now has a number of freeways to transport people by car. The area incorporates a large number of traffic cameras and ramp meters to monitor and manage traffic congestion. There is some use of HOV (high - occupancy vehicle) express lanes, which is becoming much more common. In order to use an express lane, you need to own a MNPASS or have multiple people in the car. MNPASS rates are determined by the amount of traffic on the road and / or the time of day. During non-peak times, the MNPASS express lanes are open to all traffic.
Interstate 94 comes into the area from the east and heads northwest from Minneapolis. Two spur routes form the I - 494 / I - 694 loop, and I - 394 continues west when I - 94 turns north. Additionally, Interstate 35 splits in Burnsville in the southern part of the Twin Cities region, bringing I - 35E into St. Paul and I - 35W into Minneapolis. They join together again to the north in Columbus, (just south of Forest Lake) and continue to the highway 's terminus in Duluth. This is one of only two examples of an Interstate highway splitting off into branches and then rejoining into one again; the other split occurs in Dallas - Fort Worth, where I - 35 splits into I - 35E for motorists going to Dallas and I - 35W for traffic heading into Fort Worth.
On Wednesday, August 1, 2007, a large portion of the I - 35W Mississippi River bridge near University Avenue in the city of Minneapolis collapsed into the Mississippi River around 6: 05pm CDT. A replacement bridge opened on Thursday, September 18, 2008.
The main airport in the region is Minneapolis -- St. Paul International Airport (MSP), which is a major hub for Delta Air Lines. The airport is also the main hub and operating base for Sun Country Airlines. A number of other smaller airports are also in the area, a number of which are owned and operated by the Metropolitan Airports Commission (the same agency operates the main MSP airport). Some people even commute by air to the Twin Cities from the northern part of the state.
Metro Transit, by far the biggest bus service provider in the area, owes its existence to the old streetcar lines that ran in the area. Metro Transit provides about 95 % of the public transit rides in the region with nearly 900 buses, although some suburbs have other bus services. The University of Minnesota, Twin Cities operates a free bus system between its campuses. This system includes the Campus Connector Bus Rapid Transit line which travels between the Minneapolis and St. Paul Campuses by a dedicated bus line, and throughout the two campuses on normal access roads. The METRO Blue Line LRT (light rail) began operations in June 2004, connecting downtown Minneapolis, Minneapolis - St. Paul International Airport and the Mall of America in Bloomington. It was followed by the METRO Red Line BRT (bus rapid transitway) in 2013 connecting the Mall of America with Lakeville along Cedar Avenue through the southern suburbs. The METRO Green Line LRT connecting downtown Minneapolis, the University of Minnesota campus and downtown St. Paul along University Avenue opened in June 2014. All three lines are operated by Metro Transit. Additionally, the Northstar Line commuter rail line connecting Minneapolis with Big Lake opened in November 2009; the line may be extended to St. Cloud as ridership numbers warrant.
In many ways the light rail of today is a return to the streetcars that existed in the past, it is being used as a stepping - stone to other projects.
A variety of rail services are currently being pondered by state and local governments, including neighborhood streetcar systems, intercity light rail service, and commuter rail options out to exurban regions. In addition, Minnesota is one of several states in the Midwest examining the idea of setting up high - speed rail service using Chicago as a regional hub.
The Minneapolis -- St. Paul area has been criticized for inadequate public transportation. Compared to many other cities its size, the public transportation system in the Minneapolis -- St. Paul area is less robust. As the metropolitan area has grown, the roads and highways have been updated and widened, but traffic volume is growing faster than the projects needed to widen them, and public transportation has not expanded enough to commensurate with the population. The Minneapolis -- St. Paul metropolitan area is ranked as the fifth worst for congestion growth of similar - sized U.S. metropolitan areas. Additional lines and spurs are needed to upgrade public transportation in the Twin Cities. Plans are underway for Green Line extension connecting downtown Minneapolis to the southwest suburb of Eden Prairie. A northwest LRT (Blue Line extension) along Bottineau Boulevard is being planned from downtown Minneapolis to Brooklyn Park. The METRO Orange Line BRT will open in 2019, connecting downtown Minneapolis with Lakeville to the south along I - 35W. The METRO Gold Line BRT is planned to connect downtown St. Paul to the eastern suburbs within the next few years.
The Twin Cities have two major daily newspapers: the Star Tribune and the Saint Paul Pioneer Press. Additionally, the Minnesota Daily serves the University of Minnesota 's Twin Cities campus and surrounding neighborhoods. There is one general - interest neighborhood weekly newspaper still in the cities: The East Side Review, devoted to the 90,000 residents in the eastern third of St. Paul. Other weekly papers are devoted to specific audiences / demographics including City Pages.
The region is currently ranked as the 15th largest television market according to Nielson Media Research. Three duopolies exist in the Twin Cities: Twin Cities PBS operates both KTCA and KTCI, Hubbard Broadcasting (built by Stanley E. Hubbard) owns both ABC affiliate KSTP - TV and independent station KSTC - TV, and Fox Television Stations operates both Fox owned - and - operated station KMSP - TV and MyNetworkTV O&O WFTC. Diversified from radio, KSTP - TV became the first television channel to air in the region with a show reaching 3,000 television sets in 1948, and the 17th station to broadcast in the U.S.
The only station with its main studios in Minneapolis is CBS O&O WCCO, while St. Paul is host to KSTP / KSTC, KTCA / KTCI, and CW affiliate WUCW. NBC affiliate KARE has a sprawling broadcasting complex in west suburban Golden Valley. KMSP is located in southwest suburban Eden Prairie. Other stations are located in the suburbs. For much of the last two decades, WCCO and KARE have shared in having the most popular evening newscasts of the area channels. On the other end, KSTP has struggled to maintain ratings on its news programs. KMSP has had a 9 o'clock newscast since at least the early 1990s when it was an independent channel.
Communities in the region have their own Public, educational, and government access (PEG) cable television channels. One channel, the Metro Cable Network, is available on channel 6 on cable systems across the seven - county region.
Several television programs originating in the Twin Cities have been aired nationally on terrestrial and cable TV networks. KTCA created the science program Newton 's Apple and distributes a children 's program today. A few unusual comedic shows also originated in the area. In the 1980s, KTMA (predecessor to WUCW) created a number of low - budget shows, including cult classic Mystery Science Theater 3000. The short - lived Let 's Bowl started on KARE, and PBS series Mental Engineering originated on the St. Paul cable access network.
The radio market in the Twin Cities is considered to be somewhat smaller than for TV, ranked 16th. For decades, WCCO radio was the most well - known and most popular broadcaster in the region, with an all - day talk format. WCCO was eventually pushed out of the top spot by KQRS - FM, a classic rock station with a popular morning show.
KSTP also has some fairly popular radio stations, with pop music format on FM and ESPN Radio on AM. KSTP - AM and FM are owned by Hubbard Broadcasting. In 1985, Hubbard -- valued at $400 million -- was one of the larger corporate media companies in the United States; in 2005, valued at US $1.2 billion, Hubbard is a fairly small major - market media operation.
The Twin Cities have a peculiar mix of commercial and non-commercial radio. The city 's market is dominated by iHeartRadio which operates seven stations, but two small independent stations are award winners -- KUOM operated by the University of Minnesota and KFAI public access radio in Cedar Riverside.
Minnesota Public Radio (MPR) is also a major player in the state and across the country, best known across the U.S. for the variety show A Prairie Home Companion. Doing business under the name American Public Media, the company is the second largest producer of National Public Radio content, behind National Public Radio (of which MPR is an affiliate). The Current is an affiliate of MPR, as well, and it is member supported. The station gives the audience a taste of the local music scene and it is widely popular among indie listeners.
The Twin Cities is also home to many independent media organizations, including The UpTake, MinnPost and Twin Cities Daily Planet.
The United States Navy currently has one ship named for the region, USS Minneapolis -- Saint Paul, a Los Angeles - class submarine launched in 1983. Previously, two sets of two ships each had carried the names USS Minneapolis and USS Saint Paul.
Coordinates: 44 ° 57 ′ N 93 ° 12 ′ W / 44.950 ° N 93.200 ° W / 44.950; - 93.200
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how many cities in us have population over 1 million | List of United States cities by population - wikipedia
Population
The following is a list of the most populous incorporated places of the United States. As defined by the United States Census Bureau, an "incorporated place '' includes a variety of designations, including city, town, village, borough, and municipality. A few exceptional Census Designated Places (CDPs) are also included in the Census Bureau 's listing of incorporated places. Consolidated city - counties represent a distinct type of government that includes the entire population of a county, or county equivalent. Some consolidated city - counties, however, include multiple incorporated places. This list presents only that portion (or "balance '') of such consolidated city - counties that are not a part of another incorporated place.
This list refers only to the population of individual municipalities within their defined limits, which does not include other municipalities or unincorporated suburban areas within urban agglomerations. A different ranking is evident when considering U.S. metropolitan area populations.
The following table lists the 307 incorporated places in the United States with a population of at least 100,000 on July 1, 2016, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau. A city is displayed in bold if it is a state or federal capital, and in italics if it is the most populous city in the state. Five states -- Delaware, Maine, Vermont, West Virginia and Wyoming -- do not have cities with populations of 100,000 or more. The table below contains the following information:
For cities with populations of 100,000 or more, the following distributions hold. Smaller incorporated places are not included.
The mean density is 4,128.21 inhabitants per square mile (1,593.91 / km).
The median is 3,160.85 inhabitants per square mile (1,220.41 / km).
The following table lists the five municipalities (municipios) of Puerto Rico with a population greater than 100,000 on July 1, 2016, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau.
The table below contains the following information:
The following table lists U.S. census - designated places (CDPs) with populations of at least 100,000 according to the 2010 Census. A CDP is a concentration of population identified by the United States Census Bureau for statistical purposes. CDPs are delineated for each decennial census as the statistical counterparts of incorporated places such as cities, towns and villages. CDPs are populated areas that lack separate municipal government, but which otherwise physically resemble incorporated places. Unlike the incorporated cities in the main list, the US Census Bureau does not release annual population estimates for CDPs.
The table below contains the following information:
The following table lists U.S. cities that, in past censuses, have had populations of at least 100,000 but have since decreased beneath this threshold or have been consolidated with or annexed into a neighboring city.
The table below contains the following information:
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who led the most of the italian renaissance city-states | Italian city - states - wikipedia
Timeline
The Italian city - states were a political phenomenon of small independent states mostly in the central and northern Italian Peninsula between the 9th and the 15th centuries.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, urban settlements in Italy generally enjoyed a greater continuity than in the rest of western Europe. Many of these towns were survivors of earlier Etruscan, Umbrian and Roman towns which had existed within the Roman Empire. The republican institutions of Rome had also survived. Some feudal lords existed with a servile labour force and huge tracts of land, but by the 11th century, many cities, including Venice, Milan, Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Lucca, Cremona, Siena, Città di Castello, Perugia, and many others, had become large trading metropoles, able to obtain independence from their formal sovereigns.
The very first Italian city - state can be considered the Republic of Venice, which de facto broke apart from the Byzantine Empire since 742 (when the Doge title was finally subtracted from the appointment of the Byzantine emperor), becoming also de jure independent in the following centuries. The other first Italian city - states appeared in northern Italy as a result of a struggle to gain greater autonomy when not independent from the German Holy Roman Empire. The Lombard League was an alliance formed around at its apex included most of the cities of northern Italy including Milan, Piacenza, Cremona, Mantua, Crema, Bergamo, Brescia, Bologna, Padua, Treviso, Vicenza, Verona, Lodi, Reggio Emilia and Parma, though its membership changed through time. Other city - states were associated to these "commune '' cities, like Genoa, Turin and, in the Adriatic, Ragusa. Venice was never subjected to the Holy Roman Empire, but chose anyway to patronize the Lombard League, to oppose strong imperial control of the mainland.
In central Italy there were the city - states of Florence, Pisa, Lucca, Siena, Città di Castello, Perugia, Ancona among others. South of Rome and the Papal States were the city - states of Salerno, Amalfi, Bari, Naples and Trani which in 1130 were united in the newly created Norman Kingdom of Sicily.
Around 1100, Genoa and Venice emerged as independent maritime republics. For Genoa -- nominally -- the Holy Roman Emperor was sovereign and the Bishop of Genoa was head of state; however, actual power was wielded by a number of consuls annually elected by popular assembly. Pisa and Amalfi also emerged as maritime republics: trade, shipbuilding and banking helped support their powerful navies in the Mediterranean in those medieval centuries.
Between the 12th and 13th centuries, Italy was vastly different from feudal Europe north of the Alps. The Peninsula was a melange of political and cultural elements, not a unified state.
Marc Bloch and Fernand Braudel have argued that geography determined the history of the region; other scholars emphasize the absence of central political structures. The very mountainous nature of Italy 's landscape was a barrier to effective inter-city communication. The Po plain, however, was an exception: it was the only large contiguous area, and most city states that fell to invasion were located there. Those that survived the longest were in the more rugged regions, such as Florence or Venice, which was protected by its lagoon. The rugged terrain of the Alps prevented the Holy Roman Emperors or various German princes and lords from attacking the northern part of Italy, safeguarding the country from permanent German political control. Largely for these reasons, no strong monarchies emerged as they did in the rest of Europe: authority of the Holy Roman Empire over northern Italian territory, especially after the year 1177, was de facto only nominal; instead there emerged the autonomous (sometime de facto independent) city - states.
While those Roman, urban, republican sensibilities persisted, there were many movements and changes afoot. Italy first felt the changes in Europe from the 11th to the 13th centuries. Typically there was:
In recent writing on the city states, American scholar Rodney Stark emphasizes that they married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of capitalism. He argues that these states were mostly republics, unlike the great European monarchies of France and Spain, where absolute power was vested in rulers who could and did stifle commerce. Keeping both direct Church control and imperial power at arm 's length, the independent city republics prospered through commerce based on early capitalist principles, ultimately creating the conditions for the artistic and intellectual changes produced by the Renaissance.
Cambridge University historian and political philosopher Quentin Skinner has pointed out how Otto of Freising, a German bishop who visited central Italy during the 12th century, commented that Italian towns had appeared to have exited from feudalism, so that their society was based on merchants and commerce. Even northern cities and states were also notable for their merchant republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Compared to absolutist monarchies or other more centrally controlled states, the Italian communes and commercial republics enjoyed relative political freedom conducive to academic and artistic advancement. Geographically, and because of trade, Italian cities such as Venice became international trading and banking hubs and intellectual crossroads.
Harvard historian Niall Ferguson points out that Florence and Venice, as well as several other Italian city - states, played a crucial innovative role in world financial developments, devising the main instruments and practices of banking and the emergence of new forms of social and economic organization.
It is estimated that the per capita income of northern Italy nearly tripled from the 11th century to the 15th century. This was a highly mobile, demographically expanding society, fueled by the rapidly expanding Renaissance commerce.
In the 14th century, just as the Italian Renaissance was beginning, Italy was the economic capital of Western Europe: the Italian States were the top manufacturers of finished woolen products. However, with the Bubonic Plague in 1348, the birth of the English woolen industry and general warfare, Italy temporarily lost its economic advantage. However, by the late 15th century Italy was again in control of trade along the Mediterranean Sea. It found a new niche in luxury items like ceramics, glassware, lace and silk as well an experiencing a temporary rebirth in the woolen industry.
However, Italy would never regain its strong hold on textiles. And though it was the birthplace of banking, by the 16th century German and Dutch banks began taking away business. Discovery of the Americas as well as new trade routes to Africa and India by the Portuguese (which made Portugal the leading trading power) brought about the shift of economic power from Italy to Portugal in the 16th century; from Portugal to Netherlands in the 17th century and from Netherlands to the United Kingdom in the 18th century.
By the 13th century, northern and central Italy had become the most literate society in the world. More than one - third of the male population could read in the vernacular (an unprecedented rate since the decline of the Western Roman Empire), as could a small but significant proportion of women.
The Italian city states were also highly numerate, given the importance of the new forms of bookkeeping that were essential to the trading and mercantile basis of society. Some of the most widely circulating books, such as the Liber Abaci by Leonardo Fibonacci of Pisa, included applications of mathematics and arithmetic to business practice or were business manuals based on sophisticated numeracy.
Indeed, Luca Pacioli helped create the banking system of the Italian city - states with double - entry bookkeeping. His 27 - page treatise on bookkeeping contained the first known published work on that topic, and is said to have laid the foundation for double - entry bookkeeping (of Genoese merchants) as it is practised today.
During the 11th century in northern Italy a new political and social structure emerged: the city - state or commune. The civic culture which arose from this urbs was remarkable. In some places where communes arose (e.g. Britain and France), they were absorbed by the monarchical state as it emerged. They survived in northern and central Italy as in a handful of other regions throughout Europe to become independent and powerful city - states. In Italy the breakaway from their feudal overlords occurred in the late 12th century and 13th century, during the Investiture Controversy between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor: Milan led the Lombard cities against the Holy Roman Emperors and defeated them, gaining independence (battles of Legnano, 1176, and Parma, 1248; see Lombard League).
Similar town revolts led to the foundation of city - states throughout medieval Europe, such as in Russia (Novgorod Republic, 12th century), in Flanders (Battle of Golden Spurs, 14th century) in Switzerland (the towns of the Old Swiss Confederacy, 14th century), in Germany (the Hanseatic League, 14th -- 15th century), and in Prussia (Thirteen Years ' War, 15th century).
Some Italian city - states became great military powers very early on. Venice and Genoa acquired vast naval empires in the Mediterranean and Black Seas, some of which threatened those of the growing Ottoman Empire. During the Fourth Crusade (1204), Venice conquered a quarter of the Byzantine Empire.
The Maritime Republics were one of the main products of this new civic and social culture based on commerce and exchange of knowledge with other areas of the world outside western Europe. The Republic of Ragusa and the Republic of Venice, for example, had important trade communications with the Muslim and Hindu world and this helped the initial development of the Italian Renaissance.
By the late 12th century, a new and remarkable society had emerged in Northern Italy; rich, mobile, expanding, with a mixed aristocracy and urban borghese (burgher) class, interested in urban institutions and republican government. But many of the new city - states also housed violent factions based on family, confraternity and brotherhood, which undermined their cohesion (for instance the Guelphs and Ghibellines).
By 1300, most of these republics had become princely states dominated by a Signore. The exceptions were Venice, Florence, Lucca, and a few others, which remained republics in the face of an increasingly monarchic Europe. In many cases by 1400 the Signori were able to found a stable dynasty over their dominated city (or group of regional cities), obtaining also a nobility title of sovereignty by their formal superior, for example in 1395 Gian Galeazzo Visconti bought for 100,000 gold florins the title of Duke of Milan from the emperor Wenceslaus.
In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Milan, Venice, and Florence were able to conquer other city - states, creating regional states. The 1454 Peace of Lodi ended their struggle for hegemony in Italy, attaining a balance of power (see Italian Renaissance).
At the beginning of the 16th century, apart from some minor city - states like Lucca or San Marino, only the republican Venice was able to preserve her independence and to match the European monarchies of France and Spain and the Ottoman Empire (see Italian Wars).
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what is the monthly average temperature in antarctica | Climate of Antarctica - wikipedia
Antarctica has the coldest climate on the Earth. Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983, with − 89.2 ° C (− 128.6 ° F) at Vostok Station. Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures, down to − 93.2 ° C (− 135.8 ° F) at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010. It is also extremely dry (technically a desert), averaging 166 mm (6.5 in) of precipitation per year. On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, because of the katabatic winds. Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate (Köppen EF) with very cold, generally extremely dry weather.
The lowest reliably measured temperature of a continuously occupied station on Earth of − 89.2 ° C (− 128.6 ° F) was on 21 July 1983 at Vostok Station. For comparison, this is 10.7 ° C (19.3 ° F) colder than subliming dry ice (at sea level pressure). The altitude of the location is 3,900 meters (12,800 feet).
The lowest recorded temperature of any location on Earth 's surface was − 93.2 ° C (− 135.8 ° F) at 81 ° 48 ′ S 63 ° 30 ′ E / 81.8 ° S 63.5 ° E / - 81.8; 63.5, which is on an unnamed Antarctic plateau between Dome A and Dome F, on 10 August 2010. The temperature was deduced from radiance measured by the Landsat 8 satellite, and discovered during a National Snow and Ice Data Center review of stored data in December, 2013. This temperature is not directly comparable to the - 89.2 quoted above, since it is a skin temperature deduced from satellite - measured upwelling radiance, rather than a thermometer - measured temperature of the air 1.5 m (4.9 ft) above the ground surface.
On the coast Antarctic average temperatures are around - 10 ° c (in the warmest parts of Antarctica) and in the elevated inland they average about - 55 ° C in Vostok.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Antarctica was 17.5 ° C (63.5 ° F) at Esperanza Base, on the Antarctic Peninsula, on 24 March 2015. The mean annual temperature of the interior is − 57 ° C (− 70.6 ° F). The coast is warmer. Monthly means at McMurdo Station range from − 26 ° C (− 14.8 ° F) in August to − 3 ° C (26.6 ° F) in January. At the South Pole, the highest temperature ever recorded was − 12.3 ° C (9.9 ° F) on 25 December 2011. Along the Antarctic Peninsula, temperatures as high as 15 ° C (59 ° F) have been recorded, though the summer temperature is below 0 ° C (32 ° F) most of the time. Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean. East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation. The Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate. Higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing.
The total precipitation on Antarctica, averaged over the entire continent, is about 166 millimetres (6.5 inches) per year (Vaughan et al., J Climate, 1999). The actual rates vary widely, from high values over the Peninsula (15 to 25 inches a year) to very low values (as little as 50 millimetres (2.0 inches) in the high interior (Bromwich, Reviews of Geophysics, 1988). Areas that receive less than 250 millimetres (9.8 inches) of precipitation per year are classified as deserts. Almost all Antarctic precipitation falls as snow. Rainfall is rare and mainly occurs during the summer in coastal areas and surrounding islands. Note that the quoted precipitation is a measure of its equivalence to water, rather than being the actual depth of snow. The air in Antarctica is also very dry. The low temperatures result in a very low absolute humidity, which means that dry skin and cracked lips are a continual problem for scientists and expeditioners working in the continent.
The weather in Antarctica can be highly variable, and the weather conditions can often change dramatically in short periods of time. There are various classifications for describing weather conditions in Antarctica; restrictions given to workers during the different conditions vary by station and nation. In Antarctic, there are different stations scattered everywhere in Antarctica, 16 total in Antarctica (Amery, Burger Hills, Cape Poinsett, Casey, Davis, Dumont D'urville, Haupt Nunatak, Law Dome, Mawson, McMurdo, Mirnyj, Novolazarevskaja, Skiway South, Syowa, Whoop Whoop and Wilkins Runway) and one in sub-Antarctica (Macquarie Island). The three places that have the lowest temperature are Amery, Law Dome and Wilkins Runway (temperature in order: - 24.1, - 12.8, - 10.2).
Nearly all of Antarctica is covered by a sheet of ice that is, on average, a mile thick or more (1.6 km). Antarctica contains 90 % of the world 's ice and more than 70 % of its fresh water. If all the land - ice covering Antarctica were to melt -- around 30 million cubic kilometres (7.2 million cubic miles) of ice -- the seas would rise by over 60 metres (200 feet). This is, however, very unlikely within the next few centuries. The Antarctic is so cold that even with increases of a few degrees, temperatures would generally remain below the melting point of ice. Higher temperatures are expected to lead to more snow, which would increase the amount of ice in Antarctica, offsetting approximately one third of the expected sea level rise from thermal expansion of the oceans. During a recent decade, East Antarctica thickened at an average rate of about 1.8 centimetres per year while West Antarctica showed an overall thinning of 0.9 centimetres per year. For the contribution of Antarctica to present and future sea level change, see sea level rise. Because ice flows, albeit slowly, the ice within the ice sheet is younger than the age of the sheet itself.
About 75 % of the coastline of Antarctica is ice shelves. The utmost parts consist of floating ice until the grounding line of land based glaciers is reached, which is determined through affords such as Operation IceBridge. Ice shelves lose mass through iceberg breakup (calving), or basal melting (at the foot of the glacier, when warm ocean water impacts), and this can affect ice sheet stability when the land based glaciers start to retreat; melting or breakup of floating shelf ice does not directly affect global sea levels, however, when sea ice freezes, it preferentially expels salt, in the process becoming purer than the sea water it is floating in. Pure water is less dense than salty water, so when the ice melts it will overflow the ' hole in the water ' that the ice had occupied, and when it overflows, it raises the water level.
Known changes in coastline ice:
The George VI Ice Shelf, which may be on the brink of instability, has probably existed for approximately 8,000 years, after melting 1,500 years earlier. Warm ocean currents may have been the cause of the melting. Not only the ice sheets are losing mass, but they are losing mass at an accelerating rate.
The continent - wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is positive and significant at > 0.05 ° C / decade since 1957. The West Antarctic ice sheet has warmed by more than 0.1 ° C / decade in the last 50 years, and is strongest in winter and spring. Although this is partly offset by fall cooling in East Antarctica, this effect is restricted to the 1980s and 1990s.
Research published in 2009 found that overall the continent had become warmer since the 1950s, a finding consistent with the influence of man - made climate change:
The British Antarctic Survey, which has undertaken the majority of Britain 's scientific research in the area, stated in 2009:
The area of strongest cooling appears at the South Pole, and the region of strongest warming lies along the Antarctic Peninsula. A possible explanation is that loss of UV - absorbing ozone may have cooled the stratosphere and strengthened the polar vortex, a pattern of spinning winds around the South Pole. The vortex acts like an atmospheric barrier, preventing warmer, coastal air from moving into the continent 's interior. A stronger polar vortex might explain the cooling trend in the interior of Antarctica.
In their latest study (20 September 2007) NASA researchers have confirmed that Antarctic snow is melting farther inland from the coast over time, melting at higher altitudes than ever and increasingly melting on Antarctica 's largest ice shelf.
There is also evidence for widespread glacier retreat around the Antarctic Peninsula.
Researchers reported on 21 December 2012 in Nature Geoscience that from 1958 to 2010, the average temperature at the mile - high Byrd Station rose by 2.4 ° C (4.3 ° F), with warming fastest in its winter and spring. The spot which is in the heart of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is one of the fastest - warming places on Earth. In 2015, the temperature showed changes but in a stable manner and the only months that have drastic change in that year are August and September. It also did show that the temperature was very stable throughout the year.
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the map shows agricultural information known about the world by | World map - wikipedia
A world map is a map of most or all of the surface of the Earth. World maps form a distinctive category of maps due to the problem of projection. Maps by necessity distort the presentation of the earth 's surface. These distortions reach extremes in a world map. The many ways of projecting the earth reflect diverse technical and aesthetic goals for world maps.
World maps are also distinct for the global knowledge required to construct them. A meaningful map of the world could not be constructed before the European Renaissance because less than half of the earth 's coastlines, let alone its interior regions, were known to any culture. New knowledge of the earth 's surface has been accumulating ever since and continues to this day.
Maps of the world generally focus either on political features or on physical features. Political maps emphasize territorial boundaries and human settlement. Physical maps show geographic features such as mountains, soil type or land use. Geological maps show not only the surface, but characteristics of the underlying rock, fault lines, and subsurface structures. Choropleth maps use color hue and intensity to contrast differences between regions, such as demographic or economic statistics.
A map is made using a map projection, which is any method of representing a globe on a plane. All projections distort distances and directions, and each projection distributes those distortions differently. Perhaps the most well known projection is the Mercator Projection, originally designed as a nautical chart.
Mercator projection (82 ° S and 82 ° N.)
Mollweide projection
B.J.S. Cahill Butterfly Map, 1909, from 1919 pamphlet
Polar azimuthal equidistant projection
A south - up map
Pacific - centric map (more commonly used in East Asian and Oceania countries)
Gall -- Peters projection, an equal area map projection
Robinson projection, used by National Geographic Society
A thematic map shows geographic information about one or a few focused subjects. These maps "can portray physical, social, political, cultural, economic, sociological, agricultural, or any other aspects of a city, state, region, nation, or continent ''.
Clickable world map (with climate classification)
A simple political map of the world as of January 2015
Topographical map of the world
map of anthropogenic CO emission by country
UN Human Development Index by country as of 2016
World map showing life expectancy
Population density (people per km) by country, 2015
Volcano map
World map showing the continents as of 200 million years ago (Triassic period)
Satellite image of Earth at night
Early world maps cover depictions of the world from the Iron Age to the Age of Discovery and the emergence of modern geography during the early modern period. Old maps provide much information about what was known in times past, as well as the philosophy and cultural basis of the map, which were often much different from modern cartography. Maps are one means by which scientists distribute their ideas and pass them on to future generations.
Hypothetical reconstruction of the world map of Anaximander (610 -- 546 BC)
World map according to Posidonius (150 -- 130 BC), drawn in 1628.
Ideal reconstruction of medieval T - and - O maps (from Meyers Konversationslexikon, 1895) (Asia shown on the right)
Tabula Rogeriana world map by Muhammad al - Idrisi in 1154. Note that north is to the bottom
World map in Octant projection (1514). From Leonardo da Vinci 's Windsor papers.
World map by Gerardus Mercator (1569), first map in the well known Mercator projection.
1652 world map by Claes Janszoon Visscher
A historical map of the world by Gerard van Schagen, 1689
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what episode does izzie get diagnosed with cancer | Izzie Stevens - wikipedia
Isobel Katherine "Izzie '' Stevens, M.D. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy, which airs on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States. The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes, and was portrayed by actress Katherine Heigl from 2005 to 2010. Introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, Izzie worked her way up to resident level, while her relationships with her colleagues Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), George O'Malley (T.R. Knight) and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) formed a focal point of the series.
Heigl garnered critical acclaim for her performance as Izzie and received numerous awards and nominations for her role, winning the "Outstanding Supporting Actress In A Drama Series '' at the 2007 Emmy Awards. She was critical of the character 's development during the show 's fourth season, particularly her romance with George. She declined to put herself forward for the 2008 Emmy Awards, citing insufficient material in the role. After speculation that Izzie would be killed off in the fifth season, the character was diagnosed with Stage 4 metastatic melanoma. She married Alex in the series ' one - hundredth episode, and afterwards, her tumor was successfully removed. Izzie made her final appearance in the sixth season, leaving Seattle after Alex refused to resume their marriage. Heigl requested to be released from her contract 18 months early, in order to spend more time with her family. In January 2012, Heigl reported that she would like to return to Grey 's Anatomy to give closure to her character, however, Rhimes confirmed that there were no plans to have the character return at that time and has since stated that she has no plans to ever re-approach Izzie 's storyline again.
Izzie appears in the first episode of Grey 's Anatomy, meeting fellow interns Meredith Grey, Cristina Yang, Alex Karev, and George O'Malley. She and George move in with Meredith and become best friends. Izzie 's boyfriend, hockey player Hank (Jonathan Scarfe), struggles to accept her new role as a surgeon, and the two break up. Izzie is hurt when Alex exposes her past as a lingerie model. However, the two later go on to begin a friendship and then a romance. Alex experiences sexual dysfunction with Izzie and cheats on her with nurse Olivia Harper (Sarah Utterback). When Izzie finds out, she breaks up with him, though they briefly reunite following a bomb incident at the hospital. Izzie reveals while treating a pregnant teenager that she had a daughter at the age of 16 and gave up for adoption. Izzie falls in love with cardiothoracic patient Denny Duquette (Jeffrey Dean Morgan), and the two become engaged. When Denny 's condition deteriorates, Izzie deliberately worsens his health further by cutting his LVAD wire to move him up the donor register. Although Denny receives a new heart, he has a stroke hours later and dies. Izzie is the sole beneficiary of Denny 's will, inheriting $8.7 million. She uses the money to open a free clinic at the hospital: the Denny Duquette Memorial Clinic.
Izzie disapproves of George 's relationship and marriage to orthopedic resident Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez). She and George sleep together, and attempt to keep their liaison a secret. George and resident Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) are the only people aware that Izzie gave birth to a daughter at the age of sixteen; ultimately the child was given up for adoption. He supports Izzie when her daughter Hannah (Liv Hutchings), diagnosed with leukemia, arrives at Seattle Grace Hospital in need of a bone marrow transplant from Izzie. Izzie 's feelings for George grow, and she reveals that she has fallen in love with him. When Callie discovers George has been unfaithful, the two separate, and George and Izzie embark on a short - lived relationship, only to discover there is no real chemistry between them.
Izzie supports Alex when he discovers his new girlfriend has psychiatric problems, and convinces him to have her committed. She is also handed primary responsibility for the clinic, as Bailey cuts back on her responsibilities. Izzie and Alex go on to rekindle their relationship, though Izzie is concerned when she begins hallucinating Denny. She discovers she has metastatic melanoma (Stage IV) which has spread to her liver, skin, and brain, causing the hallucinations. Her survival chances are estimated at only 5 %. She is admitted to Seattle Grace as a patient, and Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) successfully removes a tumor from her brain. Izzie spends her time in the hospital planning Meredith and Derek 's wedding, but when her condition worsens and Derek discovers a second brain tumor, they give the ceremony to Izzie and Alex, who marry in front of all their friends. The procedure to remove the second tumor from Izzie 's brain causes her to lose her short - term memory, and although she soon regains it, she flatlines moments later. The fifth season ends with her friends ignoring her DNR order and attempting to resuscitate her, transposed with images of Izzie in an elevator encountering George, who has been in an accident and is also currently flatlining. Though George dies, Izzie is resuscitated and recovers enough to return to work.
Izzie makes a treatment error that endangers the life of a patient, and is fired from the hospital 's surgical program. Believing Alex is partially to blame, she writes him a Dear John letter and leaves. Izzie later learns that Alex was not responsible for her lost job, and returns to make amends with him, but Meredith informs her that Alex is moving on. Izzie informs Alex that she no longer has cancer. Although he is pleased, Alex officially breaks up with Izzie, telling her that he loves her but deserves better. She leaves Seattle to start fresh. Several episodes later, Alex informs Meredith that Izzie sent divorce papers, which he signs in the episode "How Insensitive ''. In the sixth - season finale, Alex is shot and asks for Izzie. Imagining that Meredith 's half - sister Lexie (Chyler Leigh) is Izzie, he apologizes and asks her never to leave him again. In the 300th episode, Alex reveals he never found out what happened to Izzie, but envisions a perfect, happy life for her, always smiling, now that he has moved on.
Izzie was created by Grey 's Anatomy producer Shonda Rhimes, with actress Katherine Heigl cast in the role. Heigl originally wanted to play Izzie as a brunette, but was requested to retain her natural blond for the part. Heigl 's comprehension of medical procedures and terminology is slight; the actress explained that while she has an admiration for doctors, she is not as fascinated by medicine as other cast members. When Kate Walsh 's character Addison Montgomery left Grey 's Anatomy to launch the spin - off show Private Practice, Heigl disclosed that she had hoped for a spin - off for Izzie.
Heigl declined to put her name forward for consideration at the 2008 Emmy Awards, claiming that she had been given insufficient material on the series to warrant a nomination. Following Heigl 's statement, speculation arose that her character would suffer a brain tumor and be killed off Grey 's Anatomy, substantiated by the announcement Jeffrey Dean Morgan would return to the series as Denny, who died at the end of season two. ABC 's entertainment president Steve McPherson denied the rumor, stating: "There is an unbelievable storyline for her this year, which is really central to everything that 's going to go on this season ''.
Speculation resumed, however, when Dean Morgan returned to the show for a second time in its fifth season. Cast member James Pickens, Jr. announced that both Heigl and T.R. Knight were set to depart from the show, but he later retracted his comment. During the course of the fifth season, Izzie was diagnosed with metastatic melanoma (Stage IV) which spread to her liver, skin and brain. Following the show 's one - hundredth episode wrap party, Heigl revealed she did not know if Izzie would survive, as no one on the production team would disclose her character 's fate to her. It was confirmed in June 2009 that Heigl would return as Izzie for the show 's sixth season. Heigl 's appearances in the season were sporadic, seeing Izzie depart and return twice. Although she was scheduled to appear in the final five episodes of the season, Heigl requested that she be released from her contract 18 months early, and made her final appearance on January 21, 2010. Heigl explained that she wanted to spend more time with her family, and did not think it would be respectful to Grey 's Anatomy viewers to have Izzie return and depart yet again. Michael Ausiello spoke further on Katherine Heigl 's perspective on Izzie 's departure. He said, "(Katherine) thinks her Jan. 21 farewell - while not originally intended to be her last episode - oddly works as a bookend to Izzie 's story. "Even though there 's a part of me that would like to go back and do the quick Izzie farewell, '' she says, "I also think that my last scene - where Meredith says to Izzie, ' Do n't go, we 're your family, ' and Izzie 's response was, ' No you 're not, you 're just a bunch of people I worked with, and I can find that anywhere ' - was kind of tragic and appropriate all at the same time. When I was playing the scene I was really trying to convey that, for Izzie, that was a lie that she had to tell herself to have the courage to have to move on. ''
In August 2010, Rhimes stated that she did not feel Izzie 's character arc -- specifically her relationship with Alex -- had fully concluded, and hoped to give proper closure to their relationship in the seventh season. She later confirmed that she had intended to kill off Izzie off - screen, but opted against this a day later as she felt that it would destroy Alex, rather than give him closure. Instead, she concluded: "I 'm open to seeing Izzie again. So if she (Katherine) were to come back, we would be thrilled to (wrap up her story). But if she does n't, we 'll just move on. '' Heigl also went on to say in October 2010 that the character returning to show looks bleak because, "that chapter is closed, and it 's sad. And it 's hard. '' She also felt that Izzie coming back to the show would, "just feel manipulative. ''
However, in January 2012, Heigl stated in an interview that she has asked the producers if she could return to the show to give closure to Izzie 's storyline: "I 've told them I want to (return), '' she said. "I really, really, really want to see where (Izzie) is. I just want to know what happened to her and where she went and what she 's doing now. My idea is that she actually like figures it out, and finds some success and does really well in a different hospital. She was always floundering you know, and so she was always one step behind the eight ball and I want to see that girl take some power back. '' She later went on to say that she regrets leaving the show, "Oh yeah, sometimes, yeah. You miss it. I miss my friends. It was a great work environment... and it becomes a family. I spent six years together with these people every day... you grow up together, in a way, '' and again commented on Izzie possibly returning to the show, "I always felt that if they wanted me to come back and sort of wrap up that storyline... I want them to know that I 'm down with it if they want me to, but I completely understand if it does n't necessarily work... They 've got a lot of story lines going on there. '' But in March 2012, Shonda Rhimes said that there are no plans at the moment for the character to return, "I think it was really nice to hear her appreciating the show. At the same time we are on a track we have been planning. The idea of changing that track is not something we are interested in right now. '' Three years later, Rhimes said she has completely moved on from the idea of Izzie coming back, "I 'm done with that story. I 've turned that idea over in my mind a thousand times and thought about how it would go. And I do n't think so. ''
Heigl believes that the Grey 's Anatomy writers incorporate much of the actors ' personalities into their roles, and that Izzie is a "super moral '' version of herself. Episode "Bring the Pain '', which aired as the fifth episode of the second season, was originally intended to be the final episode of the first season. Rhimes explained that Izzie 's character in this episode came "full circle '' from her role in the pilot: "Izzie, so vulnerable and underestimated when we first meet her, is the girl who removes her heart from her sleeve in "Bring the Pain ''. '' Discussing Izzie 's personality in a 2006 Cosmopolitan interview, Heigl assessed that she is "immensely kind '' and patient. When Denny died in the season two episode "Losing My Religion '', Rhimes discussed the impact it had on Izzie, noting that Izzie is forced to abandon her idealism, which in turn leads to her letting go of medicine. In the aftermath of Denny 's death, Heigl came to believe that Izzie was not cut out to be a doctor. Executive producer Betsy Beers explained, however, that Denny 's death served to make Izzie more mature, and Heigl affirmed that "At the beginning of the (third) season they were trying to show how lost Izzie was. She lost her optimism. She realizes now that life is difficult, but she still tries very hard to see the best in people. '' In order to demonstrate Izzie 's dislike of George 's love - interest Callie, Rhimes penned a scene which she deemed one of her favorite moments on the show, in which Callie urinates in front of a stunned Izzie and Meredith. Rhimes assessed that: "I love that Mer and Izzie respond with all the trauma of having viewed a car crash (...) the point is Callie pees and Izzie tortures her a tiny bit about the hand washing and that made me overjoyed because that 's the kind of thing people do. ''
Discussing Izzie 's relationship with Alex in a 2006 Cosmopolitan interview, Heigl assessed that "Even when Alex was a complete dirtbag to her (Izzie), she forgave him and gave him another chance. And he really screwed her over. (...) To go for a guy like that is to say I want to be damaged. ' '' Writer Stacy McKee deemed Izzie 's moving on from Alex to patient Denny Duquette "karma '', as Alex previously treated Izzie badly, yet as he begins to realize his true feelings, he is forced to watch her embark on a romance with "the undeniably handsome - and totally charming '' Denny. Series writer Blythe Robe commented on Izzie and Denny: "I love the way Izzie lights up when she 's around him. I love their relationship because it 's so pure and honest and completely game free. '' Writer Elizabeth Klaviter noted at this time the way Izzie "seems to be sacrificing her reputation because of her feelings for Denny. '' When Izzie deliberately worsened Denny 's condition to move him up the transplant list, series writer Mark Wilding questioned the morality of the actions, asking: "is Izzie bad for doing it? Is she tremendously irresponsible? She cut the LVAD wire for love so does that make her action understandable? ''
Rhimes discussed costuming choices in the scene which saw the interns gather around Denny 's deathbed, explaining: "Meredith and George and Cristina and Callie and Alex are all dressed, not for a prom, but for a funeral. Everyone in dark colors, everyone dressed somberly. As if they were in mourning. Only Izzie is in happy pink. Only Izzie looks like she did n't know this was coming. '' Following Denny 's death, Heigl approached Rhimes to ask when her character would next have a romantic liaison. Rhimes explained that "Izzie does n't sleep around ''. Heigl expressed a desire for Izzie to reunite with Alex, explaining: "I believe on some level, there 's a connection between Izzie and Alex. He can do honorable things even though he 's cutting and sarcastic. I would like to ultimately see them together, if not this season, then next. ''
Yahoo! Voices wrote that Stevens in the third season "has become more condescending and passive aggressive herself, more than anyone else. '' Heigl was critical of her character 's development in the show 's fourth season, particularly her affair with George, which she deemed "a ratings ploy ''. Heigl explained: "They really hurt somebody, and they did n't seem to be taking a lot of responsibility for it. I have a really hard time with that kind of thing. I 'm maybe a little too black and white about it. I do n't really know Izzie very well right now. She 's changed a lot. '' Attempting to rationalise Izzie 's actions, Heigl later assessed that:
People who are so infallible, perfect and moral tend to be the first to slip and fall. But I would love to see how she deals with the consequences of what she 's done, because what 's interesting is when people make decisions that shake their world, they suddenly have to go, ' Woo, I did n't know I was capable of this. ' I 'd like to see Izzie take some culpability.
Heigl was nominated for the "Best Supporting Actress in a TV Series '' award at the 2007 and 2008 Golden Globe Awards for her role as Izzie. She was named "Favorite Female TV Star '' at the 34th People 's Choice Awards, and awarded "Outstanding Supporting Actress In A Drama Series '' at the 2007 Emmy Awards. Prior to the ceremony, considering Heigl 's chances of winning the Emmy, Variety 's Stuart Levine assessed of her performance: "Heigl has little difficulty reaching Izzie 's highest highs and lowest lows. Showrunner Shonda Rhimes puts a lot of pressure on Heigl to carry many intense storylines, and she 's up to the challenge. '' Levine also noted, however: "There are times when Izzie becomes completely irrational during crisis situations, which may bother some. '' Fox News included Izzie in its list of "The Best TV Doctors For Surgeon General ''. The character was listed in Wetpaint 's "10 Hottest Female Doctors on TV '' and in BuzzFeed 's "16 Hottest Doctors On Television ''.
During the show 's third season, the New York Post 's Robert Rorke deemed Izzie to be "the heart and soul '' of Grey 's Anatomy. He deemed her the show 's heroine, and wrote that: "Izzie is a welcome, calming presence, despite the devastation she experienced when she failed to save her patient and fiance Denny Duquette. (...) Besides the formidable Dr. Bailey (Chandra Wilson), Izzie seems to be the only adult intern at Seattle Grace; the character has achieved a depth lacking in her fellow interns. '' Eyder Peralta of The Houston Chronicle was critical of Izzie 's ethics in cutting Denny 's LVAD wire, writing that she "should not be practising medicine '' and stating: "That 's the reason I do n't watch Grey 's Anatomy, anymore, because the super hot blond chick can make an earth - shattering, fatal decision and she does n't get canned. ''
The season four romance between Izzie and George proved unpopular with viewers, and resulted in a fan backlash among Alex and Izzie fans. The return of Izzie 's deceased fiancé Denny and the resumption of their romance during the show 's fifth season also proved unpopular with fans, and was deemed "the world 's worst storyline '' by Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times. McNamara was also critical of the episode "Now or Never '', which saw Izzie flatline following neurosurgery, opining that Izzie ought to die. The episode in which Izzie married long - term love Alex received 15.3 million viewers, the largest television audience of the night.
Izzie 's cancer storyline received a mixed response from the medical community. Otis Brawley, chief medical officer at the American Cancer Society, commented that Izzie 's treatment options were unrealistic. Whereas in the show she was offered the drug interleukin - 2, in reality the drug is never recommended to patients when melanoma has spread to the brain, as it can cause bleeding and strokes. Brawley explained that such patients would instead be offered radiosurgery. Conversely however, Tim Turnham, executive director of the Melanoma Research Foundation, praised Grey 's Anatomy for bringing about greater public awareness of melanoma, stating: "We welcome the national spotlight Grey 's Anatomy has created for melanoma and its efforts to encourage viewers to learn more about the importance of prevention, early detection and research. ''
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General
Izzie Stevens on IMDb
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where in paris was the devil wears prada filmed | The Devil Wears Prada (film) - wikipedia
The Devil Wears Prada is a 2006 American comedy - drama film based on Lauren Weisberger 's 2003 novel of the same name. This screen adaptation stars Meryl Streep as Miranda Priestly, a powerful fashion magazine editor, and Anne Hathaway as Andrea (Andy) Sachs, a college graduate who goes to New York City and lands a job as Priestly 's co-assistant. Emily Blunt and Stanley Tucci co-star as co-assistant Emily Charlton and art director Nigel, respectively.
Adrian Grenier, Simon Baker, and Tracie Thoms play key supporting roles. Wendy Finerman produced and David Frankel directed the film, which was distributed by 20th Century Fox. Streep 's performance drew critical acclaim and earned her many award nominations, including her record - setting 14th Oscar bid, as well as the Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Comedy or Musical. Blunt also drew favorable reviews and nominations for her performance, as did many of those involved in the film 's production.
The film was well received by both film critics and the public and became a surprise summer box - office hit following its June 30 North American release. The commercial success and critical praise for Streep 's performance continued in foreign markets with the film leading the international box office for most of October. Likewise, the U.S. DVD release was the top rental during December. The film finished in 2006 's Top 20 both in the U.S. and overseas and grossed over $300 million, mostly from its international run.
Although the movie is set in the fashion world, most designers and other fashion notables avoided appearing as themselves for fear of displeasing U.S. Vogue editor Anna Wintour, who is widely believed to have been the inspiration for Priestly. Still, many allowed their clothes and accessories to be used in the film, making it one of the most expensively costumed films in history. Wintour later overcame her initial skepticism, saying she liked the film and Streep in particular.
Andy is an aspiring journalist fresh out of Northwestern University. Despite her ridicule for the shallowness of the fashion industry, she lands a job as junior personal assistant to Miranda Priestly, the editor - in - chief of Runway magazine. Andy plans to put up with Miranda 's excessive demands and humiliating treatment for one year in the hopes of getting a job as a reporter or writer somewhere else.
At first, Andy fumbles with her job and fits in poorly with her gossipy, fashion - conscious co-workers, especially Miranda 's senior assistant, Emily Charlton. However, she does find an ally in art director Nigel, and gradually learns her responsibilities and begins to dress more stylishly to show her effort and commitment to the position. She also meets an attractive young writer, Christian Thompson, who offers to help her with her career. As she spends increasing amounts of time at Miranda 's beck and call, problems arise in her relationships with her college friends and her live - in boyfriend, Nate, a chef working his way up the career ladder.
Miranda is impressed by Andy and allows her to be the one to bring the treasured "Book '', a mock - up of the upcoming edition, to her home, along with her dry cleaning. She is given instructions by Emily about where to leave the items and is told not to speak with anyone in the home. Andy arrives at Miranda 's home only to discover that the instructions she received are vague. As she tries to figure out what to do, Andy begins to panic. Miranda 's twins, Caroline and Cassidy, falsely tell her she can leave the book at the top of the stairs just as Emily has done on many occasions. At the top of the stairs, Andy interrupts Miranda and her husband having an argument. Mortified, Andy leaves the book and runs out of the home.
The next day, Miranda tells Andy that she wants the new unpublished Harry Potter book for her daughters and, if Andy can not find a copy, she will be fired. Andy desperately attempts to find the book and nearly gives up, but ultimately obtains it through Christian 's contacts. She surprises Miranda by not only finding the book but having copies sent to the girls at the train station, leaving no doubt that she accomplished Miranda 's "impossible '' task, thus saving her job. Andy gradually begins to outperform Emily at her job, and slowly but surely becomes more glamorous and begins aligning herself, unwittingly at first, to the Runway philosophy.
One day, Andy saves Miranda from being embarrassed at a charity benefit, and Miranda rewards her by offering to take her to the fall fashion shows in Paris instead of Emily. Andy hesitates to take this privilege away from Emily but is forced to accept the offer after being told by Miranda that she will lose her job if she declines. Andy tries to tell Emily on her way to work, but Emily gets hit by a car. Andy later breaks the news to a hospitalized Emily.
When Andy tells Nate she is going to Paris, he is angered by her refusal to admit that she 's become what she once ridiculed, and they break up. Once there, Miranda, without makeup, opens up to Andy about the effect Miranda 's impending divorce will have on her daughters. Later that night, Nigel tells Andy that he has accepted a job as Creative Director with rising fashion star James Holt at Miranda 's recommendation. Andy finally succumbs to Christian 's charms and, after spending the night with him, learns from him about a plan to replace Miranda with Jacqueline Follet as editor of Runway. Despite the suffering she has endured at her boss 's behest, she attempts to warn Miranda.
At a luncheon later that day, however, Miranda announces that it is Jacqueline instead of Nigel who will leave Runway for Holt. Nigel remarks to a stunned Andy that, though disappointed, he has to believe that his loyalty to Miranda will one day pay off. Later, when Miranda and Andy are being driven to a show, she explains to a still - stunned Andy that she was grateful for the warning but already knew of the plot to replace her and sacrificed Nigel to keep her own job. Pleased by this display of loyalty, she tells Andy that she sees a great deal of herself in her. Andy, repulsed, says she could never do that to anyone. Miranda replies that she already did, stepping over Emily when she agreed to go to Paris. When they stop, Andy gets out and throws her cell phone into the fountain of the Place de la Concorde, leaving Miranda, Runway, and fashion behind.
Some time later, Andy meets up with Nate, who is moving to Boston because he got a new job as the sous chef of a restaurant. They agree to start dating again and see what the future holds. The same day, Andy is interviewed and is accepted to work at a major New York publication company. The editor recounts how he called Runway for a reference on Andy, and got a response from Miranda herself. Miranda described Andy as "her biggest disappointment '' - and said that the editor would be "an idiot '' if he did n't hire her. Emily is offered her Paris wardrobe by Andy and the two leave on good terms. Andy passes the "Runway '' office building and sees Miranda get into a car. Andy gives a wave, but Miranda does not acknowledge her. Andy is used to this and instead walks further into the crowd. Once inside the car, however, Miranda smiles and then orders her chauffeur to drive.
Director David Frankel and producer Wendy Finerman had originally read The Devil Wears Prada in book proposal form. It would be Frankel 's second theatrical feature, and his first in over a decade. He, cinematographer Florian Ballhaus and costume designer Patricia Field, drew heavily on their experience in making Sex and the City.
Frankel recalls the whole experience as having high stakes for those involved, since for himself and the others behind the camera it was the biggest project they had yet attempted, with barely adequate resources. "We knew we were on very thin ice, '' he told Variety for a 2016 article on the film 's 10th anniversary. "It was possible this could be the end of the road for us. ''
Fox bought the rights to Weisberger 's novel before it was not only published in 2003, but even finished. Carla Hecken, then the studio 's executive vice president, had only seen the first hundred pages of manuscript and an outline for how the rest of the plot was to go. But for her that was enough. "I thought Miranda Priestly was one of the greatest villains ever, '' she recalled in 2016. "I remember we aggressively went in and scooped it up. ''
Work on a screenplay started promptly, before Weisberger had even finished her work. When it became a bestseller upon publication, elements of the plot were incorporated into the screenplay in progress. Most took their inspiration from the 2001 Ben Stiller film Zoolander and primarily satirized the fashion industry. But it was still not ready to film. Elizabeth Gabler, later head of production at Fox, noted that the finished novel did not have a strong narrative. "Since there was n't a strong third act in the book, '' she said later, "we needed to invent that. ''
In the meantime, the studio and producer Wendy Finerman sought a director. Out of many candidates with experience in comedy, David Frankel was hired despite his limited experience, having only made one feature, Miami Rhapsody, along with some episodes of Sex and the City and Entourage. He was unsure about the property, calling it "undirectable... a satire rather than a love story. '' Later, he cited Unzipped, the 1995 documentary about designer Isaac Mizrahi, as his model for the film 's attitude towards fashion: "(It) revels in some of the silliness of the fashion world, but is also very serious. ''
At a meeting with Finerman, Frankel told her that he thought the story unnecessarily punished Miranda. "My view was that we should be grateful for excellence. Why do the excellent people have to be nice? '' He prepared to move on and consider more scripts. Two days later his manager persuaded him to reconsider and look for something he liked that he could shape the film into. He took the job, giving Finerman extensive notes on the script and laying out a detailed vision for the film.
Four screenwriters worked on the property. Peter Hedges wrote the first draft, but did n't think he could do more; another writer passed. Paul Rudnick did some work on Miranda 's scenes, followed by a Don Roos rewrite. After that, Aline Brosh McKenna, who was able to relate her own youthful experiences attempting to launch a journalism career in New York to the story, produced a draft after a month 's work that struck the right balance for Finerman and Frankel, whose notes were incorporated into a final version, rearranging the plot significantly, following the book less closely and focusing the story on the conflict between Andrea and Miranda. She found the experience of writing a story with female protagonists that did not center around a relationship "very liberating... I felt I was allowed to do what the movie wanted to be, a Faust story, a Wall Street for ladies. ''
McKenna also initially toned down Miranda 's meanness at the request of Finerman and Frankel, only to restore it later for Streep. She later cited Don Rickles as her main influence for the insults in the dialogue; before even starting work on the screenplay she had come up with Miranda 's "Take a chance. Hire the smart fat girl '' line, which she felt summed up the disparity between Andy and the world she found herself in.
McKenna consulted with acquaintances who worked in fashion to make her screenplay more realistic. In a 2010 British Academy of Film and Television Arts lecture, she told of a scene that was changed after one of these reviews, where Nigel told Andy not to complain so much about her job. Originally, she had made his speech more of a supportive pep talk; however one of those acquaintances said that would not happen: "(N) o - one in that world is nice to each other... There 's no reason to be, and they do n't have time. '' she quoted him as saying.
The "cerulean speech '', where Miranda draws the connection between the designer fashion in Runway 's pages and Andy 's cerulean sweater, criticizing Andy 's snobbishness about fashion and explaining the trickle - down effect, had its origins in a scene cut from earlier drafts that Streep had asked to have restored. It slowly grew from a few lines where the editor disparaged her assistant 's fashion sense to a speech about "why she thought fashion was important... She is so aware that she is affecting billions of people, and what they pick off the floor and what they are putting on their bodies in the morning. '' Streep said in 2016 she was interested in "the responsibility lying on the shoulders of a woman who was the head of a global brand... That scene was n't about the fun of fashion, it was about marketing and business. ''
McKenna recalls that she kept expanding it to suit Streep and Frankel, but even a few days before it was scheduled to be filmed she was unsure if it would be used or even shot. She was revising it at a nearby Starbucks when she realized that Miranda would describe something not as just blue -- chosen as the color for Andy 's sweater since it would work best on screen -- but would instead use an exact shade. From a list of shades McKenna sent, Streep picked cerulean; the final speech takes up almost a page of the script, long for a mainstream film. "I was like, it 'd be cool if half of that ended up in the movie, '' the writer says. "Every word is in the movie. '' The references to past designer collections are entirely fictional, McKenna explains, since the speech was written around the sweater 's color (however, the Huffington Post later pointed out, designers often take their fashion inspiration from the streets).
The speech has become one of the film 's most memorable moments; "Miranda 's signature monologue '' to The Ringer. "' Cerulean ' (has never) sounded more sinister, '' the Huffington Post wrote in 2016, Liz Jones, former editor of British Marie Claire, said it was "a rare glimpse at the way in which even the most outlandish and extreme exponents of fashion... influence and enrich all our lives, even if we only ever shop at Marks & Spencer or Gap. ''
Once the script was finished, the filmmakers and Fox focused on getting Meryl Streep to play Miranda; Hacken recalled she was seen as so perfect for the part that no one had discussed any alternatives (although McKenna recalls writing provisional dialogue should the producers have had to settle for another actress). Weisberger, who initially could not imagine Streep playing the part, recalled that after seeing her on set it was "crystal clear '' that she was perfect for the role.
The news that Streep would meet with Frankel was celebrated at Fox. But while Streep, for her part, knew the movie could be very successful, she felt the pay she was being offered for playing Miranda was "slightly, if not insulting, not perhaps reflective of my actual value to the project. '' The producers doubled it to around $4 million, and she signed on, allowing Fox to greenlight the film. According to Frankel, Streep saw the film as a chance to "skewer the doyennes of the fashion world. '' She has three daughters, and as an ardent feminist, felt that fashion magazines "twisted the minds of young women around the world and their priorities. This was an interesting way to get back at them. '' Also, she said, the film passed the Bechdel test.
She insisted on the scenes where she explains to Andy the connection between the blue sweater she is wearing and the haute couture industry, and the scene where Miranda briefly opens up to Andy, without makeup, about her divorce. "I wanted '', she explained, "to see that face without its protective glaze, to glimpse the woman in the businesswoman. ''
Casting Andy was less clear - cut. Fox wanted an A-list younger actress, and felt Rachel McAdams, then coming off successes in The Notebook and Mean Girls, would help the film 's commercial prospects. However, she declined several offers to play Andy, telling the studio she was trying to avoid mainstream projects for a while.
Hathaway, by contrast, actively sought the part, tracing "Hire me '' in the sand of the zen garden on Hacken 's desk when she talked about the project with the executive. While Frankel liked her enough to not require her to audition, she knew she was not the studio 's first choice and had to be patient (other accounts say that she was the only actress considered for the lead). Fox production chief Elizabeth Gabler says the studio did not realize how strong her audience was after the Princess Diaries movies. She took the part to work with Streep, but also due to some personal aspects. She celebrated when she learned she had gotten the part.
Over a hundred actresses had been considered for Emily before one of the casting agents taped Emily Blunt reading some of the lines elsewhere on the Fox lot as she was leaving for her flight to London following her audition for Eragon. Although she read them in her native British accent despite the character being written as American as she is in the novel, Frankel was interested; Finerman liked her for her sense of humor. After the makers of Eragon cast Sienna Guillory, Frankel called her in the bathroom of "some dive club '' in London, where she was consoling herself with her sister. He told her that while he would have cast her just from the tape, the studio wanted to see another audition with her dressed more in character. She insisted on continuing to play the character as British; Both Hathaway and Emily Blunt lost weight for their roles, with Hathaway later recounting that "(she) and I would clutch at each other and cry because we were so hungry. '' Blunt later denied rumors she did this at the filmmakers ' request.
Colleen and Suzanne Dengel, the twins who played Miranda 's daughters, were cast two weeks after auditioning for Frankel and Finerman. The director and producer laughed, which the sisters believed help them get the part. They recalled in 2017 that they were excited both by being able to work together on camera for the first time, as well as the chance to act opposite Hathaway since they were big fans of the Princess Diaries movies as well.
Tucci was one of the last actors cast; he agreed to play Nigel only three days before shooting started. The filmmakers reportedly had auditioned Barney 's creative director Simon Doonan and E! 's Robert Verdi, both openly gay men highly visible as media fashion commentators, for the part; the BBC 's Graham Norton also auditioned. Verdi would later say there was no intention to actually hire him and the producers had just used him and Doonan to give whoever they ultimately did cast some filmed research to use in playing a gay character (he would end up with a walk - on part as a fashion journalist in Paris). Tucci says he was unaware of this: "All I know is that someone called me and I realized this was a great part. '' He based the character on various people he was acquainted with, insisting on the glasses he ultimately wore. Daniel Sunjata had originally read for Tucci 's part, rather unenthusiastically since he had just finished playing a similar character, but then read the Holt part and asked if he could audition for it. Simon Baker auditioned by sending a video of himself, wearing the same self - designed green jacket he has on when he and Andrea meet for the first time.
Weisberger is widely believed to have based Miranda on Anna Wintour, the powerful editor of Vogue. Wintour reportedly warned major fashion designers who had been invited to make cameo appearances as themselves in the film that they would be banished from the magazine 's pages if they did so. Vogue and other major women 's and fashion magazines have avoided reviewing or even mentioning the book in their pages. Wintour 's spokespeople deny the claim, but costume designer Patricia Field says many designers told her they did not want to risk Wintour 's wrath.
Only Valentino Garavani, who had designed the black evening gown Streep wears in the museum benefit scene, chose to make an appearance. Coincidentally, he was in New York during production and Finerman dared Field, an acquaintance, to ask him personally. Much to her surprise, he accepted. Other cameos of note include Heidi Klum as herself and Weisberger as the twins ' nanny. Streep 's daughter 's film debut as a barista at Starbucks was cut. Gisele Bündchen agreed to be in the movie only if she did not play a model.
Principal photography took place over 57 days in New York and Paris between October and December 2005. The film 's budget was $41 million. It was originally lower, which caused problems with some locations -- the crew could not get permission to shoot at the Museum of Modern Art or Bryant Park.
Ballhaus, at Finerman and Frankel 's suggestion, composed as many shots as possible, whether interiors or exteriors, to at least partially take in busy New York street scenes in the background, to convey the excitement of working in a glamorous industry in New York. He also used a handheld camera during some of the busier meeting scenes in Miranda 's office, to better convey the flow of action, and slow motion for Andrea 's entrance into the office following her makeover. A few process shots were necessary, mainly to put exterior views behind windows on sets and in the Mercedes where Miranda and Andrea are having their climactic conversation.
Fox originally refused permission to let Frankel shoot some scenes from the third act in Paris, where it is set, due to the low budget. But after six "nightmarish '' weeks of shooting, he had an editor cut a "sizzle reel '' of highlights. That convinced the studio to increase the budget to allow for limited shooting overseas (Streep did not go as Fox believed it would be too expensive).
Several weeks after all the major parts had been cast, the actors gathered in New York for a table read. Hathaway was nervous and goofy, she recalls, since she still had not developed her idea of the part; she described her performance at that point as "(nothing) particularly impressive. '' Blunt, by contrast, found Streep 's laugh relaxed her enough to keep her focused on playing a nervous, distracted Emily. The highlight of the session was Streep 's first line as Miranda. Instead of the "strident, bossy, barking voice '' everyone expected, Hathaway says, Streep silenced the room by speaking in a near whisper. "It was so unexpected and brilliant. '' At the reading Streep also changed Miranda 's last line to "everybody wants to be us '' from the original "me ''.
Streep made a conscious decision not to play the part as a direct impression of Wintour, right down to not using an accent and making the character American rather than English ("I felt it was too restricting ''). "I think she wanted people not to confuse the character of Miranda Priestly with Anna Wintour at all, '' said Frankel. "And that 's why early on in the process she decided on a very different look for her and a different approach to the character. '' The "that 's all, '' "please bore someone else... '' catchphrases; her coat - tossing on Andrea 's desk and discarded steak lunch are retained from the novel. Streep prepared by reading a book by Wintour protégé Liz Tilberis and the memoirs of Vogue editor Diana Vreeland. She lost so much weight during shooting that the clothes had to be taken in.
During the movie 's press tour she also said her performance as Miranda was inspired by different men she knew, but did not say which ones. In 2016 she disclosed to Variety that she took Miranda 's soft speaking style from Clint Eastwood: "He never, ever, ever raises his voice and everyone has to lean in to listen, and he is automatically the most powerful person in the room. '' However, she said, Eastwood does not make jokes, so instead she modeled that aspect of the character on theatrical and film director Mike Nichols, whose delivery of a cutting remark, she said, made everyone laugh, including the target. "The walk, I 'm afraid, is mine, '' Streep added.
For Miranda 's actual look, Streep looked to two women. The bouffant hairstyle was inspired by model and actress Carmen Dell'Orefice, which Streep said she wanted to blend with "the unassailable elegance and authority of (French politician) Christine Lagarde. '' The costumes Field designed for that look resulted in numerous blown takes during the montage where Miranda repeatedly throws her overcoat on Andrea 's desk when she arrives in the morning. When McKenna saw Streep as Miranda for the first time on set, she recalls being so terrified she threw her arm in front of Frankel "like we were in a car wreck. ''
Hathaway prepared for the part by volunteering for a week as an assistant at an auction house where she was "put through the wringer '' according to Weisberger, who adds that Hathaway supplemented that by asking her many questions about working for Wintour. Frankel recalls that she was nervous through most of the shooting, particularly when working late, since Raffaello Follieri, her boyfriend at that time, preferred strongly that she not do so; she was also having health issues due to a cyst. The director said she was "terrified '' before starting her first scene with Streep, who had begun her working relationship with Hathaway by saying first "I think you 're perfect for the role and I 'm so happy we 're going to be working on this together '' then warning her that was the last nice thing she would say. Streep applied this philosophy to everyone else on set as well, keeping her distance from the cast and crew members unless it was necessary to discuss something with them.
That scene, where Andi delivers the Book, the mockup of the magazine in progress, to Miranda 's apartment, was, according to the Dengels, who played Miranda 's twin daughters, totally improvised. "That was just something we did with Anne and it made the cut, '' Colleen Dengel told BuzzFeed in 2017. Nevertheless, it took three more days of filming to get the shot of the girls up in the stairwell the way Frankel wanted it, a look she believes was inspired by a similar scene with twin girls in The Shining.
Streep is the one who suggested the editorial meeting scene, which does not advance the plot but shows Miranda at work without Andrea present. It was also her idea that Miranda not wear makeup in the scene where she opens up to Andrea and worries about the effect on her daughters of her divorce becoming public knowledge. Blunt, for her part, contributed the line where she tells Andy "I 'm hearing this '', while opening and closing her hand, "and I want to hear this '' keeping it closed. In 2015 she told Howard Stern that she had overheard a mother saying that to a child in a supermarket during production.
Frankel, who had worked with Patricia Field on his feature - film debut Miami Rhapsody as well as Sex and the City, knew that what the cast wore would be of utmost importance in a movie set in the fashion industry. "My approach was to hire her and then leave the room, '' he joked later. While only Valentino Garavani appeared onscreen, many other designers were helpful to Field. Her $100,000 budget for the film 's costumes was supplemented by help from friends throughout the industry. Ultimately, she believes, at least $1 million worth of clothing was used in the film, making it one of the most expensively costumed movies in cinema history. The single priciest item was a $100,000 Fred Leighton necklace on Streep.
When Hathaway enters the office after Nigel gives her access to Runway 's closet, she is dressed entirely in Chanel. Field explained in 2016 that "I felt Annie Hathaway was a Chanel girl organically, as opposed to let 's say a Versace (or Roberto Cavalli) girl. '' When she called the company to ask for assistance, they were delighted because "they wanted to see Chanel on a young girl to give it another point of view, '' showing it as a brand for "not just middle - aged women in suits, but youthful and funky. '' Calvin Klein rounds out Andrea 's wardrobe.
Dolce & Gabbana and Calvin Klein helped Field as well, with some contributions from Lebanese designer Georges Chakra. Although Field avoids making Streep look like Wintour, she dresses her in generous helpings of Prada (By Field 's own estimate, 40 % of the shoes on Streep 's feet are Prada). "I know her character was originally based on Anna Wintour, '' Field said, "but I did n't want to copy someone 's style. '' But, like Wintour and her Vogue predecessor Diana Vreeland, the two realized that Miranda needed a signature look, which was provided primarily by the white wig and forelock she wore as well as the clothes the two spent much time poring over look - books for. "(I) n choosing her wardrobe my idea was that she 's a chief fashion editor, she has her own style, '' Fields told Women 's Wear Daily in 2016. "We 're creating an original character. ''
Field said she avoided prevailing fashion trends for Miranda during production in favor of a more timeless look based on Donna Karan archives and pieces by Michaele Vollbracht for Bill Blass. She did not want people to easily recognize what Miranda was wearing.
She contrasted Andrea and Emily by giving Andrea a sense of style, without much risk - taking, that would suggest clothing a fashion magazine would have on hand for shoots, clothing a recent college graduate with little sense of style would feel comfortable wearing in a fashion - conscious workplace. Blunt, on the other hand was "so on the edge she 's almost falling off. '' For her, Field chose pieces by Vivienne Westwood and Rick Owens to suggest a taste for funkier, more "underground '' clothing. After the film 's release, some of the looks Field chose became popular, to the filmmakers ' amusement.
Tucci praised Field 's skill in putting ensembles together that were not only stylish but helped him develop his character:
She just sort of sits there with her cigarette and her hair, and she would pull stuff -- these very disparate elements -- and put them together into this ensemble, and you 'd go, "Come on, Pat, you ca n't wear that with that. '' She 'd say, "Eh, just try it on. '' So you 'd put it on, and not only did it work, but it works on so many different levels -- and it allows you to figure out who the guy is. Those outfits achieve exactly what I was trying to achieve. There 's flamboyance, there 's real risk - taking, but when I walk into the room, it 's not flashy. It 's actually very subtle. You look at it and you go, "That shirt, that tie, that jacket, that vest? What? '' But it works.
He found one Dries van Noten tie he wore during the film to his liking and kept it.
After touring some offices of real fashion magazines, Jess Gonchor gave the Runway offices a clean, white look meant to suggest a makeup compact ("the chaste beiges and whites of impervious authority, '' Denby called it). Miranda 's office bears some strong similarities to the real office of Anna Wintour, down to an octagonal mirror on the wall, photographs and a floral arrangement on the desk Gonchor later told Women 's Wear Daily that he had based the set on a photo of Wintour 's office he found online; the similarity led Wintour to have her office redecorated after the movie 's release. The magazine itself is very similar to Vogue, and one of the covers on the wall of the office, showing three models, is a direct homage to the August 2004 cover of that magazine.
She even chose separate computer wallpaper to highlight different aspects of Blunt 's and Hathaway 's character: Paris 's Arc de Triomphe on Blunt 's suggests her aspirations to accompany Miranda to the shows there, while the floral image on Andy 's suggests the natural, unassuming qualities she displays at the outset of her tenure with the magazine. For the photo of Andrea with her parents, Hathaway posed with her own mother and David Marshall Grant. The Dengel twins recalled being asked every day for three years straight if the Harry Potter advance copies were real; to their great disappointment they were not and in fact were "all gibberish ''. They eventually auctioned them for $586 on eBay, along with various clothing used in the film, to benefit Dress for Success, a charity which provides business clothing to help women transition into the workforce.
Aside from the clothing and accessories, some other well - known brands are conspicuous in the film.
The crew were in Paris for only two days, and used only exteriors. Streep did not make the trip.
Mark Livolsi realized, as McKenna had on the other end, that the film worked best when it focused on the Andrea - Miranda storyline. Accordingly, he cut a number of primarily transitional scenes, such as Andrea 's job interview and the Runway staff 's trip to Holt 's studio. He also took out a scene early on where Miranda complimented Andrea. Upon reviewing them for the DVD, Frankel admitted he had n't even seen them before, since Livolsi did n't include them in any prints he sent to the director.
Frankel praised Livolsi for making the film 's four key montages -- the opening credits, Miranda 's coat - tossing, Andrea 's makeover and the Paris introduction -- work. The third was particularly challenging as it uses passing cars and other obstructions to cover Hathaway 's changes of outfit. Some scenes were also created in the editing room, such as the reception at the museum, where Livolsi wove B - roll footage in to keep the action flowing.
Composer Theodore Shapiro relied heavily on guitar and percussion, with the backing of a full orchestra, to capture a contemporary urban sound. He ultimately wrote 35 minutes of music for the film, which were performed and recorded by the Hollywood Studio Symphony, conducted by Pete Anthony. His work was balanced with songs by U2 ("City of Blinding Lights '', Miranda and Andrea in Paris), Madonna ("Vogue '' & "Jump '', Andrea 's fashion montage & her first day on the job, respectively), KT Tunstall ("Suddenly I See '', female montage during opening credits), Alanis Morissette ("Crazy '', Central Park photo shoot), Bitter: Sweet ("Our Remains, '' Andrea picks up James Holt 's sketches for Miranda; Bittersweet Faith, Lily 's art show), Azure Ray ("Sleep, '' following the breakdown of her relationship with Nate), Jamiroquai ("Seven Days in Sunny June, '' Andrea and Christian meet at James Holt 's party) among others. Frankel had wanted to use "City of Blinding Lights '' in the film after he had used it as a soundtrack to a video montage of Paris scenes he had put together after scouting locations there. Likewise, Field had advocated just as strongly for "Vogue. ''
The soundtrack album was released on July 11 by Warner Music. It includes all the songs mentioned above (except Madonna 's "Jump '') as well as a suite of Shapiro 's themes. Among the tracks not included is "Suddenly I See, '' which disappointed many fans. It became popular as a result of the film.
Originally intended just to convince Fox to fund some shooting in Paris, Frankel 's sizzle reel led the studio to put a stronger marketing push behind the movie. It moved the release date from February to summer, scheduling it as a lighter alternative audiences could consider to Superman Returns at the end of June 2006, and began to position it as an event movie in and of itself.
Two decisions by the studio 's marketing department that were meant to be preliminary wound up being integral to promoting the film. The first was the creation of the red stiletto heel ending in a pitchfork as the film 's teaser poster. It was so successful and effective, becoming almost "iconic '' (in Finerman 's words), that it was used for the actual release poster as well. It became a brand, and was eventually used on every medium related to the film -- the tie - in reprinting of the novel and the soundtrack and DVD covers as well.
The studio also put together a trailer of scenes and images strictly from the first three minutes of the film, in which Andrea meets Miranda for the first time, to be used at previews and film festivals until they could create a more standard trailer drawing from the whole film. But, again, this proved so effective with early audiences it was retained as the main trailer, since it created anticipation for the rest of the film without giving anything away.
Gabler credits the studio 's marketing team for being "really creative ''. Fox saw the film as "counterprogramming '' on the weekend Superman Returns was released. While they knew that the material and Hathaway would help draw a younger female audience that would not be as interested in seeing that film, "(w) e did n't want it to just seem like a chick flick coming out. ''
The Devil Wears Prada received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 75 %, based on 191 reviews, with the site 's critical consensus reads, "A rare film that surpasses the quality of its source novel, this Devil is a witty expose of New York 's fashion scene, with Meryl Streep in top form and Anne Hathaway more than holding her own. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 62 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Initial reviews of the film focused primarily on Streep 's performance, praising her for making an extremely unsympathetic character far more complex than she had been in the novel. "With her silver hair and pale skin, her whispery diction as perfect as her posture, Ms. Streep 's Miranda inspires both terror and a measure of awe, '' wrote A.O. Scott in The New York Times. "No longer simply the incarnation of evil, she is now a vision of aristocratic, purposeful and surprisingly human grace. '' Kyle Smith agreed at the New York Post: "The snaky Streep wisely chooses not to imitate Vogue editrix Anna Wintour, the inspiration for the book, but creates her own surprisingly believable character. ''
David Edelstein, in New York magazine, criticized the film as "thin '', but praised Streep for her "fabulous minimalist performance. '' J. Hoberman, Edelstein 's onetime colleague at The Village Voice, called the movie an improvement on the book and said Streep was "the scariest, most nuanced, funniest movie villainess since Tilda Swinton 's nazified White Witch (in 2005 's The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe). ''
Blunt, too, earned some favorable notice. "(She) has many of the movie 's best lines and steals nearly every scene she 's in, '' wrote Clifford Pugh in the Houston Chronicle. Other reviewers and fans concurred. While all critics were in agreement about Streep and Blunt, they pointed to other weaknesses, particularly in the story. Reviewers familiar with Weisberger 's novel assented to her judgment that McKenna 's script greatly improved upon it. An exception was Angela Baldassare at The Microsoft Network Canada, who felt the film needed more of the nastiness others had told her was abundant in the novel.
David Denby summed up this response in his New Yorker review: "The Devil Wears Prada tells a familiar story, and it never goes much below the surface of what it has to tell. Still, what a surface! '' Reactions to Hathaway 's performance were not as unanimous as for many of her costars. Denby said "she suggests, with no more than a panicky sidelong glance, what Weisberger takes pages to describe. '' On the other hand, according to Baldassare, she "barely carrie (d) the load. ''
Some media outlets allowed their present or former fashion reporters to weigh in on how realistic the movie was. Their responses varied widely. Booth Moore at Los Angeles Times chided Field for creating a "fine fashion fantasy with little to do with reality, '' a world that reflects what outsiders think fashion is like rather than what the industry actually is. Unlike the movie, in her experience fashionistas were less likely to wear makeup and more likely to value edgier dressing styles (that would not include toe rings). "If they want a documentary, they can watch the History Channel '', retorted Field. Another newspaper fashion writer, Hadley Freeman of The Guardian, likewise complained the film was awash in the sexism and clichés that, to her, beset movies about fashion in general.
Charla Krupp, the executive editor of SHOP, Inc., says "It 's the first film I 've seen that got it right... (It) has the nuances of the politics and the tension better than any film -- and the backstabbing and sucking - up. '' Joanna Coles, the editor of the U.S. edition of Marie Claire, agreed:
The film brilliantly skewers a particular kind of young woman who lives, breathes, thinks fashion above all else... those young women who are prepared to die rather than go without the latest Muse bag from Yves Saint Laurent that costs three times their monthly salary. It 's also accurate in its understanding of the relationship between the editor - in - chief and the assistant.
Ginia Bellefante, former fashion reporter for The New York Times, called it "easily the truest portrayal of fashion culture since Unzipped '' and giving it credit for depicting the way fashion had changed in the early 21st century. Her colleague Ruth La Ferla found a different opinion from industry insiders after a special preview screening. Most found the fashion in the movie too safe and the beauty too overstated, more in tune with the 1980s than the 2000s. "My job is to present an entertainment, a world people can visit and take a little trip, '' responded Field.
Liz Jones, former editor of British Marie Claire, wrote in the Daily Mail that the movie was "a chilling reminder of the most surreal three years of my life. '' The only detail she found inaccurate was the absence of flowers in Miranda 's Paris hotel room -- during her tenure as editor, her rooms there or in Milan received so many flowers from designers that she thought she "had died prematurely. '' She personally vouched for Miranda 's personality: "It took only a few weeks in the job for me to mutate into that strangely exotic and spoilt creature: the magazine maven, whose every whim, like those of Miranda... must be pandered to. ''
On its June 30 opening weekend, right before the Independence Day holiday, the film was on 2,847 screens. Through that Sunday, July 2, it grossed $27 million, second only to the much bigger - budget Superman Returns, breaking The Patriot 's six - year - old record for the largest take by a movie released that holiday weekend that did not win the weekend; a record that stood until Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs broke it in 2009.
During its first week it added $13 million. This success led Fox to add 35 more screens the next weekend, the widest domestic distribution the film enjoyed. Although it was never any week 's top - grossing film, it remained in the top 10 through July. Its theatrical run continued through December 10, shortly before the DVD release.
"The core marketing was definitely to women, '' Gabler recalls, "but the men did n't resist going to the movie. '' She felt that male viewers responded favorably to the movie because they sought a glimpse inside fashion, and because Miranda "was enjoyable to watch. '' The release date helped generate word of mouth when people who had seen it discussed it at holiday gatherings. "They were talking about it, like a summer reading book, '' said Gabler.
It had a very successful run in theaters, making nearly $125 million in the United States and Canada and over $325 million worldwide, a career high for all three top - billed actresses at that time. Streep would surpass it two years later with Mamma Mia while Hathaway exceeded it with 2010 's Alice in Wonderland. Blunt would not be in a higher - grossing film until the 2014 movie adaptation of the Broadway musical Into the Woods (also starring Streep).
It was also Tucci 's highest - grossing film until Captain America: The First Avenger in 2011.
Anna Wintour attended the film 's New York premiere, wearing Prada. Her friend Barbara Amiel reported that she said shortly afterward that the movie would go straight to DVD. But in an interview with Barbara Walters that aired the day the DVD was released, she called the film "really entertaining '' and said she appreciated the "decisive '' nature of Streep 's portrayal. "Anything that makes fashion entertaining and glamorous and interesting is wonderful for our industry. So I was 100 percent behind it. '' Streep said Wintour was "probably more upset by the book than the film ''. Anna Wintour 's popularity skyrocketed after her portrayal in The Devil Wears Prada. She was happy with the portrayal she got from Meryl Streep that did not place her in a position of complete villainy in which she felt was an unfair representation of her. Meryl Streep said she did n't base her character in The Devil Wears Prada on Anna Wintour, instead saying she was inspired by men she had known previously: "Unfortunately you do n't have enough women in power, or at least I do n't know them, to copy. ''
Weisberger 's novel had been translated into 37 different languages, giving the movie a strong potential foreign audience. The international box office would ultimately deliver 60 % of the film 's gross. "We did our European premiere at the Venice Film Festival '', Gabler says, where the city 's gondoliers wore red T - shirts with the film 's logo. "So many people around the world were captivated by the glossy fashion world. It was sexy and international. ''
The Devil Wears Prada topped the charts on its first major European release weekend on October 9, after a strong September Oceania and Latin America opening. It would be the highest - grossing film that weekend in Britain, Spain and Russia, taking in $41.5 million overall. Continued strong weekends as it opened across the rest of Europe helped it remain atop the overseas charts for the rest of the month. By the end of the year only its Chinese opening remained; it was released there at the end of February 2007 and took in $2.4 million.
The greatest portion of the $201.8 million total international box office came from the United Kingdom, with $26.5 million. Germany was next with $23.1 million, followed by Italy at $19.3 million and France at $17.9 million. Outside Europe, Japanese box office was the highest at $14.6 million, followed by Australia at $12.6 million.
Most reviews from the international press echoed the domestic response, heaping praise on Streep and the other actors, but calling the whole film "predictable. '' The Guardian 's Peter Bradshaw, who found the film "moderately entertaining, '' took Blunt to task, calling her a "real disappointment... strained and awkward. '' In The Independent, Anthony Quinn said Streep "may just have given us a classic here '' and concluded that the film as a whole was "as snappy and juicy as fresh bubblegum. ''
In most markets the title remained unchanged; either the English was used or a translation into the local language. The only exceptions were Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico and Venezuela, where it was El diablo que viste Prada and El diablo se viste a la moda. In Poland, the title was Diabeł ubiera się u Prady which roughly means "The Devil dresses (itself) at Prada '' rather than "The Devil Wears Prada. '' In Italian the title was '' Il diavolo veste Prada '' which roughly means "The devil wears Prada ''. In Turkey, the title was "Şeytan Marka Giyer, '' roughly translated as "The Devil Wears Brand - Names. '' In Romania, the title was "Diavolul se îmbracă de la Prada, '' which roughly means "The Devil Dresses itself from Prada '', the same construction being found in the French title, "Le Diable s'habille en Prada ''. The Japanese version is titled "プラダ を 着 た 悪魔 '', which translates as "The devil wearing Prada ''.
Three months after the film 's North American release (October 2006), Frankel and Weisberger jointly accepted the first Quill Variety Blockbuster Book to Film Award. A committee of staffers at the magazine made the nominations and chose the award winner. Editor Peter Bart praised both works.
' The Devil Wears Prada ' is an energetically directed, perfect - fit of a film that has surprised some in the industry with its box - office legs. It has delighted the country, much as did Lauren Weisberger 's book, which is still going strong on several national bestseller lists.
The film was honored by the National Board of Review as one of the year 's ten best. The American Film Institute gave the film similar recognition.
The film received ample attention from the Hollywood Foreign Press Association when its Golden Globe Award nominations were announced in December. The film itself was in the running for Best Picture (Comedy / Musical) and Supporting Actress (for Blunt). Streep later won the Globe for Best Actress (Musical / Comedy).
In January 2007, Streep 's fellow members of the Screen Actors Guild nominated her for Best Actress as well. Four days later, at the National Society of Film Critics awards, Streep won Best Supporting Actress for her work both in Devil and A Prairie Home Companion. McKenna earned a nomination from the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.
When the British Academy of Film and Television Arts announced its 2006 nominations, Blunt, Field, McKenna and Streep were all among the nominees. Makeup artist and hairstylists Nicki Ledermann and Angel de Angelis also were nominated.
At the end of January, Streep received her 14th Academy Award nomination for Best Actress, lengthening her record from 13 for most nominations by any actor male or female. Field received a Costume Design nomination as well. Neither won, but Blunt and Hathaway presented the last mentioned award, amusing the audience by slipping into their characters for a few lines, nervously asking which of them had gotten Streep her cappuccino. Streep played along with a stern expression before smiling.
The success of the film led to a proposed, but unrealized, American dramedy series that was in contention to air for the 2007 -- 08 television season on Fox. It was to be produced by Fox Television Studios, with the premise adjusted for the confines of a traditional half - hour or one - hour dramedy with a single camera set - up. However, it never reached the point of even producing a pilot episode.
With the video release came renewed interest in Weisberger 's novel. It ranked eighth on USA Today s list of 2006 best sellers and was the second most borrowed book in American libraries. The audiobook version was released in October 2006 and quickly made it to third on that medium 's fiction best seller list.
In 2015, it was reported that Broadway producer Kevin McCollum had signed a deal two years earlier with Fox to develop some of the films from its back catalog into musicals for the stage. Two he expressed particular interest in were Mrs. Doubtfire and The Devil Wears Prada. Early in 2017, McCollum announced that in partnership with Fox Stage Productions, he was developing a musical version of The Devil Wears Prada (based on both the film and the book). Sir Elton John will be composing the score for the project with playwright Paul Rudnick, who had written some early scenes for the screenplay, mostly with Miranda, writing the book and lyrics. McCollum did not say when he expected it to premiere but hoped it would eventually play on Broadway.
The DVD was released on December 12, 2006 and has, in addition to the film, the following extras:
Closed captions in French and Spanish are also available. The DVD is available in both full screen and widescreen versions. Pictures of the cast and the tagline "Hell on Heels '' were added to the red - heel image for the cover. It was released in the UK on February 5, 2007.
A Blu - ray Disc of the film was released simultaneously with the DVD. The Blu - ray maintains the same features as the DVD; however, the featurettes were dropped and replaced with a subtitle pop - up trivia track that can be watched by itself or along with the audio commentary.
Immediately upon its December 12 release, it became the top rental in the United States. It held that spot through the end of the year, adding another $26.5 million to the film 's grosses; it dropped out of the top 50 at the end of March, with its grosses almost doubling. The following week it made its debut on the DVD sales charts in third position. By the end of 2007 it had sold nearly 5.6 million units, for a total of $94.4 million in sales.
Among the deleted scenes are some that added more background information to the story, with commentary available by the editor and director. Most were deleted by Livolsi in favor of keeping the plot focused on the conflict between Miranda and Andrea, often without consulting Frankel.
Frankel generally approved of his editor 's choices, but differed on one scene, showing more of Andrea on her errand to the Calvin Klein showroom. He felt that scene showed Andrea 's job was about more than running personal errands for Miranda.
In 2016, around the 10th anniversary of the film 's release, Vanity Fair did a rundown of some Independence Day weekend movie box results from the previous 15 years, noting how some better - remembered films had been bested by films that have not stood the test of time. It called Superman Returns ' win over The Devil Wears Prada the "most ironic '' of these victories. "(T) he degree to which (it) has penetrated pop culture needs no explanation -- as does the degree to which Superman Returns did n't. ''
The cast 's opinions on why the movie has endured differ. Hathaway told Variety that she thinks many people relate to Andy 's predicament of working for someone who seems impossible to please. "Everybody has had an experience like this. '' Tucci did not believe specific explanations were necessary. "It 's a fucking brilliant movie... The brilliant movies become influential, no matter what they are about. ''
The cast members bonded tightly on the set, and remained close afterwards. Blunt invited them to her wedding to John Krasinski in 2010. There, Tucci met her sister Felicity, whom he later married. "Ten years after The Devil Wears Prada, Stanley is in my actual family, '' she told Variety. "How frightening is that? ''
In its anniversary story, Variety argued that it had benefited all three of its lead actresses. In addition to Streep 's record - setting Oscar nomination, the magazine observed, it had proven that she could be a box - office draw by herself, opening doors up for her to be cast as a lead in later summer movies such as Julie & Julia and Mamma Mia!. For Hathaway, it was her first leading role in a film intended for an adult audience. Subsequent producers were impressed that she had held her own playing opposite Streep, which led eventually to her being cast in more serious roles like Rachel Getting Married and Les Misérables, for which she won an Oscar. "I think what people saw was promising -- it made people want to see more. ''
Hathaway believes that Blunt 's career took off because of her role. "I 've never witnessed a star being born before, '' Hathaway says. "That 's the first time I watched it happen. '' Blunt agrees that it was "a night and day change '' for her -- the day after the film was released, she told Variety, the staff at the coffee shop she had been going to for breakfast every morning in Los Angeles suddenly recognized her. Even ten years later, people still quote her lines from the film back to her at least once a week, she says.
"(The film) definitely paved the way for the filmmakers and distributors of the world to know that there was a female audience that was really strong out there '', Gabler recalls, one that was not segmented by age. She pointed to later movies, such as Mamma Mia!, 27 Dresses (written by McKenna) and Me Before You, that appeared to her to be trying to replicate The Devil Wears Prada 's success with that demographic. However, Gabler feels they did not do so as well. "Prada reminds me of movies that we do n't have a lot of now -- it harkens back to classic movies that had so much more than just one kind of plot line... You just keep wanting to find something that can touch upon the same zeitgeist as this film. ''
For Streep, the most significant thing about the film was that "(t) his was the first time, on any movie I have ever made, where men came up to me and said, ' I know what you felt like, this is kind of like my life. ' That was for me the most ground - breaking thing about Devil Wears Prada -- it engaged men on a visceral level, '' she told Indiewire.
The film has made a lasting impact on popular culture. Although a TV series based on it was not picked up, in the years after its release The Simpsons titled an episode "The Devil Wears Nada '' and parodied some scenes. The American version of The Office began an episode with Steve Carell as Michael Scott imitating Miranda after watching the film on Netflix.
In 2008, The New York Times wrote that the movie had defined the image of a personal assistant in the public mind. Seven years later, Dissent 's Francesca Mari wrote about "the assistant economy '' by which many creative professionals rely on workers so titled to do menial personal and professional tasks for them; she pointed to The Devil Wears Prada as the best - known narrative of assistantship. The next year, writing about a proposed change in U.S. federal overtime regulations that was seen as threatening to that practice, the Times called it the ' Devil Wears Prada ' economy ", a term other news outlets also used.
On the film 's 10th anniversary, Alyssa Rosenberg wrote in The Washington Post that Miranda anticipated female antiheroines of popular television series of the later 2000s and 2010s such as Scandal 's Olivia Pope and Cersei Lannister in Game of Thrones. Like them, she observes, Miranda competently assumes a position of authority often held by male characters, despite her moral failings, that she must defend against attempts to use her personal life to remove her from it, to "prov (e), as a creature of sentiment, that she never belonged there in the first place. '' In doing so, however successfully to herself and others, "she has zipped herself into a life as regimented and limited as a skintight pencil skirt. ''
"Like many instant classics, Prada benefited from perfect timing '', Variety 's 2016 article observed, attempting to explain the film 's enduring appeal. "It marked the beginning of the democratization of the fashion industry -- when the masses started to pay attention to the business of what they wore. '' It credited the movie with helping stir interest in the American adaptation of the Colombian television series Ugly Betty, which debuted months after its release.
The film also has been credited with increasing interest in R.J. Cutler 's documentary The September Issue, which followed Wintour and other Vogue editors as they prepared the issue for that month of 2007. Writing in The Ringer on the tenth anniversary, Alison Herman observed that "The Devil Wears Prada transformed Wintour 's image from that of a mere public figure into that of a cultural icon. '' Once known primarily as a fashion editor, she was now "every overlord you 'd ever bitched about three drinks deep at happy hour, only to dutifully fetch her coffee the next day. '' Ultimately, the film had effected a positive change in Wintour 's image, Herman argued, "from a tyrant in chinchilla to an idol for the post-Sandberg age. ''
In 2013, Weisberger wrote a sequel, Revenge Wears Prada. However, it does not seem likely that a film version of it, or any sequel, will be made, as two of the film 's stars are not eager to do so. Streep has reportedly said that she is not interested in making a sequel for this film in particular. And while Hathaway admits she 'd be interested in working with the same people, it would have to be "something totally different. '' The Devil Wears Prada, she told Variety "might have just hit the right note. It 's good to leave it as it is. ''
In 2015, it was announced that a musical adaptation of the film was in the works. In 2017, it was announced that Elton John and Paul Rudnick were teaming up to write the show, with no timeline being set.
The following year, The Last Airbender also exceeded The Devil Wears Prada 's July 4 opening weekend take without winning the weekend, as did The Purge: Election Year in 2016, but neither film broke Ice Age 's record.
Weisberger, Laura (2003). The Devil Wears Prada. New York: Broadway Books. ISBN 0 - 7679 - 1476 - 7.
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notes of some wanderings with the swami vivekananda pdf | Notes of Some Wanderings with the Swami Vivekananda - wikipedia
Notes of Some Wanderings with the Swami Vivekananda (1913) is an English language book written by Sister Nivedita. In this book Nivedita has narrated the experiences she had while traveling with Swami Vivekananda in different parts of India.
Nivedita travelled to India in 1898. Josephine MacLeod, a friend and devotee of Swami Vivekananda asked him how best she could help him and got the reply to "Love India ''. In India Nivedita travelled a lot of places in India, including Kashmir, with Swami Vivekananda. In May 1898 she accompanied Swami Vivekananda to the visit of Himalaya.
In this book Sister Nivedita has narrated the experiences she had while traveling with Swami Vivekananda in different parts of India.
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when does congress need to pass a budget | United States budget process - wikipedia
The United States budget process is the framework used by Congress and the President of the United States to formulate and create the United States federal budget. The process was established by the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974, and additional budget legislation.
Prior to 1974, Congress had no formal process for establishing a federal budget. When President Richard Nixon began to refuse to spend funds that Congress had allocated, they adopted a more formal means by which to challenge him. The Congressional Budget Act of 1974 created the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), which gained more control of the budget, limiting the power of the President 's Office of Management and Budget (OMB). The Act passed easily while the administration was embroiled in the Watergate scandal and were unwilling to provoke Congress.
The United States budget process begins when the President of the United States submits a budget request to Congress. The President 's budget is formulated over a period of months with the assistance of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), the largest office within the Executive Office of the President. The budget request includes funding requests for all federal executive departments and independent agencies. Budget documents include supporting documents and historical budget data and contains detailed information on spending and revenue proposals, along with policy proposals and initiatives with significant budgetary implications. The President 's budget request constitutes an extensive proposal of the administration 's intended revenue and spending plans for the following fiscal year. The budget proposal includes volumes of supporting information intended to persuade Congress of the necessity and value of the budget provisions. In addition, each federal executive department and independent agency provides additional detail and supporting documentation on its own funding requests. The documents are also posted on the OMB website.
The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 requires the President to submit the budget to Congress for each fiscal year, which is the 12 - month period beginning on October 1 and ending on September 30 of the next calendar year. The current federal budget law (31 U.S.C. § 1105 (a)) requires that the President submit the budget between the first Monday in January and the first Monday in February. In recent times, the President 's budget submission has been issued in the first week of February. The budget submission has been delayed, however, in some new presidents ' first year when the previous president belonged to a different party. The 2014 United States federal budget was not submitted by the President until April 10, 2013 due to negotiations over the United States fiscal cliff and implementation of the sequester cuts mandated by the Budget Control Act of 2011. (The House had already prepared its budget proposal on March 21, and the Senate proposed a budget on March 23.)
President Warren G. Harding brought about the enactment of the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, which, for the first time, required the President to submit a budget annually to Congress and which established the Bureau of the Budget, the forerunner of the Office of Management and Budget, to assist in the formulation of the budget. Initially the Bureau was within the U.S. Department of the Treasury, but in 1939 it was moved to the Executive Office of the President.
The President 's budget submission is referred to the House and Senate Budget Committees and to the Congressional Budget Office (CBO). Other committees with budgetary responsibilities submit requests and estimates to the budget committees during this time.
In March, the CBO publishes an analysis of the President 's budget proposals. The CBO budget report and other publications are also posted on the CBO website. CBO computes a current - law baseline budget projection that is intended to estimate what federal spending and revenues would be in the absence of new legislation for the current fiscal year and for the coming 10 fiscal years. However, the CBO also computes a current - policy baseline, which makes assumptions about, for instance, votes on tax cut sunset provisions. The current CBO 10 - year budget baseline projection grows from $3.7 trillion in 2011 to $5.7 trillion in 2021.
In March, the budget committees consider the President 's budget proposals in the light of the CBO budget report, and each committee submits a budget resolution to its house by April 1. The House and Senate each consider these budget resolutions, and are expected to pass them, possibly with amendments, by April 15. A budget resolution is a kind of concurrent resolution; it is not a law, and therefore does not require the President 's signature.
There is no obligation for either or both houses of Congress to pass a budget resolution. There may not be a resolution every year; if none is established, the previous year 's resolution remains in force. For example, the Senate has not passed a budget resolution for FY2011, FY2012, or FY2013, and passed the FY2014 budget resolution on March 23, 2013, 23 days before the April 15 deadline set by the No Budget, No Pay Act of 2013. This was the first budget resolution passed by the Senate since a FY2010 budget passed on April 29, 2009. The House and Senate may propose a budget independently of the President 's budget. For example, for the 2014 budget process, the House prepared its budget proposal on March 21 and the Senate proposed a budget on March 23, while the President 's budget was not submitted until April 10.
After both houses pass a budget resolution, selected Representatives and Senators negotiate a conference report to reconcile differences between the House and the Senate versions. The conference report, in order to become binding, must be approved by both the House and Senate.
The budget resolution is not legally binding but serves as a blueprint for the actual appropriation process, and provides Congress with some control over the appropriation process. All new discretionary spending requires authority through enactment of appropriation bills or continuing resolutions.
In general, funds for federal government programs must be authorized by an "authorizing committee '' through enactment of legislation. Then, through subsequent acts by Congress, budget authority is then appropriated by the Appropriations Committee of the House. In principle, committees with jurisdiction to authorize programs make policy decisions, while the Appropriations Committees decide on funding levels, limited to a program 's authorized funding level, though the amount may be any amount less than the limit.
The budget resolutions specify funding levels for the House and Senate Appropriations Committees and their 12 subcommittees, establishing various budget totals, allocations, entitlements, and may include reconciliation instructions to designated House or Senate committees. The appropriations committees start with allocations in the budget resolution and draft appropriations bills, which may be considered in the House after May 15. Once appropriations committees pass their bills, they are considered by the House and Senate. When there is a final budget, the spending available to each appropriations committee for the coming fiscal year is usually provided in the joint explanatory statement included in the conference report. The appropriations committees then allocate that amount among their respective subcommittees, each to allocate the funds they control among the programs within their jurisdiction.
A conference committee is typically required to resolve differences between House and Senate appropriation bills. Once a conference bill has passed both chambers of Congress, it is sent to the President, who may sign the bill or veto it. If he signs, the bill becomes law. Otherwise, Congress must pass another bill to avoid a shutdown of at least part of the federal government.
In recent years, Congress has not passed all of the appropriations bills before the start of the fiscal year. Congress may then enact continuing resolutions that provide for the temporary funding of government operations. Failure to appropriate funds results in a partial government shutdown, such the federal government shutdown in October 2013.
In practice, the separation between policy making and funding and the division between appropriations and authorization activities are imperfect. Authorizations for many programs have long lapsed, yet still receive appropriated amounts, while other programs that are authorized receive no funds at all. In addition, policy language, which is legislative text changing permanent law, is included in appropriation measures.
Each function within the budget may include "budget authority '' and "outlays '' that fall within the broad categories of discretionary spending or direct spending.
Discretionary spending requires an annual appropriation bill, which is a piece of legislation. Discretionary spending is typically set by the House and Senate Appropriations Committees and their various subcommittees. Since the spending is typically for a fixed period (usually a year), it is said to be under the discretion of the Congress. Some appropriations last for more than one year (see Appropriation bill for details). In particular, multi-year appropriations are often used for housing programs and military procurement programs.
There are currently 12 appropriation bills that must be passed each fiscal year in order for continued discretionary spending to occur. The subject of each appropriations bill corresponds to the jurisdiction of the respective House and Senate appropriation subcommittees:
As of 2012, there are 12 appropriations bills which need to be passed each year:
Multiple bills are sometimes combined into one piece of legislation, such as the Omnibus Appropriations Act, 2009. A continuing resolution is often passed if an appropriations bill has not been signed into law by the end of the fiscal year.
Direct spending, also known as mandatory spending, refers to spending enacted by law, but not dependent on an annual or periodic appropriation bill. Most mandatory spending consists of transfer payments and welfare benefits such as Social Security benefits, Medicare, and Medicaid. Many other expenses, such as salaries of federal judges, are mandatory, but account for a relatively small share of federal spending. The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimates costs of mandatory spending programs on a regular basis.
Congress can affect spending on entitlement programs by changing eligibility requirements or the structure of programs. Certain programs, because the language authorizing them are included in appropriation bills, are termed "appropriated entitlements. '' This is a convention rather than a substantive distinction, since the programs, such as Food Stamps, would continue to be funded even were the appropriation bill to be vetoed or otherwise not enacted.
The federal budget is divided into categories known as budget functions. These functions include all spending for a given topic, regardless of the federal agency that oversees the individual federal program. Both the President 's budget, and Congress ' budget resolution provide summaries by function.
List of budget functions:
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where does the big sur start and finish | Big Sur - wikipedia
Big Sur is a lightly populated, unincorporated region on California 's Central Coast where the Santa Lucia Mountains rise abruptly from the Pacific Ocean. The coast is frequently praised for its rugged coastline and mountain views. As the "longest and most scenic stretch of undeveloped coastline in the (contiguous) United States, '' it has been described as a "national treasure that demands extraordinary procedures to protect it from development '' and "one of the most beautiful coastlines anywhere in the world, an isolated stretch of road, mythic in reputation. '' Big Sur 's Cone Peak at 5,155 feet (1,571 m) is only 3 miles (5 km) from the ocean. The stunning views make Big Sur a popular tourist destination.
The region does not have specific boundaries, but is generally considered to include the 76 miles (122 km) segment of California State Route 1 from the Carmel River near the City of Carmel south to San Carpóforo Creek near San Simeon and the entire Santa Lucia range between the rivers. The interior region is uninhabited, while the coast remains relatively isolated and sparsely populated with about 1,000 year - round residents and relatively few visitor accommodations.
The region is protected by the Big Sur Local Coastal Program which preserves the region as "open space, a small residential community, and agricultural ranching. '' Approved in 1981, it is one of the most restrictive local use programs in the state, and is widely regarded as one of the most restrictive documents of its kind anywhere. The program protects viewsheds from the highway and many vantage points, and restricts the density of development to one unit per acre in tourist areas or one dwelling per 10 acres (4.0 ha) in the far south. About 60 % of the coastal region is owned by a government or private agency that does not allow any development. The majority of the interior region is part of the Los Padres National Forest, the Ventana Wilderness, Silver Peak Wilderness, or Fort Hunter Liggett.
When the region was ceded by Mexico to the United States in 1848, it was the United States ' "last frontier. '' The region remained one of the most isolated areas of California and the United States until, after 18 years of construction, the Carmel -- San Simeon Highway (now signed as part of State Route 1) was completed in 1937. The highway has been closed on numerous occasions due to weather and geological hazards and incidents, including a 2 million cubic foot landslide in 2017 that is not expected to be fixed until 2018.
The original Spanish - language name for the unexplored mountainous terrain south of Monterey, the capital of Alta California, was "el país grande del sur '' meaning, "the big country of the south. '' It was Anglicized by English - speaking settlers as Big Sur.
Big Sur is not an incorporated town, but an area without formal boundaries on the Central Coast of California. The boundaries of the region have gradually expanded north and south over time. Esther Pfeiffer Ewoldson, who was born in 1904 and was a granddaughter of Big Sur pioneers Micheal and Barbara Pfeiffer, wrote that the region extended from the Little Sur River 23 miles (37 km) south to Slates Hot Springs. Members of the Harlen family who homesteaded the Lucia region 9 miles (14 km) south of Slates Hot Springs, said that Big Sur was "miles and miles to the north of us. '' Prior to the construction of Highway 1, the residents on the south coast had little contact with the residents to the north of them. Later on the northern border was extended as far north as Malpaso Creek, 4.5 miles (7.2 km) south of Carmel River. Most current descriptions of the area refer to either Malpaso Creek or the Carmel River in Monterey County as the northern border. The southern border is generally accepted to be well past Lucia at San Carpóforo Creek in San Luis Obispo County.
Because the vast majority of visitors only see Big Sur 's dramatic coastline, some consider the eastern border of Big Sur to be the coastal flanks of the Santa Lucia Mountains, only 3 to 12 miles (5 to 19 km) inland. Visitors sometimes mistakenly believe that Big Sur refers to the small community of buildings and services near Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park, known to locals as Big Sur Village. Author and Big Sur historian Jeff Norman considered Big Sur to extend inland to include the watersheds that drain into the Pacific Ocean. Others include the vast inland areas comprising the Los Padres National Forest, Ventana Wilderness, Silver Peak Wilderness, and Fort Hunter Liggett about 20 miles (30 km) inland to the eastern foothills of the Santa Lucia Mountains.
The region is relatively difficult to access. Prior to 1937 when the coast highway was completed, the only way to travel the coast was a horse and wagon road, first built in about 1853 from Monterey to Palo Colorado Canyon. The "Old Coast Road '' was later expanded south to the Post Ranch near Sycamore Canyon, and then expanded further south. The southern portion is known as the "Coast Ridge Road. '' It is one of the few stretches of trail in the United States that was converted from a horse trail to a paved road without having first been a wagon road. Both coast roads were often unusable during and after winter storms. When the region was first settled by European immigrants in 1853, it was the United States ' "last frontier. ''
The Portolá expedition who first explored the Spanish colony of Alta California were forced to bypass the inaccessible coast and travel around the region, inland through the San Antonio and Salinas Valleys before arriving at Monterey Bay, where they founded Monterey and named it their capital. They referred to the vast, relatively unexplored, coastal region to the south as el país grande del sur, meaning "the big country of the south ''. This was often shortened to el sur grande. Other sources report that the region was simply called "el sur '' (the south), and the two major rivers El Rio Grande del Sur and El Rio Chiquito del Sur.
When English - speaking immigrants settled the region, they Anglicized the Spanish name to "Big Sur ''. The locals petitioned the United States Post Office in Washington D.C. to use the name Big Sur, and the rubber stamp was returned in 1915, cementing the name in place.
The coast is the "longest and most scenic stretch of undeveloped coastline in the (contiguous) United States. '' The Big Sur region has been described as a "national treasure that demands extraordinary procedures to protect it from development. '' The New York Times wrote that it is "one of the most stunning meetings of land and sea in the world. '' The Washington Times stated that it is "one of the most beautiful coastlines anywhere in the world, an isolated stretch of road, mythic in reputation. ''
Highway 1 was named the most popular drive in California in 2014 by American Automobile Association. The section of Highway 1 running through Big Sur is widely considered as one of the most scenic driving routes in the United States, if not the world.
The views are one reason that Big Sur was ranked second among all United States destinations in TripAdvisor 's 2008 Travelers ' Choice Destination Awards. The Big Sur coast has attracted as residents notable bohemian writers and artists including Robinson Jeffers, Henry Miller, Edward Weston, Richard Brautigan, Hunter S. Thompson, Emile Norman, and Jack Kerouac. Henry Miller said, "Big Sur is the California that men dreamed of years ago, this is the Pacific that Balboa looked at from the Peak of Darien, this is the face of the earth as the Creator intended it to look. '' Novelist Herbert Gold described Big Sur as "one of the grand American retreats for those who nourish themselves with wilderness. ''
Despite and because of its popularity, the region is heavily protected to preserve the rural and natural character of the land. The Big Sur Local Coastal Program, approved by Monterey County Supervisors in 1981, states the region is meant to be an experience that visitors transit through, not a destination. For that reason, development of all kinds is severely restricted.
Although some Big Sur residents catered to adventurous travelers in the early twentieth century, the modern tourist economy began when Highway 1 opened the region to automobiles in 1937, but only took off after World War II - era gasoline rationing ended in the mid-1940s. In 1978, about 1.5 million visitors are estimated to have visited the Big Sur Coast. Most of the 3 to 4 million tourists who currently visit Big Sur each year never leave Highway 1, because the adjacent Santa Lucia Range is one of the largest roadless areas near a coast in the contiguous United States. The highway winds along the western flank of the mountains mostly within sight of the Pacific Ocean, varying from near sea level up to a thousand - foot sheer drop to the water. The highway includes a large number of vista points allowing motorists to stop and admire the landscape.
Besides sightseeing from the highway, Big Sur offers hiking, mountain climbing, and other outdoor activities. There are a large number of state and federal lands and parks, including McWay Falls at Julia Pfeiffer Burns State Park, one of only two waterfalls on the Pacific Coast that plunge directly into the ocean. The waterfall is located near the foundation of a grand stone cliffside house built in 1940 by Lathrop and Hélène Hooper Brown that was the region 's first electrified home.
Another notable landmark is Point Sur Lightstation, the only complete nineteenth century lighthouse complex open to the public in California.
Among the places that draw visitors are the counter-culture Esalen Institute, the luxury Ventana Inn, the Nepenthe Restaurant, built around the house Orson Welles and Rita Hayworth bought to celebrate their six - month - long affair, and far from the coast in the Las Padres forest, the Tassajara Zen Mountain Center. Esalen hosted many figures of the nascent "New Age '', and in the 1960s, played an important role in popularizing Eastern philosophies, the "Human Potential Movement '', and Gestalt therapy in the United States.
Big Sur also is the location of a Catholic monastery, the New Camaldoli Hermitage. The Hermitage in Big Sur was founded in 1957.
There are a few small, scenic beaches that are accessible to the public and popular for walking, but usually unsuitable for swimming because of unpredictable currents, frigid temperatures, and dangerous surf. The beach at Garrapata State Park is sometimes rated as the best beach in Big Sur. Depending on the season, visitors can view sea otters, sea lions, seals and migrating whales from the beach. The beach is barely visible from the Highway One.
Pfeiffer Beach is accessible by driving 1.5 miles (2.4 km) south of the entrance to Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park on Highway 1, and turning west on the unmarked Sycamore Canyon Road. The beach is at the end of the road. The wide sandy expanse with views of a scenic arch rock offshore is a favorite among local residents. It is sometimes confused with the beach at Julia Pfeiffer Burns State Park to the south.
In the south, Sand Dollar Beach is the longest stretch of beach in Big Sur. It is popular with hikers and photographers for its views of nearby bluffs. The beach is 25 miles (40 km) south of the Big Sur village on Highway 1. A steep staircase leads down to the beach from the highway.
Two beaches are surrounded by private land owned by the El Sur Ranch and are inaccessible to the public. The first is the beach at the mouth of the Little Sur River. Another is Point Sur Beach, a long sandy beach located below and to the north of Point Sur Lighthouse. Fences around the beaches are posted with "Private Property '' and "No Trespassing '' signs.
Three other beaches are inaccessible to the public. Swiss Canyon Beach is north of Andrew Molera State Park. McWay Beach at the foot of McWay falls is not accessible from the shore. And to the south near the county line, Gamboa Point Beach is also closed to the public.
The land use restrictions that preserve Big Sur 's natural beauty also mean that visitor accommodations are limited, often expensive, and places to stay fill up quickly during the busy summer season. There are no urban areas, although three small clusters of gas stations, restaurants, and motels -- Posts in the Big Sur River valley, Lucia, near Limekiln State Park, and Gorda, on the southern coast. There are fewer than 300 hotel rooms on the entire 90 - mile (140 km) stretch of Highway 1 between San Simeon and Carmel. Lodging include a few cabins, motels, and campgrounds, and higher - end resorts.
There are nine small grocery stores, three filling stations, a few gift shops, and no chain hotels, supermarkets, or fast - food outlets, and no plans to add facilities or shopping. The filling station in Gorda has one of the highest prices in the United States, as it is far from the electrical grid and part of the cost of auto fuel is used to support operation of a Diesel generator. Depending on the carrier, there is mobile phone service along much of the highway, except for south of Lucia.
In 2015, Monterey County began considering how to deal with the issue of short term rentals brought on by services such as Airbnb. They agreed to allow rentals as long as the owners paid the Transient Occupancy Tax. In 1990, there were about 800 housing units in Big Sur, about 600 of which were single family dwellings. There are currently an estimated 100 short term rentals available.
Many residents of Big Sur object to the rentals. They claim short term rentals violate the Big Sur Local Use Plan which prohibits establishing facilities that attract destination traffic. Short term rentals also remove scarce residences from the rental market and are likely to drive up demand and the cost of housing. About half of the residents of Big Sur rent their residences.
The Big Sur coastal land use plan states:
The significance of the residential areas for planning purposes is that they have the capacity, to some extent, to accommodate additional residential demand. Unlike the larger properties or commercial centers, they are not well suited for commercial agriculture, commercial, or visitor uses (author 's emphasis); use of these areas, to the extent consistent with resource protection, should continue to be for residential purposes.
As of 2016, the county was conducting hearings and gathering input towards making a decision about short - term rentals on the Big Sur coast. Susan Craig, Central Coast District Manager of the California Coastal Commission, has offered her opinion that short term rentals are appropriate within Big Sur.
The many climates of Big Sur result in a great biodiversity, including many rare and endangered species such as the wild orchid Piperia yadonii, which is found only on the Monterey Peninsula and on Rocky Ridge in the Los Padres forest. Arid, dusty chaparral - covered hills exist within easy walking distance of lush riparian woodland.
The mountains trap most of the moisture out of the clouds; fog in summer, rain and snow in winter. This creates a favorable environment for coniferous forests, including the southernmost habitat of the coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), which grows only on lower coastal slopes that are routinely fogged in at night. Some redwood trees were logged in the early twentieth century but many inaccessible locations were never logged, and in 2008 scientist J. Michael Fay published a map of the old growth redwoods based on his transect of the entire redwood range. The southernmost naturally occurring grove is in the Southern Redwood Botanical Area, just north of the Los Padres National Forest 's Salmon Creek trailhead. The southernmost tree is about 15 feet from California State Route 1 at the approximate coordinates 35 ° 49'42 N 121 ° 23'14 W.
The rare Santa Lucia fir (Abies bracteata) is found only in the Santa Lucia mountains. A common "foreign '' species is the Monterey pine (Pinus radiata), which was uncommon in Big Sur until the late nineteenth century, though its major native habitat is only a few miles upwind on the Monterey Peninsula, when many homeowners began to plant the quick - growing tree as a windbreak. There are many broadleaved trees as well, such as the tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus), coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia), and California bay laurel (Umbellularia californica). In the rain shadow, the forests disappear and the vegetation becomes open oak woodland, then transitions into the more familiar fire - tolerant California chaparral scrub.
The region was historically populated by grizzly bears who regularly preyed on livestock until the early twentieth century. The European settlers used to pay bounties to have them killed. The Pfeiffer family would fill a bait ball of swine entrails with strychnine and hang it from a tree. The last Grizzly Bear in Monterey County was seen in 1941 on the Cooper Ranch near the mouth of the Little Sur River. In the past 25 years, American black bears have been sighted in the area, likely expanding their range from southern California and filling in the ecological niche left when the Grizzly bear was exterminated.
The Big Sur River watershed provides habitat for mountain lion, deer, fox, coyotes and non-native wild boars. The upstream river canyon is characteristic of the Ventana Wilderness region: steep - sided, sharp - crested ridges separating valleys. Because most of the upper reaches of the Big Sur River watershed are within the Los Padres National Forest and the Ventana Wilderness, much of the river is in pristine condition.
The California Department of Fish and Game says the Little Sur River is the "most important spawning stream for Steelhead '' distinct population segment on the Central Coast, where the fish is listed as threatened. and that it "is one of the best steelhead streams in the county. '' The Big Sur River is also a key habitat for the steelhead.
A U.S. fisheries service report estimates that the number of trout in the entire south - central coast area -- including the Pajaro River, Salinas River, Carmel River, Big Sur River, and Little Sur River -- have dwindled from about 4,750 fish in 1965 to about 800 in 2005.
Numerous fauna are found in the Big Sur region. Among amphibians the California giant salamander (Dicamptodon ensatus) is found here, which point marks the southern extent of its range.
The California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) is a critically endangered species that was near extinction when the remaining wild birds were captured. A captive breeding program was begun in 1987. After some success, a few birds were released in 1991 and 1992 in Big Sur, and again in 1996 in Arizona near the Grand Canyon.
In 1997, the Ventana Wildlife Society began releasing captive - bred California Condors in Big Sur. The birds take six years to mature before they can produce offspring, and a nest was discovered in a redwood tree in 2006. This was the first time in more than 100 years in which a pair of California condors had been seen nesting in Northern California. The repopulation effort has been successful in part because a significant portion of the birds ' diet includes carcasses of large sea creatures that have washed ashore, which are unlikely to be contaminated with lead, the principal cause of the bird 's mortality.
As of July 2014, the Ventana Wildlife Society managed 34 free - flying condors. There were part of a total population of 437 condors spread over California, Baja California and Arizona, of which 232 are wild birds and 205 are in captivity.
For most of its length, the Coast Ridge and its spur ridges drop abruptly into the Pacific, presenting a vertical wall of rock scalloped irregularly into rocky coves with very few sandy beaches. The steepness continues offshore where a narrow continental shelf drops to the continental slope in only a few kilometers. The ocean reaches a depth of more than 3600 m (12,000 ft) just 80 km (50 mi) offshore. Two deep submarine canyons cut into the shelf near the Big Sur coast: the Sur Submarine Canyon, reaching a depth of 914 m (3000 ft) just 13 km (8 mi) south of Point Sur, and Partington Submarine Canyon, which reaches a similar depth of 11 km (6.8 mi) offshore of Grimes Canyon.
Like underwater parks, these marine protected areas help conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems.
Fire plays a key role in the ecology of the upper slopes of the Big Sur region 's mountains where chaparral dominates the landscape. Native Americans burned chaparral to promote grasslands for textiles and food. In the lower elevations and canyons, the California Redwood is often found. Its thick bark, along with foliage that starts high above the ground, protect the species from both fire and insect damage, contributing to the coast redwood 's longevity. Fire appears to benefit redwoods by removing competitive species. A 2010 study compared post-wildfire survival and regeneration of redwood and associated species. It concluded that fires of all severity increase the relative abundance of redwood and higher - severity fires provide the greatest benefit.
In modern history, fires are known to have burned the Big Sur area multiple times. In 1885, 1894, and 1898 fires burned without any effort by the few local residents to put them out, except to save their buildings. In 1903, a fire burned for three months, the result of an unextinguished campfire. In 1906, a fire that began in Palo Colorado Canyon from the embers of a campfire burned for 35 days, scorching an estimated 150,000 acres (61,000 ha), and was finally extinguished by the first rainfall of the season.
In recent history, the area has been struck by the Marble Cone fire in 1977, the Rat Creek Gorda Complex fire in 1985, the Kirk Complex fire in 1999, the Basin Complex fire in 2008, and the Soberanes Fire in 2016.
The Basin Complex Fire forced an eight - day evacuation of Big Sur and the closure of Highway 1, beginning just before the July 4, 2008 holiday weekend. The fire, which burned over 130,000 acres (53,000 ha), represented the largest of many lightning - caused wildfires that had broken out throughout California during the same period. Although the fire caused no loss of life, it destroyed 27 homes, and the tourist - dependent economy lost about a third of its expected summer revenue.
The Soberanes Fire was caused by unknown individuals who started and lost control of an illegal campfire in the Garrapata Creek watershed. After it burned 57 homes in the Garrapata and Palo Colorado Canyon areas, fire fighters were able to build lines around parts of the Big Sur community. A bulldozer operator was killed when his equipment overturned during night operations in Palo Colorado Canyon.
Coast residents east of Highway 1 were required to evacuate for short periods, and Highway 1 was shut down at intervals over several days to allow firefighters to conduct backfire operations. Visitors avoided the area and tourism revenue was impacted for several weeks.
Three tribes of Native Americans -- the Ohlone, Esselen, and Salinan -- are the first known people to have inhabited the area. The Ohlone, also known as the Costanoans, are believed to have lived in the region from San Francisco to Point Sur. The Esselen lived in the area between Point Sur south to Big Creek, and inland including the upper tributaries of the Carmel River and Arroyo Seco watersheds. The Salinan lived from Big Creek south to San Carpóforo Creek. Archaeological evidence shows that the Esselen lived in Big Sur as early as 3500 BC, leading a nomadic, hunter - gatherer existence.
The aboriginal people inhabited fixed village locations, and followed food sources seasonally, living near the coast in winter to harvest rich stocks of otter, mussels, abalone, and other sea life. In the summer and fall, they traveled inland to gather acorns and hunt deer. The native people hollowed mortar holes into large exposed rocks or boulders which they used to grind the acorns into flour. These can be found throughout the region. Arrows were of made of cane and pointed with hardwood foreshafts. The tribes also used controlled burning techniques to increase tree growth and food production.
The population was limited as the Santa Lucia Mountains made the area relatively inaccessible and long - term habitation a challenge. Their natives who lived in the Big Sur area are estimated from a few hundred to a thousand or more.
The first Europeans to see Big Sur were Spanish mariners led by Juan Cabrillo in 1542, who sailed up the coast without landing. Two centuries passed before the Spaniards attempted to colonize the area. In 1769, an expedition led by Gaspar de Portolà became the first Europeans known to have explored Big Sur when they entered the area in the south near San Carpóforo Canyon. Daunted by the sheer cliffs and difficult topography, his party avoided the area and traveled far inland through the Salinas Valley.
When the Spanish colonized the region beginning in 1770 and established the California missions, they baptized and forced the native population to labor at the missions. While living at the missions, the aboriginal population was exposed to unknown diseases like smallpox and measles for which they had no immunity, devastating the Native American population and their culture. Many of the remaining Native Americans assimilated with Spanish and Mexican ranchers in the nineteenth century.
In 1909, forest supervisors reported that three Indian families still lived within what was then known as the Monterey National Forest. The Encinale family of 16 members and the Quintana family with three members lived in the vicinity of The Indians (now known as Santa Lucia Memorial Park west of Ft. Hunger Liggett). The Mora family consisting of three members was living to the south along the Nacimiento - Ferguson Road.
Along with the rest of California, Big Sur became part of Mexico when it gained independence from Spain in 1821. Parts of the Big Sur region were included in land grants given by Mexican governors José Figueroa and Juan Bautista Alvarado.
Rancho Tularcitos, 26,581 - acre (10,757 ha) of land, was granted in 1834 by Governor José Figueroa to Rafael Goméz. It was located in upper Carmel Valley along Tularcitos Creek.
Rancho Milpitas was a 43,281 - acre (17,515 ha) land grant given in 1838 by governor Juan Alvarado to Ygnacio Pastor. The grant encompassed present day Jolon. When Pastor obtained title from the Public Land Commission in 1875, Faxon Atherton immediately purchased the land. By 1880, the James Brown Cattle Company owned and operated Rancho Milpitas and neighboring Rancho Los Ojitos. William Randolph Hearst 's Piedmont Land and Cattle Company acquired the rancho in 1925. In 1940, in anticipation of the increased forces required in World War II, the U.S. War Department purchased the land from Hearst to create a troop training facility known as the Hunter Liggett Military Reservation.
On July 30, 1834, Figueroa granted Rancho El Sur, two square leagues of land totalling 8,949 - acres (3,622 ha), to Juan Bautista Alvarado. The grant extended between the Little Sur River and what is now called Cooper Point. Alvarado later traded Rancho El Sur for the more accessible Rancho Bolsa del Potrero y Moro Cojo in the northern Salinas Valley, owned by his uncle by marriage, Captain John B.R. Cooper.
In 1839, Alvarado granted Rancho San Jose y Sur Chiquito, also about two square leagues of land totalling 8,876 - acre (3,592 ha), to Marcelino Escobar, a prominent official of Monterey. The grant was bounded on the north by the Carmel River and on the south by Palo Colorado Canyon.
In 1848, two days after the discovery of gold at Sutter 's Mill, Mexico ceded California to the United States as a result of the Mexican -- American War.
During the first survey of the coast conducted in 1886, the surveyor reported:
The country between the shore - line and the Coast Range of mountains, running parallel with the shore - line from San Carpojoro to Point Sur is probably the roughest piece of coast - line on the whole Pacific coast of the United States from San Diego to Cape Flattery.
The highest peaks of the crest of the coast range are located at an average distance from the coast of three and a half miles (5.6 km). In this distance they rise to elevations of from three thousand six hundred to five thousand feet (1,100 to 1,500 m) above the sea - level. From San Carpoforo Creek to Pfeiffer 's Point, a distance of 5 miles (8.0 km), the shore - line is iron - bound coast with no possible chance of getting from the hills to the shore - line and back except at the mouths of the creeks and at such places as Coxe 's Hole and Slate 's Hot Springs, where there are short stretches of sandy and rocky beaches from fifty to one hundred yards (meters) in length. In many places the sea bluffs are perpendicular, and rise from one thousand to one thousand five hundred feet (300 to 460 m) above the sea. The country is cut up by deep cañons (canyons), walled in with high and precipitous bluffs. These canyons are densely wooded with redwood, oak, and yellow and silver pine timber.
The redwood trees are from three to six feet (0.91 to 1.83 m) in diameter and from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet high (30 to 46 m). The oaks and pines are of the same average dimensions. Beautiful streams of clear cold water, filled with an abundance of salmon or trout, are to be found in all the cartons. The spurs running from the summits of the range to the ocean bluffs are covered with a dense growth of brush and scattering clumps of oak and pine timber. The chaparral is very thick, and in many places grows to a height of ten or fifteen feet (3 -- 5 m)... The spurs, slopes, and canons are impenetrable...
The first known European settler in Big Sur was George Davis, who in 1853 claimed a tract of land along the Big Sur River. He built a cabin near the present day site of the beginning of the Mount Manuel Trail, just above the location of a cabin later built by John Bautista Rogers Cooper. Born John Rogers Cooper, he was a Yankee born in the British Channel Islands who arrived in Monterey in 1823. To marry and obtain land, he became a Mexican citizen, converted to Catholicism, and was given a Spanish name at his baptism. He married Native American Encarnacion Vallejo and acquired considerable land, including Rancho El Sur, on which he built a cabin in April or May 1861. The Cooper Cabin is the oldest surviving structure in Big Sur. In 1868, Native Americans Manual and Florence Innocenti bought Davis ' cabin and land for $50. The second European settlers were the Pfeiffer family from France. Michael Pfeiffer and his wife and four children arrived in Big Sur in 1869 with the intention of settling on the south coast. After reaching Sycamore Canyon, they found it to their liking and decided to stay.
After passage of the federal Homestead Act in 1862, a few hardy settlers were drawn by the promise of free 160 - acre (65 ha) parcels. After the claimant filed for the land, they had gained full ownership after five years of residence or by paying $1.50 per acre within six months. Each claim was for 160 acres, a quarter section of free government land. The first to file a land patent was Micheal Pfeiffer on January 20, 1883, who claimed two sections of land he already resided on near and immediately north of the mouth of Sycamore Canyon. They had six more children later on.
Other settlers included William F. Notley, who homesteaded at the mouth of Palo Colorado Canyon in 1891. He began harvesting tanoak bark from the canyon, a lucrative source of income at the time. Notley 's Landing is named after him. Many other local sites retain names from settlers during this period: Bottcher, Swetnam, Gamboa, Pfeiffer, Post, Partington, Ross, and McWay are a few of the place names.
From the 1860s through the start of the twentieth century, lumbermen cut down most of the readily accessible coast redwoods. Along with industries based on tanoak bark harvesting, gold mining, and limestone processing, the local economy provided more jobs and supported a larger population than it does today.
In the 1880s, a gold rush boom town named Manchester sprang up at Alder Creek in the mountains east of present - day Gorda, at 35 ° 52 ′ 48 '' N 121 ° 23 ′ 31 '' W / 35.880 ° N 121.392 ° W / 35.880; - 121.392. The town boasted a population of 200, four stores, a restaurant, five saloons, a dance hall, and a hotel, but it was abandoned soon after the start of the twentieth century and burned to the ground in 1909.
The 30 - mile (48 km) trip from Monterey to the Pfeiffer Ranch could take three days by wagon. It was a rough road that ended in present - day Big Sur Village and could be impassible in winter. Local entrepreneurs built small boat landings like what is known today as Bixby Landing at a few coves along the coast from which supplies could be received and products could be shipped from schooners via a cable hoist. None of these landings remain today, and few other signs of this brief industrial period are visible. The rugged, isolated terrain kept out all but the sturdiest and most self - sufficient settlers. Travelers further south had to follow a horse trail that connected the various homesteaders along the coast.
Prior to the construction of Highway 1, the California coast south of Carmel and north of San Simeon was one of the most remote regions in the state, rivaling at the time nearly any other region in the United States for its difficult access. It remained largely an untouched wilderness until early in the twentieth century.
After the brief industrial boom faded, the early decades of the twentieth century passed with few changes, and Big Sur remained a nearly inaccessible wilderness. As late as the 1920s, only two homes in the entire region had electricity, locally generated by water wheels and windmills. Most of the population lived without power until connections to the California electric grid were established in the early 1950s.
Before the Carmel - San Simeon Highway was completed, settlement was primarily concentrated near the Big Sur River and present - day Lucia, and individual settlements along a 25 miles (40 km) stretch of coast between the two.
During the 1890s, Dr. John L. D. Roberts, a physician and land speculator who had founded Seaside, California and resided on the Monterey Peninsula, was summoned on April 21, 1894 to assist treating survivors of the wreck of the S.S. Los Angeles (originally USRC Wayanda), which had run aground near the Point Sur Light Station about 25 miles (40 km) south of Carmel - by - the - Sea. The ride on horseback took him 3 ⁄ hours, and he became convinced of the need for a road along the coast to San Simeon, which he believed could be built for $50,000.
In 1897, Roberts traveled the entire stretch of rocky coast from Carmel to San Simeon, and photographed the land, becoming the first surveyor of the route. He initially promoted the road for allowing access to a region of spectacular beauty. Roberts was only successful in gaining attention to the project when State Senator Elmer S. Rigdon, a member of the California Senate Committee on Roads and Highways, promoted the military necessity of defending California 's coast. A $1.5 million bond issue was placed on the ballot, but construction was delayed by World War I.
The state first approved building Route 56, or the Carmel -- San Simeon Highway, to connect Big Sur to the rest of California in 1919. Federal funds were appropriated and in 1921 voters approved additional state funds. San Quentin State Prison set up three temporary prison camps to provide unskilled convict labor to help with road construction. One was set up by Little Sur River, one at Kirk Creek and a third was later established in the south at Anderson Creek. Inmates were paid 35 cents per day and had their prison sentences reduced in return. Locals, including writer John Steinbeck, also worked on the road. The road necessitated construction of 33 bridges, the largest of which was the Bixby Creek Bridge. Six more concrete arch bridges were built between Point Sur and Carmel, and all were listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1986.
Construction required extensive excavation utilizing steam shovels and explosives, cutting into exposed promontories and filling canyons. Many members of the original families were upset by the damage to the environment caused by the construction. Some construction debris were pushed downslope into the ocean. Prior to the creation of the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, CalTrans routinely pushed slide debris into the nearshore littoral environment.
After 18 years of construction, aided by New Deal funds during the Great Depression, the paved two - lane road was completed and opened on June 17, 1937. The road was initially called the Carmel - San Simeon Highway, but was better known as the Roosevelt Highway, honoring then - current President (Franklin D. Roosevelt). Actual cost of the construction was around $10 million. The road was frequently closed for extended periods during the winter, making it a seasonal route. During 1941, 160 inches (4,100 mm) of rain fell on Big Sur, and the state considered abandoning the route. Slides were so common that gates were used to close the road to visitors at the northern and southern ends during the winter. During World War II, nighttime blackouts along the coast were ordered as a precaution against Japanese attack.
The route was incorporated into the state highway system and redesignated as Highway 1 in 1939. In 1940, the state contracted for "the largest installation of guard rail ever placed on a California state highway '', calling for 12 miles (19 km) of steel guard rail and 3,649 guide posts along 46.6 miles (75.0 km) of the road. After World War II and gas rationing ended, tourism and travel boomed along the coast. When Hearst Castle opened in 1958, a huge number of tourists also flowed through Big Sur. The road was declared the first State Scenic Highway in 1965, and in 1966 the first lady, Lady Bird Johnson, led the official designation ceremony at Bixby Creek Bridge. The route was designated as an All American Road by the U.S. Government.
Aside from Highway 1, the only access to Big Sur is via the winding, precipitous, 24.5 miles (39.4 km) long Nacimiento - Fergusson Road, which passes through Fort Hunter Liggett and connects to Mission Road in Jolon.
Highway 1 is at or near capacity much of the year. The primary transportation objective of the Big Sur Coastal Land Use plan is to maintain Highway 1 as a scenic two - lane road and to reserve most remaining capacity for the priority uses of the act.
The opening of Highway 1 dramatically altered the local economy. Monterey County gained national attention for its early conservation efforts when it successfully prevented construction of a service station billboard. The landmark court case before the California Supreme Court in 1962 affirmed the county 's right to ban billboards and other visual distractions on Highway 1. The case secured to local government the right to use its police power for aesthetic purposes.
Highway 1 has been closed on more than 55 occasions due to damage due from landslides, mudslides, erosion, and fire. In April 1958, torrential rains caused flood conditions throughout Monterey County and Highway 1 in Big Sur was closed in numerous locations due to slides. A series of storms in the winter of 1983 caused four major road - closing slides between January and April, including a large slide near Pfeiffer Burns State Park which closed the road for more than a year. In 1998, about 40 different locations on the road were damaged by El Niño storms, including a major slide 2 miles (3.2 km) south of Gorda that closed the road for almost three months. In March 2011, a 40 feet (12 m) section of Highway 1 just south of the Rocky Creek Bridge collapsed, closing the road for several months until a single lane bypass could be built. The state replaced that section of road with a viaduct that wraps around the unstable hillside. On January 16, 2016, the road was closed for portions of a day due to a mudslide near Julia Pfeiffer Burns State Park.
During the summer of 2016, the road was closed on several occasions due to the Soberanes Fire. During the following winter, Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park received more than 60 inches of rain, and in early February 2017, several mudslides blocked the road in more than half a dozen locations.
Just south of Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park, shifting earth damaged a pier supporting the Pfeiffer Canyon Bridge and forced CalTrans to shut down the highway. On February 20, 2017, CalTrans announced that the Pfeiffer Canyon Bridge was damaged beyond repair and would have to be replaced. Highway 1 remained closed. CalTrans immediate began planning and contracted with XKT Engineering on Mare Island for construction of a replacement steel girder bridge. They estimate the new bridge will be operational in mid-October 2017.
To the south, a slide in February at Mud Creek blocked the road 1 mile (1.6 km) southeast of Gorda, about 60 miles (97 km) south of Monterey. When the Nacimiento - Ferguson Road was temporarily closed, many businesses like the Esalen Institute and residents were isolated between the Pfeiffer Canyon Bridge and Mud Creek, and supplies and residents were ferried in and out by helicopter.
Repair work at Mud Creek enabled intermittent one - way traffic for residents and delivery trucks until May 22, when an extremely large slide beginning 1,100 feet (340 m) up the side of the mountain dumped more than one million tons of dirt on the road and more than 250 feet (76 m) into the ocean. It covered one - quarter - mile (. 40 km) of the highway and buried it up to 80 feet (24 m) deep in some places. CalTrans estimated the road would take up to a year to repair. On August 2, 2017, CalTrans announced it would rebuild the highway over the slide instead of clearing it. They expect to finish repairs at Mud Creek and to reopen the road in June 2018.
Public transportation is available to and from Monterey on Monterey - Salinas Transit. The summer schedule operates from Memorial Day to Labor Day three times a day, while the winter schedule only offers transport on weekends. The route is subject to interruption due to wind and severe inclement weather.
The majority of the Big Sur coast and interior are owned by the California State Department of Parks and Recreation, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Army, U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Navy, the Big Sur Land Trust, and the University of California. Approximately two - thirds of the Big Sur coastal area, totalling about 500,000 acres (200,000 ha), extending from the Carmel River in the north to San Simeon and the San Luis Obispo County line at San Carpóforo Canyon in the south, are preserved under various federal, state, county, and private arrangements.
As of 2016, if public acquisitions now contemplated or in progress are completed, approximately 60 % of the coast will be publicly owned, although not necessarily open to the public. For example, the Landels - Hill Big Creek Reserve is owned and managed by the University of California Natural Reserve System and the University of California, Santa Cruz. The reserve is only available for research or educational purposes. Reservations must be made in advance.
The first master plan for the Big Sur coast was written in 1962 by architect and part - time local resident Nathaniel A. Owings. In 1977 a small group of local Big Sur residents were appointed by Monterey County to the Big Sur Citizens ' Advisory Committee. Committee members met with Big Sur residents and county administrators to draft a new land use plan. They wrote the Big Sur Local Coastal Program with the goal to conserve scenic views and the unparalleled beauty of the area. They developed the plan over four years which included several months of public hearings and discussion, including considerable input from the residents of Big Sur. It states that region is to be preserved as "open space, a small residential community, and agricultural ranching. '' The plan was approved in 1981 and is one of the most restrictive local use programs in the state, and is widely regarded as one of the most restrictive documents of its kind anywhere.
The land use plan bans all development west of Highway 1 with the exception of the Big Sur Valley. The plan states,
Recognizing the Big Sur coast 's outstanding scenic beauty and its great benefit to the people of the State and the Nation, it is the County 's objective to preserve these scenic resources in perpetuity and to promote, wherever possible, the restoration of the natural beauty of visually degraded areas.
The County 's basic policy is to prohibit all future public or private development visible from Highway 1 and major public viewing areas.
Major public viewing areas include not only highways, but beaches, parks, campgrounds, and major trails, with a few exceptions. It also protects views of Mount Pico Blanco from the Old Coast Road. It allows limited amounts of additional commercial development, but only in four existing areas -- Big Sur Valley, Lucia, Pacific Valley, and Gorda.
The key provisions of the Big Sur Local Coastal Program that generated the most controversy set density requirements for future building. In tourist areas, the limit is one living unit per acre. West of Highway 1, density is limited to one unit per 2.5 acres (1.0 ha), and east of the highway to one unit per 5 acres (2.0 ha). In established communities like Palo Colorado and the Big Sur Valley, only one living unit per 2.5 acres (1.0 ha) is permitted. South of Big Sur Valley, the limit is set to one unit per 5 acres (2.0 ha), and in the far south of the region, only one unit per 10 acres (4.0 ha) is allowed.
The plan establishes a system in which the owner of a property that can not be developed under the rules can transfer that right to another piece of land where building is permitted.
Mount Pico Blanco is topped by a distinctive white limestone cap, visible from California 's Highway One. The Granite Rock Company of Watsonville, California has owned the mineral rights to 2,800 acres (1,100 ha) near and at the summit of Pico Blanco Mountain since 1963. They own all of section 36 which sits astide and surrounds the entire peak. The land is zoned WSC / 40 - D (CZ) for Watershed and Scenic Conservation. Limestone is a key ingredient in concrete and Granite Rock applied for a permit in 1980 from the U.S. Forest Service to begin excavating a 5 - acre (2.0 ha) quarry on the south face of Pico Blanco within the National Forest boundary.
After the Forest Service granted the permit, the California Coastal Commission required Graniterock to apply for a coastal development permit in accordance with the requirements of the California Coastal Act. Granite Rock filed suit, claiming that the Coastal Commission permit requirement was preempted by the Forest Service review. When Granite Rock prevailed in the lower courts, the Coastal Commission appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States, which in a historic 5 -- 4 decision in 1987, found in favor of the commission.
By this time Granite Rock 's permit had expired. In 2010, the company 's president stated that he believed that at some point the company would be allowed to extract the limestone in a way that does n't harm the environment. As of 2016, they still own the land.
Gold mining in the Los Burros District was a focal point of mining activity during the 1880s. There are also limited oil and gas reserves located offshore on the Outer Continental Shelf but exploration is As of 2016 prohibited.
Due to development restrictions, real estate prices are high. As of 2016, the median price of property is $1,813,846, and the average price is $3,942,371. The average home sold is 1,580 square feet (147 m) and has 2.39 bedrooms. The median lot size is 436,086 square feet (40,513.7 m), or just over 10 acres (4.0 ha). Less than half of the land along the coast is privately owned. The remainder is part of the federal or state park systems or owned by other agencies, while the interior is largely part of the Los Padres National Forest, Ventana Wilderness, Silver Peak Wilderness, and Fort Hunter Liggett.
About 76 % of the local population is dependent on the hospitality industry. Due to the shortage of housing and the high cost of rents, some of them have to move out of the area and commute 50 miles (80 km) or more to their work.
As of 2016 there are about 1,100 private land parcels on the Big Sur Coast. These are from less than an acre to several thousands of acres. Approximately 790 parcels are undeveloped. Many of the developed parcels have more than one residence or commercial building on them. Residential areas include Otter Cove, Garrapata Ridge and the adjacent Rocky Point, Garrapata and Palo Colorado Canyons, Bixby Canyon, Pfeiffer Ridge and Sycamore Canyon, Coastlands, Partington Ridge, Burns Creek, Buck Creek to Lime Creek, Plaskett Ridge, and Redwood Gulch.
Small parcels of 2.5 acres (1.0 ha) or less are generally located near the highway, including Palo Colorado Canyon, Garrapata Redwood, Rocky Point, Big Sur Valley, Coastlands and Partington. These areas have the greatest number of developed parcels.
In 1972, California voters passed Proposition 20, calling for establishing a coastal trail system. It stipulated that "a hiking, bicycle, and equestrian trails system be established along or near the coast '' and that "ideally the trails system should be continuous and located near the shoreline. '' The California Coastal Act of 1976 requires local jurisdictions to identify an alignment for the California Coastal Trail in their Local Coastal Programs. In 2001, California legislators passed SB 908 which gave the Coastal Conservancy responsibility for completing the trail.
In Monterey County, the trail is being developed in two sections: the Big Sur Trail and the Monterey Bay Sanctuary Trail. In 2007, the Coastal Conservancy began to develop a master plan for the 75 miles (121 km) stretch of coast through Big Sur from near Ragged Point in San Luis Obispo County to the Carmel River. A coalition of Big Sur residents began developing a master plan to accommodate the interests and concerns of coastal residents, but progress on an official trail stalled.
The coastal trail plan is intended to be respectful of the private landowner 's rights. One of the largest private land holdings along the coast is El Sur Ranch. It extends about 6 miles (9.7 km) along Highway 1, from near the Point Sur Lighthouse to the mouth of the Little Sur River at Hurricane Point, and it reaches 2.5 miles (4.0 km) up the Little Sur valley to the border of the Los Padre National Forest. The landowner Jim Hill supports the trail, but his land is already crossed by two public routes, Highway 1 and the Old Coast Highway. He is opposed to another public right - of - way through the ranch. In 2008, Representative Sam Farr from Carmel told attendees at a meeting in Big Sur that "I do n't think you 're going to see an end - to - end trail anytime in the near future. '' He said, "The regulatory hassle is unbelievable. It 's like we 're building an interstate freeway. '' Within Monterey County, about 20 miles (32 km) of the trail would cross private lands.
The acquisition of lands by the Big Sur Land Trust and others has created a 70 miles (110 km) long wildland corridor that begins at the Carmel River and extends southward to the Hearst Ranch in San Luis Obispo County. From the north, the wild land corridor is continuous through Palo Corona Ranch, Point Lobos Ranch, Garrapata State Park, Joshua Creek Ecological Preserve, Mittledorf Preserve, Glen Deven Ranch, Brazil Ranch, Los Padres National Forest, and the Ventana Wilderness. Many of these lands are distant from the coast, and the coastal trail plan calls for placing the trail, "Wherever feasible,... within sight, sound, or at least the scent of the sea. The traveler should have a persisting awareness of the Pacific Ocean. It is the presence of the ocean that distinguishes the seaside trail from other visitor destinations. ''
As an alternative to the trail called for by the act, hikers have adopted a route that utilizes existing roads and inland trails. The trail currently follows State Highway One and the Old Coast Road from Bixby Bridge. The trail south of Bixby Creek enters Brazil Ranch, which requires permission to enter. From Brazil Ranch the trail drops back to Highway One at Andrew Molera State Park. From Highway One, the trail then follows the Coast Ridge Road from the Ventana Inn area to Kirk Creek Campground. The trail then moves inland and follows the Cruikshank and Buckeye trails on the Santa Lucia Mountain ridges to the San Luis Obispo County line.
Nancy Carlen, a friend of singer Joan Baez, organized a weekend seminar at the Esalen Institute in Big Sur in June 1964 titled "The New Folk Music ''. Sunday afternoon they invited all the neighbors for a free, open performance. This became the first festival.
The Big Sur Folk Festival featured a lineup of emerging and established artists, including Joan Baez, Joni Mitchell, Judy Collins, The Beach Boys, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, Country Joe McDonald, John Sebastian, Arlo Guthrie, Dorothy Morrison & the Edwin Hawkins Singers, Julie Payne, and Richard and Mimi Fariña. The festival was held yearly on the grounds of the Esalen Institute, except for 1970, when it was held at the Monterey County Fairgrounds.
The concerts were small events emphasizing quality and atmosphere over publicity and commercial profit. Even when then well - known acts like Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young or the Beach Boys performed, the event was purposefully kept small with no more than a few thousand in attendance. The last festival was held in 1971.
The Big Sur Marathon is an annual marathon that begins south of Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park and ends at the Crossroads Shopping Center in Carmel - by - the - Sea, California. The marathon was established in 1986 and attracts about 4,500 participants annually.
Big Sur typically enjoys a mild climate year - round, with a sunny, dry summer and fall, and a cool, wet winter. Coastal temperatures range from the 50s at night to the 70s by day (Fahrenheit) from June through October, and in the 40s to 60s from November through May. Farther inland, away from the ocean 's moderating influence, temperatures are much more variable. The weather varies widely due to the influence of the jagged topography, creating many microclimates. This is one of the few places on Earth where redwoods grow in close proximity to cacti.
The record maximum temperature was 102 ° F (38.9 ° C) on June 20, 2008, and the record low was 27 ° F (− 2.8 ° C), recorded on December 21, 1998, and January 13, 2007. Average annual precipitation at the state park headquarters is 41.94 inches (1,065 mm). The wettest calendar year on record was 1983, when it rained 88.85 inches (2,257 mm). The driest year on record is 1990, with only 17.90 inches (455 mm). In January 1995 it rained a record 26.47 inches (672 mm). More than 70 percent of the rain falls from December through March. The summer is generally dry. Snowfall is rare on the coast, but is common in the winter months on the higher ridges of the Santa Lucia Mountains.
The Santa Lucia Mountains rise suddenly from the Pacific Ocean, creating a steep coastline. The mountains contain some of the most complex geology in California. The range is made up of rock originating in seafloor volcanoes, ancient mountains, stream beds, and seafloor sediment. The region is laced with a series of faults. Some geologists believe that the rock underlying the mountains was originally located 1,800 miles (2,900 km) to the south, near the southern end of the present - day Sierra Nevada Mountains, and may have been buried as deep as 14 miles (23 km) beneath the surface. The rock is believed to be from 15 to 21 million years old and had been moved north by transform motion along the San Andreas Fault system.
The Palo Colorado - San Gregorio fault system transitions onshore at Doud Creek, about 7 miles (11 km) south of Point Lobos, exposing the western edge of the Salinian block. Stream canyons frequently follow the north - westerly trending fault lines, rather than descending directly to the coast. The Salinian block is immediately south of the Monterey Submarine Canyon, one of the largest submarine canyon systems in the world, which is believed to have been an ancient outlet for the Colorado River.
The region is also traversed by the Sur - Hill fault, which is noticeable at Pfeiffer Falls in Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park. The 40 feet (12 m) waterfall were formed when the stream flowed over the hard gneiss of the Salinian block and encountered the softer Santa Margarita Sandstone. The falls were formed when the softer sandstone was worn away. The interior canyons are typically deep and narrow, and even in the summer sunshine only reaches many of the canyon bottoms for a few hours. The land is mostly steep, rocky, semi-arid except for the narrow canyons, and inaccessible. The Little Sur River canyon is characteristic of the Ventana Wilderness region: steep - sided, sharp - crested ridges separating valleys. At the mouth of the Little Sur river are some of the largest sand dunes on the Big Sur coast.
Along with much of the central and northern California coast, Big Sur frequently has dense fog in summer. The summer fog and summer drought have the same underlying cause: a massive, stable seasonal high pressure system that forms over the north Pacific Ocean. The high pressure cell inhibits rainfall and generates northwesterly air flow. These prevailing summer winds from the northwest drive the ocean surface water slightly offshore (through the Ekman effect) which generates an upwelling of colder sub surface water. The water vapor in the air contacting this cold water condenses into fog. The fog usually moves out to sea during the day and closes in at night, but sometimes heavy fog blankets the coast all day. Fog is an essential summer water source for many Big Sur coastal plants. While few plants can take water directly out of the air, water condensation on leaf surfaces slowly precipitates into the ground like rain.
The Santa Lucia range rises to more than 5,800 ft (1760 m), and the amount of rainfall greatly increases as the elevation rises and cools the air. At Pfeiffer -- Big Sur State Park on the coast, rainfall averaged about 43 in. (109 cm) annually from 1914 to 1987. Scientists estimate that about 90 in. (230 cm) falls on average near the ridge tops. But actual totals vary considerably.
Monterey County maintains a remote rain gauge for flood prediction on Mining Ridge at 4,000 ft (1200 m) near Cone Peak. The gauge frequently receives more rain than any gauge in the San Francisco Bay Area. During the winter of 1982 -- 1983, it rained more than 178 in. (452 cm) but the total is unknown because the rain gauge failed at that point. In 1975 -- 1976, it rained only 15 in. (39 cm) at Pfeiffer -- Big Sur State Park, compared to 85 in. (216 cm) in 1982 -- 1983. Rainfall amounts decrease sharply inland away from the coast.
Big Sur is sparsely populated with about 1,000 year - round residents, according to the 2000 U.S. Census, about the same number of residents found there in 1900. Big Sur residents include descendants of the original ranching families, artists and writers, service staff, along with wealthy home - owners. These wealthy homeowners, however, are usually only part - time residents of Big Sur. The mountainous terrain, environmental restrictions imposed by the Big Sur Coastal Use Plan, and lack of property and the expense required to develop available land, have kept Big Sur relatively unspoiled. The economy is almost completely based on service industries associated with tourism.
The United States does not define a census - designated place called Big Sur, but it does define a Zip Code Tabulation Area (ZCTA), 93920. Because Big Sur is contained roughly within this Zip Code Tabulation Area, it is possible to obtain Census data from the United States 2000 Census for the area even though data for "Big Sur '' is unavailable.
According to the United States 2000 Census, there were 996 people, 884 households, and 666 housing units in the 93920 ZCTA. The racial makeup of this area was 87.6 % White, 1.1 % African American, 1.3 % Native American, 2.4 % Asian, 0.0 % Pacific Islander, 5.5 % from other races, and 3.0 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9.6 % of the population.
In the 93920 ZCTA, the population age was widely distributed, with 20.2 % under the age of 20, 4.5 % from 20 to 24, 26.9 % from 25 to 44, 37.0 % from 45 to 64, and 11.2 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43.2 years.
The median income in 2000 for a household in 93920 ZCTA was $41,304, and the median income for a family was $65,083. These estimates exclude the sizeable number of residents who live in Palo Colorado Canyon, who are included in the Carmel Valley Zip Code Tabulation Area. As of 2004, there were about 300 households in the Palo Colorado Canyon area.
Existing settlements in the Big Sur region, between the Carmel River and the San Carpoforo Creek, include:
From north to south, the following state parks are in use.
At the county level, Big Sur is represented on the Monterey County Board of Supervisors by Supervisor Dave Potter.
In the California State Assembly, Big Sur is in the 17th Senate District, represented by Democrat Bill Monning, and in the 30th Assembly District, represented by Democrat Anna Caballero.
In the United States House of Representatives, Big Sur is in California 's 20th congressional district, represented by Democrat Jimmy Panetta.
In the early to mid-twentieth century, Big Sur 's relative isolation and natural beauty began to attract writers and artists, including Robinson Jeffers, Henry Miller, Edward Weston, Richard Brautigan, Hunter S. Thompson, Emile Norman, and Jack Kerouac. Jeffers was the first, arriving in Big Sur with his bride Una in 1913. Beginning in the 1920s, his poetry introduced the romantic idea of Big Sur 's wild, untamed spaces to a national audience, which encouraged many of the later visitors. In the posthumously published book Stones of the Sur, Carmel landscape photographer Morley Baer later combined his classical black and white photographs of Big Sur with some of Jeffers ' poetry.
Henry Miller lived in Big Sur for 20 years, from 1944 to 1962. His home was a wooden cabin that had been owned by his friend Emil White. His 1957 essay / memoir / novel Big Sur and the Oranges of Hieronymus Bosch described the joys and hardships that came from escaping the "air conditioned nightmare '' of modern life. The Henry Miller Memorial Library is a nonprofit bookstore and arts center that opened in 1981 as a tribute to the legendary writer. It is a gathering place for locals and has become the focal point of individuals with a literary mind, a cultural center devoted to Miller 's life and work, and a popular attraction for tourists.
Hunter S. Thompson worked as a security guard and caretaker at a resort in Big Sur Hot Springs for eight months in 1961, just before the Esalen Institute was founded at that location. While there, he published his first magazine feature in the nationally distributed Rogue (men 's) magazine, about Big Sur 's artisan and Bohemian culture.
Jack Kerouac spent a few days in Big Sur in early 1960 at fellow poet Lawrence Ferlinghetti 's cabin in the woods, and wrote a novel, Big Sur, based on his experience there. Big Sur acquired a bohemian reputation with these newcomers. Henry Miller recounted that a traveler knocked on his door, looking for the "cult of sex and anarchy. '' Apparently finding neither, the disappointed visitor returned home. Miller is referenced in Brautigan 's A Confederate General at Big Sur, in which a pair of young men attempt the idyllic Big Sur life in small shacks and are variously plagued by flies, low ceilings, visiting businessmen with nervous breakdowns, and 2,452 tiny frogs whose loud singing keeps everyone awake.
A number of famous people have called Big Sur home, including diplomats Nicholas Roosevelt, famed architects Nathaniel Owings and Phillip Johnson, Nobel Prize winner Linus Pauling, show business celebrities Kim Novak and Allen Funt, and business executives Ted Turner and David Packard.
Other former residents include:
The area 's increasing popularity and incredible beauty has attracted the attention of Hollywood. Orson Welles and his wife at the time, Rita Hayworth, bought a Big Sur cabin on impulse during a trip down the coast in 1944. They never spent a single night there, and the property is now the location of a popular restaurant, Nepenthe.
The 1974 film Zandy 's Bride, starring Gene Hackman and Liv Ullman, was based in Big Sur.
The Beach Boys ' single "California Saga: California '' on the band 's 1973 album Holland is a nostalgic depiction of the rugged wilderness in the area and the culture of its inhabitants. The first part describes the region 's environment, the second part is an adaption of the Robinson Jeffers poem The Beaks of Eagles, and the third part references local literary and musical figures.It is also the namesake of the Live How You Live song from the studio album "The Venice Sessions ''.
American composer John Adams wrote an electric violin concerto titled The Dharma at Big Sur.
This article incorporates public domain content from United States and California government sources.
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why do cans of guinness have balls in them | Widget (beer) - wikipedia
A widget is a device placed in a container of beer to manage the characteristics of the beer 's head. The original widget was patented in Ireland by Guinness. The "floating widget '' is found in cans of beer as a hollow plastic sphere, approximately 3 cm in diameter (similar in appearance to table tennis ball, but smaller) with at least one small hole and a seam. The "rocket widget '' is found in bottles, 7 cm in length with the small hole at the bottom.
Draught Guinness, as it is known today, was first produced in 1964. With Guinness keen to produce draught beer packaged for consumers to drink at home, Bottled Draught Guinness was formulated in 1978 and launched into the Irish market in 1979. It was never actively marketed internationally as it required an "initiator '' device, which looked rather like a syringe, to make it work.
Some canned beers are pressurized by adding liquid nitrogen, which vaporises and expands in volume after the can is sealed, forcing gas and beer into the widget 's hollow interior through a tiny hole -- the less beer the better for subsequent head quality. In addition, some nitrogen dissolves in the beer which also contains dissolved carbon dioxide. Oxygen is generally excluded as its presence can cause flavour deterioration.
The presence of dissolved nitrogen allows smaller bubbles to be formed, which increases the creaminess of the head. This is because the smaller bubbles need a higher internal pressure to balance the greater surface tension, which is inversely proportional to the radius of the bubbles. Achieving this higher pressure would not be possible with just dissolved carbon dioxide, as the greater solubility of this gas compared to nitrogen would create an unacceptably large head.
When the can is opened, the pressure in the can quickly drops, causing the pressurised gas and beer inside the widget to jet out from the hole. This agitation on the surrounding beer causes a chain reaction of bubble formation throughout the beer. The result, when the can is then poured out, is a surging mixture in the glass of very small gas bubbles and liquid.
This is the case with certain types of draught beer such as draught stouts. In the case of these draught beers, which before dispensing also contain a mixture of dissolved nitrogen and carbon dioxide, the agitation is caused by forcing the beer under pressure through small holes in a restrictor in the tap. The surging mixture gradually settles to produce a very creamy head.
In 1969 two Guinness brewers at Guinness 's St James 's Gate brewery in Dublin, Tony Carey and Sammy Hildebrand, developed a system for producing draught type Guinness from cans or bottles through the discharge of gas from an internal compartment. It was patented in British Patent No 1266351, filed 27 January 1969, with a complete specification published 8 March 1972.
Development work on a can system under Project ACORN (Advanced Cans Of Rich Nectar) focused on an arrangement whereby a false lid underneath the main lid formed the gas chamber (see diagram below right).
Technical difficulties led to this approach being put on hold, and Guinness instead concentrated on bottles using external initiators. Subsequently, Guinness allowed this patent to lapse and it was not until Ernest Saunders centralised the company 's research and development in 1984 that work restarted on this invention, under the direction of Alan Forage.
The design of an internal compartment that could be readily inserted during the canning process was devised by Alan Forage and William Byrne, and work started on the widget during the period 1984 -- 85. The plan was to introduce a plastic capsule into the can, pressurise it during the filling process and then allow it to release this pressure in a controlled manner when the can was opened. This would be sufficient to initiate the product and give it the characteristic creamy head. However, Tony Carey observed that this resulted in beer being forced into the widget during pressurisation, which reduced the quality of the head. He suggested overcoming this by rapidly inverting the can after the lid was seamed on. This extra innovation proved successful.
The first samples sent to Dublin were labelled "Project Dynamite '', which caused some delay before customs and excise would release the samples. Because of this the name was changed to Oaktree in recognition of the earlier ACORN project. Another name that changed was "inserts ''; the operators called them "widgets '' almost immediately after they arrived on site, a name that has now stuck with the industry.
The development of ideas continued and more than one hundred alternatives were considered. The blow - moulded widget was to be pierced with a laser and a blower was then necessary to blow away the plume created by the laser burning through the polypropylene. This was abandoned and instead it was decided to gas - exchange air for nitrogen on the filler, and produce the inserts with a hole in place using straightforward and cheaper injection - moulding techniques.
Commissioning began January 1988, with a national launch date of March 1989. This first - generation widget was a plastic disc held in place by friction in the bottom of the can. This method worked fine if the beer was served cold; when served warm the can would overflow when opened. The floating widget, which Guinness calls the "Smoothifier '', was launched in 1997 and does not have this problem.
The diagrams on the left show the development sequences for canned and bottled draught Guinness from 1969 to 1988.
The idea for the widget soon became popular. John Smith 's started to include widgets in their cans in 1994 and many beer brands in the UK now use widgets, often alongside regular carbonated products.
Although patented by Guinness, the widget was actually invented by John Lunn, MD of Mclennons of Birmingham, who went on to invent a second for Whitbread and Heineken, so that Whitbread could launch Draught Boddingtons in a can and Murphy 's. Lunn then later invented a third widget, the floating one, with two one - way valves, which is the widget that all brewers use now.
The term widget glass can be used to refer to a laser - etched pattern at the bottom of a beer glass which aids the release of carbon dioxide bubbles. The pattern of the etching can be anything from a simple circular or chequered design to a logo or text.
The widget in the base of a beer glass works by creating a nucleation point, allowing the CO to be released from the liquid which comes into contact with it, thus assisting in maintaining head on the beer. This has become increasingly popular with Fosters, Estrella and others using them in public houses in the UK.
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which is not considered to be a cornerstone of european culture and western civilization | Western culture - wikipedia
Western culture, sometimes equated with Western civilization, Occidental culture, the Western world, Western society, European civilization, or Judeo - Greco - Christian civilization, is a term used very broadly to refer to a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, belief systems, political systems and specific artifacts and technologies that have some origin or association with Europe. The term also applies beyond Europe, to countries and cultures whose histories are strongly connected to Europe by immigration, colonization, or influence. For example, Western Culture includes countries in the Americas and Australasia, whose language and demographic ethnicity majorities are currently European.
Western culture is characterized by a host of artistic, philosophic, literary and legal themes and traditions; the heritage of Greek, Roman, Jewish, Germanic, Celtic, Slavic and other ethnic and linguistic groups, as well as Middle Eastern Christianity including the Roman Catholic Church, and the Orthodox Church, which played an important part in the shaping of Western civilization since at least the 4th century. The teachings of Jesus, such as the Parable of the Good Samaritan, are among the important sources for modern notions of Human Rights and the welfare measures commonly provided by governments in the West. Before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian (Catholic - Protestant) countries and culture.
A cornerstone of Western thought, beginning in ancient Greece and continuing through the Middle Ages and Renaissance, is the idea of rationalism in various spheres of life, especially religion, developed by Hellenistic philosophy, Scholasticism, and humanism. The Catholic Church was for centuries at the center of the development of the values, ideas, science, laws, and institutions which constitute Western civilization. Empiricism later gave rise to the scientific method during the Scientific revolution and the Enlightenment. Values of Western culture have, throughout history, been derived from political thought, widespread employment of rational argument favouring freethought, assimilation of human rights, the need for equality and democracy.
Ancient Greece is considered the birthplace of many elements of Western culture, with the world 's first democratic system of government and major advances in philosophy, science and mathematics. Greece was followed by Rome, which made key contributions in law, government, engineering and political organization. Western culture continued to develop with the Christianisation of Europe during the Middle Ages and the reform and modernization triggered by the Renaissance. The Church preserved the intellectual developments of classical antiquity, and is the reason many of them are still known today. Medieval Christianity created the university, the hospital system, scientific economics, natural law (which would later influence the creation of international law), and numerous other innovations across all intellectual fields. Christianity played a role in ending practices common among pagan societies, such as human sacrifice, slavery, infanticide and polygamy. The globalization by successive European empires spread European ways of life and European educational methods around the world between the 16th and 20th centuries. European culture developed with a complex range of philosophy, medieval scholasticism and mysticism, and Christian and secular humanism. Rational thinking developed through a long age of change and formation, with the experiments of the Enlightenment, and breakthroughs in the sciences. Tendencies that have come to define modern Western societies include the concept of political pluralism, prominent subcultures or countercultures (such as New Age movements) and increasing cultural syncretism resulting from globalization and human migration.
The West as a geographical area is unclear and undefined. More often a country 's ideology is what will be used to categorize it as a Western society. There is some disagreement about what nations should or should not be included in the category, and at what times. Many parts of the Eastern Roman Empire are considered Western today but were Eastern in the past. Geographically, the "West '' of today would include Europe (especially the European Union countries) together with extra-European territories belonging to the English - speaking world, as well as the Hispanidad, the Lusosphere or the Francophonie in the wider context. Since the context is highly biased and context - dependent, there is no agreed definition what the "West '' is.
It is difficult to determine which individuals fit into which category and the East -- West contrast is sometimes criticized as relativistic and arbitrary. Globalism has spread Western ideas so widely that almost all modern cultures are, to some extent, influenced by aspects of Western culture. Stereotyped views of "the West '' have been labeled Occidentalism, paralleling Orientalism -- the term for the 19th - century stereotyped views of "the East ''.
As Europe discovered the wider world, old concepts adapted. The area that had formerly been considered the Orient ("the East '') became the Near East, as the interests of the European powers interfered with Meiji Japan and Qing China for the first time, in the 19th century. Thus, the Sino - Japanese War in 1894 -- 1895 occurred in the Far East, while the troubles surrounding the decline of the Ottoman Empire simultaneously occurred in the Near East. The term Middle East, in the mid-19th century, included the territory east of the Ottoman Empire, but West of China -- Greater Persia and Greater India -- is now used synonymously with "Near East '' in most languages.
The earliest civilizations which influenced the development of western culture were those of Mesopotamia; the area of the Tigris -- Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern - day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran: the cradle of civilization.
The Greeks contrasted themselves to their Eastern neighbors, such as the Trojans in Iliad, setting an example for later contrasts between east and west. In the Middle Ages, the Near East provided a contrast to the West, though it had been Hellenized since the time of Alexander the Great.
Concepts of what is the West arose out of legacies of the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. Later, ideas of the west were formed by the concepts of Latin Christendom and the Holy Roman Empire. What we think of as Western thought today originates primarily from Greco - Roman and Germanic influences, and includes the ideals of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the Enlightenment, as well as Christian culture.
Western culture is neither homogeneous nor unchanging. As with all other cultures, it has evolved and gradually changed over time. Nevertheless, it is possible to follow the evolution and history of the West, and appreciate its similarities and differences, its borrowings from, and contributions to, other cultures of humanity.
In Homeric literature, and right up until the time of Alexander the Great, for example in the accounts of the Persian Wars of Greeks against Persians by Herodotus, we see the paradigm of a contrast between the West and East.
Nevertheless, the Greeks felt they were the most civilized and saw themselves (in the formulation of Aristotle) as something between the wild barbarians of most of Europe and the soft, slavish Middle - Easterners. Ancient Greek science, philosophy, democracy, architecture, literature, and art provided a foundation embraced and built upon by the Roman Empire as it swept up Europe, including the Hellenic World in its conquests in the 1st century BCE. In the meantime, however, Greece, under Alexander, had become a capital of the East, and part of an empire. The Celts also created some significant literature in the ancient world whenever they were given the opportunity (an example being the poet Caecilius Statius). They also developed a large amount of scientific knowledge themselves, as seen in their Coligny Calendar.
For about five hundred years, the Roman Empire maintained the Greek East and consolidated a Latin West, but an East - West division remained, reflected in many cultural norms of the two areas, including language. Although Rome, like Greece, was no longer democratic, the idea of democracy remained a part of the education of citizens.
Eventually, the empire became increasingly split into a Western and Eastern part, reviving old ideas of a contrast between an advanced East, and a rugged West. In the Roman world one could speak of three main directions: North (Celtic tribal states and Parthians), the East (lux ex oriente), and finally South, which implied danger, historically via the Punic Wars (Quid novi ex Africa?).
From the time of Alexander the Great (the Hellenistic period) Greek civilization came in contact with Jewish civilization. The history of Hellenism and Judaism is a history of interaction between the two cultures that heavily influenced the western civilisation. Later, Christianity emerged from Judaism on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, and both spread around the Roman world, with Christianity being the more popular religion. The rise of Christianity reshaped much of the Graeco - Roman tradition and culture; the Christianised culture would be the basis for the development of Western civilization after the fall of Rome (which resulted from increasing pressure from barbarians outside Roman culture). Roman culture also mixed with Celtic, Germanic and Slavic cultures, which slowly became integrated into Western culture: starting mainly with their acceptance of Christianity.
The Medieval West was at its broadest the same as Christendom, including both the "Latin '' West, also called "Frankish '' during Charlemagne 's reign and the Orthodox Eastern part, where Greek remained the language of empire.
After the fall of Rome, much of Greco - Roman art, literature, science and even technology were all but lost in the western part of the old empire. However, this would become the centre of a new West. Europe fell into political anarchy, with many warring kingdoms and principalities. Under the Frankish kings, it eventually, and partially, reunified, and the anarchy evolved into feudalism.
Much of the basis of the post-Roman cultural world had been set before the fall of the Empire, mainly through the integration and reshaping of Roman ideas through Christian thought. The Greek and Roman paganism had been completely replaced by Christianity around the 4th and 5th centuries, since it became the official State religion following the baptism of emperor Constantine I. Orthodox Christian Christianity and the Nicene Creed served as a unifying force in Christian parts of Europe, and in some respects replaced or competed with the secular authorities. Art and literature, law, education, and politics were preserved in the teachings of the Church, in an environment that, otherwise, would have probably seen their loss. The Church founded many cathedrals, universities, monasteries and seminaries, some of which continue to exist today.
Medieval Christianity created the university. The Catholic Church established a hospital system in Medieval Europe that vastly improves from the merely reciprocal hospitality of the Greeks and family - based obligations of the Romans. These hospitals were established to cater to "particular social groups marginalized by poverty, sickness, and age, '' according to historian of hospitals, Guenter Risse. Christianity played a role in ending practices common among pagan soceities, such as human sacrifice, slavery, infanticide and polygamy. Francisco de Vitoria, a disciple of Thomas Aquinas and a Catholic thinker who studied the issue regarding the human rights of colonized natives, is recognized by the United Nations as a father of international law, and now also by historians of economics and democracy as a leading light for the West 's democracy and rapid economic development. Joseph Schumpeter, an economist of the twentieth century, referring to the Scholastics, wrote, "it is they who come nearer than does any other group to having been the ' founders ' of scientific economics. '' Other economists and historians, such as Raymond de Roover, Marjorie Grice - Hutchinson, and Alejandro Chafuen, have also made similar statements. Historian Paul Legutko of Stanford University said the Catholic Church is "at the center of the development of the values, ideas, science, laws, and institutions which constitute what we call Western civilization. ''
In a broader sense, the Middle Ages, with its fertile encounter between Greek philosophical reasoning and Levantine monotheism was not confined to the West but also stretched into the old East. The philosophy and science of Classical Greece was largely forgotten in Europe after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, other than in isolated monastic enclaves (notably in Ireland, which had become Christian but was never conquered by Rome). The learning of Classical Antiquity was better preserved in the Byzantine Eastern Roman Empire. Justinian 's Corpus Juris Civilis Roman civil law code was preserved in the East and Constantinople maintained trade and intermittent political control over outposts such as Venice in the West for centuries. Classical Greek learning was also subsumed, preserved and elaborated in the rising Eastern world, which gradually supplanted Roman - Byzantine control as a dominant cultural - political force. Thus, much of the learning of classical antiquity was slowly reintroduced to European civilisation in the centuries following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire.
The rediscovery of the Justinian Code in Western Europe early in the 10th century rekindled a passion for the discipline of law, which crossed many of the re-forming boundaries between East and West. In the Catholic or Frankish west, Roman law became the foundation on which all legal concepts and systems were based. Its influence is found in all Western legal systems, although in different manners and to different extents. The study of canon law, the legal system of the Catholic Church, fused with that of Roman law to form the basis of the refounding of Western legal scholarship. During the Reformation and Enlightenment, the ideas of civil rights, equality before the law, procedural justice, and democracy as the ideal form of society began to be institutionalized as principles forming the basis of modern Western culture, particularly in Protestant regions.
In the 14th century, starting from Italy and then spreading throughout Europe, there was a massive artistic, architectural, scientific and philosophical revival, as a result of the Christian revival of Greek philosophy, and the long Christian medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities. This period is commonly referred to as the Renaissance. In the following century, this process was further enhanced by an exodus of Greek Christian priests and scholars to Italian cities such as Venice after the end of the Byzantine Empire with the fall of Constantinople.
From Late Antiquity, through the Middle Ages, and onwards, while Eastern Europe was shaped by the Orthodox Church, Southern and Central Europe were increasingly stabilized by the Catholic Church which, as Roman imperial governance faded from view, was the only consistent force in Western Europe. In 1054 came the so - called Great Schism that, following the Greek East and Latin West divide, separated Europe into religious and cultural regions present to this day. Until the Age of Enlightenment, Christian culture took over as the predominant force in western civilization, guiding the course of philosophy, art, and science for many years. Movements in art and philosophy, such as the Humanist movement of the Renaissance and the Scholastic movement of the High Middle Ages, were motivated by a drive to connect Catholicism with Greek and Arab thought imported by Christian pilgrims. However, due to the division in Western Christianity caused by the Protestant Reformation and the Enlightenment, religious influence -- especially the temporal power of the Pope -- began to wane.
From the late 15th century to the 17th century, Western culture began to spread to other parts of the world through explorers and missionaries during the Age of Discovery, and by imperialists from the 17th century to the early 20th century. During the Great Divergence, a term coined by Samuel Huntington the Western world overcame pre-modern growth constraints and emerged during the 19th century as the most powerful and wealthy world civilization of the time, eclipsing Qing China, Mughal India, Tokugawa Japan, and the Ottoman Empire. The process was accompanied and reinforced by the Age of Discovery and continued into the modern period. Scholars have proposed a wide variety of theories to explain why the Great Divergence happened, including lack of government intervention, geography, colonialism, and customary traditions.
Coming into the modern era, the historical understanding of the East - West contrast -- as the opposition of Christendom to its geographical neighbors -- began to weaken. As religion became less important, and Europeans came into increasing contact with far away peoples, the old concept of Western culture began a slow evolution towards what it is today. The Age of Discovery faded into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, during which cultural and intellectual forces in Western Europe emphasized reason, analysis, and individualism rather than traditional lines of authority. It challenged the authority of institutions that were deeply rooted in society, such as the Catholic Church; there was much talk of ways to reform society with toleration, science and skepticism.
Philosophers of the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, Baruch Spinoza, Voltaire (1694 -- 1778), David Hume, and Immanuel Kant. influenced society by publishing widely read works. Upon learning about enlightened views, some rulers met with intellectuals and tried to apply their reforms, such as allowing for toleration, or accepting multiple religions, in what became known as enlightened absolutism. New ideas and beliefs spread around Europe and were fostered by an increase in literacy due to a departure from solely religious texts. Publications include Encyclopédie (1751 -- 72) that was edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert. The Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary, 1764) and Letters on the English (1733) written by Voltaire spread the ideals of the Enlightenment.
Coinciding with the Age of Enlightenment was the scientific revolution, spearheaded by Newton. This included the emergence of modern science, during which developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed views of society and nature. While its dates are disputed, the publication in 1543 of Nicolaus Copernicus 's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is often cited as marking the beginning of the scientific revolution, and its completion is attributed to the "grand synthesis '' of Newton 's 1687 Principia.
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam power, and the development of machine tools. These transitions began in Great Britain, and spread to Western Europe and North America within a few decades.
The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries. The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per - capita economic growth in capitalist economies. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals, plants and fire.
The First Industrial Revolution evolved into the Second Industrial Revolution in the transition years between 1840 and 1870, when technological and economic progress continued with the increasing adoption of steam transport (steam - powered railways, boats, and ships), the large - scale manufacture of machine tools and the increasing use of machinery in steam - powered factories.
Some cultural and artistic modalities are characteristically Western in origin and form. While dance, music, visual art, story - telling, and architecture are human universals, they are expressed in the West in certain characteristic ways.
In Western dance, music, plays and other arts, the performers are only very infrequently masked. There are essentially no taboos against depicting a god, or other religious figures, in a representational fashion.
In music, Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern Western musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church, and an enormous body of religious music has been composed for it through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of European classical music, and its many derivatives. The Baroque style, which encompassed music, art, and architecture, was particularly encouraged by the post-Reformation Catholic Church as such forms offered a means of religious expression that was stirring and emotional, intended to stimulate religious fervor.
The symphony, concerto, sonata, opera, and oratorio have their origins in Italy. Many important musical instruments used by cultures all over the world were also developed in the West; among them are the violin, piano, pipe organ, saxophone, trombone, clarinet, accordion, and the theremin. The solo piano, symphony orchestra, and the string quartet are also important performing musical forms.
Many forms of popular music have been derived from African - Americans, and their innovations of jazz and blues serve as the basis from which much of modern popular music derives. Folklore and music during 19th and 20th centuries, initially by themselves, but later played and further developed together with White and Black Americans, British people, and Westerners in general. These include jazz, blues and rock music (that in a wider sense include the rock and roll and heavy metal genres), rhythm and blues, funk, hip hop, techno as well as the ska and reggae genres from Jamaica. Several other related or derived styles were developed and introduced by Western pop culture such as pop and dance music.
Jan van Eyck, among other renaissance painters, made great advances in oil painting, and perspective drawings and paintings had their earliest practitioners in Florence. In art, the Celtic knot is a very distinctive Western repeated motif. Depictions of the nude human male and female in photography, painting, and sculpture are frequently considered to have special artistic merit. Realistic portraiture is especially valued.
Photography, and the motion picture as both a technology and basis for entirely new art forms were also developed in the West.
Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci
Bacchus, by Caravaggio
Judith Slaying Holofernes, by Artemisia Gentileschi
The Night Watch, by Rembrandt
Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, by Pablo Picasso
The House on the Bridge, by Diego Rivera
Bella with White Collar, by Marc Chagall
The ballet is a distinctively Western form of performance dance. The ballroom dance is an important Western variety of dance for the elite. The polka, the square dance, and the Irish step dance are very well known Western forms of folk dance.
The soap opera, a popular culture dramatic form, originated in the United States first on radio in the 1930s, then a couple of decades later on television. The music video was also developed in the West in the middle of the 20th century.
While epic literary works in verse such as the Mahabharata and Homer 's Iliad are ancient and occurred worldwide, the prose novel as a distinct form of storytelling, with developed, consistent human characters and, typically, some connected overall plot (although both of these characteristics have sometimes been modified and played with in later times), was popularized by the West in the 17th and 18th centuries. Of course, extended prose fiction had existed much earlier; both novels of adventure and romance in the Hellenistic world and in Heian Japan. Both Petronius ' Satyricon (c. 60 CE) and the Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu (c. 1000 CE) have been cited as the world 's first major novel but they had a very limited long - term impact on literary writing beyond their own day until much more recent times.
Tragedy, from its ritually and mythologically inspired Greek origins to modern forms where struggle and downfall are often rooted in psychological or social, rather than mythical, motives, is also widely considered a specifically European creation and can be seen as a forerunner of some aspects of both the novel and of classical opera.
Homer, Ancient Greek epic poet
Sappho, Ancient Greek poet
Aeschylus, Ancient Greek playwright
Sophocles, Ancient Greek playwright
Euripides, Ancient Greek playwright
Virgil, Roman poet
Horace, Roman poet
Ovid, Roman poet
Dante Alighieri, Italian (Florentine) poet
Petrarch, Italian (Florentine) poet
Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian (Florentine) poet
Christine de Pizan, French author
Geoffrey Chaucer, English poet
Lope de Vega, Spanish playwright and poet
Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish playwright, poet and novelist
William Shakespeare, English poet and playwright
Joost van den Vondel, Dutch poet and playwright
Luís Vaz de Camões, Portuguese poet
Molière, French playwright and actor
Voltaire, French writer, historian and philosopher
Jean - Jacques Rousseau, Genevan - French writer and philosopher
Olympe de Gouges, French playwright and political activist
Goethe, German writer
Jane Austen, English novelist
Mary Shelley, English novelist
Lord Byron, English poet
Victor Hugo, French poet and novelist
Edgar Allan Poe, American author, poet, editor and literary critic
Multatuli, Dutch writer
Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Russian writer
Leo Tolstoy, Russian writer
Miles Franklin, Australian writer and feminist
Oscar Wilde, Irish playwright and author
Anton Chekov, Russian playwright and writer
James Joyce, Irish writer
Virginia Woolf, English writer
Anna Akhmatova, Russian poet
Federico García Lorca, Spanish poet
Mikhail Bulgakov, Russian writer
Ernest Hemingway, American writer
Octavio Paz, Mexican writer and poet
Jorge Luis Borges, Argentinian writer and poet
Pablo Neruda, Chilean poet
Machado de Assis, Brazilian writer
Gabriel García Márquez, Colombian writer
J.R.R. Tolkien, English writer and philologist
Important Western architectural motifs include the Doric, Corinthian, and Ionic columns, and the Romanesque, Gothic, Baroque, and Victorian styles are still widely recognised, and used even today, in the West. Much of Western architecture emphasizes repetition of simple motifs, straight lines and expansive, undecorated planes. A modern ubiquitous architectural form that emphasizes this characteristic is the skyscraper, first developed in New York, London, and Chicago.
The Acropolis in Athens, Greece.
The Colosseum in Rome, Italy.
The Pantheon in Rome, Italy.
The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey.
Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, Italy.
The Notre - Dame de Paris in France.
The Apostolic Palace in Rome, Italy.
Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, Ukraine.
The Moscow Kremlin in Moscow, Russia.
The Winter Palace in St Petersburg, Russia.
The Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., United States.
A notable feature of Western culture is its strong emphasis and focus on innovation and invention through science and technology, and its ability to generate new processes, materials and material artifacts with its roots dating back to the Ancient Greeks. The scientific method as "a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses '' was almost entirely fashioned by the Italian Galileo Galilei.
The Western World has been the leading force in the technological and scientific disciplines: whether measured in people or events, 97 percent of accomplishment in the scientific inventories occurred in Europe and North America. The Dictionary of Scientific Biography (DoSB) sponsored by the American Council of Learned Societies, concluded that Eighty - one percent of the most significant scientists and mathematicians come from Europe compared to 76 percent in the Human Accomplishment set, numbers that rise to 94 and 91 percent respectively when the United States and Canada are included. The United Kingdom, France, Germany and Italy alone account for 72 percent of all the significant scientific figures in science from 1400 to 1950. Add in Russia and the Netherlands, and 80 percent of all significant figures are accounted for.
By the will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel the Nobel Prize were established in 1895. The prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. The percentage of ethnically European noble prize winners during the first and second halves of the 20th century were respectively 98 and 94 percent. A study by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) - Japan 's equivalent of the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) concluded that 54 % of the world 's most important inventions were British. Of the rest, 25 % were American and 5 % Japanese.
It was the West that first developed steam power and adapted its use into factories, and for the generation of electric power. The electrical motor, dynamo, transformer, and electric light, and indeed most of the familiar electrical appliances, were inventions of the West. The Otto and the Diesel internal combustion engines are products whose genesis and early development were in the West. Nuclear power stations are derived from the first atomic pile constructed in Chicago in 1942.
Communication devices and systems including the telegraph, the telephone, radio, television, communications and navigation satellites, mobile phone, and the Internet were all invented by Westerners. The pencil, ballpoint pen, Cathode ray tube, liquid - crystal display, light - emitting diode, camera, photocopier, laser printer, ink jet printer, plasma display screen and world wide web were also invented in the West.
Ubiquitous materials including concrete, aluminium, clear glass, synthetic rubber, synthetic diamond and the plastics polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride and polystyrene were invented in the West. Iron and steel ships, bridges and skyscrapers first appeared in the West. Nitrogen fixation and petrochemicals were invented by Westerners. Most of the elements, were discovered and named in the West, as well as the contemporary atomic theories to explain them.
The transistor, integrated circuit, memory chip, and computer were all first seen in the West. The ship 's chronometer, the screw propeller, the locomotive, bicycle, automobile, and airplane were all invented in the West. Eyeglasses, the telescope, the microscope and electron microscope, all the varieties of chromatography, protein and DNA sequencing, computerised tomography, Nuclear magnetic resonance, x-rays, and light, ultraviolet and infrared spectroscopy, were all first developed and applied in Western laboratories, hospitals and factories.
In medicine, the pure antibiotics were created in the West. The method of preventing Rh disease, the treatment of diabetes, and the germ theory of disease were discovered by Westerners. The eradication of smallpox, was led by a Westerner, Donald Henderson. Radiography, Computed tomography, Positron emission tomography and Medical ultrasonography are important diagnostic tools developed in the West. Other important diagnostic tools of clinical chemistry including the methods of spectrophotometry, electrophoresis and immunoassay were first devised by Westerners. So were the stethoscope, electrocardiograph, and the endoscope. Vitamins, hormonal contraception, hormones, insulin, Beta blockers and ACE inhibitors, along with a host of other medically proven drugs were first utilized to treat disease in the West. The double - blind study and evidence - based medicine are critical scientific techniques widely used in the West for medical purposes.
In mathematics, calculus, statistics, logic, vectors, tensors and complex analysis, group theory and topology were developed by Westerners. In biology, evolution, chromosomes, DNA, genetics and the methods of molecular biology are creatures of the West. In physics, the science of mechanics and quantum mechanics, relativity, thermodynamics, and statistical mechanics were all developed by Westerners. The discoveries and inventions by Westerners in electromagnetism include Coulomb 's law (1785), the first battery (1800), the unity of electricity and magnetism (1820), Biot -- Savart law (1820), Ohm 's Law (1827), and the Maxwell 's equations (1871). The atom, nucleus, electron, neutron and proton were all unveiled by Westerners.
In business, economics, and finance, double entry bookkeeping, credit card, and the charge card were all first used in the West.
Westerners are also known for their explorations of the globe and outer space. The first expedition to circumnavigate the Earth (1522) was by Westerners, as well as the first journey to the South Pole (1911), and the first moon landing (1969). The landing of robots on Mars (2004 and 2012) and on an asteroid (2001), the Voyager 2 explorations of the outer planets (Uranus in 1986 and Neptune in 1989), Voyager 1 's passage into interstellar space (2013), and New Horizons ' flyby of Pluto (2015) were significant recent Western achievements.
Pythagoras, Greek mathematician
Hippocrates, Greek physician
Euclid, Greek mathematician
Archimedes, Greek polymath
Aristarchus of Samos, Greek mathematician and astronomer
Hypatia, Greek mathematician and astronomer
Leonardo da Vinci, Italian polymath
Johannes Gutenberg, German blacksmith and inventor of the printing press
Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish mathematician and astronomer
Galileo Galilei, Italian polymath
Johannes Kepler, German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer
Christiaan Huygens, Dutch mathematician and scientist
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, German polymath
Isaac Newton, English mathematician, astronomer, and physicist
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, Dutch microbiologist
Blaise Pascal, French mathematician, physicist and inventor
Pierre de Fermat, French mathematician
Giovanni Domenico Cassini, Italian mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and engineer
Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician, physicist, astronomer, logician and engineer
Carl Linnaeus, Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist
William Herschel, German - British astronomer and composer
Amedeo Avogadro, Italian scientist
Carl Friedrich Gauss, German mathematician
Nikolai Lobachevsky, Russian mathematician
Gregor Mendel, German scientist
Louis Pasteur, French biologist, microbiologist and chemist
André - Marie Ampère, French physicist and mathematician
Charles Darwin, English biologist, naturalist and geologist
Michael Faraday, English scientist
Dmitri Mendeleyev, Russian chemist
Ludwig Boltzmann, Austrian physicist
Thomas Edison, American inventor
Ivan Pavlov, Russian physiologist
Marie Curie, Polish physicist and chemist
Max Planck, German theoretical physicist
Hendrik Lorentz, Dutch theoretical physicist
Albert Einstein, German theoretical physicist
Heinrich Hertz, German physicist
Guglielmo Marconi, Italian inventor and electrical engineer
James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish scientist in the field of mathematical physics
Rita Levi - Montalcini, Italian neuroscientist
Dorothy Hodgkin, British chemist
Ernest Rutherford, New Zealand - born British physicist
Barbara McClintock, American scientist and cytogeneticist
Nikola Tesla, Serbian - American inventor, engineer and physicist
Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian physicist
Mario J. Molina, Mexican chemist.
Gertrude B. Elion, American biochemist and pharmacologist
James Watson, American molecular biologist, geneticist and zoologist
Linus Pauling, American chemist and biochemist
John Bardeen, American physicist and electrical engineer
Murray Gell - Mann, American physicist
The Western media refers to the news media of the Western world. The roots of the Western media can be traced back to the late 15th century, when printing presses began to operate throughout Western Europe. The emergence of news media in the 17th century has to be seen in close connection with the spread of the printing press, from which the publishing press derives its name.
In the 16th century, a decrease in the preeminence of Latin in its literary use, along with the impact of economic change, the "discoveries '' arising from trade and travel, navigation to the "new '' world, science and arts and the development of increasingly rapid communications through print led to a rising corpus of vernacular media content in Western Europe.
After the launch of the satellite Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union in 1957, satellite transmission technology was dramatically realised, with the U.S. launching Telstar in 1962 linking live media broadcasts from the UK to the US. The first digital broadcast satellite (DBS) system began transmitting in America in 1975.
Beginning in the 1990s, the Internet has contributed to a tremendous increase in the accessibility of Western media content. Departing from media offered in bundled content packages (magazines, CDs, television and radio slots), the Internet has primarily offered unbundled content items (articles, audio and video files).
The native religions of Europe were polytheistic but not homogenous -- however they were similar insofar as they were predominantly Indo - European in origin. Roman religion was similar to but not the same as Hellenic religion -- likewise the same for indigenous Germanic polytheism, Celtic polytheism and Slavic polytheism. Western culture, for at least the last 1000 years, has been considered nearly synonymous with Christian culture. Before this time many Europeans from the north, especially Scandinavians, remained polytheistic, though southern Europe was predominantly Christian from the 5th century onwards.
Western culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, and many of the population of the Western hemisphere could broadly be described as cultural Christians. The notion of "Europe '' and the "Western World '' has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom '' many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.
As in other areas, Judaism is found in the Western world. Minority groups, and Jews in particular, often had to contend with discrimination and persecution. This could include being subjected to violence and / or destruction of property (this may be referred to as a pogrom) as well as being expelled or banned from various polities, hoping to find havens in other places.
Religion has waned considerably in Europe, where many are today irreligious, agnostic or atheist and they make up about 18 % of the European population. In terms of irreligion, over half of the populations of the Czech Republic (79 % of the population was agnostic, atheist or irreligious), the United Kingdom (~ 25 %), Germany (25 -- 33 %), France (30 -- 35 %) and the Netherlands (39 -- 44 %) are agnostic, atheist, or otherwise non-religious.
However, per another survey by Pew Research Center from 2011, Christianity remains the dominant religion in the Western world where 70 -- 84 % are Christians, According to this survey, 76 % of Europeans described themselves as Christians, and about 86 % of the Americas population identified themselves as Christians, (90 % in Latin America and 77 % in North America). And 73 % in Oceania are self - identify as Christian, and 76 % in South Africa is Christian.
According to new polls about religiosity in the European Union in 2012 by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union, accounting for 72 % of the EU population. Catholics are the largest Christian group, accounting for 48 % of the EU population, while Protestants make up 12 %, Eastern Orthodox make up 8 % and other Christians make up 4 %. Non believer / Agnostic account 16 %, Atheist account 's 7 %, and Muslim 2 %.
Throughout the Western world there are increasing numbers of people who seek to revive the indigenous religions of their European ancestors, such groups include Germanic, Roman, Hellenic, Celtic and Slavic, polytheistic reconstructionist movements, likewise, Wicca, new age spirituality and other neo-pagan belief systems enjoy notable minority support in Western nations.
Since classical antiquity, sport has been an important facet of Western cultural expression. A wide range of sports were already established by the time of Ancient Greece and the military culture and the development of sports in Greece influenced one another considerably. Sports became such a prominent part of their culture that the Greeks created the Olympic Games, which in ancient times were held every four years in a small village in the Peloponnesus called Olympia. Baron Pierre de Coubertin, a Frenchman, instigated the modern revival of the Olympic movement. The first modern Olympics were held at Athens in 1896.
The Romans built immense structures such as the Colisseum in Rome to house their festivals of sport. The Romans exhibited a passion for blood sports, such as the infamous Gladiatorial battles that pitted contestants against one another in a fight to the death. The Olympic Games revived many of the sports of Classical Antiquity -- such as Greco - Roman wrestling, discus and javelin. The sport of bullfighting is a traditional spectacle of Spain, Portugal, southern France, and some Latin American countries. It traces its roots to prehistoric bull worship and sacrifice and is often linked to Rome, where many human - versus - animal events were held. Bullfighting spread from Spain to its Central and South American colonies, and in the 19th century to France, where it developed into a distinctive form in its own right.
Jousting and hunting were popular sports in the Western Europe of the Middle Ages, and the aristocratic classes of Europe developed passions for leisure activities. A great number of the popular global sports were first developed or codified in Europe. The modern game of golf originated in Scotland, where the first written record of golf is James II 's banning of the game in 1457, as an unwelcome distraction to learning archery. The Industrial Revolution that began in Britain in the 18th Century brought increased leisure time, leading to more time for citizens to attend and follow spectator sports, greater participation in athletic activities, and increased accessibility. These trends continued with the advent of mass media and global communication. The bat and ball sport of cricket was first played in England during the 16th century and was exported around the globe via the British Empire. A number of popular modern sports were devised or codified in Britain during the 19th Century and obtained global prominence -- these include Ping Pong, modern tennis, Association Football, Netball and Rugby.
Football (also known as soccer) remains hugely popular in Europe, but has grown from its origins to be known as the world game. Similarly, sports such as cricket, rugby, and netball were exported around the world, particularly among countries in the Commonwealth of Nations, thus India and Australia are among the strongest cricketing nations, while victory in the Rugby World Cup has been shared among the Western nations of New Zealand, Australia, South Africa and England.
Australian Rules Football, an Australian variation of football with similarities to Gaelic football and rugby evolved in the British colony of Victoria in the mid-19th century. The United States also developed unique variations of English sports. English migrants took antecedents of baseball to America during the colonial period. The history of American football can be traced to early versions of rugby football and association football. Many games known as "football '' were being played at colleges and universities in the United States in the first half of the 19th century American football resulted from several major divergences from rugby, most notably the rule changes instituted by Walter Camp, the "Father of American Football ''. Basketball was invented in 1891 by James Naismith, a Canadian physical education instructor working in Springfield, Massachusetts in the United States. From these American origins, basketball has become one of the great international participation sports.
Professionalism in sport in the West became prevalent during the 20th Century, further adding to the increase in sport 's popularity, as sports fans began following the exploits of professional athletes through radio, television, and the internet -- all while enjoying the exercise and competition associated with amateur participation in sports.
Western culture has developed many themes and traditions, the most significant of which are:
At the same time, then as the printing press in the physical technological sense was invented, ' the press ' in the extended sense of the word also entered the historical stage. The phenomenon of publishing was now born.
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what family is the rhubarb a part of | Rhubarb - wikipedia
Rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum) is a species of plant in the family Polygonaceae. It is a herbaceous perennial growing from short, thick rhizomes. It produces large poisonous leaves that are somewhat triangular, with long fleshy edible stalks and small flowers grouped in large compound leafy greenish - white to rose - red inflorescences.
In culinary use, fresh raw leaf stalks (petioles) are crisp (similar to celery, although they do not share the same family) with a strong, tart taste. Although rhubarb is not a true fruit, in the kitchen it is usually prepared as if it were. Most commonly, the stalks are cooked with sugar and used in pies, crumbles and other desserts. A number of varieties have been domesticated for human consumption, most of which are recognised as Rheum x hybridum by the Royal Horticultural Society.
Rhubarb contains anthraquinones including rhein, and emodin and their glycosides (e.g. glucorhein), which impart cathartic and laxative properties. It is hence useful as a cathartic in case of constipation.
Rhubarb is grown widely, and with greenhouse production it is available throughout much of the year. Rhubarb grown in hothouses (heated greenhouses) is called "hothouse rhubarb '', and is typically made available at consumer markets in early spring, before outdoor cultivated rhubarb is available. Hothouse rhubarb is usually brighter red, more tender and sweeter - tasting than outdoor rhubarb. In temperate climates, rhubarb is one of the first food plants harvested, usually in mid - to late spring (April / May in the Northern Hemisphere, October / November in the Southern Hemisphere), and the season for field - grown plants lasts until September. In the northwestern US states of Oregon and Washington, there are typically two harvests, from late April to May and from late June into July. Rhubarb is ready to consume as soon as harvested, and freshly cut stalks are firm and glossy.
In the United Kingdom, the first rhubarb of the year is harvested by candlelight in forcing sheds where all other light is excluded, a practice that produces a sweeter, more tender stalk. These sheds are dotted around the "Rhubarb Triangle '' between Wakefield, Leeds, and Morley.
The advocate of organic gardening Lawrence D. Hills listed his favorite rhubarb varieties for flavor as Hawke 's Champagne, Victoria, Timperley Early, and Early Albert, also recommending Gaskin 's Perpetual for having the lowest level of oxalic acid, allowing it to be harvested over a much longer period of the growing season without developing excessive sourness.
Because rhubarb is a seasonal plant, obtaining fresh rhubarb out of season is difficult in colder climates, such as in the UK, Ireland, and Russia. Rhubarb thrives in areas of direct sunlight and can successfully be planted in containers if they are large enough to accommodate a season 's growth.
Rhubarb damaged by severe cold should not be eaten, as it may be high in oxalic acid, which migrates from the leaves and can cause illness.
The color of rhubarb stalks can vary from the commonly associated crimson red, through speckled light pink, to simply light green. Rhubarb stalks are poetically described as "crimson stalks ''. The color results from the presence of anthocyanins, and varies according to both rhubarb variety and production technique. The color is not related to its suitability for cooking: The green - stalked rhubarb is more robust and has a higher yield, but the red - coloured stalks are much more popular with consumers.
The Chinese call rhubarb "the great yellow '' (dà huáng 大 黃), and have used rhubarb root for medicinal purposes for thousands of years. It appears in The Divine Farmer 's Herb - Root Classic which is thought to have been compiled about 2,700 years ago. Though Dioscurides ' description of ρηον or ρά indicates that a medicinal root brought to Greece from beyond the Bosphorus may have been rhubarb, commerce in the drug did not become securely established until Islamic times. During Islamic times, it was imported along the Silk Road, reaching Europe in the 14th century through the ports of Aleppo and Smyrna, where it became known as "Turkish rhubarb ''. Later, it started arriving also via other via the new maritime routes or overland through Russia. The "Russian rhubarb '' was the most valued, probably because of the rhubarb - specific quality control system maintained by the Russian Empire.
The cost of transportation across Asia made rhubarb expensive in medieval Europe. It was several times the price of other valuable herbs and spices such as cinnamon, opium, and saffron. The merchant explorer Marco Polo therefore searched for the place where the plant was grown and harvested, discovering that it was cultivated in the mountains of Tangut province. The value of rhubarb can be seen in Ruy Gonzáles de Clavijo 's report of his embassy in 1403 -- 05 to Timur in Samarkand: "The best of all merchandise coming to Samarkand was from China: especially silks, satins, musk, rubies, diamonds, pearls, and rhubarb... ''
The high price as well as the increasing demand from apothecaries stimulated efforts to cultivate the plant on European soil. These were unsuccessful in producing rhubarb root with the necessary medicinal qualities, but the variety then grown in Russia became the ancestor of the common modern rhubarb. The availability of this "Siberian rhubarb '', together with the increasing abundance and decreasing price of sugar in the 18th century, galvanised its culinary adoption.
The term "rhubarb '' is a combination of the Ancient Greek rha and barbarum; rha refers both to the plant and to the River Volga. For centuries, the plant has grown wild along the banks of the River Volga, for which the ancient Scythian hydronym was Rhā.
Though it is often asserted that rhubarb first came to the United States in the 1820s, John Bartram was growing medicinal and culinary rhubarbs in Philadelphia from the 1730s, planting seeds sent him by Peter Collinson. From the first, the familiar garden rhubarb was not the only Rheum in American gardens: Thomas Jefferson planted R. undulatum at Monticello in 1809 and 1811, observing that it was "Esculent rhubarb, the leaves excellent as Spinach. ''
Rhubarb is grown primarily for its fleshy stalks, technically known as petioles. The use of rhubarb stalks as food is a relatively recent innovation. This usage was first recorded in 17th - century England after affordable sugar became available to common people, and reached a peak between the 20th century 's two world wars.
Commonly, it is stewed with sugar or used in pies and desserts, but it can also be put into savory dishes or pickled. Rhubarb can be dehydrated and infused with fruit juice. In most cases, it is infused with strawberry juice to mimic the popular strawberry rhubarb pie.
Rhubarb root produces a rich brown dye similar to walnut husks. It is used in northern regions where walnut trees do not survive.
For cooking, the stalks are often cut into small pieces and stewed (boiled in water) with added sugar, until soft. Little water is added, as rhubarb stalks already contain a great deal of water. Rhubarb should be processed and stored in containers which are unaffected by residual acid content, such as glass or stainless steel. Spices such as cinnamon, nutmeg, and ginger are sometimes added. Stewed rhubarb or rhubarb sauce, like applesauce, is usually eaten cold. Pectin, or sugar with pectin, can be added to the mixture to make jams.
A similar preparation, thickened with cornstarch or flour, is used as filling for rhubarb pie, tarts, and crumbles, leading to the nickname "pie plant '', by which it is referred to in many 19th - century cookbooks, as well as by American author Laura Ingalls Wilder in her short novel The First Four Years. The term "pie plant '' is still used regionally in the U.S.
In recent times rhubarb has often been paired with strawberries to make strawberry - rhubarb pie, though some rhubarb purists jokingly consider this "a rather unhappy marriage ''.
In former days, a common and affordable sweet for children in parts of the United Kingdom and Sweden was a tender stick of rhubarb, dipped in sugar. It is still eaten this way in western Finland, Norway, Iceland and Sweden, and also some other parts of the world. In Chile, Chilean rhubarb, which is only very distantly related, is sold on the street with salt or dried chili pepper, not sugar.
Rhubarb can be used to make a fruit wine or sima. It is also used to make compote. Being a bit sour, it is very refreshing and can be drunk cold, especially during the summer.
In traditional Chinese medicine, rhubarb roots have been thought of as a laxative for several millennia. Rhubarb also appears in medieval Arabic and European prescriptions. It was one of the first Chinese medicines to be imported to the West from China.
The roots and stems are rich in anthraquinones, such as emodin and rhein. These substances are cathartic and laxative, explaining the sporadic use of rhubarb as a dieting aid. The anthraquinone compounds have been separated from powdered rhubarb root for medicinal purposes.
The rhizomes contain stilbenoid compounds (including rhaponticin), which seem to lower blood glucose levels in diabetic mice.
Rhubarb also contains the flavanol glucosides (+) - catechin - 5 - O - glucoside and (−) - catechin - 7 - O - glucoside.
Rhubarb contains carbon - based quinone molecules which are capable of carrying an electrical charge. In 2014 a Harvard - based team of scientists published results describing the use of the quinone AQDS, almost identical to a form found in rhubarb, in flow - batteries.
Rhubarb leaves contain poisonous substances, including oxalic acid, which is a nephrotoxic and corrosive acid that is present in many plants. Humans have been poisoned after ingesting the leaves, a particular problem during World War I when the leaves were mistakenly recommended as a food source in Britain. The toxic rhubarb leaves have been used in flavoring extracts, after the oxalic acid is removed by treatment with precipitated chalk. Oxalic acid can also be found in the stalks of rhubarb, but the levels are too low to cause any bodily harm.
The LD (median lethal dose) for pure oxalic acid in rats is about 375 mg / kg body weight, or about 25 grams for a 65 - kilogram (143 lb) human. Other sources give a much higher oral LD (lowest published lethal dose) of 600 mg / kg. While the oxalic acid content of rhubarb leaves can vary, a typical value is about 0.5 %, so a rather unlikely 5 kg (for a 70 kg human) of the extremely sour leaves would have to be consumed to reach the LD of oxalic acid. Cooking the leaves with baking soda can make them more poisonous by producing soluble oxalates. However, the leaves are believed to also contain an additional, unidentified toxin, which might be an anthraquinone glycoside (also known as senna glycosides).
In the petioles (stalks), the proportion of oxalic acid is much lower, only about 2 -- 2.5 % of the total acidity, which consists mostly of malic acid.
The rhubarb curculio, Lixus concavus, is a weevil. Rhubarb is a host, damage being visible mainly on the leaves and stalks, with gummosis, and oval or circular feeding and / or egg - laying sites.
Hungry wildlife may dig up and eat rhubarb roots in the spring, as stored starches are turned to sugars for new foliage growth.
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who was president of the usa in 1947 | Harry S. Truman - wikipedia
Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884 -- December 26, 1972) was an American statesman who served as the 33rd President of the United States (1945 -- 1953), taking the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. A World War I veteran, he assumed the presidency during the waning months of World War II and the beginning of the Cold War. He is known for implementing the Marshall Plan to rebuild the economy of Western Europe, for the establishment of the Truman Doctrine and NATO against Soviet and Chinese Communism, and for intervening in the Korean War. In domestic affairs, he was a moderate Democrat whose liberal proposals were a continuation of Franklin Roosevelt 's New Deal, but the conservative - dominated Congress blocked most of them. He used the veto power 180 times, more than any president since and saw 12 overridden by Congress; only Grover Cleveland and Franklin D. Roosevelt used the veto so often and only Gerald Ford and Andrew Johnson saw so many veto overrides. He is the only world leader to have used nuclear weapons in war. He desegregated the U.S. Armed Forces, supported a newly independent Israel and was a founder of the United Nations.
Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri and spent most of his youth on his family 's 600 - acre farm near Independence. In the last months of World War I, he served in combat in France as an artillery officer with his National Guard unit. After the war, he briefly owned a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and joined the Democratic Party and the political machine of Tom Pendergast. Truman was first elected to public office as a county official in 1922, and then as a U.S. Senator in 1934. He gained national prominence as chairman of the Truman Committee, formed in March 1941, which aimed to find and correct waste and inefficiency in Federal Government wartime contracts.
After serving as a United States Senator from Missouri (1935 -- 1945) and briefly as Vice President (1945), he succeeded to the presidency on April 12, 1945 upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Germany surrendered on Truman 's 61st birthday, just a few weeks after he assumed the presidency, but the war with Imperial Japan raged on and was expected to last at least another year. Truman approved the use of atomic bombs to end the fighting and to spare the U.S. and Japanese lives that would inevitably be lost in the planned invasion of Japan and Japanese - held islands in the Pacific. Although this decision and the numerous issues that arose as a result of it remain the subject of debate to this day, most historians agree that it was one of the principal factors that forced Japan 's unconditional surrender.
Truman presided over an unexpected surge in economic prosperity as the U.S. sought readjustment after long years of depression and war. His presidency was a turning point in foreign affairs as the United States engaged in an internationalist foreign policy and renounced isolationism. Truman helped found the United Nations in 1945, issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to contain Communism and got the $13 billion Marshall Plan enacted to rebuild Western Europe. His political coalition was based on the white South, labor unions, farmers, ethnic groups and traditional Democrats across the North. Truman was able to rally these groups of supporters during the 1948 presidential election and win a surprise victory that secured a presidential term in his own right.
The Soviet Union, then led by Joseph Stalin, became an enemy in the Cold War. Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949, but was unable to stop Communists from taking over China in 1949. In 1950, he survived unharmed from an assassination attempt. When Communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he sent U.S. troops and gained UN approval for the Korean War. After initial successes in Korea, the UN forces were thrown back by Chinese intervention and the conflict was stalemated throughout the final years of Truman 's presidency. On domestic issues, bills endorsed by Truman often faced opposition from a conservative Congress, but his administration was able to successfully guide the U.S. economy through the post-war economic challenges. Truman maintained that civil rights were a moral priority and in 1948 submitted the first comprehensive civil rights legislation and issued Executive Orders to start racial integration in the military and federal agencies. Allegations were raised of corruption in the Truman administration, linked to certain cabinet members and senior White House staff; this became a central campaign issue in the 1952 presidential election and helped account for Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower 's electoral victory. Starting in 1962, scholars ranked Truman 's presidency as "near great '' and since then he has been ranked between 5th and 9th in historical rankings of U.S. Presidents.
Harry S. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri on May 8, 1884, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman (1851 -- 1914) and Martha Ellen Young Truman (1852 -- 1947). His parents chose the name Harry after his mother 's brother, Harrison "Harry '' Young (1846 -- 1916). While the "S '' did not stand for any one name, it was chosen as his middle initial to honor both of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. The initial has been regularly written and printed followed by a period. A brother, John Vivian (1886 -- 1965), was born soon after Harry, followed by sister Mary Jane (1889 -- 1978). His parents had Cornish and Scotch - Irish ancestry.
John Truman was a farmer and livestock dealer. The family lived in Lamar until Harry was ten months old, when they moved to a farm near Harrisonville, Missouri. The family next moved to Belton, and in 1887 to his grandparents ' 600 - acre (240 - ha) farm in Grandview. When Truman was six, his parents moved to Independence, so he could attend the Presbyterian Church Sunday School. Truman did not attend a traditional school until he was eight. While living in Independence, he served as a Shabbos goy for Jewish neighbors, doing tasks for them on Shabbat that their tradition prevented them doing on that day.
As a boy, Truman was interested in music, reading, and history, all encouraged by his mother, with whom he was very close. As president, he solicited political as well as personal advice from her. He rose at five every morning to practice the piano, which he studied twice a week until he was fifteen. Truman worked as a page at the 1900 Democratic National Convention at Convention Hall in Kansas City; his father had many friends who were active in the Democratic Party and helped young Harry to gain his first political position.
After graduating from Independence High School in 1901, Truman enrolled in Spalding 's Commercial College, a Kansas City business school; he studied bookkeeping, shorthand, and typing, but left after a year. He made use of his business college experience to obtain a job as a timekeeper on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, sleeping in hobo camps near the rail lines. He then took on a series of clerical jobs, and was employed briefly in the mail room of the Kansas City Star. Truman and his brother Vivian later worked as clerks at the National Bank of Commerce in Kansas City; one of their coworkers, who also lived in the same rooming house, was Arthur Eisenhower, the brother of Dwight and Milton. Truman returned to the Grandview farm in 1906, where he lived until entering the army in 1917 after the beginning of the Great War. During this period, he courted Bess Wallace; he proposed in 1911, but she turned him down. Truman later said he intended to propose again, but he wanted to be earning more money than a farmer earns. To that end, during his years on the farm and immediately after World War I, he became active in several business ventures, including a lead and zinc mine near Commerce, Oklahoma, a company that bought land and leased the oil drilling rights to prospectors, and speculation in Kansas City real estate. Truman occasionally derived some income from these enterprises, but none proved successful in the long term.
Truman is the most recent president who did not earn a college degree. In addition to having briefly attended business college, from 1923 to 1925 he took night courses toward an LL. B. at the Kansas City Law School (now the University of Missouri -- Kansas City School of Law), but dropped out after losing reelection as county judge. He was informed by attorneys in the Kansas City area that his education and experience were probably sufficient to receive a license to practice law. However, he did not pursue it, because he won election as presiding judge.
While serving as president in 1947, Truman applied for a license to practice law. A friend who was an attorney began working out the arrangements, and informed Truman that his application had to be notarized. By the time Truman received this information he had changed his mind, so he never sought notarization. After rediscovery of Truman 's application, in 1996 the Missouri Supreme Court issued Truman a posthumous honorary law license.
Because he was unable to afford university tuition, Truman had thought of going to the costless United States Military Academy at West Point, but he was refused an appointment because of poor eyesight. He enlisted in the Missouri Army National Guard in 1905, serving until 1911 in a Kansas City - based artillery battery and attaining the rank of corporal. At his induction, his eyesight had been an unacceptable 20 / 50 in the right eye and 20 / 400 in the left (past the standard for legal blindness). The second time he took the test, he passed by secretly memorizing the eye chart.
When the United States entered World War I, Truman rejoined the National Guard; he helped recruit new soldiers as his unit expanded, and his success led the men of his battery to elect him as their first lieutenant. Before deployment to France, Truman was sent for training to Camp Doniphan, Fort Sill, near Lawton, Oklahoma when his regiment was federalized as the 129th Field Artillery. The regimental commander during its training was Robert M. Danford, who later served as the Army 's Chief of Field Artillery. Truman later said he learned more practical, useful information from Danford in six weeks than from six months of formal Army instruction, and when Truman later served as an artillery instructor, he consciously patterned his approach on Danford 's.
Truman also ran the camp canteen with Edward Jacobson, a clothing store clerk he knew from Kansas City. Unlike most canteens funded by unit members, which usually lost money, the canteen operated by Truman and Jacobson turned a profit, returning each soldier 's initial $2 investment and $10,000 in dividends in six months. At Fort Sill, Truman met Lieutenant James M. Pendergast, nephew of Thomas Joseph (Tom) Pendergast, a Kansas City political boss, and this connection had a profound influence on Truman 's later life.
In mid-1918, about one million soldiers of the American Expeditionary Forces were in France. Truman was promoted to captain in July 1918 and became commander of Battery D, 129th Field Artillery, 60th Artillery Brigade, 35th Division. It was known for its discipline problems, and Truman was initially unpopular because of his efforts to restore order. Despite attempts by the men to intimidate him into quitting, Truman succeeded by making his corporals and sergeants accountable for discipline; he promised to back them up if they performed capably, and reduce them to private and return them to the ranks if they did not. In an event memorialized in battery lore as the "Battle of Who Run '', his soldiers began to flee during a sudden attack by the Germans in the Vosges Mountains; Truman succeeded at ordering his men to stay and fight, using profanity that he had first heard while working on the Santa Fe Railroad. The men were so surprised to hear Truman use such language that they immediately obeyed.
Truman 's unit joined in a massive prearranged assault barrage on September 26, 1918, at the opening of the Meuse - Argonne Offensive. They advanced with difficulty over pitted terrain to follow the infantry, and they set up an observation post west of Cheppy. On September 27, Truman saw through his binoculars an enemy artillery battery setting up across a river in a position allowing them to fire upon the neighboring 28th Division. Truman 's orders limited him to targets facing the 35th Division, but he ignored this and patiently waited until the Germans had walked their horses well away from their guns, ensuring they could not relocate out of range of Truman 's battery, and then he ordered his men to open fire. The enemy battery was destroyed. His actions were credited with saving the lives of 28th Division soldiers who otherwise would have come under fire from the Germans. Truman was given a dressing down by his regimental commander, Colonel Karl D. Klemm, but he was not court - martialed or otherwise punished.
In other action during the Meuse - Argonne fighting, Truman 's battery provided support for George S. Patton 's tank brigade, and his battery fired some of the last shots of the war on November 11, 1918. Battery D did not lose any men while under Truman 's command in France. To show their appreciation of his leadership, his men presented him with a large loving cup upon their return to the United States after the war.
The war was a transformative experience for Truman that brought out his leadership qualities. He had entered the service in 1917 as a family farmer who had worked in clerical jobs that did not require the ability to motivate and direct others, but during the war he gained leadership experience and a record of success that greatly enhanced and supported his post-war political career in Missouri.
Truman was brought up in the Presbyterian and Baptist churches. He avoided revivals and sometimes ridiculed revivalist preachers. He rarely spoke about religion, which to him, primarily meant ethical behavior along traditional Protestant lines. Most of the soldiers he commanded in the war were Catholics; developing leadership and interpersonal skills that later made him a successful politician helped him get along with them, as he did with soldiers of other Christian denominations and the unit 's Jewish members.
Truman was discharged from the Army as a major in May 1919. In 1920 he was appointed a major in the Reserve Officer Corps; he became a lieutenant colonel in 1925 and a colonel in 1932. In the 1920s and 1930s Truman commanded 1st Battalion, 379th Field Artillery Regiment, a unit of the 102nd Infantry Division. After promotion to colonel, Truman advanced to command of the regiment.
After his election to the U.S. Senate, Truman was transferred to the General Assignments Group, a holding unit for less active officers; he had not been consulted or notified in advance. Truman protested his reassignment, which led to his resumption of regimental command. He remained an active reservist until the early 1940s. Truman volunteered for active military service during World War II, but was not accepted, partly because of age, and partly because President Franklin D. Roosevelt desired Senators and Congressman who belonged to the military reserves to support the war effort by remaining in Congress, or by ending their active duty service and resuming their Congressional seats. He was an inactive reservist from the early 1940s until retiring on January 20, 1953.
After his wartime service, Truman returned to Independence, where he married Bess Wallace on June 28, 1919. The couple had one child, Mary Margaret Truman.
Shortly before the wedding, Truman and Jacobson opened a haberdashery together at 104 West 12th Street in downtown Kansas City. After brief initial success, the store went bankrupt during the recession of 1921. Truman did not pay off the last of the debts from that venture until 1934, when he did so with the aid of a political supporter. Jacobson and Truman remained close friends, and Jacobson 's advice to Truman on Zionism later played a role in the U.S. government 's decision to recognize Israel.
With the help of the Kansas City Democratic machine led by Tom Pendergast, Truman was elected in 1922 as County Court judge of Jackson County 's eastern district -- this was an administrative rather than judicial position, somewhat similar to county commissioners elsewhere. (At the time Jackson County elected a judge from the western district (Kansas City), one from the eastern district (Jackson County outside Kansas City), and a presiding judge elected countywide.) Truman was not re-elected in 1924, losing in a Republican wave led by President Calvin Coolidge 's landslide election to a full term. Two years selling automobile club memberships convinced him that a public service career was safer for a family man approaching middle age, and he planned a run for presiding judge in 1926.
In 1926, Truman was elected presiding judge with the support of the Pendergast machine, and he was re-elected in 1930. Truman helped coordinate the Ten Year Plan, which transformed Jackson County and the Kansas City skyline with new public works projects, including an extensive series of roads and construction of a new Wight and Wight - designed County Court building. Also in 1926, he became president of the National Old Trails Road Association (NOTRA). He oversaw the dedication in the late 1920s of a series of 12 Madonna of the Trail monuments honoring pioneer women, which were installed along the trail.
In 1933, Harry S. Truman was named Missouri 's director for the Federal Re-Employment program (part of the Civil Works Administration) at the request of Postmaster General James Farley. This was payback to Pendergast for delivering the Kansas City vote to Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election. The appointment confirmed Pendergast 's control over federal patronage jobs in Missouri and marked the zenith of his power. It also created a relationship between Truman and Roosevelt 's aide Harry Hopkins and assured Truman 's avid support for the New Deal.
After serving as a county judge, Truman wanted to run for a position as Governor or Congress, but Pendergast rejected these ideas. Truman then thought he might serve out his career in some well - paying county sinecure, but circumstances changed when Pendergast reluctantly backed him in the 1934 Democratic primary for the U.S. Senate after four other potential candidates turned him down. In the primary, Truman defeated Congressmen John J. Cochran and Jacob L. Milligan with the solid support of Jackson County, which was crucial to his candidacy, as were the contacts he had made statewide as a county official, Mason, military reservist, and member of the American Legion. In the general election, Truman defeated incumbent Republican Roscoe C. Patterson by nearly 20 percentage points as part of a continuing wave of pro-New Deal Democrats elected in response to the Great Depression.
Truman assumed office with a reputation as "the Senator from Pendergast. '' He turned over patronage decisions to Pendergast, though Truman always maintained that he voted with his conscience. He later defended the patronage decisions by saying that "by offering a little to the machine, (he) saved a lot ''. In his first term, Truman spoke out against corporate greed and the dangers of Wall Street speculators and other moneyed special interests attaining too much influence in national affairs. He was largely ignored by Democratic President Roosevelt and had trouble getting calls returned from the White House.
During the U.S. Senate election in 1940, United States Attorney Maurice Milligan (Jacob Milligan 's brother) and former governor Lloyd Stark both challenged Truman in the Democratic primary. Truman was politically weakened by Pendergast 's imprisonment for income tax evasion the previous year; the senator had remained loyal, having claimed that Republican judges (not the Roosevelt administration) were responsible for the boss 's downfall. St. Louis party leader Robert E. Hannegan 's support of Truman proved crucial; he later brokered the deal that put Truman on the national ticket. In the end, Stark and Milligan split the anti-Pendergast vote in the Senate Democratic primary and Truman won by a total of 8,000 votes. In the November election, Truman defeated Republican Manvel H. Davis by 51 -- 49 percent.
In late 1940, Truman traveled to various military bases. The waste and profiteering he saw led him to use his subcommittee chairmanship in the Committee on Military Affairs to start investigations into abuses while the nation prepared for war. A separate committee was set up under Truman to conduct a formal investigation; the Roosevelt administration supported this plan rather than weather a more hostile probe by the House of Representatives. Chairmanship of what came to be known as the Truman Committee made him a national figure. Activities of the Truman Committee ranged from criticizing the "dollar - a-year men '' hired by the government, many of whom proved ineffective, to investigating a shoddily built New Jersey housing project for war workers. The committee is reported to have saved as much as $15 billion; its activities put Truman on the cover of Time magazine. According to the Senate 's historical minutes, in leading the committee, "Truman erased his earlier public image as an errand - runner for Kansas City politicos '' and "no senator ever gained greater political benefits from chairing a special investigating committee than did Missouri 's Harry S. Truman. ''
Senator Truman opposed both Nazi Germany and Communist Russia. One week after Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, he said:
If we see that Germany is winning we ought to help Russia, and if Russia is winning we ought to help Germany, and that way let them kill as many as possible although I do n't want to see Hitler victorious under any circumstances.
Vice President Henry Wallace was popular among Democratic voters, but he was viewed as too far to the left and too friendly to labor for some of Roosevelt 's advisers. The President and several of his confidantes wanted to replace Wallace with someone more acceptable to Democratic Party leaders and Roosevelt 's advisors, knowing that Roosevelt might not live out a fourth term. Outgoing Democratic National Committee chairman Frank C. Walker, incoming chairman Hannegan, party treasurer Edwin W. Pauley, strategist Ed Flynn, Chicago Mayor Edward Joseph Kelly, and lobbyist George E. Allen all wanted to keep Wallace off the ticket. Roosevelt told party leaders that he would accept either Truman or Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas. State and city party leaders strongly preferred Truman, and Roosevelt agreed. Truman did not campaign for the Vice-Presidential spot, though he welcomed the attention as evidence that he had become more than the "Senator from Pendergast ''.
Truman 's nomination was dubbed the "Second Missouri Compromise '' and was well received. The Roosevelt -- Truman ticket achieved a 432 -- 99 electoral - vote victory in the election, defeating the Republican ticket of Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York and running mate Governor John Bricker of Ohio. Truman was sworn in as vice president on January 20, 1945.
Truman 's brief vice-presidency was relatively uneventful. On April 10, 1945, Truman cast his only tie - breaking vote as President of the Senate, against a Robert A. Taft amendment that would have blocked the postwar delivery of Lend - Lease Act items contracted for during the war. Roosevelt rarely contacted him, even to inform him of major decisions; the President and Vice President met alone together only twice during their time in office. In one of his first acts as vice president, Truman created some controversy when he attended the disgraced Pendergast 's funeral. He brushed aside the criticism, saying simply, "He was always my friend and I have always been his. '' He had rarely discussed world affairs or domestic politics with Roosevelt; he was uninformed about major initiatives relating to the war and the top - secret Manhattan Project, which was about to test the world 's first atomic bomb. He was also photographed with actress Lauren Bacall sitting atop the piano at the National Press Club as he played for soldiers.
Truman had been vice president for 82 days when President Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945. That afternoon, Truman presided over the Senate as usual. He had just adjourned the session for the day and was preparing to have a drink in House Speaker Sam Rayburn 's office when he received an urgent message to go immediately to the White House. Truman assumed President Roosevelt wanted to meet with him, but Eleanor Roosevelt informed him her husband had died after suffering a massive cerebral hemorrhage. Truman 's first concern was for Mrs. Roosevelt. He asked if there was anything he could do for her, to which she replied, "Is there anything we can do for you? For you are the one in trouble now! ''
Truman surrounded himself with his old friends, and appointed several to high positions that seemed well beyond their competence, including his two secretaries of the treasury, Fred Vinson and John Snyder. His closest friend in the White House was his military aide Harry H. Vaughan, who seemed to others like a huge joke.
Truman loved to spend as much time as possible playing poker, telling stories and sipping bourbon. Alonzo Hamby notes that:
to many in the general public, gambling and bourbon swilling, however low - key, were not quite presidential. Neither was the intemperant "give ' em hell '' campaign style nor the occasional profane phrase uttered in public. Poker exemplified a larger problem: the tension between his attempts at an image of leadership necessarily a cut above the ordinary and an informality that at times appeared to verge on crudeness.
Shortly after taking the oath of office, Truman spoke to reporters: "Boys, if you ever pray, pray for me now. I do n't know if you fellas ever had a load of hay fall on you, but when they told me what happened yesterday, I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me. ''
Upon assuming the presidency, Truman asked all the members of Roosevelt 's cabinet to remain in place, and told them he was open to their advice. He emphasized a central principle of his administration: he would be the one making decisions, and they were to support him. Although Truman was told briefly on the afternoon of April 12 that the Allies had a new, highly destructive weapon, it was not until April 25 that Secretary of War Henry Stimson told him the details. Truman benefited from a honeymoon period after Roosevelt 's death, and from the Allies ' success in Europe, ending the war against Nazi Germany. Truman was pleased to issue the proclamation of V-E Day on May 8, 1945, his 61st birthday.
We have discovered the most terrible bomb in the history of the world. It may be the fire destruction prophesied in the Euphrates Valley Era, after Noah and his fabulous Ark.
In the wake of Allied victory, Truman journeyed to Europe for the Potsdam Conference. He was there when he learned that the Trinity test of the first atomic bomb on July 16 had been successful. He hinted to Joseph Stalin that the U.S. was about to use a new kind of weapon against the Japanese. Though this was the first time the Soviets had been officially given information about the atomic bomb, Stalin was already aware of the bomb project, having learned about it (through espionage) long before Truman did.
In August, the Japanese government refused surrender demands as specifically outlined in the Potsdam Declaration. With the invasion of mainland Japan imminent, Truman approved the schedule for dropping the two available bombs. Truman always said that attacking Japan with atomic bombs saved many lives on both sides; military estimates for the invasion of mainland Japan were that it could take a year and result in 250,000 to 500,000 U.S. casualties. Hiroshima was bombed on August 6, and Nagasaki three days later, leaving 105,000 dead. The Soviet Union declared war on Japan on August 9 and invaded Manchuria. Japan agreed to surrender the following day.
Supporters of Truman 's decision argue that, given the tenacious Japanese defense of the outlying islands, the bombings saved hundreds of thousands of lives that would have been lost invading mainland Japan. Critics have argued that the use of nuclear weapons was unnecessary, given that conventional tactics such as firebombing and a naval blockade might have induced Japan 's surrender without the need for such weapons. Truman strongly defended himself in his memoirs in 1955 -- 56, stating that many lives could have been lost had the U.S. invaded mainland Japan without the atomic bombs. In 1963, he stood by his decision, telling a journalist that "it was done to save 125,000 youngsters on the U.S. side and 125,000 on the Japanese side from getting killed and that is what it did. It probably also saved a half million youngsters on both sides from being maimed for life. ''
The end of World War II was followed by an uneasy transition from war to a peacetime economy. The costs of the war effort had been enormous, and Truman was intent on decreasing government expenditures on the military as quickly as possible. Demobilizing the military and reducing the size of the various services was a cost - saving priority. The effect of demobilization on the economy was unknown, but fears existed that the nation would slide back into a depression. A great deal of work had to be done to plan how best to transition to peacetime production of goods while avoiding mass unemployment for returning veterans. Government officials did not have consensus as to what economic course the postwar U.S. should take. In addition, Roosevelt had not paid attention to Congress in his final years, and Truman faced a body where a combination of Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed a powerful voting bloc.
The president was faced with the reawakening of labor - management conflicts that had lain dormant during the war years, severe shortages in housing and consumer products, and widespread dissatisfaction with inflation, which at one point hit 6 % in a single month. Added to this polarized environment was a wave of destabilizing strikes in major industries. Truman 's response to them was generally seen as ineffective. A rapid increase in costs was fueled by the release of price controls on most items, and labor sought wage increases. A serious steel strike in January 1946 involving 800,000 workers -- the largest in the nation 's history -- was followed by a coal strike in April and a rail strike in May. The public was angry, with a majority in polls favoring a ban on strikes by public service workers and a year 's moratorium on labor actions. For commodities where price controls remained, producers were often unwilling to sell at artificially low prices: farmers refused to sell grain for months in 1945 and 1946 until payments were significantly increased, even though grain was desperately needed, not only for domestic use, but to stave off starvation in Europe.
When a national rail strike threatened in May 1946, Truman seized the railroads. Two key railway unions struck anyway and the entire national railroad system was shut down -- 24,000 freight trains and 175,000 passenger trains a day stopped moving. For two days public anger mounted and no one was angrier than Truman himself. He drafted a message to Congress that called on veterans to form a lynch mob and destroy the union leaders:
Every single one of the strikers and their demagogue leaders have been living in luxury... Now I want you who are my comrades in arms... to come with me and eliminate the Lewises, the Whitneys, the Johnstons, the Communist Bridges (all important union officials) and the Russian Senators and Representatives... Let 's put transportation and production back to work, hang a few traitors and make our own country safe for democracy.
His staff was stunned; top aide Clark Clifford rewrote and toned down the speech. Truman did go to Congress and he called for a new law to draft all the railroad strikers into the Army. As he was concluding his speech he read a message just handed to him that said the strike was settled on presidential terms. Truman nevertheless finished the speech, and a few hours later the House voted to draft the strikers. Taft killed the bill in the Senate.
Although labor strife was muted after the settlement of the railway strike, it continued through Truman 's presidency. The President 's approval rating dropped from 82 % in the polls in January 1946 to 52 % by June. This dissatisfaction with the Truman administration 's policies led to large Democratic losses in the 1946 midterm elections, when Republicans took control of Congress for the first time since 1930. The 80th Congress included Republican freshmen who would become prominent in the years to come, including Wisconsin Senator Joe McCarthy and California Congressman Richard Nixon. When Truman dropped to 32 % in the polls, Democratic Arkansas Senator William Fulbright suggested that Truman resign; the President said he did not care what Senator "Halfbright '' said.
Truman cooperated closely with the Republican leaders on foreign policy, though he fought them bitterly on domestic issues. The power of the labor unions was significantly curtailed by the Taft -- Hartley Act, which was enacted over Truman 's veto. Truman twice vetoed bills to lower income tax rates in 1947. Although the initial vetoes were sustained, Congress overrode his veto of a tax cut bill in 1948. The parties did cooperate on some issues; Congress passed the Presidential Succession Act of 1947, making the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate rather than the Secretary of State next in line to the presidency after the Vice President.
As he readied for the 1948 election, Truman made clear his identity as a Democrat in the New Deal tradition, advocating national health insurance, and repeal of the Taft -- Hartley Act. He broke with the New Deal by initiating an aggressive civil rights program, which he termed a moral priority. Taken together, it constituted a broad legislative agenda that came to be called the "Fair Deal. '' Truman 's proposals were not well received by Congress, even with renewed Democratic majorities in Congress after 1948. The Solid South rejected civil rights, as those states still enforced segregation. Only one of the major Fair Deal bills, the Housing Act of 1949, was ever enacted. On the other hand, the major New Deal programs still in operation were not repealed, and there were minor improvements and extensions in many of them.
As a Wilsonian internationalist, Truman strongly supported the creation of the United Nations, and included Eleanor Roosevelt on the delegation to the UN 's first General Assembly. With the Soviet Union expanding its sphere of influence through Eastern Europe, Truman and his foreign policy advisors took a hard line against the USSR. In this, he matched U.S. public opinion, which quickly came to believe the Soviets were intent upon world domination.
Although he had little personal expertise on foreign matters, Truman listened closely to his top advisors, especially George Marshall and Dean Acheson. He won bipartisan support for both the Truman Doctrine, which formalized a policy of Soviet containment, and the Marshall Plan, which aimed to help rebuild postwar Europe. To get Congress to spend the vast sums necessary to restart the moribund European economy, Truman used an ideological argument, arguing that Communism flourishes in economically deprived areas. As part of the U.S. Cold War strategy, Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947 and reorganized military forces by merging the Department of War and the Department of the Navy into the National Military Establishment (later the Department of Defense) and creating the U.S. Air Force. The act also created the CIA and the National Security Council. In 1952, Truman secretly consolidated and empowered the cryptologic elements of the United States by creating the National Security Agency (NSA).
In theory, the CIA had the purview to gather, process, and analyze national security information from around the world. The CIA 's legacy was not lost on Truman, he wrote a letter to the Washington Post in December 1963, calling for the CIA 's responsibilities to be scaled back significantly: "For some time I have been disturbed by the way the CIA has been diverted from its original assignment. It has become an operational and at times a policy - making arm of the government. This has led to trouble and may have compounded our difficulties in several explosive areas. ''
Truman was torn about China, where the Nationalists and Communists were fighting a large - scale civil war, because the Nationalists had been major wartime allies and had large - scale popular support in the United States, along with a powerful lobby. General George Marshall spent most of 1946 in China trying to negotiate a compromise, but failed. He convinced Truman that the Nationalists would never win on their own, and that a very large - scale U.S. intervention to stop the Communists would significantly weaken U.S. opposition to the Soviets in Europe. By 1949, the Communists under Mao Zedong had won the civil war, the United States had a new enemy in Asia, and Truman came under fire from conservatives for "losing '' China.
On June 24, 1948, the Soviet Union blocked access to the three Western - held sectors of Berlin. The Allies had not negotiated a deal to guarantee supply of the sectors deep within the Soviet - occupied zone. The commander of the U.S. occupation zone in Germany, General Lucius D. Clay, proposed sending a large armored column across the Soviet zone to West Berlin with instructions to defend itself if it were stopped or attacked. Truman believed this would entail an unacceptable risk of war. He approved Ernest Bevin 's plan to supply the blockaded city by air. On June 25, the Allies initiated the Berlin Airlift, a campaign to deliver food, coal and other supplies using military aircraft on a massive scale. Nothing like it had ever been attempted before, and no single nation had the capability, either logistically or materially, to accomplish it. The airlift worked; ground access was again granted on May 11, 1949. Nevertheless, the airlift continued for several months after that. The Berlin Airlift was one of Truman 's great foreign policy successes; it significantly aided his election campaign in 1948.
Truman had long taken an interest in the history of the Middle East, and was sympathetic to Jews who sought to re-establish their ancient homeland in Mandatory Palestine. As a senator, he announced support for Zionism; in 1943 he called for a homeland for those Jews who survived the Nazi regime. However, State Department officials were reluctant to offend the Arabs, who were opposed to the establishment of a Jewish state in the large region long populated and dominated culturally by Arabs. Secretary of Defense James Forrestal warned Truman of the importance of Saudi Arabian oil in another war; Truman replied that he would decide his policy on the basis of justice, not oil. U.S. diplomats with experience in the region were opposed, but Truman told them he had few Arabs among his constituents.
Palestine was secondary to the goal of protecting the "Northern Tier '' of Greece, Turkey, and Iran from Communism, as promised by the Truman Doctrine. Weary of both the convoluted politics of the Middle East and pressure by Jewish leaders, Truman was undecided on his policy, and skeptical about how the Jewish "underdogs '' would handle power. He later cited as decisive in his recognition of the Jewish state the advice of his former business partner, Eddie Jacobson, a non-religious Jew whom Truman absolutely trusted. Truman decided to recognize Israel over the objections of Secretary of State George Marshall, who feared it would hurt relations with the populous Arab states. Marshall believed the paramount threat to the U.S. was the Soviet Union and feared that Arab oil would be lost to the United States in the event of war; he warned Truman that U.S. was "playing with fire with nothing to put it out ''. Truman recognized the State of Israel on May 14, 1948, eleven minutes after it declared itself a nation. Of his decision to recognize the Israeli state, Truman wrote in his memoirs: "Hitler had been murdering Jews right and left. I saw it, and I dream about it even to this day. The Jews needed some place where they could go. It is my attitude that the American government could n't stand idly by while the victims (of) Hitler 's madness are not allowed to build new lives. ''
The 1948 presidential election is remembered for Truman 's stunning come - from - behind victory. In the spring of 1948, Truman 's public approval rating stood at 36 %, and the president was nearly universally regarded as incapable of winning the general election. The "New Deal '' operatives within the party -- including FDR 's son James -- tried to swing the Democratic nomination to General Dwight D. Eisenhower, a highly popular figure whose political views and party affiliation were totally unknown. Eisenhower emphatically refused to accept, and Truman outflanked opponents to his own nomination.
At the 1948 Democratic National Convention, Truman attempted to unify the party with a vague civil rights plank in the party platform. His intention was to assuage the internal conflicts between the northern and southern wings of his party. Events overtook his efforts. A sharp address given by Mayor Hubert Humphrey of Minneapolis -- as well as the local political interests of a number of urban bosses -- convinced the Convention to adopt a stronger civil rights plank, which Truman approved wholeheartedly. All of Alabama 's delegates, and a portion of Mississippi 's, walked out of the convention in protest. Unfazed, Truman delivered an aggressive acceptance speech attacking the 80th Congress, which Truman called the "Do Nothing Congress, '' and promising to win the election and "make these Republicans like it. ''
Within two weeks of the 1948 convention Truman issued Executive Order 9981, racially integrating the U.S. Armed Services and Executive Order 9980 to integrate federal agencies. Truman took a considerable political risk in backing civil rights, and many seasoned Democrats were concerned that the loss of Dixiecrat support might destroy the Democratic Party. South Carolina Governor Strom Thurmond, a segregationist, declared his candidacy for the presidency on a Dixiecrat ticket and led a full - scale revolt of Southern "states ' rights '' proponents. This rebellion on the right was matched by one on the left, led by Wallace on the Progressive Party ticket. Immediately after its first post-FDR convention, the Democratic Party seemed to be disintegrating. Victory in November seemed unlikely as the party was not simply split but divided three ways. For his running mate, Truman accepted Kentucky Senator Alben W. Barkley, though he really wanted Justice William O. Douglas, who turned down the nomination.
Truman 's political advisors described the political scene as "one unholy, confusing cacophony. '' They told Truman to speak directly to the people, in a personal way. Campaign manager William J. Bray said Truman took this advice, and spoke personally and passionately, sometimes even setting aside his notes to talk to Americans "of everything that is in my heart and soul. ''
The campaign was a 21,928 - mile (35,290 km) presidential odyssey. In a personal appeal to the nation, Truman crisscrossed the U.S. by train; his "whistle stop '' speeches from the rear platform of the observation car, Ferdinand Magellan, came to represent his campaign. His combative appearances captured the popular imagination and drew huge crowds. Six stops in Michigan drew a combined half - million people; a full million turned out for a New York City ticker - tape parade.
The large, mostly spontaneous gatherings at Truman 's whistle - stop events were an important sign of a change in momentum in the campaign, but this shift went virtually unnoticed by the national press corps. It continued reporting Republican Thomas Dewey 's apparent impending victory as a certainty. One reason for the press 's inaccurate projection was that polls were conducted primarily by telephone, but many people, including much of Truman 's populist base, did not yet own a telephone. This skewed the data to indicate a stronger support base for Dewey than existed. An unintended and undetected projection error may have contributed to the perception of Truman 's bleak chances. The three major polling organizations stopped polling well before the November 2 election date -- Roper in September, and Crossley and Gallup in October -- thus failing to measure the period when Truman appears to have surged past Dewey.
In the end, Truman held his progressive Midwestern base, won most of the Southern states despite the civil rights plank, and squeaked through with narrow victories in a few critical states, notably Ohio, California, and Illinois. The final tally showed the President had secured 303 electoral votes, Dewey 189, and Thurmond only 39. Henry Wallace got none. The defining image of the campaign came after Election Day, when an ecstatic Truman held aloft the erroneous front page of the Chicago Tribune with a huge headline proclaiming "Dewey Defeats Truman. ''
Truman 's second inauguration was the first ever televised nationally. His second term was grueling as his opponents controlled Congress and his policy of rollback in Korea failed. The Soviet Union 's atomic bomb project progressed much faster than had been expected and they detonated their first bomb on August 29, 1949. In response, on January 7, 1953, Truman announced the detonation of the first U.S. hydrogen bomb, which was much more powerful than the Soviet Union 's atomic weapons.
On June 25, 1950, the North Korean army under Kim Il - sung invaded South Korea, starting the Korean War. In the early weeks of the war, the North Koreans easily pushed back their southern counterparts. Truman called for a naval blockade of Korea, only to learn that due to budget cutbacks, the U.S. Navy could not enforce such a measure. Truman promptly urged the United Nations to intervene; it did, authorizing troops under the UN flag led by U.S. General Douglas MacArthur.
Truman decided that he did not need formal authorization from Congress, believing that most legislators supported his position; this would come back to haunt him later, when the stalemated conflict was dubbed "Mr. Truman 's War '' by legislators. However, on July 3, 1950, Truman did give Senate Majority Leader Scott W. Lucas a draft resolution titled "Joint Resolution Expressing Approval of the Action Taken in Korea ''. Lucas said that Congress supported the use of force, that the formal resolution would pass but was unnecessary, and that the consensus in Congress was to acquiesce. Truman responded that he did not want "to appear to be trying to get around Congress and use extra-Constitutional powers, '' and added that it was "up to Congress whether such a resolution should be introduced. ''
By August 1950, U.S. troops pouring into South Korea under UN auspices were able to stabilize the situation. Responding to criticism over readiness, Truman fired his Secretary of Defense, Louis A. Johnson, replacing him with the retired General Marshall. With UN approval, Truman decided on a "rollback '' policy -- conquest of North Korea. UN forces led by General Douglas MacArthur led the counterattack, scoring a stunning surprise victory with an amphibious landing at the Battle of Inchon that nearly trapped the invaders. UN forces marched north, toward the Yalu River boundary with China, with the goal of reuniting Korea under UN auspices.
However, China surprised the UN forces with a large - scale invasion in November. The UN forces were forced back to below the 38th parallel, then recovered. By early 1951 the war became a fierce stalemate at about the 38th parallel where it had begun. Truman rejected MacArthur 's request to attack Chinese supply bases north of the Yalu, but MacArthur promoted his plan to Republican House leader Joseph Martin, who leaked it to the press. Truman was gravely concerned that further escalation of the war might lead to open conflict with the Soviet Union, which was already supplying weapons and providing warplanes (with Korean markings and Soviet aircrew). Therefore, on April 11, 1951, Truman fired MacArthur from his commands.
-- Harry S. Truman to biographer Merle Miller, 1972, posthumously quoted in Time magazine, 1973.
The dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur was among the least politically popular decisions in presidential history. Truman 's approval ratings plummeted, and he faced calls for his impeachment from, among others, Senator Robert A. Taft. Fierce criticism from virtually all quarters accused Truman of refusing to shoulder the blame for a war gone sour and blaming his generals instead. Others, including Eleanor Roosevelt, supported and applauded Truman 's decision. MacArthur meanwhile returned to the U.S. to a hero 's welcome, and addressed a joint session of Congress, a speech the President called "a bunch of damn bullshit. ''
The war remained a frustrating stalemate for two years, with over 30,000 Americans killed, until an armistice ended the fighting in 1953. In February 1952, Truman 's approval mark stood at 22 % according to Gallup polls, which is the all - time lowest approval mark for an active U.S. president, though it was matched by Richard Nixon in 1974.
The escalation of the Cold War was highlighted by Truman 's approval of NSC 68, a secret statement of foreign policy. It called for tripling the defense budget, and the globalization and militarization of containment policy whereby the U.S. and its NATO allies would respond militarily to actual Soviet expansion. The document was drafted by Paul Nitze, who consulted State and Defense officials; it was formally approved by President Truman as official national strategy after the war began in Korea. It called for partial mobilization of the U.S. economy to build armaments faster than the Soviets. The plan called for strengthening Europe, weakening the Soviet Union, and building up the U.S. both militarily and economically.
Early in Truman 's second term, his former Secretary of Defense Forrestal died soon after retiring. Forrestal had become exhausted through years of hard labor during and after the war, and had begun to suffer depression. He retired in March 1949; soon after, he was hospitalized but committed suicide in May.
Truman was a strong supporter of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which established a formal peacetime military alliance with Canada and democratic European nations that had not fallen under Soviet control following World War II. The treaty establishing it was widely popular and easily passed the Senate in 1949; Truman appointed General Eisenhower as commander. NATO 's goals were to contain Soviet expansion in Europe and to send a clear message to communist leaders that the world 's democracies were willing and able to build new security structures in support of democratic ideals. The U.S., Britain, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, Denmark, Portugal, Iceland, and Canada were the original treaty signatories. The alliance resulted in the Soviets establishing a similar alliance, called the Warsaw Pact.
General Marshall was Truman 's principal adviser on foreign policy matters, influencing such decisions as the U.S. choice against offering direct military aid to Chiang Kai - shek and his Nationalist Chinese forces in the Chinese Civil War against their communist opponents. Marshall 's opinion was contrary to the counsel of almost all of Truman 's other advisers -- Marshall thought propping up Chiang 's forces would drain U.S. resources that were needed in Europe to deter the Soviets. When the communists took control of the mainland, establishing the People 's Republic of China and driving the Nationalists to Taiwan, Truman would have been willing to maintain some relationship between the U.S. and the new government but Mao was unwilling. On June 27, 1950, after the outbreak of fighting in Korea, Truman ordered the U.S. Navy 's Seventh Fleet into the Taiwan Strait to prevent further conflict between the communist government on the China mainland and the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan.
In August 1948, Whittaker Chambers, a former spy for the Soviets and a senior editor at Time magazine, testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). He said that an underground communist network had worked inside the U.S. government during the 1930s, of which Chambers had been a member, along with Alger Hiss, until recently a senior State Department official. Chambers did not allege any spying during the Truman presidency. Although Hiss denied the allegations, he was convicted in January 1950 for perjury for denials under oath. The Soviet Union 's success in exploding an atomic weapon in 1949 and the fall of the nationalist Chinese the same year led many Americans to conclude that subversion by Soviet spies was responsible, and to demand that communists be rooted out from the government and other places of influence. However, Truman got himself into deeper trouble when he called the Hiss trial a "red herring. ''
Wisconsin Senator McCarthy accused the State Department of harboring communists, and rode the controversy to political fame.
Charges that Soviet agents had infiltrated the government were believed by 78 % of the people in 1946, and became a major campaign issue for Eisenhower in 1952. Truman was reluctant to take a more radical stance because he feared that the full disclosure of the extent of the communist infiltration would reflect badly on the Democratic Party. It was a time of the Red Scare. In 1949, Truman described American communist leaders, whom his administration was prosecuting, as "traitors, '' but in 1950 he vetoed the McCarran Internal Security Act. It was passed over his veto. Truman would later state in private conversations with friends that his creation of a loyalty program had been a "terrible '' mistake.
In 1948, Truman ordered an addition to the exterior of the White House: a second - floor balcony in the south portico, which came to be known as the Truman Balcony. The addition was unpopular. Some said it spoiled the appearance of the south facade, but it gave the First Family more living space. The work uncovered structural faults that led engineering experts to conclude that the building, much of it over 130 years old, was in a dangerously dilapidated condition. That August, a section of floor collapsed, and Truman 's bedroom and bathroom were closed as unsafe. No public announcement about the serious structural problems of the White House was made until after the 1948 election had been won. By then Truman had been informed that his new balcony was the only part of the building that was sound.
The Truman family moved into nearby Blair House during the renovations. As the newer West Wing, including the Oval Office, remained open, Truman walked to and from his work across the street each morning and afternoon. In due course, the decision was made to demolish and rebuild the whole interior of the main White House, as well as excavate new basement levels and underpin the foundations. The famous exterior of the structure was buttressed and retained while the extensive renovations proceeded inside. The work lasted from December 1949 until March 1952.
On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate Truman at Blair House. The attack drew new attention to security concerns surrounding Truman 's residence at Blair House. He had jumped up from a nap, and was watching the gunfight from his open bedroom window until Secret Service agents shouted at him to take cover. On the street outside the residence, Torresola mortally wounded a White House policeman, Leslie Coffelt. Before he died, the officer shot and killed Torresola. Collazo was wounded and stopped before he entered the house. He was found guilty of murder and sentenced to death in 1952. Truman commuted his sentence to life in prison. To try to settle the question of Puerto Rican independence, Truman allowed a plebiscite in Puerto Rico in 1952 to determine the status of its relationship to the U.S. Nearly 82 % of the people voted in favor of a new constitution for the Estado Libre Asociado, a continued ' associated free state. '
In response to a labor / management impasse arising from bitter disagreements over wage and price controls, Truman instructed his Secretary of Commerce, Charles W. Sawyer, to take control of a number of the nation 's steel mills in April 1952. Truman cited his authority as Commander in Chief and the need to maintain an uninterrupted supply of steel for munitions for the war in Korea. The Supreme Court found Truman 's actions unconstitutional, however, and reversed the order in a major separation - of - powers decision, Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1952). The 6 -- 3 decision, which held that Truman 's assertion of authority was too vague and was not rooted in any legislative action by Congress, was delivered by a Court composed entirely of Justices appointed by either Truman or Roosevelt. The high court 's reversal of Truman 's order was one of the notable defeats of his presidency.
In 1950, the Senate, led by Estes Kefauver, investigated numerous charges of corruption among senior administration officials, some of whom received fur coats and deep freezers in exchange for favors. A large number of employees of the Internal Revenue Bureau (today the IRS) were accepting bribes; 166 employees either resigned or were fired in 1950, with many soon facing indictment. When Attorney General J. Howard McGrath fired the special prosecutor in early 1952 for being too zealous, Truman fired McGrath. Truman submitted a reorganization plan to reform the IRB; Congress passed it, but the corruption was a major issue in the 1952 presidential election.
On December 6, 1950, Washington Post music critic Paul Hume wrote a critical review of a concert by the president 's daughter Margaret Truman:
Miss Truman is a unique American phenomenon with a pleasant voice of little size and fair quality... (she) can not sing very well... is flat a good deal of the time -- more last night than at any time we have heard her in past years... has not improved in the years we have heard her... (and) still can not sing with anything approaching professional finish.
Harry Truman wrote a scathing response:
I 've just read your lousy review of Margaret 's concert. I 've come to the conclusion that you are an "eight ulcer man on four ulcer pay. '' It seems to me that you are a frustrated old man who wishes he could have been successful. When you write such poppy - cock as was in the back section of the paper you work for it shows conclusively that you 're off the beam and at least four of your ulcers are at work. Some day I hope to meet you. When that happens you 'll need a new nose, a lot of beefsteak for black eyes, and perhaps a supporter below! Pegler, a gutter snipe, is a gentleman alongside you. I hope you 'll accept that statement as a worse insult than a reflection on your ancestry.
Truman was criticized by many for the letter. However, he pointed out that he wrote it as a loving father and not as the president.
In 1951, William M. Boyle, Truman 's longtime friend and chairman of the Democratic National Committee, was forced to resign after being charged with financial corruption.
A 1947 report by the Truman administration titled To Secure These Rights presented a detailed ten - point agenda of civil rights reforms. Speaking about this report, international developments have to be taken into account, for with the UN-Charter being passed in 1945, the question whether international human rights law could be applicable also on an inner - land basis became crucial in the U.S. Though the report acknowledged that such a path was not free from controversy in the 1940s U.S., it nevertheless raised the distinct possibility that the UN-Charter could be used as a legal tool to combat racial discrimination in the U.S.
In February 1948, the president submitted a civil rights agenda to Congress that proposed creating several federal offices devoted to issues such as voting rights and fair employment practices. This provoked a storm of criticism from southern Democrats in the runup to the national nominating convention, but Truman refused to compromise, saying: "My forebears were Confederates... but my very stomach turned over when I had learned that Negro soldiers, just back from overseas, were being dumped out of Army trucks in Mississippi and beaten. '' Tales of the abuse, violence, and persecution suffered by many African - American veterans upon their return from World War II infuriated Truman, and were a major factor in his decision to issue Executive Order 9981, in July 1948, requiring equal opportunity in the Armed Forces. In the early 1950s after several years of planning, recommendations and revisions between Truman, the Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity and the various branches of the military, the services became racially integrated.
Another executive order, also in 1948, made it illegal to discriminate against persons applying for civil service positions based on race. A third, in 1951, established the Committee on Government Contract Compliance (CGCC). This committee ensured defense contractors did not discriminate because of race.
In 1950 he vetoed the McCarran Internal Security Act. It was passed over his veto.
Truman made five international trips during his presidency:
In 1951, the U.S. ratified the 22nd Amendment, making a president ineligible for election to a third term or for election to a second full term after serving more than two remaining years of a term of a previously elected president. The latter clause would have applied to Truman 's situation in 1952 except that a grandfather clause in the amendment explicitly excluded the amendment from applying to the incumbent president.
At the time of the 1952 New Hampshire primary, no candidate had won Truman 's backing. His first choice, Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson, had declined to run; Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson had also turned Truman down, Vice President Barkley was considered too old, and Truman distrusted and disliked Senator Kefauver, who had made a name for himself by his investigations of the Truman administration scandals. Truman had hoped to recruit General Eisenhower as a Democratic candidate, but found him more interested in seeking the Republican nomination. Accordingly, Truman let his name be entered in the New Hampshire primary by supporters. The highly unpopular Truman was handily defeated by Kefauver; 18 days later the president announced he would not seek a second full term. Truman was eventually able to persuade Stevenson to run, and the governor gained the nomination at the 1952 Democratic National Convention.
Eisenhower gained the Republican nomination, with Senator Nixon as his running mate, and campaigned against what he denounced as Truman 's failures: "Korea, Communism and Corruption ''. He pledged to clean up the "mess in Washington, '' and promised to "go to Korea. '' Eisenhower defeated Stevenson decisively in the general election, ending 20 years of Democratic presidents. While Truman and Eisenhower had previously been on good terms, Truman felt annoyed that Eisenhower did not denounce Joseph McCarthy during the campaign. Similarly, Eisenhower was outraged when Truman accused the former general of disregarding "sinister forces... Anti-Semitism, anti-Catholicism, and anti-foreignism '' within the Republican Party.
Upon leaving the presidency, Truman returned to Independence, Missouri, to live at the Wallace home he and Bess had shared for years with her mother. Once out of office, Truman quickly decided that he did not wish to be on any corporate payroll, believing that taking advantage of such financial opportunities would diminish the integrity of the nation 's highest office. He also turned down numerous offers for commercial endorsements. Since his earlier business ventures had proved unsuccessful, he had no personal savings. As a result, he faced financial challenges. Once Truman left the White House, his only income was his old army pension: $112.56 per month. Former members of Congress and the federal courts received a federal retirement package; President Truman himself ensured that former servants of the executive branch of government received similar support. In 1953, however, there was no such benefit package for former presidents, and he received no pension for his Senate service.
Truman took out a personal loan from a Missouri bank shortly after leaving office, and then found a lucrative book deal for his memoirs. For the memoirs, Truman received only a flat payment of $670,000, and had to pay two - thirds of that in tax; he calculated he got $37,000 after he paid his assistants. However, the memoirs were a commercial and critical success; they were published in two volumes in 1955 and 1956 by Doubleday (Garden City, N.Y) and Hodder & Stoughton (London): Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: Year of Decisions and Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: Years of Trial and Hope.
The former president was quoted in 1957 as saying to then - House Majority Leader John McCormack, "Had it not been for the fact that I was able to sell some property that my brother, sister, and I inherited from our mother, I would practically be on relief, but with the sale of that property I am not financially embarrassed. '' The following year, Congress passed the Former Presidents Act, offering a $25,000 yearly pension to each former president, and it is likely that Truman 's financial status played a role in the law 's enactment. The one other living former president at the time, Herbert Hoover, also took the pension, even though he did not need the money; reportedly, he did so to avoid embarrassing Truman.
Truman 's predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, had organized his own presidential library, but legislation to enable future presidents to do something similar had not been enacted. Truman worked to garner private donations to build a presidential library, which he donated to the federal government to maintain and operate -- a practice adopted by his successors. He testified before Congress to have money appropriated to have presidential papers copied and organized, and was proud of the bill 's passage in 1957. Max Skidmore, in his book on the life of former presidents, noted that Truman was a well - read man, especially in history. Skidmore added that the presidential papers legislation and the founding of his library "was the culmination of his interest in history. Together they constitute an enormous contribution to the United States -- one of the greatest of any former president. ''
Truman supported Adlai Stevenson 's second bid for the White House in 1956, although he had initially favored Democratic Governor W. Averell Harriman of New York. He continued to campaign for Democratic senatorial candidates for many years. Upon turning 80 in 1964, Truman was feted in Washington, and addressed the Senate, availing himself of a new rule that allowed former presidents to be granted privilege of the floor. After a fall in his home in late 1964, his physical condition declined. In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Medicare bill at the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum and gave the first two Medicare cards to Truman and his wife Bess to honor the former president 's fight for government health care while in office. He voted in the 1972 U.S. presidential election via absentee ballot.
On December 5, 1972, Truman was admitted to Kansas City 's Research Hospital and Medical Center with lung congestion from pneumonia. He developed multiple organ failure and died at 7: 50 am on December 26 at the age of 88 after being in a coma. Bess Truman opted for a simple private service at the library rather than a state funeral in Washington. A week after the funeral, foreign dignitaries and Washington officials attended a memorial service at Washington National Cathedral. Bess died in 1982; they are buried at the Harry S. Truman Library and Museum in Independence.
Biographer Robert Donovan has tried to capture Truman 's personality:
Vigorous, hard - working, simple, he had grown up close to the soil of the Midwest and understood the struggles of the people on the farms and in the small towns... After 10 years in the Senate, he had risen above the Pendergast organization. Still, he had come from a world of two - bit politicians, and its aura was one that he never was able to shed entirely. And he did retain certain characteristics one often sees in machine - bred politicians: intense partisanship, stubborn loyalty, a certain insensitivity about the transgressions of political associates, and a disinclination for the companionship of intellectuals and artists.
Citing continuing divisions within the Democratic Party, the ongoing Cold War, and the boom and bust cycle, journalist Samuel Lubell in 1952 stated: "After seven years of Truman 's hectic, even furious, activity the nation seemed to be about on the same general spot as when he first came to office... Nowhere in the whole Truman record can one point to a single, decisive break - through... All his skills and energies -- and he was among our hardest - working Presidents -- were directed to standing still. '' When he left office in 1953, Truman was one of the most unpopular chief executives in history. His job approval rating of 22 % in the Gallup Poll of February 1952 was lower than Richard Nixon 's 24 % in August 1974, the month Nixon resigned, but matched by Nixon 's all - time low in January 1974.
U.S. public feeling towards Truman grew steadily warmer with the passing years; as early as 1962, a poll of 75 historians conducted by Arthur M. Schlesinger, Sr. ranked Truman among the "near great '' presidents. The period following his death consolidated a partial rehabilitation of his legacy among both historians and members of the public. Truman died when the nation was consumed with crises in Vietnam and Watergate, and his death brought a new wave of attention to his political career. In the early and mid-1970s, Truman captured the popular imagination much as he had in 1948, this time emerging as a kind of political folk hero, a president who was thought to exemplify an integrity and accountability many observers felt was lacking in the Nixon White House. This public reassessment of Truman was aided by the popularity of a book of reminiscences Truman had recounted to journalist Merle Miller beginning in 1961, with the agreement that they would not be published until after Truman 's death.
Truman has had his latter - day critics as well. After a review of information available to Truman about the presence of espionage activities in the U.S. government, Democratic Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan concluded that Truman was "almost wilfully obtuse '' concerning the danger of U.S. communism. In 2010, historian Alonzo Hamby concluded that "Harry Truman remains a controversial president. '' However, since leaving office, Truman has fared well in polls ranking the presidents. He has never been listed lower than ninth, and was ranked fifth in a C - SPAN poll in 2009.
The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 caused Truman advocates to claim vindication for his decisions in the postwar period. According to Truman biographer Robert Dallek, "His contribution to victory in the cold war without a devastating nuclear conflict elevated him to the stature of a great or near - great president. '' The 1992 publication of David McCullough 's favorable biography of Truman further cemented the view of Truman as a highly regarded Chief Executive. According to historian Donald R. McCoy in his book on the Truman presidency:
Harry Truman himself gave a strong and far - from - incorrect impression of being a tough, concerned and direct leader. He was occasionally vulgar, often partisan, and usually nationalistic... On his own terms, Truman can be seen as having prevented the coming of a third world war and having preserved from Communist oppression much of what he called the free world. Yet clearly he largely failed to achieve his Wilsonian aim of securing perpetual peace, making the world safe for democracy, and advancing opportunities for individual development internationally.
In 1953, Truman received the Solomon Bublick Award of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 1956, Truman traveled to Europe with his wife. In England, he met with Churchill and received an honorary Doctor of Civil Law degree from Oxford University. Across Britain he was hailed; London 's Daily Telegraph characterized Truman as the "Living and kicking symbol of everything that everybody likes best about the United States. '' In 1959, he was given a 50 - year award by the Masons, recognizing his longstanding involvement: he was initiated on February 9, 1909, into the Belton Masonic Lodge in Missouri. In 1911, he helped establish the Grandview Lodge, and he served as its first Worshipful Master. In September 1940, during his Senate re-election campaign, Truman was elected Grand Master of the Missouri Grand Lodge of Freemasonry; Truman said later that the Masonic election assured his victory in the general election. In 1945, he was made a 33 ° Sovereign Grand Inspector General and an Honorary Member of the supreme council at the Supreme Council A.A.S.R. Southern Jurisdiction Headquarters in Washington D.C. Truman was also a member of Sons of the American Revolution (SAR) and a card - carrying member of the Sons of Confederate Veterans. Two of his relatives were Confederate soldiers.
In 1975, the Truman Scholarship was created as a federal program to honor U.S. college students who exemplified dedication to public service and leadership in public policy. In 2004, the President Harry S. Truman Fellowship in National Security Science and Engineering was created as a distinguished postdoctoral three - year appointment at Sandia National Laboratories. In 2001, the University of Missouri established the Harry S. Truman School of Public Affairs to advance the study and practice of governance. The University of Missouri 's Missouri Tigers athletic programs have an official mascot named Truman the Tiger. On July 1, 1996, Northeast Missouri State University became Truman State University -- to mark its transformation from a teachers ' college to a highly selective liberal arts university and to honor the only Missourian to become president. A member institution of the City Colleges of Chicago, Harry S Truman College in Chicago, Illinois, is named in his honor for his dedication to public colleges and universities. In 2000, the headquarters for the State Department, built in the 1930s but never officially named, was dedicated as the Harry S Truman Building.
Despite Truman 's attempt to curtail the naval carrier arm, which led to the 1949 Revolt of the Admirals, an aircraft carrier is named after him. The USS Harry S. Truman (CVN - 75) was christened on September 7, 1996. The 129th Field Artillery Regiment is designated "Truman 's Own '' in recognition of Truman 's service as commander of its D Battery during World War I.
In 1984, Truman was posthumously awarded the United States Congressional Gold Medal. In 1991, he was inducted into the Hall of Famous Missourians, and a bronze bust depicting him is on permanent display in the rotunda of the Missouri State Capitol. Other sites associated with Truman include:
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when did the apa create the code of ethics | APA Ethics code - wikipedia
The American Psychological Association (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (for short, the Ethics Code, as referred to by the APA) includes an introduction, preamble, a list of five aspirational principles and a list of ten enforceable standards that psychologists use to guide ethical decisions in practice, research, and education. The principles and standards are written, revised, and enforced by the APA. The code of conduct is applicable to psychologists in a variety of areas across a variety of contexts. In the event of a violation of the code of conduct, the APA may take action ranging from termination of the APA membership to the loss of licensure, depending on the violation. Other professional organizations and licensing boards may adopt and enforce the code.
The first version was published by the APA in 1953. The need for such a document came after psychologists were taking on more professional and public roles post-World War II. A committee was developed and reviewed situations submitted by psychologists in the field who felt they had encountered ethical dilemmas. The committee organized these situations into themes and included them in the first document which was 170 pages in length. Over the years, a distinction was made between aspirational principles and enforceable standards. Since, there have been nine revisions with the most recent published in 2002 and amended in 2010.
Despite the development and use of a complete ethical code, there have still been ethical violations and controversies. For instance, although the APA takes an explicit stance against conversion therapy, this treatment remains controversial amongst many psychologists and religious groups and is still being practiced by some. There is also some disagreement within the field about the ethical implications of using a treatment that may be less effective than another known treatment, although some psychologists argue that all therapy treatments are equally effective (see: the Dodo bird verdict). The APA has also been implicated in helping the Central Intelligence Agency to continue "enhanced interrogation techniques '' of detainees under the Bush administration. This presented an obvious violation of the organization 's code of ethics and has been addressed by the APA in the form of reports, responses to media outlets, amendments to policies, and rejections of the allegations.
The introduction of the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct is designed to describe the document 's purpose. It also informs the reader of its organization, applicability, and procedural matters. The introduction states that the code applies to psychologists ' scientific, educational, and professional roles, that may include "clinical psychology; counseling psychology; school psychology; research; teaching; supervision; public service; policy development; social intervention; development of assessment instruments; conducting assessments; educational counseling; organizational counseling; forensic activities; program design and evaluation; and administration, '' (pg. 2) The introduction also includes information on what contexts these situations apply to, including electronic and face - to - face communication. It provides information on the procedures for filing an ethical complaint, along with a description the investigation process and possible outcomes. The preamble is a description of aspirations which the American Psychological Association expects of psychologists, and reviews the main purpose for having such an ethical code.
There are five general principles that serve as the ideals to which psychologists should aspire within the profession. The principles represent ethical goals but do not explicitly inform or instruct adherence to the goals; instead, the principles aim to influence and to guide professional behavior with respect to the psychologist, research subjects, students, and the individuals who seek psychological services.
The beneficence and non maleficence principle of the APA general principles guides psychologists to perform work that is beneficial to others yet does not hurt anyone in the process of carrying out that work. Psychologists are to remain aware of their professional influence and the potential consequences therein on individuals and groups who seek counsel with the psychologist, especially with respect to preventing misuse or abuse, while additionally maintaining awareness of how the psychologist 's own physical and mental health may influence their work. Among professional interactions and research, psychologists ought to respect and protect the rights and welfare of patients and participants.
The fidelity and responsibility principle of the APA general principles inspires psychologists to cultivate a professional and scientific environment built upon trust, accountability, and ethical considerations. Psychologists are bound to the community by way of their profession and must conduct themselves in a responsible and ethical manner while also maintaining a similar check on colleagues. Furthermore, psychologists are expected to altruistically devote some of their time to the community.
The integrity principle of the APA general principles aims to encourage psychologists to engage in honest, transparent practices within all aspects of the field of psychology. That is, psychologists should not engage in behavior that could be misconstrued as dishonest, exploitative, or otherwise malicious. When deception is appropriately used (most likely during psychological research), psychologists have a responsibility to mitigate the effects of its use on the overall field.
The justice principle of the APA general principles states that people are entitled to the advances made within the field of psychology and to the services offered by professionals within the field. Furthermore, psychologists should prevent unjust practices by remaining aware of their biases, level of competence, and area and limits of expertise.
The APA general principle concerning respect for people 's rights and dignity recognizes individuals ' rights to privacy and confidentiality. Psychologists are to respect the individuals ' rights while also acknowledging the worth of the individual by taking judicious precautions and engaging in positive, professional interactions, avoiding the influence of any personal bias towards the individual or group. This entails awareness of the vulnerabilities experienced by any particular population of people and necessitates understanding of and respect for diversity, including, but not limited to, factors concerning gender, race, religion, disability, and socioeconomic status.
The ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct put forth by the APA consists of ten ethical standards. The ethical standards are enforceable rules applicable for psychologists in academia and practice. These are written broadly to guide psychologists in varied areas and roles, addressing situations most psychologists may encounter in their professional roles. The types of situations include those related to resolving ethical issues, competence, human relations, privacy and confidentiality, advertising and public statements, record keeping and fees, education and training, research and publication, assessment, and therapy. The ethical standards are enforced for the benefit of the psychologists, clients, students, and other individuals that work with psychologists. Any psychologist that is a member of the APA is expected to adhere to the ethical standards. Any violation of an ethical standard may result in sanctions ranging from termination of APA membership to loss of licensure.
The resolving ethical issues section of the APA Ethical Standards is broadly designed to guide psychologists through a variety of ethical issues. One of the first sections describes how to approach when the work of psychologists ' is misused or misrepresented, such as happens in the popular press. Psychological research is often misrepresented. Two of the sections describe how to resolve conflicts between the ethical code of psychologists and a variety of governing bodies, laws, or regulations as well as organizational demands related to working as a psychologist. There is a section related to informal resolution of ethical violations for situations where such a resolution is possible while protecting confidentiality. If the incident extends beyond being able to be resolved informally, there are guidelines for reporting ethical violations as well as working with and cooperating with ethics committees. In regards to ethical complaints, there is also a section outlining what might be considered an improper complaint. Lastly, the Resolving Ethical Issues section describes unfair discrimination against complainants and respondents to protect those involved in ethics related investigations.
The competence section of the APA Ethical Standards is designed to guide psychologists in how to define their own competence and how to approach clients or patients that might fall outside of that area of expertise. This ethical standard begins by helping psychologists define the boundaries of their own competence. The different types of mental health related problems and potential treatments are highly varied. It is impossible for a psychologists to be competent in all areas, and in fact, unethical to attempt to portray themselves in such a way. If a psychologist feels that he / she has not been trained to ensure competence in a specific area to treat a client, he / she should make an appropriate referral. This ethical standard also provides psychologists with guidelines on providing services in emergency situations. Although psychologists should refrain from providing service outside of their area of competence, in times of emergency the psychologist is obligated to help where possible. Psychologists are also required to maintain competence. This is usually done through the completion of continuing education credits. This standard also provides the psychologist with a bases from which to make scientific and professional judgment in an ethically consistent manner. Outlines are also provided for delegating work to others and resolving personal problems and conflicts.
The human relations section of the APA Ethical Standards provides psychologists guidance with how to approach situations related to the process of working with people in a helping field. This section outlines how to identify and avoid unfair discrimination, sexual harassment, and other types of verbal and nonverbal harassment. These types of behavior have strong adverse influences on mental health. As such, psychologists must be particularly vigilant in identifying and avoiding these kinds of behavior. This section also outlines how to avoid harm when treating patients. Some treatments have been shown to cause harm, and as such, should be avoided. The section also provides guidance for navigating and avoiding a number of multiple relationships. Situations where a clinician has more than one relationship with the client beyond just being a client can be difficult to navigate, which can also lead to conflicts of interest, which are also covered. Guidance is also provided for how to approach requests for service from third - parties, that is, when someone other than the patient is requesting services for the said patient. Exploitative relationships are also covered and should be avoided, according to the ethical standards. This section provides guidance for cooperating with other professionals, which is often a situation faced in multi-disciplinary treatment teams. Guidance is provided for providing and obtaining informed consent for treatment. Another section outlines how to provide psychological services to or through organizations. And lastly, guidance is provided for how to navigate situations in which there is an interruption of psychological services for various reasons.
The privacy and confidentiality section of the APA Ethical Standards is written to help provide psychologists with guidelines for maintaining appropriate confidentiality and respecting the privacy of the clients and patients under their care. Specific guidelines are provided for maintaining confidentiality for the psychologist 's patients as well as discussing the limits of confidentiality with them. In certain situations where the safety of the patient or others is at risk, confidentiality must be broken as law enforcement needs to be motivated. Guidelines are also provided for how to ethically record therapy sessions for various reasons including training. Steps are covered for the psychologist to minimize intrusions on privacy for patients. Sections on disclosures and consultations provide guidance on how and when psychologists should disclose information and how to ethically consult with other professionals while maintaining appropriate levels of confidentiality. Lastly, this section guides psychologists on how and when to use confidential information for didactic or other purposes while protecting confidentiality of the client.
The advertising and other public statements section of the APA Ethical Standards is designed to guide psychologists through the process of advertising their practice and making other types of public statements. This section begins by outlining how to avoid false and deceptive statements, in specific of one 's level of competence. As described in the competence section, it is unethical to provide services outside of your area of expertise. The section also outlines statements by others regarding a psychologist 's work and competence. The section goes on to outline how to accurately and honestly describe workshops and non-degree granting educational programs. Media presentations and testimonials regarding one 's work, and how to do so ethically and accurately, is also covered. This section also states that obtaining testimonials from past or current clients is not acceptable. The section closes by outlining how to ethically navigate situations of in - person solicitation of services.
The record keeping and fees standard of the APA ethical standards is developed to guide psychologists in maintaining records of professional and scientific work in confidentiality. This standard states that maintaining records allow professionals to share information with other professionals if needed, help replicate research findings, and abide by the requirements of the institution and the law. In an event of an emergency, psychologists are not allowed to withhold records of clients who have failed to make payments. Psychologists are expected to arrange fees and financial arrangements in compliance with the law and accept barter only in situations that doing so, does not negatively impact the treatment. Psychologists are also expected to maintain and provide accurate reports of treatment, funding, and diagnostic details. This standard also emphasizes that psychologists should receive payment based on the services provided rather than the referral.
The education and training standard of the APA ethical standards is designed to help psychologists create high - quality programmes that train future psychologists with appropriate knowledge and practice. Psychologists creating education and training programmes are responsible for presenting clear descriptions of the programmes, including the pre-requirements for acceptance and the requirements for completion of the programme. Psychologists are expected to teach accurate and current material supported by scientific evidence. Psychologists should not require students to disclose any personal information, unless it is listed as a programme requirement, or to evaluate whether such experiences are negatively impacting a student 's performance. If individual or group therapy is a requirement of the programme, the psychologists are responsible for allowing students to attend individual or group therapy outside of the programme. Furthermore, faculty members are not allowed to provide therapy services to the students. Supervisors are required to provide timely feedback to the students and supervisees based on their performance and the requirements of the programme. Psychologists involved in the programme are prohibited from engaging in sexual relationships with students and supervisees.
The research and publication standard of the APA ethical standards is developed to highlight research and publication ethics that psychologists are expected to adhere to. This standard emphasizes the necessity of approval by the institute prior to carrying out the research, providing accurate information about the research study, and carrying out the research in accordance with the approval. When obtaining informed consent, details of the study should be presented to the participants, including but not limited to, the objective of the study, the procedures, benefits and potential risks associated with the study, and the participants ' right to decline to participate and withdraw from the study without any penalty. However, studies which are not expected to cause any harm, such as observing in a naturalistic environment, using anonymous questionnaires, or if permitted by the law, informed consent may not be necessary to be obtained. Compensation for participation should not be used to persuade an unwilling participant. At the conclusion of the study, each participant should be presented with a summary of the study and the participant should be provided with an opportunity to ask any questions he / she has. Further, if there has been some harm caused to the participant due to participation in the study, necessary steps should be followed to minimize the harm. This standard also provides guidelines and instructions on animal research. Psychologists are responsible for reporting accurate findings and taking necessary steps to correct any errors in research and publication. Psychologists are also required to only present original data as their work and share publication credits based on the contributions rather than authority. Psychologists are also expected to be willing to share research data when required for verification, and maintain confidentiality of the participants during the review process.
The assessment standard of the APA ethical standards is developed to broadly address guidelines on assessments. This standard states that the psychologist 's views should be supported by findings from assessments, while reporting the limitations of assessments. If a viewpoint is not based on assessment results, psychologists should provide evidence to justify their judgment. Psychologists are responsible for using valid and reliable assessments that are administered in a preferred language by the client. Informed consent is expected to be obtained in accordance to the guidelines on the "Informed Consent '' standard, unless the assessment is required by the law, a routine practice or required to test for the ability to make decisions. Psychologists using an interpreter are expected to obtain informed consent from the client for the use of an interpreter as well as maintain confidentiality and test security. Psychologists may refrain from releasing test data in order to protect a participant. Psychologists are also responsible for developing valid and reliable assessments and interpreting test results by taking other factors that may influence the interpretations while also indicating any limitations associated with the interpretations. Psychologists are required to be appropriately trained in order to administer assessments and are responsible for using current tests. Psychologists are also responsible for providing necessary information when outsourcing interpretation and the interpretation of test results. Psychologists are required to explain the test results to the client or other identified persons, unless otherwise specified. Psychologists are also required to maintain security and integrity in regards to all test material.
The therapy section of the APA ethical standards is broadly written to guide psychologists through various aspects of providing psychological services. Psychologists are required to obtain informed consent from clients prior to treatment by presenting sufficient details about the therapy technique, including how established the treatment is and whether a psychologist in training will be assisting the client. When psychologists are required to provide services in a group setting, psychologists are required to identify the role of the psychologist and notify the clients of the limitations of confidentiality. If a psychologist is required to provide services for a client already receiving mental health services from another professional, the psychologist is required to discuss with the client or other identified persons to minimize conflict and harm. Psychologists should not engage in sexual relationships with current clients or with those closely related to clients. Psychologists should not be sexually engaged with past clients within two years of termination and even after two years of termination, psychologists will have to provide enough details to ensure that this ethical standard is not violated by being involved with a past client. In the event of a termination of employment, necessary steps should be taken in order to ensure client care. Termination of therapy should occur when the client shows significant improvements, does not benefit further from treatment, is being harmed by the treatment, or the clinician is threatened by the client or a person related to the client. Psychologists are expected to prepare clients for termination and provide sources for alternative services.
"These rules should do much more than help the unethical psychologist keep out of trouble; they should be of palpable aid to the ethical psychologist in making daily decisions. '' -- Nicholas Hobbs (1948, p. 81)
The first committee on Ethical Standards for Psychologists was developed in 1947 and chaired by Edward Tolman. The committee was created because psychologists were becoming more involved in professional activities and public works during and following World War II. To gain insight on what to include, the committee sought information from psychologists in the field. Psychologists discussed situations in which they felt they encountered ethical dilemmas.
A second committee was formed and headed by Nicholas Hobbs. This 8 - member committee was responsible for the creation of the first document. The committee used contributions from over 2,000 psychologists to create the first principles. The committee reviewed the situations submitted by psychologists to the first committee and attempted to organize the situations into themes. Themes that emerged reflected many of the political and social issues of the time including racial segregation, post-war politics, and the testing industry. The first version of the Ethical Standards of Psychologists was adopted in 1952 and published in 1953 by the American Psychological Association (APA). The document was over 170 pages in length. The first version contained many ethical dilemmas that psychologists had written about and submitted to the first committee as case examples.
Revisions to the 1953 version continued over the decades until the most recent version which was published in 2002 and amended in 2010. Each revision has been guided by a set of objectives put forth by Hobbs in 1948: "to express the best ethical practices in the field as judged by a large representative sample of members of the APA; to reflect an explicit value system as well as clearly articulated decisional and behavioral rules; to be applicable to the full range of activities and role relationships encountered in the work of psychologists; to have the broadest possible participation among psychologists in its development and revisions; and to influence the ethical conduct of psychologists by meriting widespread identification and acceptance among members of the discipline ''.
Revisions occurred over the years pertaining to many changes in society. Culture, politics, the legal system, the economy and the healthcare system have all been influential in the development of the past and current ethical codes. The case examples were also removed. Prior to 1981, there was no principle or standard that addressed conflict between law and ethics. One of the biggest changes occurred with the 1992 version of the code. Before this version, there was no distinction between principles and standards. This version was the first to make that distinction. The principles are considered to be aspirational while the standards are enforceable by agencies adopting them, including the APA.
The current version of the code was developed in 2002, became effective in 2003, and was amended in 2010. Amendments were made to the Introduction and Applicability Sections along with Standard 1.02 Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing Legal Authority and Standard 1.03 Conflicts Between Ethics and Organizational Demands. / green / < Ethical steps >
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Conversion therapy (also referred to as reparative therapy) is the practice of attempting to change the patient 's sexual orientation to heterosexual. Among the most prominent supporters of conversion therapy is the National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality (NARTH), which continues to characterize homosexuality as a mental disorder, despite the declassification of homosexuality as a disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) in 1973. One of the most notable members of NARTH is founder and former president Dr. Joseph Nicolosi, who practices conversion therapy and has published case studies some of his clients.
The American Psychological Association (APA) task force report on appropriate therapeutic responses to sexual orientation concluded that conversion therapy was "unlikely to be successful '' and involved "some risk of harm ''. Likewise, the U.S. Surgeon General issued a call to action in 2001, concluding that "there is no valid scientific evidence that sexual orientation can be changed ''.
In the task force 's report, the APA recommends that therapists adopt an affirmative, supportive approach for clients who present for therapy to change their sexual orientation rather than attempting to convert their sexual orientation.
Currently, the APA enforces ethical standards to protect nonhuman animal subjects from unnecessary harm during the research process. Some of the requirements for using nonhuman animals in research include: proper justification of the research, maintenance and inspection of appropriate housing for the animals, minimizing discomfort and stress whenever possible, and preference of noninvasive measures.
Despite these guidelines, however, many advocacy groups exist to either reduce or eliminate animal research, arguing that it is unethical to capture animals and subject them to research procedures. Indeed, a recent study showed that only 52 % of the public approves of animal research. Some scientists believe that this low approval rate is primarily the result of receiving manipulative misinformation from anti-animal research groups.
A current controversy among mental health professionals is the use of specific psychological treatments which are not strongly supported by research. Proponents of the evidence - based practice (EBP) movement argue that it is unethical to administer a therapeutic intervention with questionable research support (such as psychoanalysis) when another treatment 's effectiveness has been demonstrated for the client 's condition, particularly when the intervention in question is potentially harmful (such as conversion therapy). Proponents argue that administration of an empirically questionable treatment violates the general Principle A of the ethical principles of psychologist: Beneficence and nonmaleficence (or "do no harm '').
Opponents of the movement object that all psychotherapies are equally effective (termed "the Dodo bird verdict '') and assert that restricting therapists to only evidence - based treatments limits opportunities to discover new techniques. Further complicating the issue is the fact that there is debate about what kind of evidence is needed to constitute "good research support '' for or against a treatment.
During the Iraq War, Amnesty International released a series of reports, calling attention to violations of the human rights of prisoners in Abu Ghraib Prison and American detention camps, and the role of the United States and the United Kingdom in enacting these abuses. The reports called on the occupying powers to protect the human rights of any detained civilians by giving them a fair and timely trial, not detaining civilians arbitrarily, and treating all people ethically while in detention. Amnesty International also called for justice, by trying individual perpetrators of abuse for their crimes.
Despite these reports, the Bush administration instituted "enhanced '' interrogation techniques, stating publicly that reported abuses were isolated incidents, and not standard practice. Internal memos from the Federal Bureau of Investigation revealed that an executive order by George W. Bush had sanctioned certain interrogation techniques, such as playing loud music, depriving prisoners of sleep, and stripping prisoners of their clothing.
The CIA reportedly required involvement from health professionals to continue its practice of "enhanced '' interrogations on detainees, to maintain the lawfulness of their practices. Psychiatrists and medical doctors were reluctant to participate in interrogations, however some psychologists participated. A recently released report by a group of psychologists alleges the same, implicating a number of APA officials as well.
After the abuses were made public, the APA created a task force called Psychological Ethics and National Security (PENS) and released a report stating that the APA Code of Ethics applies to psychologists working in any setting, and that psychologists do not facilitate or participate in any degrading or cruel behavior, referring back to the APA 's 1986 Resolution Against Torture. The report also called on psychologists to report any suspected or observed inhumane treatment to the appropriate authorities and obey federal law.
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when did knocking on heavens door come out | Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door - wikipedia
"Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door '' is a song written and sung by Bob Dylan, for the soundtrack of the 1973 film Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid. Released as a single, it reached No. 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart. Described by Dylan biographer Clinton Heylin as "an exercise in splendid simplicity '', the song, in terms of the number of other artists who have covered it, is one of Dylan 's most popular post-1960s compositions.
Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.
In January 1975 Eric Clapton played on Jamaican singer Arthur Louis ' recording of "Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door '' arranged in a reggae style. Subsequently, Clapton recorded his own reggae - style version of the song which was released in August 1975, two weeks after Louis 's version was released as a single in July 1975. Clapton 's single peaked at No. 38 in the UK Singles Chart. The single was less successful in the US, only reaching No. 109 in Cash Box. Clapton 's 1996 boxed set Crossroads 2: Live in the Seventies features a performance recorded in London in April 1977. The song was also performed during the Journeyman and One More Car, One More Rider world tours in 1990 and 2003. Additionally, the song has been included on several Clapton compilation albums, such as Time Pieces: The Best of Eric Clapton, Backtrackin ', The Cream of Clapton and Complete Clapton.
In 1987, Guns N ' Roses started including the song in their live sets. A live version of the song was released on the maxi - single of "Welcome to the Jungle '' the same year. They recorded a studio version in 1990 for the soundtrack of the film Days of Thunder which reached No. 18 on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart in 1990. This version was later slightly modified for the 1991 album Use Your Illusion II (basically discarding the responses in the second verse). Released as the fourth single from the album, it reached No. 2 on the UK Singles Chart and the New Zealand Singles Chart. Elsewhere, the single topped the charts of Belgium and the Netherlands. In Ireland, where the song also reached No. 1, it became Guns N ' Roses ' third (and to date last) number - one single as well as their ninth consecutive top - five hit.
Their performance of the song at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert in 1992 was used as the B - side for the single release and was also included on their Live Era: ' 87 -- ' 93 album, released in 1999. The music video for this version of the song was directed by Andy Morahan.
Weekly charts
Year - end charts
In 1996 and with the consent of Dylan, Scottish musician Ted Christopher wrote a new verse for "Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door '' in memory of the schoolchildren and teacher killed in the Dunblane school massacre. This has been, according to some sources, one of the few times Dylan has officially authorized anybody to add or change the lyrics to one of his songs. This version of the song, including children from the village singing the chorus with guitarist and producer of Dylan 's album Infidels (1983), Mark Knopfler, was released on December 9 in the UK and reached No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart and Scottish Singles Chart. The proceeds went to charities for children. The song was featured on the compilation album Hits 97, where all royalties from the song were given to three separate charities.
Gabrielle 's single "Rise '' (2000) sampled from this song.
Nick Talevski used the title for his book, Knocking On Heaven 's Door: Rock Obituaries. A version of this song was performed by Raign for the TV show "The 100 ''
An alternate name for the 24th episode of Neon Genesis Evangelion is "Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door ''.
The title is used as the name of Rohan Kishibe 's Stand, "Heaven 's Door '', in the fourth part of the manga "Jojo 's Bizarre Adventure '', Diamond is Unbreakable.
The title was used for the 12th episode of Angel Beats! and Bob Dylan along with the song was mentioned in the episode by T.K. and Hinata
Covered by The Jenerators, the song was used during a tribute to the death of cast member Miguel Ferrer of NCIS: Los Angeles at the end of the Season 8 Episode 16 "New Tricks '', broadcast on March 5, 2017. Ferrer was a member of The Jenerators.
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who was involved in the 3 5 compromise | Three - Fifths Compromise - wikipedia
The Three - Fifths Compromise was a compromise reached between delegates from southern states and those from northern states during the 1787 United States Constitutional Convention. The debate was over whether, and if so, how, slaves would be counted when determining a state 's total population for legislative representation and taxing purposes. The issue was important, as this population number would then be used to determine the number of seats that the state would have in the United States House of Representatives for the next ten years. The effect was to give the southern states a third more seats in Congress and a third more electoral votes than if slaves had been ignored, but fewer than if slaves and free persons had been counted equally, allowing the slaveholder interests to largely dominate the government of the United States until 1861. The compromise was proposed by delegates James Wilson and Roger Sherman.
The Convention had unanimously accepted the principle that representation in the House of Representatives would be in proportion to the relative state populations. However, since slaves could not vote, white leaders in slave states would thus have the benefit of increased representation in the House and the Electoral College. Delegates opposed to slavery proposed that only free inhabitants of each state be counted for apportionment purposes, while delegates supportive of slavery, on the other hand, opposed the proposal, wanting slaves to count in their actual numbers. The compromise that was finally agreed upon -- of counting "all other persons '' as only three - fifths of their actual numbers -- reduced the representation of the slave states relative to the original proposals, but improved it over the Northern position. An inducement for slave states to accept the Compromise was its tie to taxation in the same ratio, so that the burden of taxation on the slave states was also reduced.
The Three - Fifths Compromise is found in Article 1, Section 2, Paragraph 3 of the United States Constitution, which reads:
Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.
The three - fifths ratio originated with a 1783 amendment proposed to the Articles of Confederation. The amendment was to have changed the basis for determining the wealth of each state, and hence its tax obligations, from real estate to population, as a measure of ability to produce wealth. The proposal by a committee of the Congress had suggested that taxes "shall be supplied by the several colonies in proportion to the number of inhabitants of every age, sex, and quality, except Indians not paying taxes ''. The South immediately objected to this formula since it would include slaves, who were viewed primarily as property, in calculating the amount of taxes to be paid. As Thomas Jefferson wrote in his notes on the debates, the southern states would be taxed "according to their numbers and their wealth conjunctly, while the northern would be taxed on numbers only ''.
After proposed compromises of one - half by Benjamin Harrison of Virginia and three - fourths by several New Englanders failed to gain sufficient support, Congress finally settled on the three - fifths ratio proposed by James Madison. But this amendment ultimately failed, falling two states short of the unanimous approval required for amending the Articles of Confederation (only New Hampshire and New York were opposed).
A contentious issue at the 1787 Constitutional Convention was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in the Congress or would instead be considered property and, as such, not be considered for purposes of representation. Delegates from states with a large population of slaves argued that slaves should be considered persons in determining representation, but as property if the new government were to levy taxes on the states on the basis of population. Delegates from states where slavery had become rare argued that slaves should be included in taxation, but not in determining representation.
The proposed ratio was, however, a ready solution to the impasse that arose during the Constitutional Convention. In that situation, the alignment of the contending forces was the reverse of what had obtained under the Articles of Confederation. In amending the Articles, the North wanted slaves to count for more than the South did because the objective was to determine taxes paid by the states to the federal government. In the Constitutional Convention, the more important issue was representation in Congress, so the South wanted slaves to count for more than the North did.
Much has been said of the impropriety of representing men who have no will of their own... They are men, though degraded to the condition of slavery. They are persons known to the municipal laws of the states which they inhabit, as well as to the laws of nature. But representation and taxation go together... Would it be just to impose a singular burden, without conferring some adequate advantage?
The Three - Fifths Compromise gave a disproportionate representation of slave states in the House of Representatives relative to the voters in free states until the American Civil War. In 1793, for example, Southern slave states had 47 of the 105 members but would have had 33, had seats been assigned based on free populations. In 1812, slave states had 76 out of 143 instead of the 59 they would have had; in 1833, 98 out of 240 instead of 73. As a result, Southern states had disproportionate influence on the presidency, the speakership of the House, and the Supreme Court in the period prior to the Civil War. Along with this must be considered the number of slave and free states, which remained mostly equal until 1850, safeguarding the Southern bloc in the Senate as well as Electoral College votes.
Historian Garry Wills has postulated that without the additional slave state votes, Jefferson would have lost the presidential election of 1800. Also, "slavery would have been excluded from Missouri... Jackson 's Indian removal policy would have failed... the Wilmot Proviso would have banned slavery in territories won from Mexico... the Kansas - Nebraska bill would have failed. '' While the Three - Fifths Compromise could be seen to favor Southern states because of their large slave populations, for example, the Connecticut Compromise tended to favor the Northern states (which were generally smaller). Support for the new Constitution rested on the balance of these sectional interests.
Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment (1868) later superseded Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 and explicitly repealed the compromise. It provides that "representatives shall be apportioned... counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. '' A later provision of the same clause reduced the Congressional representation of states who denied the right to vote to adult male citizens, but this provision was never effectively enforced. (The Thirteenth Amendment, passed in 1865, had already eliminated almost all persons from the original clause 's jurisdiction by banning slavery; the only remaining persons subject to it were those serving lifetime prison sentences, which the amendment excluded from the ban.)
After the Reconstruction Era came to an end in 1877, however, the former slave states subverted the objective of these changes by using various strategies to disenfranchise their black citizens, while obtaining the benefit of apportionment of representatives on the basis of the total populations. These measures effectively gave white Southerners even greater voting power than they had in the antebellum era, inflating the number of Southern Democrats in the House of Representatives as well as the number of votes they could exercise in the Electoral College in the election of the president.
The disenfranchisement of black citizens eventually attracted the attention of Congress, and in 1900 some members proposed stripping the South of seats, related to the number of people who were barred from voting. In the end, Congress did not act to change apportionment, largely because of the power of the Southern bloc. The Southern bloc comprised Southern Democrats voted into office by white voters and constituted a powerful voting bloc in Congress until the 1960s. Their representatives, re-elected repeatedly by one - party states, controlled numerous chairmanships of important committees in both houses on the basis of seniority, giving them control over rules, budgets and important patronage projects, among other issues. Their power allowed them to defeat federal legislation against racial violence and abuses in the South.
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who sings the theme song for the show half and half | Half & half - wikipedia
Half & Half is an American sitcom that aired on UPN from September 23, 2002, to May 15, 2006. The show focuses on the lives of two paternal half - sisters in their twenties who were estranged throughout their childhood, and are finally developing a close relationship. The series is set in San Francisco.
It was the second-most - watched show on UPN 's Monday night line - up (next to Girlfriends) and fourth overall on the network. The show was on The CW 's first draft line - up in March 2006, but due to several circumstances -- including The CW 's contractual obligation to pick up Reba, the uncancelling of All of Us, and the pick - up of the Girlfriends spin - off The Game -- Half & Half was left off the final Fall 2006 schedule and ended production. The series has aired in reruns on Global TV in Canada, Trouble in the United Kingdom and in local syndication in the United States. Starting October 5, 2015 reruns began airing on Bounce TV. Since 2017, BET Her (formerly Centric) has added to the show to its daily schedule.
The show 's plot centers around the lives of half - sisters Mona and DeeDee and their growing relationship. Mona, the elder, at first resents DeeDee because she was the one who had been living with their father while Mona lived with her mother, becoming the more level - headed one. Second - born DeeDee was spoiled and became the more fashionable, upscale, and materialistic of the two (and also somewhat dimwitted). Through the series the half - sisters grow on each other and deal with issues from the past until they can deal with each other as people in the here and now. They learn to love each other and ease into the roles they would have had if they had grown up together, and take on helping each other with work, dating, and their parents.
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what other cities are on the same latitude as london | List of population centers by latitude - wikipedia
The following is a list of population centers by latitude.
Both the latitude and longitude are shown for all entries and sorted by latitude started from the North Pole down to the South Pole.
Sources include Information Please Almanac ((1) and (2)) and a range of atlases and Wikipedia entries used by different contributors
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when does the joint sitting of both the houses of the parliament take place | Joint session of Indian Parliament - wikipedia
The Parliament of India is bicameral. Concurrence of both houses are required to pass any bill. However, the authors of the Constitution of India visualised situations of deadlock between the upper house i.e. Rajya Sabha and the lower house i.e. Lok Sabha. Therefore, the Constitution of India provides for Joint sittings of both the Houses to break this deadlock. The joint sitting of the Parliament is called by the President and is presided over by the Speaker or, in his absence, by the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha or in his absence, the Deputy - Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. If any of the above officers are not present then any other member of the Parliament can preside by consensus of both the House.
As per Article 108 of Constitution, a Joint session of Parliament can be summoned in the following situations.
If after a Bill has been passed by one House and transmitted to the other House --
(a) the Bill is rejected by the other House; or (b) the Houses have finally disagreed as to the amendments to be made in the Bill; or (c) more than six months elapse from the date of the reception of the Bill by the other House without the Bill being passed by it, the President may, unless the Bill has elapsed by reason of a dissolution of the House of the People, notify to the Houses by message if they are sitting or by public notification if they are not sitting, his intention to summon them to meet in a joint sitting for the purpose of deliberating and voting on the Bill
However, in calculating period of six months, those days are not considered when house is prorogued or adjourned for more than 4 consecutive days.
If the above conditions are satisfied, the President of India may summon joint sitting of both the houses of parliament.
Not all bills can be refereed to a joint sitting of Parliament. There are two exception.
1. Money Bill
Under the Constitution of India, money bills require approval of the Lok Sabha only. Rajya Sabha can make recommendations to Lok Sabha, which it is not required to accept. Even if Rajya Sabha does n't pass a money bill within 14 days, it is deemed to have been passed by both the Houses of Parliament after expiry of the above period. Therefore, a requirement to summon a joint session can never arise in the case of money bill.
2. Constitution Amendment Bill
Article 368 of Indian constitution require that constitution of India can be amended by both houses of parliament by 2 / 3 majority. In case of disagreement between both houses, there is no provision to summon joint session of parliament.
Joint session of Indian parliament has been called for only three bills i.e. dowry prohibition act, 1961, banking service commission act, 1977 and POTA, 2002.
BILLS PASSED IN JOINT SESSION: 1. Dowry Prohibition Bill, 1961 2. Banking Service Commission (Repeal) Bill, 1978 3. Prevention of Terrorism Bill, 2002
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who has become first woman chairman of indian bank's association | Chanda Kochhar - wikipedia
Chanda Kochhar (born 17 November 1961) is the managing director and chief executive officer of ICICI Bank. She is widely recognised for her role in shaping retail banking in India.
Kochhar was born in Jodhpur, Rajasthan and raised in Jaipur, Rajasthan. She was educated at St. Angela Sophia School, Jaipur. She then moved to Mumbai, where she joined Jai Hind College for B.Com degree of University of Mumbai. After graduating in 1982, she studied cost accountancy from Institute of Cost Accountants of India, and later acquired MMS degree of University of Mumbai from Jamnalal Bajaj Institute of Management Studies, Mumbai. She received the Wockhardt Gold Medal for Excellence in Management Studies as well as the J.N. Bose Gold Medal in Cost Accountancy.
In 1984, Kochhar joined the Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India (ICICI) as a management trainee. During her early years at ICICI, she handled project appraisal and monitoring and evaluated projects in industries such as textile, paper and cement.
Kochhar was instrumental in establishing ICICI Bank during the 1990s. In 1993, Kochhar was appointed as one of the core team members who were assigned the responsibility of setting up the bank. She was promoted to assistant general manager in 1994 and then to deputy general manager in 1996. In 1996, Kochhar headed the newly formed Infrastructure Industry Group of ICICI Bank, which aimed to create dedicated industry expertise in the areas of power, telecom and transportation. In 1998, she was promoted as the General Manager and headed ICICI Bank 's major client group, which handled relationships with ICICI 's top 200 clients. In 1999, she also handled the strategy and e-commerce divisions of ICICI Bank. Under Kochhar 's leadership, ICICI Bank started building the nascent retail business in 2000 focusing largely on technology, innovation, process engineering and expansion of distribution and scale. In April 2001, she took over as executive director. In 2006, Kochhar was appointed as deputy managing director of ICICI Bank. In 2006 -- 07, Kochhar handled the international and corporate businesses of the bank. From 2007 to 2009, she was the bank 's chief financial officer (CFO) and joint managing director.
In 2009 Kochhar was appointed as managing director and chief executive officer of the bank and has been responsible for the bank 's diverse operations in India and overseas. She also chairs the boards of most of the bank 's subsidiaries, which include India 's leading private sector life and general insurance companies.
Kochhar is a member of the India -- Japan Business Leaders Forum and the US - India CEO Forum. She was the president of the International Monetary Conference, an organisation that annually brings together the chief executives of approximately 70 of the world 's largest financial institutions from 30 countries, along with officials from government institutions in 2015 -- 16. She is the deputy chairman of the Indian Banks Association. Kochhar is the chairperson of the board of governors at IIT Vadodara. She is also on the boards of the National Institute of Securities Markets and Institute of International Finance. Kochhar has been a member of the Prime Minister 's Council on Trade & Industry, the Board of Trade and High - Level Committee on Financing Infrastructure. She was co-chair of the World Economic Forum 's Annual Meeting in 2011.
Kochhar received an honorary doctorate from Carleton University, Canada in 2014, in recognition of her pioneering work in the financial sector, effective leadership in a time of economic crisis and support for engaged business practices. She was conferred with the Padma Bhushan, one of India 's highest civilian honours, in 2011.
Under Kochhar 's leadership, ICICI Bank won the "Best Retail Bank in India '' award in 2001, 2003, 2004 and 2005 and "Excellence in Retail Banking Award '' in 2002; both awards were given by The Asian Banker. Kochhar personally was awarded "Retail Banker of the Year 2004 (Asia - Pacific region) '' by the Asian Banker, "Business Woman of the Year 2005 '' by The Economic Times and "Rising Star Award '' for Global Awards 2006 by Retail Banker International. Kochhar has also consistently figured in Fortune 's list of "Most Powerful Women in Business '' since 2005. She climbed up the list debuting with the 47th position in 2005, moving up 10 spots to 37 in 2006 and then to 33 in 2007. In the 2008 list, Kochhar features at the 25th spot. In 2009, she debuted at number 20 in the Forbes "World 's 100 Most Powerful Women list ''. She is the second Indian in the list behind the Indian National Congress party chief Sonia Gandhi at number 13. In 2010, she fell to number 92 in the Forbes list, but in 2011 bounced back to 43. As of 2014, she ranks at # 43. And in 2015 she climbed up to # 35 again. In 2017, she was raked at # 32 and she ranked the highest among the 5 Indian woman who made it on the list, which included # 57 Roshni Nadar Malhotra, # 71 Kiran Mazumdar - Shaw, # 92 Shobhana Bhartia and # 97 Priyanka Chopra.
Kochhar has also consistently figured in Fortune 's list of "Most Powerful Women in Business '' since 2005. In 2009, she debuted at number 20 in the Forbes "World 's 100 Most Powerful Women list '', and climbed to the 10th spot in 2010. In 2011, she featured in Business Today 's list of the "Most Powerful Women -- Hall of Fame ''. In 2011, she also featured in the "50 Most Influential People in Global Finance '' List of Bloomberg Markets. Chanda Kochhar was awarded with ASSOCHAM Ladies League Mumbai Women of the Decade Achievers Award on 2 January 2014.
In 2011, Kochhar was awarded the "ABLF Woman of Power Award (India) '' at the Asian Business Leadership Forum Awards.
Kochhar was ranked as the most powerful businesswoman in India in Forbes ' list of ' The World 's 100 Most Powerful Women 2013 '. Kochhar was also featured in the Power List 2013 of 25 most powerful women in India by India Today, for the third year in a row.
Kochhar was selected in Time magazine 's list of the 100 Most Influential People in the World 2015. In 2015, she was ranked first in the Fortune List of 100 Most Powerful Women in Asia Pacific.
Kochhar ranked 40th on India Today 's ' High and Mighty Power List 2016 ' in 2016. In the same year, she was 22nd in the Forbes Asia 's ' 50 Power Businesswomen List 2016 '. She was also listed in Forbes list of ' The World 's Most Powerful Women In Finance 2016 ' at number 10.
In 2017, Kochhar was featured in Business World magazine 's ' BW 's Most Influential Women ' list as an evergreen woman leader. In May of the same year, she received the Woodrow Wilson Award for Global Corporate Citizenship from the Woodrow Wilson Centre located in Washington, US. She is the first leader to receive an award in this category. In the same year, Kochhar was ranked 5th in Fortune 's list of ' Most Powerful Women in business outside the U.S. '.
Kochhar resides in Mumbai, and is married to Deepak Kochhar, a wind energy entrepreneur and her business schoolmate. They have two children, a daughter Aarti and a son, Arjun.
March 2018 found that she involved in and around 3,250 Cr loan sanctioning to Videocon Group which is favoring to her husband business, company titled Nu Power. But this issue is under the investigation of icici bank management
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the overthrow of shah in iran in 1979 | Iranian revolution - wikipedia
Imperial State of Iran
Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
Ruhollah Khomeini
The Iranian Revolution (Persian: انقلاب ایران , translit. Enqelāb - e Iran; also known as the Islamic Revolution or the 1979 Revolution) refers to events involving the overthrow of the 2,500 years of continuous Persian monarchy under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, who was supported by the United States, and eventual replacement with an Islamic Republic under the Grand Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution, supported by various Islamist and leftist organizations and student movements.
Demonstrations against the Shah commenced in October 1977, developing into a campaign of civil resistance that included both secular and religious elements and which intensified in January 1978. Between August and December 1978, strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country. The Shah left Iran for exile on 16 January 1979, as the last Persian monarch, leaving his duties to a regency council and Shapour Bakhtiar who was an opposition - based prime minister. Ayatollah Khomeini was invited back to Iran by the government, and returned to Tehran to a greeting by several million Iranians. The royal reign collapsed shortly after on 11 February when guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting, bringing Khomeini to official power. Iran voted by national referendum to become an Islamic Republic on 1 April 1979, and to approve a new theocratic - republican constitution whereby Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country in December 1979.
The revolution was unusual for the surprise it created throughout the world: it lacked many of the customary causes of revolution (defeat at war, a financial crisis, peasant rebellion, or disgruntled military), occurred in a nation that was experiencing relative prosperity, produced profound change at great speed, was massively popular, resulted in the exile of many Iranians, and replaced a pro-Western authoritarian monarchy with an anti-Western authoritarian theocracy based on the concept of Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists (or velayat - e faqih). It was a relatively non-violent revolution, and it helped to redefine the meaning and practice of modern revolutions (although there was violence in its aftermath).
Reasons advanced for the occurrence of the revolution and its populist, nationalist and, later, Shi'a Islamic character include a conservative backlash against the Westernizing and secularizing efforts of the Western - backed Shah, a rise in expectations created by the 1973 oil revenue windfall and an overly ambitious economic program, anger over a short, sharp economic contraction in 1977 -- 78, and other shortcomings of the previous regime.
The Shah 's regime became increasingly oppressive, brutal, corrupt, and extravagant. It also suffered from basic functional failures that brought economic bottlenecks, shortages, and inflation. The Shah was perceived by many as beholden to -- if not a puppet of -- a non-Muslim Western power (the United States) whose culture was affecting that of Iran. At the same time, support for the Shah may have waned among Western politicians and media -- especially under the administration of U.S. President Jimmy Carter -- as a result of the Shah 's support for OPEC petroleum price increases earlier in the decade. When President Carter enacted a human - rights policy which said countries guilty of human - rights violations would be deprived of American arms or aid, this helped give some Iranians the courage to post open letters and petitions in the hope that the repression by the government might subside.
The revolution that replaced the monarchy of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi with Islamism and Khomeini rather than with another leader and ideology, is credited in part to the spread of the Shia version of the Islamic revival that opposed Westernization and saw Ayatollah Khomeini as following in the footsteps of the Shi'a Imam Husayn ibn Ali and the Shah in the role of Husayn 's foe, the hated tyrant Yazid I. Other factors include the underestimation of Khomeini 's Islamist movement by both the Shah 's reign -- who considered them a minor threat compared to the Marxists and Islamic socialists -- and by the secularist, opponents of the government -- who thought the Khomeinists could be sidelined.
The Shi'a clergy (Ulema) had a significant influence on Iranian society. The clergy first showed itself to be a powerful political force in opposition to the monarchy with the 1891 Tobacco protest. On 20 March 1890, Nasir al - Din Shah granted a concession to Major G.F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for fifty years. At the time the Persian tobacco industry employed over 200,000 people and therefore the concession represented a major blow to Persian farmers and bazaaris whose livelihoods were largely dependent on the lucrative tobacco business. The boycotts and protests against it were widespread and extensive because of Mirza Hasan Shirazi 's fatwa (judicial decree). Finally Nasir al - Din Shah found himself powerless to stop the popular movement and cancelled the concession. The Tobacco Protest was the first significant Iranian resistance against the Shah and foreign interests, and revealed the power of the people and the Ulema influence among them.
The growing discontent continued until the Constitutional Revolution (1905 -- 1911). The revolution led to the establishment of a Parliament and approval of the first constitution. Although the constitutional revolution was successful in weakening the autocracy of the Qajar regime, it failed to provide a powerful alternative government. Consequently, within the decades following the establishment of the new parliament, a number of critical events took place. Many of these events can be viewed as a continuation of the struggle between the constitutionalists and the Shahs of Persia, many of whom were backed by foreign powers against the parliament.
Insecurity and chaos created after the Constitutional Revolution led to the rise of General Reza Khan, the commander of the elite Persian Cossack Brigade who seized power in a coup d'état in February 1921. He established a constitutional monarchy, deposing the last of the Qajar shah in 1925 and introduced many social, economic, and political reforms during his reign. A number of these reforms led to public discontent which provides circumstances for an Iranian revolution. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi 's father, Reza Shah, replaced Islamic laws with Western ones, which forbade traditional Islamic clothing, separation of the sexes and veiling of women 's faces with the niqab. Police forcibly removed and tore chadors off women who resisted his ban on the public hijab. In 1935, dozens were killed and hundreds injured in the Goharshad Mosque rebellion. On the other hand, in the early rise of Reza Shah, Abdul - Karim Ha'eri Yazdi founded the Qom Seminary and created important changes in seminaries. However, he would avoid entering into political issues, as did other religious leaders who followed him. Hence, no widespread anti-government attempts were organized by clergy during the Reza Shah Rule. However, the future Ayatollah Khomeini was a student of Sheikh Abdul Karim Ha'eri.
From 1901 on, the Anglo - Persian Oil Company (renamed the Anglo - Iranian oil company in 1931) - a British oil company -- enjoyed the monopoly on sale and production of Iranian oil. It was the most profitable British business in the world. Most Iranians lived in poverty while the wealth generated from Iranian oil played a decisive role in maintaining Britain at the top of the world. In 1951 Iranian Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh pledged to throw the company out of Iran, reclaim the petroleum reserves and free Iran from foreign powers.
Mosaddegh nationalized the Anglo - Iranian oil company and became a national hero. The British, however, were outraged and accused him of stealing. The British demanded punishment by the World Court and the United Nations, sent warships to the Persian Gulf and finally imposed a crushing embargo.
Mosaddegh was unmoved by Britain 's campaign against him. One European newspaper, the Frankfurter Neue Presse, reported that Mosaddegh "would rather be fried in Persian oil than make the slightest concession for the British ''. The British considered an armed invasion, but U.S. President Harry S. Truman refused his support. U.K. Prime Minister Winston Churchill decided for a coup. Mosaddegh, however, learned of their plans and ordered the British embassy shuttered in October 1952. All British diplomats and agents had to leave the country.
The British asked Truman for help; Truman, however, sympathized with nationalist movements like Mosaddegh 's and had nothing but contempt for old - style imperialists like those who ran Anglo - Iranian. However, Dwight D. Eisenhower 's election as U.S. President in November 1952 changed the U.S. 's stance toward the conflict. On 20 January 1953, U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and his brother, director of the C.I.A. Allen Dulles, told their British counterparts that they were ready to move against Mosaddegh. In their eyes, any country not decisively allied with the United States was a potential enemy. Iran had immense oil wealth, a long border with the Soviet Union and a nationalist Prime Minister. A fall into communism and a "second China '' terrified the Dulles brothers. Operation Ajax was born, deposing the only democratic government Iran ever had.
In 1941 Reza Shah was deposed and his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, was installed by an invasion of allied British and Soviet troops. In 1953, foreign powers (American and British) again came to the Shah 's aid -- after the young Shah fled the country to Italy, the British MI6 aided an American CIA operative in organizing a military coup d'état to oust the nationalist and democratically elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh.
Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, who was the son of Reza Shah, maintained a close relationship with the U.S. government, both regimes sharing an opposition to the expansion of the Soviet Union, Iran 's powerful northern neighbor. Like his father 's government, the Shah 's was known for its autocracy, its focus on modernization and Westernization and for its disregard for religious and democratic measures in Iran 's constitution. Leftist and Islamist groups attacked his government (often from outside Iran as they were suppressed within) for violating the Iranian constitution, political corruption, and the political oppression by the SAVAK secret police.
The White Revolution was a far - reaching series of reforms in Iran launched in 1963 by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and lasted until 1978. Mohammad Reza Shah 's reform program was built especially to weaken those classes that supported the traditional system. It consisted of several elements including: the land reform; sales of some state - owned factories to finance the land reform; the enfranchisement of women; nationalization of forests and pastures; formation of a literacy corps; and institution of profit sharing schemes for workers in industry.
The Shah advertised the White Revolution as a step towards westernization and was a way for him to legitimize the Pahlavi dynasty. Part of the reason for launching the White Revolution was that the Shah hoped to get rid of the landlords ' influence and create a new base of support among the peasants and working class.
Thus the White Revolution in Iran represented a new attempt to introduce reform from above and preserve traditional power patterns. Through land reform, the essence of the White Revolution, the Shah hoped to ally himself with the peasantry in the countryside, and hoped to sever their ties with the aristocracy in the city. What the Shah did not expect was that the White Revolution led to new social tensions that helped create many of the problems the Shah had been trying to avoid. The Shah 's reforms more than quadrupled the combined size of the two classes that had posed the most challenges to his monarchy in the past -- the intelligentsia and the urban working class. Their resentment towards the Shah also grew since they were now stripped of organizations that had represented them in the past, such as political parties, professional associations, trade unions, and independent newspapers. The land reform, instead of allying the peasants with the government, produced large numbers of independent farmers and landless laborers who became loose political cannons, with no feeling of loyalty to the Shah. Many of the masses felt resentment towards the increasingly corrupt government; their loyalty to the clergy, who were seen as more concerned with the fate of the populace, remained consistent or increased. As Ervand Abrahamian pointed out, The White Revolution had been designed to preempt a Red Revolution. Instead, it paved the way for an Islamic Revolution. The White Revolution 's economic "trickle - down '' strategy also did not work as intended. In theory, oil money funneled to the elite was supposed to be used to create jobs and factories, eventually distributing the money, but instead the wealth tended to get stuck at the top and concentrated in the hands of the very few.
The post-revolutionary leader -- Shia cleric Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini -- first came to political prominence in 1963 when he led opposition to the Shah and his White Revolution. Khomeini was arrested in 1963 after declaring the Shah a "wretched miserable man '' who had "embarked on the (path toward) destruction of Islam in Iran. '' Three days of major riots throughout Iran followed, with 15,000 dead from police fire as reported by opposition sources. However, anti-revolutionary sources conjectured that just 32 were killed. Khomeini was released after eight months of house arrest and continued his agitation, condemning Iran 's close cooperation with Israel and its capitulations, or extension of diplomatic immunity to American government personnel in Iran. In November 1964 Khomeini was re-arrested and sent into exile where he remained for 15 years, until the revolution.
In this interim period of "disaffected calm '' the budding Iranian revival began to undermine the idea of Westernization as progress that was the basis of the Shah 's secular reign, and to form the ideology of the 1979 revolution. Jalal Al - e-Ahmad 's idea of Gharbzadegi -- that Western culture was a plague or an intoxication to be eliminated; Ali Shariati 's vision of Islam as the one true liberator of the Third World from oppressive colonialism, neo-colonialism, and capitalism; and Morteza Motahhari 's popularized retellings of the Shia faith, all spread and gained listeners, readers and supporters.
Most importantly, Khomeini preached that revolt, and especially martyrdom, against injustice and tyranny was part of Shia Islam, and that Muslims should reject the influence of both liberal capitalism and communism, ideas that inspired the revolutionary slogan "Neither East, nor West -- Islamic Republic! ''
Away from public view, Khomeini developed the ideology of velayat - e faqih (guardianship of the jurist) as government, that Muslims -- in fact everyone -- required "guardianship, '' in the form of rule or supervision by the leading Islamic jurist or jurists. Such rule was ultimately "more necessary even than prayer and fasting '' in Islam, as it would protect Islam from deviation from traditional sharia law and in so doing eliminate poverty, injustice, and the "plundering '' of Muslim land by foreign non-believers.
This idea of rule by Islamic jurists was spread through his book Islamic Government, mosque sermons, smuggled cassette speeches by Khomeini, among Khomeini 's opposition network of students (talabeh), ex-students (able clerics such as Morteza Motahhari, Mohammad Beheshti, Mohammad - Javad Bahonar, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and Mohammad Mofatteh), and traditional businessmen (bazaari) inside Iran.
Other opposition groups included constitutionalist liberals -- the democratic, reformist Islamic Freedom Movement of Iran, headed by Mehdi Bazargan, and the more secular National Front. They were based in the urban middle class, and wanted the Shah to adhere to the Iranian Constitution of 1906 rather than to replace him with a theocracy, but lacked the cohesion and organization of Khomeini 's forces.
Marxist groups -- primarily the communist Tudeh Party of Iran and the Fedaian guerrillas -- had been weakened considerably by government repression. Despite this the guerrillas did help play an important part in the final February 1979 overthrow delivering "the regime its coup de grace. '' The most powerful guerrilla group -- the People 's Mujahedin -- was leftist Islamist and opposed the influence of the clergy as reactionary.
Some important clergy did not follow Khomeini 's lead. Popular ayatollah Mahmoud Taleghani supported the left, while perhaps the most senior and influential ayatollah in Iran -- Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari -- first remained aloof from politics and then came out in support of a democratic revolution.
Khomeini worked to unite this opposition behind him (except for the unwanted ` atheistic Marxists `), focusing on the socio - economic problems of the Shah 's government (corruption and unequal income and development), while avoiding specifics among the public that might divide the factions, -- particularly his plan for clerical rule which he believed most Iranians had become prejudiced against as a result of propaganda campaign by Western imperialists.
In the post-Shah era, some revolutionaries who clashed with his theocracy and were suppressed by his movement complained of deception, but in the meantime anti-Shah unity was maintained.
Several events in the 1970s set the stage for the 1979 revolution.
The 1971 2,500 th anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire at Persepolis, organized by the government, was attacked for its extravagance. "As the foreigners reveled on drink forbidden by Islam, Iranians were not only excluded from the festivities, some were starving. '' Five years later the Shah angered pious Iranian Muslims by changing the first year of the Iranian solar calendar from the Islamic hijri to the ascension to the throne by Cyrus the Great. "Iran jumped overnight from the Muslim year 1355 to the royalist year 2535. ''
The oil boom of the 1970s produced "alarming '' increase in inflation, waste and an "accelerating gap '' between the rich and poor, the city and the country, along with the presence of tens of thousands of unpopular skilled foreign workers. Many Iranians were also angered by the fact that the shah 's family was the foremost beneficiary of the income generated by oil, and the line between state earnings and family earnings blurred. By 1976, the shah had accumulated upward of $1 billion from oil revenue; his family -- including 63 princes and princesses had accumulated between $5 and $20 billion; and the family foundation controlled approximately $3 billion By mid-1977 economic austerity measures to fight inflation disproportionately affected the thousands of poor and unskilled male migrants to the cities working construction. Culturally and religiously conservative, many went on to form the core of the revolution 's demonstrators and "martyrs ''.
All Iranians were required to join and pay dues to a new political party, the Ḥezb - e Rastakhiz party -- all other parties being banned. That party 's attempt to fight inflation with populist "anti-profiteering '' campaigns -- fining and jailing merchants for high prices -- angered and politicized merchants while fueling black markets.
In 1977 the Shah responded to the "polite reminder '' of the importance of political rights by the new American president, Jimmy Carter, by granting amnesty to some prisoners and allowing the Red Cross to visit prisons. Through 1977 liberal opposition formed organizations and issued open letters denouncing the government. Against this background a first crucial manifestation of public expression of social discontent and political protest against the regime took place in October 1977 when the German - Iranian Cultural Association in Teheran hosted a series of literature reading sessions, organized by the newly revived Iranian Writers Association and the German Goethe - Institut. In these '' Ten Nights '' (Dah Shab) 57 of Iran 's most prominent poets and writers read their works to thousands of listeners. They demanded the end of censorship and claimed the freedom of expression.
That year also saw the death of the popular and influential modernist Islamist theorist Ali Shariati. This both angered his followers, who considered him a martyr at the hands of SAVAK, and removed a potential revolutionary rival to Khomeini. Finally, in October Khomeini 's son Mostafa died of an alleged heart attack, his death also blamed on SAVAK. A subsequent memorial service for Mostafa in Tehran put Khomeini back in the spotlight.
By 1977, the Shah 's policy of political liberalization was underway. Secular opponents of the Shah began to meet in secret to denounce the government.
Led by the leftist intellectual Saeed Soltanpour, the Iranian Writers Association met at the Goethe Institute in Tehran to read anti-government poetry. Ali Shariati 's death in the United Kingdom shortly after led to another public demonstration, with the opposition accusing the Shah of murdering him (although it was later ruled he died naturally of a heart attack).
The chain of events began with the death of Mostafa Khomeini, chief aide and eldest son of Ruhollah Khomeini. He mysteriously died at midnight of 23 October 1977. SAVAK and Iraqi government declared heart attack as the cause of demise, though many believed his death was attributed to SAVAK. Khomeini remained silent after the incident, but in Iran with the spread of the news there was a wave of protest in several cities and mourning ceremonies in major cities were held. The mourning of Mostafa was given a political cast by Khomeini 's political credentials, their enduring opposition to the monarchy and their exile. Thus dimension of the ceremonies went beyond the religious credentials of the family.
On 7 January 1978, an article ("Iran and Red and Black Colonization '') appeared in the national daily Ettela'at newspaper. Written under a pseudonym by a government agent, it denounced Khomeini as a "British agent '' and a "mad Indian poet '' conspiring to sell out Iran to neo-colonialists and communists.
Upon the publishing of the article, religious seminary students in the city of Qom, angered over the insult to Khomeini, clashed with police. According to the government, two were killed in the clash; according to the opposition, seventy were killed and over five hundred were injured. However, the casualty figures are different in different sources.
According to the Shi'ite customs, memorial services (referred to as chehelom) are held forty days after a person 's death. Encouraged by Khomeini (who declared that the blood of martyrs must water the "tree of Islam ''), radicals pressured the mosques and moderate clergy to commemorate the deaths of the students, and used the occasion to generate protests. The informal network of mosques and bazaars, which for years had been used to carry out religious events, increasingly became consolidated as a coordinated protest organization.
On 18 February, forty days after Qom clashes, demonstrations broke out in various different cities. The largest was in Tabriz, which descended into a full - scale riot. "Western '' and government symbols such as cinemas, bars, state - owned banks, and police stations were set ablaze. Units of Imperial Iranian Army were deployed to the city to restore order, and the death toll, according to government was 6, while Khomeini claimed hundreds were "martyred ''.
Forty days later (29 March), demonstrations were organized in at least 55 cities, including Tehran. In an increasingly predictable pattern, deadly riots broke out in major cities, and again forty days later on 10 May. It led to an incident in which army commandos opened fire on Ayatollah Shariatmadari 's house, killing one of his students. Shariatmadari immediately made a public announcement declaring his support for a "constitutional government '', and a return to the policies of the 1906 Constitution.
The Shah was taken completely by surprise by the protests; to make matters worse he often became indecisive during times of crisis. Virtually every major decision he would make backfired on his government, and inflamed the revolutionaries.
The Shah decided to continue on his plan of liberalization, and decided to negotiate rather than to use force against the still nascent protest movement. He promised that fully democratic elections for the Majlis would be held in 1979. Censorship was relaxed, and a resolution was drafted to help reduce corruption within the royal family and the government. Protesters were tried in civilian courts rather than by military court - martials, and were quickly released.
Iran 's security forces had not received any riot control training nor equipment since 1963. Police forces were unable to control demonstrations and the army frequently was deployed in that role. Soldiers were instructed not to use deadly force, yet there were instances of inexperienced soldiers reacting excessively, inflaming the violence without cowing the opposition, and receiving official condemnation from the Shah. (The Carter Administration also refused to sell non-lethal tear gas and rubber bullets to Iran).
As early as the Tabriz riots in February, the Shah fired all the SAVAK officials in the city in a concession to the opposition, and soon began to dismiss civil servants and government officials whom he felt the public blamed. In the first national concession, he replaced the hardline SAVAK chief General Nematollah Nassiri with the more moderate General Nasser Moghaddam. The government also negotiated to moderate religious leaders such as Shariatmadari (apologizing to the latter for the raid on his house).
By summer, the protests had stagnated. They remained at a steady state for four months -- about ten thousand participants in each major city (with the exception of Isfahan where protests were larger and Tehran where they were smaller), protesting every 40 days. This amounted to a small minority of the more than 15 million adults in Iran.
Against the wishes of Khomeini, Shariatmadari called for 17 June mourning protests to be carried out as a one - day stay. Although tensions remained in the air, the Shah 's policy appeared to have worked, leading Amuzegar to declare that "the crisis is over. '' A CIA analysis concluded that Iran "is not in a revolutionary or even a pre-revolutionary situation. '' Indeed, these and later events in Iran are frequently cited as one of the most consequential strategic surprises that the United States has experienced since the CIA was established in 1947.
As a sign of easing of government restrictions, three prominent opposition leaders from the secular National Front: Karim Sanjabi, Shahpour Bakhtiar, and Dariush Forouhar were allowed to write an open letter to the Shah demanding that he reign according to the constitution of Iran.
On 19 August, in the southwestern city of Abadan, four arsonists barred the door of the Cinema Rex movie theatre and set it on fire. In what was the largest terrorist attack in history prior to the 11 September 2001 attacks, 422 people inside the theatre were burned to death. Khomeini immediately blamed the Shah and SAVAK for setting the fire. Due to the pervasive revolutionary atmosphere, the public also blamed the Shah for starting the fire, despite the government 's insistence that they were uninvolved. Tens of thousands of people took to the streets shouting "Burn the Shah! '' and "The Shah is the guilty one! ''.
After the revolution, many claimed that it was Islamist militants who had started the fire. After the Islamic Republic government executed a police officer for the act, a man claiming to be the lone surviving arsonist, claimed he was responsible to starting the fire. After forcing the resignation of the presiding judges in an attempt to hamper the investigation, the new government finally executed Hossein Talakhzadeh for "setting the fire on the Shah 's orders '' (despite his insistence he did it on his own accord as an ultimate sacrifice for the revolutionary cause).
By August, the protests had "kick (ed)... into high gear, '' and the number of demonstrators mushroomed to hundreds of thousands. In an attempt to dampen inflation the Amuzegar administration cut spending and reduced business, but the cutbacks led to a sharp rise in layoffs -- particularly among young, unskilled, male workers living in the working class districts. By summer 1978, the working class joined the street protests in massive numbers. In addition, it was the Islamic holy month of Ramadan, bringing a sense of increased religiosity among many people.
A series of escalating protests broke out in major cities, and deadly riots broke out in Isfahan where protesters fought for the release of Ayatollah Jalaluddin Taheri. Martial law was declared in the city on 11 August as symbols of Western culture and government buildings were burned, and a bus full of American workers was bombed. Due to his failure to stop the protests, Prime Minister Amuzegar offered his resignation.
The Shah increasingly felt that he was losing control of the situation and hoped to regain it through complete appeasement. He decided to appoint Jafar Sharif - Emami to the post of prime minister, himself a veteran prime minister. Emami was chosen due to his family ties to the clergy, but had a reputation of corruption during his previous premiership.
Under the Shah 's guidance, Sharif - Emami effectively began a policy of "appeasing the opposition 's demands before they even made them ''. The government abolished the Rastakhiz Party, legalized all political parties and released political prisoners, increased freedom of expression, curtailed SAVAK 's authority and dismissed 34 of its commanders, closed down casinos and nightclubs, and abolished the imperial calendar. The government also began to prosecute corrupt government and royal family members. Sharif - Emami entered into negotiations with Ayatollah Shariatmadari and National Front leader Karim Sanjabi in order to help organize future elections. Censorship was effectively terminated, and the newspapers began reporting heavily on demonstrations, often highly critically and negatively of the Shah. The Majlis (Parliament) also began issuing resolutions against the government.
4 September was Eid - e-Fitr, the holiday celebrating the end of the month of Ramadan. A permit for an open air prayer was granted, in which 200,000 -- 500,000 people attended. Instead, the clergy directed the crowd on a large march through the center of Tehran (the Shah reportedly watched the march from his helicopter, unnerved and confused). A few days later even larger protests took place, and for the first time protesters called for Khomeini 's return and the establishment of an Islamic republic.
At midnight on 8 September, the Shah declared martial law in Tehran and 11 other major cities throughout the country. All street demonstrations were banned, and a night - time curfew was established. Tehran 's martial law commander was General Gholam - Ali Oveissi, who was known for his severity against opponents. However, the Shah made clear that once martial law was lifted he intended to continue with the liberalization, he retained Sharif - Emami 's civilian government, hoping that protesters would avoid taking the streets.
However, 5,000 protesters took to the streets, either in defiance or because they had missed hearing the declaration, and faced off with soldiers at Jaleh Square. After the firing warning shots failed to disperse the crowd, troops fired directly into the mob, killing 64, while General Oveissi claimed that 30 soldiers were killed by armed snipers in surrounding buildings. Additional clashes throughout the day (which would be called Black Friday by the opposition) brought the opposition death toll to 89.
The deaths shocked the country, and damaged any attempt at reconciliation between the Shah and the opposition. Khomeini immediately declared that "4,000 innocent protesters were massacred by Zionists '', and gave him a pretext to reject any further compromise with the government.
The Shah himself was horrified by the events of Black Friday, and harshly criticized the events, though this did little to sway public perception of him as being responsible for the shooting. While martial law officially remained in effect, the government decided not to break up any more demonstrations or strikes (in effect "martial law without there exactly being martial law '', according to Sharif - Emami), instead continuing to negotiate with protest leaders. Consequently, protest gatherings often took place without any serious intervention by soldiers.
On 9 September 700 workers at Tehran 's main oil refinery went on strike, and on 11 September the same occurred at refineries in 5 other cities. On 13 September, central government workers in Tehran simultaneously went on strike.
By late October, a nationwide general strike was declared, with workers in virtually all major industries walking off their jobs, most damagingly in the oil industry and the print media. Special "strike committees '' were set up throughout major industries to organize and coordinate the activities.
The Shah did not attempt to crack down on strikers, but instead gave them generous wage increases, and allowed strikers who lived in government housing to remain in their homes. By the beginning of November, many important officials in the Shah 's government were demanding from the Shah forceful measures to bring the strikers back to work.
Hoping to break Khomeini 's contacts with the opposition, the Shah pressured the Iraqi government to expel him from Najaf. Khomeini left Iraq, instead moving to a house bought by Iranian exiles in Neauphle - le - Château, a village near Paris, France. The Shah hoped that Khomeini would be cut off from the mosques of Najaf and be cut off from the protest movement. Instead, the plan backfired badly. With superior French telephone and postal connections (compared to Iraqi ones), his supporters flooded Iran with tapes and recordings of his sermons.
Worse for the Shah, the Western media, especially the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), immediately put Khomeini into the spotlight. Khomeini rapidly became a household name in the west, portraying himself as an "Eastern mystic '' who did not seek power, but instead sought to "free '' his people from "oppression ''. The normally critical western media rapidly became a docile tool in Khomeini 's hands.
In addition, the media coverage eroded the influence of other, more moderate clergy such as Ayatollah Shariatmadari and Ayatollah Taleghani. The BBC itself later issued a statement admitting to having a "critical '' disposition to the Shah, saying that its broadcasts helped to "change the collective perception of the population. ''
In November, secular National Front leader Karim Sanjabi flew to Paris to meet Khomeini. There the two signed an agreement for a draft constitution that would be "Islamic and democratic ''. It signaled the now official alliance between the clergy and the secular opposition. In order to help create a democratic facade, Khomeini placed Westernized figures (such as Sadegh Qotbzadeh and Ebrahim Yazdi) as the public spokesmen of the opposition, and never spoke to the media of his intentions to create a theocracy.
Street demonstrations continued at full force with little response from the military; by late October, government officials effectively even ceded the University of Tehran to student protesters. Worse, the opposition was increasingly becoming armed with weapons, firing at soldiers and attacking banks and government buildings in an attempt to destabilize the country.
On 5 November, demonstrations at University of Tehran became deadly after a fight broke out with armed soldiers. Within hours, Tehran broke out into a full - scale riot. Block after block of Western symbols such as movie theaters and department stores, as well as government and police buildings, were seized, looted, and burned. The British embassy in Tehran was partially burned and vandalized as well, and the American embassy nearly suffered the same fate (the event became known to foreign observers as "The Day Tehran Burned '').
Many of the rioters were young teenage boys, often organized by the mosques in southern Tehran, and encouraged by their mullahs to attack and destroy western and secular symbols. The army and police, confused about their orders and under pressure from the Shah not to risk initiating violence, effectively gave up and did not intervene.
As the situation on the streets spiraled out of control, many well known and reputable figures within the country began to approach the Shah, begging him to stop the chaos.
On 6 November, the Shah dismissed Sharif - Emami from the post of prime minister, and chose to appoint a military government in its place. General Gholam - Reza Azhari was chosen to be prime minister. Azhari was chosen by the Shah because of his mild - mannered approach to the situation. The cabinet he would choose was a military cabinet in name only, and consisted primarily of civilian leaders.
The same day, the Shah made a speech on Iranian television. He referred to himself as Padeshah (king), instead of the more grandiose Shahanshah (king of kings), which he insisted on being called previously. In his speech he stated "I have heard the voice of your revolution ''... "this revolution can not but be supported by me, the king of Iran ''. He apologized for mistakes that were committed during his reign, and promised to ensure that corruption would no longer exist. He stated he would begin to work with the opposition to bring democracy, and would form a coalition government. In effect, the Shah intended to restrain the military government (which he described as a temporary caretaker government) from carrying out a full crackdown.
The speech backfired when the revolutionaries sensed weakness from the Shah and "smelled blood ''. Khomeini announced that there would be no reconciliation with the Shah and called on all Iranians to overthrow him.
Military authorities declared martial law in Khuzestan province (Iran 's main oil producing province), and deployed troops to its oil facilities. Navy personnel were also used as strikebreakers in the oil industry. Street marches declined and oil production began increasing once again, nearly reaching pre-revolutionary levels. In a symbolic blow to the opposition, Karim Sanjabi, who had visited Khomeini in Paris, was arrested upon his return to Iran.
However, the government still continued the policy of appeasement and negotiation. The Shah ordered the arrest of 100 officials from his own government for charges of corruption, including former prime minister Amir Abbas - Hoveyda and former SAVAK head Nematollah Nassiri.
Khomeini condemned the military government and called for continued protests. He and the protest organizers planned a series of escalating protests during the holy Islamic month of Muharram, to culminate with massive protests on the days of Tasu'a and Ashura (commemorating the martyrdom of Imam Hussein ibn Ali, the third Shia Muslim imam).
While the military authorities banned street demonstrations and extended the curfew, the Shah faced deep misgivings about the potential violence.
On the second of December 1978, the Muharram protests began. Named for the Islamic month they began in, the Muharram protests were impressively huge and pivotal. Over two million protesters (many of whom were teenagers organized by the mullahs from the mosques of southern Tehran) took to the streets, crowding Shahyad Square. Protesters frequently went out at night, defying the set curfew (often taking to rooftops and shouting "Allahu - Akbar '' (God is Great)). According to one witness, many of the clashes on the street had an air of playfulness rather than seriousness, with security forces using "kid gloves '' against the opposition (nevertheless, the government reported at least 12 opposition deaths).
The protesters demanded that Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi step down from power, and that Grand Ayatullah Ruhollah Khomeini be returned from exile. The protests grew incredibly fast, reaching between six million and nine million in strength in the first week. About 10 % of the entire population had taken to the streets in the Muharram protests. Both beginning and ending in the month of Muharram, the protests succeeded and Shah stepped down from power later in the month.
After the success of what would become known as a revolution, Grand Ayatullah Ruhollah Khomeini returned to Iran as its religious and political leader for life. Khomeini had been an opposition leader to Shah for many years, rising to prominence after the death of his mentor, renowned scholar Yazdi Ha'iri, in the 1930s. Even in his years in exile, Khomeini remained relevant in Iran. Supporting the protests from beyond Iran 's borders, he proclaimed that "freedom and liberation from the bonds of imperialism '' was imminent.
As the days of Tasu'a and Ashura (10 and 11 December) approached, in order to prevent a deadly showdown the Shah began to draw back. In negotiations with Ayatollah Shariatmadari, the Shah ordered the release of 120 political prisoners and Karim Sanjabi, and on 8 December revoked the ban on street demonstrations. Permits were issued for the marchers, and troops were removed from the procession 's path. In turn, Shariatmadari pledged that to make sure that there would be no violence during the demonstrations.
On 10 and 11 December, the days of Tasu'a and Ashura, between six and nine million anti-shah demonstrators marched throughout Iran. According to one historian, "even discounting for exaggeration, these figures may represent the largest protest event in history. '' The marches were led by Ayatollah Taleghani and National Front leader Karim Sanjabi, thus symbolizing the "unity '' of the secular and religious opposition. The mullahs and bazaar merchants effectively policed the gathering, and protesters who attempted to initiate violence were restrained.
More than 10 % of the country marched in anti-shah demonstrations on December 10 and 11, 1978, possibly a higher percentage than any previous revolution. It is rare for a revolution to involve as much as 1 percent of a country 's population; the French, Russian, and Romanian revolutions may have passed the 1 percent mark.
Much of Iranian society was in euphoria about the coming revolution. Secular and leftist politicians piled onto the movement hoping to gain power in the aftermath, ignoring the fact that Khomeini was the very antithesis to all of the positions they supported. While it was increasingly clear to more secular Iranians that Khomeini was not a liberal, he was widely perceived as a figurehead, and that power would eventually be handed to the secular groups.
The military leadership was increasingly paralyzed by indecision, and rank - and - file soldiers were demoralized, having been forced to confront demonstrators while prohibited from using their own weapons (and being condemned by the Shah if they did). Increasingly, Khomeini called on the soldiers of the armed forces to defect to the opposition. Revolutionaries gave flowers and civilian clothes to deserters, while threatening retribution to those who stayed. On 11 December, a dozen officers were shot dead by their own troops at Tehran 's Lavizan barracks. Fearing further mutinies, many soldiers were returned to their barracks. Mashhad (the second largest city in Iran) was abandoned to the protesters, and in many provincial towns demonstrators were effectively in control.
The Carter Administration increasingly became locked in a debate about continued support for the monarchy. As early as November, ambassador William Sullivan sent a telegram to Carter (the "Thinking the Unthinkable '' telegram). The telegram effectively declared his belief that the Shah would not survive the protests, and that the US should consider withdrawing its support for his government and persuading the monarch to abdicate. The United States would then help assemble a coalition of pro-Western military officers, middle class professionals, and moderate clergy, with Khomeini installed as a Gandhi - like spiritual leader.
The telegram touched off a vigorous debate in the American cabinet, with some (such as National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski) rejecting it outright. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance rejected a military crackdown; he and his supporters believed in the "moderate and progressive '' intentions of Khomeini and his circle.
Increasing contact was established with the pro-Khomeini camp. Based on the revolutionaries responses, some American officials (especially Ambassador Sullivan) felt that Khomeini was genuinely intent on creating a democracy. According to historian Abbas Milani, this resulted in the United States effectively helping to facilitate Khomeini 's rise to power.
The Shah began to search for a new prime minister, one who was a civilian and a member of the opposition. On 28 December, he secured an agreement with another major National Front figure, Shahpour Bakhtiar. Bakhtiar would be appointed prime minister (a return to civilian rule), while the Shah and his family would leave the country for a "vacation ''. His royal duties would be carried out by a Regency Council, and three months after his departure a referendum would be submitted to the people deciding on whether Iran would remain a monarchy or become a republic. A former opponent of the Shah, Bakhtiar became motivated to join the government because he was increasingly aware of Khomeini 's intentions to implement hard - line religious rule rather than a democracy. Karim Sanjabi immediately expelled Bakhtiar from the National Front, and Bakhtiar was denounced by Khomeini (who declared that acceptance of his government was the equivalent of "obedience to false gods '').
The Shah, hoping to see Bakhtiar established, kept delaying his departure. Consequently, to the Iranian public, Bakhtiar was seen as the Shah 's last prime minister, undermining his support.
American General Robert Huyser, the Deputy Commander of NATO, entered Iran. While the option of a pro-Shah military coup still was a possibility, Huyser met with military leaders (but not the Shah), and established meetings between them and Khomeini allies, for the purpose of agreeing on Bakhtiar 's transitional government. Ambassador Sullivan disagreed, and attempted to pressure Huyser to ignore the military and work directly with Khomeini 's opposition. Nevertheless, Huyser won out and continued to work with both the military and opposition. He left Iran on 3 February. The Shah was privately embittered by Huyser 's mission, and felt that the United States no longer wanted him in power.
On the morning of 16 January 1979, Bakhtiar was officially appointed prime minister. The same day, a tearful Shah and his family left Iran for exile in Egypt, never to return.
When news of the Shah 's departure was announced, there were spontaneous scenes of joy throughout the country. Millions poured onto the streets, virtually every remaining sign of the monarchy was torn down by the crowds.
Bakhtiar dissolved SAVAK and freed all remaining political prisoners. He ordered the army to allow mass demonstrations, promised free elections and invited the revolutionaries into a government of "national unity ''. Bakhtiar invited Khomeini back to Iran, with the intention of creating a Vatican - like state in the holy city of Qom, declaring that "We will soon have the honor of welcoming home the Ayatollah Khomeini ''. On 1 February 1979 Khomeini returned to Tehran in a chartered Air France Boeing 747. The welcoming crowd of several million Iranians was so large he was forced to take a helicopter after the car he was being transported in from the airport was overwhelmed by an enthusiastic welcoming crowd. Khomeini was now not only the undisputed leader of the revolution, he had become what some called a "semi-divine '' figure, greeted as he descended from his airplane with cries of ' Khomeini, O Imam, we salute you, peace be upon you. ' Crowds were now known to chant "Islam, Islam, Khomeini, We Will Follow You, '' and even "Khomeini for King. '' When asked by a reporter how he felt returning to his home country after a long exile, Khomeini replied "Nothing ''.
On the day of his arrival Khomeini made clear his rejection of Bakhtiar 's government in a speech promising, "I shall kick their teeth in. I appoint the government, I appoint the government in support of this nation ''. On 5 February at his headquarters in the Refah School in southern Tehran, he declared a provisional revolutionary government, and appointed opposition leader Mehdi Bazargan (from the religious - nationalist Freedom Movement, affiliated with the National Front), as his own prime minister, and commanded Iranians to obey Bazargan as a religious duty.
(T) hrough the guardianship (Velayat) that I have from the holy lawgiver (the Prophet), I hereby pronounce Bazargan as the Ruler, and since I have appointed him, he must be obeyed. The nation must obey him. This is not an ordinary government. It is a government based on the sharia. Opposing this government means opposing the sharia of Islam... Revolt against God 's government is a revolt against God. Revolt against God is blasphemy.
Angered, Bakhtiar made a speech of his own. Reaffirming himself as the legitimate leader, he declared that:
Iran has one government. More than this is intolerable, either for me or for you or for any other Iranian. As a Muslim, I had not heard that jihad refers to one Muslim against other Muslims... I will not give permission to Ayatollah Khomeini to form an interim government. In life there comes a time when one must stand firm and say no... I have never seen a book about an Islamic Republic; neither has anyone else for that matter... Some of the people surrounding the Ayatollah are like violent vultures... The clergy should go to Qom and build a wall around themselves and create their own Vatican.
Tensions between the two rival governments increased rapidly. To demonstrate his support, Khomeini called for demonstrators to occupy the streets throughout the country. He also sent a letter to American officials warning them to withdraw support for Bakhtiar. Bakhtiar became increasingly isolated, with members of the government (including the entire Regency Council) defecting to Khomeini. The military was crumbling, with its leadership completely paralyzed, unsure of whether to support Bakhtiar or act on their own, and rank - and - file soldiers either demoralized or deserting.
On 9 February, a rebellion of pro-Khomeini air force technicians broke out at the Doshan Tappeh Air Base. A unit of the pro-Shah Immortal Guards attempted to apprehend the rebels, and an armed battle broke out. Soon large crowds took to the streets, building barricades and supporting the rebels, while Islamic - Marxist guerillas with their weapons joined in support.
The armed rebels attacked a weapons factory, capturing nearly 50,000 machine guns and distributing them to civilians who joined in the fighting. The rebels began storming police stations and military bases throughout Tehran. The city 's martial law commander General Mehdi Rahimi decided not to use his 30,000 loyal Immortal Guards to crush the rebellion for fear of producing civilian casualties.
The final collapse of the provisional non-Islamist government came at 2 pm 11 February when the Supreme Military Council declared itself "neutral in the current political disputes... in order to prevent further disorder and bloodshed. '' All military personnel were ordered back to their bases, effectively yielding control of the entire country to Khomeini. Revolutionaries took over government buildings, TV and radio stations, and palaces of the Pahlavi dynasty, marking the end of the monarchy in Iran. Bakhtiar escaped the palace under a hail of bullets, fleeing Iran in disguise. He was later assassinated by an agent of the Islamic Republic in 1991 in Paris.
This period, from 1 to 11 February, is celebrated every year in Iran as the "Decade of Fajr. '' 11 February is "Islamic Revolution 's Victory Day '', a national holiday with state sponsored demonstrations in every city.
The Iranian Revolution was a gendered revolution; much of the new regime 's rhetoric was centered on the position of women in Iranian society. Beyond rhetoric, thousands of women were also heavily mobilized in the revolution itself, and different groups of women actively participated alongside their male counterparts. Not only participating through voting, women contributed to the revolution through marches, demonstrations and chanting slogans. The revolution was non-violent in nature which facilitated women 's involvement within it. For example, women were involved in caring for the wounded, female doctors responding to calls for help and opening their homes for those who needed assistance. While women themselves were often killed, tortured, arrested or injured and some were involved in guerilla activities, most contributed in non-violent ways. Many women were instrumental not only in being involved in the revolution themselves but in mobilizing men and other non-political women. Many women protested while carrying children and their presence was one of the main reasons for disarming soldiers (who were there on behalf of the regime) who were ordered to shoot if necessary.
Ayatollah Khomeini asserted that "You ladies here have proved that you are at the forefront of this movement. You have a great share in our Islamic movement. The future of our country depends on your support. '' He invoked the image of the hejab as a symbol of the revolution, saying that, "a nation whose respected women demonstrate in modest garb (hejab) to express their disgust with the shah 's regime - such a nation will be victorious. '' He also said that, "women from all levels of society took part in the recent demonstrations, which we are calling the "referendum of the streets ''... women fought side by side with men in the struggle for their independence and their liberty. '' Khomeini pleaded women to participate in anti-Shah demonstrations in various cities. Furthermore, women later responded to Khomeini 's urge to vote in favor of the Islamic Republic and new constitution cities. Women were so pivotal to the revolution that in response to a suggestion from a top aid to ban women from coming to group audience, Khomeini said "I threw the shah out with these women, there 's no problem in their coming. ''
After the revolution, Khomeini credited the much of the success of the movement to women, even commending the women for mobilizing men, "you ladies have proved that you are in the vanguard of the movement, you have proved that you lead the men, men get their inspiration from you, the men of Iran have learnt lessons from the honourable ladies of Iran... You are in the vanguard of the movement. ''
It has been argued that Khomeini and his fellow leaders danced around the issue of women 's rights and rather focused their rhetoric on mobilizing women through encouraging them to participate in protests and fueling their anti-shah sentiments.
The contributions of women to the revolutions and the intentions behind these contributions are complex and layered. The motivations of women for being part of the revolutions were complex and varied among a plethora of religious, political and economic reasons and women participating were from various classes and backgrounds. Many Western educated upper - middle class women from secular, urban and professional families were involved as well as many women from working - class and rural backgrounds. There were groups as varied as the Fida'iyan - i Khalq and the Mujahedin were functioning as guerrilla units during the revolutions in opposition to the Shah 's regime. There were also other groups of women with various agendas that sometimes converged and sometimes diverged from the Islamic Republic 's political positions. For example, organized feminism which was around since the Pahlavi dynasty, joined the revolutionary movement after the Shah dropped the cabinet position on Women 's Affairs to appease the Islamists. Members of the Women 's Organization of Iran marched in support for the revolution and it was important that women very much linked to the government also turned against the Shah 's regime. Yet, there were later some tension between feminists ' dress and the revolution 's stance on women 's clothing and they began to feel uncomfortable at opposition events.
Some argue that this politicization and mobilization of women made it difficult for the new regime to push them out of the public and political spheres. The revolution resulted in an unprecedented opening for Iranian women into politics (mostly through demonstrations and voting), and some authors argue that this had a lasting impact on Iranian women 's political participation and role in the public sphere. Some women were also part of the inner circle of the leaders of the new regime such as Marzieh Hadidchi. Other than the politicization of women, there were particular circumstances during the revolution which pushed women into being involved with politics. For example, "the combination of marital law with its curfew hours and the closing down of shops and workplaces, together with the cold of the fall and winter months resulted in the centers of political discussion often being within the home. '' Women engaged with news and media as well as political discussions alongside their male counterparts as "the revolution was the only topic of interest to anyone, regardless of age or sex. '' During 1978 and 1979 there many gatherings in women 's homes where they exchanged interpersonal news and anecdotes. These personal accounts were valuable in a time where the official coverage of news was not trusted by many people.
Women who were activists, religious women and women dissatisfied with the regime were able to unite under the anti-Shah umbrella. However it 's important to note that "women were not united in their opinions of the revolution and its outcome as much as they were not united in their reasons for joining the revolution ''. Despite this mobilization and high rate participation of women, they were still kept out of leadership positions which were exclusive to men; women are thought to be part of the rank and file rather than the elite strata of the revolution.
While there has been some academic literature exploring individual narratives of women on the revolution, most of the academic work produced focuses on the effect of the revolution on women rather than the role of Iranian women during the revolution. Scholar Guity Nashat highlights this neglected aspect of the revolution, "Although women 's participation in the events leading to the February 11 revolution was instrumental in its success, most studies have not addressed the reasons for their involvement or their contribution. '' Janet Baur argues the necessity of examine the daily lives of women, their living conditions and their relationship to other groups in order to understand their participation in the socio - political events of the revolution. She further explains that the cultural, ideological, social and material factors shaping the social life and class differences in the period just prior to the revolution need to be studied in order to understand how the Iranian women 's social consciousness developed and how it led them to take part in public protests. Caroline M. Brooks argues that women were left to express their concerns through the protest rather than in the Majlis. Thus, this created a "dangerous bargaining position for activist women '' since rather than arguing and their position through intellect they were only able to "argue by numbers in the streets and be repelled by force ''.
There are some contesting understandings in academic literature regarding the reasons behind the mobilization of women. While some argue that the micro level actions of women can be understood through religious and political ideologies, others argue that it is in fact the effect of manipulations of information, symbols and context which should be studied.
Some sources (such as Emadeddin Baghi, a researcher at the Martyrs Foundation) claim 2,781 protesters and revolutionaries were killed in 1978 -- 79 during the Revolution. Khomeini reported of a much larger number; he said that "60,000 men, women and children were martyred by the Shah 's regime. '' According to at least one western source (historian Ervand Abrahamian), the number executed by revolutionary courts as the revolution was consolidated (8000 opponents between June 1981 and June 1985) exceeded those killed by the royalist government trying to stop the revolution. While Iranians believed the opposition 's casualty figures, post-revolution western and thus anti-revolution estimates mostly supported the defeated government 's casualty figures.
Iranian revolutionary songs are ballads epic that composed during the Islamic Revolution in Iran in support of the revolution and opposition the Pahlavi dynasty. Before the victory of revolution, these chants were made by various political supporters and many of them recorded on cassette tapes in underground and home studios. Many of the songs on the anniversary of the revolution were broadcast by Iranian state television. In schools, these songs were sung as part of the celebrations Fajr decades by students. "Iran Iran '' or "Allah Allah '' chants are famous revolutionary songs.
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From early 1979 to either 1982 or 1983 Iran was in a "revolutionary crisis mode ''. After the system of despotic monarchy had been overthrown, the economy and the apparatus of government had collapsed, military and security forces were in disarray. Yet, by 1982 Khomeini and his supporters had crushed the rival factions, defeated local rebellions and consolidated power. Events that made up both the crisis and its resolution were the Iran hostage crisis, the invasion of Iran by Saddam Hussein 's Iraq, and the presidency of Abolhassan Banisadr.
Some observers believe "what began as an authentic and anti-dictatorial popular revolution based on a broad coalition of all anti-Shah forces was soon transformed into an Islamic fundamentalist power - grab, '' that except for his core supporters, the members of the coalition thought Khomeini intended to be more a spiritual guide than a ruler -- Khomeini being in his mid-70s, having never held public office, having been out of Iran for more than a decade, and having told questioners "the religious dignitaries do not want to rule. '' However, nobody could deny the unanimous central role of the Imam, and the other factions were too small to have any real impact.
Another view is Khomeini had "overwhelming ideological, political and organizational hegemony, '' and non-theocratic groups never seriously challenged Khomeini 's movement in popular support. Supporters of the new rule themselves have claimed that Iranians who opposed Khomeini were "fifth columnists '' led by foreign countries attempting to overthrow the Iranian government.
Khomeini and his loyalists in the revolutionary organizations implemented Khomeini 's velayat - e faqih design for an Islamic Republic led by himself as Supreme Leader by exploiting temporary allies such as Mehdi Bazargan 's Provisional Government of Iran, whom they later eliminated from Iran 's political stage one by one.
The most important bodies of the revolution were the Revolutionary Council, the Revolutionary Guards, Revolutionary Tribunals, Islamic Republican Party, and Revolutionary Committees (komitehs).
While the moderate Bazargan and his government (temporarily) reassured the middle class, it became apparent they did not have power over the "Khomeinist '' revolutionary bodies, particularly the Revolutionary Council (the "real power '' in the revolutionary state), and later the Islamic Republican Party. Inevitably, the overlapping authority of the Revolutionary Council (which had the power to pass laws) and Bazargan 's government was a source of conflict, despite the fact that both had been approved by and / or put in place by Khomeini.
This conflict lasted only a few months however. The provisional government fell shortly after American Embassy officials were taken hostage on 4 November 1979. Bazargan 's resignation was received by Khomeini without complaint, saying "Mr. Bazargan... was a little tired and preferred to stay on the sidelines for a while. '' Khomeini later described his appointment of Bazargan as a "mistake. ''
The Revolutionary Guard, or Pasdaran - e Enqelab, was established by Khomeini on 5 May 1979, as a counterweight both to the armed groups of the left, and to the Shah 's military. The guard eventually grew into "a full - scale '' military force, becoming "the strongest institution of the revolution. ''
Serving under the Pasdaran were / are the Baseej - e Mostaz'afin, ("Oppressed Mobilization '') volunteers in everything from earthquake emergency management to attacking opposition demonstrators and newspaper offices. The Islamic Republican Party then fought to establish a theocratic government by velayat - e faqih.
Thousands of komiteh or Revolutionary Committees served as "the eyes and ears '' of the new rule and are credited by critics with "many arbitrary arrests, executions and confiscations of property ''.
Also enforcing the will of the government were the Hezbollahi (the Party of God), "strong - arm thugs '' who attacked demonstrators and offices of newspapers critical of Khomeini.
Two major political groups that formed after the fall of the shah that clashed with and were eventually suppressed by pro-Khomeini groups, were the moderate religious Muslim People 's Republican Party (MPRP) which was associated with Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari, and the secular leftist National Democratic Front (NDF).
Following the events of the revolution, Marxist guerrillas and federalist parties revolted in some regions comprising Khuzistan, Kurdistan and Gonbad - e Qabus, which resulted in fighting between them and revolutionary forces. These revolts began in April 1979 and lasted between several months to over a year, depending on the region.
On 30 and 31 March (Farvardin 10, 11) a referendum was held over whether to replace the monarchy with an "Islamic Republic ''. Khomeini called for a massive turnout and only the National Democratic Front, Fadayan, and several Kurdish parties opposed the vote. The results show that 98.2 % had voted in favor of the Islamic Republic.
In June 1979 the Freedom Movement released its draft constitution for the Islamic Republic that it had been working on since Khomeini was in exile. It included a Guardian Council to veto un-Islamic legislation, but had no guardian jurist ruler. Leftists found the draft too conservative and in need of major changes but Khomeini declared it ` correct `. To approve the new constitution and prevent leftist alterations, a relatively small seventy - three - member Assembly of Experts for Constitution was elected that summer. Critics complained that "vote - rigging, violence against undesirable candidates and the dissemination of false information '' was used to "produce an assembly overwhelmingly dominated by clergy, all took active roles during the revolution and loyal to Khomeini. ''
Khomeini (and the assembly) now rejected the constitution -- its correctness notwithstanding -- and Khomeini declared that the new government should be based "100 % on Islam. ''
In addition to the president, the new constitution included a more powerful post of guardian jurist ruler intended for Khomeini, with control of the military and security services, and power to appoint several top government and judicial officials. It increased the power and number of clerics on the Council of Guardians and gave it control over elections as well as laws passed by the legislature.
The new constitution was also approved overwhelmingly by referendum, but with more opposition and smaller turnout.
Holding 52 American diplomats hostage for 444 days played a role in helping to pass the constitution, suppressing moderates, and otherwise radicalising the revolution. In late October 1979, the exiled and dying Shah was admitted into the United States for cancer treatment. In Iran there was an immediate outcry and both Khomeini and leftist groups demanding the Shah 's return to Iran for trial and execution. On 4 November 1979 youthful Islamists, calling themselves Muslim Student Followers of the Imam 's Line, invaded the embassy compound and seized its staff. Revolutionaries were angry because of how the Shah had fled abroad while the Embassy - based American CIA and British intelligence organized a coup d'état to overthrow his nationalist opponent who was a legitimately elected official.
The holding of hostages was very popular and continued for months even after the death of the Shah. As Khomeini explained to his future President Banisadr,
This action has many benefits... This has united our people. Our opponents do not dare act against us. We can put the constitution to the people 's vote without difficulty...
With great publicity the students released documents from the American embassy or "nest of spies, '' showing moderate Iranian leaders had met with U.S. officials (similar evidence of high - ranking Islamists having done so did not see the light of day). Among the casualties of the hostage crisis was Prime Minister Bazargan and his government who resigned in November unable to enforce the government 's order to release the hostages.
The prestige of Khomeini and the hostage taking was further enhanced with the failure of a hostage rescue attempt, widely credited to divine intervention.
It ended with the signing of the Algiers Accords in Algeria on 19 January 1981. The hostages were formally released into United States custody the following day, just minutes after the new American president Ronald Reagan was sworn in. The hostages had been held at the U.S. embassy in Tehran for 444 days.
In early March Khomeini announced, "do not use this term, ' democratic. ' That is the Western style, '' giving pro-democracy liberals (and later leftists) a taste of disappointments to come.
In succession the National Democratic Front was banned in August 1979, the provisional government was disempowered in November, the Muslim People 's Republican Party banned in January 1980, the People 's Mujahedin of Iran guerrillas came under attack in February 1980, a purge of universities was begun in March 1980, and leftist Islamist Abolhassan Banisadr was impeached in June 1981.
After the revolution, human rights groups estimated the number of casualties suffered by protesters and prisoners of the new system to be several thousand. The first to be executed were members of the old system -- senior generals, followed by over 200 senior civilian officials, as punishment and to eliminate the danger of a coup d'État. Brief trials lacking defense attorneys, juries, transparency or opportunity for the accused to defend themselves, were held by revolutionary judges such as Sadegh Khalkhali, the Sharia judge. By January 1980 "at least 582 persons had been executed. '' Among those executed was Amir Abbas Hoveida, former Prime Minister of Iran.
Between January 1980 and June 1981, when Bani - Sadr was impeached, at least 900 executions took place, for everything from drug and sexual offenses to ` corruption on earth, ` from plotting counter-revolution and spying for Israel to membership in opposition groups. In the 12 months following that Amnesty International documented 2,946 executions, with several thousand more killed in the next two years according to the anti-government guerillas People 's Mujahedin of Iran.
In mid August, shortly after the election of the constitution - writing assembly, several dozen newspapers and magazines opposing Khomeini 's idea of theocratic rule by jurists were shut down. When protests were organized by the National Democratic Front (NDF), Khomeini angrily denounced them saying, "we thought we were dealing with human beings. It is evident we are not. ''
... After each revolution several thousand of these corrupt elements are executed in public and burnt and the story is over. They are not allowed to publish newspapers.
Hundreds were injured by "rocks, clubs, chains and iron bars '' when Hezbollahi attacked the protesters, and shortly after, a warrant was issued for the arrest of the NDF 's leader.
In December the moderate Islamic party Muslim People 's Republican Party (MPRP), and its spiritual leader Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari had become a rallying point for Iranians who wanted democracy not theocracy. Riots broke out in Shariatmadari 's Azeri home region with members of the MPRP and Shariatmadari 's followers seizing the Tabriz television station, and using it to "broadcast demands and grievances. '' The regime reacted quickly, sending Revolutionary Guards to retake the TV station, mediators to defuse complaints and activists to stage a massive pro-Khomeini counter-demonstration. The party was suppressed and in 1982 Shariatmadari was "demoted '' from the rank of Grand Ayatollah and many of his clerical followers purged.
In January 1980 Abolhassan Banisadr was elected president of Iran. Though an adviser to Khomeini, he was a leftist who clashed with another ally of Khomeini, the theocratic Islamic Republic Party (IRP) -- the controlling power in the new parliament.
At the same time, erstwhile revolutionary allies of Khomeini -- the Islamist modernist guerrilla group People 's Mujahedin of Iran (or MEK) -- were being suppressed by Khomeini 's revolutionary organizations. Khomeini attacked the MEK as monafeqin (hypocrites) and kafer (unbelievers). Hezbollahi people attacked meeting places, bookstores, newsstands of Mujahideen and other leftists driving them underground. Universities were closed to purge them of opponents of theocratic rule as a part of the "Cultural Revolution '', and 20,000 teachers and nearly 8,000 military officers deemed too westernized were dismissed.
By mid-1981 matters came to a head. An attempt by Khomeini to forge a reconciliation between Banisadr and IRP leaders had failed and now it was Banisadr who was the rallying point "for all doubters and dissidents '' of the theocracy, including the MEK.
When leaders of the National Front called for a demonstration in June 1981 in favor of Banisadr, Khomeini threatened its leaders with the death penalty for apostasy "if they did not repent. '' Leaders of the Freedom Movement of Iran were compelled to make and publicly broadcast apologies for supporting the Front 's appeal. Those attending the rally were menaced by Hezbollahi and Revolutionary Guards and intimidated into silence.
The MEK retaliated with a campaign of terror against the IRP. On 28 June 1981, a bombing of the office of the IRP killed around 70 high - ranking officials, cabinet members and members of parliament, including Mohammad Beheshti, the secretary - general of the party and head of the Islamic Republic 's judicial system. The government responded with thousands of arrests and hundreds of executions. Despite these and other assassinations the hoped - for mass uprising and armed struggle against the Khomeiniists was crushed.
The MEK bombings were not the only violent opposition to the Khomeinist rule. In May 1979, the Furqan Group (Guruh - i Furqan) assassinated an important lieutenant of Khomeini, Morteza Motahhari.
Views differ on the impact of the revolution. For some it was "the most significant, hopeful and profound event in the entirety of contemporary Islamic history, '' while other Iranians believe that the revolution was a time when "for a few years we all lost our minds '', and which "promised us heaven, but... created a hell on earth. ''
Internationally, the initial impact of the revolution was immense. In the non-Muslim world it changed the image of Islam, generating much interest in Islam -- both sympathetic and hostile -- and even speculation that the revolution might change "the world balance of power more than any political event since Hitler 's conquest of Europe. ''
The Islamic Republic positioned itself as a revolutionary beacon under the slogan "neither East nor West, only Islamic Republic ("Na Sharq, Na Gharb, Faqat Jumhuri - e Islami, '') (i.e. neither Soviet nor American / West European models), and called for the overthrow of capitalism, American influence, and social injustice in the Middle East and the rest of the world. Revolutionary leaders in Iran gave and sought support from non-Muslim causes -- e.g. the Sandinistas in Nicaragua, IRA in Ireland and anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa -- even to the point of favoring leftist revolutionaries over Islamist, but ideologically different and strategically harmful causes, such as the neighboring Afghan Mujahideen.
In its region, Iranian Islamic revolutionaries called specifically for the overthrow of monarchies and their replacement with Islamic republics, much to the alarm of its smaller Sunni - run Arab neighbors Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the other Persian Gulf States -- most of whom were monarchies and all of whom had sizable Shi'a populations. It was with one of these countries that the Iran -- Iraq War, which killed hundreds of thousands and dominated life in the Islamic Republic for the next eight years, was fought. In September 1980 the Arab Nationalist and Sunni Muslim - dominated regime of Saddam Hussein of neighboring Iraq invaded Iran in an attempt to take advantage of revolutionary chaos and destroy the revolution in its infancy. Iran was "galvanized '' and Iranians rallied behind their new government helping to stop and then reversing the Iraqi advance. Although Iraq invaded Iran, most of the war was fought after Iran had regained most of its land back and after the Iraqi government had offered a truce. Khomeini rejected it, announcing the only condition for peace was that "the regime in Baghdad must fall and must be replaced by an Islamic Republic, '' but ultimately the war ended with no Islamic revolution in Iraq.
Like the hostage crisis, the war served in part as an opportunity for the government to strengthen revolutionary ardour and revolutionary groups; the Revolutionary Guard and committees at the expense of its remaining allies - turned - opponents, such as the MEK. While enormously costly and destructive, the war "rejuvenate (d) the drive for national unity and Islamic revolution '' and "inhibited fractious debate and dispute '' in Iran.
Iran experienced difficult relations with some Western countries, especially the United States. Iran was under constant US unilateral sanctions, which were tightened under the presidency of Bill Clinton.
Once having political relations with Iran dating back to the late Ilkhanate period (13th century), Britain suspended all diplomatic relations with Iran. Britain did not have an embassy until it was reopened in 1988.
In the Mideast and Muslim world, particularly in its early years, it triggered enormous enthusiasm and redoubled opposition to western intervention and influence. Islamist insurgents rose in Saudi Arabia (1979), Egypt (1981), Syria (1982), and Lebanon (1983).
Although ultimately only the Lebanese Islamists succeeded, other activities have had more long - term impact. The Ayatollah Khomeini 's 1989 fatwa calling for the killing of Indian - born British citizen Salman Rushdie had international impact. The Islamic revolutionary government itself is credited with helping establish Hezbollah in Lebanon and the Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq.
On the other side of the ledger, at least one observer argues that despite great effort and expense the only countries outside Iran the revolution had a "measure of lasting influence '' on are Lebanon and Iraq. Others claim the devastating Iran -- Iraq War "mortally wounded... the ideal of spreading the Islamic revolution, '' or that the Islamic Republic 's pursuit of an ideological rather than a "nationalist, pragmatic '' foreign policy has weakened Iran 's "place as a great regional power ''.
Internally, Iran has had some success in recent years in the broadening of education and health care for the poor, and particularly governmental promotion of Islam, and the elimination of secularism and American influence in government. Criticisms have been raised with regards to political freedom, governmental honesty and efficiency, economic equality and self - sufficiency, or even popular religious devotion. Opinion polls and observers report widespread dissatisfaction, including a "rift '' between the revolutionary generation and younger Iranians who find it "impossible to understand what their parents were so passionate about. ''
Literacy has continued to increase under the Islamic Republic which uses Islamic principles. By 2002, illiteracy rates dropped by more than half. Maternal and infant mortality rates have also been cut significantly. Population growth was first encouraged, but discouraged after 1988. Overall, Iran 's Human development Index rating has climbed significantly from 0.569 in 1980 to 0.732 in 2002, on par with neighbour Turkey. Iran has since fallen 8 spots below Turkey in the latest HDI however.
Iran has elected governmental bodies at the national, provincial, and local levels. Although these bodies are subordinate to theocracy -- which has veto power over who can run for parliament (or Islamic Consultative Assembly) and whether its bills can become law -- they have more power than equivalent organs in the Shah 's government.
Iran 's Sunni minority (about 8 %) has seen some unrest. Five of the 290 parliamentary seats are allocated to their communities.
The members of the Bahá'í Faith have been declared heretical and subversive. While persecution occurred before the Revolution since then more than 200 Bahá'ís have been executed or presumed killed, and many more have been imprisoned, deprived of jobs, pensions, businesses, and educational opportunities. Bahá'í holy places have been confiscated, vandalized, or destroyed. More recently, Bahá'ís in Iran have been deprived of education and work. Several thousand young Bahá'ís between the ages of 17 and 24 have been expelled from universities.
Whether the Islamic Republic has brought more or less severe political repression is disputed. Grumbling once done about the tyranny and corruption of the Shah and his court is now directed against "the Mullahs. '' Fear of SAVAK has been replaced by fear of Revolutionary Guards, and other religious revolutionary enforcers. Violations of human rights by the theocratic government is said to be worse than during the monarchy, and in any case extremely grave. Reports of torture, imprisonment of dissidents, and the murder of prominent critics have been made by human rights groups. Censorship is handled by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance, without whose official permission, "no books or magazines are published, no audiotapes are distributed, no movies are shown and no cultural organization is established. All forms of popular music are banned. Men and women are not allowed to dance or swim with each other. ''
Throughout the beginning of the 20th century and prior to the revolution, many women leaders emerged and demanded basic social rights for women. During the reign of Reza Shah, the government mandated the removal of the veil and promoted the education of young girls. However, the push - back of the Shii clerics made progress difficult, and the government had to contain its promotion of basic women 's rights to the norms of the patriarchal social hierarchy in order to accommodate the clergy. After the abdication of Reza Shah in 1941, the discipline of the government decreased, and women were able to further exercise their rights, including the ability to wear the veil if they wanted. More organization of women 's groups occurred in the 1960s and 70s, and they used the government 's modernization to define and advocate for women 's issues. During these decades, women became active in formerly male domains such as the parliament, the cabinet, armed forces, legal professions, and fields of science and technology. Additionally, women achieved the right to vote in 1963. Many of these achievements and rights that Iranian women had gained in the decades leading up to the revolution were reversed by the Islamic Revolution.
The revolutionary government rewrote laws in an attempt to force women to leave the workforce by promoting the early retirement of female government employees, the closing of childcare centers, enforcing full Islamic cover in offices and public places, as well as preventing women from studying in 140 fields in higher education. Women fought back against these changes, and as activist and writer Mahnaz Afkhami writes, "The regime succeeded in putting women back in the veil in public places, but not in resocializing them into fundamentalist norms. '' After the revolution, women often had to work hard to support their families as the post-revolutionary economy suffered. Women also asserted themselves in the arts, literature, education, and politics.
Women -- especially those from traditional backgrounds -- participated on a large scale in demonstrations leading up to the revolution. They were encouraged by Ayatollah Khomeini to join him in overthrowing the Pahlavi dynasty. However, most of these women expected the revolution to lead to an increase in their rights and opportunities rather than the restrictions that actually occurred. The policy enacted by the revolutionary government and its attempts to limit the rights of women were challenged by the mobilization and politicization of women that occurred during and after the revolution. Women 's resistance included remaining in the work force in large numbers and challenging Islamic dress by showing hair under their head scarves. The Iranian government has had to reconsider and change aspects of its policies towards women because of their resistance to laws that restrict their rights.
Since the revolution, university enrollment and the number of women in the civil service and higher education has risen and several women have been elected to the Iranian parliament.
Iran 's post-revolutionary economy has a significant state - owned or parastatal sector, including businesses owned by the Revolutionary Guards and Bonyad foundations.
Since the revolution Iran 's GDP (PPP) has grown from $ 114 billion in 1980 to $858 billion in 2010. GDP per capita (PPP) has grown from $ 4295 in 1980 to $11,396 in 2010.
Since the revolution Iran 's GDP (Nominal) has grown from $90.392 billion in 1979 to $385.874 in 2015. GDP per capita (nominal) has grown from $2290 in 1979 to $5470 in 2016.
The value of Iran 's currency declined precipitously after the revolution. Whereas on 15 March 1978, 71.46 rials equaled one U.S. dollar, in January 2018, 44,650 rials amounted to one dollar.
The economy has become more diversified since the revolution, with 80 % of Iranian GDP dependent on oil and gas as of 2010, comparing to above 90 % at the end of the Pahlavi period. The Islamic Republic lags some countries in transparency and ease of doing business according to international surveys. Transparency International ranked Iran 136th out of 175 countries in transparency (i.e. lack of corruption) for its 2014 index; and the IRI was ranked 130th out of the 189 countries surveyed in the World Bank 2015 Doing Business Report.
It is said that there are attempts to incorporate modern political and social concepts into Islamic canon since 1950. The attempt was a reaction to the secular political discourse namely Marxism, liberalism and nationalism. However we could observe the great influence of western culture in Iran after coup d'état in 1953. Following the death of Ayatollah Boroujerdi, some of the scholars like Murtaza Mutahhari, Muhammad Beheshti and Muhmud Talighani found new opportunity to change conditions. Before them, Boroujerdi was considered as a conservative Marja. They tried to reform conditions after the death of the ayatollah. They presented their arguments by rendering lectures in 1960 and 1963 in Tehran. The result of the lectures was the book "An inquiry into principles of Mar'jaiyat ''. Some of the major issues highlighted were the government in Islam, the need for the clergy 's independent financial organization, Islam as a way of life, advising and guiding youth and necessity of being community. Allameh Tabatabei refers to velayat as a political philosophy for Shia and velayat faqih for Shia community. There are also other attempts to formulate a new attitude of Islam such as the publication of three volumes of Maktab Tashayyo. Also somebodies believe that it is indispensable to revive the religious gathered in Hoseyniyeh - e-Ershad.
An injured revolutionary during protests against Pahlavi regime.
Protests in summer 1978.
Revolutionary victims.
Black Friday.
Women protesting during Iranian Revolution in 1979.
Current Iranian leader, Ali Khamenei in a Revolutionary protest in Mashhad.
Shah visiting Bakhtiar cabinet before his exit from Iran.
Row of men holding Khomeini 's photos.
People celebrating Shah 's exit from the country.
Removal of Shah 's statue by the people in University of Tehran.
Khomeini at Mehrabad Airport.
People accompanying Khomeini from Mehrabad to Behesht Zahra.
Khomeini in Behesht Zahra.
Executed Generals of Imperial Army: Reza Naji, Mehdi Rahimi, and Manuchehr Khosrowdad
Khomeini before a speech at Alavi school.
Revolution - related topics:
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General:
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In pictures and videos
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what is the date for super bowl 2018 | Super Bowl LII - Wikipedia
Super Bowl LII, the 52nd Super Bowl and the 48th modern - era National Football League (NFL) championship game, will decide the league champion for the 2017 NFL season. The game is scheduled to be held on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the second Super Bowl in Minneapolis, which previously hosted Super Bowl XXVI in 1992. The game will be televised in the United States by NBC. It will be the sixth Super Bowl in a cold weather city.
On October 8, 2013, the league announced the following three host finalists:
Minneapolis was selected as the game 's site at the league owners ' meeting in Atlanta on May 20, 2014.
The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota, will host media day events and press conferences. More than 5,000 media members are expected to come to the Twin Cities for the Super Bowl. For coordination of the game and 10 days of events, the National Football League will temporarily operate an events office within the Minnesota Vikings office building next to U.S. Bank Stadium. Sportscaster ESPN will broadcast from the IDS Center in downtown Minneapolis.
Admission tickets to the game and related events, as well as parking, received state tax exemptions.
More than one million visitors are expected to attend events associated with the Super Bowl over ten days. In addition to the game at U.S. Bank Stadium, the NFL will present the Super Bowl Experience at the Minneapolis Convention Center and the Minnesota Super Bowl Host Committee will present Super Bowl Live on Nicollet Mall in downtown Minneapolis. Other events will be held at the Mall of America, Saint Paul 's RiverCentre, the Minnesota Vikings ' Winter Park location in Eden Prairie, and the University of Minnesota. "Taste of the NFL '' is a fundraiser for food banks and will be held in Saint Paul.
The 2018 Saint Paul Winter Carnival will take place leading up to, during and after the Super Bowl. Carnival organizers announced, then cancelled, plans to build a large ice palace to coincide with the Super Bowl festivities, as with Super Bowl XXVI in 1992. Events in Saint Paul will also include an extreme sports demonstration, a "giant slide '', and a block party. Officials in the capital city hope to attract Minneapolis Super Bowl visitors.
The Minneapolis Armory will host a series of concerts close to U.S. Bank Stadium, and the Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community 's Mystic Lake Casino will host a 64,000 - square - foot (5,900 m) traveling nightclub.
Justin Timberlake will be headlining the Super Bowl LII halftime show. Timberlake performed in two previous Super Bowls: Super Bowl XXXV in 2001 with NSYNC, and Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004 with Janet Jackson.
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which part of egypt upper or lower do you think was more valuable to a ruler why | Upper and Lower Egypt - wikipedia
In Egyptian history, the Upper and Lower Egypt period (also known as The Two Lands, a name for Ancient Egypt during this time) was the final stage of its prehistory and directly preceded the nation 's unification. The conception of Egypt as the Two Lands was an example of the dualism in ancient Egyptian culture and appeared frequently in texts and imagery, including in the titles of Egyptian kings and queens.
The Egyptian expression sema - tawy is usually translated as "The Uniter of the Two Lands '' and was depicted as a human trachea entwined with the papyrus and lily plant. The trachea stood for unification, while the papyrus and lily plant represent Lower and Upper Egypt.
Standard titles of a King of Egypt was King of Upper and Lower Egypt (written as nsw-bi.tj) and Lord of the Two Lands (written as nb - tꜣwy). Similarly a Queen might use titles such as Lady of The Two Lands (nbt - tꜣwy), Mistress of the Entire Two Lands (hnwt - tꜣwy - tm), and Mistress of the Two Lands (hnwt - tꜣwy).
Ancient Egypt was divided into two regions, namely Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. To the north was Lower Egypt, where the Nile stretched out with its several branches to form the Nile Delta. To the south was Upper Egypt, stretching to Syene. The terminology "Upper '' and "Lower '' derives from the flow of the Nile from the highlands of East Africa northwards to the Mediterranean Sea.
The two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt were united c. 3000 BC, but each maintained its own regalia: the hedjet or White Crown for Upper Egypt and the deshret or Red Crown for Lower Egypt. Thus, the pharaohs were known as the rulers of the Two Lands, and wore the pschent, a double crown, each half representing sovereignty of one of the kingdoms. Ancient Egyptian tradition credited Menes, now believed to be the same as Narmer, as the king who united Upper and Lower Egypt. On the Narmer Palette the king is depicted wearing the Red Crown in one scene and the White crown in another, and thereby showing his rule over both Lands.
The union of Upper and Lower Egypt is depicted by knotted papyrus and reed plants. The binding motif represents both harmony through linkage and domination through containment. The duality is an important part of royal iconography. Sometimes the duality is further extended by having the knotted plants extend and bind foreign foes (both from the North and the South) as well.
During the first dynasty dualistic royal titles emerge, including the King of Upper and Lower Egypt (nsw-bi.tj) title which combines the plant representing Upper Egypt and a bee representing Lower Egypt. The other dualistic title is the Two Ladies name or Nebty name. The two ladies as Nekhbet, the vulture goddess associated with Hierakonpolis in Upper Egypt, and Wadjet, the cobra goddess associated with Buto in Lower Egypt.
There are many depictions of the ritual unifications of the Two Lands. It is not known if this was perhaps a rite that would have been enacted at the beginning of a reign, or merely a symbolic representation. Many of the depictions of the unification show two gods binding the plants. Often the gods are Horus and Set, or on occasion Horus and Thoth. There are several examples of Barque stands from the reigns of Amenhotep III (Hermopolis), Taharqa (Gebel Barkal), and Atlanersa (Gebel Barkal) that show two river gods performing the rite. This matches a scene from the Temple at Abu Simbel from the time of Ramesses II.
There are only a handful of scenes that show the King himself performing the ritual. All of these are from barque stands and date to the reigns of Amenhotep III, Sety I and Ramesses III. The latter two may be copies of the first one.
The river god Hapi uniting Upper and Lower Egypt. Colossi of Memnon. Reign of Amenhotep III.
Temple scene at Luxor, Thebes
Alabaster Jar depicting the sema tawy symbol with Hapy. From the tomb of Tutankhamen.
Ramesses III at the temple of Khonsu. A rare scene showing the King performing the ritual.
Sema tawy (without deities) on the side of the throne of Khephren
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what are the arms of the indian army name at least 3 | List of equipment of the Indian Army - Wikipedia
This is a list of some of the modern and historical equipment used by the Indian Army. Most of the army equipment is of foreign design and produced under licence in India but efforts are on to progressively design and manufacture equipment locally. The 41 Indian Ordnance Factories under control of Ordnance Factories Board manufacture most of the Army equipment like small arms, ammunition, combat vehicles, artillery, tanks etc.
Small Arms
used by Indian Army, NSG, MARCOS.
Used as secondary weapon on T - 72 and T - 90 tanks.
AGS - 17
RCL MK III
L16 81mm mortar
Shipon
Mk2 Status: Inducting. With a total of 248 to be built by Heavy Vehicles Factory. 118 Arjun MK - II (60Mt / 1400 hp) ordered after clearing Army trials in February 2015. Arjun MBT Mk. II to be fielded by 2016.
Mk2 Status: Testing / Induction Phase (Completed by 2016) (65 km Range).
Mk3 Status: Under Development (120 km Range). 214 mm multiple rocket launch system. Replacing the 122 mm BM - 21. Being produced at a heavy rate of 5000 missiles per year.
Surface - to - air missile
Brahmos
AAD MIssile
Ballistic missile defence system
Under the Field Artillery Rationalization Plan, Indian Army plans to procure 3000 to 4000 155 mm towed, wheeled and tracked artillery systems. The requirement for artillery guns to be met with indigenous development and production. Production of crucial bi-modular charge system will be started soon at Nalanda ordnance factory. HEMRL, a DRDO lab has developed the technology indigenously.
Trials were completed and Kamov Ka - 226 was declared winner and about 200 helicopters are to be made in India under the "Make in India '' initiative, Indian Army have planned to replace obsolete Chetaks and Cheetahs with it, until the arrival of HAL LUH, as the later would be ready for its first flight only by 2017.
Indian Army artillery gun
Indian Army Ambulance
BEL Battlefield Surveillance Radar - Short Range (BFSR - SR)
T - 90 tanks during firing in Thar Desert.
A soldier tests a Beretta 92.
Indian Army T - 72 with ERA
Indian Army Armoured Corps during a training exercise
Vijayanta Mk 1 MBT
T - 72 's belong to the Indian Army with UN markings.
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senate subcommittee on communications technology and the internet | United States Senate Commerce Subcommittee on communications, Technology, Innovation, and the Internet - Wikipedia
The Senate Commerce Subcommittee on Communications Technology, Innovation, and the Internet is one of the seven subcommittees within the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation. It was renamed from the Subcommittee on Science, Technology, and Innovation at the start of the 111th Congress, with its science function transferred to the Subcommittee on Science and Space.
The Subcommittee on Communications, Technology, and the Internet has jurisdiction over legislation, Congressional action, and other matters relating to communications. For these purposes, "communications '' includes telephones, cell phones, the Internet, commercial and noncommercial television, cable, satellite broadcast, satellite communications, wireline and wireless broadband, radio, consumer electronic equipment associated with such services, and public safety communications.
The Subcommittee also is responsible for oversight of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB), and the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) at the Department of Commerce, which is the administration primarily responsible for the management of government spectrum and advising the President on telecommunications policy.
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when was the ping of death first observed | Ping of death - wikipedia
A ping of death is a type of attack on a computer system that involves sending a malformed or otherwise malicious ping to a computer.
A correctly - formed ping packet is typically 56 bytes in size, or 64 bytes when the Internet Protocol header is considered. However, any IPv4 packet (including pings) may be as large as 65,535 bytes. Some computer systems were never designed to properly handle a ping packet larger than the maximum packet size because it violates the Internet Protocol documented in RFC 791. Like other large but well - formed packets, a ping of death is fragmented into groups of 8 octets before transmission. However, when the target computer reassembles the malformed packet, a buffer overflow can occur, causing a system crash and potentially allowing the injection of malicious code.
In early implementations of TCP / IP, this bug is easy to exploit and can affect a wide variety of systems including Unix, Linux, Mac, Windows, and peripheral devices. As systems began filtering out pings of death through firewalls and other detection methods, a different kind of ping attack known as ping flooding later appeared, which floods the victim with so many ping requests that normal traffic fails to reach the system (a basic denial - of - service attack).
As defined in RFC 791, the maximum packet length of an IPv4 packet including the IP header is 65,535 (2 − 1) bytes, a limitation presented by the use of a 16 - bit wide IP header field that describes the total packet length.
The underlying Data Link Layer almost always poses limits to the maximum frame size (See MTU). In Ethernet, this is typically 1500 bytes. In such a case, a large IP packet is split across multiple IP packets (also known as IP fragments), so that each IP fragment will match the imposed limit. The receiver of the IP fragments will reassemble them into the complete IP packet, and will continue processing it as usual.
When fragmentation is performed, each IP fragment needs to carry information about which part of the original IP packet it contains. This information is kept in the Fragment Offset field, in the IP header. The field is 13 bits long, and contains the offset of the data in the current IP fragment, in the original IP packet. The offset is given in units of 8 bytes. This allows a maximum offset of 65,528 ((2 - 1) * 8). Then when adding 20 bytes of IP header, the maximum will be 65,548 bytes, which exceeds the maximum frame size. This means that an IP fragment with the maximum offset should have data no larger than 7 bytes, or else it would exceed the limit of the maximum packet length. A malicious user can send an IP fragment with the maximum offset and with much more data than 8 bytes (as large as the physical layer allows it to be).
When the receiver assembles all IP fragments, it will end up with an IP packet which is larger than 65,535 bytes. This may possibly overflow memory buffers which the receiver allocated for the packet, and can cause various problems.
As is evident from the description above, the problem has nothing to do with ICMP, which is used only as payload, big enough to exploit the problem. It is a problem in the reassembly process of IP fragments, which may contain any type of protocol (TCP, UDP, IGMP, etc.).
The correction of the problem is to add checks in the reassembly process. The check for each incoming IP fragment makes sure that the sum of "Fragment Offset '' and "Total length '' fields in the IP header of each IP fragment is smaller than 65,535. If the sum is larger, then the packet is invalid, and the IP fragment is ignored. This check is performed by some firewalls, to protect hosts that do not have the bug fixed. Another fix for the problem is using a memory buffer larger than 65,535 bytes for the re-assembly of the packet. (This is essentially a breaking of the specification, since it adds support for packets larger than those allowed.)
In 2013, an IPv6 version of the ping of death vulnerability was discovered in Microsoft Windows. Windows TCP / IP stack did n't handle memory allocation correctly when processing incoming malformed ICMPv6 packets, which could cause remote denial of service. This vulnerability was fixed in MS13 - 065 in August 2013. The CVE - ID for this vulnerability is CVE - 2013 - 3183.
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voyage to the bottom of the sea werewolf | Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea (TV series) - wikipedia
Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea is a 1960s American science fiction television series based on the 1961 film of the same name. Both were created by Irwin Allen, which enabled the movie 's sets, costumes, props, special effects models, and sometimes footage, to be used in the production of the television series. Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea was the first of Irwin Allen 's four science fiction television series, and the longest - running. The show 's theme was underwater adventure.
Voyage was broadcast on ABC from September 14, 1964, to March 31, 1968, and was the decade 's longest - running American science fiction television series with continuing characters. The 110 episodes produced included 32 shot in black - and - white (1964 -- 1965), and 78 filmed in color (1965 -- 1968). The first two seasons took place in the then - future of the 1970s. The final two seasons took place in the 1980s. The show starred Richard Basehart and David Hedison.
The pilot episode "Eleven Days to Zero '' was filmed in color but shown in black - and - white. It introduces the audience to the futuristic nuclear submarine S.S.R.N. Seaview and the lead members of her crew, including the designer and builder of the submarine Admiral Harriman Nelson (Richard Basehart), and Commander Lee Crane (David Hedison), who becomes the Seaview 's captain after the murder of her original commanding officer. The submarine is based at the Nelson Institute of Marine Research in Santa Barbara, California, and is often moored some 500 feet beneath the facility in a secret underground submarine pen carved out of solid rock. The Seaview is officially for undersea marine research and visits many exotic locations in the Seven Seas, but its secret mission is to defend the planet from all world and extraterrestrial threats in the then - future of the 1970s.
The first season of 32 episodes began with Admiral Nelson and the crew of the Seaview fighting against a foreign government to prevent a world - threatening earthquake, and continuing with a foreign government destroying American submarines with new technologies in "The Fear Makers '' and "The Enemies ''. The season also had several ocean peril stories in which the Seaview crew spent the episode dealing with the normal perils of the sea. Two examples are "Submarine Sunk Here '' and "The Ghost of Moby Dick ''. The season introduced a diving bell and a mini-submarine, and the first episodes featuring extraterrestrials (Don Brinkley 's "The Sky is Falling '') and sea monsters. The season ended with the Seaview crew fighting a foreign government to save a defense weapon.
The first season included gritty, atmospheric story lines devoted to Cold War themes and excursions into near - future speculative fiction. Many episodes involved espionage and sci - fi elements. Aliens, sea monsters and dinosaurs were featured, but the primary villains were hostile foreign governments. While fantastic, the scripts had a semblance of reality.
During the course of the first season, Nelson was promoted from a three - star to a four - star admiral. It was also established that while essentially a marine research vessel, SSRN Seaview was also part of the U.S. nuclear armed fleet (most notably defined in William Read Woodfield 's episode, "Doomsday '').
The first season opening credits depicted Seaview rising towards the surface, and the closing credits played over a still of the Seaview surfacing in the Arctic, as featured at the start of the 1961 film.
The second season began with a trip inside a whale, a trip inside a volcano, and a few Cold War intrigue and nuclear war - themed episodes, and saw several brushes with world disaster. The season ended with a ghost story, one of the show 's few sequels.
Due to ABC 's demands for a somewhat "lighter '' tone to the series, the second season saw an increase in monster - of - the - week type plots, yet there were still some episodes that harkened back to the tone of the first season. The second season also saw a change from black - and - white to color. The beginning of the second season saw the permanent replacement of Chief "Curly '' Jones with Chief Francis Ethelbert Sharkey, due to the death of Henry Kulky, who portrayed Chief Jones.
The most important change in the series occurred during this season when a notably redesigned Seaview interior was introduced, along with the Flying Sub, a yellow, two - man mini-submarine with passenger capacity, armed with a laser gun. It could leave the ocean and function as an airplane. The Flying Sub was referred to by the initials FS - 1. The futuristic craft greatly increased the Seaview crew 's travel options. It was launched from a bay with automatic doors added in the lower part of the bow section of Seaview that was apparently built between Seasons One and Two. The Seaview 's private observation deck from the first season was never seen again. The ship 's eight smaller observation windows became four large windows giving the sub a sleeker, more futuristic look. The control room was made larger and more open - plan showing the bow windows beyond the control room area (previously this was both closed off by a bulkhead and doorway and on another level in the black - and - white first season), while a large rectangular panel screen of flickering lights was moved across the control room, and access to the Flying Sub via a sealed hatch stairway at the bow section was added. The Seaview also now had a powerful laser beam in its bow light. The small mini-sub from the first season was retained and occasionally still used in the color episodes.
The ship 's enlisted men were also given more colorful uniforms (red or light blue jumpsuits) and white Keds Champion sneakers, evidently to take advantage of the changeover from black - and - white filming. The traditional sailor uniforms worn in the first season were only seen in stock footage from the first season and on characters who were newly filmed to match up with that footage. All these changes occurred between seasons.
A second - season episode, "The Sky 's On Fire '', was a remake of the basic storyline of Irwin Allen 's 1961 film Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea utilizing considerable film color footage, though several film sequences were removed and had been featured in other first - season episodes such as ' The Village of Guilt ' (the giant octopus) and ' Submarine Sunk Here ' (the derelict minefield)
A few later season two episodes were filmed without Richard Basehart, who was hospitalized for a bleeding ulcer. He filmed the scenes in the Flying Sub for "The Monster 's Web '' before hospitalization, requiring a stand in and other characters taking over his lines. He was missing entirely from the next two episodes. These episodes did n't feature his character at all, while in one story "The Menfish '' Gary Merrill guested as Admiral Park, a colleague of Nelson 's who substituted for him. Basehart returned for "Return of the Phantom, '' the final episode of the season.
The third season of Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea ran simultaneously with two other Allen - produced television series: the second season of Lost in Space and the premiere (and only) season of The Time Tunnel.
The third season began with Dick Tufeld of Lost in Space playing an evil disembodied brain from outer space. The season continued with a werewolf story that is one of the few episodes to inspire a sequel. In one episode, the Seaview 's officers and crew encountered Nazis who believed World War II was still ongoing. The third season only had two espionage stories and one ocean peril story that were reminiscent of the first season. One of those three stories was about a hostile foreign government trying to steal a strange new mineral with the aid of a brainwashed Admiral Nelson. This espionage story was the end of the third season.
The final two seasons continued the shift towards paranormal storylines that were popular in the late 1960s. Mummies, werewolves, talking puppets, and an evil leprechaun all walked the corridors of the Seaview. There were also fossil men, flame men, frost men, lobster men, and shadow men. The opening credits were largely identical to the revised season two, but the initial season two yellow lettering credits that were first altered to white, (and then back to yellow on the later revised sequence) were now depicted in a golden / yellowish lettering, and closing credits were set over a green - backed painting of Seaview underwater.
Though many female characters appeared in Seasons One and Two, in Season Three only two appeared at all, an unseen woman 's voice (Sue England) over the intercom in "The Death Watch '' and the title character in "The Mermaid '' (Diane Webber), who did not speak.
The fourth and final season of Voyage began with Victor Jory playing a five - centuries old alchemist and the Seaview is threatened by the hydrodynamic effects of a major volcanic eruption. After a few episodes there were revamped opening credits depicting action sequences and the stars ' pictures in color set on a sonar board design. The closing credits picture remained unchanged from season three. Near the end of the fourth season, there were three unrelated stories of extraterrestrial invasion. One episode had an unknown master of disguise infiltrating and wreaking havoc aboard the Seaview. Another episode depicted Nelson, Morton and Sharkey gaslighting Crane. There were two time travel stories featuring the enigmatic but dangerous Mister Pem. The second had the Seaview going back in time to the American Revolution. The episode (and series) ended with the Seaview returning to the present. The final scene of the show had Nelson and Crane sitting in the seldom used easy chairs on the port side of the observation nose discussing how fast time goes by.
Not a single actress appeared in any episode during the entire fourth season, even as a voice or non-speaking role.
In March 1968 it was announced that Voyage would not be back for a fifth season.
The series ' main theme, "The Seaview Theme '', was written by Paul Sawtell. A new darker, more serious theme composed by Jerry Goldsmith was introduced at the beginning of the second - season episode "Jonah and the Whale '', but this was quickly replaced by the original version. A version of the Goldsmith suite re-orchestrated by Nelson Riddle was heard as incidental music in the episode "Escape From Venice '', and the original Goldsmith suite was used as incidental music throughout the rest of the series. The series ' main composer, supervisor and conductor was Lionel Newman, who for the second season composed a serious sounding score for when the episode credits (episode title / guests / writer / director) were shown just after the theme song, which would be used by many episodes (starting with "The Left Handed Man '') thru the second and into the early third season. Other guest composers included Lennie Hayton, Hugo Friedhofer, Star Trek: The Original Series composer Alexander Courage, Morton Stevens, Leith Stevens (no relation) who wrote the music to nine episodes, and Sawtell, who worked on the show for a while in the first season.
GNP Crescendo issued a soundtrack album in 1997 as part of its series tying into the documentary The Fantasy Worlds Of Irwin Allen, featuring Sawtell 's theme from the series and his score for the pilot episode "Eleven Days To Zero '' (tracks 2 -- 6) and Goldsmith 's work for "Jonah and the Whale. ''
Scott McFadden, Ray Didsbury, Marco Lopez, and Ron Stein provided additional crewman in non-speaking roles often requiring stunt work.
Note: Two different episodes (28 and 73) are both titled "The Creature ''.
20th Century Fox has released all 4 seasons on DVD in Region 1 in two volume sets.
In Region 2, Revelation Films has released the entire series on DVD in the UK in four complete season sets. On March 26, 2012, they released Voyage To The Bottom Of The Sea: The Complete Collection, a 31 - disc set featuring all 110 episodes of the series as well as bonus features.
In Region 4, Madman Entertainment released the first two seasons on DVD in Australia on August 20, 2014.
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when did canada play in the world cup | Canada at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
This is a record of Canada 's results at the FIFA World Cup. Canada has appeared in the FIFA World Cup on one occasion, which was in 1986.
Head coach: Tony Waiters
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lady gaga - do what u want (audio) ft. r. kelly | Do What U Want - wikipedia
"Do What U Want '' is a song by American singer Lady Gaga, featuring guest vocals from R. Kelly. The song was released on October 21, 2013 as the second single from Gaga 's third studio album Artpop (2013). The singers wrote the song with DJ White Shadow, Martin Bresso, and William Grigahcine. DJ White Shadow first presented Gaga with the song 's initial concept two years prior to its release. The song 's production was completed in 2013, with Kelly 's vocals added soon after. Warm reception from fans and music critics led to its release as the album 's second single.
It is a synthpop and R&B song featuring 1980s - style synthesizers and an electronic instrumental track. The song 's lyrics represent themes of sexual submission, with Gaga telling detractors that her thoughts, dreams, and feelings are her own, no matter what one does with her body. Critics praised the song 's simplicity, production, and commercial appeal. The single cover for "Do What U Want '', a close - up of Gaga 's buttocks in a floral thong, was photographed by Terry Richardson who had also directed the song 's music video, which was planned to be released through BitTorrent in December 2013; the release was cancelled due to unknown circumstances.
"Do What U Want '' reached number one in Hungary while peaking within the top 10 in Austria, Canada, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Lebanon, Norway, Scotland, South Korea, Spain and the United Kingdom as well as the top 20 in Belgium, the Czech Republic, Germany, New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. Live performances of the song were televised on the 2013 American Music Awards, Alan Carr: Chatty Man, Saturday Night Live, America 's The Voice, and Britain 's The X Factor. Several remixes of the song were released, including ones with vocals from Christina Aguilera and Rick Ross.
"Do What U Want '' was co-written by Lady Gaga, Blair, R. Kelly, Martin Bresso, and William Grigahcine. It was produced by Blair and Gaga and features vocals by Kelly. Gaga had been living in Chicago and completing the songs for Artpop, which was being influenced by the R&B and hip hop music predominant there. One day, the singer came to know about an article discussing her weight and she was angered with such news. She decided that it was through her music that she could take a stance against "shallow journalism ''. After the release of the first single from the album, titled "Applause '', the singer was also determined to create something different and unfamiliar to her past hit singles, and "Do What U Want '' stemmed from these thoughts.
Blair recalled how in 2011 his friend Martin was playing him a particular beat from his own remix project. Blair liked the music and presented it to Gaga who had begun writing the song 's lyrics while on the Born This Way Ball tour. Blair described its beat as "some space age George Jetson R&B sound ''. After the lyrics were completed in September 2013, Blair suggested bringing Kelly on board as a collaborator. Kelly was in the process of completing his album, Black Panties, and agreed to participate following a telephone conversation with Gaga. Kelly told Billboard that working with the singer was "natural jelling ''. Gaga told MTV News about the song:
"I 've been living in Chicago and spending a lot of time there, and that 's where R. Kelly hails from. I was working on Artpop and I wrote (' Do What U Want ') on tour. It was about my obsession with the way people view me. I have always been an R. Kelly fan and actually it is like an epic pastime in the Haus of Gaga that we just get fucked up and play R. Kelly. This is a real R&B song and I (said ' I) have to call the king of R&B and I need his blessing. ' It was a mutual love. ''
"Do What U Want '' is a mid-tempo synthpop and R&B track, drawing influence from 1980s - inspired throbbing synths and an electronic beat. Eric R. Danton of Rolling Stone described it as a "muscular club beat ''. James Montgomery from MTV News said that a "lurching, lascivious beat '' was the main backbone of the song, interspersed with Gaga 's loud - voiced vocals, a "corky '' chorus and Kelly 's "cool, coital '' singing. The song 's chorus is built around arpeggios. Complex described its "Do what you want, what you want with my body '' hook as "catchy and somewhat raunchy ''. The song 's lyrics represent themes of sexual submissiveness, with Gaga telling off detractors that her thoughts, dreams, and feelings are her own, no matter what one does with her body. Jim Farber of New York Daily News suggested "Do What U Want '' to be a response to "everyone who ever made a tart comment about her -- which, by now, involves half the planet ''. Gaga and Kelly alternate singing the lines "Do what u want / What u want with my body / Do what u want / What u want with my body / Write what you want, say what you want about me / If you want you know that I 'm not sorry ''.
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com, "Do What U Want '' is set in the time signature of common time, with a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute. It is composed in the key of A major with Gaga 's vocals spanning the tonal nodes of E to F ♯. The song follows a basic sequence of D -- E -- F ♯ m -- E -- D -- E as its chord progression. "Do What U Want '' was recorded at Record Plant Studios in Hollywood, California and at PatchWerk Recording Studios, in Atlanta, Georgia. Gaga 's vocals were recorded by Dave Russell and Bill Malina, while Kelly 's by Abel Garibaldi and Ian Moonness. Russell held primary mixing of the track at Record Plant, with additional support from Benjamin Rice, Ghazi Hourani, Zane Shoemake, and Dino "SpeedoVee '' Zisis. The song 's instrumentals include guitars by Tim Stewart, programming by Rick Pearl, and audio mastering done by Gene Grimaldi at Oasis Mastering Studios in Burbank, California.
On September 3, 2013, Gaga asked her fans through Twitter to help her choose the second single: options given were "Manicure '', "Sexxx Dreams '', "Aura '', and "Swine ''. On September 20, 2013, Gaga announced that "Venus '' had been chosen as the second single, and that it would be released before the album. A snippet of "Do What U Want '' debuted in a US commercial for Best Buy / Beats on October 17, 2013. It was also used in promotion for British mobile company, O2, as part of their "Be More Dog '' campaign. Subsequently, Gaga and her label decided to release "Do What U Want '' as the second official single from Artpop, instead of "Venus ''. "Do What U Want '' officially impacted Italian radio stations on October 25, 2013, and five days later in the UK. The song impacted Mainstream Top 40 and Rhythmic radio stations in the United States on November 5, 2013. Lipshutz compared the song 's last - minute release to that of "Judas '' from Born This Way in April 2011. After quick commercial success, the label soon decided to rush a single release.
The first promotional artwork features Gaga naked with moss covering her genitals. The single 's official cover art was released on October 21, showing Gaga 's backside, wearing a floral thong. The cover art was shot by photographer Terry Richardson. In an interview with German television station ProSieben, Gaga explained that the explicit imagery for the cover art was due to the constant criticism and discussion surrounding her, adding that "When I look at how society has changed, I feel like this is a good time to show you my ass, because it 's all I choose to give you. ''
According to Digital Spy 's Catherine Earp, the shoot resembles a polaroid. Leigh Silver from Complex magazine compared it to Andy Warhol 's polaroid series, where the artist shot pictures of blonds and their rear. Hilary Hughes from Esquire called the cover art "awful '' but felt that the image paved way for much imagination in lieu of the suggestive theme of the song. The night before the song 's release, Gaga tweeted lyrics of "Do What U Want '' in reference to critics and rumors that had surfaced throughout her career, including those claiming the singer to be a hermaphrodite, gaining weight in 2012, and her drug addiction. She also addressed media fabrications on her alleged negative relationships with Madonna and Katy Perry. Alex Camp from Slant Magazine felt Gaga 's stunt cheapened the song 's intent, pointing out how it highlighted the singer 's preoccupation with social media and her public image.
Upon release, "Do What U Want '' received generally positive response from reviewers. Critics complimented the simplicity of the song, with some comparing Gaga 's vocals to those of Tina Turner and Aguilera. Alexa Camp, writing for Slant Magazine, describes the track as "a measured electro banger that smartly doubles as a love song. '' Lars Brandle of Billboard complimented the song as "radio - friendly '' and concluded that "Gaga is in good form. '' Lipshutz from the same publication wrote that the song and its lyrics were a "thrilling listen, intoxicatingly defiant ''. Writing for The Daily Beast, Kevin Fallon was highly enthusiastic toward the song, calling it "pure pop heaven '' and giving his praise to its "chorus that will make it a radio hit... and driving, danceable beat throughout. '' Carl Williot of Idolator website summarized the song as "a pretty flawless piece of R&B. '' Dharmic X from Complex praised "Do What U Want '' as "catchy ''. Latifah Muhammad from Black Entertainment Television felt that "Between the two, Kelly seems the furthest of his sonic comfort zone but nestles into a groove over the dance beat '' and described the track as "musical genius ''.
Jim Farber of New York Daily News gave the song four out of five stars, saying that the "music provides its own quirk. To match the R&B - style beat -- and the guest appearance by R. Kelly -- Gaga finds a new soul edge to her voice. She belts, scoring a hit in every sense. '' Slate magazine 's Aisha Harris felt that Gaga and Kelly 's efforts worked "surprisingly well ''. Nidhi Tewari of International Business Times said that Gaga sounded her "rebellious best '' on the upbeat song. Lewis Corner from Digital Spy gave the song four out of five stars, stating that its "ear - snagging melody revives some of her earlier pop perfection. '' Hilary Hughes from Esquire felt that Kelly 's guest appearance on the song, improved its quality much more than the preceding single "Applause ''. Hughes added that Gaga 's Whitney Houston-esque vocals are elevated further by Kelly 's "standard, soaring tenor ''. "Do What U Want '' was listed as one of the 100 Best Songs Of 2013 by Rolling Stone, ranked at number 17.
A mixed review came from Kyle Anderson from Entertainment Weekly, who felt that Gaga and Kelly 's vocals track did not "come together '' since Gaga 's singing style interfered with the composition of the song as well as Kelly 's R&B vocals. Anderson also felt that the lyrics sung by Kelly were rehash and subpar. He concluded saying that the song is "an intriguing mind - meld nonetheless ''. Marc Hogan from Spin magazine said that the song was "as usual '' about fame but felt that the cover art complemented the theme the song portrayed.
In the United States, "Do What U Want '' was predicted by industry prognosticators to sell between 150,000 and 160,000 digital downloads in the week ending November 11, 2013. Nielsen SoundScan reported that the song had sold 156,000 digital downloads, entering the Hot Digital Songs chart at number three and becoming Gaga 's 14th top ten on that chart. Consequently, it debuted at number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song is Kelly 's 52nd Hot 100 entry and highest rank since "I 'm a Flirt '' peaked at number 12 in 2007. The song plummeted down to number 58 the following week. In its third week, "Do What U Want '' climbed to number 48 on the chart, aided by its move upwards on the Radio Songs chart, from number 64 to 51, with an audience impression of 23 million, up by about 22 % from the second week. Following the release of Artpop, the song returned to the top twenty of Hot 100, moving into number 18. The song has sold 1.3 million copies in the US as of February 2018, and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). On the Pop Songs chart, "Do What U Want '' debuted at number 39 for the issue of November 11, 2013, and moved up to number 29 the next week with a spin increase of 991 on the US radio stations. Next week, the song acquired a further 1,096 spins and moved to number 23 on the chart. It has reached a peak of number seven on Pop Songs, with 9,237 spins. The song also peaked at number eight on the Rhythmic chart with 2,662 spins. "Do What U Want '' became the second single by Gaga -- the first being her debut single "Just Dance '' -- not to reach the top of the Hot Dance Club Songs chart, where it stalled inside the top - ten at number seven.
In Australia, "Do What U Want '' entered the Australian Singles Chart at number 21; also debuting on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number twelve. The song entered the Irish Singles Chart at number nine and in The Netherlands ' Mega Single Top 100 at number 27. It also entered the Finnish Download Chart at number two. In South Korea, the song sold 10,576 digital downloads, reaching number eight in the Gaon Digital Chart. It fell to number 13 the next week, selling a further 7,184 copies. Following the album release, the song sold 20,309 copies and reached a new peak of number two. "Do What U Want '' reached the top of the charts in Greece, and also reached the top - ten in Finland, France, Italy, and Spain. The song had debuted at number 50 on the Japan Hot 100, but rose to position 26, after two weeks. "Do What U Want '' also debuted at number seven on the Canadian Hot 100 and in its eleventh week on the chart, the song reached a new peak of number three. It was certified gold by Music Canada, for selling over 40,000 digital downloads.
In the United Kingdom "Do What U Want '' was deemed ineligible to enter the UK Singles Chart. The Official Charts Company released a statement explaining that the song would be allowed to chart only after the associated album 's pre-order offer ended. The rules of the Official Chart Company "allow one ' instant grat ' promotion per album, i.e a single track download given away as an album pre-order incentive. ' Do What U Want ' is the second track (following ' Applause ') to be delivered to fans who pre-order Artpop ''. Thus the song was not eligible to enter the chart until the promotion finished and the album was released. According to Alan Jones from Music Week, in the week following its release the single sold 22,915 copies in the UK; had it been eligible to chart, Jones predicted it would have entered at number ten. After the release of Artpop, "Do What U Want '' debuted at number nine on the UK charts with sales of 29,657 copies becoming her 11th top - ten single there. It also entered the Scottish Singles Chart at the same position. "Do What U Want '' became Gaga 's 11th best selling single in the United Kingdom with sales of 248,000 copies by January 2017, and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for 400,000 copies of streaming equivalent units. It has been streamed 8.5 million times, becoming Gaga 's highest streamed song in the country.
Gaga performed the song live along with "Venus '' on the tenth series of The X Factor (UK) on October 27, 2013, at Fountain Studio in Wembley. Jason Lipshutz from Billboard denoted it as "intoxicatingly weird ''. ITV, which aired the performance, and Ofcom, the British media regulator, received around 260 complaints regarding the performance, due to Gaga 's costume and the suggestive lyrics of the track, which was broadcast before the 9pm watershed. A spokesperson from the channel released a statement that they did not believe the performance to be inappropriate. During her ArtRave party for the release of Artpop, Gaga performed eight songs from the album, closing the set with "Do What U Want ''. The performance ended with the singer mirroring the pose of the album cover art -- a Jeff Koons sculpture -- on the stage, by sitting down and spreading her legs apart, while cupping her breasts. On November 16, 2013, Gaga performed "Do What U Want '' at episode 751 of the 39th season of comedy show Saturday Night Live. Kelly appeared as the guest vocalist, doing the similar routine with Gaga, and picking her up from the stage on his shoulder. There was also sex simulations, dry humping and they ended the performance in an embrace. According to Zach Johnson from E!, the performance drew mixed reaction from the media.
Gaga had revealed during ArtRave that she and Kelly would perform "Do What U Want '' at the American Music Awards of 2013 on November 24. During the performance, Gaga enacted the role of a secretary for the President of the United States, which was played by Kelly. The stage was set up to be reminiscent of the Oval Office. Gaga belted out the final chorus of the song alone, as the backdrops displayed a video of the singer playing a piano as a child. The epilogue featured self - depreciating newspaper headlines in the backdrops, proclaiming "Lady Gaga is Over '' and "Lady Gaga is Fat ''. Jason Lipshutz of Billboard called it "the most elaborate performance '' of the ceremony and found parallels with Kelly 's own rap opera Trapped in the Closet in its storytelling.
At the British chat show, Alan Carr: Chatty Man, Gaga performed another acoustic version of the track. Wearing a Kansai Yamamoto bodice with an iPad attached to it, Gaga belted out the song while playing the piano. Another performance took place at the 2013 Jingle Bell Ball on December 8, 2013, where she sang "Do What U Want '' along with other songs from her discography. It was first announced that Gaga would perform on the fifth - season finale of The Voice on December 12, 2013, with the assumption that R. Kelly would accompany her during a performance of "Do What U Want ''. However, a television commercial aired on December 17, the evening of the finale, teased that "Christina joins Lady Gaga for one epic performance ''; they sang "Do What U Want '' as the final performance of the evening. Both appeared in "matching clothes '' with few differences, Gaga wore a "jumpsuit all sharp, off - kilter angles '', while Aguilera was dressed in a "slinky - sexy gown emphasizing her smooth curves ''. A writer from Rap - Up praised it as an "over-the - top '' performance. Los Angeles Times writer Amy Reiter commended the pair 's vocal ability as "triumphant ''. On the 2014 ArtRave: The Artpop Ball tour, the song was performed after "Paparazzi ''. Gaga perched atop a silver chair shaped like a hand, and sang the song. Kelly 's verses were removed from the live rendition. Eric Leijon from The Gazette praised the song saying that it had "earned (its) place alongside crowd pleasers ' Paparazzi ' and ' Bad Romance ' '' from Gaga 's catalogue of hits.
Gaga confirmed Richardson as the director during her ArtRave party. Richardson had previously shot the "Cake Like Lady Gaga '' snippet video, featuring the singer playing with cake. He had been wanting to do music videos for some time, and started his work in the medium with the video for Miley Cyrus ' single "Wrecking Ball '' and Beyoncé 's "XO ''. After her provocative performance of the song on Saturday Night Live, many interviewers had questioned Gaga regarding her chemistry with Kelly, leading the singer to tweet the following message: "Many interviewers quelped today about my ' SHOCKING ' performance w / R Kelly on SNL I 'm beginning to think y'all are n't ready for the video. ''
On November 26, 2013, Interscope announced that the video would be released through file sharing service BitTorrent and Vice, sometime in December 2013. This is BitTorrent 's second initiative, following a similar release for singer Madonna and her secretprojectrevolution video. The bundle would consist of the music video, pictures, a separate clip in 4K resolution documenting the making of the release, and interviews with Gaga and director Richardson. Interscope described the bundle as a means of "explor (ing) the link between open expression and open technology; providing an inside look at the creative process, with original film, music, archival content and behind - the - scenes footage direct from artists. ''
On December 4, 2013, Gaga tweeted that she was intent on making the video "perfect '' since it was unlike her previous endeavors, adding that it was "very personal ''. Two days later, Richardson posted a black - and - white photo from the set of the video, which showed Gaga being held by Kelly; with her legs wrapped around his waist. She wore nothing but a black bikini, while Kelly gestured his middle finger towards the camera in a leather pant / kilt dress. One week later, a colored behind - the - scenes photo was released, showing the singers in the same garments as the previous image, while Kelly stood with his legs spread apart as Gaga crawled in between them.
However the bundle as well as the video was not released in December; Gaga later released a statement in her social networking website Little Monsters that the video was delayed since the singer was given just one week to plan and complete it, like the video for "Applause ''. She added that it was unlike her since she preferred planning her videos over a period of time to honor her creativity. The video remained unreleased despite Gaga releasing the official video for follow - up single, "G.U.Y. '' On June 19, 2014, celebrity news website TMZ published previously unseen footage from the video showing sexually suggestive scenes. In one of them, Kelly, playing a doctor, reaches under a sheet covering a naked Gaga, causing her to moan. In another scene, Richardson appeared to be photographing Gaga as she writhes on newspapers. According to the TMZ report, the video was cancelled possibly due to weariness and fear of backlash for Kelly 's past trial on child pornography, as well as sexual harassment claims by several models who had previously worked with Richardson.
The DJWS Remix of "Do What U Want '' featuring R. Kelly and rapper Rick Ross was released on December 20, 2013. Ross told in an interview with MTV that he was not prepared for collaborating with Gaga. The remix starts with Kelly 's vocals with a new introduction, followed by Ross rapping on a verse, adding new lines like "Photos of the Bawse just to post ' em on a blog / Get alotta views cause they know we be the top / Jean Basquiats in the hall, she my work of art so I pin her to the wall. '' During Gaga 's vocals, the "groove '' of the song is updated which was described by Fuse as "nostalgic, banging, sex - freaky and new all at the same time. It 's a 2013 ode to another era of synth R&B. '' Molly Wardlow from the channel was however dismissive of Ross ' verse, calling it unnecessary. Spin magazine 's Chris Martin noted that Ross ' contribution to "Do What U Want '' sounded "awkward '' and found similarity with Jay - Z 's rap verse in singer Beyoncé 's song, "Drunk in Love ''. Mike Wass from Idolator commented that the remix felt unnecessary, following controversy in the media surrounding Ross ' lyrics in the song "U.O.E.N.O. '' about date rape, and recapitulation of Kelly 's child - sex abuse case.
An alternate studio version of "Do What U Want '' featuring Christina Aguilera was released on January 1, 2014; it marks their first collaboration. The song was released in the US, Canada and Mexico on January 1, 2014 and then released a day later worldwide. On December 24, Aguilera tweeted that she was "working on something special '' and attached an image of her singing in a recording studio. The session took place in the living room of singer Carly Simon 's home at Martha 's Vineyard, with assistance from Oak Bluffs - based producer Jimmy Parr. The following week, it was announced that a revised studio version of "Do What U Want '' would be released, where the original vocals by Kelly are substituted for a verse performed by Aguilera.
The final version was digitally released shortly after midnight on January 1, 2014. On February 11, 2014, Gaga uploaded four other remixes of the version with Aguilera, all commissioned by Interscope and mixed by Steven Redant. The Aguilera remix received generally favorable reviews from music critics; Melissa Locker from Time felt that the re-recorded version of the track "will allow more sales of the track without the moral dilemma that comes with supporting Kelly '', who had previously been charged and acquitted for child pornography in the 2000s, and also complimented Gaga as a "savvy marketer '' for releasing "two versions of a hit song with two different megastars ''.
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Artpop.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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who did ben kill on days of our lives | Ben Weston (Days of Our Lives) - wikipedia
Ben Weston, also known as Ben Rogers, is a fictional character from Days of Our Lives, an American soap opera on the NBC network, currently portrayed by Robert Scott Wilson.
Created by head writers Gary Tomlin and Christopher Whitesell, the character was introduced by co-executive producers Lisa de Cazotte and Greg Meng in February 2014 as the estranged brother of Jordan Ridgeway (Chrishell Stause). Actor Justin Gaston originated the role and was quickly replaced by Wilson in April 2014. Ben 's arrival upsets Jordan 's new life in Salem. The character 's most significant storylines include his romance with Abigail Deveraux (Kate Mansi), trying to live down his secret past threatened by the arrival of his abusive father Clyde Weston (James Read), and his feud with Chad DiMera (Billy Flynn). Ben is mostly known for being a serial killer known as the "Necktie Killer '' and claiming four victims, most notably gay legacy character Will Horton (Guy Wilson). While killing off the character of Will proved to be quite controversial, Robert Scott Wilson received critical acclaim for his portrayal of Ben 's descent into an obsessive and crazed psycho killer. Soap blog, Soap Shows christened the character with the nickname "Batty Ben ''.
Ben (Justin Gaston) comes to Salem in 2014 where he lands a job as a waiter at Club TBD. It is later revealed that he is Jordan Ridgeway 's (Chrishell Stause) estranged younger brother. Ben is immediately smitten with Abigail Deveraux (Kate Mansi) and comes to her defense against her deranged cousin Nick Fallon (Blake Berris). Jordan tries to chase Ben out of town fearing someone will uncover their past but he calms her fears. Ben comforts Abby after they witness Nick 's murder together and they later share their first kiss. Ben (Robert Scott Wilson) accompanies Abigail to the wedding of EJ DiMera (James Scott) and Sami Brady (Alison Sweeney) where EJ is arrested. A distraught Sami tells Ben about EJ and Abby 's affair. However, Ben does n't hold Abby 's past against her. Ben and Jordan are horrified when his abusive father Clyde Weston (James Read) comes to town demanding money they stole from him. Ben is surprised when Clyde changes his tune and gives Jordan back her life 's savings. Meanwhile, Ben grows closer to Abby despite her ex-boyfriend Chad DiMera 's (Billy Flynn) attempts to sabotage Ben as he moves into a new apartment. Ben gets himself arrested when he attacks Chad in public after Chad throws his sexual relationships with Abby and Jordan in his face.
Clyde offers to pay for Ben 's legal defense but Abigail manages to get Chad to drop the charges. Ben 's past rears its ugly head when the FBI comes looking for him forcing him to come clean about his involvement in a Florida gambling ring. Though Ben was not directly involved, he facilitated the operation in exchange for payment. Clyde later reveals that EJ and Stefano DiMera (Joseph Mascolo) -- Chad 's father -- had been digging into Ben 's past and bribed the casino manager to testify against Ben. Fortunately, the charges are dropped when the witness ends up dead. Ben grows suspicious of Chad 's good deeds when he helps Abigail get her job back at the hospital and to keep her close, Ben convinces Abby to move in with him. In the summer of 2015, Ben follows Abby to the DiMera mansion where he finds Chad and Abby have slept together. Instead of confronting Abby, Ben is just relieved that she has chosen to be with him. In July 2015, Clyde presents his son with an engagement ring worn by Ben 's late mother and he proposes to Abigail. Though she hesitates, Abigail later accepts and Ben is ecstatic. Ben is even more excited to learn that Abby is pregnant. Ben and Abby start wedding plans and Clyde offers to buy them a house as a wedding gift. Ben warns Abigail to keep her distance from Chad when he is implicated the murders of Serena Mason (Melissa Archer) and Paige Larson (True O'Brien). Ben quickly realizes that Abigail ca n't stay away from Chad and convinces her to start their married life away from Salem. When the killer then attacks Doctor Marlena Evans (Deidre Hall) and Chad "interrupts '' the confrontation. With Chad on the run from the police, Ben suddenly changes his mind about moving. On September 24, 2015, Ben is revealed to be "The Necktie Killer '' when he is shown dumping evidence into the river. Next, Ben ask Abigail 's cousin Will Horton (Guy Wilson) to be the best man at their wedding and Will happily agrees. Meanwhile, Ben is furious when his future brother - in - law JJ Deveraux (Casey Moss) gets Clyde arrested for drug trafficking and they nearly come to blows. In October 2015, Ben claims another victim when he strangles Will to death as Will has discovered Ben is the killer. Ben once again, frames Chad for the murder. Chad realizes Ben is the killer and comes out of hiding to confront him. Ben overpowers Chad and beats him into a coma. Ben lies, claiming that Chad broke in and attacked him because he is obsessed with Abby. Ben then confesses to Clyde as he is extradited to Florida with Clyde promising to keep the secret. To keep Abby away from Chad, Ben takes her to secluded cabin in the woods where he she goes into premature labor. Ben calls a midwife Wendy (Denice Duff), to help Abigail deliver the baby. After the birth, Ben shoots Wendy and buries her in the woods. Chad comes to rescue Abby but Ben ties them up together and sets the cabin on fire and runs off with the baby whom Ben has named Colin to a motel. However, Ben is caught by JJ and his police partner Lani Price (Sal Stowers) and sent back to Salem. Chad and Abigail are rescued and they confront Ben who has seemingly lost his grip with reality. Despite his condition, Ben tells Abby where he left the baby and he is then put on a 24 - hour suicide watch and taken to jail. A blood test later reveals that Chad and not Ben is the baby 's father.
In March 2016, news spreads that Ben has escaped the mental hospital and everyone suspects he is coming back to Salem as he still believes Colin, now called Thomas is his son. Abigail is horrified when she sees Ben on her wedding day. Abby sees Ben again, and he tries to run off with Thomas. Chad and JJ realize Abby is hallucinating because they do n't see Ben and the baby is safe. In April 2016, Ben breaks into the DiMera mansion to claim "his '' son and professes his love for her. To protect Thomas, Abby seduces Ben long enough to stab him and knock him out. Ben awakens to find that Abby has tied him to the bed and she sets him on fire. Chad arrives just in time to put the fire out but Ben 's legs are severely burned. Chad keeps Ben from escaping as the police to take him into custody. After district attorney Justin Kiriakis (Wally Kurth) concludes that Ben was sane enough to escape the hospital, Ben is sentenced to prison. Despite Ben being sent back to prison, Abigail continues seeing him in hallucinations which leads to her being institutionalized.
In September 2017, having escaped a mental hospital, Ben crashes Chad and Abigail 's double wedding with Sonny Kiriakis (Freddie Smith) and Paul Narita (Christopher Sean). He shocks everyone when he announces that Sonny 's late husband Will is still alive and is then arrested. Ben eventually confides in Marlena that Clyde told him Will is alive. Sami Brady gets Ben released temporarily and convinces him to reenact Will 's murder in hopes that the event can bring back his memory. Unfortunately, it does n't work and Sami has Ben locked away again.
In the summer of 2013 Soap Opera Digest reported that the soap had put out two separate casting calls, one of which was for the role of Ben. In February 2014, it was reported that actor and country singer Justin Gaston, known for his appearance on the television series, Nashville Star had been cast in the contract role of Ben. Gaston filmed his first scenes in October 2013 and was slated to make his first appearance on February 26, 2014.
During the week of April 7, 2014, rumors circulated that Gaston had been replaced by actor Robert Scott Wilson, with neither actor nor the show commented on the speculation. On April 14, 2014, Soap Opera Digest confirmed the rumor and reported that Gaston was indeed replaced by Wilson, known for being the first male model on The Price Is Right and his portrayal of Peter Cortlandt in the short - lived online reboot of the ABC soap, All My Children. Wilson commented on the news that he would soon depart from the game show, and thanked fans. The following day, Wilson confirmed his final appearance on The Price is Right as April 15, and assured fans that he was not leaving on bad terms but did not comment on his new gig at Days of Our Lives. Wilson made his debut on May 22, 2014, in scenes opposite Kate Mansi as Abigail and Days veteran Kristian Alfonso as Hope Brady. At the time, Wilson was testing for another project on Fox. When the project fell through, Wilson returned to Boston to visit his family for Christmas which is when he learned he got the job. "It came at a time when I did n't expect, '' Wilson told Soap Opera Digest. Ironically, Wilson had just purchased a brand new Mercedes Benz the week before booking the gig. "Fortune favors the bold '' he said of his luck. He started filming on January 8, 2014, and had filmed twelve episodes by the end of February. Wilson accredited his landing the role to his time on All My Children and one of his former costars, Jill Larson who played his mother, Opal. Wilson also found common ground with former AMC alum, Chrishell Stause who played Ben 's sister, Jordan Ridgeway and said Stause and (Kate) Mansi helped him make the transition. After landing the gig, Wilson learned he would also be working opposite (Kristian) Alfonso, another Boston native.
The original casting call described Ben as being in his early to mid 20s, a "gorgeous, Caucasian, country boy. '' He is supposed to be Midwestern or Southern. The casting notice also described Ben as "utterly charming '' due to his "honest sincere approach to life and love. '' The producers looked for actors with a musical background. According to Soap Central, musical talent was not a requirement for those auditioning for the role. Ben was also said to have a "slight southern accent. '' He 's kind of a loner. He 's traveled and can read people very well. '' However, Ben can be a bit unpredictable, and according to Wilson, "he 's a loose cannon. '' Ben has a lot of rage because he comes from a "messed - up home. '' Wilson described Ben as a "good guy '' who is n't afraid to "put somebody in line if he has to. '' Unlike his former role as Pete, "With Ben, I 'm playing more of a hungry person. '' Wilson further described Ben as "very street - smart '' and the typical "nice guy. '' However, he can be a protective of his loved ones. In an interview with On - Air On - Soaps, Wilson explained that Ben has a "temper '' that can get him into trouble. Ben has a "protective nature '' because of his past.
Wilson later admitted that he did n't know much about the character when he assumed the role of Ben. "(The producers) really only gave me what I needed to know to make it real and understandable to me. '' Wilson revealed that the producers gave him a lot "creative control '' when it came to his character 's backstory. Wilson revealed that he and Ben share a similar background because he too comes "from humble beginnings. '' Wilson stated, "Ben has pretty much always been broke '' and he 's never experienced any real "stability in his life. '' "I had to come up with my own backstory for things to work for me as the story went further '' the actor explained. Wilson said of his character that "Ben has lived a crazy life. Ben hopes to make a home for himself by settling in the same town as his sister Jordan Ridgeway (Stause). Though Ben is the younger of the siblings, he has "stepped up '' for Jordan and tries to be a father figure for her and protect her as payback for her raising him. However, Ben 's plans are threatened by the arrival of his father, Clyde Weston (Read). Ben "very wary of Clyde '' because he only has bad memories of him. While Clyde and Ben want the same thing, to build a father - son relationship, Clyde 's schemes constantly undermines any progress they make.
The character is paired with Abigail Deveraux (Mansi) in a romantic storyline. Wilson explained that Abigail is the first girl to make Ben want to "settle down '' and have a stable relationship. "It 's all really new to him. '' Ben 's secret past jeopardizes his budding romance with Abigail because "He 's not yet ready to tell her... but if everything is good at the end of the tunnel '' Ben will come clean. Wilson formed a close bond with his costar Mansi which he said helped with their onscreen chemistry. Ben does n't hold Abigail 's past against her because "Everybody 's got baggage '' Wilson said. Ben can understand and identity with Abby having a trouble past "because he 's far from perfect himself. '' Abby and Ben 's new romance is also threatened by return of her ex-boyfriend Chad DiMera (Flynn). Abigail is forced to choose between staying faithful to Ben and protecting him from a potential prison stint when he gets arrested for assaulting Chad. After an affair with Chad, which Ben witnesses, Abigail ends up pregnant and is unsure of her baby 's paternity. Ben is so desperate to make a better life for himself that he willingly overlooks Abigail 's cheating. "That 's always in the back of Ben 's head '' Wilson stated. So, Ben is faced with the task of burying those feelings and staying focused on "his ultimate goal of having a family and becoming stable. '' He continued, "Abigail is the puzzle piece that will make all of that possible. '' Wilson further stated that this is the first relationship where Ben has "found something to invest in '' and he is afraid to lose that so when he learns she is pregnant, Ben holds on tighter. However, "it 's eating him alive '' Wilson said of Abigail seemingly being drawn to Chad. But, he finds comfort in Abby 's reassurances which keep him grounded in the "reality that he knows. '' Wilson said he 'd advise his character to leave Abigail and the town of Salem behind but admitted "Love makes you do wild stuff. ''
In April 2015, during an interview for Soapcentral.com, Wilson said that viewers will "learn more about Ben in the next six months. '' The actor continued, "It 's a whole other side of Ben, and I 'm really excited to kind of unravel it. '' Wilson welcomed the shift in the direction of his character. "I was getting bored out of my mind. So thank God. It 's time for the cycle to change. '' Wilson admitted that Ben develops "more of a wild streak than ever. ''
In the summer of 2015, Entertainment Weekly reported that the series would launch a Murder mystery plot in late August as the show was to celebrate its 50th anniversary. The plot would feature several characters, including some fan favorites as victims. The story was slated to climax during the week of November 8, 2015, the official anniversary date. On the episode which aired on September 24, 2015, the episode culminates with the revelation that Wilson 's Ben is the mysterious Necktie Killer when he is shown going over the evidence. Wilson was invited to a meeting with executive producer Albert Alarr and then headwriter Josh Griffith where they informed him of the plans for Ben. Wilson was immediately excited about the story. However, Wilson also experienced a little bit of apprehension about the decision. "They either want me to fail... or they trust me. '' But the producers quickly assured the actor it was the latter. And once he got into it, Wilson felt the changes allowed for him to play the role more "honestly. '' Wilson admitted that the way he worked changed "Because they were writing for me. They wrote me an amazing story, which ended up being the threat of the entire show. They trusted me with it. '' In an interview with Soapcentral.com, Wilson said "I got to really know Ben and attack him and play it out to its fullest. I 'm grateful they wrote as much as they did and really took the time on the story. They put a lot of care into it, and we all stepped up. '' Wilson described the plot twist as "some of the most fulfilling work of my career. ''
He said of the character change, "It 's really night and day '' from the Ben viewers had come to know. Wilson relished in portraying the "bad guy. '' The was very grateful because "they really did write for Ben '' and that allowed him to take a lot of "chances and risks. '' He continued, "I played things that I had never done. '' In an interview with Michael Fairman from On - Air On - Soaps, Wilson revealed that when the story started filming, even he was not aware that Ben was the killer. Ben dumps the evidence in the river believing he has covered his tracks. The scenes were filmed in one take and Wilson later revealed that he wanted to re-shoot the scenes because he knew the fans would n't miss a beat and would notice that there was air in the bag -- which would keep it from sinking. Ben is able to "keep his game face on '' in public, until he is alone and "can kind of revel in what has happened. '' In private, Ben takes "deep breathes, and try to regain his composure. ''
The killer 's first victim is Melissa Archer 's Serena Mason, who is strangled to death. Chad (Billy Flynn) is implicated as a suspect because of their drunken confrontation the night before. Less than a month later, the killer claims another victim when Paige Larson (True O'Brien) is strangled to death with a red necktie. Chad once again appears to be the prime suspect as he had been harassing Paige who had witnessed the altercation with Serena. Following Paige 's murder, there was immediate speculation that Ben was framing Chad or that Clyde had framed Chad on Ben 's behalf. On the episode that aired on September 24, 2015, the killer tries and fails to kill one of the show 's most iconic characters, Doctor Marlena Evans, portrayed by veteran actress Deidre Hall. Wilson later admitted that he was n't too enthused about Ben 's choice of victims, specifically True O'Brien 's character. "That one got me the most because True is so young '' Wilson explained.
During the interview with Fairman, Wilson confirmed that Ben would take more lives. "There is a lot more to this story '' he teased. "The body count will rise '' he declared. On the episode which aired on October 9, 2015, Ben would claim a third, and most significant victim -- Will Horton (Guy Wilson) as he discovers Ben is the killer. Until Will, Ben is "somebody who does n't know what he 's doing. '' It is Will 's death that forces Ben to face the reality of his actions. Before the episode aired, Wilson identified Will 's murder as the turning point for Ben: "That 's the full change for him. When that happens, then he will be aware of everything that is happening in real time, rather than playing this game where he is thinking he is doing something right, when it 's not. ''
The reveal episode also featured scenes in which Ben changes his mind about leaving town with Abigail when he learns there is an APB out for Chad. Ben feels a sense of "closure '' hinting at his motives. According to Wilson, Ben 's actions stem from love, "as tragic as it all is. It 's done out of love, but unfortunately he is going insane. '' Ben who has "constantly '' buried his feelings about Abigail 's betrayal has reached the end of his rope. Dealing with Abigail 's betrayal is such a new experience for Ben because he 's never really had anything to lose. "Everything Ben does is to set Chad up '' Wilson stated. Ben never intends to hurt anyone. Ben sees his victims as "chess pieces '' in a much bigger game -- they will help him hold onto the life he has made for himself. As far as Ben is concerned, he is doing the "right thing. ''
The writers took it a step further in the development of the story by portraying Ben as having suffered some sort of psychological break creating two distinct personalities for himself. The Ben viewers meet in 2014 is the "nice guy '' who is just a bartender and Abigail 's boyfriend. He "takes the hand of the little princess (Abigail) of Salem. '' But then, there is "Benjamin '' who experiences "blackouts '' and blames Chad for his behavior. From Ben 's perspective, Chad is responsible for the murders. Though Wilson insisted that Ben does not have a split personality, "Benjamin is another part of Ben 's personality that acted as his protector. '' To help prepare for his portrayal of Ben, Wilson did some research with similar characters. He studied Anthony Perkins portrayal of Norman Bates in the 1960 film Psycho as well as Edward Norton 's character in the 1996 film Primal Fear -- who deals with a split personality. Wilson also watched several documentaries about the lives of serial killers. "If somebody were to see my Netflix queue during that time they probably would have asked, ' What 's up with this guy? ' '' he said jokingly. However, in his research, Wilson recognized that Ben becoming a killer was entirely possible. "The writers tapped into Ben 's childhood, when he suffered abuse. That was the place where a lot of evil was rooted. '' Tapping into that part of his psyche, "worked for me as an actor '' Wilson explained. "It is truly a great experience to go through as an actor, and weird at the same time. ''
While he was initially excited about the storyline, Wilson knew there was a strong possibility that once the story wrapped, he could be out of a job. As the serial killer story was set to climax in the fall, Soaps SheKnows reported that Wilson would likely vacate the role of Ben Weston when the story wrapped. However, neither Wilson nor the producers would comment on the actor 's status with the series. Wilson intentionally played coy during another interview in November 2015. When asked if he was coming or going, the actor "It 's a little bit of both. Maybe he 's gone and then he 's back and then he 's gone. Maybe he 's just among us. Maybe he 's something that you ca n't get rid of. '' Wilson seemingly vacated the role on December 8, 2015, when Ben goes to prison. By the time of his departure, Wilson felt that Ben had completed his arc. Despite reports that Wilson was done with the series, the actor continued posting pictures on social media of himself on the set.
In January 2016 it was announced that Wilson would reprise his role as Ben. The actor reappeared onscreen on March 11. Wilson revealed that producer Albert Alarr informed him toward the end of his first arc of the plans to bring the character back. However, this is a "new chapter '' for Ben. "This is now a fresh arc for myself and what I make for Ben. '' According to Wilson, Ben returns because he misses Salem, having found a home for himself there and "because he wants to know what 's going on '' and he somehow sees beyond what he has done. As Abigail prepares to marry Chad, it is reported that Ben has escaped the mental hospital. However, when Abby sees Ben at her wedding, he appears to be a figment of her imagination. Chad and JJ orchestrate a plan to lure Ben out of hiding, using Abigail as bait. However, Abigail 's hallucinations get worse as the possibility that Ben is looming becomes even more real.
During the week of April 11, 2016, Ben and Abigail come face to face. "It 's the real deal and not a figment of Abigail 's imagination '' Wilson confirmed. At that point, it is a game of cat and mouse. The confrontation culminates with Ben to a bed and Abigail setting him on fire, as he had previously done to her and Chad. Wilson 's costar Kate Mansi opened up to Soap Opera Digest about filming the scenes. "From the minute we arrived on set, Robert and I felt the weight of that encounter '' the actress explained. The actors did n't even rehearse together as usual. The taping was delayed due to a lighting problem so they took advantage of the downtime and "We did n't take our eyes off each other '' allowing for the tension to build. The actors then utilized the remainder of the time to run through their scenes, without any dialogue. When the lighting situation was fixed, "Robert and I just let ourselves get out of the way and went for the ride without any hesitation. '' Wilson concluded his run with the series on June 24, 2016. The return also helped facilitate Kate Mansi 's departure from the series. "I 'm so grateful to have been a part of her last episode '' Wilson said.
In September 2017, it was announced the Wilson was set to reprise his role in late September. Wilson expressed his excitement in a statement to Soap Opera Digest. "I could n't have asked for a better entrance back to Salem -- when no one sees it coming. '' Just about everyone in town has converged on the church for a double wedding "and then I got to swing the church doors open and drop a bomb '' the actor explained to Soap Opera Digest. Ben announces to a packed room that Will Horton is alive upsetting the event. For Ben, this is "great news. '' Ben considered Will to be a friend so "Ben is trying to clear his conscience, and hopefully, clear his name as well. '' However, Ben has more than one agenda and sees it as a chance to stick it to those who have wronged him because he blames the people of Salem for turning him into what he has become. Ben takes pleasure in taunting everyone about Will being alive, which upsets Will 's closest relatives. However, Ben can not produce Will. "That 's part of the mystery. He 's hoping Will can be found. ''
Wilson was contacted in the spring of 2017 about returning to the series. The producers told him a little bit about the story, stating: "It sounded like really great stuff, and they were correct. I had a blast. '' While he was welcomed back, a lot had changed with the serial. "In a short amount of time, they really spread Ben out, and he interacts with a lot of different characters, '' Wilson said, while also stating he was definitely open to another return in the future. Wilson wrapped his stint on November 30, 2017, when Ben is sent back to the mental institution.
In January 2018, Wilson revealed on social media that he had been on set at Days which led to rumors that he would soon reprise the role of Ben. When actress Denice Duff announced that she would reprise her role as midwife Wendy Taylor, the speculation of Wilson 's return increased, due to Wendy being one of Ben 's victims during the serial killer plot. Soaps.com reported that Duff would reappear alongside Wilson in May 2018.
In response to the original casting call looking for attractive actors, Luke Kerr said, "Finding beautiful actors is all well and good, but please make sure they can act before letting them sign on the dotted line. '' On - Air On - Soaps said "Gaston fits the bill perfectly '' considering his musical background. In response to the recast, Omar Nobles of TV Source Magazine said, "I am THRILLED with this news. '' He continued and praised Wilson for his charm and charisma. Nobles stated, "I rank this recast as an instant UPGRADE. '' Wilson ranked at # 10 on Daytime Confidential 's list of the "10 Best Soap Newbies of 2013 '' having recently wrapped short lived stint on All My Children. Wilson 's appearance on the list was only days after he had secretly booked the role of Ben. Wilson also ranked at # 3 on the soap blog 's list of the "10 Daytime Soap Opera Hunks We 'd Love to Take Underwear Shopping. '' Jamey Giddens said, "Is it any wonder CBS Daytime decided to make Robert Scott Wilson the first - ever male model on The Price is Right? Since then, the gorgeous hunk has proven to have impressive chops on two daytime soaps. '' Despite Wilson being a popular casting choice, the writing for his character was very poorly received. Daytime Confidential listed the exploration of the character 's backstory at # 2 in its list of the "10 Worst Soap Opera Storylines of 2014. '' The blog admitted that had the actors (including Wilson 's costars Chrishell Stause and James Read) been cast in a more established roles, "we doubt they 'd be on on a worst list. '' The site specifically said he should have been cast in the role of Andrew Donovan, son of supercouple Shane and Kimberly (Charles Shaughnessy and Patsy Pease) and brother to Theresa Donovan (Jen Lilley). Giddens later commented on the character 's love triangle with Abigail and Chad DiMera (Billy Flynn) "is n't exactly compelling '' and Giddens also reiterated that the character of Andrew Donovan would 've been better for story purposes.
Michael Maloney described becoming a soap serial killer as "a thankless role '' but credited Wilson 's "compelling performances '' with garnering "rave reviews. '' Jamey Giddens of Daytime Confidential initially praised the serial killer storyline and said "The latest in a long line of DAYS serial killers is giving the show back its life '' by getting rid of the "nonessential characters '' like Serena and Paige. "Praise Soap Jesus '' Giddens exclaimed. Ironically, Giddens hoped the killer 's next victims would be Ben and Clyde Weston. Michael Fairman of On - Air On - Soaps praised the scenes in which Ben was revealed to be the serial killer. Soap Central 's Kambra Clifford described the plot twist as "hellish '' and "devilishly dark. '' Soap Shows described Wilson 's official confirmation of Ben as the serial killer as a "spoilers reveal like no other. '' Soap Shows christened the character with the nickname "Batty Ben '' and said "he 's become the creepiest Salem man around. '' The blog further commented that "Robert Scott Wilson appears to be having a blast playing an on - the - edge psycho who could flip at any moment. '' Initially, many viewers responded on social media and message boards in denial as many refused to believe that Ben was the killer.
However, Ben 's third victim in Will Horton would stir up quite a bit of controversy with many questioning the decision to kill off such an important character. Michael Fairman described the fans as having "mixed - emotions '' on social media. Viewer emotions over Will 's murder ranged from "utterly shocked and heartbroken '' to "outraged. '' Some viewers described the character 's death as "unnecessary '' while others "could not stop crying '' and others believed the character "deserved better '' and the decision made some "sick. '' Days superstar Alison Sweeney who played Will 's mother Sami Brady even voiced her own anger over the decision to kill the character. Hope Campbell commented on the manner in which Will died at Ben 's hands: "Will was an integral part of the show, and we watched him die in a horrific manner from his own point of view. '' Campbell praised the production of the scenes and said "seeing the screen fade to black as Will faded with his last breath sent chills up our spines and not something we remember seeing often on a soap. '' However, she described the situation as "over-the - top '' and said the manner in which Ben transported the corpse "added another layer of creepiness we were not looking for. ''
Despite the controversy that stemmed from Will 's murder, Wilson received critical acclaim for his portrayal of Ben. Michael Fairman who praised the story as a "deeply affection and riveting arc '' said "Wilson owned every second of Ben 's troubled inner life and turmoil. '' Soap Opera Digest made the climax it 's "Editor 's Choice '' and praised Wilson and his co-stars for making the "stakes feel higher '' and "infusing the action with blistering intensity. '' The magazine said "Wilson was mesmerizing as his character slipped in and out of lucidity. Wilson expertly highlighted Ben 's struggle to stay cognizant as the manic part of his personality threatened complete dominance. '' On - Air On - Soaps deemed the plot twist as the "Most Shocking Storyline '' for the year 2015. The website also praised Ben as the "Most Revived Character '' and Wilson as one of the "Best '' supporting actors. Soap Opera Digest further praised the character 's "revitalization '' describing Ben as a "ho - hum character whose appeal increased as Wilson plumbed the depths of his alter ego 's insanity. '' Hope Campbell of Soap Hub noted that some fans suspected Ben had been faking his break from reality.
Wilson 's omission from the Daytime Emmy Award pre-nominations invoked a strong outcry from fans on social media. On - Air On - Soaps said Wilson 's omission from the nominees was one of the more noticeable ones. Fame10 included Wilson on its 2016 list of "Most Shocking Soap Opera Emmy Snubs. '' Dorathy Gass declared Wilson 's omission was "sheer craziness! '' She hoped Wilson would get the well - deserved the Supporting Actor nomination in 2017. Hollie Deese of Soaps.com said Wilson 's exclusion was a "glaring oversight '' because "I think he took it all this year, hands down. '' Deese hailed Wilson as one of the "top young actors in the genre. ''
Hope Campbell of Soap Hub said Wilson 's 2016 return would surely "shake things up '' just in time for February Sweeps. Michael Fairman praised Wilson for his "incredibly twisted '' portrayal during Ben 's final confrontation with Kate Mansi 's Abigail in April 2015. Michael Goldberg from Serial Scoop said the scenes were "magnificent. '' Despite Ben terrorizing Abigail, "to many fans, Ben was a treat. '' Hope Campbell said Wilson 's performance kept viewers "enthralled '' during his return. In a sample poll of nearly 2,000 votes, 65 % of viewers hoped the character would return.
When Wilson reprised his role in 2017, Ryan White - Nobles excitedly declared "The sexiest serial killer in soap history is returning to Days of our Lives! '' "If Will is returning to Salem, it should only make sense that the man who ' killed ' him does, too, right? '' On - Air On - Soaps said Wilson had the "Best Performance by a recurring '' actor for the year 2017. Fairman said "Wilson has taken this disturbed character and brought him to soap opera cult status. ''
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which of the following in the famous harry potter books does not match | Harry Potter fandom - wikipedia
"Harry Potter fandom '' refers to the community of fans of the Harry Potter books and movies who participate in entertainment activities that revolve around the series, such as reading and writing fan fiction, creating and soliciting fan art, engaging in role - playing games, socializing on Harry Potter - based forums, and more. The fandom interacts online as well as offline through activities such as fan conventions, tours of iconic landmarks relevant to the books and production of the films, and parties held for the midnight release of each book and film.
By the fourth Harry Potter book, the legions of fans had grown so large that considerable security measures were taken to ensure that no book was purchased before the official release date. Harry Potter is considered one of the few four - quadrant, multi-generation spanning franchises that exist today, despite Rowling 's original marketing of the books to tweens and teens.
Pottermania is an informal term first used around 1999 describing the craze Harry Potter fans have had over the series. Fans held midnight parties to celebrate the release of the final four books at bookstores which stayed open on the night leading into the date of the release. In 2005, Entertainment Weekly listed the midnight release of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire as one of "Entertainment 's Top Moments '' of the previous 25 years.
Diehard fans of the series are called "Potterheads ''. Some even theme their weddings around Harry Potter. A Bridal Guide featured two real weddings soon before the release of the final movie, which quickly spread through the fandom via Facebook, Twitter, and Tumblr.
The craze over the series was referenced in Lauren Weisberger 's 2003 novel The Devil Wears Prada as well as its 2006 film adaptation. In the story, the protagonist Andrea Sachs is ordered to retrieve two copies of the next installment in the series for her boss 's twins before they are published so that they can be privately flown to France, where the twins and their mother are on holiday.
Famous Harry Potter fans include Barack Obama, Prince William and Kate Middleton, Jennifer Lawrence, Stephen King, Simon Pegg, Keira Knightley, Matt Smith, Liam Neeson, Seth Rogen, and Guillermo Del Toro.
There are many fan web sites about Harry Potter on the Internet, the oldest ones dating to about 1997 or 1998. J.K. Rowling has an open relationship with her fan base, and since 2004 periodically hands out a "fan site award '' on her official web site. The first site to receive the award was Immeritus, a fan site mostly devoted to Sirius Black, and about which Rowling wrote, "I am so proud of the fact that a character, whom I always liked very much, though he never appeared as much more than a brooding presence in the books, has gained a passionate fan - club. ''
In 2004, after Immeritus, Rowling bestowed the honour upon four sites. The first was Godric 's Hollow; for some time however, the site 's domain name was occupied by advertisers and its content was lost and there is no further record on Rowling 's site that Godric 's Hollow ever received the award, although in 2010 the website came back online again albeit with a lot of content missing. The next site was the Harry Potter Lexicon, an online encyclopedia Rowling has admitted to visiting while writing away from home rather than buying a copy of her books in a store. She called it "for the dangerously obsessive; my natural home. '' The third site of 2004 was MuggleNet, a web site featuring the latest news in the Potter world, among editorials, forums, and a podcast. Rowling wrote when giving the award, "It 's high time I paid homage to the mighty MuggleNet, '' and listed all the features she loved, including "the pretty - much - exhaustive information on all books and films. '' The last site was HPANA, the first fan site Rowling ever visited, "faster off the mark with Harry Potter news than any other site '' Rowling knows, and "fantastically user - friendly. ''
In 2005, only The Leaky Cauldron was honored. In Rowling 's words, "it is about the worst kept secret on this website that I am a huge fan of The Leaky Cauldron, '' which she calls a "wonderfully well designed mine of accurate information on all things Harry Potter. '' On another occasion, Rowling has called the Leaky Cauldron her "favourite fan site. '' In 2006, the Brazilian website Potterish was the only site honoured, in recognition of its "style, (its) Potter - expertise and (its) responsible reporting. ''
In May 2007, Harry Potter Fan Zone received the award. Rowling recognized the insightful editorials as well as praised the site for its young and dedicated staff. In December 2007, the award went to The Harry Potter Alliance, a campaign that seeks to end discrimination, genocide, poverty, AIDS, global warming, and other "real - world Dark Arts '', relating these problems to the books. Rowling called the project "extraordinary '' and "most inspirational '', and paralleled its mission to "the values for which Dumbledore 's Army fought in the books ''. In an article about her in Time, Rowling expressed her gratefulness at the site 's successful work raising awareness and sign - up levels among anti-genocide coalitions.
At one time, Warner Bros., which owns the rights to Harry Potter and its affiliates, tried to shut down the sites. The unsuccessful attempt eventually led to their inviting the webmasters of the top sites to premieres of the films and tours of the film sets, because of their close connection with the fans. Warner Bros. executives have acknowledged that many fans are disappointed that certain elements of the books are left out, but not trying to avoid criticism, "bringing the fan sites into the process is what we feel is really important. ''
These fan sites contain news updates into the world of the books, films, and film cast members through the use of forums, image galleries, or video galleries. They also host user - submitted creations, such as fan art or fan fiction.
The Harry Potter fandom has embraced podcasts as a regular, often weekly, insight to the latest discussion in the fandom. Apple Inc. has featured two of the podcasts, MuggleCast and PotterCast. Both have reached the top spot of iTunes podcast rankings and have been polled one of the top 50 favorite podcasts. At the 2006 Podcast Awards, when MuggleCast and PotterCast each received two nominations for the same two categories, the two podcasts teamed up and requested listeners vote for PotterCast in the Best Entertainment category and MuggleCast in the People 's Choice category. Both podcasts won these respective categories.
MuggleCast, hosted by MuggleNet staffers, was created in August 2005, not long after the release of Half - Blood Prince. Topics of the first show focused on Horcruxes, "R.A.B. '', the Goblet of Fire film, which was due for release two months later, and the website DumbledoreIsNotDead.com. Since then, MuggleCast has held chapter - by - chapter discussions, character analyses, and a discussion on a "theory of the week ''. MuggleCast has also added humour to their podcast with segments like "Spy on Spartz, '' where the hosts would call MuggleNet webmaster Emerson Spartz and reveal his current location or activity with the listening audience. British staff member Jamie Lawrence tells a British joke of the week, and host Andrew Sims reads an email sent to MuggleNet with a strange request or incoherent talk (dubbed "Huh?! Email of the Week ''). MuggleCast is currently the highest rated Harry Potter Podcast on the Internet. The MuggleCast website will continue to serve as a resource for other Harry Potter fans who want to rediscover the show.
PotterCast was released less than two weeks after MuggleCast 's first episode. Produced by The Leaky Cauldron, it differed from MuggleCast with a more structured program, including various segments and involvement of more people on the Leaky Cauldron staff compared to MuggleCast. It also was the first Potter podcast to produce regular interviews with people directly involved with the books and films. The first show featured interviews with Stuart Craig, art director of the films, as well as Bonnie Wright, who plays Ginny Weasley. PotterCast has also interviewed Matthew Lewis (the actor who portrays Neville Longbottom), Evanna Lynch (Luna Lovegood), Jamie Waylett (Vincent Crabbe), Rupert Grint (Ron Weasley), Chris Columbus, Alfonso Cuarón, Mike Newell (directors of the first four films), Arthur A. Levine and Cheryl Klein (editors of the books at Scholastic), and the author of the book series, J.K. Rowling.
The two sites are friendly rivals and have aired several combined episodes, which they call "The Leaky Mug '', a separate podcast released on a separate feed from time to time. Live joint podcasts have been held in New York City, Las Vegas, and California. From time to time, hosts on one podcast will appear on their counterpart.
Rowling has backed fan fiction stories on the Internet, stories written by fans that involve Harry Potter or other characters in the books. A March 2007 study showed that "Harry Potter '' is the most searched - for fan fiction subject online. Some fans will use canon established in the books to write stories of past and future events in the Harry Potter world; others write stories that have little relation to the books other than the characters ' names and the settings in which the fan fiction takes place. On FanFiction.Net, there are over 733,000, while ao3.org has 88,821 stories on Harry Potter as of January 2016. There are numerous websites devoted solely to Harry Potter fan fiction. Of these, according to rankings on Alexa.com, HarryPotterFanfiction.com has grown to be the most popular.
A well - known work of fan fiction is The Shoebox Project, created by two LiveJournal users. Over 8500 people subscribe to the story so that they are alerted when new posts update the story. The authors ' works, including this project, were featured in an article in The Wall Street Journal discussing the growth in popularity of fandoms.
The current most reviewed piece of fanfiction, with over 25,000 reviews, is Harry Potter and the Methods of Rationality by Eliezer Yudkowsky writing under the pseudonym of Less Wrong.
In 2006, the "popular ' bad ' fanfic '' My Immortal was posted on FanFiction.Net by user "Tara Gilesbie ''. It was deleted by the site 's administrators in 2008, but not before amassing over eight thousand negative reviews. It spawned a number of YouTube spoofs and a number of imitators created "sequels '' claiming to be the original Tara. However, in September of 2017, the author of the fanfic has come out and said that "it was all a joke '' in an interview after stating so earlier in March of the same year on Tumblr.
In 2007, a web - based novel, James Potter and the Hall of Elders ' Crossing, was written by a computer animator named George Lippert. The book was written as a supplement to fill the void after Deathly Hallows, and received eventual approval from Rowling herself.
Rowling has said, "I find it very flattering that people love the characters that much. '' She has adopted a positive position on fan fiction, unlike authors such as Anne McCaffrey or Anne Rice who discourage fans from writing about their books and have asked sites like FanFiction.Net to remove all stories of their works, requests honored by the site. However, Rowling has been "alarmed by pornographic or sexually explicit material clearly not meant for kids, '' according to Neil Blair, an attorney for her publisher. The attorneys have sent cease and desist letters to sites that host adult material.
Potter fan fiction also has a large following in the slash fiction genre, stories which feature sexual relationships that do not exist in the books (shipping), often portraying homosexual pairings. Famous pairings include Harry with Draco Malfoy or Cedric Diggory, and Remus Lupin with Sirius Black. Harry Potter slash has eroded some of the antipathy towards underage sexuality in the wider slash fandom.
Tracey "T '' Proctor, a moderator of FictionAlley.org, a Harry Potter fanfiction website, said ' I do n't really get into the children 's aspect of it, but rather the teachers, the adult characters. I read someone once who said, "If she did n't want us fantasizing about her characters, she needs to stop having these handsome men portraying them. '' And that 's the truth: It 's very hard not to look at Alan Rickman (Professor Severus Snape) and Jason Isaacs (Lucius Malfoy) and not get erotic thoughts. I have some fan fiction at Fiction Alley. You want to write stories about the characters that J.K. is not writing, about their love lives that you do n't see in the book. '
In November 2006, Jason Isaacs, who plays Lucius Malfoy in the Potter films, said that he had read fan fiction about his character and gets "a huge kick out of the more far - out stuff. ''
Prior to the publication of Deathly Hallows, much of the energy of the Potter fandom was devoted to speculation and debate about upcoming plot and character developments. To this end, clues from the earlier books and deliberate hints from J.K. Rowling (in interviews and on her website) were heavily scrutinised by fans. In particular, fan essays were published on websites such as Mugglenet (the "world famous editorials ''), the Harry Potter Lexicon and The Leaky Cauldron (Scribbulus project) among others: offering theories, comment and analysis on all aspects of the series. The Yahoo discussion list Harry Potter for Grown Ups (founded in 1999) is also noteworthy for its detailed criticism and discussion of the Harry Potter books.
Speculation intensified with the July 2005 publication of Half - Blood Prince and the detailed post-publication interview given by Rowling to Mugglenet and The Leaky Cauldron. Notably, DumbledoreIsNotDead.com sought to understand the events of the sixth book in a different way. (Rowling later confirmed, however -- on 2 August 2006 -- that Dumbledore was, in fact, dead, humorously apologising to the website as she did so.) A collection of essays, Who Killed Albus Dumbledore?: What Really Happened in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince? Six Expert Harry Potter Detectives Examine the Evidence, was published by Zossima Press in November 2006. Contributors included the Christian author John Granger and Joyce Odell of Red Hen Publications, whose own website contains numerous essays on the Potterverse and fandom itself.
In 2006, in advance of the arrival of the seventh Potter novel, five MuggleNet staff members co-authored the reference book Mugglenet. Com 's What Will Happen in Harry Potter 7: Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Falls in Love and How Will the Adventure Finally End, an anthology of unofficial fan predictions; while early in 2007, Leaky launched HarryPotterSeven.com, featuring "roundups and predictions from some of the most knowledgeable fans online '' (including Steve Vander Ark of the Lexicon). Late additions to the fan scene (prior to the publication of Deathly Hallows) included BeyondHogwarts.com (the successor to DumbledoreIsNotDead.com), which billed itself as "the only ongoing online Harry Potter fan conference '', as well as Book7.co.uk, which offered a hypothetical "evidence - based synopsis '' of the seventh novel. To this day, debate and reaction to the novels and films continues on web forums (including Mugglenet 's Chamber of Secrets community and TLC 's Leaky Lounge).
Fan conventions have been another way that the fandom has congregated. Conventions such as Prophecy, LeakyCon, Infinitus, Azkatraz, and Ascendio have maintained an academic emphasis, hosting professional keynote speakers as well as keeping the atmosphere playful and friendly. They have featured prominent members of the fandom such as Jennie Levine, owner of SugarQuill.net (Phoenix Rising, 2007); Melissa Anelli, current webmaster of The Leaky Cauldron (Phoenix Rising, 2007; Leakycon, 2009 / 2011 / 2012); Sue Upton, former Senior Editor of the Leaky Cauldron (Prophecy, 2007); Heidi Tandy, founder of Fiction Alley (Prophecy, 2007), Paul and Joe DeGeorge of the wizard rock band Harry and the Potters (along with several other more well - known Wizard Rock bands such as The Remus Lupins, The Parselmouths, Ministry of Magic, and The Whomping Willows) (see below) (Prophecy, 2007; Leakycon, 2009 / 2011 / 2012), Andrew Slack, founder of The Harry Potter Alliance, and StarKid, the cast of the fan made musicals "A Very Potter Musical '', "A Very Potter Sequel '', and "A Very Potter Senior Year ''.
Still, the conventions try to attract the fandom with other fun - filled Potter - centric activities, often more interactive, such as wizarding chess, water Quidditch, a showing of the Harry Potter films, or local cultural immersions. Live podcasts are often recorded during these events, and live Wizard Rock shows have become a fairly large part of recent conventions. Members of the Harry Potter cast have been brought in for the conferences; actors such as Evanna Lynch (Luna Lovegood) and Christopher Rankin (Percy Weasley), along with several others, have appeared to give live Q&A sessions and keynote presentations about the series.
In addition to fandom - specific programming, LeakyCon 2011 and 2012 have hosted LitDays (as well as incorporating the many fandoms Harry Potter fans have branched into since the ending of the series). LitDays are full of programming with authors, agents, and editors. A few key examples are John Green, author of the award - winning young adult novels The Fault in Our Stars and Looking For Alaska; Scott Westerfeld, author of the Uglies series and Leviathan; and David Levithan, author of Nick & Norah 's Infinite Playlist and The Lover 's Dictionary.
These conventions are now incorporating the recently opened theme park The Wizarding World of Harry Potter into their itinerary, built inside Universal 's Island of Adventure in Orlando, Florida. At the Harry Potter fan conventions Infinitus 2010, LeakyCon 2011, and Ascendio 2012, special events were held at the theme park dedicated to the series. These are after - hours events for convention attendees who purchased tickets to experience and explore the park by themselves. The event included talks given by creators of the park, free food and butterbeer, and live wizard rock shows inside the park.
In addition to conventions, Harry Potter fandom has further expanded to town festivals, including the Chestertown Harry Potter Festival, the Chestnut Hill Harry Potter Festival, Edgerton 's Harry Potter Festival, and the Spellbound Festival, among others.
The Harry Potter fandom has also led to the development of at least one religion. The religion of ' Snapeism ' was active from 2005 - 2011. The Snapists (popularly known as the Snapewives) worshipped the Severus Snape character. The Snapists were mocked by the majority of the fandom, especially the JournalFen community ' fandom_wank ', for their unorthodox belief systems. Nevertheless, recent scholarship has argued for the validity of fandom faiths.
The Snapists exist within a context of ' canon scepticism ' - the belief that Rowling is a flawed interpreter of the Harry Potter universe who misrepresents the objective reality of certain characters and plot developments. The Snapists believe that Rowling has misinterpreted Snape and disrespected him as a character. They also feel that Snape can contact them and provide them with help and guidance in life.
In the fandom the word "ship '' and its derivatives like "shipping '' or "shipper '' are commonly used as shorthand for the word "relationship. ''
The Harry Potter series generated ship debates with supporters of the prospective relationship between Harry Potter and his close female friend Hermione Granger at odds with supporters of Hermione ending up instead with Ron Weasley, close friend of both.
Quotes from Rowling which seemed to contradict the possibility of Harry ending up with Hermione were usually countered by claiming them to be deliberate obfuscations designed to lure astute observation off - course (though such claims were far from undisputed, given that these allegedly vague quotes included such phrases as "(Harry and Hermione) are very platonic friends '', and were repeated on at least three different occasions).
An interview with J.K. Rowling conducted by fansite webmasters Emerson Spartz (MuggleNet) and Melissa Anelli (The Leaky Cauldron) shortly after the book 's release turned out to be quite controversial. During the interview Spartz commented that Harry / Hermione shippers were "delusional '', to which Rowling chuckled, though making it clear that she did not share the sentiment and that the Harry / Hermione fans were "still valued members of her readership ''. This incident resulted in an uproar among Harry / Hermione shippers. Many of them complained that both sites had a Ron / Hermione bias and criticised Rowling for not including a representative of their community, as a way to avoid difficult questions. The uproar was loud enough to merit an article in the San Francisco Chronicle.
Rowling 's attitude towards the shipping phenomenon has varied between amused and bewildered to frustrated, as she revealed in that interview. She explained:
In a later posting on MuggleNet, Spartz explained:
Rowling has continued to make references, less humorous and more, to the severity of the shipper conflicts. In one instance she has joked about trying to think of ways of proving to Emerson, when inviting him for the aforementioned interview, that it was really her and not "some angry Harry / Hermione shipper trying to lure him down a dark alleyway ''; In another, she has described her impression of the Harry Potter fandom 's shipping debates as "cyber gang warfare ''.
In an interview with Rowling in February 2014 in Wonderland Magazine Rowling stated that she thought that "in some ways Harry and Hermione are a better fit (in comparison to Ron and Hermione) '' and that Hermione and Ron had "too much fundamental incompatibility. '' She stated that Hermione and Ron were written together "as a form of wish fulfillment '' as way to reconcile a relationship she herself was once in. She went on to say that perhaps with marriage counseling Ron and Hermione would have been all right. She also went on to say in a talk at Exeter University that Harry 's love for Ginny is true, thereby denying any canon relationship between Harry and Hermione.
On a less intense scale, other relationships have been doted upon in the fandom from suggestive hints or explicit statements throughout canon, such as those between Draco Malfoy and Pansy Parkinson, Harry Potter 's parents James Potter and Lily Evans, Rubeus Hagrid and Olympe Maxime, or Percy Weasley and Penelope Clearwater, or Rose Granger - Weasley and Scorpius Malfoy. A potential relationship between Neville Longbottom and Luna Lovegood was originally dispelled by Rowling, though she later retracted this and said she noticed a slight attraction between them in Deathly Hallows. Some couples, besides Harry and Ginny and Ron and Hermione, have been explicitly stated in the series: Bill Weasley and Fleur Delacour are married in Deathly Hallows after dating throughout Half - Blood Prince. In Half - Blood Prince, Nymphadora Tonks keeps her feelings for Remus Lupin to herself, but remains depressed when he refuses her advances; he feels that his being a werewolf would not create a safe relationship. Tonks professes her love for him at the end of the book, and she and Lupin have been married by the beginning of Deathly Hallows and have a son ' Teddy ' later in the book. Other couples, such as Harry and Draco or Lupin and Sirius Black, are favorites among fans who read fan fiction about them. There is also debate about Lily and Severus vs. James.
Roleplaying is a central feature of the Harry Potter fandom. There are two primary forms: internet - based roleplay and live - action roleplay, or LARP.
LARPing often involves re-enacting or creating an original Quidditch team. Match rules and style of play vary among fandom events, but they are generally kept as close as possible to the sport envisioned by Rowling. The 2006 Lumos symposium included a Quidditch tournament played in water. More common are ground - based games such as the handball style developed by USA Team Handball and featured at the MuggleNet - sponsored Spellbound event, as well as the Muggle Quidditch style played intramurally at Millikin University (at left). This version of quidditch has grown past intramural play, is far from LARPing, and has an international governing body, the IQA.
Internet - based roleplay tries to simulate the Hogwarts experience. Most sites are forum - based, emphasizing taking classes taught by staff members in order for the players to earn points for their respective houses. Some internet - based roleplay sites go more in depth into canon and storylines, and do not specifically rely on posting as the only method for gaining house points while others have expanded to include activities such as Quidditch, dueling, and board - wide plots. Hogwarts-school.net (est. 2000), for example, is a forum - based roleplaying game which allows players to take classes, engage in extracurriculars, and also has many options for adult characters in St. Mungos, the Daily Prophet, and the Ministry of Magic.
2007 saw the launch of World of Hogwarts, a completely free MMORPG Harry Potter roleplaying game in Second Life, set ten years after the Battle of Hogwarts. Here, roleplayers can create an avatar and interact with other students, attend lessons organized by other roleplayers, play Quidditch, sit for their exams, earn and lose points for their house, visit Hogsmeade, Diagon Alley and the Forbidden Forest, get a job at the Ministry of Magic, explore several secret passages within the castle, and even immerse themselves into intricate and well - composed storyline plots that have, through time, grown into the canon rules of the game.
A website created by ISO Interactive, called the Chamber of Chat is a free online interactive virtual world under a MMO format. Although not a full MMORPG format, Chamber of Chat is set up with 3D virtual chatrooms and avatars where fans can socially interact with each other in Pictionary and Harry Potter Trivial games or participate in discussion groups about Harry Potter or Film media or perform plays as a theater group to other fans as audience. They hold special community event such as Harry Potters Birthday or Halloween and have seasonal house competitions. Fans are able to create their own avatars, collect or be rewarded coins to purchase furniture items for their own "clubhouse ''. However, the website emphasizes more social interaction between fans ' avatars to stimulate the Hogwarts student experience. "Chamber of Chat is a graphical Social Virtual World with a few Facebook plug - ins. The Harry Potter Virtual World is designed for fans. This give users the feeling that they are interacting in the actual 3D world. You can hang out with other students, relax in the common room, mingle at the pub, play games like Pictionary and even download cool looking wallpapers. '' On 19 April 2007, Chamber of Chat was awarded Adobe Site of the day. Chamber of chat has also been awarded a place among the SmartFoxServer Showcase. "Chamber of Chat is an MMO community inspired to the magic worlds of the Harry Potter saga. The application is a great example of integration between Director / Shockwave (client) and SmartFoxServer PRO. ''. Chamber of Chat has been a long time associated branch of The Leaky network and although as part of the network with The Leaky Cauldron, Pottercast and "Ask Peeves '' search engine, it was ranked number two behind Indiana Jones 's TheRaider.Net out of 25 essential fansites of "The Best of the Web '' by Entertainment Weekly in December 2007.
Other sites use modified versions of phpBB that allow for a certain level of interactive roleplaying and are what is commonly referred to as "forum - based roleplaying ''. Interactive gaming can include player versus player features, a form of currency for making purchases in stores, and non-player characters such as monsters that must be fought to gain levels and experience points. However, these features are more prevalent in games that are not forum - based. Advancement in such games is usually dependent on live chat, multiplayer cooperation, and fighting as opposed to taking classes or simply posting to earn points for one 's "house ''; like at Hogwarts, players in forum - based games are sometimes sorted into a different group distinguishing different values within a person.
Some travel agencies have organised a subdivision to create tours specifically highlighting iconic landmarks in the world of Harry Potter. HP Fan Trips, offered by Beyond Boundaries Travel since 2004 in conjunction with fan site HPANA, was designed by and for fans of the series, and tours noteworthy Potter - related locations in the United Kingdom. Since 2004, they have exclusively chartered steam locomotive # 5972 Olton Hall, the locomotive used in the films as the Hogwarts Express, as well as the carriages labeled as such and seen in the movies. The travel agency Your Man in Europe began hosting Magical Tours in 2006, in conjunction with fan site MuggleNet. They offer four different tours through England and Scotland.
These tours primarily feature locations used for shooting in the films, though some trips include a Chinese restaurant in Edinburgh, which was once Nicholson 's Cafe, where Rowling wrote much of the manuscript for Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, and Edinburgh Castle, where Rowling read from the sixth book on the night of its release to an audience of children. Filming locations visited include Alnwick Castle, where some exterior locations of Hogwarts are shot, places in Fort William, Scotland; Glen Nevis, Scotland; the Glenfinnan viaduct; Christ Church Cathedral in Oxford and the Cloisters located within New College, Oxford.
Wizard rock (sometimes shorthanded as Wrock) is a musical movement dating from 2000 in Massachusetts with Harry and the Potters, though it has grown internationally and has expanded to at least 750 bands. Wrock bands mostly consist of young musicians that write and perform songs about the Harry Potter universe, and these songs are often written from the point of view of a particular character in the books, usually the character who features in the band 's name. If they are performing live, they may also cosplay, or dress as, that character.
In contrast to mainstream bands that have some songs incorporating literary references among a wider repertoire of music (notably Led Zeppelin to The Lord of the Rings), wizard rock bands take their inspiration entirely from the Harry Potter universe. In preserving the promotion of reading, too, bands like to perform in libraries, bookstores, and schools. The bands have also performed at the fan conventions.
We Are Wizards is a feature - length documentary by Josh Koury about the Harry Potter fandom. It features Wizard rock bands Harry and the Potters, Draco and the Malfoys, The Hungarian Horntails, and The Whomping Willows. The film also features Heather Lawver, Melissa Anelli, and Brad Neely. We Are Wizards had its World Premiere at the SXSW film festival in 2008, then traveled to 20 film festivals worldwide. The film opened theatrically in 5 cities on 14 November 2008. The film can be seen on Hulu.com, and DVD.
The Fandom Fan Diaries: Wizard 's Gone W! ld is a documentary web series that is based on fandom submissions. The producers Miranda Marshall and Amy Henderson starting accepting video submissions in early March 2009 and plan to accept them through 2013. WiZarDs Gone W! LD is affiliated with The Fan Book of HP Fans, yet another fandom project based on submissions that has recently extended its submission deadline date.
The Wizard Rockumentary: A Movie about Rocking and Rowling is a feature documentary chronicling the rise of Harry Potter tribute bands. Producers Megan and Mallory Schuyler travelled around the United States compiling interviews and concert footage of bands including Harry and the Potters, Draco and the Malfoys, The Remus Lupins, The Whomping Willow, The Moaning Myrtles, Roonil Wazlib, Snidget, and The Hermione Crookshanks Experience. The film was released in April 2008 and has screened in libraries around the country. The producers are currently negotiating broadcast and home video rights.
Project Patronus: magic of a generation (Proyecto Patronus: la magia de una generación) is a Spanish documentary based on the Harry Potter saga. It covers the franchise 's influence on a generation of young people, and deals with the multiple values, such as friendship, love, courage and respect, which are reflected in the books. Numerous professionals in psychology and pedagogy who have studied the significance of the saga appear. The film was released in 2016 and has screened in film festivals around Spain.
The series has come with its share of criticism as well. Allegations of witchcraft and the Occult found in the text, and legal disputes, one doctor coined the term "Hogwarts headache '' in a letter to the New England Journal of Medicine shortly after the release of Order of the Phoenix, the longest book in the series, at 766 pages in the UK edition, 870 pages in the US edition, and over 250,000 words. He described it as a mild condition, a tension headache possibly accompanied by neck or wrist pains, caused by unhealthily long reading sessions of Harry Potter. The "symptoms '' resolve themselves within days of finishing the book. His prescription of taking reading breaks was rejected by two of the patients on which he discovered this headache. Researchers in Oxford found that the admission rate of children with traumatic injuries to the city 's ERs plummeted on the publication weekends of both Order of the Phoenix and Half - Blood Prince.
Waters, G. Mithrandir, A. (2003). Ultimate Unofficial Guide to the Mysteries of Harry Potter (analysis of Books 1 - 4). Niles, IL: Wizarding World Press.
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who is india's longest serving chief minister | Pawan Kumar Chamling - wikipedia
4 Sons 4 Daughters
Pawan Kumar Chamling (born 22 September 1950) is a Sikkimese politician and the fifth and incumbent Chief minister of the Indian state of Sikkim. Chamling is the founder president of the Sikkim Democratic Front, which has governed the state for five successive terms since 1994.
Chamling is the longest standing current Chief minister of any state in India after India 's independence. Prior to establishing the Sikkim Democratic Front, Chamling served as Minister for Industries, Information and Public Relations from 1989 to 1992 in the Nar Bahadur Bhandari cabinet.
Chamling was born in Yangang, South Sikkim to Ashbahadur Chamling and Asharani Chamling. Chamling is also a Nepali language writer and recipient of the Bhanu Puraskar (2010) awarded by Sikkim Sahitya Parishad. He writes under the pen name Pawan Chamling Kiran. Mr. Chamling has 8 children, 4 sons and 4 daughters.
Chamling was elected as the president of Yangang Gram Panchayat in 1982. In 1985, he was elected to the Sikkim Legislative Assembly for the first time. After being elected for the second time from Damthang, he became the Minister for Industries, Information and Public Relations from 1989 to 1992 in the Nar Bahadur Bhandari cabinet. After a series of major political upheavals in Sikkim, Chamling formed the Sikkim Democratic Front on 4 March 1993.
Chamling is the second chief minister in India after Jyoti Basu, of West Bengal to govern a state five terms in a row, with his party Sikkim Democratic Front winning the 1994, 1999, 2004, 2009 and 2014 Sikkim Legislative Assembly elections. His party first came to power in Sikkim after winning the 1994 assembly elections. His popularity kept soaring in Sikkim due to his developmental work and for maintaining peace. In 2009, his party Sikkim Democratic Front won all 32 assembly seats in Sikkim Legislative Assembly.
Following win in 2014 assembly election, he was sworn in as the Chief Minister of Sikkim for the fifth consecutive time on May 21, 2014 by Shriniwas Dadasaheb Patil, the Governor of Sikkim. He became the chief minister for a fifth time, a record previously held by Jyoti Basu who ruled West Bengal from 1977 to 2000.
His party SDF won 22 out of 32 assembly seats in the 2014 legislative assembly election. 18 months after the 2014 elections, on November 30, 2015, 7 out of 10 opposition MLAs joined the SDF party under the leadership of Pawan Chamling. Now the ruling front has 28 out of 32 assembly seats in the state.
On 18 January 2016 Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi made a two - day visit to the state to declare Sikkim as the first and the only "organic state '' in the country, as it has fully implemented organic farming statewide.
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services for citizens of the embassy's country | Diplomatic mission - wikipedia
A diplomatic mission or foreign mission is a group of people from one state or an organisation present in another state to represent the sending state / organisation officially in the receiving state. In practice, a diplomatic mission usually denotes the resident mission, namely the embassy, which is the office of a country 's diplomatic representatives in the capital city of another country, whereas consulates are diplomatic missions which are not performed in the capital of the receiving state. As well as being a diplomatic mission to the country in which it is situated, it may also be a non-resident permanent mission to one or more other countries. There are thus resident and non-resident embassies.
A permanent diplomatic mission is typically known as an embassy, and the head of the mission is known as an ambassador, or high commissioner. The term "embassy '' is commonly used also as a section of a building in which the work of the diplomatic mission is carried out, but, strictly speaking, it is the diplomatic delegation itself that is the embassy, while the office space and the diplomatic work done is called the Chancery. Therefore, the Embassy operates in the Chancery.
The members of a diplomatic mission can reside within or outside the building that holds the mission 's chancery, and their private residences enjoy the same rights as the premises of the mission as regards inviolability and protection.
All missions to the United Nations are known simply as permanent missions, while EU Member States ' missions to the European Union are known as permanent representations and the head of such a mission is typically both a permanent representative and an ambassador. European Union missions abroad are known as EU delegations. Some countries have more particular naming for their missions and staff: a Vatican mission is headed by a nuncio (Latin "envoy '') and consequently known as an apostolic nunciature. Under the rule of Muammar Gaddafi, Libya 's missions used the name "people 's bureau '' and the head of the mission was a secretary.
Missions between Commonwealth countries are known as high commissions and their heads are high commissioners. This is because ambassadors are exchanged between foreign countries, but since the beginning of the Commonwealth, member countries have nominally maintained that they are not foreign to one another (the same reason as the naming of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office). An ambassador represents one head of state to another and an ambassador 's letters of credence are addressed by one head of state to another. Until India became a republic on 26 January 1950, all members of the Commonwealth had the same head of state, making the appointment of ambassadors between them impossible. The senior representative of a Commonwealth country to another was therefore called a high commissioner, accredited not to the head of state but to the government of the receiving country, but at the same time considered the equivalent of an ambassador. Still today, even if two Commonwealth countries have distinct heads of state (Presidents), each one 's senior diplomatic representative to the other continues to be called a high commissioner, whether he or she represents a sending government or a sending head of state.
In the past a diplomatic mission headed by a lower - ranking official (an envoy or minister resident) was known as a legation. Since the ranks of envoy and minister resident are effectively obsolete, the designation of legation is no longer used today. (See diplomatic rank.)
A consulate is similar to, but not the same as a diplomatic office, but with focus on dealing with individual persons and businesses, as defined by the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations. A consulate or consulate general is generally a representative of the embassy in locales outside of the capital city. For instance, the United Kingdom has its Embassy of the United Kingdom in Washington, D.C., but also maintains seven consulates - general and four consulates elsewhere in the US. The person in charge of a consulate or consulate - general is known as a consul or consul - general, respectively. Similar services may also be provided at the embassy (to serve the region of the capital) in what is normally called a consular section.
In cases of dispute, it is common for a country to recall its head of mission as a sign of its displeasure. This is less drastic than cutting diplomatic relations completely, and the mission will still continue operating more or less normally, but it will now be headed by a chargé d'affaires (usually the deputy chief of mission) who may have limited powers. A chargé d'affaires ad interim also heads the mission during the interim between the end of one chief of mission 's term and the beginning of another.
Contrary to popular belief, most diplomatic missions do not enjoy full extraterritorial status and in those cases are not sovereign territory of the represented state. Rather, the premises of diplomatic missions usually remain under the jurisdiction of the host state while being afforded special privileges (such as immunity from most local laws) by the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. Diplomats themselves still retain full diplomatic immunity, and (as an adherent to the Vienna Convention) the host country may not enter the premises of the mission without permission of the represented country, even to put out a fire. International rules designate an attack on an embassy as an attack on the country it represents. The term "extraterritoriality '' is often applied to diplomatic missions, but normally only in this broader sense.
As the host country may not enter the representing country 's embassy without permission, embassies are sometimes used by refugees escaping from either the host country or a third country. For example, North Korean nationals, who would be arrested and deported from China upon discovery, have sought sanctuary at various third - country embassies in China. Once inside the embassy, diplomatic channels can be used to solve the issue and send the refugees to another country. See the List of people who took refuge in a diplomatic mission for a list of some notable cases.
Notable violations of embassy extraterritoriality include repeated invasions of the British Embassy, Beijing (1967), the Iran hostage crisis (1979 -- 1981), and the Japanese embassy hostage crisis at the ambassador 's residence in Lima, Peru (1996).
The Vienna Convention states:
The functions of a diplomatic mission consist, inter alia, in representing the sending State in the receiving State; protecting in the receiving State the interests of the sending State and of its nationals, within the limits permitted by international law; negotiating with the Government of the receiving State; ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving State, and reporting thereon to the Government of the sending State; promoting friendly relations between the sending State and the receiving State, and developing their economic, cultural and scientific relations.
Between members of the Commonwealth of Nations their diplomatic missions are not called Embassies, but High Commissions, as Commonwealth nations share a special diplomatic relationship. It is generally expected that an embassy of a Commonwealth country in a non-Commonwealth country will do its best to provide diplomatic services to citizens from other Commonwealth countries if the citizen 's country does not have an embassy in that country. Canadian and Australian nationals enjoy even greater cooperation between their respective consular services, as outlined in Canada - Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement. The same kind of procedure is also followed multilaterally by the member states of the European Union (EU). European citizens in need of consular help in a country without diplomatic or consular representation of their own country may turn to any consular or diplomatic mission of another EU member state.
The rights and immunities (such as diplomatic immunity) of diplomatic missions are codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.
Some cities may host more than one mission from the same country. An example is Rome, where many states maintain missions to Italy and another to the Holy See. It is not customary for these missions to share premises nor diplomatic personnel. At present, only the Iraqi missions to Italy and the Holy See share premises; however, two ambassadors are appointed, one to each country. In the case of the UN 's Food Agencies, the Head of Mission to the Italian Republic is usually accredited as Permanent Representative. The United States maintains a separate United States Mission to the UN Agencies in Rome whose head is the United States Ambassador to the United Nations Agencies for Food and Agriculture.
Governments of states not recognized by the receiving state and of territories that make no claim to be sovereign states may set up offices abroad that do not have official diplomatic status as defined by the Vienna Convention. Examples are the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Offices that represent the government of the Republic of China, Somaliland 's Representative Offices in London, Addis Ababa, Rome, and Washington, D.C. and the Hong Kong Economic and Trade Offices that represent the government of that territory. Such offices assume some of the non-diplomatic functions of diplomatic posts, such as promoting trade interests and providing assistance to its citizens and residents. They are nevertheless not diplomatic missions, their personnel are not diplomats and do not have diplomatic visas, although there may be legislation providing for personal immunities and tax privileges, as in the case of the Hong Kong offices in London and Toronto, for example.
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india's position in global peace index 2018 | Global Peace Index - wikipedia
Global Peace Index (GPI) measures the relative position of nations ' and regions ' peacefulness. The GPI ranks 163 independent states and territories according to their levels of peacefulness.
The GPI is a report produced by the Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP) and developed in consultation with an international panel of peace experts from peace institutes and think tanks with data collected and collated by the Economist Intelligence Unit. The Index was first launched in May 2007, with subsequent reports being released annually. It is claimed to be the first study to rank countries around the world according to their peacefulness. In 2017 it ranked 163 countries, up from 121 in 2007. In the past decade, the GPI has presented trends of increased global violence and less peacefulness. The study is the brainchild of Australian technology entrepreneur Steve Killelea, founder of Integrated Research, and is endorsed by individuals such as former UN Secretary - General Kofi Annan, the Dalai Lama, archbishop Desmond Tutu, former President of Finland and 2008 Nobel Peace Prize laureate Martti Ahtisaari, Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus, economist Jeffrey Sachs, former president of Ireland Mary Robinson, former Deputy Secretary - General of the United Nations Jan Eliasson and former United States president Jimmy Carter. The updated index is released each year at events in London, Washington, DC; and at the United Nations Secretariat in New York between many others.
The GPI gauges global peace using three broad themes: the level of societal safety and security, the extent of ongoing domestic and international conflict and the degree of militarization. Factors are both internal such as levels of violence and crime within the country and external such as military expenditure and wars. It has been criticised by Riane Eisler for not including indicators specifically relating to violence against women and children, however reliable international data on these subjects is either unavailable or very sparsely reported in many countries.
The 2017 GPI indicates Iceland, New Zealand, Portugal, Austria, and Denmark to be the most peaceful countries and Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, South Sudan, and Yemen to be the least peaceful. Long - term findings of the 2017 GPI include a less peaceful world over the past decade, a 2.14 per cent deterioration in the global level of peace in the past decade, growing inequality in peace between the most and least peaceful countries, a long - term reduction in the GPI Militarization domain, and a widening impact of terrorism, with historically high numbers of people killed in terrorist incidents over the past 5 years.
The expert panel for the 2016 and 2017 GPI consisted of:
In assessing peacefulness, the GPI investigates the extent to which countries are involved in ongoing domestic and international conflicts. It also seeks to evaluate the level of harmony or discord within a nation; ten indicators broadly assess what might be described as a safety and security in society. The assertion is that low crime rates, minimal incidences of terrorist acts and violent demonstrations, harmonious relations with neighboring countries, a stable political scene and a small proportion of the population being internally displaced or refugees can be suggestive of peacefulness.
In 2017, 23 indicators were used to establish each country 's peacefulness score. The indicators were originally selected with the assistance of an expert panel in 2007 and are reviewed by the expert panel on an annual basis. The scores for each indicator are normalized on a scale of 1 - 5, whereby qualitative indicators are banded into five groupings and quantitative ones are scored from 1 - 5, to the third decimal point. A table of the indicators is below. In the table, UCDP stands for the Uppsala Conflict Data Program maintained by the University of Uppsala in Sweden, EIU for The Economist Intelligence Unit, UNSCT for the United Nations Survey of Criminal Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems, ICPS is the International Center for Prison Studies at King 's College London, IISS for the International Institute for Strategic Studies publication The Military Balance, and SIPRI for the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute Arms Transfers Database.
Indicators not already ranked on a 1 to 5 scale were converted by using the following formula: x = (x-Min (x)) / (Max (x) - Min (x)) where Max (x) and Min (x) are the highest and lowest values for that indicator of the countries ranked in the index. The 0 to 1 scores that resulted were then converted to the 1 to 5 scale. Individual indicators were then weighted according to the expert panel 's judgment of their importance. The scores were then tabulated into two weighted sub-indices: internal peace, weighted at 60 % of a country 's final score, and external peace, weighted at 40 % of a country 's final score. ' Negative Peace ' which is defined as the absence of violence, or fear of violence is used as the definition of peace to create the Global Peace Index. An additional aim of the GPI database is to facilitate deeper study of the concept of positive peace, or those attitudes, institutions, and structures that drive peacefulness in society. The GPI also examines relationships between peace and reliable international measures, including democracy and transparency, education and material well - being. As such, it seeks to understand the relative importance of a range of potential determinants, or "drivers '', which may influence the nurturing of peaceful societies, both internally and externally.
The main findings of the 2017 Global Peace Index are:
Statistical analysis is applied to GPI data to uncover specific conditions conducive of peace. Researchers have determined that Positive Peace, which includes the attitudes, institutions, and structures that pre-empt conflict and facilitate functional societies, is the main driver of peace. The eight pillars of positive peace are well - functioning government, sound business environment, acceptance of the rights of others, good relations with neighbors, free flow of information, high levels of human capital, low levels of corruption, and equitable distribution of resources. Well - functioning government, low levels of corruption, acceptance of the rights of others and good relations with neighbours are more important in countries suffering from high levels of violence. Free flow of information and sound business environment become more important when a country is approaching the global average level of peacefulness, also described as the Mid-Peace level. Low levels of corruption is the only Pillar that is strongly significant across all three levels of peacefulness. This suggests it is an important transformational factor at all stages of nations ' development.
The Index has received endorsements as a political project from a number of major international figures, including the former Secretary - General of the United Nations Kofi Annan, former President of Finland and 2008 Nobel Peace Prize laureate Martti Ahtisaari, the Dalai Lama, archbishop Desmond Tutu, Muhammad Yunus, and former United States President Jimmy Carter Steve Killelea A.M., the Australian philanthropist who conceived the idea of the Index, argues that the Index "is a wake - up call for leaders around the globe.
The Index has been widely recognized. Professor Jeffrey Sachs, Director of the Earth Institute at Columbia University said: "The GPI continues its pioneering work in drawing the world 's attention to the massive resources we are squandering in violence and conflict. The lives and money wasted in wars, incarcerations, weapons systems, weapons trade, and more, could be directed to ending poverty, promoting education, and protecting the environment. The GPI will not only draw attention to these crucial issues, but help us understand them and to invest productively in a more peaceful world. ''
Marla Mossman of the Peace Alliance Leadership Council said she believes that the measurements of the Global Peace Index can be useful for crafting government policy, helping governments to identify problems and develop practical and relevant policies. Furthermore, she said that she saw the Index indicators as, "the measurements of the health of the nation. So we really can take the temperature of the world: are we healthy? Do we have a fever? ''
Following the release of the 2015 GPI, Professor Sir Lawrence Freedman of King 's College in London called the Index, "an extraordinarily useful body of information, '' and its analysis "the best indicator of future conflict is past conflict. The challenge is how we break that cycle. ''
The Economist, in publishing the first edition of the index in 2007, admitted that, "the index will run into some flak. '' Specifically, according to The Economist, the weighting of military expenditure "may seem to give heart to freeloaders: countries that enjoy peace precisely because others (often the USA) care for their defense. '' The true utility of the index may lie not in its specific rankings of countries now, but in how those rankings change over time, thus tracking when and how countries become more or less peaceful.
In 2012, the Economist suggested that "quantifying peace is a bit like trying to describe how happiness smells. '' The publication admitted that the GPI has produced some "surprising results '' and argued that "part of the appeal of the index is that readers can examine each of the variables in turn and think about how much weight to add to each. ''
The Australian National University says that the GPI report "presents the latest and most comprehensive global data on trends in peace, violence and war '' and "provides the world 's best analysis of the statistical factors associated with long - term peace as well as economic analysis on the macroeconomic impacts of everyday violence and war on the global economy. ''
The GPI has been criticised for not including indicators specifically relating to violence against women and children. Back in 2007, Riane Eisler, writing in the Christian Science Monitor, argued that, "to put it mildly, this blind spot makes the index very inaccurate. She mentions a number of specific cases, including Egypt, where she claims 90 % of women are subject to genital mutilation, and China, where, she says, "female infanticide is still a problem, '' according to a 2000 UNICEF study.
Senior Analyst at the Institute for Near East and Gulf Military Analysis, Sabhat Khan, argued that the Index should "involve more context on security environments. '' Referring to the UAE 's GPI ranking in particular, Khan argued that "the measurement usually used by such rankings is crude data without contextualising them; '' for example, the UAE must bolster its security apparatus to respond to turbulence in neighbouring countries such as Iraq, Syria, and Yemen, which all rank at the very bottom of the GPI.
During a Peace Forum in August 2017, Honduran President Juan Orlando Hernandez said that "receiving such high praise from an institute that once named this country the most violent in the world is extremely significant... My administration will keep fighting to protect all Honduran citizens. '' The President has recently launched an initiative to build a series of safe parks across Honduras and hopes to see further improvement reflected in future GPI rankings.
Malaysia ranked 29th in the 2017 GPI. The country 's Communications and Multimedia Minister, Datuk Seri Salleh Said Keruak said that this ranking along with Malaysia 's high place in the 2017 World Happiness Report was proof that the "government 's efforts have made Malaysia a safe and prosperous country. '' He also admitted, "there 's still much room for improvement to make Malaysia the best among the better countries and that 's what we 're doing now. ''
After the release of the 2016 GPI, the Botswanan Office of the President released a proud statement, "in this year 's Index, Botswana was ranked as 28 out of 163 countries, up 3 places from last year. This continues to place Botswana above over half of the European region countries surveyed as well as all five of the Permanent Members of the United Nations Security Council... in addition Botswana was one of only five countries, to achieve a perfect score in the domestic and international conflict domain. ''
Navid Hanif, Director of the United Nations Office for ECOSOC Support and Coordination said, "it 's intuitive that peace is useful and peacefullness is a reward in itself, but the IEP is trying to make the conclusion more evidence - based. Now that the index covers 99 % of the population, it has come a long way. The report systemically measures peacefulness and identifies the determinants of peace. ''
Reacting to the 2017 results of the GPI, which ranked the Philippines 138 out of 163 countries, mainly because of poor scores in societal safety and security due to President Duterte 's war on drugs, Philippine Presidential spokesman Ernesto Abella countered, "We 're not entirely sure where the GPI, Global Peace Index analyst... who apparently is supposed to be a local, is really coming from. Maybe there 's a political slant somewhere... based on survey results, the net satisfaction of Filipino people is quite high. ''
Sierra Leone ranked 39th in the 2017 Global Peace Index. Former Chief of Staff and Office of National Security (ONS) advisor, Dr. Jonathan PJ Sandy, "Welcomed the 2017 Global Peace Index report released recently which ranked Sierra Leone in first position, as the most peaceful country in West Africa and third in the African continent... He observed that going by the report itself, (future) elections might be successfully held. '' Presidential Spokesman, Abdulai Bayraytay "said the favourable Global Peace rating of Sierra Leone would serve as an impetus for the country to do more. ''
The Independent: Global Peace Index: US Facing New Era of Instability as Middle East Sinks Further into Turmoil: "An annual global peace index has concluded that US political turmoil had pushed North America into deep instability in 2016 while the Middle East sank deeper into turmoil. Despite depicting tumult across continents, the 2017 Global Peace Index said the world had overall become more peaceful in the past year when measured against a range of indicators. ''
BBC: Global Peace Index 2017: World 0.28 % more peaceful than last year: "Levels of peace around the world have improved slightly for the first time since the Syrian war began, but harmony has decreased in the US and terrorism records have increased, a Sydney - based think - tank has found. ''
Forbes: "The Global Peace Index, which the Institute compiles annually, paints a sombre picture: The world has become even less peaceful in 2016, continuing a decade - long trend of increased violence and strife. Published every year since 2008, the Index ranks 163 independent states and territories by their level of peacefulness. ''
Forbes: The World 's Most and Least Peaceful Countries (Infographic): "The 2017 Global Peace Index has found that the world has become a slightly safer place over the past year. However, the political fallout and deep rooted division brought on by the US presidential election campaign has led to a deterioration of peace levels in North America. ''
The Guardian: Fraught White House Campaign Blamed as US Bucks Global Trend Towards Peace: "The divisive nature of Donald Trump 's rise to the White House has increased mistrust of the US government and means social problems are likely to become more entrenched, said the authors of the annual Global Peace Index, in which 163 countries and territories are analysed. ''
HuffingtonPost: Global Peace Index 2017: Donald Trump Fallout Causes North America To Plummet Down Ranking: "While the world became a safer place to live overall, the 2017 Global Peace Index found disruption caused by the perception of corruption and attacks on media in the US led to its deterioration. ''
The Washington Times: U.S. Ranked the 114th Most Peaceful Nation on Earth says Annual Global Ranking: "The index is produced by the Australia - based Institute for Economics and Peace, which figures that the impact of strife worldwide is $14.3 trillion. News is not all bad, though. In a nutshell, the index found that 93 nations became ' more peaceful ' in the last year, 68 were ' less peaceful. ' ''
Business Insider: The 12 Safest Countries in the World: "The think tank Institute for Economics and Peace recently published the Global Peace Index 2017, which reveals the safest -- as well as the most dangerous -- countries in the world. The report ranked 163 countries based on how peaceful they are. The rankings were determined by 23 factors, which included homicide rate, political terror, and deaths from internal conflict. ''
Sputnik International: Terrorism, Conflicts Cost Over $14 Trillion to Global Economy: "According to the latest estimation by the Global Peace Index that annually analyses the costs of security of living in countries and regions, worldwide terrorism is at an all - time high. ''
Indian news websites, ZeeNews, HindustanTimes, and Jagran Josh: The three Indian news agencies described the GPI 's ranking system, global peace trends, highlights from that year 's GPI and India 's own placement in the GPI. The Hindustan Times quoted the GPI and emphasized that "violence impacted India 's economy by USD 679.80 billion in 2016, 9 % of India 's GDP, or USD 525 per person ''.,,
Philstar, Filipino newspaper: "Among all the 163 countries, the Philippines is ranked 138. For perspective, India is ranked just one notch above, at 137. Despite this low ranking, however, it has remained relatively stable in this low rank over time a long time. Though the raw score has worsened over the previous year, the country 's rank has not been far off from this rank in previous years... Though the point of view of the report deserves respect concerning societal safety, another side of the story needs more hearing internationally. ''
World Economic Forum: These are the Most Peaceful Countries in the World: "The Global Peace Index ranks 163 countries according to their domestic and international conflicts, safety and security and degree of militarization. It found 93 had improved, while 68 had deteriorated, and overall peace levels had inched up 0.28 %. ''
The International Journal of Press / Politics: "Social Media and the Arab Spring: Politics comes first '': This article utilized the findings of the 2010 GPI to construct a human rights index, which was used in their overall study on the use of social media in political uprisings, and in the Arab Spring context in particular.
Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development: "Security Challenges in Nigeria and the Implications for Business Activities and Sustainable Development '': The study utilizes GPI scores from 2009 - 2012 to examine implications for Nigeria 's business environment and overall progress in national security.
Contemporary Security Policy: "Failed states and international order: constructing a post-Westphalian world '': The Global Peace Index, along with four other global indices, is used in this study 's ranking of ' state failure '. "Although this index focuses primarily on trends of armed conflict and violence it is relevant to state weakness and failure as the indicators measured for the assessment of ' peace ' in this context are also indicative of state capacity. ''
Biological Reviews: "Does Infectious Disease cause Global Variation in the Frequency of Intrastate Armed Conflict and Civil War? '': This study used the 2008 Global Peace Index to build what they call a ' path analysis, ' in which they sought to uncover "whether infectious disease causes the emergence of a collectivist culture. ''
Political Research Quarterly: "Measuring the Rule of Law '': This article attempts to measure the rule of law, and in doing so "correlated the rule of law indices with a measure of violent crime (for 2007) included in the Global Peace Index. ''
Applied Energy: "The Analysis of Security Cost for Different Energy Sources '': This study utilized the Global Peace Index in calculating a disruption probability from geopolitical instability, with the overall aim of analysing security costs for different sources of energy.
International Political Science Review: "Measuring Effective Democracy: A Defence '': In the construction of an effective democracy index (EDI), the authors built a table that includes 2008 GPI scores as a dependent variable in a regression analysis of economic development and various indices of democracy.
Institute for Security Studies: "African Futures 2050 - The Next Forty Years '': The African human security research institution utilized the findings of the Global Peace Index of 2010 to emphasize trends in drug crime and violence on the African continent.
Nature Communications: "Global Priorities for an Effective Information Basis of Biodiversity Distributions '': In their article about insufficient digital accessible information about ecosystems and biodiversity, the authors utilized the GPI to model the "effects of secure conditions '' based on the index as a measure of political stability, armed conflict, and public safety levels.
Nordic Journal of Religion and Society: "Why are Danes and Swedes so Irreligious '': This article uses the Global Peace Index, and its very high rankings of Denmark (3rd in 2008) and Sweden (13th in 2008) to support claims that the countries ' lack of religiosity can be linked to prosperous societal structures.
Food Security: "Tracking phosphorus security: indicators of phosphorus vulnerability in the global food system '': Along with eleven other indicators, the GPI was used as a measure of political instability for the development of a utilized in the development of a phosphorus vulnerability analysis, aimed at formulating food production methods and government policy.
World Politics: "The System Worked: Global Economic Governance During the Great Recession '': Drezner uses GPI measurements, particularly the fact that interstate violence and military expenditures have decreased in the years studied, to bolster an argument suggesting that the Great Recession has not led to an increase in global violence and conflict.
Journal of Sustainable Development Studies: "Insecurity and Socio - economic Development in Nigeria '': This sustainable development study utilized the GPI, in conjunction with the Human Development Index and the Corruption Perception Index to track fluctuations in Nigeria 's socio - economic climate and insecurity issues over the past decade.
Harvard Educational Review: "Peace Education in a Violent Culture '': In criticizing the United States ' culture of violence, the author refers to the developed country 's remarkably low ranking on the Global Peace Index as evidence of violence 's impact on societal peacefulness.
International Security: "The Heart of the Matter: The Security of Women and the Security of States '': In this piece, the authors use the Global Peace Index as one of three measures of state security; the GPI is specifically used as a "general measure of state peacefulness. '' The report concludes that higher levels of women 's physical security correlates positively with the GPI.
The Equal Rights Review: "The Mental Health Gap in South Africa: A Human Rights Issue '': South Africa 's poor GPI ranking, among other measures is cited by the authors as part of their overall argument that the national government is not implementing promises made towards the achievement of equality, as signatories of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD).
Environment, Development and Sustainability: "Creating a ' Values ' Chain for Sustainable Development in Developing Nations: Where Maslow meets Porter '': This study uses the ' safety and security ' measures of the GPI, including political instability, level of violent crime, and likelihood of violent demonstrations, for supporting an argument that renders societal safety and security necessary for sustainable development.
Nations considered more peaceful have lower index scores. In 2013 researchers at the Institute for Economics and Peace harmonized the Global Peace Index database to ensure that the scores were comparable over time. The GPI Expert Panel decided that the Index would include nations and territories, but not micro-states. Countries covered by the GPI must either have a population of more than 1 million or a land area greater than 20,000 square kilometers.
Note: The GPI 's methodology is updated regularly and is improved to reflect the most up - to - date datasets. Each year 's GPI report includes a detailed description of the methodology used.
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history of the catholic church in south africa | Catholic Church in South Africa - Wikipedia
The Catholic Church in South Africa is part of the worldwide Catholic Church composed of the Roman Rite and 22 Eastern Rites, of which the South African church is under the spiritual leadership of the Southern African Catholic Bishops Conference and the Pope in Rome. It is made up of 26 dioceses and archdioceses plus an apostolic vicariate.
In 1996, there were approximately 3.3 million Catholics in South Africa, making up 6 % of the total South African population. Currently, there are 3.8 million Catholics. 2.7 million are of various black African ethnic groups, such as Zulu, Xhosa, and Sotho. Coloured and white South Africans each account for roughly 300,000. Most white Catholics are English speaking, and the majority are descended from Irish immigrants. Many others are Portuguese settlers who left Angola and Mozambique after they became independent in the 1970s, or their children. The proportion of Catholics among the predominantly Calvinist white Afrikaans speakers, or South African Asians who are mainly Hindus or Protestant of Indian descent, is extremely small.
The Catholic Church in South Africa consists of five Archdioceses (Bloemfontein, Cape Town, Durban, Johannesberg, and Pretoria), 22 Dioceses, 2 Vicariates Apostolic and a Military Ordinariate. The five Ecclesiastical provinces are --
The Southern African Catholic Bishops Conference is a collegial body approved by the Holy See and has as its particular aim:
to provide the bishops of the territories mentioned above with facilities for consultation and united action in such matters of common interest to the Church as consultation and co-operation with other hierarchies; the fostering of priestly and religious vocations; the doctrinal, apostolic and pastoral formation of the clergy, religious and laity; the promotion of missionary activity, catechetics, liturgy, lay apostolate, ecumenism, development, justice and reconciliation, social welfare, schools, hospitals, the apostolate of the press, radio, television, and other means of social communication; and any other necessary activity.
The Apostolic Nuncio to South Africa is Archbishop Peter Bryan Wells appointed to the post on 9 February 2016. He was also the Apostolic Nuncio to Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Namibia.
Denis Hurley, Archbishop of Durban and a member of the Central Preparatory Committee of Vatican II, stands perhaps as the most eminent Catholic cleric in South African history. He was appointed bishop at the age of 31 and was a leader in opposing the apartheid regime. Like him, many senior officials within the Catholic Church in South Africa opposed apartheid, but a group of conservative white Catholics formed the South African Catholic Defence League to condemn the church 's political involvement and, in particular, to denounce school integration.
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when do you need to pay tax south africa | Taxation in South Africa - Wikipedia
Projected constituents of South African taxation receipts for the tax year 2012 -- 2013.
Taxation in South Africa may involve payments to a minimum of two different levels of government: central government through the South African Revenue Service (SARS) or to local government. Central government revenues come primarily from income tax, value added tax (VAT), corporation tax and fuel duty. Local government revenues come primarily from grants from central government funds and municipal rates. In the 2012 / 2013 fiscal year SARS collected R 813.8 billion (equivalent to US $ 73.1 billion) in tax revenue, a figure R71. 2 billion (or 9.6 %) more than that from the previous fiscal year. In 2012 / 13 financial year South Africa had a tax - to - GDP ratio of 25.3 % reflecing a marginal increase from 25 % in 2011 / 12.
Of the R813. 8 billion collected by SARS in 2012 / 2013, R459. 6 billion (56 %) came from direct taxes and R353. 3 billion (43 %) from indirect taxes.
The cost of collecting tax revenue has remained somewhat constant; decreasing slightly from 1.11 % of total revenue in 2011 / 12 to 1.07 % in 2012 / 13.
In the 2010 / 11 financial year SARS collected a total of R674. 2 bn.
Three provinces, Gauteng, the Western Cape, and KwaZulu - Natal was the source of 78 % of total tax assessed in 2013.
Direct taxes are taxes which are imposed on individuals, trusts, deceased estates, companies and close corporations; all of whom are otherwise known as persons.
South Africa has a progressive income taxation system which is based on the premise that the wealthy should contribute a greater proportion towards supporting the State than the poor. This means that the more a person earns the higher percentage tax they pay. By law all employers have to register all employees as taxpayers regardless of their tax liability. In terms of individual income tax South Africans pay the 31st highest average income tax rate in the world.
Income tax in South Africa was first introduced in 1914 with the introduction of the Income Tax Act No 28, an act that had its origins in the New South Wales Act of 1895. The act has gone through numerous amendments with the act presently in force is the Income Tax Act No 58 of 1962 which contains provisions for four different types of income tax. These four types of tax are:
Normal tax in South Africa is a levy imposed on all persons in the form of an annual tax that is calculated by applying predetermined rates to a person 's taxable income. This type of income tax can be divided into individual income tax and company income tax.
Individual income tax (otherwise known as Personal income tax) rates in South Africa range from 18 % (for income below R188, 000 p.a) to 41 % (for amounts over R701, 300), although the tax threshold of R75, 000 (for persons below age 65) means that anyone earning less than this amount pays no income tax. Individuals earning less than R75, 000 (2016) a year do not need to declare their income and do not need to submit an income tax return so long as their remuneration is from a single employer, their remuneration is for the full tax year and no allowance was paid, from which PAYE was not deducted in full with regards to travel allowance.
In 2012 / 13 there were a total of 13.7 million registered individual taxpayers. There were a total of 5.1 million assessed taxpayers in 2012 / 13 with total taxable income of R1 trillion, of that they were liable to pay R206. 7 billion. 40.1 % of assessed taxpayers were registered in Gauteng Province and 27.3 % of them employed in finance, insurance, real estate, or the business service sector. 27.5 % of them were aged 35 to 44 and 5.7 % or 289,476 declared a business income.
The 2012 tax year saw an increase in the threshold for the top Personal Income Tax bracket to R580, 000. Other increases in tax thresholds include:
In 2009 there were 3.5 million assessed taxpayers with a total taxable income of R632. 6 billion, of that they were liable to pay R154. 1 billion. Of them 28.8 % were between 35 and 44 years old and 56.7 % were male, 3.9 % (136,124) of them had business income. Over 60 % of taxable income came from salaries, wages and remuneration. Travel allowances were the largest allowance claim, the largest fringe benefit was medical aid paid on behalf of employees and contributions to retirement funds were the largest tax deductions. Although the number of tax payers has increased most taxpayers fall below the R63, 556 (2013) taxable income threshold and so are not required to submit an income tax return and are therefore not included in the 3.5 million assessed taxpayers.
In 2015 / 16 financial year out of a total 33 million eligible tax payers around 10 % or 3.3 million people paid 93 % of total income tax collected in that period. Of them 1.1 million or 3.7 % of all income tax payers paid just under 70 % of all income tax collected in that period. This means that South African income tax receipts are highly reliant on a relatively small number of high income tax payers.
The company income tax rate is levied at 26.67 % (According to the Company Law No. 71 of 2008) of the taxable income of the company. Certain companies qualifying as a small business corporation where tax is levied at 10 % for taxable income above R 59,750 up to a limit of R 300,000 and 28 % on taxable income above R 300,000. Employment companies pay a tax of 33 %. Dividends were subject to an additional tax called the Secondary Tax on Companies which was 10 % of declared dividends. This tax was replaced by Dividend Tax on 1 April 2012; however Secondary Tax on Companies credits can be used until 31 March 2015.
In the 2009 tax year 34.2 % of 473,034 companies in South Africa had taxable income. Of them 56.5 % of the tax was paid by 222 large companies with a taxable income in excess of R200 million. Around 50 % of the collectively assessed companies were from the finance, retail and wholesale trade sectors and were responsible for over 35 % of this tax. The mining and quarrying sector - consisting of only 0.3 % of the companies assessed - shrunk from 8.6 % in 2006 to 5.7 % in 2008 reflecting the declining importance of the mining sector to the South African economy. ((rp 3
Tax on donations is linked to Estate Duty which was first introduced in South Africa in 1955. It is not a tax on income but rather on the transfer of wealth but differs from estate duty in that it specifically taxes gifts and donations as opposed to inheritance. This tax subjects certain donations made by persons to a flat rate of 20 %.
Dividends Tax is a policy tax imposed by government with the aim of encouraging companies to retain profits instead of giving out dividends. It takes the form of a 20 % tax on receipt of dividends given by companies and closed corporations. Some of the recent growth in this tax revenue for 2012 / 13 occurred due to increases in the value of taxable economic activities and higher compliance rates even though this tax rate remained the same.
Prior to 1 April 2012 this tax was known as the Secondary Tax on Companies and took the form of a 10 % tax on the net dividend distributed by companies and closed corporations.
Withholding tax, also called retention tax, is a government requirement for a South African payer of an item of income to a non-resident in South Africa to withhold or deduct tax from the payment, and pay that tax to the government. This tax can be divided into two categories:
Estate duty is similar to donations tax in that it is a tax on the transfer of wealth. The duty is charged on the death of a person and is based on the value of the deceased 's estate at the date of their death. It is 20 % on the amount remaining in the deceased 's estate over R3. 5 million.
Capital gains Tax is shorten as (CGT) and is most popular by the shortened word. They include all profits acquired from the sale of capital assets such as vehicles, real estates and others. Capital Gains are only taxable when the capital assets are sold or disposed and are included in an individual or companies taxable income.
First introduced on 1 October 2001, capital gains tax is effectively charged by adding a percentage of the increase in value of an asset, that was disposed of for more than its base cost, to the taxpayer 's taxable income (see normal tax). For individuals, deceased estates and special trusts 40 % of the net gain exceeding R 40 000 exclusion for individuals is added to their taxable income. For companies, close corporations and trusts 80 % is added. Net capital losses in any given year can not be used as a set - off against ordinary income; but can be carried forward to the following years to be used as a set - off against future capital gains.
Indirect taxes are taxes which are levied on transactions rather than on persons (whether individuals or corporate).
Value Added Tax (VAT) is a broad tax made by vendors on the supply of goods and services that is charged upon purchase. VAT must be paid irrespective of whether or not it is a capital good or trading stock so long as the vendor uses the goods in his / her enterprise. It 's compulsory for a business to register VAT remission when the value of taxable supplies in a 12 - month period exceeds or is expected to exceed R1 million. VAT in South Africa currently stands at 15 % as of 1 April 2018. Value Added Tax (VAT) was first introduced in South Africa on 29 September 1991 at a rate of 10 %. In 1993 VAT was raised to 14 % and to 15 % at the national budget speech in February 2018. If given price on an item charged by a vendor does not mention VAT then that price is deemed to include VAT.
In 2009 / 10 fiscal year about 72 % of the 685,523 registered VAT vendors were active. Over 55 % of VAT vendors had a turnover of less than R1 million. People who are not South African passport holders and are not resident in South Africa are eligible to claim back VAT on movable goods purchased in the country provided they present a tax invoice (such as a receipt) for those goods.
The fuel levy in South Africa represents a tax paid at the pump on fuel, predominantly processed fossils fuels like petrol and diesel. In 2011 this tax represented about 29.6 % of the price of 93 octane petrol and 30.3 % of the price of diesel.
5 % of the total fuel price paid at the pump in South Africa goes to the Road Accident Fund which is a state insurer that provides insurance cover to all drivers of motor vehicles in South Africa in respect of liability incurred or damage caused as a result of a traffic collision.
During 1914, General Jan Smuts, in his capacity as Minister of Finance, tabled legislation in the Parliament of the Union of South Africa, introducing income tax in the country, with the Income Tax Act of 1914. Taxpayers in the Union of South Africa became liable to pay income tax, with effect from 20 July 1914. In 2014, 20 years since South Africa became a full democracy, the University of Cape Town marked that milestone, of the introduction of income tax in South Africa, with the "INCOME TAX IN SOUTH AFRICA: THE FIRST 100 YEARS 1914 -- 2014 '' conference and later, a publication of papers presented.
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it takes the whole village to educate a child | It takes a village - wikipedia
It takes a village to raise a child is an African proverb which means that it takes an entire community of different people interacting with children in order for a child to experience and grow in a safe environment. The villages would look out for the children. This does not mean an entire village is responsible for raising your children and / or the children of a crowd.
The proverb has been attributed to African cultures. In 2016, NPR decided to research the origins of the proverb and concluded it was unable to pinpoint its origins, though academics said the proverb nevertheless holds the true spirits of some African cultures.
Examples of African societies with proverbs which translate to ' It takes a village... ' include the following:
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where does puerto rico get its drinking water from | Puerto Rico - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 18 ° 12 ′ N 66 ° 30 ′ W / 18.2 ° N 66.5 ° W / 18.2; - 66.5
Puerto Rican (formal) American (since 1917)
Puerto Rico (Spanish for "Rich Port ''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish: Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit. "Free Associated State of Puerto Rico '') and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea.
An archipelago among the Greater Antilles, Puerto Rico includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones, such as Mona, Culebra, and Vieques. The capital and most populous city is San Juan. Its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The island 's population is approximately 3.4 million. Puerto Rico 's history, tropical climate, natural scenery, traditional cuisine, and tax incentives make it a destination for travelers from around the world.
Originally populated by the indigenous Taíno people, the island was claimed in 1493 by Christopher Columbus for Spain during his second voyage. Later it endured invasion attempts from the French, Dutch, and British. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government influenced the island 's cultural landscapes with waves of African slaves, Canarian, and Andalusian settlers. In the Spanish Empire, Puerto Rico played a secondary, but strategic role when compared to wealthier colonies like Peru and the mainland parts of New Spain. Spain 's distant administrative control continued up to the end of the 19th century, helping to produce a distinctive creole Hispanic culture and language that combined elements from the Native Americans, Africans, and Iberians. In 1898, following the Spanish -- American War, the United States acquired Puerto Rico under the terms of the Treaty of Paris.
Puerto Ricans are by law natural - born citizens of the United States and may move freely between the island and the mainland. As it is not a state, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U.S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the national level and do not vote for president and vice president of the United States, and do not pay federal income tax on Puerto Rican income. Congress approved a local constitution, allowing U.S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A 2012 referendum showed a majority (54 % of those who voted) disagreed with "the present form of territorial status ''. A second question asking about a new model, had full statehood the preferred option among those who voted for a change of status, although a significant number of people did not answer the second question of the referendum. Another fifth referendum was held on June 11, 2017, with "Statehood '' and "Independence / Free Association '' initially as the only available choices. At the recommendation of the Department of Justice, an option for the "current territorial status '' was added. The referendum showed an overwhelming support for statehood, with 97.18 % voting for it, although the voter turnout had a historically low figure of only 22.99 % of the registered voters casting their ballots.
In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government - debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt had climbed to $70 billion at a time with 12.4 % unemployment. The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. This was the second major financial crisis to affect the island after the Great Depression when the U.S. government, in 1935, provided relief efforts through the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration. On May 3, 2017, Puerto Rico 's financial oversight board in the U.S. District Court for Puerto Rico filed the debt restructuring petition which was made under Title III of PROMESA. By early August 2017, the debt was $72 billion with a 45 % poverty rate.
In late September 2017, the category 5 Hurricane Maria hit Puerto Rico causing devastating damage. The island 's electrical grid was largely destroyed, with repairs expected to take months to complete, provoking the largest power outage in American history. Recovery efforts were somewhat slow in the first few months, and over 200,000 residents had moved to Florida alone by late November 2017.
Puerto Rico means "rich port '' in Spanish. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquén -- a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, which means "Land of the Valiant Lord ''. The terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also popularly known in Spanish as la isla del encanto, meaning "the island of enchantment ''.
Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, while the capital city was named Ciudad de Puerto Rico ("Rich Port City ''). Eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading / shipping port and the capital city.
The island 's name was changed to "Porto Rico '' by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898. The anglicized name was used by the U.S. government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931.
The official name of the entity in Spanish is Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico ("free associated state of Puerto Rico ''), while its official English name is Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.
The ancient history of the archipelago which is now Puerto Rico is not well known. Unlike other indigenous cultures in the New World (Aztec, Maya and Inca) which left behind abundant archeological and physical evidence of their societies, scant artifacts and evidence remain of the Puerto Rico 's indigenous population. Scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish accounts from the colonial era constitute all that is known about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, nearly three centuries after the first Spaniards landed on the island.
The first known settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland. Some scholars suggest their settlement dates back about 4,000 years. An archeological dig in 1990 on the island of Vieques found the remains of a man, designated as the "Puerto Ferro Man '', which was dated to around 2000 BC. The Ortoiroid were displaced by the Saladoid, a culture from the same region that arrived on the island between 430 and 250 BC.
The Igneri tribe migrated to Puerto Rico between 120 and 400 AD from the region of the Orinoco river in northern South America. The Arcaico and Igneri co-existed on the island between the 4th and 10th centuries.
Between the 7th and 11th centuries, the Taíno culture developed on the island. By approximately 1000 AD, it had become dominant. At the time of Columbus ' arrival, an estimated 30,000 to 60,000 Taíno Amerindians, led by the cacique (chief) Agüeybaná, inhabited the island. They called it Boriken, meaning "the great land of the valiant and noble Lord ''. The natives lived in small villages, each led by a cacique. They subsisted by hunting and fishing, done generally by men, as well as by the women 's gathering and processing of indigenous cassava root and fruit. This lasted until Columbus arrived in 1493.
When Columbus arrived in Puerto Rico during his second voyage on November 19, 1493, the island was inhabited by the Taíno. They called it Borikén (Borinquen in Spanish transliteration). Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of St John the Baptist. Having reported the findings of his first travel, Columbus brought with him this time a letter from King Ferdinand empowered by a papal bull that authorized any course of action necessary for the expansion of the Spanish Empire and the Christian faith. Juan Ponce de León, a lieutenant under Columbus, founded the first Spanish settlement, Caparra, on August 8, 1508. He later served as the first governor of the island. Eventually, traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, and San Juan became the name of the main trading / shipping port.
At the beginning of the 16th century, the Spanish people began to colonize the island. Despite the Laws of Burgos of 1512 and other decrees for the protection of the indigenous population, some Taíno Indians were forced into an encomienda system of forced labor in the early years of colonization. The population suffered extremely high fatalities from epidemics of European infectious diseases.
In 1520, King Charles I of Spain issued a royal decree collectively emancipating the remaining Taíno population. By that time, the Taíno people were few in number. Enslaved Africans had already begun to compensate for the native labor loss, but their numbers were proportionate to the diminished commercial interest Spain soon began to demonstrate for the island colony. Other nearby islands, like Cuba, Saint - Domingue, and Guadeloupe, attracted more of the slave trade than Puerto Rico, probably because of greater agricultural interests in those islands, on which colonists had developed large sugar plantations and had the capital to invest in the Atlantic slave trade.
From the beginning of the country, the colonial administration relied heavily on the industry of enslaved Africans and creole blacks for public works and defenses, primarily in coastal ports and cities, where the tiny colonial population had hunkered down. With no significant industries or large - scale agricultural production as yet, enslaved and free communities lodged around the few littoral settlements, particularly around San Juan, also forming lasting Afro - creole communities. Meanwhile, in the island 's interior, there developed a mixed and independent peasantry that relied on a subsistence economy. This mostly unsupervised population supplied villages and settlements with foodstuffs and, in relative isolation, set the pattern for what later would be known as the Puerto Rican Jíbaro culture. By the end of the 16th Century, the Spanish Empire was diminishing and, in the face of increasing raids from European competitors, the colonial administration throughout the Americas fell into a "bunker mentality ''. Imperial strategists and urban planners redesigned port settlements into military posts with the objective of protecting Spanish territorial claims and ensuring the safe passing of the king 's silver - laden Atlantic Fleet to the Iberian Peninsula. San Juan served as an important port - of - call for ships driven across the Atlantic by its powerful trade winds. West Indies convoys linked Spain to the island, sailing between Cádiz and the Spanish West Indies. The colony 's seat of government was on the forested Islet of San Juan and for a time became one of the most heavily fortified settlements in the Spanish Caribbean earning the name of the "Walled City ''. The islet is still dotted with the various forts and walls, such as La Fortaleza, Castillo San Felipe del Morro, and Castillo San Cristóbal, designed to protect the population and the strategic Port of San Juan from the raids of the Spanish European competitors.
In 1625, in the Battle of San Juan, the Dutch commander Boudewijn Hendricksz tested the defenses ' limits like no one else before. Learning from Francis Drake 's previous failures here, he circumvented the cannons of the castle of San Felipe del Morro and quickly brought his 17 ships into the San Juan Bay. He then occupied the port and attacked the city while the population hurried for shelter behind the Morro 's moat and high battlements. Historians consider this event the worst attack on San Juan. Though the Dutch set the village on fire, they failed to conquer the Morro, and its batteries pounded their troops and ships until Hendricksz deemed the cause lost. Hendricksz 's expedition eventually helped propel a fortification frenzy. Constructions of defenses for the San Cristóbal Hill were soon ordered so as to prevent the landing of invaders out of reach of the Morro 's artillery. Urban planning responded to the needs of keeping the colony in Spanish hands.
During the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Spain concentrated its colonial efforts on the more prosperous mainland North, Central, and South American colonies. With the advent of the lively Bourbon Dynasty in Spain in the 1700s, the island of Puerto Rico began a gradual shift to more imperial attention. More roads began connecting previously isolated inland settlements to coastal cities, and coastal settlements like Arecibo, Mayaguez, and Ponce began acquiring importance of their own, separate from San Juan. By the end of the 18th century, merchant ships from an array of nationalities threatened the tight regulations of the Mercantilist system, which turned each colony solely toward the European metropole and limited contact with other nations. U.S. ships came to surpass Spanish trade and with this also came the exploitation of the island 's natural resources. Slavers, which had made but few stops on the island before, began selling more enslaved Africans to growing sugar and coffee plantations. The increasing number of Atlantic wars in which the Caribbean islands played major roles, like the War of Jenkins ' Ear, the Seven Years ' War and the Atlantic Revolutions, ensured Puerto Rico 's growing esteem in Madrid 's eyes. On April 17, 1797, Sir Ralph Abercromby fleet invaded the island with a force of 6,000 -- 13,000 men, which included German soldiers and Royal Marines and 60 to 64 ships. Fierce fighting continued for the next days with Spanish troops. Both sides suffered heavy losses. On Sunday April 30 the British ceased their attack and began their retreat from San Juan. By the time independence movements in the larger Spanish colonies gained success, new waves of loyal creole immigrants began to arrive in Puerto Rico, helping to tilt the island 's political balance toward the Crown.
In 1809, to secure its political bond with the island and in the midst of the European Peninsular War, the Supreme Central Junta based in Cádiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain. This gave the island residents the right to elect representatives to the recently convened Spanish parliament (Cádiz Cortes), with equal representation to mainland Iberian, Mediterranean (Balearic Islands) and Atlantic maritime Spanish provinces (Canary Islands).
Ramón Power y Giralt, the first Spanish parliamentary representative from the island of Puerto Rico, died after serving a three - year term in the Cortes. These parliamentary and constitutional reforms were in force from 1810 to 1814, and again from 1820 to 1823. They were twice reversed during the restoration of the traditional monarchy by Ferdinand VII. Immigration and commercial trade reforms in the 19th century increased the island 's ethnic European population and economy and expanded the Spanish cultural and social imprint on the local character of the island.
Minor slave revolts had occurred on the island throughout the years, with the revolt planned and organized by Marcos Xiorro in 1821 being the most important. Even though the conspiracy was unsuccessful, Xiorro achieved legendary status and is part of Puerto Rico 's folklore.
In the early 19th century, Puerto Rico spawned an independence movement that, due to harsh persecution by the Spanish authorities, convened in the island of St. Thomas. The movement was largely inspired by the ideals of Simón Bolívar in establishing a United Provinces of New Granada and Venezuela, that included Puerto Rico and Cuba. Among the influential members of this movement were Brigadier General Antonio Valero de Bernabé and María de las Mercedes Barbudo. The movement was discovered, and Governor Miguel de la Torre had its members imprisoned or exiled.
With the increasingly rapid growth of independent former Spanish colonies in the South and Central American states in the first part of the 19th century, the Spanish Crown considered Puerto Rico and Cuba of strategic importance. To increase its hold on its last two New World colonies, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 as a result of which 450,000 immigrants, mainly Spaniards, settled on the island in the period up until the American conquest. Printed in three languages -- Spanish, English, and French -- it was intended to also attract non-Spanish Europeans, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity if new settlers had stronger ties to the Crown. Hundreds of non Spanish families, mainly from Corsica, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy and Scotland, also immigrated to the island.
Free land was offered as an incentive to those who wanted to populate the two islands, on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. The offer was very successful, and European immigration continued even after 1898. Puerto Rico still receives Spanish and European immigration.
Poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as Grito de Lares. It began in the rural town of Lares, but was subdued when rebels moved to the neighboring town of San Sebastián.
Leaders of this independence movement included Ramón Emeterio Betances, considered the "father '' of the Puerto Rican independence movement, and other political figures such as Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico in 1873, "with provisions for periods of apprenticeship ''.
Leaders of "El Grito de Lares '' went into exile in New York City. Many joined the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee, founded on December 8, 1895, and continued their quest for Puerto Rican independence. In 1897, Antonio Mattei Lluberas and the local leaders of the independence movement in Yauco organized another uprising, which became known as the Intentona de Yauco. They raised what they called the Puerto Rican flag, which was adopted as the national flag. The local conservative political factions opposed independence. Rumors of the planned event spread to the local Spanish authorities who acted swiftly and put an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule.
In 1897, Luis Muñoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to grant limited self - government to the island by royal decree in the Autonomic Charter, including a bicameral legislature. In 1898, Puerto Rico 's first, but short - lived, quasi-autonomous government was organized as an "overseas province '' of Spain. This bilaterally agreed - upon charter maintained a governor appointed by the King of Spain -- who held the power to annul any legislative decision -- and a partially elected parliamentary structure. In February, Governor - General Manuel Macías inaugurated the new government under the Autonomic Charter. General elections were held in March and the new government began to function on July 17, 1898.
In 1890, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, published a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the establishment of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean, which would serve as coaling and naval stations. They would serve as strategic points of defense with the construction of a canal through the Isthmus of Panama, to allow easier passage of ships between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
William H. Seward, the former Secretary of State under presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, had also stressed the importance of building a canal in Honduras, Nicaragua or Panama. He suggested that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The U.S. Senate did not approve his annexation proposal, and Spain rejected the U.S. offer of 160 million dollars for Puerto Rico and Cuba.
Since 1894, the United States Naval War College had been developing contingency plans for a war with Spain. By 1896, the U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan that included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. Except for one 1895 plan, which recommended annexation of the island then named Isle of Pines (later renamed as Isla de la Juventud), a recommendation dropped in later planning, plans developed for attacks on Spanish territories were intended as support operations against Spain 's forces in and around Cuba. Recent research suggests that the U.S. did consider Puerto Rico valuable as a naval station, and recognized that it and Cuba generated lucrative crops of sugar -- a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked, before the development of the Sugar Beet industry in the United States.
On July 25, 1898, during the Spanish -- American War, the U.S. invaded Puerto Rico with a landing at Guánica. As an outcome of the war, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, along with the Philippines and Guam, then under Spanish sovereignty, to the U.S. under the Treaty of Paris. Spain relinquished sovereignty over Cuba, but did not cede it to the U.S.
The United States and Puerto Rico began a long - standing metropolis - colony relationship. In the early 20th century, Puerto Rico was ruled by the military, with officials including the governor appointed by the President of the United States. The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Rico a certain amount of civilian popular government, including a popularly elected House of Representatives. The upper house and governor were appointed by the United States.
Its judicial system was constructed to follow the American legal system; a Puerto Rico Supreme Court and a United State District Court for the territory were established. It was authorized a non-voting member of Congress, by the title of "Resident Commissioner '', who was appointed. In addition, this Act extended all U.S. laws "not locally inapplicable '' to Puerto Rico, specifying, in particular, exemption from U.S. Internal Revenue laws.
The Act empowered the civil government to legislate on "all matters of legislative character not locally inapplicable '', including the power to modify and repeal any laws then in existence in Puerto Rico, though the U.S. Congress retained the power to annul acts of the Puerto Rico legislature. During an address to the Puerto Rican legislature in 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt recommended that Puerto Ricans become U.S. citizens.
In 1914, the Puerto Rican House of Delegates voted unanimously in favor of independence from the United States, but this was rejected by the U.S. Congress as "unconstitutional '', and in violation of the 1900 Foraker Act.
In 1917, the U.S. Congress passed the Jones -- Shafroth Act, popularly called the Jones Act, which granted Puerto Ricans, born on or after, April 25, 1898, U.S. citizenship. Opponents, which included all of the Puerto Rican House of Delegates, who voted unanimously against it, said that the U.S. imposed citizenship in order to draft Puerto Rican men into the army as American entry into World War I became likely.
The same Act provided for a popularly elected Senate to complete a bicameral Legislative Assembly, as well as a bill of rights. It authorized the popular election of the Resident Commissioner to a four - year term.
Natural disasters, including a major earthquake and tsunami in 1918, and several hurricanes, and the Great Depression impoverished the island during the first few decades under U.S. rule. Some political leaders, such as Pedro Albizu Campos, who led the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, demanded change in relations with the United States. He organized a protest at the University of Puerto Rico in 1935, in which four were killed by police.
In 1936, U.S. Senator Millard Tydings introduced a bill supporting independence for Puerto Rico, but it was opposed by Luis Muñoz Marín of the Liberal Party of Puerto Rico. (Tydings had co-sponsored the Tydings -- McDuffie Act, which provided independence to the Philippines after a 10 - year transition under a limited autonomy.) All the Puerto Rican parties supported the bill, but Muñoz Marín opposed it. Tydings did not gain passage of the bill.
In 1937, Albizu Campos ' party organized a protest in which numerous people were killed by police in Ponce. The Insular Police, resembling the National Guard, opened fire upon unarmed cadets and bystanders alike. The attack on unarmed protesters was reported by the U.S. Congressman Vito Marcantonio and confirmed by the report of the Hays Commission, which investigated the events. The commission was led by Arthur Garfield Hays, counsel to the American Civil Liberties Union.
Nineteen people were killed and over 200 were badly wounded, many in their backs while running away. The Hays Commission declared it a massacre and police mob action, and it has since been known as the Ponce massacre. In the aftermath, on April 2, 1943, Tydings introduced a bill in Congress calling for independence for Puerto Rico. This bill ultimately was defeated.
During the latter years of the Roosevelt -- Truman administrations, the internal governance was changed in a compromise reached with Luis Muñoz Marín and other Puerto Rican leaders. In 1946, President Truman appointed the first Puerto Rican - born governor, Jesús T. Piñero.
Since 2007, the Puerto Rico State Department has developed a protocol to issue certificates of Puerto Rican citizenship to Puerto Ricans. In order to be eligible, applicants must have been born in Puerto Rico; born outside of Puerto Rico to a Puerto Rican -- born parent; or be an American citizen with at least one year of residence in Puerto Rico.
In 1947, the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to democratically elect their own governor. In 1948, Luis Muñoz Marín became the first popularly elected governor of Puerto Rico.
A bill was introduced before the Puerto Rican Senate which would restrain the rights of the independence and nationalist movements in the island. The Senate at the time was controlled by the Popular Democratic Party (PPD), and was presided over by Luis Muñoz Marín. The bill, also known as the Gag Law (Spanish: Ley de la Mordaza), was approved by the legislature on May 21, 1948. It made it illegal to display a Puerto Rican flag, to sing a pro-independence tune, to talk of independence, or to campaign for independence.
The bill, which resembled the Smith Act passed in the United States, was signed and made into law on June 10, 1948, by the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Jesús T. Piñero, and became known as "Law 53 '' (Spanish: Ley 53).
In accordance with this law, it would be a crime to print, publish, sell, exhibit, organize or help anyone organize any society, group or assembly of people whose intentions are to paralyze or destroy the insular government. Anyone accused and found guilty of disobeying the law could be sentenced to ten years of prison, be fined $10,000 (U.S.), or both. According to Dr. Leopoldo Figueroa, a member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives, the law was repressive and in violation of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which guarantees Freedom of Speech. He asserted that the law as such was a violation of the civil rights of the people of Puerto Rico. The law was repealed in 1957.
In 1950, the U.S. Congress granted Puerto Ricans the right to organize a constitutional convention via a referendum that gave them the option of voting their preference, "yes '' or "no '', on a proposed U.S. law that would organize Puerto Rico as a "commonwealth '' that would continue United States sovereignty over Puerto Rico and its people. Puerto Rico 's electorate expressed its support for this measure in 1951 with a second referendum to ratify the constitution. The Constitution of Puerto Rico was formally adopted on July 3, 1952. The Constitutional Convention specified the name by which the body politic would be known.
On February 4, 1952, the convention approved Resolution 22 which chose in English the word Commonwealth, meaning a "politically organized community '' or "state '', which is simultaneously connected by a compact or treaty to another political system. Puerto Rico officially designates itself with the term "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico '' in its constitution, as a translation into English of the term to "Estado Libre Asociado '' (ELA).
In 1967 Puerto Rico 's Legislative Assembly polled the political preferences of the Puerto Rican electorate by passing a plebiscite act that provided for a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice among three status options (commonwealth, statehood, and independence). In subsequent plebiscites organized by Puerto Rico held in 1993 and 1998 (without any formal commitment on the part of the U.S. Government to honor the results), the current political status failed to receive majority support. In 1993, Commonwealth status won by a plurality of votes (48.6 % versus 46.3 % for statehood), while the "none of the above '' option, which was the Popular Democratic Party - sponsored choice, won in 1998 with 50.3 % of the votes (versus 46.5 % for statehood). Disputes arose as to the definition of each of the ballot alternatives, and Commonwealth advocates, among others, reportedly urged a vote for "none of the above ''.
In 1950, the U.S. Congress approved Public Law 600 (P.L. 81 - 600), which allowed for a democratic referendum in Puerto Rico to determine whether Puerto Ricans desired to draft their own local constitution. This Act was meant to be adopted in the "nature of a compact ''. It required congressional approval of the Puerto Rico Constitution before it could go into effect, and repealed certain sections of the Organic Act of 1917. The sections of this statute left in force were entitled the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act. U.S. Secretary of the Interior Oscar L. Chapman, under whose Department resided responsibility of Puerto Rican affairs, clarified the new commonwealth status in this manner:
On October 30, 1950, Pedro Albizu Campos and other nationalists led a three - day revolt against the United States in various cities and towns of Puerto Rico, in what is known as the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s. The most notable occurred in Jayuya and Utuado. In the Jayuya revolt, known as the Jayuya Uprising, the Puerto Rican governor declared martial law, and attacked the insurgents in Jayuya with infantry, artillery and bombers under control of the Puerto Rican commander. The Utuado uprising culminated in what is known as the Utuado massacre.
On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists from New York City, Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo, attempted to assassinate President Harry S. Truman at his temporary residence of Blair House. Torresola was killed during the attack, but Collazo was wounded and captured. He was convicted of murder and sentenced to death, but President Truman commuted his sentence to life. After Collazo served 29 years in a federal prison, President Jimmy Carter commuted his sentence to times served and he was released in 1979.
Pedro Albizu Campos served many years in a federal prison in Atlanta, for seditious conspiracy to overthrow the U.S. government in Puerto Rico.
The Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6, 1952, and 82 % of the voters in a March referendum. It was modified and ratified by the U.S. Congress, approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year, and proclaimed by Gov. Muñoz Marín on July 25, 1952. This was the anniversary of July 25, 1898, landing of U.S. troops in the Puerto Rican Campaign of the Spanish -- American War, until then celebrated as an annual Puerto Rico holiday.
Puerto Rico adopted the name of Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico (literally "Associated Free State of Puerto Rico ''), officially translated into English as Commonwealth, for its body politic. "The United States Congress legislates over many fundamental aspects of Puerto Rican life, including citizenship, the currency, the postal service, foreign policy, military defense, communications, labor relations, the environment, commerce, finance, health and welfare, and many others. ''
During the 1950s and 1960s, Puerto Rico experienced rapid industrialization, due in large part to Operación Manos a la Obra ("Operation Bootstrap ''), an offshoot of FDR 's New Deal. It was intended to transform Puerto Rico 's economy from agriculture - based to manufacturing - based to provide more jobs. Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination, as well as a global center for pharmaceutical manufacturing.
Four referendums have been held since the late 20th century to resolve the political status. The 2012 referendum showed a majority (54 % of the voters) in favor of a change in status, with full statehood the preferred option of those who wanted a change. Because there were almost 500,000 blank ballots in the 2012 referendum, creating confusion as to the voters ' true desire, Congress decided to ignore the vote.
The first three plebiscites provided voters with three options: statehood, free association, and independence. The Puerto Rican status referendum, 2017 in June 2017 was going to offer only two options: Statehood and Independence / Free Association. However, a letter from the Donald Trump administration recommended adding the Commonwealth, the current status, in the plebiscite. The option had been removed from this plebiscite in response to the results of the plebiscite in 2012 which asked whether to remain in the current status and No had won. The Trump administration cited changes in demographics during the past 5 years to add the option once again. Amendments to the plebiscite bill were adopted making ballot wording changes requested by the Department of Justice, as well as adding a "current territorial status '' option. While 97 percent voted in favor of statehood, the turnout was low; only some 23 percent voted. After the ballots were counted the Justice Department was non-committal. The Justice Department had asked for the 2017 plebiscite to be postponed but the Rosselló government chose not to do so. After the outcome was announced, the department told the Associated Press that it had "not reviewed or approved the ballot 's language ''.
Former Governor Aníbal Acevedo Vilá (2005 -- 2009) is convinced that statehood is not the solution for either the U.S. or for Puerto Rico "for economic, identity and cultural reasons ''. He pointed out that voter turnout for the 2017 referendum was extremely low, and suggests that a different type of mutually - beneficial relationship should be found.
If the federal government agrees to discuss an association agreement, the conditions would be negotiated between the two entities. The agreement might cover topics such as the role of the U.S. military in Puerto Rico, the use of the U.S. currency, free trade between the two entities, and whether Puerto Ricans would be U.S. citizens.
The three current Free Associated States (Marshall Islands, Micronesia and Palau) use the American dollar, receive some financial support and the promise of military defense if they refuse military access to any other country. Their citizens are allowed to work in the U.S. and serve in its military.
Governor Ricardo Rosselló is strongly in favor of statehood to help develop the economy and help to "solve our 500 - year - old colonial dilemma... Colonialism is not an option... It 's a civil rights issue... 3.5 million citizens seeking an absolute democracy, '' he told the news media. Benefits of statehood include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited.
Statehood might be useful as a means of dealing with the financial crisis, since it would allow for bankruptcy and the relevant protection. According to the Government Development Bank, this might be the only solution to the debt crisis. Congress has the power to vote to allow Chapter 9 protection without the need for statehood, but in late 2015 there was very little support in the House for this concept. Other benefits to statehood include increased disability benefits and Medicaid funding, the right to vote in Presidential elections and the higher (federal) minimum wage.
Subsequent to the 2017 referendum, Puerto Rico 's legislators are also expected to vote on a bill that would allow the Governor to draft a state constitution and hold elections to choose senators and representatives to the federal Congress. In spite of the outcome of the referendum, and the so - called Tennessee Plan (above), action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.
Since 1953, the UN has been considering the political status of Puerto Rico and how to assist it in achieving "independence '' or "decolonization ''. In 1978, the Special Committee determined that a "colonial relationship '' existed between the U.S. and Puerto Rico.
The UN 's Special Committee on Decolonization has often referred to Puerto Rico as a "nation '' in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self - determination in Puerto Rico. More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self - determination and independence... allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner, and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty ".
On November 27, 1953, shortly after the establishment of the Commonwealth, the General Assembly of the United Nations approved Resolution 748, removing Puerto Rico 's classification as a non-self - governing territory. The General Assembly did not apply the full list of criteria which was enunciated in 1960 when it took favorable note of the cessation of transmission of information regarding the non-self - governing status of Puerto Rico.
According to the White House Task Force on Puerto Rico 's Political Status in its December 21, 2007 report, the U.S., in its written submission to the UN in 1953, never represented that Congress could not change its relationship with Puerto Rico without the territory 's consent. It stated that the U.S. Justice Department in 1959 reiterated that Congress held power over Puerto Rico pursuant to the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution.
In 1993 the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit stated that Congress may unilaterally repeal the Puerto Rican Constitution or the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and replace them with any rules or regulations of its choice. In a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the U.S. House Committee on Resources stated, "Puerto Rico 's current status does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self - government under Resolution 1541 '' (the three established forms of full self - government being stated in the report as (1) national independence, (2) free association based on separate sovereignty, or (3) full integration with another nation on the basis of equality). The report concluded that Puerto Rico "... remains an unincorporated colony and does not have the status of ' free association ' with the United States as that status is defined under United States law or international practice '', that the establishment of local self - government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by the U.S. Congress, and that U.S. Congress can also withdraw the U.S. citizenship of Puerto Rican residents of Puerto Rico at any time, for a legitimate Federal purpose. The application of the U.S. Constitution to Puerto Rico is limited by the Insular Cases.
In 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, and 2011 the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization passed resolutions calling on the United States to expedite a process "that would allow Puerto Ricans to fully exercise their inalienable right to self - determination and independence '', and to release all Puerto Rican political prisoners in U.S. prisons, to clean up, decontaminate and return the lands in the islands of Vieques and Culebra to the people of Puerto Rico, to perform a probe into U.S. human rights violations on the island and a probe into the killing by the FBI of pro-independence leader Filiberto Ojeda Rios.
On July 15, 2009, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization approved a draft resolution calling on the Government of the United States to expedite a process that would allow the Puerto Rican people to exercise fully their inalienable right to self - determination and independence.
On April 29, 2010, the U.S. House voted 223 -- 169 to approve a measure for a federally sanctioned process for Puerto Rico 's self - determination, allowing Puerto Rico to set a new referendum on whether to continue its present form of commonwealth, or to have a different political status. If Puerto Ricans voted to continue as a commonwealth, the Government of Puerto Rico was authorized to conduct additional plebiscites at intervals of every eight years from the date on which the results of the prior plebiscite were certified; if Puerto Ricans voted to have a different political status, a second referendum would determine whether Puerto Rico would become a U.S. state, an independent country, or a sovereign nation associated with the U.S. that would not be subject to the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution. During the House debate, a fourth option, to retain its present form of commonwealth (sometimes referred to as "the status quo '') political status, was added as an option in the second plebiscite.
Immediately following U.S. House passage, H.R. 2499 was sent to the U.S. Senate, where it was given two formal readings and referred to the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. On December 22, 2010, the 111th United States Congress adjourned without any Senate vote on H.R. 2499, killing the bill.
The latest Task Force report was released on March 11, 2011. The report suggested a two - plebiscite process, including a "first plebiscite that requires the people of Puerto Rico to choose whether they wish to be part of the United States (either via Statehood or Commonwealth) or wish to be independent (via Independence or Free Association). If continuing to be part of the United States were chosen in the first plebiscite, a second vote would be taken between Statehood and Commonwealth. ''
On June 14, 2011, President Barack Obama "promised to support ' a clear decision ' by the people of Puerto Rico on statehood ''. That same month, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization passed a resolution and adopted a consensus text introduced by Cuba 's delegate on June 20, 2011, calling on the United States to expedite a process "that would allow Puerto Ricans to fully exercise their inalienable right to self - determination and independence ''.
On November 6, 2012, a two - question referendum took place, simultaneous with the general elections. The first question asked voters whether they wanted to maintain the current status under the territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution. The second question posed three alternate status options if the first question was approved: statehood, independence or free association. For the first question, 54 percent voted against the current Commonwealth status. For the second question, 61.16 % voted for statehood, 33.34 % for a sovereign free associated state, and 5.49 % for independence.
There were also 515,348 blank and invalidated ballots, which are not reflected in the final tally, as they are not considered cast votes under Puerto Rico law. On December 11, 2012, Puerto Rico 's Legislature passed a concurrent resolution to request to the President and the U.S. Congress action on November 6, 2012 plebiscite results. But on April 10, 2013, with the issue still being widely debated, the White House announced that it will seek $2.5 million to hold another referendum, this next one being the first Puerto Rican status referendum to be financed by the U.S. Federal government.
In December 2015, the U.S. Government submitted a brief as Amicus Curiae to the U.S. Supreme Court related to the case Commonwealth of Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle. The U.S. Government official position is that the U.S. Constitution does not contemplate "sovereign territories ''. That the Court has consistently recognized that "there is no sovereignty in a Territory of the United States but that of the United States itself ''. and a U.S. territory has "no independent sovereignty comparable to that of a state. That is because "the Government of a territory owes its existence wholly to the United States ''. Congress 's plenary authority over federal territories includes the authority to permit self - government, whereby local officials administer a territory 's internal affairs.
On June 9, 2016, in Commonwealth of Puerto Rico vs Sanchez Valle, an 6 -- 2 majority of the Supreme Court of the United States determined that Puerto Rico is a territory and lacks Sovereignty.
On June 30, 2016, the President of the United States of America signed a new law approved by U.S. Congress, H.R. 5278: PROMESA, establishing a Control Board over the Puerto Rico Government. This board will have a significant degree of federal control involved in its establishment and operations. In particular, the authority to establish the control board derives from the federal government 's constitutional power to "make all needful rules and regulations '' regarding U.S. territories; The President would appoint all seven voting members of the board; and the board would have broad sovereign powers to effectively overrule decisions by Puerto Rico 's legislature, governor, and other public authorities.
The latest referendum on statehood, independence, or an associated republic was held on November 6, 2012. The people of Puerto Rico made history by requesting, for the first time ever, the conclusion of the island 's current territorial status. Almost 78 % of registered voters participated in a plebiscite held to resolve Puerto Rico 's status, and a slim but clear majority (54 %) disagreed with Puerto Rico maintaining its present territorial status. Furthermore, among the possible alternatives, sixty - one percent (61 %) of voters chose the statehood option, while one third of the ballots were submitted blank.
On December 11, 2012, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond to the referendum of the people of Puerto Rico, held on November 6, 2012, to end its current form of territorial status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico as a State. The initiative has not made Puerto Rico into a state.
In May, 2017, the Natural Resources Defense Council reported that Puerto Rico 's water system was the worst as measured by the Clean Water Act. 70 % of the population drank water that violated U.S. law.
In late September 2017, Hurricane Maria hit the island as a Category 4 storm causing severe damage to homes, other buildings and infrastructure. The recovery as of late November was slow but progress had been made. Electricity was restored to two - thirds of the island, although there was some doubt as to the number of residents getting reliable power. The vast majority had access to water but were still required to boil it. The number still living in shelters had dropped to 982 with thousands of others living with relatives. The official death toll at the time was 58 but some sources indicated that the actual number is much higher. A dam on the island was close to failure and officials were concerned about additional flooding from this source.
Thousands had left Puerto Rico, with close to 200,000 having arrived in Florida alone. Those who were then living on the mainland experienced difficulty in getting health care benefits. A New York Times report on November 27 said it was understandable that Puerto Ricans wanted to leave the island. "Basic essentials are hard to find and electricity and other utilities are unreliable or entirely inaccessible. Much of the population has been unable to return to jobs or to school and access to health care has been severely limited. '' The Center for Puerto Rican Studies at New York 's Hunter College estimated that some half million people, about 14 % of the population, may permanently leave by 2019.
The total damage on the island was estimated as up to $95 billion. By the end of November, FEMA had received over a million applications for aid and had approved about a quarter of those. The US government had agreed in October to provide funding to rebuild and up to $4.9 billion in loans to help the island 's government. FEMA had $464 million earmarked to help local governments rebuild public buildings and infrastructure. Bills for other funding were being considered in Washington but little progress had been made on those.
A November 28, 2017 report by the Sierra Club included this comment: "It will take years to rebuild Puerto Rico, not just from the worst hurricane to make landfall since 1932, but to sustainably overcome environmental injustices which made Maria 's devastation even more catastrophic ''.
Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Desecheo, and Caja de Muertos. Of these five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year - round. Mona, which has played a key role in maritime history, is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources. There are many other even smaller islets, like Monito, which is near to Mona, Isla de Cabras and La Isleta de San Juan, both located on the San Juan Bay. The latter is the only inhabited islet with communities like Old San Juan and Puerta de Tierra, and connected to the main island by bridges.
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has an area of 13,790 square kilometers (5,320 sq mi), of which 8,870 km (3,420 sq mi) is land and 4,921 km (1,900 sq mi) is water. Puerto Rico is larger than two U.S. states, Delaware and Rhode Island. The maximum length of the main island from east to west is 180 km (110 mi), and the maximum width from north to south is 65 km (40 mi). Puerto Rico is the smallest of the Greater Antilles. It is 80 % of the size of Jamaica, just over 18 % of the size of Hispaniola and 8 % of the size of Cuba, the largest of the Greater Antilles.
The island is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is called "La Cordillera Central '' (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta 1,338 meters (4,390 ft), is located in this range.
Another important peak is El Yunque, one of the highest in the Sierra de Luquillo at the El Yunque National Forest, with an elevation of 1,065 m (3,494 ft).
Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man - made, and more than 50 rivers, most originating in the Cordillera Central. Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher water flow rates than those of the south, since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions.
Puerto Rico is composed of Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic and plutonic rocks, overlain by younger Oligocene and more recent carbonates and other sedimentary rocks. Most of the caverns and karst topography on the island occurs in the northern region in the carbonates. The oldest rocks are approximately 190 million years old (Jurassic) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in the southwest part of the island. They may represent part of the oceanic crust and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm.
Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates and is being deformed by the tectonic stresses caused by their interaction. These stresses may cause earthquakes and tsunamis. These seismic events, along with landslides, represent some of the most dangerous geologic hazards in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean.
The most recent major earthquake occurred on October 11, 1918, and had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale. It originated off the coast of Aguadilla, several kilometers off the northern coast, and was accompanied by a tsunami. It caused extensive property damage and widespread losses, damaging infrastructure, especially bridges. It resulted in an estimated 116 deaths and $4 million in property damage. The failure of the government to move rapidly to provide for the general welfare contributed to political activism by opponents and eventually to the rise of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party.
The Puerto Rico Trench, the largest and deepest trench in the Atlantic, is located about 115 km (71 mi) north of Puerto Rico at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates. It is 280 km (170 mi) long. At its deepest point, named the Milwaukee Deep, it is almost 8,400 m (27,600 ft) deep.
The climate of Puerto Rico in the Köppen climate classification is tropical rainforest. Temperatures are warm to hot year round, averaging near 85 ° F (29 ° C) in lower elevations and 70 ° F (21 ° C) in the mountains. Easterly trade winds pass across the island year round. Puerto Rico has a rainy season which stretches from April into November. The mountains of the Cordillera Central are the main cause of the variations in the temperature and rainfall that occur over very short distances. The mountains can also cause wide variation in local wind speed and direction due to their sheltering and channeling effects adding to the climatic variation.
The island has an average temperature of 82.4 ° F (28 ° C) throughout the year, with an average minimum temperature of 66.9 ° F (19 ° C) and maximum of 85.4 ° F (30 ° C). Daily temperature changes seasonally are quite small in the lowlands and coastal areas. The temperature in the south is usually a few degrees higher than the north and temperatures in the central interior mountains are always cooler than those on the rest of the island.
Between the dry and wet season, there is a temperature change of around 6 ° F (3.3 ° C). This is mainly due to the warm waters of the tropical Atlantic Ocean, which significantly modify cooler air moving in from the north and northwest. Coastal waters temperatures around the years are about 75 ° F (24 ° C) in February to 85 ° F (29 ° C) in August. The highest temperature ever recorded was 99 ° F (37 ° C) at Arecibo, while the lowest temperature ever recorded was 40 ° F (4 ° C) in the mountains at Adjuntas, Aibonito, and Corozal. The average yearly precipitation is 1,687 mm (66 in).
Puerto Rico experiences the Atlantic hurricane season, similar to the remainder of the Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic oceans. On average, a quarter of its annual rainfall is contributed from tropical cyclones, which are more prevalent during periods of La Niña than El Niño. A cyclone of tropical storm strength passes near Puerto Rico, on average, every five years. A hurricane passes in the vicinity of the island, on average, every seven years. Since 1851, the Lake Okeechobee Hurricane of September 1928 is the only hurricane to make landfall as a Category 5 hurricane.
In the busy 2017 Atlantic hurricane season, Puerto Rico avoided a direct hit by the Category 5 Hurricane Irma on September 8, 2017, but high winds caused a loss of electrical power to some one million residents. Almost 50 % of hospitals were operating with power provided by generators. The Category 4 Hurricane Jose, as expected, veered away from Puerto Rico. A short time later, the devastating Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico as a Category 4 hurricane, with sustained 155 mph (249 km / h) winds, powerful rains and widespread flooding causing tremendous destruction, including the electrical grid, which could remain out for 4 -- 6 months. With such widespread destruction and a great need for supplies -- everything from drinking water, food, medicine and personal care items to fuel for generators and construction materials for rebuilding the island -- Gov. Rossello and several Congressmen called on the federal government to waive the WWI - era Jones Act (protectionist provisions: ships made and owned in U.S., and with U.S. crews), which essentially double Puerto Rico 's cost for shipped goods relative to neighboring islands. On September 28, U.S. President Donald Trump waived the Act for ten days.
Species endemic to the archipelago number 239 plants, 16 birds and 39 amphibians / reptiles, recognized as of 1998. Most of these (234, 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island. The most recognizable endemic species and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the coquí, a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call, from which it gets its name. Most coquí species (13 of 17) live in the El Yunque National Forest, a tropical rainforest in the northeast of the island previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240 plants, 26 of which are endemic to the island. It is also home to 50 bird species, including the critically endangered Puerto Rican amazon.
Across the island in the southwest, the 40 km (15 sq mi) of dry land at the Guánica Commonwealth Forest Reserve contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals, including 48 endangered species and 16 endemic to Puerto Rico.
The population of Puerto Rico has been shaped by Amerindian settlement, European colonization, slavery, economic migration, and Puerto Rico 's status as unincorporated territory of the United States.
The estimated population of Puerto Rico as of July 1, 2015, was 3,474,182, a 6.75 % decrease since the 2010 United States Census. From 2000 to 2010, the population decreased, the first such decrease in census history for Puerto Rico. It went from the 3,808,610 residents registered in the 2000 Census to 3,725,789 in the 2010 Census.
A declining and aging population presents additional problems for the society. The U.S. Census Bureau 's estimate for July 1, 2016 was 3,411,307 people, down substantially from the 2010 data which had indicated 3,725,789 people.
Continuous European immigration and high natural increase helped the population of Puerto Rico grow from 155,426 in 1800, to almost a million by the close of the 19th century.
A census conducted by royal decree on September 30, 1858 gave the following totals of the Puerto Rican population at that time: 341,015 were Free colored; 300,430 identified as Whites; and 41,736 were slaves.
During the 19th century hundreds of families arrived in Puerto Rico, primarily from the Canary Islands and Andalusia, but also from other parts of Spain such as Catalonia, Asturias, Galicia and the Balearic Islands and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain 's former colonies in South America. Settlers from outside Spain also arrived in the islands, including from Corsica, France, Lebanon, China, Portugal, Ireland, Scotland, Germany and Italy. This immigration from non-Hispanic countries was the result of the Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815 ("Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 ''), which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with land allotments in the interior of the island, provided they paid taxes and continued to support the Catholic Church.
Between 1960 and 1990 the census questionnaire in Puerto Rico did not ask about race or ethnicity. The 2000 United States Census included a racial self - identification question in Puerto Rico. According to the census, most Puerto Ricans identified as White and Hispanic; few identified as Black or some other race.
A recent population genetics study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that between 52.6 % and 84 % of the population possess some degree of Amerindian mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in their maternal ancestry, usually in a combination with other ancestries such as aboriginal Guanche North - West African ancestry brought by Spanish settlers from the Canary Islands.
In addition, these DNA studies show Amerindian ancestry in addition to the Taíno.
One genetic study on the racial makeup of Puerto Ricans (including all races) found them to be roughly around 61 % West Eurasian / North African (overwhelmingly of Spanish provenance), 27 % Sub-Saharan African and 11 % Native American. Another genetic study from 2007, claimed that "the average genomewide individual (ie. Puerto Rican) ancestry proportions have been estimated as 66 %, 18 %, and 16 %, for European, West African, and Native American, respectively. '' Other study estimates 63.7 % European, 21.2 % (Sub-Saharan) African, and 15.2 % Native American; European ancestry is more prevalent in the West and in Central Puerto Rico, African in Eastern Puerto Rico, and Native American in Northern Puerto Rico.
A Pew Research survey indicated a literacy rate of 90.4 % (adult population) in 2012 based on data from the United Nations and a life expectancy of 79.3 years.
Puerto Rico has recently become the permanent home of over 100,000 legal residents. The vast majority of recent immigrants, both legal and illegal, come from the Dominican Republic and Haiti. Other sources sending in significant numbers of recent immigrants include Cuba, Mexico, Colombia, Panama, Jamaica, Venezuela, Spain, and Nigeria. Also, there are many non-Puerto Rican U.S. citizens settling in Puerto Rico, from the mainland United States and the U.S. Virgin Islands, as well as Nuyoricans (stateside Puerto Ricans) coming back to Puerto Rico. Most recent immigrants settle in and around San Juan.
Emigration is a major part of contemporary Puerto Rican history. Starting soon after World War II, poverty, cheap airfares, and promotion by the island government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the United States, particularly to the Northeastern states, and Florida. This trend continued even as Puerto Rico 's economy improved and its birth rate declined. Puerto Ricans continue to follow a pattern of "circular migration '', with some migrants returning to the island. In recent years, the population has declined markedly, falling nearly 1 % in 2012 and an additional 1 % (36,000 people) in 2013 due to a falling birthrate and emigration.
According to the 2010 Census, the number of Puerto Ricans living in the United States outside of Puerto Rico far exceeds those living in Puerto Rico. Emigration exceeds immigration. As those who leave tend to be better educated than those that remain, this accentuates the drain on Puerto Rico 's economy.
Based on the July 1, 2016 estimate by the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of the Commonwealth had declined by 314,482 people since the 2010 Census data had been tabulated.
The most populous city is the capital, San Juan, with approximately 371,400 people based on a 2015 estimate by the Census Bureau. Other major cities include Bayamón, Carolina, Ponce, and Caguas. Of the ten most populous cities on the island, eight are located within what is considered San Juan 's metropolitan area, while the other two are located in the south (Ponce) and west (Mayagüez) of the island.
The official languages of the executive branch of government of Puerto Rico are Spanish and English, with Spanish being the primary language. Spanish is, and has been, the only official language of the entire Commonwealth judiciary system, despite a 1902 English - only language law. However, all official business of the U.S. District Court for the District of Puerto Rico is conducted in English. English is the primary language of less than 10 % of the population. Spanish is the dominant language of business, education and daily life on the island, spoken by nearly 95 % of the population.
The U.S. Census Bureau 's 2015 update provides the following facts: 94.1 % of adults speak Spanish, 5.8 % speak only English, 78.3 % do not speak English "very well ''.
In Puerto Rico, public school instruction is conducted almost entirely in Spanish. There have been pilot programs in about a dozen of the over 1,400 public schools aimed at conducting instruction in English only. Objections from teaching staff are common, perhaps because many of them are not fully fluent in English. English is taught as a second language and is a compulsory subject from elementary levels to high school. The languages of the deaf community are American Sign Language and its local variant, Puerto Rican Sign Language.
The Spanish of Puerto Rico has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies in vocabulary and syntax that differentiate it from the Spanish spoken elsewhere. As a product of Puerto Rican history, the island possesses a unique Spanish dialect. Puerto Rican Spanish utilizes many Taíno words, as well as English words. The largest influence on the Spanish spoken in Puerto Rico is that of the Canary Islands. The Spanish of Puerto Rico also includes Taíno words, typically in the context of vegetation, natural phenomena or primitive musical instruments. Similarly, words attributed to primarily West African languages were adopted in the contexts of foods, music or dances, particularly in coastal towns with concentrations of descendants of Sub-Saharan Africans.
Religious Affiliation (2014)
The Roman Catholic Church was brought by Spanish colonists and gradually became the dominant religion in Puerto Rico. The first dioceses in the Americas, including that of Puerto Rico, were authorized by Pope Julius II in 1511. One Pope, John Paul II, visited Puerto Rico in October 1984. All municipalities in Puerto Rico have at least one Catholic Church, most of which are located at the town center or "plaza ''. African slaves brought and maintained various ethnic African religious practices associated with different peoples; in particular, the Yoruba beliefs of Santería and / or Ifá, and the Kongo - derived Palo Mayombe. Some aspects were absorbed into syncretic Christianity.
Protestantism, which was suppressed under the Spanish Catholic regime, has slightly reemerged under United States rule, making contemporary Puerto Rico more interconfessional than in previous centuries, although Catholicism continues to be the dominant religion. The first Protestant church, Iglesia de la Santísima Trinidad, was established in Ponce by the Anglican Diocese of Antigua in 1872. It was the first non-Roman Catholic Church in the entire Spanish Empire in the Americas.
Pollster Pablo Ramos stated in 1998 that the population was 38 % Roman Catholic, 28 % Pentecostal, and 18 % were members of independent churches, which would give a Protestant percentage of 46 % if the last two populations are combined. Protestants collectively added up to almost two million people. Another researcher gave a more conservative assessment of the proportion of Protestants:
Puerto Rico, by virtue of its long political association with the United States, is the most Protestant of Latin American countries, with a Protestant population of approximately 33 to 38 percent, the majority of whom are Pentecostal. David Stoll calculates that if we extrapolate the growth rates of evangelical churches from 1960 -- 1985 for another twenty - five years Puerto Rico will become 75 percent evangelical. (Ana Adams: "Brincando el Charco... '' in Power, Politics and Pentecostals in Latin America, Edward Cleary, ed., 1997. p. 164).
The data provided for 2014 by Pew Research Center, is summarized in the chart to the right. An Associated Press article in March 2014 stated that "more than 70 percent of whom identify themselves as Catholic '' but provided no source for this information.
The CIA World Factbook reports that 85 % of the population of Puerto Rico identifies as Roman Catholic, while 15 % identify as Protestant and Other. Neither a date or a source for that information is provided and may not be recent. A 2013 Pew Research survey found that only about 45 % of Puerto Rican adults identified themselves as Catholic, 29 % as Protestant and 20 % as unaffiliated with a religion. The people surveyed by Pew consisted of Puerto Ricans living in the 50 states and DC and may not be indicative of those living in the Commonwealth.
By 2014, a Pew Research report, with the sub-title Widespread Change in a Historically Catholic Region, indicated that only 56 % of Puerto Ricans were Catholic and that 33 % were Protestant; this survey was completed between October 2013 and February 2014.
An Eastern Orthodox community, the Dormition of the Most Holy Theotokos / St. Spyridon 's Church is located in Trujillo Alto, and serves the small Orthodox community. This affiliation accounted for under 1 % of the population in 2010 according to the Pew Research report. In 1940, Juanita García Peraza founded the Mita Congregation, the first religion of Puerto Rican origin. Taíno religious practices have been rediscovered / reinvented to a degree by a handful of advocates. Similarly, some aspects of African religious traditions have been kept by some adherents. In 1952, a handful of American Jews established the island 's first synagogue; this religion accounts for under 1 % of the population in 2010 according to the Pew Research report. The synagogue, called Sha'are Zedeck, hired its first rabbi in 1954. Puerto Rico has the largest Jewish community in the Caribbean, numbering 3000 people (date not stated), and is the only Caribbean island in which the Conservative, Reform and Orthodox Jewish movements all are represented. In 2007, there were about 5,000 Muslims in Puerto Rico, representing about 0.13 % of the population. Eight mosques are located throughout the island, with most Muslims living in Río Piedras and Caguas, most of these Muslims are of Palestinian and Jordanian descent. In 2015, the 25,832 Jehovah 's Witnesses represented about 0.70 % of the population, with 324 congregations. The Padmasambhava Buddhist Center, whose followers practice Tibetan Buddhism, has a branch in Puerto Rico.
Roman Catholic Cathedral of San Juan Bautista.
Anglican Iglesia Santísima Trinidad in Ponce
Islamic Center at Ponce
Inside Sha'are Zedeck in San Juan
Puerto Rico has 8 senatorial districts, 40 representative districts and 78 municipalities. It has a republican form of government with separation of powers subject to the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United States. Its current powers are all delegated by the United States Congress and lack full protection under the United States Constitution. Puerto Rico 's head of state is the President of the United States.
The government of Puerto Rico, based on the formal republican system, is composed of three branches: the executive, legislative, and judicial branch. The executive branch is headed by the governor, currently Ricky Rosselló. The legislative branch consists of a bicameral legislature called the Legislative Assembly, made up of a Senate as its upper chamber and a House of Representatives as its lower chamber. The Senate is headed by the President of the Senate, currently Thomas Rivera Schatz, while the House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker of the House, currently Johnny Méndez. The governor and legislators are elected by popular vote every four years with the last election held in November 2016.
The judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico, currently Maite Oronoz Rodríguez. Members of the judicial branch are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the Senate.
Puerto Rico is represented in the United States Congress by a nonvoting delegate, the Resident Commissioner, currently Jenniffer González. Current congressional rules have removed the Commissioner 's power to vote in the Committee of the Whole, but the Commissioner can vote in committee.
Puerto Rican elections are governed by the Federal Election Commission and the State Elections Commission of Puerto Rico. While residing in Puerto Rico, Puerto Ricans can not vote in U.S. presidential elections, but they can vote in primaries. Puerto Ricans who become residents of a U.S. state can vote in presidential elections.
Puerto Rico hosts consulates from 41 countries, mainly from the Americas and Europe, with most located in San Juan. As an unincorporated territory of the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first - order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. government, but has 78 municipalities at the second level. Mona Island is not a municipality, but part of the municipality of Mayagüez.
Municipalities are subdivided into wards or barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for a four - year term. The municipality of San Juan (previously called "town ''), was founded first, in 1521, San Germán in 1570, Coamo in 1579, Arecibo in 1614, Aguada in 1692 and Ponce in 1692. An increase of settlement saw the founding of 30 municipalities in the 18th century and 34 in the 19th. Six were founded in the 20th century; the last was Florida in 1971.
Since 1952, Puerto Rico has had three main political parties: the Popular Democratic Party (PPD in Spanish), the New Progressive Party (PNP in Spanish) and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP). The three parties stand for different political status. The PPD, for example, seeks to maintain the island 's status with the U.S. as a commonwealth, while the PNP, on the other hand, seeks to make Puerto Rico a state of the United States. The PIP, in contrast, seeks a complete separation from the United States by seeking to make Puerto Rico a sovereign nation. In terms of party strength, the PPD and PNP usually hold about 47 % of the vote each while the PIP holds only about 5 %.
After 2007, other parties emerged on the island. The first, the Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party (PPR in Spanish) was registered that same year. The party claims that it seeks to address the islands ' problems from a status - neutral platform. But it ceased to remain as a registered party when it failed to obtain the required number of votes in the 2008 general election. Four years later, the 2012 election saw the emergence of the Movimiento Unión Soberanista (MUS; English: Sovereign Union Movement) and the Partido del Pueblo Trabajador (PPT; English: Working People 's Party) but none obtained more than 1 % of the vote.
Other non-registered parties include the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, the Socialist Workers Movement, and the Hostosian National Independence Movement.
The insular legal system is a blend of civil law and the common law systems.
Puerto Rico is the only current U.S. possession whose legal system operates primarily in a language other than American English: namely, Spanish. Because the U.S. federal government operates primarily in English, all Puerto Rican attorneys must be bilingual in order to litigate in English in U.S. federal courts, and litigate federal preemption issues in Puerto Rican courts.
Title 48 of the United States Code outlines the role of the United States Code to United States territories and insular areas such as Puerto Rico. After the U.S. government assumed control of Puerto Rico in 1901, it initiated legal reforms resulting in the adoption of codes of criminal law, criminal procedure, and civil procedure modeled after those then in effect in California. Although Puerto Rico has since followed the federal example of transferring criminal and civil procedure from statutory law to rules promulgated by the judiciary, several portions of its criminal law still reflect the influence of the California Penal Code.
The judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court, which is the only appellate court required by the Constitution. All other courts are created by the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico. There is also a Federal District Court for Puerto Rico. Someone accused of a criminal act at the federal level may not be accused for the same act in a Commonwealth court, unlike a state court, since Puerto Rico as a territory lacks sovereignty separate from Congress as a state does. Such a parallel accusation would constitute double jeopardy.
The nature of Puerto Rico 's political relationship with the U.S. is the subject of ongoing debate in Puerto Rico, the United States Congress, and the United Nations. Specifically, the basic question is whether Puerto Rico should remain a U.S. territory, become a U.S. state, or become an independent country.
Constitutionally, Puerto Rico is subject to the plenary powers of the United States Congress under the territorial clause of Article IV of the U.S. Constitution. Laws enacted at the federal level in the United States apply to Puerto Rico as well, regardless of its political status. Their residents do not have voting representation in the U.S. Congress. Like the different states of the United States, Puerto Rico lacks "the full sovereignty of an independent nation '', for example, the power to manage its "external relations with other nations '', which is held by the U.S. federal government. The Supreme Court of the United States has indicated that once the U.S. Constitution has been extended to an area (by Congress or the courts), its coverage is irrevocable. To hold that the political branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this Court, say "what the law is ''.
Puerto Ricans "were collectively made U.S. citizens '' in 1917 as a result of the Jones - Shafroth Act. U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico can not vote for the U.S. president, though both major parties, Republican and Democratic, run primary elections in Puerto Rico to send delegates to vote on a presidential candidate. Since Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory (see above) and not a U.S. state, the United States Constitution does not fully enfranchise U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico.
Only fundamental rights under the American federal constitution and adjudications are applied to Puerto Ricans. Various other U.S Supreme Court decisions have held which rights apply in Puerto Rico and which ones do not. Puerto Ricans have a long history of service in the U.S. Armed Forces and, since 1917, they have been included in the U.S. compulsory draft whensoever it has been in effect.
Though the Commonwealth government has its own tax laws, Puerto Ricans are also required to pay many kinds of U.S. federal taxes, not including the federal personal income tax for Puerto Rico - sourced income, but only under certain circumstances. In 2009, Puerto Rico paid $3.742 billion into the U.S. Treasury. Residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security, and are thus eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement. They are excluded from the Supplemental Security Income (SSI), and the island actually receives a smaller fraction of the Medicaid funding it would receive if it were a U.S. state. Also, Medicare providers receive less - than - full state - like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico, even though the latter paid fully into the system.
While a state may try an individual for the same crime he / she was tried in federal court, this is not the case in Puerto Rico. Being a U.S. territory, Puerto Rico 's authority to enact a criminal code derives from Congress and not from local sovereignty as with the states. Thus, such a parallel accusation would constitute double jeopardy and is constitutionally impermissible.
In 1992, President George H.W. Bush issued a memorandum to heads of executive departments and agencies establishing the current administrative relationship between the federal government and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. This memorandum directs all federal departments, agencies, and officials to treat Puerto Rico administratively as if it were a state, insofar as doing so would not disrupt federal programs or operations.
Many federal executive branch agencies have significant presence in Puerto Rico, just as in any state, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Transportation Security Administration, Social Security Administration, and others. While Puerto Rico has its own Commonwealth judicial system similar to that of a U.S. state, there is also a U.S federal district court in Puerto Rico, and Puerto Ricans have served as judges in that Court and in other federal courts on the U.S. mainland regardless of their residency status at the time of their appointment. Sonia Sotomayor, a New Yorker of Puerto Rican descent, serves as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Puerto Ricans have also been frequently appointed to high - level federal positions, including serving as United States Ambassadors to other nations.
Puerto Rico is subject to the Commerce and Territorial Clause of the Constitution of the United States and, therefore, is restricted on how it can engage with other nations, sharing the opportunities and limitations that state governments have albeit not being one. As is the case with state governments, regardless, it has established several trade agreements with other nations, particularly with Hispanic American countries such as Colombia and Panamá.
It has also established trade promotion offices in many foreign countries, all Spanish - speaking, and within the United States itself, which now include Spain, the Dominican Republic, Panama, Colombia, Washington, D.C., New York City and Florida, and has included in the past offices in Chile, Costa Rica, and Mexico. Such agreements require permission from the U.S. Department of State; most, are simply allowed by existing laws or trade treaties between the United States and other nations which supersede trade agreements pursued by Puerto Rico and different U.S. states.
At the local level, Puerto Rico established by law that the international relations which states and territories are allowed to engage must be handled by the Department of State of Puerto Rico, an executive department, headed by the Secretary of State of Puerto Rico, who also serves as the territory 's lieutenant governor. It is also charged to liaise with general consuls and honorary consuls based in Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration, along with the Office of the Resident Commissioner, manage all its intergovernmental affairs before entities of or in the United States (including the federal government of the United States, local and state governments of the United States, and public or private entities in the United States).
Both entities frequently assist the Department of State of Puerto Rico in engaging with Washington, D.C. - based ambassadors and federal agencies that handle Puerto Rico 's foreign affairs, such as the U.S. Department of State, the Agency for International Development, and others. The current Secretary of State is Víctor Suárez Meléndez from the Popular Democratic Party and member of the Democratic Party of the United States, while the current Director of the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration is Juan Eugenio Hernández Mayoral also from the Popular Democratic and member of the Democratic Party.
The Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, the delegate elected by Puerto Ricans to represent them before the federal government, including the U.S. Congress, sits in the United States House of Representatives, serves and votes on congressional committees, and functions in every respect as a legislator except being denied a vote on the final disposition of legislation on the House floor, also engages in foreign affairs to the same extent as other members of Congress. The current Resident Commissioner is Pedro Pierluisi from the New Progressive Party and member of the Democratic Party of the United States.
Many Puerto Ricans have served as United States ambassadors to different nations and international organizations, such as the Organization of American States, mostly but not exclusively in Latin America. For example, Maricarmen Aponte, a Puerto Rican and now an Acting Assistant Secretary of State, previously served as U.S. ambassador to El Salvador.
As it is a territory of the United States of America, the defense of Puerto Rico is provided by the United States as part of the Treaty of Paris with the President of the United States as its commander - in - chief. Puerto Rico has its own Puerto Rico National Guard, and its own state defense force, the Puerto Rico State Guard, which by local law is under the authority of the Puerto Rico National Guard.
The commander - in - chief of both local forces is the governor of Puerto Rico who delegates his authority to the Puerto Rico Adjutant General, currently Colonel Marta Carcana. The Adjutant General, in turn, delegates the authority over the State Guard to another officer but retains the authority over the Puerto Rico National Guard as a whole.
U.S. military installations in Puerto Rico were part of the U.S. Atlantic Command (LANTCOM after 1993 USACOM), which had authority over all U.S. military operations that took place throughout the Atlantic. Puerto Rico had been seen as crucial in supporting LANTCOM 's mission until 1999, when U.S. Atlantic Command was renamed and given a new mission as United States Joint Forces Command. Puerto Rico is currently under the responsibility of United States Northern Command.
Both the Naval Forces Caribbean (NFC) and the Fleet Air Caribbean (FAIR) were formerly based at the Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. The NFC had authority over all U.S. Naval activity in the waters of the Caribbean while FAIR had authority over all U.S. military flights and air operations over the Caribbean. With the closing of the Roosevelt Roads and Vieques Island training facilities, the U.S. Navy has basically exited from Puerto Rico, except for the ships that steam by, and the only significant military presence in the island is the U.S. Army at Ft Buchanan, the Puerto Rican Army and Air National Guards, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Protests over the noise of bombing practice forced the closure of the naval base. This resulted in a loss of 6,000 jobs and an annual decrease in local income of $300 million.
A branch of the U.S. Army National Guard is stationed in Puerto Rico -- known as the Puerto Rico Army National Guard -- which performs missions equivalent to those of the Army National Guards of the different states of the United States, including ground defense, disaster relief, and control of civil unrest. The local National Guard also incorporates a branch of the U.S. Air National Guard -- known as the Puerto Rico Air National Guard -- which performs missions equivalent to those of the Air National Guards of each one of the U.S. states.
At different times in the 20th century, the U.S. had about 25 military or naval installations in Puerto Rico, some very small ones, as well as large installations. The largest of these installations were the former Roosevelt Roads Naval Station in Ceiba, the Atlantic Fleet Weapons Training Facility (AFWTF) on Vieques, the National Guard training facility at Camp Santiago in Salinas, Fort Allen in Juana Diaz, the Army 's Fort Buchanan in San Juan, the former U.S. Air Force Ramey Air Force Base in Aguadilla, and the Puerto Rico Air National Guard at Muñiz Air Force base in San Juan.
The former U.S. Navy facilities at Roosevelt Roads, Vieques, and Sabana Seca have been deactivated and partially turned over to the local government. Other than U.S. Coast Guard and Puerto Rico National Guard facilities, there are only two remaining military installations in Puerto Rico: the U.S. Army 's small Ft. Buchanan (supporting local veterans and reserve units) and the PRANG (Puerto Rico Air National Guard) Muñiz Air Base (the C - 130 Fleet). In recent years, the U.S. Congress has considered their deactivations, but these have been opposed by diverse public and private entities in Puerto Rico -- such as retired military who rely on Ft. Buchanan for the services available there.
Puerto Ricans have participated in many of the military conflicts in which the United States has been involved. For example, they participated in the American Revolution, when volunteers from Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Mexico fought the British in 1779 under the command of General Bernardo de Gálvez (1746 -- 1786), and have continued to participate up to the present - day conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan.
A significant number of Puerto Ricans participate as members and work for the U.S. Armed Services, largely as National Guard members and civilian employees. The size of the overall military - related community in Puerto Rico is estimated to be 100,000 individuals. This includes retired personnel. Fort Buchanan has about 4,000 military and civilian personnel. In addition, approximately 17,000 people are members of the Puerto Rico Army and Air National Guards, or the U.S. Reserve forces. Puerto Rican soldiers have served in every U.S. military conflict from World War I to the current military engagement known by the United States and its allies as the War against Terrorism.
The 65th Infantry Regiment, nicknamed "The Borinqueneers '' from the original Taíno name of the island (Borinquen), is a Puerto Rican regiment of the United States Army. The regiment 's motto is Honor et Fidelitas, Latin for Honor and Fidelity. The 65th Infantry Regiment participated in World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the War on Terror and in 2014 was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal, presented by President Barack Obama, for its heroism during the Korean War.
There are no counties, as there are in the 50 United States. There are 78 municipalities. Municipalities are subdivided into barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected to four - year terms.
The economy of Puerto Rico is classified as a high income economy by the World Bank and as the most competitive economy in Latin America by the World Economic Forum but Puerto Rico currently has a public debt of $72.204 billion (equivalent to 103 % of GNP), and a government deficit of $2.5 billion. According to World Bank, gross national income per capita of Puerto Rico in 2013 is $23,830 (PPP, International Dollars), ranked as 63rd among all sovereign and dependent territories entities in the world. Its economy is mainly driven by manufacturing (primarily pharmaceuticals, textiles, petrochemicals and electronics) followed by the service industry (primarily finance, insurance, real estate and tourism). In recent years, the territory has also become a popular destination for MICE (meetings, incentives, conferencing, exhibitions), with a modern convention centre district overlooking the Port of San Juan.
The geography of Puerto Rico and its political status are both determining factors on its economic prosperity, primarily due to its relatively small size as an island; its lack of natural resources used to produce raw materials, and, consequently, its dependence on imports; as well as its territorial status with the United States, which controls its foreign policy while exerting trading restrictions, particularly in its shipping industry.
Puerto Rico experienced a recession from 2006 to 2011, interrupted by 4 quarters of economic growth, and entered into recession again in 2013, following growing fiscal imbalance and the expiration of the IRS Section 936 corporate incentives that the U.S. Internal Revenue Code had applied to Puerto Rico. This IRS section was critical to the economy, as it established tax exemptions for U.S. corporations that settled in Puerto Rico, and allowed their insular subsidiaries to send their earnings to the parent corporation at any time, without paying federal tax on corporate income. Puerto Rico has surprisingly been able to maintain a relatively low inflation in the past decade while maintaining a purchasing power parity per capita higher than 80 % of the rest of the world.
Academically, most of Puerto Rico 's economic woes stem from federal regulations that expired, have been repealed, or no longer apply to Puerto Rico; its inability to become self - sufficient and self - sustainable throughout history; its highly politicized public policy which tends to change whenever a political party gains power; as well as its highly inefficient local government which has accrued a public debt equal to 68 % of its gross domestic product throughout time.
In comparison to the different states of the United States, Puerto Rico is poorer than Mississippi (the poorest state of the U.S.) with 41 % of its population below the poverty line. When compared to Latin America, Puerto Rico has the highest GDP per capita in the region. Its main trading partners are the United States itself, Ireland, and Japan, with most products coming from East Asia, mainly from China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. At a global scale, Puerto Rico 's dependency on oil for transportation and electricity generation, as well as its dependency on food imports and raw materials, makes Puerto Rico volatile and highly reactive to changes in the world economy and climate. Puerto Rico 's agricultural sector represents less than 1 % of GNP.
In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government - debt crisis posed serious problems for the government which was saddled with outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion at a time with a 45 percent poverty rate and 12.4 % unemployment that is more than twice the mainland U.S. average. The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession.
The Commonwealth had been defaulting on many debts, including bonds, since 2015. With debt payments due, the Governor was facing the risk of a government shutdown and failure to fund the managed health care system. "Without action before April, Puerto Rico 's ability to execute contracts for Fiscal Year 2018 with its managed care organizations will be threatened, thereby putting at risk beginning July 1, 2017 the health care of up to 900,000 poor U.S. citizens living in Puerto Rico '', according to a letter sent to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Health and Human Services. They also said that "Congress must enact measures recommended by both Republicans and Democrats that fix Puerto Rico 's inequitable health care financing structure and promote sustained economic growth. ''
Initially, the oversight board created under PROMESA called for Puerto Rico 's governor Ricardo Rosselló to deliver a fiscal turnaround plan by January 28. Just before that deadline, the control board gave the Commonwealth government until February 28 to present a fiscal plan (including negotiations with creditors for restructuring debt) to solve the problems. A moratorium on lawsuits by debtors was extended to May 31. It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals to avoid a bankruptcy - like process under PROMESA. An internal survey conducted by the Puerto Rican Economists Association revealed that the majority of Puerto Rican economists reject the policy recommendations of the Board and the Rosselló government, with more than 80 % of economists arguing in favor of auditing the debt.
In early August 2017, the island 's financial oversight board (created by PROMESA) planned to institute two days off without pay per month for government employees, down from the original plan of four days per month; the latter had been expected to achieve $218 million in savings. Governor Rossello rejected this plan as unjustified and unnecessary. Pension reforms were also discussed including a proposal for a 10 % reduction in benefits to begin addressing the $50 billion in unfunded pension liabilities.
Puerto Rico has an operating budget of about U.S. $9.8 billion with expenses at about $10.4 billion; creating a structural deficit of $775 million (about 7.9 % of the budget). The practice of approving budgets with a structural deficit has been done for 17 consecutive years starting in 2000. Throughout those years, including present time, all budgets contemplated issuing bonds to cover said projected deficits rather than make proper adjustments. This practice eroded Puerto Rico 's treasury as the government had already been issuing bonds to balance its actual budget for four decades since 1973.
Projected deficits added substantial burdens to an already indebted nation which accrued a public debt of $71 B or about 70 % of Puerto Rico 's gross domestic product. This sparked an ongoing government - debt crisis after Puerto Rico 's general obligation bonds were downgraded to speculative non-investment grade ("junk status '') by three credit rating agencies. In terms of financial control, almost 9.6 % -- or about $1.5 billion -- of Puerto Rico 's central government budget expenses for FY2014 is expected to be spent on debt service. Harsher budget cuts are expected as Puerto Rico must now repay larger chunks of debts in the following years.
For practical reasons the budget is divided into two aspects: a "general budget '' which comprises the assignments funded exclusively by the Department of Treasury of Puerto Rico, and the "consolidated budget '' which comprises the assignments funded by the general budget, by Puerto Rico 's government - owned corporations, by revenue expected from loans, by the sale of government bonds, by subsidies extended by the federal government of the United States, and by other funds.
Both budgets contrast each other drastically, with the consolidated budget being usually thrice the size of the general budget; currently $29 B and $9.0 B respectively. Almost one out of every four dollars in the consolidated budget comes from U.S. federal subsidies while government - owned corporations compose more than 31 % of the consolidated budget.
The critical aspects come from the sale of bonds, which comprise 7 % of the consolidated budget; a ratio that increased annually due to the government 's inability to prepare a balanced budget in addition to being incapable of generating enough income to cover all its expenses. In particular, the government - owned corporations add a heavy burden to the overall budget and public debt as not a single one is self - sufficient, all of them carrying extremely inefficient operations. For example, in FY2011 the government - owned corporations reported aggregated losses of more than $1.3 B with the Puerto Rico Highways and Transportation Authority (PRHTA) reporting losses of $409 M, the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA; the government monopoly that controls all electricity on the island) reporting losses of $272 M, while the Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority (PRASA; the government monopoly that controls all water utilities on the island) reported losses of $112 M.
Losses by government - owned corporations have been defrayed through the issuance of bonds compounding more than 40 % of Puerto Rico 's entire public debt today. Holistically, from FY2000 -- FY2010 Puerto Rico 's debt grew at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9 % while GDP remained stagnant. This has not always provided a long - term solution. In early July 2017 for example, the PREPA power authority was effectively bankrupt after defaulting in a plan to restructure $9 billion in bond debt; the agency planned to seek Court protection.
In terms of protocol, the governor, together with the Puerto Rico Office of Management and Budget (OGP in Spanish), formulates the budget he believes is required to operate all government branches for the ensuing fiscal year. He then submits this formulation as a budget request to the Puerto Rican legislature before July 1, the date established by law as the beginning of Puerto Rico 's fiscal year. While the constitution establishes that the request must be submitted "at the beginning of each regular session '', the request is typically submitted during the first week of May as the regular sessions of the legislature begin in January and it would be unpractical to submit a request so far ahead. Once submitted the budget is then approved by the legislature, typically with amendments, through a joint resolution and referred back to the governor for his approval. The governor then either approves it or vetoes it. If vetoed the legislature can then either refer it back with amendments for the governor 's approval, or approve it without the governor 's consent by two - thirds of the bodies of each chamber.
Once approved the Department of Treasury disburses funds to the Office of Management and Budget which in turn disburses the funds to the respective agencies, all while the Puerto Rico Government Development Bank (the government 's intergovernmental bank) manages all related banking affairs including those related to the government - owned corporations.
The cost of living in Puerto Rico is high and has increased over the past decade. San Juan 's in particular is higher than Atlanta, Dallas, and Seattle but lower than Boston, Chicago, and New York City. One factor is housing prices which are comparable to Miami and Los Angeles, although property taxes are considerably lower than most places in the United States.
Statistics used for cost of living sometimes do not take into account certain costs, such as the high cost of electricity, which has hovered in the 24 ¢ to 30 ¢ range per kilowatt / hour, two to three times the national average, increased travel costs for longer flights, additional shipping fees, and the loss of promotional participation opportunities for customers "outside the continental United States ''. While some online stores do offer free shipping on orders to Puerto Rico, many merchants exclude Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico and other United States territories.
The household median income is stated as $19,350 and the mean income as $30,463 in the U.S. Census Bureau 's 2015 update. The report also indicates that 45.5 % of individuals are below the poverty level. The median home value in Puerto Rico ranges from U.S. $100,000 to U.S. $214,000, while the national median home value sits at $119,600.
One of the most cited contributors to the high cost of living in Puerto Rico is the Merchant Marine Act of 1920, also known as the Jones Act, which prevents foreign - flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American ports, a practice known as cabotage. Because of the Jones Act, foreign ships inbound with goods from Central and South America, Western Europe, and Africa can not stop in Puerto Rico, offload Puerto Rico - bound goods, load mainland - bound Puerto Rico - manufactured goods, and continue to U.S. ports. Instead, they must proceed directly to U.S. ports, where distributors break bulk and send Puerto Rico - bound manufactured goods to Puerto Rico across the ocean by U.S. - flagged ships.
The local government of Puerto Rico has requested several times to the U.S. Congress to exclude Puerto Rico from the Jones Act restrictions without success. The most recent measure has been taken by the 17th Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico through R. Conc. del S. 21. These measures have always received support from all the major local political parties.
In 2013 the Government Accountability Office published a report which concluded that "repealing or amending the Jones Act cabotage law might cut Puerto Rico shipping costs '' and that "shippers believed that opening the trade to non-U.S. - flag competition could lower costs ''. However, the same GAO report also found that "(shippers) doing business in Puerto Rico that GAO contacted reported that the freight rates are often -- although not always -- lower for foreign carriers going to and from Puerto Rico and foreign locations than the rates shippers pay to ship similar cargo to and from the United States, despite longer distances. Data were not available to allow us to validate the examples given or verify the extent to which this difference occurred. '' Ultimately, the report concluded that "(the) effects of modifying the application of the Jones Act for Puerto Rico are highly uncertain '' for both Puerto Rico and the United States, particularly for the U.S. shipping industry and the military preparedness of the United States.
The first school in Puerto Rico was the Escuela de Gramática (Grammar School). It was established by Bishop Alonso Manso in 1513, in the area where the Cathedral of San Juan was to be constructed. The school was free of charge and the courses taught were Latin language, literature, history, science, art, philosophy and theology.
Education in Puerto Rico is divided in three levels -- Primary (elementary school grades 1 -- 6), Secondary (intermediate and high school grades 7 -- 12), and Higher Level (undergraduate and graduate studies). As of 2002, the literacy rate of the Puerto Rican population was 94.1 %; by gender, it was 93.9 % for males and 94.4 % for females. According to the 2000 Census, 60.0 % of the population attained a high school degree or higher level of education, and 18.3 % has a bachelor 's degree or higher.
Instruction at the primary school level is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 18. As of 2010, there are 1539 public schools and 806 private schools.
The largest and oldest university system is the public University of Puerto Rico (UPR) with 11 campuses. The largest private university systems on the island are the Sistema Universitario Ana G. Mendez which operates the Universidad del Turabo, Metropolitan University and Universidad del Este. Other private universities include the multi-campus Inter American University, the Pontifical Catholic University, Universidad Politécnica de Puerto Rico, and the Universidad del Sagrado Corazón. Puerto Rico has four schools of Medicine and three ABA - approved Law Schools.
As of 2015 medical care in Puerto Rico had been heavily impacted by emigration of doctors to the mainland and underfunding of the Medicare and Medicaid programs which serve 60 % of the island 's population. Affordable medical insurance under the Affordable Care Act is not available in Puerto Rico as, since Puerto Ricans pay no income tax, no subsidies are available.
The city of San Juan has a system of triage, hospital, and preventive care health services. The municipal government sponsors regular health fairs in different areas of the city focusing on health care for the elderly and the disabled.
In 2017, there were 69 hospitals in Puerto Rico. There are twenty hospitals in San Juan, half of which are operated by the government. The largest hospital is the Centro Médico de Río Piedras (the Río Piedras Medical Center). Founded in 1956, it is operated by the Medical Services Administration of the Department of Health of Puerto Rico, and is actually a network of eight hospitals:
The city of San Juan operates nine other hospitals. Of these, eight are Diagnostic and Treatment Centers located in communities throughout San Juan. These nine hospitals are:
There are also ten private hospitals in San Juan. These are:
The city of Ponce is served by several clinics and hospitals. There are four comprehensive care hospitals: Hospital Dr. Pila, Hospital San Cristobal, Hospital San Lucas, and Hospital de Damas. In addition, Hospital Oncológico Andrés Grillasca specializes in the treatment of cancer, and Hospital Siquiátrico specializes in mental disorders. There is also a U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Outpatient Clinic that provides health services to U.S. veterans. The U.S. Veterans Administration will build a new hospital in the city to satisfy regional needs. Hospital de Damas is listed in the U.S. News & World Report as one of the best hospitals under the U.S. flag. Ponce has the highest concentration of medical infrastructure per inhabitant of any municipality in Puerto Rico.
On the island of Culebra, there is a small hospital in the island called Hospital de Culebra. It also offers pharmacy services to residents and visitors. For emergencies, patients are transported by plane to Fajardo on the main island.
The town of Caguas has three hospitals: Hospital Hima San Pablo, Menonita Caguas Regional Hospital, and the San Juan Bautista Medical Center.
The town of Cayey is served by the Hospital Menonita de Cayey, and the Hospital Municipal de Cayey.
Reforma de Salud de Puerto Rico (Puerto Rico Health Reform) -- locally referred to as La Reforma (The Reform) -- is a government - run program which provides medical and health care services to the indigent and impoverished, by means of contracting private health insurance companies, rather than employing government - owned hospitals and emergency centers. The Reform is administered by the Puerto Rico Health Insurance Administration.
The overall rate of crime is low in Puerto Rico. The territory has a high firearm homicide rate. The homicide rate of 19.2 per 100,000 inhabitants was significantly higher than any U.S. state in 2014. Most homicide victims are gang members and drug traffickers with about 80 % of homicides in Puerto Rico being drug related.
Modern Puerto Rican culture is a unique mix of cultural antecedents: including European (predominantly Spanish, Italian, French, German and Irish), African, and, more recently, some North American and lots of South Americans. A large number of Cubans and Dominicans have relocated to the island in the past few decades.
From the Spanish, Puerto Rico received the Spanish language, the Catholic religion and the vast majority of their cultural and moral values and traditions. The United States added English - language influence, the university system and the adoption of some holidays and practices. On March 12, 1903, the University of Puerto Rico was officially founded, branching out from the "Escuela Normal Industrial '', a smaller organization that was founded in Fajardo three years before.
Much of Puerto Rican culture centers on the influence of music and has been shaped by other cultures combining with local and traditional rhythms. Early in the history of Puerto Rican music, the influences of Spanish and African traditions were most noticeable. The cultural movements across the Caribbean and North America have played a vital role in the more recent musical influences which have reached Puerto Rico.
The official symbols of Puerto Rico are the reinita mora or Puerto Rican spindalis (a type of bird), the flor de maga (a type of flower), and the ceiba or kapok (a type of tree). The unofficial animal and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the coquí, a small frog. Other popular symbols of Puerto Rico are the jíbaro (the "countryman ''), and the carite.
The architecture of Puerto Rico demonstrates a broad variety of traditions, styles and national influences accumulated over four centuries of Spanish rule, and a century of American rule. Spanish colonial architecture, Ibero - Islamic, art deco, post-modern, and many other architectural forms are visible throughout the island. From town to town, there are also many regional distinctions.
Old San Juan is one of the two barrios, in addition to Santurce, that made up the municipality of San Juan from 1864 to 1951, at which time the former independent municipality of Río Piedras was annexed. With its abundance of shops, historic places, museums, open air cafés, restaurants, gracious homes, tree - shaded plazas, and its old beauty and architectonical peculiarity, Old San Juan is a main spot for local and internal tourism. The district is also characterized by numerous public plazas and churches including San José Church and the Cathedral of San Juan Bautista, which contains the tomb of the Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León. It also houses the oldest Catholic school for elementary education in Puerto Rico, the Colegio de Párvulos, built in 1865.
The oldest parts of the district of Old San Juan remain partly enclosed by massive walls. Several defensive structures and notable forts, such as the emblematic Fort San Felipe del Morro, Fort San Cristóbal, and El Palacio de Santa Catalina, also known as La Fortaleza, acted as the primary defenses of the settlement which was subjected to numerous attacks. La Fortaleza continues to serve also as the executive mansion for the Governor of Puerto Rico. Many of the historic fortifications are part of San Juan National Historic Site.
During the 1940s, sections of Old San Juan fell into disrepair, and many renovation plans were suggested. There was even a strong push to develop Old San Juan as a "small Manhattan ''. Strict remodeling codes were implemented to prevent new constructions from affecting the common colonial Spanish architectural themes of the old city. When a project proposal suggested that the old Carmelite Convent in San Juan be demolished to erect a new hotel, the Institute had the building declared as a historic building, and then asked that it be converted to a hotel in a renewed facility. This was what became the Hotel El Convento in Old San Juan. The paradigm to reconstruct and renovate the old city and revitalize it has been followed by other cities in the Americas, particularly Havana, Lima and Cartagena de Indias.
Ponce Creole is an architectural style created in Ponce, Puerto Rico, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This style of Puerto Rican buildings is found predominantly in residential homes in Ponce that developed between 1895 and 1920. Ponce Creole architecture borrows heavily from the traditions of the French, the Spaniards, and the Caribbean to create houses that were especially built to withstand the hot and dry climate of the region, and to take advantage of the sun and sea breezes characteristic of the southern Puerto Rico 's Caribbean Sea coast. It is a blend of wood and masonry, incorporating architectural elements of other styles, from Classical revival and Spanish Revival to Victorian.
Puerto Rican art reflects many influences, much from its ethnically diverse background. A form of folk art, called santos evolved from the Catholic Church 's use of sculptures to convert indigenous Puerto Ricans to Christianity. Santos depict figures of saints and other religious icons and are made from native wood, clay, and stone. After shaping simple, they are often finished by painting them in vivid colors. Santos vary in size, with the smallest examples around eight inches tall and the largest about twenty inches tall. Traditionally, santos were seen as messengers between the earth and Heaven. As such, they occupied a special place on household altars, where people prayed to them, asked for help, or tried to summon their protection.
Also popular, caretas or vejigantes are masks worn during carnivals. Similar masks signifying evil spirits were used in both Spain and Africa, though for different purposes. The Spanish used their masks to frighten lapsed Christians into returning to the church, while tribal Africans used them as protection from the evil spirits they represented. True to their historic origins Puerto Rican caretas always bear at least several horns and fangs. While usually constructed of papier - mâché, coconut shells and fine metal screening are sometimes used as well. Red and black were the typical colors for caretas but their palette has expanded to include a wide variety of bright hues and patterns.
Puerto Rican literature evolved from the art of oral story telling to its present - day status. Written works by the native islanders of Puerto Rico were prohibited and repressed by the Spanish colonial government. Only those who were commissioned by the Spanish Crown to document the chronological history of the island were allowed to write.
Diego de Torres Vargas was allowed to circumvent this strict prohibition for three reasons: he was a priest, he came from a prosperous Spanish family, and his father was a Sergeant Major in the Spanish Army, who died while defending Puerto Rico from an invasion by the Dutch armada. In 1647, Torres Vargas wrote Descripción de la Ciudad e Isla de Puerto Rico ("Description of the Island and City of Puerto Rico ''). This historical book was the first to make a detailed geographic description of the island.
The book described all the fruits and commercial establishments of the time, mostly centered in the towns of San Juan and Ponce. The book also listed and described every mine, church, and hospital in the island at the time. The book contained notices on the State and Capital, plus an extensive and erudite bibliography. Descripción de la Ciudad e Isla de Puerto Rico was the first successful attempt at writing a comprehensive history of Puerto Rico.
Some of Puerto Rico 's earliest writers were influenced by the teachings of Rafael Cordero. Among these was Dr. Manuel A. Alonso, the first Puerto Rican writer of notable importance. In 1849 he published El Gíbaro, a collection of verses whose main themes were the poor Puerto Rican country farmer. Eugenio María de Hostos wrote La peregrinación de Bayoán in 1863, which used Bartolomé de las Casas as a spring board to reflect on Caribbean identity. After this first novel, Hostos abandoned fiction in favor of the essay which he saw as offering greater possibilities for inspiring social change.
In the late 19th century, with the arrival of the first printing press and the founding of the Royal Academy of Belles Letters, Puerto Rican literature began to flourish. The first writers to express their political views in regard to Spanish colonial rule of the island were journalists. After the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish -- American War and the island was ceded to the Americans as a condition of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, writers and poets began to express their opposition to the new colonial rule by writing about patriotic themes.
Alejandro Tapia y Rivera, also known as the Father of Puerto Rican Literature, ushered in a new age of historiography with the publication of The Historical Library of Puerto Rico. Cayetano Coll y Toste was another Puerto Rican historian and writer. His work The Indo - Antillano Vocabulary is valuable in understanding the way the Taínos lived. Dr. Manuel Zeno Gandía in 1894 wrote La Charca and told about the harsh life in the remote and mountainous coffee regions in Puerto Rico. Dr. Antonio S. Pedreira, described in his work Insularismo the cultural survival of the Puerto Rican identity after the American invasion.
With the Puerto Rican diaspora of the 1940s, Puerto Rican literature was greatly influenced by a phenomenon known as the Nuyorican Movement. Puerto Rican literature continued to flourish and many Puerto Ricans have since distinguished themselves as authors, journalists, poets, novelists, playwrights, screenwriters, essayists and have also stood out in other literary fields. The influence of Puerto Rican literature has transcended the boundaries of the island to the United States and the rest of the world. Over the past fifty years, significant writers include Ed Vega, Luis Rafael Sánchez, Piri Thomas, Giannina Braschi, and Miguel Piñero. Esmeralda Santiago has written an autobiographical trilogy about growing up in modern Puerto Rico as well as an historical novel, Conquistadora, about life on a sugar plantation during the mid-19th century.
The media in Puerto Rico includes local radio stations, television stations and newspapers, the majority of which are conducted in Spanish. There are also three stations of the U.S. Armed Forces Radio and Television Service. Newspapers with daily distribution are El Nuevo Dia, El Vocero and Indice, Metro, and Primera Hora. El Vocero is distributed free of charge as well as Indice and Metro.
Newspapers distributed on a weekly or regional basis include Claridad, La Perla del Sur, La Opinion, Vision, and La Estrella del Norte, among others. Several television channels provide local content in the island. These include WIPR - TV, Telemundo, Univision Puerto Rico, WAPA - TV, and WKAQ - TV.
The music of Puerto Rico has evolved as a heterogeneous and dynamic product of diverse cultural resources. The most conspicuous musical sources have been Spain and West Africa, although many aspects of Puerto Rican music reflect origins elsewhere in Europe and the Caribbean and, over the last century, from the U.S. Puerto Rican music culture today comprises a wide and rich variety of genres, ranging from indigenous genres like bomba, plena, aguinaldo, danza and salsa to recent hybrids like reggaeton.
Puerto Rico has some national instruments, like the Cuatro (Spanish for Four). The cuatro is a local instrument that was made by the "Jibaro '' or people from the mountains. Originally, the Cuatro consisted of four steel strings, hence its name, but currently the Cuatro consists of five double steel strings. It is easily confused with a guitar, even by locals. When held upright, from right to left, the strings are G, D, A, E, B.
In the realm of classical music, the island hosts two main orchestras, the Orquesta Sinfónica de Puerto Rico and the Orquesta Filarmónica de Puerto Rico. The Casals Festival takes place annually in San Juan, drawing in classical musicians from around the world.
With respect to opera, the legendary Puerto Rican tenor Antonio Paoli was so celebrated, that he performed private recitals for Pope Pius X and the Czar Nicholas II of Russia. In 1907, Paoli was the first operatic artist in world history to record an entire opera -- when he participated in a performance of Pagliacci by Ruggiero Leoncavallo in Milan, Italy.
Over the past fifty years, Puerto Rican artists such as Jorge Emmanuelli, Yomo Toro, Ramito, Jose Feliciano, Bobby Capo, Rafael Cortijo, Ismael Rivera, Chayanne, Tito Puente, Eddie Palmieri, Ray Barreto, Dave Valentin, Omar Rodríguez - López, Hector Lavoe, Ricky Martin, Marc Anthony and Luis Fonsi have thrilled audiences around the world.
Puerto Rican cuisine has its roots in the cooking traditions and practices of Europe (Spain), Africa and the native Taínos. In the latter part of the 19th century, the cuisine of Puerto Rico was greatly influenced by the United States in the ingredients used in its preparation. Puerto Rican cuisine has transcended the boundaries of the island, and can be found in several countries outside the archipelago. Basic ingredients include grains and legumes, herbs and spices, starchy tropical tubers, vegetables, meat and poultry, seafood and shellfish, and fruits. Main dishes include mofongo, arroz con gandules, pasteles, alcapurrias and pig roast (or lechón). Beverages include maví and piña colada. Desserts include flan, arroz con dulce (sweet rice pudding), piraguas, brazo gitanos, tembleque, polvorones, and dulce de leche.
Locals call their cuisine cocina criolla. The traditional Puerto Rican cuisine was well established by the end of the 19th century. By 1848 the first restaurant, La Mallorquina, opened in Old San Juan. El Cocinero Puertorriqueño, the island 's first cookbook was published in 1849.
From the diet of the Taíno people come many tropical roots and tubers like yautía (taro) and especially Yuca (cassava), from which thin cracker - like casabe bread is made. Ajicito or cachucha pepper, a slightly hot habanero pepper, recao / culantro (spiny leaf), achiote (annatto), peppers, ají caballero (the hottest pepper native to Puerto Rico), peanuts, guavas, pineapples, jicacos (cocoplum), quenepas (mamoncillo), lerenes (Guinea arrowroot), calabazas (tropical pumpkins), and guanabanas (soursops) are all Taíno foods. The Taínos also grew varieties of beans and some maize / corn, but maize was not as dominant in their cooking as it was for the peoples living on the mainland of Mesoamerica. This is due to the frequent hurricanes that Puerto Rico experiences, which destroy crops of maize, leaving more safeguarded plants like conucos (hills of yuca grown together).
Spanish / European influence is also seen in Puerto Rican cuisine. Wheat, chickpeas (garbanzos), capers, olives, olive oil, black pepper, onions, garlic, cilantrillo (cilantro), oregano, basil, sugarcane, citrus fruit, eggplant, ham, lard, chicken, beef, pork, and cheese all came to Borikén (Puerto Rico 's native Taino name) from Spain. The tradition of cooking complex stews and rice dishes in pots such as rice and beans are also thought to be originally European (much like Italians, Spaniards, and the British). Early Dutch, French, Italian, and Chinese immigrants influenced not only the culture but Puerto Rican cooking as well. This great variety of traditions came together to form La Cocina Criolla.
Coconuts, coffee (brought by the Arabs and Corsos to Yauco from Kafa, Ethiopia), okra, yams, sesame seeds, gandules (pigeon peas in English) sweet bananas, plantains, other root vegetables and Guinea hen, all come to Puerto Rico from Africa.
Puerto Rico has been commemorated on four U.S. postal stamps and four personalities have been featured. Insular Territories were commemorated in 1937, the third stamp honored Puerto Rico featuring ' La Fortaleza ', the Spanish Governor 's Palace. The first free election for governor of the U.S. colony of Puerto Rico was honored on April 27, 1949, at San Juan, Puerto Rico. ' Inauguration ' on the 3 - cent stamp refers to the election of Luis Munoz Marin, the first democratically elected governor of Puerto Rico. San Juan, Puerto Rico was commemorated with an 8 - cent stamp on its 450th anniversary issued September 12, 1971, featuring a sentry box from Castillo San Felipe del Morro. In the "Flags of our nation series '' 2008 -- 2012, of the fifty - five, five territorial flags were featured. Forever stamps included the Puerto Rico Flag illustrated by a bird issued 2011.
Four Puerto Rican personalities have been featured on U.S. postage stamps. These include Roberto Clemente in 1984 as an individual and in the Legends of Baseball series issued in 2000. Luis Muñoz Marín in the Great Americans series, on February 18, 1990, Julia de Burgos in the Literary Arts series, issued 2010, and José Ferrer in the Distinguished American series, issued 2012.
Baseball was one of the first sports to gain widespread popularity in Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Baseball League serves as the only active professional league, operating as a winter league. No Major League Baseball franchise or affiliate plays in Puerto Rico, however, San Juan hosted the Montreal Expos for several series in 2003 and 2004 before they moved to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals.
The Puerto Rico national baseball team has participated in the World Cup of Baseball winning one gold (1951), four silver and four bronze medals, the Caribbean Series (winning fourteen times) and the World Baseball Classic. On March 2006, San Juan 's Hiram Bithorn Stadium hosted the opening round as well as the second round of the newly formed World Baseball Classic. Puerto Rican baseball players include Hall of Famers Roberto Clemente, Orlando Cepeda and Roberto Alomar, enshrined in 1973, 1999, and 2011 respectively.
Boxing, basketball, and volleyball are considered popular sports as well. Wilfredo Gómez and McWilliams Arroyo have won their respective divisions at the World Amateur Boxing Championships. Other medalists include José Pedraza, who holds a silver medal, and three boxers who finished in third place, José Luis Vellón, Nelson Dieppa and McJoe Arroyo. In the professional circuit, Puerto Rico has the third-most boxing world champions and it is the global leader in champions per capita. These include Miguel Cotto, Félix Trinidad, Wilfred Benítez and Gómez among others.
The Puerto Rico national basketball team joined the International Basketball Federation in 1957. Since then, it has won more than 30 medals in international competitions, including gold in three FIBA Americas Championships and the 1994 Goodwill Games August 8, 2004, became a landmark date for the team when it became the first team to defeat the United States in an Olympic tournament since the integration of National Basketball Association players. Winning the inaugural game with scores of 92 -- 73 as part of the 2004 Summer Olympics organized in Athens, Greece. Baloncesto Superior Nacional acts as the top - level professional basketball league in Puerto Rico, and has experienced success since its beginning in 1930.
Puerto Rico is also a member of FIFA and CONCACAF. In 2008, the archipelago 's first unified league, the Puerto Rico Soccer League, was established.
Other sports include professional wrestling and road running. The World Wrestling Council and International Wrestling Association are the largest wrestling promotions in the main island. The World 's Best 10K, held annually in San Juan, has been ranked among the 20 most competitive races globally. The "Puerto Rico All Stars '' team, which has won twelve world championships in unicycle basketball.
Organized Streetball has gathered some exposition, with teams like "Puerto Rico Street Ball '' competing against established organizations including the Capitanes de Arecibo and AND1 's Mixtape Tour Team. Six years after the first visit, AND1 returned as part of their renamed Live Tour, losing to the Puerto Rico Streetballers. Consequently, practitioners of this style have earned participation in international teams, including Orlando "El Gato '' Meléndez, who became the first Puerto Rican born athlete to play for the Harlem Globetrotters. Orlando Antigua, whose mother is Puerto Rican, in 1995 became the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.
Puerto Rico has representation in all international competitions including the Summer and Winter Olympics, the Pan American Games, the Caribbean World Series, and the Central American and Caribbean Games. Puerto Rico hosted the Pan Am Games in 1979 (officially in San Juan), and The Central American and Caribbean Games were hosted in 1993 in Ponce and in 2010 in Mayagüez.
Puerto Rican athletes have won nine medals in Olympic competition (one gold, two silver, six bronze), the first one in 1948 by boxer Juan Evangelista Venegas. Monica Puig won the first gold medal for Puerto Rico in the Olympic Games by winning the Women 's Tennis singles title in Rio 2016.
Cities and towns in Puerto Rico are interconnected by a system of roads, freeways, expressways, and highways maintained by the Highways and Transportation Authority under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and patrolled by the Puerto Rico Police Department. The island 's metropolitan area is served by a public bus transit system and a metro system called Tren Urbano (in English: Urban Train). Other forms of public transportation include seaborne ferries (that serve Puerto Rico 's archipelago) as well as Carros Públicos (private mini buses).
Puerto Rico has three international airports, the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in Carolina, Mercedita Airport in Ponce, and the Rafael Hernández Airport in Aguadilla, and 27 local airports. The Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport is the largest aerial transportation hub in the Caribbean.
Puerto Rico has nine ports in different cities across the main island. The San Juan Port is the largest in Puerto Rico, and the busiest port in the Caribbean and the 10th busiest in the United States in terms of commercial activity and cargo movement, respectively. The second largest port is the Port of the Americas in Ponce, currently under expansion to increase cargo capacity to 1.5 million twenty - foot containers (TEUs) per year.
The Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) -- Spanish: Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica (AEE) -- is an electric power company and the government - owned corporation of Puerto Rico responsible for electricity generation, power transmission, and power distribution in Puerto Rico. PREPA is the only entity authorized to conduct such business in Puerto Rico, effectively making it a government monopoly. The Authority is ruled by a Governing Board appointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Senate of Puerto Rico, and is run by an Executive Director.
Telecommunications in Puerto Rico includes radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Broadcasting in Puerto Rico is regulated by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). As of 2007, there were 30 TV stations, 125 radio stations and roughly 1 million TV sets on the island. Cable TV subscription services are available and the U.S. Armed Forces Radio and Television Service also broadcast on the island.
Geography
United States government
United Nations (U.N.) Declaration on Puerto Rico
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list of names of god in all religions | Names of God - wikipedia
A number of traditions have lists of many names of God, many of which enumerate the various qualities of a Supreme Being. The English word "God '' (and its equivalent in other languages) is used by multiple religions as a noun or name to refer to different deities, or specifically to the Supreme Being, as denoted in English by the capitalized and uncapitalized terms "god '' and "God ''. Ancient cognate equivalents for the word "God '' include proto - Semitic El, biblical Hebrew Elohim, Arabic ' ilah, and biblical Aramaic Elah. The personal or proper name for God in many of these languages may either be distinguished from such attributes, or homonymic. For example, in Judaism the tetragrammaton is sometimes related to the ancient Hebrew ehyeh (I will be). In the Hebrew Bible (Exodus 3: 14), the name of God is revealed directly to Moses, namely: "I Am ''.
Correlation between various theories and interpretation of the name of "the one God '', used to signify a monotheistic or ultimate Supreme Being from which all other divine attributes derive, has been a subject of ecumenical discourse between Eastern and Western scholars for over two centuries. In Christian theology the word must be a personal and a proper name of God; hence it can not be dismissed as mere metaphor. On the other hand, the names of God in a different tradition are sometimes referred to by symbols. The question whether divine names used by different religions are equivalent has been raised and analyzed.
Exchange of names held sacred between different religious traditions is typically limited. Other elements of religious practice may be shared, especially when communities of different faiths are living in close proximity (for example, the use of Om and Gayatri within the Indian Christian community) but usage of the names themselves mostly remains within the domain of a particular religion, or even may help define one 's religious belief according to practice, as in the case of the recitation of names of God (such as the japa). Guru Gobind Singh 's Jaap Sahib, which contains 950 names of God. The Divine Names, the classic treatise by Pseudo-Dionysius, defines the scope of traditional understandings in Western traditions such as Hellenic, Christian, Jewish and Islamic theology on the nature and significance of the names of God. Further historical lists such as The 72 Names of the Lord show parallels in the history and interpretation of the name of God amongst Kabbalah, Christianity, and Hebrew scholarship in various parts of the Mediterranean world.
The attitude as to the transmission of the name in many cultures was surrounded by secrecy. In Judaism, the pronunciation of the name of God has always been guarded with great care. It is believed that, in ancient times, the sages communicated the pronunciation only once every seven years; this system was challenged by more recent movements.
The nature of a holy name can be described as either personal or attributive. In many cultures it is often difficult to distinguish between the personal and the attributive names of God, the two divisions necessarily shading into each other.
El comes from a root word meaning might, strength, power. Sometimes referring to God and sometimes the mighty when used to refer to the God of Israel, El is almost always qualified by additional words that further define the meaning that distinguishes him from false gods. A common title of God in the Hebrew Bible is Elohim (Hebrew: אלהים). The root Eloah (אלה) is used in poetry and late prose (e.g., the Book of Job) and ending with the masculine plural suffix "- im '' ים creating a word like ba ` alim ("owner (s) '' and adonim ("lord (s), master (s) '') that may also indicate a singular identity.
In the Book of Exodus, God commands Moses to tell the people that ' I AM ' sent him, and this is revered as one of the most important names of God according to Mosaic tradition.
Moses said to God, "Suppose I go to the Israelites and say to them, ' The God of your fathers has sent me to you, ' and they ask me, ' What is his name? ' Then what shall I tell them? '' God said to Moses, "I am who I am. This is what you are to say to the Israelites: ' I am has sent me to you. ' '' God also said to Moses, "Say to the Israelites, ' The Lord, the God of your fathers -- the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob -- has sent me to you. ' This is my name forever, the name you shall call me from generation to generation ''.
In Exodus 6: 3, when Moses first spoke with God, God said, "I used to appear to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as El Shaddai, but I did not make myself known to them by my name YHWH. ''
YHWH (יהוה ) is the proper name of God in Judaism. Neither vowels nor vowel points were used in ancient Hebrew writings and the original vocalisation of YHWH has been lost.
Later commentaries additionally suggested that the true pronunciation of this name is composed entirely of vowels, such as the Greek Ιαουε. However, this is put into question by the fact that vowels were only distinguished in the time - period by their very absence due to the lack of explicit vowels in the Hebrew script. The resulting substitute made from semivowels and glottals, known as the tetragrammaton, is not ordinarily permitted to be pronounced aloud, even in prayer. The prohibition on misuse (not use) of this name is the primary subject of the command not to take the name of the Lord in vain.
Instead of pronouncing YHWH during prayer, Jews say "Adonai '' ("Lord ''). Halakha requires that secondary rules be placed around the primary law, to reduce the chance that the main law will be broken. As such, it is common religious practice to restrict the use of the word "Adonai '' to prayer only. In conversation, many Jewish people, even when not speaking Hebrew, will call God HaShem (השם), which is Hebrew for "the Name '' (this appears in Leviticus 24: 11).
Almost all Orthodox Jews avoid using either Yahweh or Jehovah altogether on the basis that the actual pronunciation of the tetragrammaton has been lost in antiquity. Many use the term HaShem as an indirect reference, or they use "God '' or "The Lord '' instead.
Some biblical scholars say YHWH was most likely pronounced Yahweh. References, such as The New Encyclopædia Britannica, validate the above by offering additional specifics to its (Christian) reconstruction out of Greek sources:
Early Christian writers, such as Clement of Alexandria in the 2nd century, had used a form like Yahweh, and claim that this pronunciation of the tetragrammaton was never really lost. Other Greek transcriptions also indicated that YHWH should be pronounced Yahweh.
Christianity is based on the revelation of God. God Himself became a human. Therefore the name Jesus, Yeshua, Iesous, is the name of God.
The Hebrew theonyms Elohim and YHWH are mostly rendered as "God '' and "the LORD '' respectively, although in the Protestant tradition the personal names Yahweh and Jehovah are also used. "Jehovah '' appears in the Tyndale Bible, the King James Version, and other translations from that time period and later. Many English translations of the Bible translate the tetragrammaton as LORD, thus removing any form of YHWH from the written text and going well beyond the Jewish oral practice of substituting Adonai for YHWH when reading aloud.
English Bible translations of the Greek New Testament render ho theos (Greek: Ο Θεός) as God and ho kurios (Greek: Ο Κύριος) as "the Lord ''.
Jesus (Iesus, Yeshua was a common alternative form of the name יְהוֹשֻׁעַ ("Yehoshua '' - Joshua) in later books of the Hebrew Bible and among Jews of the Second Temple period. The name corresponds to the Greek spelling Iesous, from which comes the English spelling Jesus. "Christ '' means "the anointed '' in Greek (Χριστός). Khristos is the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew word Messiah; while in English the old Anglo - Saxon Messiah - rendering hæland (healer) was practically annihilated by the Latin "Christ '', some cognates such as heiland in Dutch and Afrikaans survive -- also, in German, the word Heiland is sometimes used as reference to Jesus, e.g., in church chorals).
In the Book of Revelation in the Christian New Testament, God is quoted as saying "I am the Alpha and the Omega, the First and the Last, the Beginning and the End ''. (cf. Rev. 1: 8, 21: 6, and 22: 13)
In Messianic Judaism YHWH (pre-incarnate) and Yeshua (incarnate) are one and the same, the second Person, with the Father and ruach hakodesh (Holy Spirit) being the first and third Persons, respectively, of ha'Elohiym (the Godhead). YHWH is called haShem.
Some Quakers refer to God as The Light. Another term used is King of Kings or Lord of Lords and Lord of the Hosts. Other names used by Christians include Ancient of Days, Father / Abba, "Most High '' and the Hebrew names Elohim, El - Shaddai, Yahweh, Jehovah and Adonai. Abba (Father) is a common term used for the creator within Christianity because it was a title Jesus used to refer to God the Father.
In Mormonism the name of God the Father is Elohim and the name of Jesus in his pre-incarnate state was Jehovah. Together, with the Holy Ghost they form the Godhead; God the Father, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit. Mormons typically refer to God as "Heavenly Father '' or "Father in Heaven ''.
Although Mormonism views the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit as three distinct beings, they are one in purpose and God the Father (Elohim) is worshiped and given all glory through his Son, Jesus Christ (Jehovah). Despite the Godhead doctrine, which teaches that God the Father, Jesus Christ and the Holy Ghost are three separate, divine beings, many Mormons (mainstream Latter - day Saints and otherwise, such as the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - Day Saints) view their beliefs as monotheist since Christ is the conduit through which humanity comes to the God the Father. The Book of Mormon ends with "to meet you before the pleasing bar of the great Jehovah, the eternal Judge of both the quick and dead. Amen. ''
Jehovah 's Witnesses believe that God has only one distinctive name, represented in the Old Testament by the tetragrammaton. In English, they prefer to use the form Jehovah. According to Jehovah 's Witnesses, the name Jehovah means "He causes to become ''.
Scriptures frequently cited in support of the name include Isaiah 42: 8: "I am Jehovah. That is my name '', Psalms 83: 18: "May people know that you, whose name is Jehovah, You alone are the Most High over all the earth '', and Exodus 6: 3: "And I used to appear to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as God Almighty, but with regard to my name Jehovah I did not make myself known to them. ''
While opposers of the faith critique their use of the form "Jehovah '', Jehovah 's Witnesses still hold on to their belief that, despite having scholars prefer the "Yahweh '' pronunciation, the name Jehovah adequately transmits the idea behind the meaning of God 's name in English. While they do n't discourage the use of the "Yahweh '' pronunciation, they highly consider the long history of the name Jehovah in the English language and see that it sufficiently identifies God 's divine persona.
Deus, is the Latin word for "god ''. It was inherited by the Romance languages in French Dieu, Spanish Dios, Portuguese and Galician Deus, Italian Dio, etc., and by the Celtic languages in Welsh Duw and Irish Dia.
Guđán is the Proto - Germanic word for God. It was inherited by the Germanic languages in Gud in modern Scandinavian; God in Frisian, Dutch, and English; and Gott in modern German.
Bog is the word for God in most Slavic languages. (Cyrillic script: Бог; Czech: Bůh; Polish: Bóg; Slovak: Boh).
Shàngdì (上帝 pinyin shàng dì, literally ' King Above ') is used to refer to the Christian God in the Standard Chinese Union Version of the Bible. Shén 神 (lit. "God '', "spirit '', or "deity '') was adopted by Protestant missionaries in China to refer to the Christian God. In this context it is usually rendered with a space, "神 '', to demonstrate reverence. Zhŭ and Tiānzhǔ 主, 天主 (lit. "Lord '' or "Lord in Heaven '') are equivalent to "Lord ''; these names are used as formal titles of the Christian God in Mainland China 's Christian churches.
Korean Catholics also use the Korean cognate of Tiānzhŭ, Cheon - ju, as the primary reference to God in both ritual / ceremonial and vernacular (but mostly ritual / ceremonial) contexts. Korean Catholics and Korean Anglicans also use a cognate of the Chinese Shàngdì (Sangje), but this has largely fallen out of regular use in favor of Cheon - ju. Also used is the vernacular Haneunim, the traditional Korean name for the God of Heaven. Liberal - minded Korean Protestants also use Haneunim, but not Sangje, and conservative Korean Protestants do not use Sangje or Haneunim at all but instead use Hananim, which implied the oneness of the Almighty distinct from the mythological implications they see in the term Haneunim.
Many Vietnamese Christians also use cognates of Shàngdì (expected to have a distribution in usage similar to Korean Christians, with Anglicans and Catholics using the cognates of Sangje in ritual / ceremonial contexts and Protestants not using it at all), to refer to the biblical God.
Tagalog - speaking Filipino Catholics and other Christians use Maykapal (glossed as "creator '') -- an epithet originally applied to the pre-colonial supreme deity Bathala -- to refer to the Christian godhead in most contexts. When paired with another term for God (e.g. Panginoong Maykapal "Lord Creator '', Amang Maykapal "Father Creator ''), it functions as a descriptor much like the adjectives in the English "God Almighty '' or Latin Omnipotens Deus.
Among the Nguni peoples of Southern Africa, he is known as Nkosi (roughly glossed as "king ''). This name is used in Nkosi Sikelel ' iAfrika.
Followers of the Rastafari Movement call God Jah Rastafari.
In the Yorubaland region of West Africa, Nigeria, meanwhile, He is known as Olodumare. In the Igbo region of West Africa, Nigeria, He is known as Chukwu. In the Hausa region of West Africa, Nigeria, He is known as Allah. In the Ibibio region of West Africa, Nigeria, He is known as Abasi.
Allah -- meaning "the God '' in Arabic -- is the name of God in Islam. The word Allah has been used by Arabic people of different religions since pre-Islamic times. More specifically, it has been used as a term for God by Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) and Arab Christians. God has many names in Islam, the Qur'an says (translation) to Him Belong the Best Names (Lahu Al - Asmao Al - Husna), examples like Ar - Rahman (The Entirely Merciful), Ar - Rahim (The Especially Merciful). Besides these Arabic names, Muslims of non-Arab origins may also sometimes use other names in their own languages to refer to God, such as Khuda in Persian, Bengali and Hindi - Urdu.
"He is Allah, other than whom there is no deity, Knower of the unseen and the witnessed. He is the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful. He is Allah, other than whom there is no deity, the Sovereign, the Pure, the Perfection, the Bestower of Faith, the Overseer, the Exalted in Might, the Compeller, the Superior. Exalted is Allah above whatever they associate with Him. He is Allah, the Creator, the Inventor, the Fashioner; to Him belong the best names. Whatever is in the heavens and earth is exalting Him. And He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise. '' (Translation of Qur'an: Chapter 59, Verses 22 - 24)
In Tasawwuf, the inner, mystical dimension of Islam, Hu, Huwa (depends on placement in sentence), or Parvardigar in Persian are used as names of God. The sound Hu derives from the last letter of the word Allah, which is read as Allahu when in the middle of a sentence. Hu means Just He or Revealed. The word explicitly appears in many verses of the Quran:
"La ilaha illa Hu ''
The Bahá'í scriptures often refer to God by various titles and attributes, such as Almighty, All - Possessing, All - Powerful, All-Wise, Incomparable, Gracious, Helper, All - Glorious, and Omniscient. Bahá'ís believe the Greatest Name of God is "All - Glorious '' or Bahá in Arabic. Bahá is the root word of the following names and phrases: the greeting Alláh - u-Abhá (God is the All - Glorious), the invocation Yá Bahá'u'l - Abhá (O Thou Glory of the Most Glorious), Bahá'u'lláh (The Glory of God), and Bahá'i (Follower of the All - Glorious). These are expressed in Arabic regardless of the language in use (see Bahá'í symbols). Apart from these names, God is addressed in the local language, for example Ishwar in Hindi, Dieu in French and Dios in Spanish. Bahá'ís believe Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, is the "complete incarnation of the names and attributes of God ''.
The Sanatana Dharma focuses only on formless God, as is described in the most authoritative texts such as the Mundakopanishad and Mandukuopanishad. In all vedic texts, God has been revered by the name Param Brahma, Brahmana (not to confuse with the caste), Parmatma (Supreme Soul), Parampita (Supreme Father), Parmaeshwara (The Ultmate Governor). Besides, There are multiple names for God 's Various Forms worshiped as Deities (Devata and Devi) in Hinduism. Some of the popular names for these Deities in Hinduism are:
Additionally, most Hindu gods (and some revered saints) have a collection of 108 names. Each collection of 108 names is known as that god 's Ashtottara Shatanamavali, which is chanted during pujas or prayer. Gods with 108 names include Krishna, Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Lakshmi, and even saints such as Sai Baba, Swami Samarth.
The Mahabharata, (Anusasana Parva) book 13, (S - 149) lists the thousand names of the one god (Vasudeva). That collection is known as the Vishnu Sahasranaamam.
Maharishi Dayanand in his famous book Satyarth Prakash has listed 100 names of God each representing some property or attribute thereof mentioning "Om or Aum '' as God 's personal and natural name.
Jainism rejects the idea of a creator deity responsible for the manifestation, creation, or maintenance of this universe. According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents (soul, matter, space, time, and principles of motion) have always existed. All the constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws and an immaterial entity like God can not create a material entity like the universe. Jainism offers an elaborate cosmology, including heavenly beings (devas), but these beings are not viewed as creators; they are subject to suffering and change like all other living beings, and must eventually die.
Jains define godliness as the inherent quality of any soul characterizing infinite bliss, infinite power, Perfect knowledge and Perfect peace. However, these qualities of a soul are subdued due to karmas of the soul. One who achieves this state of soul through right belief, right knowledge and right conduct can be termed as god. This perfection of soul is called Kaivalya or Bodhi. A liberated soul thus becomes a god -- liberated of miseries, cycles of rebirth, world, karmas and finally liberated of body as well. This is called nirvana or moksha.
If godliness is defined as the state of having freed one 's soul from karmas and the attainment of enlightenment / Nirvana and a god as one who exists in such a state, then those who have achieved such a state can be termed gods / Tirthankara. Thus, Rishabha was god / Tirthankara but he was not the only Tirthankara; there were many other Tirthankara. However, the quality of godliness is one and the same in all of them. Thus, Jainism can be defined as polytheist, monotheist, nontheist, transtheist or atheist, depending on one 's definition of God.
Jainism does not teach the dependency on any supreme being for enlightenment. The Tirthankara is a guide and teacher who points the way to enlightenment, but the struggle for enlightenment is one 's own. Moral rewards and sufferings are not the work of a divine being, but a result of an innate moral order in the cosmos; a self - regulating mechanism whereby the individual reaps the fruits of his own actions through the workings of the karmas.
Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation from all karmic bonding, one must practice the ethical principles not only in thought, but also in words (speech) and action. Such a practice through lifelong work towards oneself is called as observing the Mahavrata ("Great Vows '').
Gods can be thus categorized into embodied gods also known as Tīrthankaras and Arihantas or ordinary Kevalin, and non-embodied formless gods who are called Siddhas. Jainism considers the devīs and devas to be souls who dwell in heavens owing to meritorious deeds in their past lives. These souls are in heavens for a fixed lifespan and even they have to undergo reincarnation as humans to achieve moksa.
There are multiple names for God in Sikhism. Some of the popular names for God in Sikhism are:
God, according to Guru Nanak, is beyond full comprehension by humans; has endless number of virtues; takes on innumerable forms, but is formless; and can be called by an infinite number of names thus "Your Names are so many, and Your Forms are endless. No one can tell how many Glorious Virtues You have. ''
In Zoroastrianism, 101 names of God (Pazand Sad - o - yak nam - i - khoda) is a list of names of God (Ahura Mazda). The list is preserved in Persian, Pazand and Gujarati. Parsi tradition expanded this to a list of "101 names of God ''.
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know it when i see it supreme court | I know it when I see it - wikipedia
The phrase "I know it when I see it '' is a colloquial expression by which a speaker attempts to categorize an observable fact or event, although the category is subjective or lacks clearly defined parameters. The phrase was used in 1964 by United States Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart to describe his threshold test for obscenity in Jacobellis v. Ohio. In explaining why the material at issue in the case was not obscene under the Roth test, and therefore was protected speech that could not be censored, Stewart wrote:
I shall not today attempt further to define the kinds of material I understand to be embraced within that shorthand description ("hard - core pornography ''), and perhaps I could never succeed in intelligibly doing so. But I know it when I see it, and the motion picture involved in this case is not that.
The expression became one of the best - known phrases in the history of the Supreme Court. Though "I know it when I see it '' is widely cited as Stewart 's test for "obscenity '', he never used the word "obscenity '' himself in his short concurrence. He only stated that he knows what fits the "shorthand description '' of "hard - core pornography '' when he sees it.
Stewart 's "I know it when I see it '' standard was praised as "realistic and gallant '' and an example of candor.
The Supreme Court of the United States ' rulings concerning obscenity in the public square have been unusually inconsistent. Though First Amendment free speech protections have always been taken into account, both Constitutional interpretationalists and originalists have limited this right to account for public sensibilities. Before Roth v. United States in 1957, common law rules stemming from the 1868 English case Regina v. Hicklin have articulated that anything which "deprave (s) and corrupt (s) those whose minds are open to such immoral influences '' was said to be obscene, and therefore banned. The Roth case gave a clearer standard for deciding what constitutes pornography, stating that obscenity is material where the "dominant theme taken as a whole appeals to the prurient interest '', and that the "average person, applying contemporary community standards '' would disapprove of, reaffirming the 1913 case United States v. Kennerley. This standard allowed for many works to be called obscene, and though the Roth decision acknowledged "all ideas having even the slightest redeeming social importance... have the full protection of guaranties (sic) '', the Justices put public sensibility above the protection of individual rights.
Jacobellis v. Ohio (1964) narrowed the scope of the Roth decision. Justice Potter Stewart, in his concurrence to the majority opinion, created the standard whereby all speech is protected except for "hard - core pornography ''. As for what, exactly, constitutes hard - core pornography, Stewart said "I shall not today attempt further to define the kinds of material I understand to be embraced within that shorthand description, and perhaps I could never succeed in intelligibly doing so. But I know it when I see it, and the motion picture involved in this case is not that. '' The film in question was Louis Malle 's The Lovers.
This was modified in Memoirs v. Massachusetts (1966), in which obscenity was defined as anything patently offensive, appealing to prurient interest, and of no redeeming social value. Still, however, this left the ultimate decision of what constituted obscenity up to the whim of the courts, and did not provide an easily applicable standard for review by the lower courts. This changed in 1973 with Miller v. California. The Miller case established what came to be known as the Miller test, which clearly articulated that three criteria must be met for a work to be legitimately subject to state regulations. The Court recognized the inherent risk in legislating what constitutes obscenity, and necessarily limited the scope of the criteria. The criteria were:
The third criterion pertains to judgement made by "reasonable persons '' of the United States as a whole, while the first two pertain to that of members of the local community. Due to the larger scope of the third test, it is a more ambiguous criterion than the first two.
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when is a short corner given in field hockey | Penalty corner - wikipedia
In field hockey, a penalty corner, sometimes known as a short corner, is a penalty given against the defending team. It is predominantly awarded for a defensive infringement in the penalty circle or for a deliberate infringement within the defensive 23 - metre area. They are eagerly sought by attacking players and provide an excellent opportunity to score. There are particular rules for that only apply at penalty corners and players develop specialist skills, such as the drag flick, for this particular phase in the game.
The penalty corner has always been an important part of the game, that importance has become more pronounced since artificial turf became mandatory for top - level competitions in the 1970s. The Netherlands ' Paul Litjens was the former leading international scorer with 267 goals in 177 matches and was a specialist in hitting goals from penalty corners. Litjens and early specialists were accurate, hard - hitters of the ball; however, the introduction of the drag flick to counter the goalkeepers that lie down during the hit became the favoured technique. This led to the introduction of experts in this skill and Litjens ' record was surpassed by Pakistani player Sohail Abbas who is often described as the "world 's best '' penalty corner and drag flick specialist. India 's Sandeep Singh is also regarded as one of the best and has the fastest drag - flick at 145 km / h (90 mph). The importance of penalty corners has drawn criticism, with the proportion of field goals scored through open play reduced as attackers look to create a foul in the penalty circle, particularly from defenders ' feet, rather than shooting directly.
There are six ways a penalty corner may be awarded:
To award a penalty corner, the umpire points both arms horizontally towards the respective goal. Although time in the match is not stopped, it may be prolonged beyond half - time or full - time to allow for the completion of a penalty corner, or any subsequent penalty corner or penalty stroke. However, as of September 2014, an intended rule change will give a 40 - second timeout for a penalty corner.
When a penalty corner is awarded, a maximum of five defending players (including the goalkeeper) line up behind the back line either in the goal or on the back line at least five metres from the ball. All other players on the defending team must be behind the centre line. One attacking player places themselves on the back line, with the ball in the circle at least 10 metres from the nearest goal post on either side of the goal. The remainder of the attacking team players place themselves on the field outside of the shooting circle. All players other than the attacking player on the back line must not have any part of their body or stick touch the ground inside the circle or over the centre line until the ball is in play. The attacking player on the back line is allowed one foot within the circle, but the other foot must remain behind the back line. If any player enters the circle or crosses the centre line prematurely, or the attacking player on the back line does not have one foot outside the circle, the penalty corner is reset and taken again.
When the attacking player on the back line pushes the ball into play, the players may then enter the shooting circle or cross the centre line. Before a shot at goal can be taken, the ball must first travel outside the circle. In a typical penalty corner, the attacking player on the back line will push the ball to a player at the top of the circle who will stop the ball just outside the circle. Another player will take the stopped ball and push or drag it back into the circle before attempting to shoot at goal (as per normal rules, the ball must be last played by an attacking player within the shooting circle for a goal to count).
If the first attempt at goal in a penalty corner is hit, as opposed to a flick, scoop or push, the ball must be hit so that it will be travelling no higher than the backboard in the goal (460 mm or 18 in) at the point when it crosses the goal line, for the goal to count. This must be assessed regardless of any deflections, so for example, if the ball is hit on a trajectory that would see it crossing the goal line below the required height then a goal will be awarded even if it is deflected over this height and into the goal. Conversely, it does not matter that the ball travels above 460 mm in its flight, provided it does not constitute dangerous play, so long as it drops below 460 mm under its own accord (i.e. not as a result of a deflection) before crossing the goal line, it is still counted as a goal. Flicks, scoops, pushes, deflections and hits on second and subsequent attempts at goal may cross the goal line at any height, provided it does not constitute dangerous play.
The penalty corner ends when a goal is scored, the ball is played over the back line and another penalty corner is not awarded, a penalty stroke is awarded, the defending team is awarded a free hit, or the ball travels more than 5 metres outside the circle (i.e. beyond the dotted line outside the shooting circle). If the penalty corner was awarded on half or full - time, then the ball only has to travel outside the circle for the second time for the penalty corner (and the half) to end.
The penalty corner was introduced in 1908, and required all attacking players to be outside the penalty circle and all defenders behind the goalline. Early penalty corners only required the ball to be stopped before a shot and was not required to be stopped or travel outside the penalty circle.
In the first set of hockey rules (1886) the use of hands and feet was permitted to stop the ball; the use of feet was outlawed in 1938 but hands could still be used to stop the ball. As such, a hand stop became a large part of early penalty corners; one player would inject, a second would hand stop and the third would shoot. In 1961, the number of defenders behind the goalline was reduced to six; the remainder had to stand beyond the 25 - yard line and two years later this became the halfway line. There were too many goals from penalty corners and the use of the hands to stop the ball, and thus the hand stop, were prohibited from 1982; a result was that the same player at a penalty corner would stop and strike the ball. A few years later, in 1987, the number of defenders was reduced to the current quota of five. Additionally, it was required that the first hit at goal could must cross the goalline at a height no greater than 18 inches (460 mm) for a goal to be awarded -- this rule ceased to apply once the ball had travelled more than 5 yards outside the penalty circle. In 1998, the location where the ball was injected was metricised to 10 metres from the goal post (as opposed to the previous rule which stated it must be at least 10 yards); a specific mark inside the circle was introduced in 2000. Additionally, for a period from 1995, substitutions were permitted at penalty corners. This rule caused the development of specialist penalty corner takers who just came on for this and was abolished three years later. In 1996, a penalty corner required that the ball was stopped outside the circle before a goal could be scored. From 2003, it did not need to be stopped but did have to travel outside the circle.
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where is constantinople located on a world map | Constantinople - wikipedia
Κωνσταντινούπολις (in Greek)
6 km (2.3 sq mi) enclosed within Constantinian Walls
Constantinople (Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis; Latin: Constantinopolis) was the capital city of the Roman / Byzantine Empire (330 -- 1204 and 1261 -- 1453), and also of the brief Latin (1204 -- 1261), and the later Ottoman (1453 -- 1923) empires. It was reinaugurated in 324 AD from ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine the Great, after whom it was named, and dedicated on 11 May 330 AD.
From the mid-5th century to the early 13th century, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe. It was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times as the home of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and as the guardian of Christendom 's holiest relics such as the Crown of Thorns and the True Cross. After the final loss of its provinces in the early 15th century, the Byzantine Empire was reduced to just Constantinople and its environs, along with Morea in Greece, and the city eventually fell to the Ottomans after a 53 - day siege on 29 May 1453.
Constantinople was famed for its massive and complex defences. Although besieged on numerous occasions by various peoples, the defences of Constantinople proved invulnerable for nearly nine hundred years before the city was taken in 1204 by the Crusader armies of the Fourth Crusade, and after it was liberated in 1261 by the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, a second and final time in 1453 when it was conquered by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. The first wall of the city was erected by Constantine I, and surrounded the city on both land and sea fronts. Later, in the 5th century, the Praetorian Prefect Anthemius under the child emperor Theodosius II undertook the construction of the Theodosian Walls, which consisted of a double wall lying about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) to the west of the first wall and a moat with palisades in front. This formidable complex of defences was one of the most sophisticated of Antiquity. The city was built intentionally to rival Rome, and it was claimed that several elevations within its walls matched the ' seven hills ' of Rome. Because it was located between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara the land area that needed defensive walls was reduced, and this helped it to present an impregnable fortress enclosing magnificent palaces, domes, and towers, the result of the prosperity it was engendered from being the gateway between two continents (Europe and Asia) and two seas (the Mediterranean and the Black Sea).
The city was also famed for its architectural masterpieces, such as the Greek Orthodox cathedral of Hagia Sophia, which served as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the sacred Imperial Palace where the Emperors lived, the Galata Tower, the Hippodrome, the Golden Gate of the Land Walls, and the opulent aristocratic palaces lining the arcaded avenues and squares. The University of Constantinople was founded in the fifth century and contained numerous artistic and literary treasures before it was sacked in 1204 and 1453, including its vast Imperial Library which contained the remnants of the Library of Alexandria and had over 100,000 volumes of ancient texts.
Constantinople never truly recovered from the devastation of the Fourth Crusade and the decades of misrule by the Latins. Although the city partially recovered in the early years after the restoration under the Palaiologos dynasty, the advent of the Ottomans and the subsequent loss of the Imperial territories until it became an enclave inside the fledgling Ottoman Empire rendered the city severely depopulated when it fell to the Ottoman Turks, whereafter it replaced Edirne (Adrianople) as the new capital of the Ottoman Empire.
According to Pliny the Elder in his Natural History, the first known name of a settlement on the site of Constantinople was Lygos, a settlement of likely Thracian origin founded between the 13th and 11th century BC. The site, according to the founding myth of the city, was abandoned by the time Greek settlers from the city - state of Megara founded Byzantium (Greek: Βυζάντιον, Byzántion) in around 657 BC, across from the town of Chalcedon on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus.
The origins of the name of Byzantion, more commonly known by the later Latin Byzantium, are not entirely clear, though some suggest it is of Thraco - Illyrian origin. The founding myth of the city has it told that the settlement was named after the leader of the Megarian colonists, Byzas. The later Byzantines of Constantinople themselves would maintain that the city was named in honour of two men, Byzas and Antes, though this was more likely just a play on the word Byzantion.
The city was briefly renamed Augusta Antonina in the early 3rd century by the Emperor Septimius Severus (193 -- 211), having razed the city to the ground in 196 AD for supporting a rival contender in the civil war and rebuilt, in honour of his son Antoninus, the later Emperor Caracalla. The name appears to have been quickly forgotten and abandoned, and the city reverted to Byzantium / Byzantion after either the assassination of Caracalla in 217 or, at the latest, the fall of the Severan dynasty in 235.
Byzantium took on the name of Konstantinoupolis ("city of Constantine '', Constantinople) after its re-foundation under Roman emperor Constantine I, who transferred the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium in 330 AD and designated his new capital officially as Nova Roma (Νέα Ῥώμη) ' New Rome '. During this time, the city was also called ' Second Rome ', ' Eastern Rome ', and Roma Constantinopolitana. As the city became the sole remaining capital of the Roman Empire after the fall of the West, and its wealth, population, and influence grew, the city also came to have a multitude of nicknames.
As the largest and wealthiest city in Europe during the 4th -- 13th centuries and a centre of culture and education of the Mediterranean basin, Constantinople came to be known by prestigious titles such as Basileuousa (Queen of Cities) and Megalopolis (the Great City) and was, in colloquial speech, commonly referred to as just Polis (η πόλη) ' the City ' by Constantinopolitans and provincial Byzantines alike.
In the language of other peoples, Constantinople was referred to just as reverently. The medieval Vikings, who had contacts with the empire through their expansion in eastern Europe (Varangians) used the Old Norse name Miklagarðr (from mikill ' big ' and garðr ' city '), and later Miklagard and Miklagarth. In Arabic, the city was sometimes called Rūmiyyat al - kubra (Great City of the Romans) and in Persian as Takht - e Rum (Throne of the Romans).
In East and South Slavic languages, including in medieval Russia, Constantinople has been referred to as Tsargrad (Царьград) or Carigrad, ' City of the Caesar (Emperor) ', from the Slavonic words tsar (' Caesar ' or ' King ') and grad (' city '). This was presumably a calque on a Greek phrase such as Βασιλέως Πόλις (Vasileos Polis), ' the city of the emperor (king) '.
The modern Turkish name for the city, İstanbul, derives from the Greek phrase eis tin polin (εἰς τὴν πόλιν), meaning "into the city '' or "to the city ''. This name was used in Turkish alongside Kostantiniyye, the more formal adaptation of the original Constantinople, during the period of Ottoman rule, while western languages mostly continued to refer to the city as Constantinople until the early 20th century. In 1928, the Turkish alphabet was changed from Arabic script to Latin script. After that, as part of the 1920s Turkification movement, Turkey started to urge other countries to use Turkish names for Turkish cities, instead of other transliterations to Latin script that had been used in the Ottoman times. In time the city came to be known as Istanbul and its variations in most world languages.
The name "Constantinople '' is still used by members of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the title of one of their most important leaders, the Orthodox patriarch based in the city, referred to as "His Most Divine All - Holiness the Archbishop of Constantinople New Rome and Ecumenical Patriarch. '' In Greece today, the city is still called Konstantinoúpolis / Konstantinoúpoli (Κωνσταντινούπολις / Κωνσταντινούπολη) or simply just "the City '' (Η Πόλη / Η Πόλις).
Constantinople was founded by the Roman Emperor Constantine I (272 -- 337 AD) in 324 on the site of an already - existing city, Byzantium, which was settled in the early days of Greek colonial expansion, in around 657 BC, by colonists of the city - state of Megara. This is the first major settlement that would develop on the site of later Constantinople, but the first known settlements was that of Lygos, referred to in Pliny 's Natural Histories, Apart from this, little is known about this initial settlement. The site, according to the founding myth of the city, was abandoned by the time Greek settlers from the city - state of Megara founded Byzantium (Greek: Βυζάντιον, Byzántion) in around 657 BC, (14) across from the town of Chalcedon on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus.
The city maintained independence as a city - state until it was annexed by Darius I in 512 BC into the Persian Empire, who saw the site as the optimal location to construct a pontoon bridge crossing into Europe as Byzantium was situated at the narrowest point in the Bosphorus strait. Persian rule lasted until 478 BC when as part of the Greek counterattack to the Second Persian Invasion of Greece, a Greek army led by the Spartan general Pausanias captured the city which remained an independent, yet subordinate, city under the Athenians, and later to the Spartans after 411 BC. A farsighted treaty with the emergent power of Rome in c. 150 BC which stipulated tribute in exchange for independent status allowed it to enter Roman rule unscathed. This treaty would pay dividends retrospectively as Byzantium would maintain this independent status, and prosper under peace and stability in the Pax Romana, for nearly three centuries until the late 2nd century AD.
Byzantium was never a major influential city - state like that of Athens, Corinth, and Sparta, but the city enjoyed relative peace and steady growth as a prosperous trading city lent by its remarkable position. The site lay astride the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and had in the Golden Horn an excellent and spacious harbour. Already then, in Greek and early Roman times, Byzantium was famous for its strategic geographic position that made it difficult to besiege and capture, and its position at the crossroads of the Asiatic - European trade route over land and as the gateway between the Mediterranean and Black Seas made it too valuable a settlement to abandon, as Emperor Septimius Severus later realized when he razed the city to the ground for supporting Pescennius Niger 's claimancy. It was a move greatly criticized by the contemporary consul and historian Cassius Dio who said that Severus had destroyed "a strong Roman outpost and a base of operations against the barbarians from Pontus and Asia ''. He would later rebuild Byzantium towards the end of his reign, in which it would be briefly renamed Augusta Antonina, fortifying it with a new city wall in his name, the Severan Wall.
Constantine had altogether more colourful plans. Having restored the unity of the Empire, and, being in the course of major governmental reforms as well as of sponsoring the consolidation of the Christian church, he was well aware that Rome was an unsatisfactory capital. Rome was too far from the frontiers, and hence from the armies and the imperial courts, and it offered an undesirable playground for disaffected politicians. Yet it had been the capital of the state for over a thousand years, and it might have seemed unthinkable to suggest that the capital be moved to a different location. Nevertheless, Constantine identified the site of Byzantium as the right place: a place where an emperor could sit, readily defended, with easy access to the Danube or the Euphrates frontiers, his court supplied from the rich gardens and sophisticated workshops of Roman Asia, his treasuries filled by the wealthiest provinces of the Empire.
Constantinople was built over 6 years, and consecrated on 11 May 330. Constantine divided the expanded city, like Rome, into 14 regions, and ornamented it with public works worthy of an imperial metropolis. Yet, at first, Constantine 's new Rome did not have all the dignities of old Rome. It possessed a proconsul, rather than an urban prefect. It had no praetors, tribunes, or quaestors. Although it did have senators, they held the title clarus, not clarissimus, like those of Rome. It also lacked the panoply of other administrative offices regulating the food supply, police, statues, temples, sewers, aqueducts, or other public works. The new programme of building was carried out in great haste: columns, marbles, doors, and tiles were taken wholesale from the temples of the empire and moved to the new city. In similar fashion, many of the greatest works of Greek and Roman art were soon to be seen in its squares and streets. The emperor stimulated private building by promising householders gifts of land from the imperial estates in Asiana and Pontica and on 18 May 332 he announced that, as in Rome, free distributions of food would be made to the citizens. At the time, the amount is said to have been 80,000 rations a day, doled out from 117 distribution points around the city.
Constantine laid out a new square at the centre of old Byzantium, naming it the Augustaeum. The new senate - house (or Curia) was housed in a basilica on the east side. On the south side of the great square was erected the Great Palace of the Emperor with its imposing entrance, the Chalke, and its ceremonial suite known as the Palace of Daphne. Nearby was the vast Hippodrome for chariot - races, seating over 80,000 spectators, and the famed Baths of Zeuxippus. At the western entrance to the Augustaeum was the Milion, a vaulted monument from which distances were measured across the Eastern Roman Empire.
From the Augustaeum led a great street, the Mese (Greek: Μέση (Οδός) lit. "Middle (Street) ''), lined with colonnades. As it descended the First Hill of the city and climbed the Second Hill, it passed on the left the Praetorium or law - court. Then it passed through the oval Forum of Constantine where there was a second Senate - house and a high column with a statue of Constantine himself in the guise of Helios, crowned with a halo of seven rays and looking toward the rising sun. From there, the Mese passed on and through the Forum Tauri and then the Forum Bovis, and finally up the Seventh Hill (or Xerolophus) and through to the Golden Gate in the Constantinian Wall. After the construction of the Theodosian Walls in the early 5th century, it was extended to the new Golden Gate, reaching a total length of seven Roman miles.
The importance of Constantinople increased, but it was gradual. From the death of Constantine in 337 to the accession of Theodosius I, emperors had been resident only in the years 337 - 8, 347 -- 51, 358 -- 61, 368 -- 69. Its status as a capital was recognized by the appointment of the first known Urban Prefect of the City Honoratus, who held office from 11 December 359 until 361. The urban prefects had concurrent jurisdiction over three provinces each in the adjacent dioceses of Thrace (in which the city was located), Pontus and Asia comparable to the 100 - mile extraordinary jurisdiction of the prefect of Rome. The emperor Valens, who hated the city and spent only one year there, nevertheless built the Palace of Hebdomon on the shore of the Propontis near the Golden Gate, probably for use when reviewing troops. All the emperors up to Zeno and Basiliscus were crowned and acclaimed at the Hebdomon. Theodosius I founded the Church of John the Baptist to house the skull of the saint (today preserved at the Topkapı Palace), put up a memorial pillar to himself in the Forum of Taurus, and turned the ruined temple of Aphrodite into a coach house for the Praetorian Prefect; Arcadius built a new forum named after himself on the Mese, near the walls of Constantine.
After the shock of the Battle of Adrianople in 378, in which the emperor Valens with the flower of the Roman armies was destroyed by the Visigoths within a few days ' march, the city looked to its defences, and in 413 -- 414 Theodosius II built the 18 - metre (60 - foot) - tall triple - wall fortifications, which were not to be breached until the coming of gunpowder. Theodosius also founded a University near the Forum of Taurus, on 27 February 425.
Uldin, a prince of the Huns, appeared on the Danube about this time and advanced into Thrace, but he was deserted by many of his followers, who joined with the Romans in driving their king back north of the river. Subsequent to this, new walls were built to defend the city and the fleet on the Danube improved.
After the barbarians overran the Western Roman Empire, Constantinople became the indisputable capital city of the Roman Empire. Emperors were no longer peripatetic between various court capitals and palaces. They remained in their palace in the Great City and sent generals to command their armies. The wealth of the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia flowed into Constantinople.
The emperor Justinian I (527 -- 565) was known for his successes in war, for his legal reforms and for his public works. It was from Constantinople that his expedition for the reconquest of the former Diocese of Africa set sail on or about 21 June 533. Before their departure, the ship of the commander Belisarius was anchored in front of the Imperial palace, and the Patriarch offered prayers for the success of the enterprise. After the victory, in 534, the Temple treasure of Jerusalem, looted by the Romans in 70 AD and taken to Carthage by the Vandals after their sack of Rome in 455, was brought to Constantinople and deposited for a time, perhaps in the Church of St. Polyeuctus, before being returned to Jerusalem in either the Church of the Resurrection or the New Church.
Chariot - racing had been important in Rome for centuries. In Constantinople, the hippodrome became over time increasingly a place of political significance. It was where (as a shadow of the popular elections of old Rome) the people by acclamation showed their approval of a new emperor, and also where they openly criticized the government, or clamoured for the removal of unpopular ministers. In the time of Justinian, public order in Constantinople became a critical political issue.
Throughout the late Roman and early Byzantine periods, Christianity was resolving fundamental questions of identity, and the dispute between the orthodox and the monophysites became the cause of serious disorder, expressed through allegiance to the horse - racing parties of the Blues and the Greens. The partisans of the Blues and the Greens were said to affect untrimmed facial hair, head hair shaved at the front and grown long at the back, and wide - sleeved tunics tight at the wrist; and to form gangs to engage in night - time muggings and street violence. At last these disorders took the form of a major rebellion of 532, known as the "Nika '' riots (from the battle - cry of "Conquer! '' of those involved).
Fires started by the Nika rioters consumed Constantine 's basilica of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom), the city 's principal church, which lay to the north of the Augustaeum. Justinian commissioned Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus to replace it with a new and incomparable Hagia Sophia. This was the great cathedral of the Orthodox Church, whose dome was said to be held aloft by God alone, and which was directly connected to the palace so that the imperial family could attend services without passing through the streets. The dedication took place on 26 December 537 in the presence of the emperor, who exclaimed, "O Solomon, I have outdone thee! '' Hagia Sophia was served by 600 people including 80 priests, and cost 20,000 pounds of gold to build.
Justinian also had Anthemius and Isidore demolish and replace the original Church of the Holy Apostles built by Constantine with a new church under the same dedication. This was designed in the form of an equal - armed cross with five domes, and ornamented with beautiful mosaics. This church was to remain the burial place of the Emperors from Constantine himself until the 11th century. When the city fell to the Turks in 1453, the church was demolished to make room for the tomb of Mehmet II the Conqueror. Justinian was also concerned with other aspects of the city 's built environment, legislating against the abuse of laws prohibiting building within 100 feet (30 m) of the sea front, in order to protect the view.
During Justinian I 's reign, the city 's population reached about 500,000 people. However, the social fabric of Constantinople was also damaged by the onset of the Plague of Justinian between 541 -- 542 AD. It killed perhaps 40 % of the city 's inhabitants.
In the early 7th century, the Avars and later the Bulgars overwhelmed much of the Balkans, threatening Constantinople with attack from the west. Simultaneously, the Persian Sassanids overwhelmed the Prefecture of the East and penetrated deep into Anatolia. Heraclius, son of the exarch of Africa, set sail for the city and assumed the purple. He found the military situation so dire that he is said to have contemplated withdrawing the imperial capital to Carthage, but relented after the people of Constantinople begged him to stay. The citizens lost their right to free grain in 618 when Heraclius realised that the city could no longer be supplied from Egypt as a result of the Persian wars: the population fell substantially as a result.
While the city withstood a siege by the Sassanids and Avars in 626, Heraclius campaigned deep into Persian territory and briefly restored the status quo in 628, when the Persians surrendered all their conquests. However, further sieges followed the Arab conquests, first from 674 to 678 and then in 717 to 718. The Theodosian Walls kept the city impregnable from the land, while a newly discovered incendiary substance known as Greek Fire allowed the Byzantine navy to destroy the Arab fleets and keep the city supplied. In the second siege, the second ruler of Bulgaria, Khan Tervel, rendered decisive help. He was called Saviour of Europe.
In the 730s Leo III carried out extensive repairs of the Theodosian walls, which had been damaged by frequent and violent attacks; this work was financed by a special tax on all the subjects of the Empire.
Theodora, widow of the Emperor Theophilus (died 842), acted as regent during the minority of her son Michael III, who was said to have been introduced to dissolute habits by her brother Bardas. When Michael assumed power in 856, he became known for excessive drunkenness, appeared in the hippodrome as a charioteer and burlesqued the religious processions of the clergy. He removed Theodora from the Great Palace to the Carian Palace and later to the monastery of Gastria, but, after the death of Bardas, she was released to live in the palace of St Mamas; she also had a rural residence at the Anthemian Palace, where Michael was assassinated in 867.
In 860, an attack was made on the city by a new principality set up a few years earlier at Kiev by Askold and Dir, two Varangian chiefs: Two hundred small vessels passed through the Bosporus and plundered the monasteries and other properties on the suburban Prince 's Islands. Oryphas, the admiral of the Byzantine fleet, alerted the emperor Michael, who promptly put the invaders to flight; but the suddenness and savagery of the onslaught made a deep impression on the citizens.
In 980, the emperor Basil II received an unusual gift from Prince Vladimir of Kiev: 6,000 Varangian warriors, which Basil formed into a new bodyguard known as the Varangian Guard. They were known for their ferocity, honour, and loyalty. It is said that, in 1038, they were dispersed in winter quarters in the Thracesian theme when one of their number attempted to violate a countrywoman, but in the struggle she seized his sword and killed him; instead of taking revenge, however, his comrades applauded her conduct, compensated her with all his possessions, and exposed his body without burial as if he had committed suicide. However, following the death of an Emperor, they became known also for plunder in the Imperial palaces. Later in the 11th Century the Varangian Guard became dominated by Anglo - Saxons who preferred this way of life to subjugation by the new Norman kings of England.
The Book of the Eparch, which dates to the 10th century, gives a detailed picture of the city 's commercial life and its organization at that time. The corporations in which the tradesmen of Constantinople were organised were supervised by the Eparch, who regulated such matters as production, prices, import, and export. Each guild had its own monopoly, and tradesmen might not belong to more than one. It is an impressive testament to the strength of tradition how little these arrangements had changed since the office, then known by the Latin version of its title, had been set up in 330 to mirror the urban prefecture of Rome.
In the 9th and 10th centuries, Constantinople had a population of between 500,000 and 800,000.
In the 8th and 9th centuries, the iconoclast movement caused serious political unrest throughout the Empire. The emperor Leo III issued a decree in 726 against images, and ordered the destruction of a statue of Christ over one of the doors of the Chalke, an act that was fiercely resisted by the citizens. Constantine V convoked a church council in 754, which condemned the worship of images, after which many treasures were broken, burned, or painted over with depictions of trees, birds or animals: One source refers to the church of the Holy Virgin at Blachernae as having been transformed into a "fruit store and aviary ''. Following the death of her son Leo IV in 780, the empress Irene restored the veneration of images through the agency of the Second Council of Nicaea in 787.
The iconoclast controversy returned in the early 9th century, only to be resolved once more in 843 during the regency of Empress Theodora, who restored the icons. These controversies contributed to the deterioration of relations between the Western and the Eastern Churches.
In the late 11th century catastrophe struck with the unexpected and calamitous defeat of the imperial armies at the Battle of Manzikert in Armenia in 1071. The Emperor Romanus Diogenes was captured. The peace terms demanded by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, were not excessive, and Romanus accepted them. On his release, however, Romanus found that enemies had placed their own candidate on the throne in his absence; he surrendered to them and suffered death by torture, and the new ruler, Michael VII Ducas, refused to honour the treaty. In response, the Turks began to move into Anatolia in 1073. The collapse of the old defensive system meant that they met no opposition, and the empire 's resources were distracted and squandered in a series of civil wars. Thousands of Turkoman tribesmen crossed the unguarded frontier and moved into Anatolia. By 1080, a huge area had been lost to the Empire, and the Turks were within striking distance of Constantinople.
Under the Comnenian dynasty (1081 -- 1185), Byzantium staged a remarkable recovery. In 1090 -- 91, the nomadic Pechenegs reached the walls of Constantinople, where Emperor Alexius I with the aid of the Kipchaks annihilated their army. In response to a call for aid from Alexius, the First Crusade assembled at Constantinople in 1096, but declining to put itself under Byzantine command set out for Jerusalem on its own account. John II built the monastery of the Pantocrator (Almighty) with a hospital for the poor of 50 beds.
With the restoration of firm central government, the empire became fabulously wealthy. The population was rising (estimates for Constantinople in the 12th century vary from some 100,000 to 500,000), and towns and cities across the realm flourished. Meanwhile, the volume of money in circulation dramatically increased. This was reflected in Constantinople by the construction of the Blachernae palace, the creation of brilliant new works of art, and general prosperity at this time: an increase in trade, made possible by the growth of the Italian city - states, may have helped the growth of the economy. It is certain that the Venetians and others were active traders in Constantinople, making a living out of shipping goods between the Crusader Kingdoms of Outremer and the West, while also trading extensively with Byzantium and Egypt. The Venetians had factories on the north side of the Golden Horn, and large numbers of westerners were present in the city throughout the 12th century. Toward the end of Manuel I Komnenos 's reign, the number of foreigners in the city reached about 60,000 -- 80,000 people out of a total population of about 400,000 people. In 1171, Constantinople also contained a small community of 2,500 Jews. In 1182, all Latin (Western European) inhabitants of Constantinople were massacred.
In artistic terms, the 12th century was a very productive period. There was a revival in the mosaic art, for example: Mosaics became more realistic and vivid, with an increased emphasis on depicting three - dimensional forms. There was an increased demand for art, with more people having access to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for such work. According to N.H. Baynes (Byzantium, An Introduction to East Roman Civilization):
On 25 July 1197, Constantinople was struck by a severe fire which burned the Latin Quarter and the area around the Gate of the Droungarios (Turkish: Odun Kapısı) on the Golden Horn. Nevertheless, the destruction wrought by the 1197 fire paled in comparison with that brought by the Crusaders. In the course of a plot between Philip of Swabia, Boniface of Montferrat and the Doge of Venice, the Fourth Crusade was, despite papal excommunication, diverted in 1203 against Constantinople, ostensibly promoting the claims of Alexius, son of the deposed emperor Isaac. The reigning emperor Alexius III had made no preparation. The Crusaders occupied Galata, broke the defensive chain protecting the Golden Horn, and entered the harbour, where on 27 July they breached the sea walls: Alexius III fled. But the new Alexius IV found the Treasury inadequate, and was unable to make good the rewards he had promised to his western allies. Tension between the citizens and the Latin soldiers increased. In January 1204, the protovestiarius Alexius Murzuphlus provoked a riot, it is presumed, to intimidate Alexius IV, but whose only result was the destruction of the great statue of Athena, the work of Phidias, which stood in the principal forum facing west.
In February 1198, the people rose again: Alexius IV was imprisoned and executed, and Murzuphlus took the purple as Alexius V. He made some attempt to repair the walls and organise the citizenry, but there had been no opportunity to bring in troops from the provinces and the guards were demoralised by the revolution. An attack by the Crusaders on 6 April failed, but a second from the Golden Horn on 12 April succeeded, and the invaders poured in. Alexius V fled. The Senate met in Hagia Sophia and offered the crown to Theodore Lascaris, who had married into the Angelid family, but it was too late. He came out with the Patriarch to the Golden Milestone before the Great Palace and addressed the Varangian Guard. Then the two of them slipped away with many of the nobility and embarked for Asia. By the next day the Doge and the leading Franks were installed in the Great Palace, and the city was given over to pillage for three days.
Sir Steven Runciman, historian of the Crusades, wrote that the sack of Constantinople is "unparalleled in history ''.
"For nine centuries, '' he goes on, "the great city had been the capital of Christian civilisation. It was filled with works of art that had survived from ancient Greece and with the masterpieces of its own exquisite craftsmen. The Venetians... seized treasures and carried them off to adorn... their town. But the Frenchmen and Flemings were filled with a lust for destruction. They rushed in a howling mob down the streets and through the houses, snatching up everything that glittered and destroying whatever they could not carry, pausing only to murder or to rape, or to break open the wine - cellars... Neither monasteries nor churches nor libraries were spared. In Hagia Sophia itself, drunken soldiers could be seen tearing down the silken hangings and pulling the great silver iconostasis to pieces, while sacred books and icons were trampled under foot. While they drank merrily from the altar - vessels a prostitute set herself on the Patriarch 's throne and began to sing a ribald French song. Nuns were ravished in their convents. Palaces and hovels alike were entered and wrecked. Wounded women and children lay dying in the streets. For three days the ghastly scenes... continued, till the huge and beautiful city was a shambles... When... order was restored,... citizens were tortured to make them reveal the goods that they had contrived to hide.
For the next half - century, Constantinople was the seat of the Latin Empire. Under the rulers of the Latin Empire, the city declined, both in population and the condition of its buildings. Alice - Mary Talbot cites an estimated population for Constantinople of 400,000 inhabitants; after the destruction wrought by the Crusaders on the city, about one third were homeless, and numerous courtiers, nobility, and higher clergy, followed various leading personages into exile. "As a result Constantinople became seriously depopulated, '' Talbot concludes.
The Latins took over at least 20 churches and 13 monasteries, most prominently the Hagia Sophia, which became the cathedral of the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople. It is to these that E.H. Swift attributed the construction of a series of flying buttresses to shore up the walls of the church, which had been weakened over the centuries by earthquake tremors. However, this act of maintenance is an exception: for the most part, the Latin occupiers were too few to maintain all of the buildings, either secular and sacred, and many became targets for vandalism or dismantling. Bronze and lead were removed from the roofs of abandoned buildings and melted down and sold to provide money to the chronically under - funded Empire for defense and to support the court; Deno John Geanokoplos writes that "it may well be that a division is suggested here: Latin laymen stripped secular buildings, ecclesiastics, the churches. '' Buildings were not the only targets of officials looking to raise funds for the impoverished Latin Empire: the monumental sculptures which adorned the Hippodrome and fora of the city were pulled down and melted for coinage. "Among the masterpieces destroyed, writes Talbot, "were a Herakles attributed to the fourth - century B.C. sculptor Lysippos, and monumental figures of Hera, Paris, and Helen. ''
The Nicaean emperor John III Vatatzes reportedly saved several churches from being dismantled for their valuable building materials; by sending money to the Latins "to buy them off '' (exonesamenos), he prevented the destruction of several churches. According to Talbot, these included the churches of Blachernae, Rouphinianai, and St. Michael at Anaplous. He also granted funds for the restoration of the Church of the Holy Apostles, which had been seriously damaged in an earthquake.
The Byzantine nobility scattered, many going to Nicaea, where Theodore Lascaris set up an imperial court, or to Epirus, where Theodore Angelus did the same; others fled to Trebizond, where one of the Comneni had already with Georgian support established an independent seat of empire. Nicaea and Epirus both vied for the imperial title, and tried to recover Constantinople. In 1261, Constantinople was captured from its last Latin ruler, Baldwin II, by the forces of the Nicaean emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.
Although Constantinople was retaken by Michael VIII Palaiologos, the Empire had lost many of its key economic resources, and struggled to survive. The palace of Blachernae in the north - west of the city became the main Imperial residence, with the old Great Palace on the shores of the Bosporus going into decline. When Michael VIII captured the city, its population was 35,000 people, but, by the end of his reign, he had succeeded in increasing the population to about 70,000 people. The Emperor achieved this by summoning former residents who had fled the city when the crusaders captured it, and by relocating Greeks from the recently reconquered Peloponnese to the capital. In 1347, the Black Death spread to Constantinople. In 1453, when the Ottoman Turks captured the city, it contained approximately 50,000 people.
Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453, due to the use of cannon. The Ottomans were commanded by 22 - year - old Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. The conquest of Constantinople followed a seven - week siege which had begun on 6 April 1453.
The Christian Orthodox city of Constantinople was now under Ottoman control. When Mehmed II finally entered Constantinople through what is now known as the Topkapi Gate, he immediately rode his horse to the Hagia Sophia, where he ordered his soldiers to stop hacking at the marbles and ' be satisfied with the booty and captives; as for all the buildings, they belonged to him '. He ordered that an imam meet him there in order to chant the adhan thus transforming the Orthodox cathedral into a Muslim mosque, solidifying Islamic rule in Constantinople.
Mehmed 's main concern with Constantinople had to do with rebuilding the city 's defenses and population. Building projects were commenced immediately after the conquest, which included the repair of the walls, construction of the citadel, and building a new palace. Mehmed issued orders across his empire that Muslims, Christians, and Jews should resettle the city; he demanded that five thousand households needed to be transferred to Constantinople by September. From all over the Islamic empire, prisoners of war and deported people were sent to the city: these people were called "Sürgün '' in Turkish (Greek: σουργούνιδες). Two centuries later, Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi gave a list of groups introduced into the city with their respective origins. Even today, many quarters of Istanbul, such as Aksaray, Çarşamba, bear the names of the places of origin of their inhabitants. However, many people escaped again from the city, and there were several outbreaks of plague, so that in 1459 Mehmet allowed the deported Greeks to come back to the city.
Constantinople was the largest and richest urban center in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea during the late Eastern Roman Empire, mostly as a result of its strategic position commanding the trade routes between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea. It would remain the capital of the eastern, Greek - speaking empire for over a thousand years. At its peak, roughly corresponding to the Middle Ages, it was the richest and largest European city, exerting a powerful cultural pull and dominating economic life in the Mediterranean. Visitors and merchants were especially struck by the beautiful monasteries and churches of the city, in particular, Hagia Sophia, or the Church of Holy Wisdom. According to Russian 14th - century traveler Stephen of Novgorod: "As for Hagia Sophia, the human mind can neither tell it nor make description of it. ''
It was especially important for preserving in its libraries manuscripts of Greek and Latin authors throughout a period when instability and disorder caused their mass - destruction in western Europe and north Africa: On the city 's fall, thousands of these were brought by refugees to Italy, and played a key part in stimulating the Renaissance, and the transition to the modern world. The cumulative influence of the city on the west, over the many centuries of its existence, is incalculable. In terms of technology, art and culture, as well as sheer size, Constantinople was without parallel anywhere in Europe for a thousand years.
Armenians, Syrians, Slavs, and Georgians were part of the Byzantine social hierarchy.
The city provided a defence for the eastern provinces of the old Roman Empire against the barbarian invasions of the 5th century. The 18 - meter - tall walls built by Theodosius II were, in essence, impregnable to the barbarians coming from south of the Danube river, who found easier targets to the west rather than the richer provinces to the east in Asia. From the 5th century, the city was also protected by the Anastasian Wall, a 60 - kilometer chain of walls across the Thracian peninsula. Many scholars argue that these sophisticated fortifications allowed the east to develop relatively unmolested while Ancient Rome and the west collapsed.
Constantinople 's fame was such that it was described even in contemporary Chinese histories, the Old and New Book of Tang, which mentioned its massive walls and gates as well as a purported clepsydra mounted with a golden statue of a man. The Chinese histories even related how the city had been besieged in the 7th century by Muawiyah I and how he exacted tribute in a peace settlement.
The Byzantine Empire used Roman and Greek architectural models and styles to create its own unique type of architecture. The influence of Byzantine architecture and art can be seen in the copies taken from it throughout Europe. Particular examples include St Mark 's Basilica in Venice, the basilicas of Ravenna, and many churches throughout the Slavic East. Also, alone in Europe until the 13th - century Italian florin, the Empire continued to produce sound gold coinage, the solidus of Diocletian becoming the bezant prized throughout the Middle Ages. Its city walls were much imitated (for example, see Caernarfon Castle) and its urban infrastructure was moreover a marvel throughout the Middle Ages, keeping alive the art, skill and technical expertise of the Roman Empire. In the Ottoman period Islamic architecture and symbolism were used.
Constantine 's foundation gave prestige to the Bishop of Constantinople, who eventually came to be known as the Ecumenical Patriarch, and made it a prime center of Christianity alongside Rome. This contributed to cultural and theological differences between Eastern and Western Christianity eventually leading to the Great Schism that divided Western Catholicism from Eastern Orthodoxy from 1054 onwards. Constantinople is also of great religious importance to Islam, as the conquest of Constantinople is one of the signs of the End time in Islam.
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steel industry manufacturing steel pipes is an example of | Pipe (fluid conveyance) - wikipedia
A pipe is a tubular section or hollow cylinder, usually but not necessarily of circular cross-section, used mainly to convey substances which can flow -- liquids and gases (fluids), slurries, powders and masses of small solids. It can also be used for structural applications; hollow pipe is far stiffer per unit weight than solid members.
In common usage the words pipe and tube are usually interchangeable, but in industry and engineering, the terms are uniquely defined. Depending on the applicable standard to which it is manufactured, pipe is generally specified by a nominal diameter with a constant outside diameter (OD) and a schedule that defines the thickness. Tube is most often specified by the OD and wall thickness, but may be specified by any two of OD, inside diameter (ID), and wall thickness. Pipe is generally manufactured to one of several international and national industrial standards. While similar standards exist for specific industry application tubing, tube is often made to custom sizes and a broader range of diameters and tolerances. Many industrial and government standards exist for the production of pipe and tubing. The term "tube '' is also commonly applied to non-cylindrical sections, i.e., square or rectangular tubing. In general, "pipe '' is the more common term in most of the world, whereas "tube '' is more widely used in the United States.
Both "pipe '' and "tube '' imply a level of rigidity and permanence, whereas a hose (or hosepipe) is usually portable and flexible. Pipe assemblies are almost always constructed with the use of fittings such as elbows, tees, and so on, while tube may be formed or bent into custom configurations. For materials that are inflexible, can not be formed, or where construction is governed by codes or standards, tube assemblies are also constructed with the use of tube fittings.
Additionally, pipe is used for many purposes that do not involve conveying fluid. Handrails, scaffolding and support structures are often constructed from structural pipe, especially in an industrial environment.
There are three processes for metallic pipe manufacture. Centrifugal casting of hot alloyed metal is one of the most prominent process. Ductile iron pipes are generally manufactured in such a fashion. Seamless (SMLS) pipe is formed by drawing a solid billet over a piercing rod to create the hollow shell. As the manufacturing process does not include any welding, seamless pipes are perceived to be stronger and more reliable. Historically, seamless pipe was regarded as withstanding pressure better than other types, and was often more available than welded pipe.
Advances since the 1970s in materials, process control, and non-destructive testing, allow correctly specified welded pipe to replace seamless in many applications. Welded pipe is formed by rolling plate and welding the seam (usually by Electric resistance welding ("ERW ''), or Electric Fusion Welding ("EFW '')). The weld flash can be removed from both inner and outer surfaces using a scarfing blade. The weld zone can also be heat - treated to make the seam less visible. Welded pipe often have tighter dimensional tolerances than the seamless type, and can be cheaper to manufacture.
There are a number of processes that may be used to produce ERW pipes. Each of these processes leads to coalescence or merging of steel components into pipes. Electric current is passed through the surfaces that have to be welded together; as the components being welded together resist the electric current, heat is generated which forms the weld. Pools of molten metal are formed where the two surfaces are connected as a strong electric current is passed through the metal; these pools of molten metal form the weld that binds the two abutted components.
ERW pipes are manufactured from the longitudinal welding of steel. The welding process for ERW pipes is continuous, as opposed to welding of distinct sections at intervals. ERW process uses steel coil as feedstock.
The High Frequency Induction Technology (HFI) welding process is used for manufacturing ERW pipes. In this process, the current to weld the pipe is applied by means of an induction coil around the tube. HFI is generally considered to be technically superior to "ordinary '' ERW when manufacturing pipes for critical applications, such as for usage in the energy sector, in addition to other uses in line pipe applications, as well as for casing and tubing.
Large - diameter pipe (25 centimetres (10 in) or greater) may be ERW, EFW or Submerged Arc Welded ("SAW '') pipe. There are two technologies that can be used to manufacture steel pipes of sizes larger than the steel pipes that can be produced by seamless and ERW processes. The two types of pipes produced through these technologies are longitudinal - submerged arc - welded (LSAW) and spiral - submerged arc - welded (SSAW) pipes. LSAW are made by bending and welding wide steel plates and most commonly used in oil and gas industry applications. Due to their high cost, LSAW pipes are seldom used in lower value non-energy applications such as water pipelines. SSAW pipes are produced by spiral (helicoidal) welding of steel coil and have a cost advantage over LSAW pipes, as the process uses coils rather than steel plates. As such, in applications where spiral - weld is acceptable, SSAW pipes may be preferred over LSAW pipes. Both LSAW pipes and SSAW pipes compete against ERW pipes and seamless pipes in the diameter ranges of 16 '' - 24 ''.
Tubing for flow, either metal or plastic, is generally extruded.
Pipe is made out of many types of material including ceramic, glass, fiberglass, many metals, concrete and plastic. In the past, wood and lead (Latin plumbum, from which comes the word ' plumbing ') were commonly used.
Typically metallic piping is made of steel or iron, such as unfinished, black (lacquer) steel, carbon steel, stainless steel, galvanized steel, brass, and ductile iron. Iron based piping is subject to corrosion if used within a highly oxygenated water stream. Aluminum pipe or tubing may be utilized where iron is incompatible with the service fluid or where weight is a concern; aluminum is also used for heat transfer tubing such as in refrigerant systems. Copper tubing is popular for domestic water (potable) plumbing systems; copper may be used where heat transfer is desirable (i.e. radiators or heat exchangers). Inconel, chrome moly, and titanium steel alloys are used in high temperature and pressure piping in process and power facilities. When specifying alloys for new processes, the known issues of creep and sensitization effect must be taken into account.
Lead piping is still found in old domestic and other water distribution systems, but it is no longer permitted for new potable water piping installations due to its toxicity. Many building codes now require that lead piping in residential or institutional installations be replaced with non-toxic piping or that the tubes ' interiors be treated with phosphoric acid. According to a senior researcher and lead expert with the Canadian Environmental Law Association, "... there is no safe level of lead (for human exposure) ''. In 1991 the US EPA issued the Lead and Copper Rule, it is a federal regulation which limits the concentration of lead and copper allowed in public drinking water, as well as the permissible amount of pipe corrosion occurring due to the water itself. In the US it 's estimated that 6.5 million lead pipes installed before the 1930s are still in use.
Plastic tubing is widely used for its light weight, chemical resistance, non-corrosive properties, and ease of making connections. Plastic materials include polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), fibre reinforced plastic (FRP), reinforced polymer mortar (RPMP), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), cross-linked high - density polyethylene (PEX), polybutylene (PB), and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), for example. In many countries, PVC pipes account for most pipe materials used in buried municipal applications for drinking water distribution and wastewater mains. Market researchers are forecasting total global revenues of more than US $80 billion in 2019. In Europe, market value will amount to approx. € 12.7 billion in 2020
Pipe may be made from concrete or ceramic, usually for low - pressure applications such as gravity flow or drainage. Pipes for sewage are still predominantly made from concrete or vitrified clay. Reinforced concrete can be used for large - diameter concrete pipes. This pipe material can be used in many types of construction, and is often used in the gravity - flow transport of storm water. Usually such pipe will have a receiving bell or a stepped fitting, with various sealing methods applied at installation.
When the alloys for piping are forged, metallurgical tests are performed to determine material composition by % of each chemical element in the piping, and the results are recorded in a Material Test Report (MTR). These tests can be used to prove that the alloy conforms to various specifications (e.g. 316 SS). The tests are stamped by the mill 's QA / QC department and can be used to trace the material back to the mill by future users, such as piping and fitting manufacturers. Maintaining the traceability between the alloy material and associated MTR is an important quality assurance issue. QA often requires the heat number to be written on the pipe. Precautions must also be taken to prevent the introduction of counterfeit materials. As a backup to etching / labeling of the material identification on the pipe, positive material identification (PMI) is performed using a handheld device; the device scans the pipe material using an emitted electromagnetic wave (x-ray fluorescence / XRF) and receives a reply that is spectrographically analyzed.
Pipe sizes can be confusing because the terminology may relate to historical dimensions. For example, a half - inch iron pipe does not have any dimension that is a half inch. Initially, a half inch pipe did have an inner diameter of 0.5 inches (13 mm) -- but it also had thick walls. As technology improved, thinner walls became possible, but the outside diameter stayed the same so it could mate with existing older pipe, increasing the inner diameter beyond half an inch. The history of copper pipe is similar. In the 1930s, the pipe was designated by its internal diameter and a ⁄ - inch (1.6 mm) wall thickness. Consequently, a 1 - inch (25 mm) copper pipe had a 1 ⁄ - inch (28.58 mm) outside diameter. The outside diameter was the important dimension for mating with fittings. The wall thickness on modern copper is usually thinner than ⁄ - inch (1.6 mm), so the internal diameter is only "nominal '' rather than a controlling dimension. Newer pipe technologies sometimes adopted a sizing system as its own. PVC pipe uses the Nominal Pipe Size.
Pipe sizes are specified by a number of national and international standards, including API 5L, ANSI / ASME B36. 10M and B36. 19M in the US, BS 1600 and BS EN 10255 in the United Kingdom and Europe.
There are two common methods for designating pipe outside diameter (OD). The North American method is called NPS ("Nominal Pipe Size '') and is based on inches (also frequently referred to as NB ("Nominal Bore '')). The European version is called DN ("Diametre Nominal '' / "Nominal Diameter '') and is based on millimetres. Designating the outside diameter allows pipes of the same size to be fit together no matter what the wall thickness.
Since the outside diameter is fixed for a given pipe size, the inside diameter will vary depending on the wall thickness of the pipe. For example, 2 '' Schedule 80 pipe has thicker walls and therefore a smaller inside diameter than 2 '' Schedule 40 pipe.
Steel pipe has been produced for about 150 years. The pipe sizes that are in use today in PVC and galvanized were originally designed years ago for steel pipe. The number system, like Sch 40, 80, 160, were set long ago and seem a little odd. For example, Sch 20 pipe is even thinner than Sch 40, but same OD. And while these pipes are based on old steel pipe sizes, there is other pipe, like cpvc for heated water, that uses pipe sizes, inside and out, based on old copper pipe size standards instead of steel.
Many different standards exist for pipe sizes, and their prevalence varies depending on industry and geographical area. The pipe size designation generally includes two numbers; one that indicates the outside (OD) or nominal diameter, and the other that indicates the wall thickness. In the early twentieth century, American pipe was sized by inside diameter. This practice was abandoned to improve compatibility with pipe fittings that must usually fit the OD of the pipe, but it has had a lasting impact on modern standards around the world.
In North America and the UK, pressure piping is usually specified by Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) and schedule (SCH). Pipe sizes are documented by a number of standards, including API 5L, ANSI / ASME B36. 10M (Table 1) in the US, and BS 1600 and BS 1387 in the United Kingdom. Typically the pipe wall thickness is the controlled variable, and the Inside Diameter (I.D.) is allowed to vary. The pipe wall thickness has a variance of approximately 12.5 percent.
In the rest of Europe pressure piping uses the same pipe IDs and wall thicknesses as Nominal Pipe Size, but labels them with a metric Diameter Nominal (DN) instead of the imperial NPS. For NPS larger than 14, the DN is equal to the NPS multiplied by 25. (Not 25.4) This is documented by EN 10255 (formerly DIN 2448 and BS 1387) and ISO 65: 1981, and it is often called DIN or ISO pipe.
Japan has its own set of standard pipe sizes, often called JIS pipe.
The Iron pipe size (IPS) is an older system still used by some manufacturers and legacy drawings and equipment. The IPS number is the same as the NPS number, but the schedules were limited to Standard Wall (STD), Extra Strong (XS), and Double Extra Strong (XXS). STD is identical to SCH 40 for NPS 1 / 8 to NPS 10, inclusive, and indicates. 375 '' wall thickness for NPS 12 and larger. XS is identical to SCH 80 for NPS 1 / 8 to NPS 8, inclusive, and indicates. 500 '' wall thickness for NPS 8 and larger. Different definitions exist for XXS, however it is never the same as SCH 160. XXS is in fact thicker than SCH 160 for NPS 1 / 8 '' to 6 '' inclusive, whereas SCH 160 is thicker than XXS for NPS 8 '' and larger.
Another old system is the Ductile Iron Pipe Size (DIPS), which generally has larger ODs than IPS.
Copper plumbing tube for residential plumbing follows an entirely different size system in America, often called Copper Tube Size (CTS); see domestic water system. Its nominal size is neither the inside nor outside diameter. Plastic tubing, such as PVC and CPVC, for plumbing applications also has different sizing standards.
Agricultural applications use PIP sizes, which stands for Plastic Irrigation Pipe. PIP comes in pressure ratings of 22 psi (150 kPa), 50 psi (340 kPa), 80 psi (550 kPa), 100 psi (690 kPa), and 125 psi (860 kPa) and is generally available in diameters of 6 ", 8 '', 10 ", 12 '', 15 ", 18 '', 21 ", and 24 ''.
The manufacture and installation of pressure piping is tightly regulated by the ASME "B31 '' code series such as B31. 1 or B31. 3 which have their basis in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC). This code has the force of law in Canada and the US. Europe and the rest of the world has an equivalent system of codes. Pressure piping is generally pipe that must carry pressures greater than 10 to 25 atmospheres, although definitions vary. To ensure safe operation of the system, the manufacture, storage, welding, testing, etc. of pressure piping must meet stringent quality standards.
Manufacturing standards for pipes commonly require a test of chemical composition and a series of mechanical strength tests for each heat of pipe. A heat of pipe is all forged from the same cast ingot, and therefore had the same chemical composition. Mechanical tests may be associated to a lot of pipe, which would be all from the same heat and have been through the same heat treatment processes. The manufacturer performs these tests and reports the composition in a mill traceability report and the mechanical tests in a material test report, both of which are referred to by the acronym MTR. Material with these associated test reports is called traceable. For critical applications, third party verification of these tests may be required; in this case an independent lab will produce a certified material test report (CMTR), and the material will be called certified.
Some widely used pipe standards or piping classes are:
API 5L was changed in the second half of 2008 to edition 44 from edition 43 to make it identical to ISO 3183. It is important to note that the change has created the requirement that sour service, ERW pipe, pass a hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) test per NACE TM0284 in order to be used for sour service.
Pipe installation is often more expensive than the material and a variety of specialized tools, techniques, and parts have been developed to assist this. Pipe is usually delivered to a customer or jobsite as either "sticks '' or lengths of pipe (typically 20 feet, called single random length) or they are prefabricated with elbows, tees and valves into a prefabricated pipe spool (A pipe spool is a piece of pre-assembled pipe and fittings, usually prepared in a shop so that installation on the construction site can be more efficient.). Typically, pipe smaller than 2.0 inch are not pre-fabricated. The pipe spools are usually tagged with a bar code and the ends are capped (plastic) for protection. The pipe and pipe spools are delivered to a warehouse on a large commercial / industrial job and they may be held indoors or in a gridded laydown yard. The pipe or pipe spool is retrieved, staged, rigged, and then lifted into place. On large process jobs the lift is made using cranes and hoist and other material lifts. They are typically temporarily supported in the steel structure using beam clamps, straps, and small hoists until the pipe supports are attached or otherwise secured.
An example of a tool used for installation for a small plumbing pipe (threaded ends) is the pipe wrench. Small pipe is typically not heavy and can be lifted into place by the installation craft laborer. However, during a plant outage or shutdown, the small (small bore) pipe may also be pre-fabricated to expedite installation during the outage. After the pipe is installed it will be tested for leaks. Before testing it may need to be cleaned by blowing air or steam or flushing with a liquid.
Pipes are usually either supported from below or hung from above (but may also be supported from the side), using devices called pipe supports. Supports may be as simple as a pipe "shoe '' which is akin to a half of an I - beam welded to the bottom of the pipe; they may be "hung '' using a clevis, or with trapeze type of devices called pipe hangers. Pipe supports of any kind may incorporate springs, snubbers, dampers, or combinations of these devices to compensate for thermal expansion, or to provide vibration isolation, shock control, or reduced vibration excitation of the pipe due to earthquake motion. Some dampers are simply fluid dashpots, but other dampers may be active hydraulic devices that have sophisticated systems that act to dampen peak displacements due to externally imposed vibrations or mechanical shocks. The undesired motions may be process derived (such as in a fluidized bed reactor) or from a natural phenomenon such as an earthquake (design basis event or DBE).
Pipe hanger assembles are usually attached with pipe clamps. Possible exposure to high temperatures and heavy loads should be included when specifying which clamps are needed.
Pipes are commonly joined by welding, using threaded pipe and fittings; sealing the connection with a pipe thread compound, Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Thread seal tape, oakum, or PTFE string, or by using a mechanical coupling. Process piping is usually joined by welding using a TIG or MIG process. The most common process pipe joint is the butt weld. The ends of pipe to be welded must have a certain weld preparation called an End Weld Prep (EWP) which is typically at an angle of 37.5 degrees to accommodate the filler weld metal. The most common pipe thread in North America is the National Pipe Thread (NPT) or the Dryseal (NPTF) version. Other pipe threads include the British standard pipe thread (BSPT), the garden hose thread (GHT), and the fire hose coupling (NST).
Copper pipes are typically joined by soldering, brazing, compression fittings, flaring, or crimping. Plastic pipes may be joined by solvent welding, heat fusion, or elastomeric sealing.
If frequent disconnection will be required, gasketed pipe flanges or union fittings provide better reliability than threads. Some thin - walled pipes of ductile material, such as the smaller copper or flexible plastic water pipes found in homes for ice makers and humidifiers, for example, may be joined with compression fittings.
Underground pipe typically uses a "push - on '' gasket style of pipe that compresses a gasket into a space formed between the two adjoining pieces. Push - on joints are available on most types of pipe. A pipe joint lubricant must be used in the assembly of the pipe. Under buried conditions, gasket - joint pipes allow for lateral movement due to soil shifting as well as expansion / contraction due to temperature differentials. Plastic MDPE and HDPE gas and water pipes are also often joined with Electrofusion fittings.
Large above ground pipe typically uses a flanged joint, which is generally available in ductile iron pipe and some others. It is a gasket style where the flanges of the adjoining pipes are bolted together, compressing the gasket into a space between the pipe.
Mechanical grooved couplings or Victaulic joints are also frequently used for frequent disassembly and assembly. Developed in the 1920s, these mechanical grooved couplings can operate up to 120 pounds per square inch (830 kPa) working pressures and available in materials to match the pipe grade. Another type of mechanical coupling is a Swagelok brand fitting; this type of compression fitting is typically used on small tubing under 0.75 inches (19 mm) in diameter.
When pipes join in chambers where other components are needed for the management of the network (such as valves or gauges), dismantling joints are generally used, in order to make mounting / dismounting easier.
Fittings are also used to split or join a number of pipes together, and for other purposes. A broad variety of standardized pipe fittings are available; they are generally broken down into either a tee, an elbow, a branch, a reducer / enlarger, or a wye. Valves control fluid flow and regulate pressure. The piping and plumbing fittings and valves articles discuss them further.
The inside of pipes can be cleaned with a tube cleaning process, if they are contaminated with debris or fouling. This depends on the process that the pipe will be used for and the cleanliness needed for the process. In some cases the pipes are cleaned using a displacement device formally known as a Pipeline Inspection Gauge or "pig ''; alternately the pipes or tubes may be chemically flushed using specialized solutions that are pumped through. In some cases, where care has been taken in the manufacture, storage, and installation of pipe and tubing, the lines are blown clean with compressed air or nitrogen.
Pipe is widely used in the fabrication of handrails, guardrails, and railings.
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man with highest number of degrees in india | Shrikant Jichkar - Wikipedia
Shrikant Jichkar (14 September 1955 -- 2 June 2004) was an Indian politician. He held several degrees
He began as a medical doctor (MBBS and MD) he did his Law (LL. B.) with post-graduation in International Law (LL. M.) and his Masters in Business Administration (DBM and MBA) and in Journalism (B. Journ). He got his D. Litt (Doctor of Literature) in Sanskrit, the highest of any degree in a university. Most of his degrees are with First Merit and he has obtained several Gold Medals for his degrees. Between 1973 and 1990 he wrote 42 university examinations, every summer and every winter.
In 1978 he appeared in the Indian Civil Service examination and got selected in Indian police service (IPS), resigned, again appeared in the Indian civil service exam, and successfully joined in IAS (Indian Administrative Services) in 1980, but resigned after four months to contest his first general election. In 1980 he was elected to Maharashtra Legislative Assembly, becoming the youngest MLA in the country at 26 and subsequently became a very powerful government Minister holding 14 portfolios at a time.
He had one of the biggest personal libraries in India with more than 52,000 books.
Jichkar was also an academician, painter, professional photographer, and stage actor. He was a member of the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly (1982 -- 85), Maharashtra Legislative Council (1986 -- 92) and served as Minister of State, Government of Maharashtra. He was a member of Rajya Sabha, India (1992 -- 98).
He founded Sàndipani school at Nagpur in 1992
He died in a car accident at the age of 49.
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where does t bone come from on a cow | T - bone steak - wikipedia
The T - bone and porterhouse are steaks of beef cut from the short loin (called the sirloin in Commonwealth countries and Ireland). Both steaks include a "T '' - shaped bone with meat on each side. Porterhouse steaks are cut from the rear end of the short loin and thus include more tenderloin steak, along with (on the other side of the bone) a large strip steak. T - bone steaks are cut closer to the front, and contain a smaller section of tenderloin. The smaller portion of a T - bone, when sold alone, is known as a filet mignon, especially if it 's cut from the small forward end of the tenderloin.
There is little agreement among experts on how large the tenderloin must be to differentiate a T - bone steak from porterhouse. The U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Institutional Meat Purchase Specifications state that the tenderloin of a porterhouse must be at least 1.25 inches (32 mm) thick at its widest, while that of a T - bone must be at least 0.5 inches (13 mm). However, steaks with a large tenderloin are often called a "T - bone '' in restaurants and steakhouses despite technically being porterhouse.
Owing to their large size and the fact that they contain meat from two of the most prized cuts of beef (the short loin and the tenderloin), T - bone steaks are generally considered one of the highest quality steaks, and prices at steakhouses are accordingly high. Porterhouse steaks are even more highly valued owing to their larger tenderloin.
In the United States, the T - bone has the meat - cutting classification IMPS 1174; the porterhouse is IMPS 1173.
In British usage, followed in Commonwealth countries, "porterhouse '' often means a UK sirloin steak (i.e. US strip steak) on the bone, i.e. without the tenderloin on the other side of T - bone. However, nowadays some British on - line butchers also offer American style porterhouse steaks.
In New Zealand and Australia, a Porterhouse is striploin steak off the bone.
The origin of the term "porterhouse '' is contentious, with several cities and establishments claiming to have coined it. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the etymology from proprietor Martin Morrison serving large T - bones in his Pearl Street (Manhattan) "Porter House '' around 1814, while noting the lack of contemporary evidence to support the tale. This origin story gained traction in the late 19th century. Some sources contend a Cambridge, Massachusetts hotel and restaurant proprietor named Zachariah B. Porter lent his name to the cut of beef. In that era (late 18th to early 20th century), Porter Square was flanked by cattle yards that used the Porter rail head to transport their beef throughout the US. Still others claim the steak takes its name from various other 19th Century U.S. hotels or restaurants called Porter House, such as the Porter House Hotel in Flowery Branch, Georgia.
To cut a T - bone from butchered cattle, a lumbar vertebra is sawn in half through the vertebral column. The downward prong of the ' T ' is a transverse process of the vertebra, and the flesh surrounding it is the spinal muscles. The small semicircle at the top of the ' T ' is half of the vertebral foramen.
T - bone and porterhouse steaks are suited to fast, dry heat cooking methods, such as grilling or broiling. Since they contain a small amount of collagen relative to other cuts, longer cooking times are not necessary to tenderize the meat. The bone also conducts heat within the meat so that it cooks more evenly and prevents meat drying out and shrinking during cooking. The meat near the bone will cook more slowly than the rest of the steak, and the tenderloin will tend to reach the desired temperature before the strip.
Bistecca alla fiorentina, or ' beefsteak Florentine style ', consists of a T - bone traditionally sourced from either the Chianina or Maremmana breeds of cattle. A favorite of Tuscan cuisine, the steak is grilled over a wood or charcoal fire, seasoned with salt, sometimes with black pepper, and olive oil, applied immediately after the meat is retired from the heat. Thickly cut and very large, "Bistecca '' are often shared between two or more persons, and traditionally served very rare, sometimes garnished with lemon wedges, if not accompanied by red wine, and accompanied by Tuscan beans as a side dish.
The same cut of meat, but from a calf, is used for Cotoletta alla milanese, which consists of 1.5 cm - thick cuts which are battered in breadcrumbs and fried in clarified butter with salt.
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who is playing poirot in the new film | Murder on the Orient Express (2017 film) - wikipedia
Murder on the Orient Express is a 2017 American mystery drama film directed by Kenneth Branagh with a screenplay by Michael Green, based on the 1934 novel of the same name by Agatha Christie. The film stars Branagh as Hercule Poirot, with Penélope Cruz, Willem Dafoe, Judi Dench, Johnny Depp, Josh Gad, Derek Jacobi, Leslie Odom Jr., Michelle Pfeiffer, and Daisy Ridley in supporting roles. The film is the fourth adaptation of Christie 's novel, following a 1974 film, a 2001 TV film, and a 2010 episode of Agatha Christie 's Poirot. Poirot is a fictional world - renowned detective who seeks to solve a murder on the famous European train in the 1930s.
Principal photography began in November 2016 in the United Kingdom; it is one of the few in recent decades to use 65mm film cameras. Murder on the Orient Express had its world premiere on November 2, 2017 at Royal Albert Hall in London and was released in the United States on November 10, 2017, by 20th Century Fox. The film has grossed $87 million worldwide and received mixed reviews from critics, with praise for the cast 's performances and its production value, but received criticism for not adding anything new to previous adaptations.
In the winter of 1934, Hercule Poirot (Kenneth Branagh), a famous Belgian detective, looks forward to taking a break from his work after solving a theft in Jerusalem. Travelling to Istanbul, Poirot meets his friend, Bouc (Tom Bateman), director of the Orient Express. Receiving a telegram from London about an impending case, Poirot must return home, with Bouc offering him a place onboard the unusually booked Express.
Poirot is approached by Samuel Ratchett (Johnny Depp), an unpleasant American businessman, to act as his bodyguard during the three - day journey as he has received threatening letters from an unknown party, but Poirot refuses. That night, Poirot hears strange noises coming from Ratchett 's compartment, and witnesses a woman in a red kimono running down the hallway. An avalanche occurs, causing the train to derail, stranding the passengers.
The next morning, Poirot learns Ratchett was murdered during the night, as he was stabbed a dozen times. Poirot and Bouc investigate the murder, the latter not amongst the suspects, having slept in another carriage. Evidence indicates that Ratchett was murdered by a lone man, with one passenger, Mrs. Hubbard (Michelle Pfeiffer), claiming that a man was in her room during the night. Poirot discovers a partially destroyed note, connecting Ratchett to the case of Daisy Armstrong, a little girl who was abducted from her bedroom and held for ransom. After the ransom was paid, Daisy 's body was found in the woods, murdered. Ratchett is identified as John Cassetti, Daisy 's murderer, her death indirectly causing her mother Sonia to die after giving premature birth to a stillborn baby, and her father, Colonel Armstrong to commit suicide shortly after. The family 's innocent nursemaid, Susanne, was arrested, but hung herself whilst in police custody, only to be found innocent after her death.
More evidence is found, including a bloodstained handkerchief with the letter ' H ' on it, and the button of a conductor 's uniform found in Mrs. Hubbard 's compartment. The uniform is later found, as is the kimono, in Poirot 's own suitcase. Mrs. Hubbard is stabbed in the back, but survives, unable to identify the culprit. Through interviews, Poirot discovers several of the passengers have direct connections to the Armstrong family. Whilst interviewing Governess Mary Debenham (Daisy Ridley), Poirot is confronted by Dr. John Arbuthnot (Leslie Odom Jr.), claiming responsibility for the murder. Arbuthnot, a former sniper, shoots Poirot in the shoulder but is later stopped and incapacitated by Bouc. Poirot realises Arbuthnot never meant to kill him.
Poirot assembles all the suspects outside the train, offering two theories to how Ratchett died. The first is simple, Poirot concluding that an assassin disguised as a conductor snuck on the train, murdered Ratchett, and fled. However, the second is more complex. Every suspect is related to the Armstrongs and Susanne and the subsequent trial in some way. Edward Henry Masterman (Derek Jacobi), Cassetti 's valet, was Colonel Armstrong 's batman during the war, and later his valet, who also served as butler to the Armstrong household. Dr. Arbuthnot was Colonel Armstrong 's comrade and best friend. Countess Helena Andrenyi (née Goldenberg) (Lucy Boynton) was Sonia Armstrong 's sister and Daisy 's aunt. Count Ruldoph Andrenyi (Sergei Polunin) is the husband of Helena Andrenyi, who loves her dearly and has had to see her struggle with the death of her family ever since. Princess Dragomiroff (Judi Dench) was Sonia Armstrong 's godmother, and a friend of her mother. Miss Debenham was Daisy 's governess. Fräulein Hildegarde Schmidt (Olivia Colman) was the Armstrong family 's cook. Biniamino Marquez (Manuel Garcia - Rulfo) was indebted to the Armstrong family after Colonel Armstrong financed his first business. Miss Pilar Estravados (Penélope Cruz), a Spanish missionary, was Daisy 's nurse. Hector MacQueen 's (Josh Gad) father was the district attorney for the kidnapping case, whose life and career were ruined after he wrongly prosecuted Susanne for Daisy 's murder. Pierre Michel (Marwan Kenzari), the train 's conductor, was the brother of Susanne. Cyrus Hardman (Willem Dafoe), Cassetti 's bodyguard who was disguised as an Austrian scholar, was a police officer in love with Susanne. And finally: Mrs. Caroline Hubbard is, in actuality, Linda Arden (maiden name Goldenberg), Sonia Armstrong 's mother and Daisy 's grandmother. It was Mrs. Hubbard who initially gathered everyone and orchestrated the murder. The night of the murder, they all took turns stabbing Ratchett in an act of justice. The evidence was planted by the passengers to convince Poirot of a lone killer theory. Poirot challenges the passengers to shoot him, placing his gun in front of the gathered twelve suspects, since he is the only one who can expose their plot. Mrs. Hubbard grabs the gun but instead tries to take her own life. The gun proves to be unloaded, Poirot wishing to see how the suspects would react.
During this time, the Train is lifted back onto the track by a rescue team. Poirot concludes that there is no justice to be found in the case, and Ratchett deserved his fate. He states that, for the first time, he will have to live with imbalance. He presents his lone killer theory to the Yugoslavian police as the correct one, allowing the passengers to leave. Poirot disembarks the train, only to be approached by a messenger, learning about a death upon the Nile, and is asked to investigate it. Poirot takes on the case as the Orient Express departs.
20th Century Fox announced the project in December 2013. Michael Green wrote the screenplay for a new film adaptation of Murder on the Orient Express. On June 16, 2015, it was reported Fox was in talks with Kenneth Branagh to direct. On November 20, 2015, it was announced that Branagh would direct the film and star in the role of detective Hercule Poirot. On June 10, 2016, it was reported that Angelina Jolie was in early talks to co-star in the film. Variety reported on August 4 that she would not sign on to star, while the studio was looking for other actresses like Charlize Theron. On August 17, Variety reported that Leslie Odom Jr. was in talks to join the cast in an unspecified role. On 6 September, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Tom Bateman had joined the cast as Bouc. On September 29, Johnny Depp, Michelle Pfeiffer, Daisy Ridley, Judi Dench, Michael Peña, Derek Jacobi, and Lucy Boynton were added to the cast. On October 20, Josh Gad was cast in the film to play Hector MacQueen. On 27 October, Marwan Kenzari joined the cast as the French conductor of the train. On November 11, Penélope Cruz joined the cast in an unspecified role, later revealed to be Pilar Estravados (a Hispanic version of the novel 's Swedish Greta Ohlsson, borrowing the name of a character in Hercule Poirot 's Christmas). On December 5, Sergei Polunin joined the cast in an undisclosed role, later revealed to be the Count Andrenyi. On January 5, 2017, Willem Dafoe joined the cast of the film as an undercover detective. On January 9, Olivia Colman revealed that she had been cast as Princess Dragomiroff 's maid. On January 25, it was revealed that Michael Peña had dropped out of the film and that Manuel Garcia - Rulfo had replaced him as Biniamino Marquez (a Cuban version of the novel 's Italian Antonio Foscarelli).
Principal photography on the film began on November 22, 2016, in the United Kingdom and wrapped in May 2017. It used some of the same 65mm film cameras as Christopher Nolan 's Dunkirk, which Branagh had acted in shortly before this production. These two were among the very few to be shot on 65mm film since Branagh 's Hamlet in 1996, and the only ones released in 2017.
Murder on the Orient Express was released in the United Kingdom on November 3, 2017 and in the United States on November 10, 2017, by 20th Century Fox. The first look at the film and cast was released on May 3 in an exclusive article by Entertainment Weekly.
As of November 13, 2017, Murder on the Orient Express has grossed $28.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $58.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $87.5 million, against a production budget of $55 million.
In the United States and Canada, Murder on the Orient Express was released alongside Daddy 's Home 2, and was projected to gross around $20 million from 3,341 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $10.9 million on its first day, including $1.6 million from Thursday night previews at 2,775 theaters. It ended up grossing $28.7 million, finishing 3rd at the box office behind holdover Thor: Ragnarok and Daddy 's Home 2. 51 % of the film 's opening weekend audience was over the age of 35.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 58 % based on 177 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Stylish production and an all - star ensemble keep this Murder on the Orient Express from running off the rails, even if it never quite builds up to its classic predecessor 's illustrious head of steam. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 52 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B+ and called the film "a lushly old - fashioned adaptation wrapped in a veritable turducken of pearls, monocles, and international movie stars. '' Blake Goble of Consequence of Sound said "Handsomely staged, exceptionally well - cast, and reasonably faithful, Branagh has revived Murder on the Orient Express in a highly pleasing fashion. '' Trace Thurman of Bloody Disgusting gave the film three and a half skulls and said "For those looking for an involving murder mystery that is respectful of its source material and filled with an all - star cast, look no further than Murder on the Orient Express. '' Matt Goldberg of Collider gave the film a B − calling it a "handsomely crafted production '' albeit one that "falls apart at the climax of the film. ''
On the negative side, Matthew Jacobs of The Huffington Post was impressed by the cast but ultimately felt "Agatha Christie 's whodunit has no steam. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone found that there were many dull moments and that the film was a needless remake. Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film two and a half stars, and stated that he felt the film focused too much on Poirot, to the detriment of the other characters, saying, "Never let it be said the director misses an opportunity to place his star front and center, unfortunately relegating just about everyone else in the obligatory International All - Star Cast to a paper - thin character with one or at most two defining personality traits. '' Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club rated the film a C+ and complained that Branagh 's "erratic direction -- more interested in cut glass and overhead shots than in suspicions and uncertainties -- bungles both the perfect puzzle logic of the crime and its devious solution. ''
In 2015, James Prichard, Chairman of Agatha Christie Ltd. and Christie 's great - grandson, expressed enthusiasm for sequels, citing the collaboration with Branagh and the production team. In May 2017, Branagh expressed interest in further installments if the film is a success.
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which two islands comprise the island of hispaniola | Hispaniola - wikipedia
Hispaniola (Spanish: La Española; Latin and French: Hispaniola; Haitian Creole: Ispayola; Taino: Haiti) is an island in the Caribbean island group known as the Greater Antilles. It is the second largest island in the Caribbean after Cuba, and the most populous island in the Caribbean; it is also the eleventh most populous island in the world.
The 76,192 - square - kilometre (29,418 sq mi) island is divided between two separate, sovereign nations: the Spanish - speaking Dominican Republic (48,445 km, 18,705 sq mi) to the east, and French Creole - speaking Haiti (27,750 km, 10,710 sq mi) to the west. The only other shared island in the Caribbean is Saint Martin, which is shared between France (Saint - Martin) and the Netherlands (Sint Maarten).
Hispaniola is the site of the first permanent European settlement in the Americas, founded by Christopher Columbus on his voyages in 1492 and 1493.
The island was called by various names by its native people, the Taíno Amerindians. No known Taíno texts exist, hence, historical evidence for those names comes to us through three European historians: the Italian Pietro Martyr d'Anghiera, and the Spaniards Bartolomé de las Casas and Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo. Fernández de Oviedo and de las Casas both recorded that the island was called Quizqueia (supposedly "Mother of all Lands '') by the Taíno. D'Anghiera added another name, Haiti ("Mountainous Land ''), but later research shows that the word does not seem to derive from the original Arawak Taíno language. (Quisqueya is today mostly used in the Dominican Republic.) Although the Taínos ' use of Quizqueia is verified, and the name was used by all three historians, evidence suggests that it probably was the Taíno name of the whole island, and for a region (now known as Los Haitises) in the northeastern section of the present - day Dominican Republic.
When Columbus took possession of the island in 1492, he named it Insula Hispana in Latin and La Isla Española in Spanish, with both meaning "the Spanish island ''. De las Casas shortened the name to "Española '', and when d'Anghiera detailed his account of the island in Latin, he rendered its name as Hispaniola. In the oldest documented map of the island, created by Andrés de Morales, Los Haitises is labeled Montes de Haití ("Haiti Mountains ''), and de las Casas apparently named the whole island Haiti on the basis of that particular region, as d'Anghiera states that the name of one part was given to the whole island.
Due to Taíno, Spanish and French influences on the island, historically the whole island was often referred to as Haiti, Hayti, Santo Domingo, St. Domingue, or San Domingo. The colonial terms Saint - Domingue and Santo Domingo are sometimes still applied to the whole island, though these names refer, respectively, to the colonies that became Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Since Anghiera 's literary work was translated into English and French soon after being written, the name "Hispaniola '' became the most frequently used term in English - speaking countries for the island in scientific and cartographic works. In 1918, the United States occupation government, led by Harry Shepard Knapp, obliged the use of the name Hispaniola on the island, and recommended the use of that name to the National Geographic Society.
The name Haïti was adopted by Haitian revolutionary Jean - Jacques Dessalines in 1804, as the official name of independent Saint - Domingue, as a tribute to the Amerindian predecessors. It was also adopted as the official name of independent Santo Domingo, as the Republic of Spanish Haiti, a state that existed from November 1821 until its annexation by Haiti in February 1822.
Christopher Columbus inadvertently landed on the island during his first voyage across the Atlantic in 1492, where his flagship, the Santa Maria, sank after running aground on December 25. A contingent of men were left at an outpost christened La Navidad, on the north coast of present - day Puerto Plata. On his return the following year, following the destruction of La Navidad by the local population, Columbus quickly established a second compound farther east in present - day Dominican Republic, La Isabela.
The island was inhabited by the Taíno, one of the indigenous Arawak peoples. The Taino were at first tolerant of Columbus and his crew, and helped him to construct La Navidad on what is now Môle - Saint - Nicolas, Haiti, in December 1492. European colonization of the island began in earnest the following year, when 1,300 men arrived from Spain under the watch of Bartolomeo Columbus. In 1496, the town of Nueva Isabela was founded. After being destroyed by a hurricane, it was rebuilt on the opposite side of the Ozama River and called Santo Domingo. It is the oldest permanent European settlement in the Americas.
Several 16th century writers estimated the 1492 population of Hispaniola at over 1 million people. 20th century estimates of the figure range from 60,000 to 8,000,000, but center around the 500,000 to 1,000,000 range. Harsh enslavement by Spanish colonists, as well as redirection of food supplies and labor towards the colonists, had a devastating impact on both mortality and fertility over the first quarter century. Colonial administrators and Dominican and Hyeronimite priests observed that the search for gold and agrarian enslavement through the encomienda system were depressing population. Demographic data from two provinces in 1514 shows a low birth rate consistent with a 3.5 % annual population decline. Just 14,000 Taínos survived in 1517. In 1503 the colony began to import African slaves after a charter was passed in 1501 allowing the import of slaves by Ferdinand and Isabel. The Spanish believed Africans would be more capable of performing physical labor. From 1519 to 1533, the indigenous uprising known as Enriquillo 's Revolt ensued, resulting from escaped African slaves on the island possibly working with the Taino people.
The first documented outbreak of smallpox, previously an Eastern hemisphere disease, occurred on Hispaniola in December 1518 among enslaved African miners. Some scholars speculate that European diseases arrived before this date, but there is no compelling evidence for an outbreak. The natives had no immunity to European diseases, including smallpox. By May 1519, as many as one - third of the remaining Taínos had died.
Christopher Columbus brought sugar cane on his second voyage to the island. Molasses was the chief product. Diego Colon 's plantation had 40 African slaves in 1522. By 1526, 19 mills were in operation from Azua to Santo Domingo.
In 1574, a census taken of the Greater Antilles reported 1,000 Spaniards and 12,000 African slaves on Hispaniola.
As Spain conquered new regions on the mainland of the Americas (Spanish Main), its interest in Hispaniola waned, and the colony 's population grew slowly. By the early 17th century, the island and its smaller neighbors (notably Tortuga) became regular stopping points for Caribbean pirates. In 1606, the government of Philip III ordered all inhabitants of Hispaniola to move close to Santo Domingo, to avoid interaction with pirates. Rather than secure the island, his action meant that French, English and Dutch pirates established their own bases on the abandoned north and west coasts of the island.
In 1665, French colonization of the island was officially recognized by King Louis XIV. The French colony was given the name Saint - Domingue. In the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, Spain formally ceded the western third of the island to France. Saint - Domingue quickly came to overshadow the east in both wealth and population. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles, '' it became the richest and most prosperous colony in the West Indies, with a system of human enslavement used to grow and harvest sugar cane, during a time when demand for sugar was high in Europe. Slavery kept prices low and profit was maximized at the expense of human lives. It was an important port in the Americas for goods and products flowing to and from France and Europe.
With the treaty of Peace of Basel, revolutionary France emerged as a major European power. In the second 1795 Treaty of Basel (July 22), Spain ceded the eastern two - thirds of the island of Hispaniola, later to become the Dominican Republic. French settlers had begun to colonize some areas in the Spanish side of the territory.
European colonists often died young due to tropical fevers, as well as from violent slave resistance in the late eighteenth century. When the French Revolution abolished slavery in the colonies on February 4, 1794, it was a European first, and when Napoleon reimposed slavery in 1802 it led to a major upheaval by the emancipated black slaves.
Thousands of the French troops sent by Napoleon to reestablish slavery succumbed to yellow fever during the summer months, and more than half of the French army died because of disease. After the French removed the surviving 7,000 troops in late 1803, the leaders of the revolution declared western Hispaniola the new nation of independent Haiti in early 1804. France continued to rule Spanish Santo Domingo. In 1805, Haitian troops of General Henri Christophe tried to conquer all of Hispaniola. They invaded Santo Domingo and sacked the towns of Santiago de los Caballeros and Moca, killing most of their residents, but news of a French fleet sailing towards Haiti forced General Christophe to return to Haiti, leaving the eastern Spanish side of the island in French hands. In 1808, following Napoleon 's invasion of Spain, the criollos of Santo Domingo revolted against French rule and, with the aid of the United Kingdom (Spain 's ally) returned Santo Domingo to Spanish control.
Fearing the influence of a society that had successfully fought and won against their enslavers, the United States and European powers refused to recognize Haiti, the second republic in the western hemisphere. France demanded a high payment for compensation to slaveholders who lost their property, and Haiti was saddled with unmanageable debt for decades. It became one of the poorest countries in the Americas, while the Dominican Republic gradually has developed into the largest economy of Central America and the Caribbean.
Hispaniola is the second - largest island in the Caribbean (after Cuba), with an area of 76,192 square kilometers (29,418 sq mi), 48,440 square kilometers (18,700 sq mi) of which is under the sovereignty of the Dominican Republic occupying the eastern portion and 27,750 square kilometers (10,710 sq mi) under the sovereignty of Haiti occupying the western portion.
The island of Cuba lies 80 kilometers (50 mi) to the northwest across the Windward Passage; 190 km to the southwest lies Jamaica, separated by the Jamaica Channel. Puerto Rico lies 130 km east of Hispaniola across the Mona Passage. The Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands lie to the north. Its westernmost point is known as Cap Carcasse.
Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico are collectively known as the Greater Antilles.
The island has five major mountain ranges: The Central Range, known in the Dominican Republic as the Cordillera Central, spans the central part of the island, extending from the south coast of the Dominican Republic into northwestern Haiti, where it is known as the Massif du Nord. This mountain range boasts the highest peak in the Antilles, Pico Duarte at 3,098 meters (10,164 ft) above sea level. The Cordillera Septentrional runs parallel to the Central Range across the northern end of the Dominican Republic, extending into the Atlantic Ocean as the Samaná Peninsula. The Cordillera Central and Cordillera Septentrional are separated by the lowlands of the Cibao Valley and the Atlantic coastal plains, which extend westward into Haiti as the Plaine du Nord (Northern Plain). The lowest of the ranges is the Cordillera Oriental, in the eastern part of the country.
The Sierra de Neiba rises in the southwest of the Dominican Republic, and continues northwest into Haiti, parallel to the Cordillera Central, as the Montagnes Noires, Chaîne des Matheux and the Montagnes du Trou d'Eau. The Plateau Central lies between the Massif du Nord and the Montagnes Noires, and the Plaine de l'Artibonite lies between the Montagnes Noires and the Chaîne des Matheux, opening westward toward the Gulf of Gonâve, the largest gulf of the Antilles.
The southern range begins in the southwestern most Dominican Republic as the Sierra de Bahoruco, and extends west into Haiti as the Massif de la Selle and the Massif de la Hotte, which form the mountainous spine of Haiti 's southern peninsula. Pic de la Selle is the highest peak in the southern range, the third highest peak in the Antilles and consequently the highest point in Haiti, at 2,680 meters (8,790 ft) above sea level. A depression runs parallel to the southern range, between the southern range and the Chaîne des Matheux - Sierra de Neiba. It is known as the Plaine du Cul - de-Sac in Haiti, and Haiti 's capital Port - au - Prince lies at its western end. The depression is home to a chain of salt lakes, including Lake Azuei in Haiti and Lake Enriquillo in the Dominican Republic.
The island has four distinct ecoregions. The Hispaniolan moist forests ecoregion covers approximately 50 % of the island, especially the northern and eastern portions, predominantly in the lowlands but extending up to 2,100 meters (6,900 ft) elevation. The Hispaniolan dry forests ecoregion occupies approximately 20 % of the island, lying in the rain shadow of the mountains in the southern and western portion of the island and in the Cibao valley in the center - north of the island. The Hispaniolan pine forests occupy the mountainous 15 % of the island, above 850 metres (2,790 ft) elevation. The flooded grasslands and savannas ecoregion in the south central region of the island surrounds a chain of lakes and lagoons in which the most notable include that of Lake Azuei and Trou Caïman in Haiti and the nearby Lake Enriquillo in the Dominican Republic.
There are many bird species in Hispaniola, and the island 's amphibian species are also diverse. Numerous land species on the island are endangered and could become extinct. There are many species endemic to the island including insects and other invertebrates, reptiles, and mammals. The most famous endemic mammal on the island is the Hispaniola Hutia (Plagiodontia aedium). There are also many avian species on the island. The six endemic genera are Calyptophilus, Dulus, Nesoctites, Phaenicophilus, Xenoligea and Microligea. More than half of the original ecoregion has been lost to habitat destruction impacting the local fauna.
The island has four distinct ecoregions. The Hispaniolan moist forests ecoregion covers approximately 50 % of the island, especially the northern and eastern portions, predominantly in the lowlands but extending up to 2,100 meters (6,900 ft) elevation. The Hispaniolan dry forests ecoregion occupies approximately 20 % of the island, lying in the rain shadow of the mountains in the southern and western portion of the island and in the Cibao valley in the center - north of the island. The Hispaniolan pine forests occupy the mountainous 15 % of the island, above 850 metres (2,790 ft) elevation. The flooded grasslands and savannas ecoregion in the south central region of the island surrounds a chain of lakes and lagoons in which the most notable include that of Lake Azuei and Trou Caïman in Haiti and the nearby Lake Enriquillo in the Dominican Republic.
In Haiti, deforestation has long been cited by scientists as a source of ecological crisis; the timber industry dates back to French colonial rule.
Haiti has seen a dramatic reduction of forests due to the excessive and increasing use of charcoal as fuel for cooking. Recent in - depth studies of satellite imagery and environmental analysis regarding forest classification conclude an accurate estimate of approximately 30 % tree cover, a stark decrease in the 60 % forest cover in 1925. Despite recent in - depth studies, the notoriously unsubstantiated 2 % forest cover estimate has been widely circulated in media and in discourse concerning the country. Despite the drastic underestimation of Haiti 's forest cover, the country has been significantly deforested over the last 50 years, resulting in the desertification of portions of the Haitian territory.
In the Dominican Republic the forest cover has increased. In 2003 the Dominican forest cover had been reduced to 32 % of the territory, but in 2011 the trend towards reducing reverts to increase forest cover by eight percentage points to stand at nearly 40 % of territory. The success of the Dominican forest growth is due to several Dominican government policies and private organizations for the purpose, and a strong educational campaign that has resulted in increased awareness on the Dominican people of the importance of forests for their welfare and in other forms of life on the island.
Owing to its mountainous topography, Hispaniola 's climate shows considerable variation over short distances, and is the most varied of all the Antilles.
Except in the Northern Hemisphere summer season, the predominant winds over Hispaniola are the northeast trade winds. As in Jamaica and Cuba, these winds deposit their moisture on the northern mountains, and create a distinct rain shadow on the southern coast, where some areas receive as little as 400 millimetres (16 in) of rainfall, and have semi-arid climates. Annual rainfall under 600 millimetres (24 in) also occurs on the southern coast of Haiti 's northwest peninsula and in the central Azúa region of the Plaine du Cul - de-Sac. In these regions, moreover, there is generally little rainfall outside hurricane season from August to October, and droughts are by no means uncommon when hurricanes do not come.
On the northern coast, in contrast, rainfall may peak between December and February, though some rain falls in all months of the year. Annual amounts typically range from 1,700 to 2,000 millimetres (67 to 79 in) on the northern coastal lowlands; there is probably much more in the Cordillera Septentrional, though no data exist.
The interior of Hispaniola, along with the southeastern coast centered around Santo Domingo, typically receives around 1,400 millimetres (55 in) per year, with a distinct wet season from May to October. Usually, this wet season has two peaks: one around May, the other around the hurricane season. In the interior highlands, rainfall is much greater, around 3,100 millimetres (120 in) per year, but with a similar pattern to that observed in the central lowlands.
As is usual for tropical islands, variations of temperature are much less marked than rainfall variations, and depend only on altitude. Lowland Hispaniola is generally oppressively hot and humid, with temperatures averaging 28 ° C (82 ° F). with high humidity during the daytime, and around 20 ° C (68 ° F) at night. At higher altitudes, temperatures fall steadily, so that frosts occur during the dry season on the highest peaks, where maxima are no higher than 18 ° C (64 ° F).
The Dominican Republic is a Hispanophone nation of approximately 10 million people. Spanish is spoken by all Dominicans as a primary language. Roman Catholicism is the official and dominant religion.
Haiti is a Francophone nation of roughly 10 million people. Although French is spoken as a primary language by the educated and wealthy minority, virtually the entire population speaks Haitian Creole, one of several French - derived creole languages. Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion, practiced by more than half the population, although in some cases in combination with Haitian Vodou faith. Another 25 % of the populace belong to Protestant churches. Haiti emerged as the first Black republic in the world.
The ethnic composition of the Dominican population is 73 % mulatto, 16 % white and 11 % black. Descendants of early Spanish settlers and of black slaves from West Africa constitute the two main racial strains.
The ethnic composition of Haiti is estimated to be 95 % black and 5 % white and mulatto.
The island has the largest economy in the Greater Antilles, however most of the economic development is found in the Dominican Republic, the Dominican economy being nearly 800 % larger than the Haitian economy.
The estimated annual per capita income is US $1,300 in Haiti and US $8,200 in Dominican Republic.
The divergence between the level of economic development between Haiti and Dominican Republic makes its border the higher contrast of all western land borders and is evident that the Dominican Republic has one of the highest migration issues in the Americas.
Christopher Columbus, noting "the land and trees resembled those of Spain, and that the sailors caught in their nets many fish like those of Spain... named it Espanola on Sunday, December 9th. '' One of the first inhabitants he came across on this island was "a girl wearing only a gold nose plug. '' Columbus later learned that the "land of gold was farther east. '' Soon the Tainos were trading pieces of gold for hawk 's bells with their cacique declaring the gold came from Cibao. Traveling further east from Navidad, Columbus came across the Yaque del Norte River, which he named Rio de Oro because its "sands abound in gold dust. ''
On Columbus ' return during his second voyage he learned it was the cacique Caonabo, "lord of the mines '', who had massacred his settlement at Navidad. While Columbus established a new settlement at La Isabela on Jan. 1494, he sent Alonso de Ojeda and 15 men to search for the "mines of Cibao. '' After a six - day journey, Ojeda came across an area "very rich in gold '', in which the "Indians took gold out of a brook... and many other streams in that province. '' Columbus himself visited the mines of Cibao on 12 March 1494. He constructed the Fort of Santo Tomas, present day Janico, with Captain Pedro Margarit in command of 56 men.
On 24 March 1495, Columbus with his ally Guacanagarix, embarked on a war of revenge against Caonabo, capturing him and his family while "killing many Indians and capturing others. '' Afterwards, "every person of fourteen years of age or upward was to pay a large hawk 's bell of gold dust. ''
Miguel Diaz and Francisco de Garay discovered large gold nuggets on the lower Haina River in 1496. These San Cristobal mines were later known as the Minas Viejas mines. Then, in 1499, the first major discovery of gold was made in the cordillera central, which led to a mining boom. By 1501, Columbus ' cousin Giovanni Colombo, had discovered gold near Buenaventura, the deposits were later known as Minas Nuevas. Two major mining areas resulted, one along San Cristobal - Buenaventura, and another in Cibao within the La Vega - Cotuy - Bonao triangle, while Santiago de los Caballeros, Concepcion, and Bonao became mining towns. The gold rush of 1500 -- 1508 ensued.
Ferdinand "ordered gold from the richest mines reserved for the Crown. '' Thus, Ovando expropriated the gold mines of Miguel Diaz and Francisco de Garay in 1504, as pit mines became royal mines, though placers were open to private prospectors. Furthermore, Ferdinand wanted the "best Indians '' working his royal mines, and kept 967 in the San Cristobal mining area supervised by salaried miners.
Under Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres ' governorship, the Indians were made to work in the gold mines, "where they were grossly overworked, mistreated, and underfed, '' according to Pons. By 1503, the Spanish Crown legalized the distribution of Indians to work the mines as part of the encomienda system. According to Pons, "Once the Indians entered the mines, hunger and disease literally wiped them out. '' By 1508 the Indian population of about 400,000 was reduced to 60,000, and by 1514, only 26,334 remained. About half were located in the mining towns of Concepcion, Santiago, Santo Domingo, and Buenaventura. The repartimiento of 1514 accelerated emigration of the Spanish colonists, coupled with the exhaustion of the mines. In 1516, a smallpox epidemic killed an additional 8,000, of the remaining 11,000 Indians, in one month. By 1519, according to Pons, "Both the gold economy and the Indian population became extinct at the same time. ''
However, writing in 1860, Courtney observed, the island is "one immense gold field '', of which the early Spaniards had "scarcely began to be developed. '' Additionally, "The gold is still found in the Cibao regions as of old. '' By 1919, Condit and Ross noted "the greater part of the Republic is covered by concessions granted by the government for mining minerals of diverse sorts. '' Besides gold, these minerals included silver, manganese, copper, magnetite, iron and nickel.
Mining operations in 2016 have taken advantage of the volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposits (VMS) around Maimón. To the northeast, the Pueblo Viejo Gold Mine was operated by state - owned Rosario Dominicana from 1975 until 1991. In 2009, Pueblo Viejo Dominicana Corporation, formed by Barrick Gold and Goldcorp, started open - pit mining operations of the Monte Negro and Moore oxide deposits. The mined ore is processed with gold cyanidation. Pyrite and sphalerite are the main sulfide minerals found in the 120 m thick volcanic conglomerates and agglomerates, which constitute the world 's second largest sulphidation gold deposit.
Between Bonao and Maimon, Falconbridge Dominicana has been mining nickel laterites since 1971. The Cerro de Maimon copper / gold open - pit mine southeast of Maimon has been operated by Perilya since 2006. Copper is extracted from the sulfide ores, while gold and silver are extracted from both the sulfide and the oxide ores. Processing is via froth flotation and cyanidation. The ore is located in the VMS Early Cretaceous Maimon Formation. Goethite enriched with gold and silver is found in the 30 m thick oxide cap. Below that cap is a supergene zone containing pyrite, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite. Below the supergene zone is found the unaltered massive sulphide mineralization.
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important events during the period of four caliphs of islam | Rashidun Caliphate - Wikipedia
The Rashidun Caliphate (Arabic: اَلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ al - Khilāfa - al - Rāshidah) (632 -- 661) was the first of the four major caliphates established after the death of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. It was ruled by the first four successive caliphs (successors) of Muhammad after his death in 632 CE (11 AH in the Islamic calendar). These caliphs are collectively known in Sunni Islam as the Rashidun, or "Rightly Guided '' caliphs (اَلْخُلَفَاءُ ٱلرَّاشِدُونَ al - Khulafā'ur - Rāshidūn). This term is not used in Shia Islam as Shia Muslims do not consider the rule of the first three caliphs as legitimate.
At its height, the Caliphate controlled an empire from the Arabian Peninsula and the Levant, to the Transcaucasus in the north; North Africa from Egypt to present - day Tunisia in the west; and the Iranian plateau to parts of Central Asia and South Asia in the east. The four Rashidun caliphs were chosen through shura (شُـوْرَى), a process of community consultation that some consider to be an early form of Islamic democracy.
The caliphate arose out of the death of Muhammad in 632 CE and the subsequent debate over the succession to his leadership. Abu Bakr, a close companion of Muhammad from the Banu Taym clan, was elected the first Rashidun leader and began the conquest of the Arabian Peninsula. He ruled from 632 to his death in 634. Abu Bakr was succeeded by Umar, his appointed successor from the Banu Adi clan, who began the conquest of Persia from 642 to 651, leading to the defeat of the Sassanid Empire.
In 644 Umar was assassinated by Persians in response to the conquest of their empire and was succeeded by Uthman, from the Banu Umayya clan, who was elected by a six - person committee arranged by Umar. Under Uthman, the empire 's conquest of Armenia began by the 640s, and the empire expanded into Fars (present - day southwestern Iran) in 650 and some areas of Khorasan (present - day northwestern Afghanistan) in 651.
In 656 Uthman was assassinated by Egyptian rebels. Ali, although initially reluctant due to his most vigorous support coming from various rebel groups, accepted appointment as the next caliph. A member of the same clan as Muhammad, Banu Hashim, he presided over a civil war known as the First Fitna (656 -- 661). The war was primarily between those who believed Uthman was unlawfully killed, supporting his cousin and governor of the Levant Muawiyah, and those who believed his killing was deserved, supporting the caliph Ali. The civil war permanently consolidated the divide between Sunni and Shia Muslims, with Shia Muslims believing Ali to be the first rightful caliph and Imam after Muhammad, favouring his bloodline connection to Muhammad. Additionally, a third faction in the war believed both Ali and Muawiyah should be deposed and a new caliph elected by shura; this faction supported the governor of Egypt Amr ibn al - As. The war led to the end of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate in 661, under former governor of the Levant Muawiyah I.
After Muhammad 's death in 632 CE, his Medinan companions debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the Muslims while Muhammad 's household was busy with his burial. Umar and Abu Ubaidah ibn al - Jarrah pledged their loyalty to Abu Bakr, with the Ansar and the Quraysh soon following suit. Abu Bakr thus became the first Khalīfaṫu Rasūli l - Lāh (خَـلِـيْـفَـةُ رَسُـوْلِ الله, "Successor of the Messenger of God ''), or Caliph, and embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes which had claimed that although they pledged allegiance to Muhammad and accepted Islam, they owed nothing to Abu Bakr. As a caliph, Abu Bakr was not a monarch and never claimed such a title; nor did any of his three successors. Rather, their election and leadership were based upon merit.
Notably, according to Sunnis, all four Rashidun Caliphs were connected to Muhammad through marriage, were early converts to Islam, were among ten who were explicitly promised paradise, were his closest companions by association and support and were often highly praised by Muhammad and delegated roles of leadership within the nascent Muslim community.
According to Sunni Muslims, the term Rashidun Caliphate is derived from a famous hadith of Muhammad, where he foretold that the caliphate after him would last for 30 years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) and would then be followed by kingship. Furthermore, according to other hadiths in Sunan Abu Dawood and Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, towards the end times, the Rightly Guided Caliphate will be restored once again by God.
Abu Bakr, the oldest companion of Muhammad, was caliph for only 2 years before he died. When Muhammad died, Abu Bakr and Umar, his two companions, were in the Saqifah meeting to select his successor while the family of Muhammad was busy with his funeral. Controversy among the Muslims emerged about whom to name as Caliph. There was disagreement between the Meccan followers of Muhammad who had emigrated with him in 622 (the Muhajirun "Emigrants '') and the Medinans who had become followers (Ansar "Helpers ''). The Ansar, considering themselves being the hosts and loyal companions of Muhammad, nominated Sad bin Ubadah as their candidate for the Caliphate. In the end, however, Muhammad 's closest friend, Abu Bakr, was named the khalifa (caliph) or "Successor '' of Muhammad. A new circumstance had formed a new, untried political formation: the caliphate.
Troubles emerged soon after Muhammad 's death, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state. Apostasy spread to every tribe in the Arabian Peninsula with the exception of the people in Mecca and Medina, the Banu Thaqif in Ta'if and the Bani Abdul Qais of Oman. In some cases, entire tribes apostatised. Others merely withheld zakat, the alms tax, without formally challenging Islam. Many tribal leaders made claims to prophethood; some made it during the lifetime of Muhammad. The first incident of apostasy was fought and concluded while Muhammad still lived; a supposed prophet Aswad Ansi arose and invaded South Arabia; he was killed on 30 May 632 (6 Rabi ' al - Awwal, 11 Hijri) by Governor Fērōz of Yemen, a Persian Muslim. The news of his death reached Medina shortly after the death of Muhammad. The apostasy of al - Yamama was led by another supposed prophet, Musaylimah, who arose before Muhammad 's death; other centers of the rebels were in the Najd, Eastern Arabia (known then as al - Bahrayn) and South Arabia (known as al - Yaman and including the Mahra). Many tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad 's death, their allegiance was ended. Caliph Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined an ummah (أُمَّـة, community) of which he was the new head. The result of this situation was the Ridda wars.
Abu Bakr planned his strategy accordingly. He divided the Muslim army into several corps. The strongest corps, and the primary force of the Muslims, was the corps of Khalid ibn al - Walid. This corps was used to fight the most powerful of the rebel forces. Other corps were given areas of secondary importance in which to bring the less dangerous apostate tribes to submission. Abu Bakr 's plan was first to clear Najd and Western Arabia near Medina, then tackle Malik ibn Nuwayrah and his forces between the Najd and al - Bahrayn, and finally concentrate against the most dangerous enemy, Musaylimah and his allies in al - Yamama. After a series of successful campaigns Khalid ibn Walid defeated Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama. The Campaign on the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned on 18 March 633 with the Arabian peninsula united under the caliph in Medina.
Once the rebellions had been put down, Abu Bakr began a war of conquest. Whether or not he intended a full - out imperial conquest is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history. Abu Bakr began with Iraq, the richest province of the Sasanian Empire. He sent general Khalid ibn Walid to invade the Sasanianan Empire in 633. He thereafter also sent four armies to invade the Roman province of Syria, but the decisive operation was only undertaken when Khalid, after completing the conquest of Iraq, was transferred to the Syrian front in 634.
Despite the initial reservations of his advisers, Abu Bakr recognised the military and political prowess in Umar and desired him to succeed as caliph. The decision was enshrined in his will, and on the death of Abu Bakr in 634, Umar was confirmed in office. The new caliph continued the war of conquests begun by his predecessor, pushing further into the Sasanian Persian Empire, north into Byzantine territory, and west into Egypt. It is an important fact to note that Umar never participated in any battle as a commander of a Muslim Army throughout his life. These were regions of great wealth controlled by powerful states, but long internecine conflict between Byzantines and Sasanians had left both sides militarily exhausted, and the Islamic armies easily prevailed against them. By 640, they had brought all of Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine under the control of the Rashidun Caliphate; Egypt was conquered by 642, and the entire Persian Empire by 643.
While the caliphate continued its rapid expansion, Umar laid the foundations of a political structure that could hold it together. He created the Diwan, a bureau for transacting government affairs. The military was brought directly under state control and into its pay. Crucially, in conquered lands, Umar did not require that non-Muslim populations convert to Islam, nor did he try to centralize government. Instead, he allowed subject populations to retain their religion, language and customs, and he left their government relatively untouched, imposing only a governor (amir) and a financial officer called an amil. These new posts were integral to the efficient network of taxation that financed the empire.
With the booty secured from conquest, Umar was able to support its faith in material ways: the companions of Muhammad were given pensions on which to live, allowing them to pursue religious studies and exercise spiritual leadership in their communities and beyond. Umar is also remembered for establishing the Islamic calendar; it is lunar like the Arabian calendar, but the origin is set in 622, the year of the Hijra when Muhammad emigrated to Medina.
Umar was killed in an assassination by the Persian slave Piruz Nahavandi during morning prayers in 644.
Before Umar died, he appointed a committee of six men to decide on the next caliph, and charged them with choosing one of their own number. All of the men, like Umar, were from the tribe of Quraysh.
The committee narrowed down the choices to two: Uthman and Ali. Ali was from the Banu Hashim clan (the same clan as Muhammad) of the Quraish tribe, and he was the cousin and son - in - law of Muhammad and had been a companion to the Prophet from the inception of his mission. Uthman was from the Umayyad clan of the Quraish.
Uthman reigned for twelve years as caliph, during the first half of his reign he enjoyed a position of the most popular caliph among all the Rashiduns, while in the later half of his reign he met increasing opposition. This opposition was led by the Egyptians and was concentrated around Ali, who would, albeit briefly, succeed Uthman as caliph.
Despite internal troubles, Uthman continued the wars of conquest started by Umar. The Rashidun army conquered North Africa from the Byzantines and even raided Spain, conquering the coastal areas of the Iberian peninsula, as well as the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus. Also coastal Sicily was raided in 652. The Rashidun army fully conquered the Sasanian Empire, and its eastern frontiers extended up to the lower Indus River.
Uthman 's most lasting project was the final compilation of the Qur'an. Under his authority diacritics were written with the Arabic letters so that non-native speakers of Arabic could easily read the Qur'an without difficulty.
After a protest turned into a siege, Uthman refused to initiate any military action, in order to avoid civil war between Muslims, and preferred negotiations. After the negotiations, the protestors returned but found a man following them, holding an order to execute the protestors. The protestors returned and Uthman swore that he did not write the order. He refuted the claim and tried to talk it through. The protestors demanded he retire from being a caliph. Uthman refused and returned to his room. This emboldened the protestors and they broke into Uthman 's house and killed him while he was reading the Qur'an. It was later discovered that it was not his autograph, but a forgery under his cousin Mu'awiya's autograph.
After the assassination of the third Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, the Companions of Muhammad in Medina selected Ali to be the new Caliph who had been passed over for the leadership three times since the death of Muhammad. Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides such as Malik al - Ashtar and Salman the Persian. Ali then transferred his capital from Medina to Kufa, a Muslim garrison city in current - day Iraq.
Demands to take revenge for the assassination of Caliph Uthman rose among parts of the population, and a large army of rebels led by Zubayr, Talha and the widow of Muhammad, Ayesha, set out to fight the perpetrators. The army reached Basra and captured it, upon which 4,000 suspected seditionists were put to death. Subsequently, Ali turned towards Basra and the caliph 's army met the army of Muslims who demanded revenge for the murder of Uthman. Though neither Ali nor the leaders of the opposing force, Talha and Zubayr, wanted to fight, a battle broke out at night between the two armies. It is said, according to Sunni Muslim traditions, that the rebels who were involved in the assassination of Uthman initiated combat, as they were afraid that as a result of negotiation between Ali and the opposing army, the killers of Uthman would be hunted down and killed. The battle thus fought was the first battle between Muslims and is known as the Battle of the Camel. The Caliphate under Ali emerged victorious and the dispute was settled. The eminent companions of Mohammad, Talha and Zubayr, were killed in the battle and Ali sent his son Hasan ibn Ali to escort Ayesha back to Medina.
After this episode of Islamic history, another cry for revenge for the blood of Uthman rose. This time it was by Mu'awiya, kinsman of Uthman and governor of the province of Syria. However, it is regarded more as an attempt by Mu'awiya to assume the caliphate, rather than to take revenge for Uthman 's murder. Ali fought Mu'awiya's forces at the Battle of Siffin leading to a stalemate, and then lost a controversial arbitration that ended with arbiter ' Amr ibn al - ' As pronouncing his support for Mu'awiya. After this Ali was forced to fight the rebellious Kharijites in the Battle of Nahrawan, a faction of his former supporters who, as a result of their dissatisfaction with the arbitration, opposed both Ali and Mu'awiya. Weakened by this internal rebellion and a lack of popular support in many provinces, Ali 's forces lost control over most of the caliphate 's territory to Mu'awiya while large sections of the empire such as Sicily, North Africa, the coastal areas of Spain and some forts in Anatolia were also lost to outside empires.
In 661, Ali was assassinated by Ibn Muljam as part of a Kharijite plot to assassinate all the different Islamic leaders meaning to end the civil war, whereas the Kharijites failed to assassinate Mu'awiya and ' Amr ibn al - ' As.
Ali 's son Hasan ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad, briefly assumed the caliphate and came to an agreement with Mu'awiya to fix relations between the two groups of Muslims that were each loyal to one of the two men. The treaty stated that Mu'awiya would not name a successor during his reign, and that he would let the Islamic World choose the next leader (This treaty would later be broken by Mu'awiya as he names his son Yazid I successor). Hasan was assassinated, and Mu'awiya gained control of the Caliphate and founded the Umayyad Caliphate, marking the end of the Rashidun Caliphate.
The Rashidun Caliphate expanded gradually; within the span of 24 years of conquest, a vast territory was conquered comprising Mesopotamia, the Levant, parts of Anatolia, and most of the Sasanian Empire.
Unlike the Sasanian Persians, the Byzantines, after losing Syria, retreated back to Anatolia. As a result, they also lost Egypt to the invading Rashidun army, although the civil wars among the Muslims halted the war of conquest for many years, and this gave time for the Eastern Roman / Byzantine Empire to recover.
The first Islamic invasion of the Sasanian Empire launched by Caliph Abu Bakr in 633 was a swift conquest in the time span of only four months led by general Khalid ibn Walid. Abu Bakr sent Khalid to conquer Mesopotamia after the Ridda wars. After entering Iraq with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the Battle of Chains, fought in April 633; the Battle of River, fought in the third week of April 633; the Battle of Walaja, fought in May 633 (where he successfully used a pincer movement), and the Battle of Ullais, fought in mid May of 633. In the last week of May 633, the capital city of Iraq fell to the Muslims after initial resistance in the Battle of Hira.
After resting his armies, Khalid moved in June 633 towards Al Anbar, which resisted and was defeated in the Battle of Al - Anbar, and eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in July 633. Khalid then moved towards the south, and conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr after the Battle of ein - ul - tamr in the last week of July 633. By now, almost the whole of Iraq was under Islamic control. Khalid received a call of help from northern Arabia at Daumat - ul - jandal, where another Muslim Arab general, Iyad ibn Ghanm, was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid went to Daumat - ul - jandal and defeated the rebels in the Battle of Daumat - ul - jandal in the last week of August 633. Returning from Arabia, he received news of the assembling of a large Persian army. Within a few weeks, he decided to defeat them all separately in order to avoid the risk of defeat by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and Christian Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni and Muzieh.
Khalid divided his army into three units, and decided to attack these auxiliaries one by one from three different sides at night, starting with the Battle of Muzieh, then the Battle of Sanni, and finally the Battle of Zumail. In November 633, Khalid defeated the enemy armies in a series of three sided attacks at night. These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Iraq. In December 633, Khalid reached the border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the Sasanian Persians, Byzantines and Christian Arabs in the Battle of Firaz. This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq.
After the conquest of Iraq, Khalid left Mesopotamia to lead another campaign in Syria against the Byzantine Empire, after which Mithna ibn Haris took command in Mesopotamia. The Persians once again concentrated armies to regain the lost Mesopotamia, while Mithna ibn Haris withdrew from central Iraq to the region near the Arabian desert to delay war until reinforcement came from Medina. Umar sent reinforcements under the command of Abu Ubaidah Saqfi. With some initial success this army was finally defeated by the Sasanian army at the Battle of the Bridge in which Abu Ubaid was killed. The response was delayed until after a decisive Muslim victory against the Romans in the Levant at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636. Umar was then able to transfer forces to the east and resume the offensive against the Sasanians. Umar dispatched 36,000 men along with 7500 troops from the Syrian front, under the command of Sa ` d ibn Abī Waqqās against the Persian army. The Battle of al - Qādisiyyah followed, with the Persians prevailing at first, but on the third day of fighting, the Muslims gained the upper hand. The legendary Persian general Rostam Farrokhzād was killed during the battle. According to some sources, the Persian losses were 20,000, and the Arabs lost 10,500 men.
Following this Battle, the Arab Muslim armies pushed forward toward the Persian capital of Ctesiphon (also called Madā'in in Arabic), which was quickly evacuated by Yazdgird after a brief siege. After seizing the city, they continued their drive eastwards, following Yazdgird and his remaining troops. Within a short span of time, the Arab armies defeated a major Sasanian counter-attack in the Battle of Jalūlā ', as well as other engagements at Qasr - e Shirin, and Masabadhan. By the mid-7th Century, the Arabs controlled all of Mesopotamia, including the area that is now the Iranian province of Khuzestan. It is said that Caliph Umar did not wish to send his troops through the Zagros mountains and onto the Iranian plateau. One tradition has it that he wished for a "wall of fire '' to keep the Arabs and Persians apart. Later commentators explain this as a common - sense precaution against over-extension of his forces. The Arabs had only recently conquered large territories that still had to be garrisoned and administered. The continued existence of the Persian government was however an incitement to revolt in the conquered territories and unlike the Byzantine army, the Sasanian army was continuously striving to regain their lost territories. Finally Umar decided to push his forces to further conquests, which eventually resulted in the wholesale conquest of the Sasanian Empire. Yazdegerd, the Sasanian king, made yet another effort to regroup and defeat the invaders. By 641 he had raised a new force, which made a stand at the Battle of Nihawānd, some forty miles south of Hamadan in modern Iran. The Rashidun army under the command of Umar 's appointed general Nu'man ibn Muqarrin al - Muzani, attacked and again defeated the Persian forces. The Muslims proclaimed it the Victory of Victories (Fath alfotuh) as it marked the End of the Sasanians, shattering the last strongest Sasanian army.
Yazdegerd was unable to raise another army and became a hunted fugitive. In 642 Umar sent the army to conquer the whole of the Persian Empire. The whole of present - day Iran was conquered, followed by the conquest of Greater Khorasan (which included the modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern Afghanistan), Transoxania, and Balochistan, Makran, Azerbaijan, Dagestan (Russia), Armenia and Georgia, this regions were later also re-conquered during Caliph Uthman 's reign with further expansion into the regions which were not conquered during Umar 's reign, hence the Rashidun Caliphate 's frontiers in the east extended to the lower river Indus and north to the Oxus River.
After Khalid captured Iraq and firmly took control of it, Abu Bakr sent armies to Syria on the Byzantine front. Four armies were sent under four different commanders; Abu Ubaidah ibn al - Jarrah (acting as their supreme commander), Amr ibn al - As, Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan and Shurhabil ibn Hasana. These armies were all assigned their objectives. However their advance was halted by a concentration of the Byzantine army at Ajnadayn. Abu Ubaidah then sent for reinforcements. Abu Bakr ordered Khalid, who by now was planning to attack Ctesiphon, to march from Iraq to Syria with half of his army. Khalid took half of his army and took an unconventional route to Syria. There were 2 major routes to Syria from Iraq, one passing through Mesopotamia and the other through Daumat ul - Jandal. Khalid took a route through the Syrian Desert, and after a perilous march of 5 days, appeared in north - western Syria.
The border forts of Sawa, Arak, Tadmur, Sukhnah, al - Qaryatayn and Hawarin were the first to fall to the invading Muslims. Khalid marched on to Bosra via the Damascus road. At Bosra, the Corps of Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil joined Khalid, after which here as per orders of Caliph Abu Bakr, Khalid took the high command from Abu Ubaidah. Bosra was not ready for this surprise attack and siege, and thus surrendered after a brief siege in July 634 (see Battle of Bosra), this effectively ending the Dynasty of the Ghassanids.
From Bosra Khalid sent orders to other corps commanders to join him at Ajnadayn, where according to early Muslim historians, a Byzantine army of 90,000 (modern sources state 9,000) was concentrated to push back the Muslims. The Byzantine army was defeated decisively on 30 July 634 in the Battle of Ajnadayn. It was the first major pitched battle between the Muslim army and the Christian Byzantine army and cleared the way for the Muslims to capture central Syria. Damascus, the Byzantine stronghold, was conquered shortly after on 19 September 634. After the Muslim Conquest of Damascus, the Byzantine army was given a deadline of 3 days to flee as far as they could, with their families and treasure, or simply agree to stay in Damascus and pay tribute.
After the three - day deadline was over, the Muslim cavalry under Khalid 's command attacked the Roman army by catching up to them using an unknown shortcut at the battle of Maraj - al - Debaj.
On 22 August 634 Abu Bakr died, making Umar his successor. As Umar became caliph, he relieved Khalid of command of the Islamic armies and appointed Abu Ubaidah ibn al - Jarrah as the new commander. The conquest of Syria slowed down under him while Abu Ubaida relied heavily on the advices of Khalid, and kept him beside him as much as possible.
The last large garrison of the Byzantine army was at Fahl, which was joined by survivors of Ajnadayn. With this threat at their rear the Muslim armies could not move further north nor south, thus Abu Ubaidah decided to deal with the situation, and had this garrison defeated and routed at the Battle of Fahl on 23 January 635. This battle proved to be the "Key to Palestine ''. After this battle Abu Ubaidah and Khalid marched north towards Emesa, Yazid was stationed in Damascus while Amr and Shurhabil marched south to capture Palestine. While the Muslims were at Fahl, sensing the weak defense of Damascus, Emperor Heraclius sent an army to re-capture the city. This army however could not make it to Damascus and was intercepted by Abu Ubaidah and Khalid on their way to Emesa. The army was routed and destroyed in the battle of Maraj - al - Rome and the 2nd battle of Damascus. Emesa and the strategical town of Chalcis made peace with the Muslims for one year. This was, in fact, done to let Heraclius prepare for defences and raise new armies. The Muslims welcomed the peace and consolidated their control over the conquered territory. As soon as the Muslims received the news of reinforcements being sent to Emesa and Chalcis, they marched against Emesa, laid siege to it and eventually captured the city in March 636.
The prisoners taken in the battle informed them about Emperor Heraclius 's final effort to take back Syria. They said that an army possibly two hundred thousand (200,000) strong would soon emerge to recapture the province. Khalid stopped here on June 636. This huge army set out for their destination. As soon as Abu Ubaida heard the news, he gathered all his officers to plan their next move. Khalid suggested that they should summon all of their forces present in the province of Syria (Syria, Jordan, Palestine) and to make a powerful joint force and then move towards the plain of Yarmouk for battle.
Abu Ubaida ordered all the Muslim commanders to withdraw from all the conquered areas, return the tributes that they previously gathered, and move towards Yarmuk. Heraclius 's army also moved towards Yarmuk. The Muslim armies reached it in July 636. A week or two later, around mid July, the Byzantine army arrived. Khalid 's mobile guard defeated Christian Arab auxiliaries of the Roman army in a skirmish.
Nothing happened until the third week of August in which the Battle of Yarmouk was fought. The battle lasted 6 days during which Abu Ubaida transferred the command of the entire army to Khalid. The five times larger Byzantine army was defeated in October 636 CE. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high command officers, including Khalid to decide on future conquests. They decided to conquer Jerusalem. The siege of Jerusalem lasted four months after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to Caliph Umar Ibn Al Khattab in person. Amr ibn Al As suggested that Khalid should be sent as Caliph, because of his very strong resemblance of Caliph Umar.
Khalid was recognized and eventually, Caliph Umar ibn Al Khattab came and Jerusalem surrendered on April 637 CE. Abu Ubaida sent the commanders Amr bin al - As, Yazid bin Abu Sufyan, and Sharjeel bin Hassana back to their areas to reconquer them. Most of the areas submitted without a fight. Abu Ubaida himself along with Khalid, moved to northern Syria once again to conquer it with a 17,000 man army. Khalid along with his cavalry was sent to Hazir and Abu Ubaidah moved to the city of Qasreen.
Khalid defeated a strong Byzantine army at the Battle of Hazir and reached Qasreen before Abu Ubaidah. The city surrendered to Khalid. Soon, Abu Ubaidah arrived in June 637. Abu Ubaidah then moved against Aleppo. As usual Khalid was commanding the cavalry. After the Battle of Aleppo the city finally agreed to surrender in October 637.
Abu Ubaida and Khalid ibn Walid, after conquering all of northern Syria, moved north towards Anatolia conquering the fort of Azaz to clear the flank and rear from Byzantine troops. On their way to Antioch, a Roman army blocked them near a river on which there was an iron bridge. Because of this, the following battle is known as the Battle of the Iron Bridge. The Muslim army defeated the Byzantines and Antioch surrendered on 30 October 637 CE. Later during the year, Abu Ubaida sent Khalid and Iyad ibn Ghanm at the head of two separate armies against the western part of Jazira, most of which was conquered without strong resistance, including parts of Anatolia, Edessa and the area up to the Ararat plain. Other columns were sent to Anatolia as far west as the Taurus Mountains, the important city of Marash and Malatya which were all conquered by Khalid in the autumn of 638 CE. During Uthman 's reign, the Byzantines recaptured many forts in the region and on Uthman 's orders, a series of campaigns were launched to regain control of them. In 647 Muawiyah, the governor of Syria sent an expedition against Anatolia. They invaded Cappadocia and sacked Caesarea Mazaca. In 648 the Rashidun army raided Phrygia. A major offensive into Cilicia and Isauria in 650 -- 651 forced the Byzantine Emperor Constans II to enter into negotiations with Uthman 's governor of Syria, Muawiyah. The truce that followed allowed a short respite, and made it possible for Constans II to hold on to the western portions of Armenia. In 654 -- 655 on the orders of Uthman, an expedition was preparing to attack the Byzantine capital Constantinople but this plan was not carried out due to the civil war that broke out in 656.
The Taurus Mountains in Turkey marked the western frontiers of the Rashidun Caliphate in Anatolia during Caliph Uthman 's reign.
At the commencement of the Muslim conquest of Egypt, Egypt was part of the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople. However, it had been occupied just a decade before by the Sasanian Empire under Khosrau II (616 to 629 CE). The power of the Byzantine Empire was shattered during the Muslim conquest of Syria, and therefore the conquest of Egypt was much easier. In 639 some 4000 Rashidun troops led by Amr ibn al - As were sent by Umar to conquer the land of the ancient pharaohs. The Rashidun army crossed into Egypt from Palestine in December 639 and advanced rapidly into the Nile Delta. The imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year or more. But the Muslims sent for reinforcements and the invading army, joined by another 12,000 men in 640, defeated a Byzantine army at the Battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. The Thebaid seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition.
The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the Byzantine Empire appears to have been due to the treachery of the governor of Egypt, Cyrus, Melchite (i.e., Byzantine / Chalcedonian Orthodox, not Coptic) Patriarch of Alexandria, and the incompetence of the generals of the Byzantine forces, as well as due to the loss of most of the Byzantine troops in Syria against the Rashidun army. Cyrus had persecuted the local Coptic Christians. He is one of the authors of monothelism, a seventh - century heresy, and some supposed him to have been a secret convert to Islam.
During the reign of Caliph Uthman an attempt was made in the year 645 to regain Alexandria for the Byzantine empire, but it was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by Constans II was repulsed. From that time no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country.
The Muslims were assisted by some Copts, who found the Muslims more tolerant than the Byzantines, and of these some turned to Islam. In return for a tribute of money and food for the troops of occupation, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Others sided with the Byzantines, hoping that they would provide a defense against the Arab invaders. During the reign of Caliph Ali, Egypt was captured by rebel troops under the command of former Rashidun army general Amr ibn al - As, who killed Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr the governor of Egypt appointed by Ali.
After the withdrawal of the Byzantines from Egypt, the Exarchate of Africa had declared its independence under its exarch, Gregory the Patrician. The dominions of Gregory extended from the borders of Egypt to Morocco. Abdullah Ibn Sa'ad used to send raiding parties to the west. As a result of these raids the Muslims got considerable booty. The success of these raids made Abdullah Ibn Sa'ad feel that a regular campaign should be undertaken for the conquest of North Africa.
Uthman gave him permission after considering it in the Majlis al Shura. A force of 10,000 soldiers was sent as reinforcement. The Rashidun army assembled in Barqa in Cyrenaica, and from there they marched west to capture Tripoli, after Tripoli the army marched to Sufetula, the capital of King Gregory. He was defeated and killed in the battle due to superb tactics used by Abdullah ibn Zubayr. After the Battle of Sufetula the people of North Africa sued for peace. They agreed to pay an annual tribute. Instead of annexing North Africa, the Muslims preferred to make North Africa a vassal state. When the stipulated amount of the tribute was paid, the Muslim forces withdrew to Barqa. Following the First Fitna, the first Islamic civil war, Muslim forces withdraw from north Africa to Egypt. The Ummayad Caliphate, re-invaded north Africa in 664.
A campaign was undertaken against Nubia during the Caliphate of Umar in 642, but failed after the Makurians took victory at the First Battle of Dongola. The army was pulled out of Nubia without any success. Ten years later, Uthman 's governor of Egypt, Abdullah ibn Saad, sent another army to Nubia. This army penetrated deeper into Nubia and laid siege to the Nubian capital of Dongola. The Muslims damaged the cathedral in the center of the city, but the battle also went in favor of Makuria. As the Muslims were not able to overpower Makuria, they negotiated a peace with their king Qaladurut. According to the treaty that was signed, each side agreed not to make any aggressive moves against the other. Each side agreed to afford free passage to the other party through its territories. Nubia agreed to provide 360 slaves to Egypt every year, while Egypt agreed to supply grain, horses and textiles to Nubia according to demand.
During Umar 's reign, the governor of Syria, Muawiyah I, sent a request to build a naval force to invade the islands of the Mediterranean Sea but Umar rejected the proposal because of the risk of death of soldiers at sea. During his reign Uthman gave Muawiyah permission to build a navy after concerning the matter. In 650 CE the Arabs made the first attack on the island of Cyprus under the leadership of Muawiya. They conquered the capital, Salamis - Constantia, after a brief siege, but drafted a treaty with the local rulers. In the course of this expedition a relative of Muhammad, Umm - Haram fell from her mule near the Salt Lake at Larnaca and was killed. She was buried in that same spot which became a holy site for both many local Muslims and Christians and, much later in 1816, the Hala Sultan Tekke was built there by the Ottomans. After apprehending a breach of the treaty, the Arabs re-invaded the island in 654 CE with five hundred ships. This time, however, a garrison of 12,000 men was left in Cyprus, bringing the island under Muslim influence. After leaving Cyprus the Muslim fleet headed towards the island of Crete and then Rhodes and conquered them without much resistance. In 652 - 654, the Muslims launched a naval campaign against Sicily and they succeeded in capturing a large part of the island. Soon after this Uthman was murdered, and no further expansion efforts were made, and the Muslims accordingly retreated from Sicily. In 655 Byzantine Emperor Constans II led a fleet in person to attack the Muslims at Phoinike (off Lycia) but it was defeated: 500 Byzantine ships were destroyed in the battle, and the emperor himself narrowly avoided death.
In Islamic history the conquest of Spain was undertaken by forces led by Tariq ibn Ziyad and Musa ibn Nusair in 711 -- 718 C.E, in the time of the Umayyad Caliph Walid ibn Abd al - Malik. According to Muslim historian Muhammad ibn Jarir al - Tabari, Spain was first invaded by Muslims some sixty years earlier during the caliphate of Uthman in 653. Other prominent Muslim historians like Ibn Kathir have repeated Al - Tabari 's assertion.
According to al - Tabari 's account, when North Africa had been conquered by Abdullah Ibn Sa'ad, two of his generals, Abdullah ibn Nafiah ibn Husain, and Abdullah ibn Nafi ' ibn Abdul Qais, were commissioned to invade coastal areas of Spain by sea.
No details of the campaigns in Spain during the caliphate of Uthman are given by al - Tabari. The account is merely to the effect that an Arab force, aided by a Berber force, landed in Spain and took possession of some coastal areas. The account is vague about what happened and where and whether or not it involved a prolonged local occupation or was merely a short lived military operation. As these regions were populated, an occupation would not have gone unnoticed by the inhabitants. Nor do later Muslim accounts mention any pre-Ummayad Muslim settlements or forts in the Iberian Peninsula. Al - Tabari 's assertion remains unconfirmed by independent sources.
The non-Muslim monotheist inhabitants - Jews, Zoroastrians, and Christians of the conquered lands were called dhimmis (the protected people). Those who accepted Islam were treated in a similar manner as other Muslims, and were given equivalent rights in legal matters. Non-Muslims were given legal rights according to their faiths ' law except where it conflicted with Islamic law.
In some senses, Islamic law made dhimmis second - class citizens. For instance, a Muslim woman could not marry a Non-Muslim man, and the son of a Muslim man and a dhimmi woman was always considered a Muslim, with no choice left to the individual. Dhimmis were allowed to "practice their religion, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy '' and were guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, but only in return for paying tax and acknowledging Muslim rule. Dhimmis were also subject to pay jizya (Muslims were expected to pay zakāt and kharaj). Disabled dhimmis did not have to pay jizya and, were even given a stipend by the state.
The Rashidun caliphs had placed special emphasis on relative fair and just treatment of the dhimmis. They were also provided ' protection ' by the Islamic empire and were not expected to fight; rather the Muslims were entrusted to defend them. Sometimes, in particular when there were not enough qualified Muslims, dhimmis were given important positions in the government.
The basic administrative system of the Dar al - Islamiyyah (The House of Islam) was laid down in the days of the Prophet. Caliph Abu Bakr stated in his sermon when he was elected: "If I order any thing that would go against the order of Allah and his Messenger; then do not obey me ''. This is considered to be the foundation stone of the Caliphate. Caliph Umar has been reported to have said: "O Muslims, straighten me with your hands when I go wrong '', and at that instance a Muslim man stood up and said "O Amir al - Mu'minin (Leader of the Believers) if you are not straightened by our hands we will use our sword to straighten you! ''. Hearing this Caliph Umar said "Alhamdulillah (Praise be to Allah) I have such followers. ''
In the administrative field Umar was the most brilliant among the Rashidun caliphs, and it was due to his exemplary administrative qualities that most of the administrative structures of the empire were established.
Under Abu Bakr the empire was not clearly divided into provinces, though it had many administrative districts.
Under Umar the Empire was divided into a number of provinces which were as follows:
In his testament Umar had instructed his successor not to make any change in the administrative set up for one year after his death. Thus for one year Uthman maintained the pattern of political administration as it stood under Umar, however later he made some amendments. Uthman made Egypt one province and created a new province comprising North Africa. Syria, previously divided into two provinces, also become a single division.
During Uthman 's reign the empire was divided into twelve provinces. These were:
During Ali 's reign, with the exception of Syria (which was under Muawiyah I 's control) and Egypt (that he had lost during the latter years of his caliphate to the rebel troops of Amr ibn Al - A'as), the remaining ten provinces were under his control, which kept their administrative organizations as they were under Uthman.
The provinces were further divided into districts. Each of the 100 or more districts of the empire, along with the main cities, were administered by a governor (Wāli). Other officers at the provincial level were:
In some districts there were separate military officers, though the governor was in most cases the commander - in - chief of the army quartered in the province.
The officers were appointed by the Caliph. Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment an instrument of instructions was issued with a view to regulating the conduct of Governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to assemble the people in the main mosque, and read the instrument of instructions before them.
Umar 's general instructions to his officers were:
Remember, I have not appointed you as commanders and tyrants over the people. I have sent you as leaders instead, so that the people may follow your example. Give the Muslims their rights and do not beat them lest they become abused. Do not praise them unduly, lest they fall into the error of conceit. Do not keep your doors shut in their faces, lest the more powerful of them eat up the weaker ones. And do not behave as if you were superior to them, for that is tyranny over them.
During the reign of Abu Bakr the state was economically weak, while during Umar 's reign because of increase in revenues and other sources of income, the state was on its way to economic prosperity. Hence Umar felt it necessary that the officers be treated in a strict way as to prevent the possible greed for money that may lead them to corruption. During his reign, at the time of appointment, every officer was required to make the oath:
Caliph Umar himself followed the above postulates strictly. During the reign of Uthman the state become more economically prosperous than ever before; the allowance of the citizens was increased by 25 %, and the economical condition of the ordinary person was more stable, which led Caliph Uthman to revoke the 2nd and 3rd postulates of the oath.
At the time of appointment a complete inventory of all the possessions of the person concerned was prepared and kept in record. If there was an unusual increase in the possessions of the office holder, he was immediately called to account, and the unlawful property was confiscated by the State. The principal officers were required to come to Mecca on the occasion of the Hajj, during which people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize the chances of corruption, Umar made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff. Provincial governors received as much as five to seven thousand dirhams annually besides their share of the spoils of war (if they were also the commander - in - chief of the army of their sector).
As most of the administrative structure of the Rashidun Empire was set up by Umar, the judicial administration was also established by him and the other Caliphs followed the same system without any type of basic amendment in it. In order to provide adequate and speedy justice for the people, an effective system of judicial administration was set up, hereunder justice was administered according to the principles of Islam.
Qadis (Judges) were appointed at all administrative levels for the administration of justice. The Qadis were chosen for their integrity and learning in Islamic law. High salaries were fixed for the Qadis so that there was no temptation to bribery. Wealthy men and men of high social status were appointed as Qadis so that they might not have the temptation to take bribes, or be influenced by the social position of any body. The Qadis were not allowed to engage in trade. Judges were appointed in sufficient number, and there was no district which did not have a Qadi.
Fred Donner, in his book The Early Islamic Conquests (1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early Caliphates was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader 's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves, although there was no specified procedure for this shura, or consultative assembly. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir, as there was no basis in the majority Sunni view that the head of state or governor should be chosen based on lineage alone.
This argument is advanced by Sunni Muslims that Muhammad 's companion Abu Bakr was elected by the community, and this was the proper procedure. They further argue that a caliph is ideally chosen by election or community consensus. The caliphate became a hereditary office or the prize of the strongest general after the Rashidun caliphate. However, Sunni Muslims believe this was after the ' rightly guided ' caliphate ended (Rashidun caliphate).
Abu Bakr Al - Baqillani has said that the leader of the Muslims simply should be from the majority. Abu Hanifa an - Nu'man also wrote that the leader must come from the majority.
Following the death of Muhammad, a meeting took place at Saqifah. At that meeting, Abu Bakr was elected caliph by the Muslim community. Sunni Muslims developed the belief that the caliph is a temporal political ruler, appointed to rule within the bounds of Islamic law (The rules of life set by Allah in the Qur'an). The job of adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law was left to Islamic lawyers, judiciary, or specialists individually termed as Mujtahids and collectively named the Ulema. The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun, meaning the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the sunnah (example) of Muhammad in all things.
Traditional Sunni Islamic lawyers agree that shura, loosely translated as "consultation of the people '', is a function of the caliphate. The Majlis al - Shura advise the caliph. The importance of this is premised by the following verses of the Qur'an:
... those who answer the call of their Lord and establish the prayer, and who conduct their affairs by Shura. (are loved by God)
... consult them (the people) in their affairs. Then when you have taken a decision (from them), put your trust in Allah
The majlis is also the means to elect a new caliph. Al - Mawardi has written that members of the majlis should satisfy three conditions: they must be just, they must have enough knowledge to distinguish a good caliph from a bad one, and must have sufficient wisdom and judgment to select the best caliph. Al - Mawardi also said in emergencies when there is no caliphate and no majlis, the people themselves should create a majlis, select a list of candidates for caliph, then the majlis should select from the list of candidates.
Some modern interpretations of the role of the Majlis al - Shura include those by Islamist author Sayyid Qutb and by Taqiuddin al - Nabhani, the founder of a transnational political movement devoted to the revival of the Caliphate. In an analysis of the shura chapter of the Qur'an, Qutb argued Islam requires only that the ruler consult with at least some of the ruled (usually the elite), within the general context of God - made laws that the ruler must execute. Taqiuddin al - Nabhani, writes that Shura is important and part of "the ruling structure '' of the Islamic caliphate, "but not one of its pillars, '' and may be neglected without the Caliphate 's rule becoming unislamic. Non-Muslims may serve in the majlis, though they may not vote or serve as an official.
Sunni Islamic lawyers have commented on when it is permissible to disobey, impeach or remove rulers in the Caliphate. This is usually when the rulers are not meeting public responsibilities obliged upon them under Islam.
Al - Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their Islamic responsibilities to the public, the people must obey their laws, but if they become either unjust or severely ineffective then the Caliph or ruler must be impeached via the Majlis al - Shura. Similarly Al - Baghdadi believed that if the rulers do not uphold justice, the ummah via the majlis should give warning to them, and if unheeded then the Caliph can be impeached. Al - Juwayni argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler that deviates from this goal must be impeached. Al - Ghazali believed that oppression by a caliph is enough for impeachment. Rather than just relying on impeachment, Ibn Hajar al - Asqalani obliged rebellion upon the people if the caliph began to act with no regard for Islamic law. Ibn Hajar al - Asqalani said that to ignore such a situation is haraam, and those who can not revolt inside the caliphate should launch a struggle from outside. Al - Asqalani used two ayahs from the Qur'an to justify this:
And they (the sinners on qiyama) will say, "Our Lord! We obeyed our leaders and our chiefs, and they misled us from the right path. Our Lord! Give them (the leaders) double the punishment you give us and curse them with a very great curse ''...
Islamic lawyers commented that when the rulers refuse to step down via successful impeachment through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, if the majority agree they have the option to launch a revolution against them. Many noted that this option is only exercised after factoring in the potential cost of life.
The following hadith establishes the principle of rule of law in relation to nepotism and accountability:
Narrated ' Aisha: The people of Quraish worried about the lady from Bani Makhzum who had committed theft. They asked, "Who will intercede for her with Allah 's Apostle? '' Some said, "No one dare to do so except Usama bin Zaid the beloved one to Allah 's Apostle. '' When Usama spoke about that to Allah 's Apostle Allah 's Apostle said: "Do you try to intercede for somebody in a case connected with Allah 's Prescribed Punishments? '' Then he got up and delivered a sermon saying, "What destroyed the nations preceding you, was that if a noble amongst them stole, they would forgive him, and if a poor person amongst them stole, they would inflict Allah 's Legal punishment on him. By Allah, if Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad (my daughter) stole, I would cut off her hand. ''
Various Islamic lawyers do however place multiple conditions, and stipulations e.g. the poor can not be penalised for stealing out of poverty, before executing such a law, making it very difficult to reach such a stage. It is well known during a time of drought in the Rashidun caliphate period, capital punishments were suspended until the effects of the drought passed.
Islamic jurists later formulated the concept of the rule of law, the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of the land, where no person is above the law and where officials and private citizens are under a duty to obey the same law. A Qadi (Islamic judge) was also not allowed to discriminate on the grounds of religion, gender, colour, kinship or prejudice. There were also a number of cases where caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to take their verdict.
According to Noah Feldman, a law professor at Harvard University, the legal scholars and jurists who once upheld the rule of law were replaced by a law governed by the state due to the codification of Sharia by the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century:
During the Rashidun Caliphate there was an economic boom in the lives of the ordinary people due to the revolutionary economic policies developed by Umar (634 - 644 CE / AD) and his successor Uthman (644 - 656). At first it was Umar who introduced these reforms on strong bases, his successor Uthman who himself was an intelligent businessman, further reformed them. During Uthman 's reign the people of the empire enjoyed a prosperous life.
Bait - ul - Maal (literally, The house of money) was the department that dealt with the revenues and all other economic matters of the state. In the time of Muhammad there was no permanent Bait - ul - Mal or public treasury. Whatever revenues or other amounts were received were distributed immediately. There were no salaries to be paid, and there was no state expenditure. Hence the need for the treasury at the public level was not felt.
Abu Bakr (632 - 634) earmarked a house where all money was kept on receipt. As all money was distributed immediately the treasury generally remained locked up. At the time of the death of Abu Bakr there was only one dirham in the public treasury.
In the time of Umar things changed. With the extension in conquests money came in larger quantities, Umar also allowed salaries to men fighting in the army. Abu Huraira who was the Governor of Bahrain sent a revenue of five hundred thousand dirhams. Umar summoned a meeting of his Consultative Assembly and sought the opinion of the Companions about the disposal of the money. Uthman ibn Affan advised that the amount should be kept for future needs. Walid bin Hisham suggested that like the Byzantines separate departments of treasury and accounts should be set up.
After consulting the Companions Umar decided to establish the central Treasury at Medina. Abdullah bin Arqam was appointed as the Treasury Officer. He was assisted by Abdur Rahman bin Awf and Muiqib. A separate Accounts Department was also set up and it was required to maintain record of all that was spent. Later provincial treasuries were set up in the provinces. After meeting the local expenditure the provincial treasuries were required to remit the surplus amount to the central treasury at Medina. According to Yaqubi the salaries and stipends charged to the central treasury amounted to over 30 million dirhams.
A separate building was constructed for the royal treasury by the name bait ul maal, which in large cities was guarded by as many as 400 guards.
In most of the historical accounts it states that among the Rashidun caliphs Uthman ibn Affan was the first to strike coins; some accounts however state that Umar was the first to do so. When Persia was conquered three types of coins were current in the conquered territories, namely Baghli of eight dang; Tabari of four dang; and Maghribi of three dang. Umar (according to some accounts Uthman) made an innovation and struck an Islamic dirham of six dang.
Social welfare and pensions were introduced in early Islamic law as forms of zakāt (charity), one of the Five Pillars of Islam, since the time of the Rashidun caliph Umar in the 7th century. The taxes (including zakāt and jizya) collected in the treasury of an Islamic government were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist Al - Ghazali (Algazel, 1058 -- 1111), the government was also expected to stockpile food supplies in every region in case a disaster or famine occurred. The Caliphate was thus one of the earliest welfare states.
The economic resources of the State were:
Zakāt (زكاة) is the Islamic concept of luxury tax. It was taken from the Muslims in the amount of 2.5 % of their dormant wealth (over a certain amount unused for a year) to give to the poor. Only persons whose annual wealth exceeded a minimum level (nisab) were collected from. The nisab does not include primary residence, primary transportation, moderate amount of woven jewelry, etc. Zakāt is one of the Five Pillars of Islam and it is obligation on all Muslims who qualify as wealthy enough.
Jizya or jizyah (جزْية; Ottoman Turkish: cizye). It was a per capita tax imposed on able bodied non-Muslim men of military age since non-Muslims did not have to pay zakāt. The tax was not supposed to be levied on slaves, women, children, monks, the old, the sick, hermits and the poor. It is important to note that not only were some non-Muslims exempt (such as sick, old), they were also given stipends by the state when they were in need.
Fay was the income from State land, whether an agricultural land or a meadow, or a land with any natural mineral reserves.
Ghanimah or Khums was the booty captured on the occasion of war with the enemy. Four - fifths of the booty was distributed among the soldiers taking part in the war while one - fifth was credited to the state fund.
Kharaj was a tax on agricultural land.
Initially, after the first Muslim conquests in the 7th century, kharaj usually denoted a lump - sum duty levied upon the conquered provinces and collected by the officials of the former Byzantine and Sasanian empires, or, more broadly, any kind of tax levied by Muslim conquerors on their non-Muslim subjects, dhimmis. At that time, kharaj was synonymous with jizyah, which later emerged as a poll tax paid by dhimmis. Muslim landowners, on the other hand, paid only ushr, a religious tithe, which carried a much lower rate of taxation.
Ushr was a reciprocal 10 % levy on agricultural land as well as merchandise imported from states that taxed the Muslims on their products. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to levy ushr.
When the Muslim traders went to foreign lands for the purposes of trade they had to pay a 10 % tax to the foreign states. Ushr was levied on reciprocal basis on the goods of the traders of other countries who chose to trade in the Muslim dominions.
Umar issued instructions that ushr should be levied in such a way so as to avoid hardship, that it will not affect the trade activities in the Islamic empire. The tax was levied on merchandise meant for sale. Goods imported for consumption or personal use but not for sale were not taxed. The merchandise valued at 200 dirhams or less was not taxed. When the citizens of the State imported goods for the purposes of trade, they had to pay the customs duty or import tax at lower rates. In the case of the dhimmis the rate was 5 % and in the case of the Muslims ' 2.5 %. In the case of the Muslims the rate was the same as that of zakāt. The levy was thus regarded as a part of zakāt and was not considered a separate tax.
After the Battle of Yarmouk and Battle of al - Qadisiyyah the Muslims won heavy spoils. The coffers at Medina became full to the brim and the problem before Umar was what should be done with this money. Someone suggested that money should be kept in the treasury for the purposes of public expenditure only. This view was not acceptable to the general body of the Muslims. Consensus was reached on the point that whatever was received during a year should be distributed.
The next question that arose for consideration was what system should be adopted for distribution. One suggestion was that it should be distributed on an ad hoc basis and whatever was received should be equally distributed. Against this view it was felt that as the spoils were considerable, that would make the people very rich. It was therefore decided that instead of ad hoc division the amount of the allowance to the stipend should be determined beforehand and this allowance should be paid to the person concerned regardless of the amount of the spoils. This was agreed to.
About the fixation of the allowance there were two opinions. There were some who held that the amount of the allowance for all Muslims should be the same. Umar did not agree with this view. He held that the allowance should be graded according to one 's merit with reference to Islam.
Then the question arose as to what basis should be used for placing some above others. Suggested that a start should be made with the Caliph and he should get the highest allowance. Umar rejected the proposal and decided to start with the clan of Muhammad.
Umar set up a committee to compile a list of persons in nearness to Muhammad. The committee produced the list clan-wise. Bani Hashim appeared as the first clan. Then the clan of Abu Bakr, and in third place the clan of Umar. Umar accepted the first two placements but delegated his clan lower down on the scale with reference to nearness in relationship to Muhammad.
In the final scale of allowance that was approved by Umar the main provisions were:
In this award Umar 's son Abdullah ibn Umar got an allowance of 3000 dirhams. On the other hand, Usama ibn Zaid got 4000.
The ordinary Muslim citizens got allowances of between 2000 and 2500. The regular annual allowance was given only to the urban population, because they formed the backbone of the state 's economic resources. The Bedouin living in the desert, cut off from the states affairs making no contributions in the developments were often given stipends. On assuming office, Caliph Uthman ibn Affan increased these stipends by 25 %.
That was an economic measure which contributed to the prosperity of the people at lot. The citizens of the Islamic empire became increasingly prosperous as trade activities increased. In turn, they contributed to the department of bait al maal and more and more revenues were collected.
The mosques were not mere places for offering prayers; these were community centers as well where the faithful gathered to discuss problems of social and cultural importance. During the caliphate of Umar as many as four thousand mosques were constructed extending from Persia in the east to Egypt in the west. Al - Masjid an - Nabawi and Masjid al - Haram were enlarged first during the reign of Umar and then during the reign of Uthman ibn Affan who not only extended them to many thousand square meters but also beautified them on a large scale.
During the caliphate of Umar many new cities were founded. These included Kufa, Basra, and Fustat. These cities were laid in according with the principles of town planning. All streets in these cities led to the Friday mosque which was sited in the center of the city. Markets were established at convenient points, which were under the control of market officers who was supposed to check the affairs of market and quality of goods. The cities were divided into quarters, and each quarter was reserved for particular tribes. During the reign of Caliph Umar, there were restrictions on the building of palatial buildings by the rich and elites, this was symbolic of the egalitarian society of Islam, where all were equal, although the restrictions were later revoked by Caliph Uthman because of the financial prosperity of ordinary men, and the construction of double story building was permitted. As a result, many palatial buildings were constructed throughout the empire with Uthman himself building a huge palace for in Medina which was famous and, named Al - Zawar; he constructed it from his personal resources.
Many buildings were built for administrative purposes. In the quarters called Dar - ul - Amarat government offices and houses for the residence of officers were provided. Buildings known as Diwans were constructed for the keeping of official records. Buildings known as Bait - ul - Mal were constructed to house royal treasuries. For the lodging of persons suffering sentences as punishment, Jails were constructed for the first time in Muslim history. In important cities Guest Houses were constructed to serve as rest houses for traders and merchants coming from far away places. Roads and bridges were constructed for public use. On the road from Medina to Mecca, shelters, wells, and meal houses were constructed at every stage for the ease of the people who came for hajj.
Military cantonments were constructed at strategic points. Special stables were provided for cavalry. These stables could accommodate as many as 4,000 horses. Special pasture grounds were provided and maintained for Bait - ul - Mal animals.
Canals were dug to irrigate fields as well as provide drinking water for the people. Abu Musa canal (after the name of governor of Basra Abu - Musa al - Asha'ari) was a nine - mile (14 km) long canal which brought water from the Tigris to Basra. Another canal known as Maqal canal was also dug from the Tigris. A canal known as the Amir al - Mu'minin canal (after the title Amir al - Mu'minin that was ordered by Caliph Umar) was dug to join the Nile to the Red Sea. During the famine of 639 food grains were brought from Egypt to Arabia through this canal from the sea which saved the lives of millions of inhabitants of Arabia. Sa ` d ibn Abi Waqqas canal (after the name of governor of Kufa Sa ` d ibn Abi Waqqas) dug from the Euphrates brought water to Anbar. ' Amr ibn al - ' As the governor of Egypt, during the reign of Caliph Umar, even proposed the digging of a canal to join the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. This proposal, however, did not materialize due to unknown reasons, and it was 1200 years later that such a canal was dug, today 's Suez Canal. Shuaibia was the port for Mecca. but it was inconvenient, so Caliph Uthman selected Jeddah as the site of the new seaport, and a new port was built there. Uthman also reformed the city 's police departments.
The Rashidun army was the primary military body of the Islamic armed forces of the 7th century, serving alongside the Rashidun navy. The Rashidun army maintained a very high level of discipline, strategic prowess and organization, along with motivation and self initiative of the officer corps. For much of its history this army was one of the most powerful and effective military forces in all of the region. At the height of the Rashidun Caliphate the maximum size of the army was around 100,000 troops.
The Rashidun army was divided into the two basic categories, infantry and light cavalry. Reconstructing the military equipment of early Muslim armies is problematic. Compared with Roman armies or later medieval Muslim armies, the range of visual representation is very small, often imprecise and difficult to date. Physically very little material evidence has survived and again, much of it is difficult to date. The soldiers used to wear iron and bronze segmented helmets that came from Iraq and were of Central Asian type.
The standard form of protective body armor was chainmail. There are also references to the practice of wearing two coats of mail (dir'ayn), the one under the main one being shorter or even made of fabric or leather. Hauberks and large wooden or wickerwork shields were used as a protection in combat. The soldiers were usually equipped with swords that were hung in a baldric. They also possessed spears and daggers. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to organize the army as a state department. This reform was introduced in 637. A beginning was made with the Quraish and the Ansar and the system was gradually extended to the whole of Arabia and to Muslims of conquered lands.
The basic strategy of early Muslim armies sent out to conquer foreign lands was to exploit every possible weakness of the enemy army in order to achieve victory. Their key strength was mobility. The cavalry had both horses and camels. The camels were used as both transport and food for long marches through the desert (Khalid bin Walid 's extraordinary march from the Persian border to Damascus utilized camels as both food and transport). The cavalry was the army 's main striking force and also served as a strategic mobile reserve. The common tactic used was to use the infantry and archers to engage and maintain contact with the enemy forces while the cavalry was held back till the enemy was fully engaged.
Once fully engaged the enemy reserves were absorbed by the infantry and archers, and the Muslim cavalry was used as pincers (like modern tank and mechanized divisions) to attack the enemy from the sides or to attack enemy base camps. The Rashidun army was quality-wise and strength-wise below standard compared with the Sasanian and Byzantine armies. Khalid ibn Walid was the first general of the Rashidun Caliphate to conquer foreign lands and to trigger the wholesale deposition of the two most powerful empires. During his campaign against the Sasanian Empire (Iraq 633 - 634) and the Byzantine Empire (Syria 634 - 638) Khalid developed brilliant tactics that he used effectively against both the Sasanian and Byzantine armies.
Abu Bakr 's strategy was to give his generals their mission, the geographical area in which that mission would be carried out, and the resources that, could be made available for that purpose. He would then leave it to his generals to accomplish their missions in whatever manner they chose. On the other hand, Caliph Umar in the latter part of his Caliphate used to direct his generals as to where they would stay and when to move to the next target and who was to be commanding the left and right wing of the army in each particular battle. This made the phase of conquest comparatively slower but provided well - organized campaigns. Caliph Uthman used the same method as Abu Bakr: he would give missions to his generals and then leave it to them how they should accomplish it. Caliph Ali also followed the same method.
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what season of big bang theory are we on | The Big Bang Theory - Wikipedia
The Big Bang Theory is an American television sitcom created by Chuck Lorre and Bill Prady, both of whom serve as executive producers on the series, along with Steven Molaro. All three also serve as head writers. The show premiered on CBS on September 24, 2007. In March 2017, the series was renewed for two additional seasons, bringing its total to twelve, and running through the 2018 -- 19 television season. The eleventh season premiered on September 25, 2017.
The show is primarily centered on five characters living in Pasadena, California: Leonard Hofstadter and Sheldon Cooper, both physicists at Caltech, who share an apartment; Penny, a waitress and aspiring actress who later becomes a pharmaceutical representative and who lives across the hall; and Leonard and Sheldon 's similarly geeky and socially awkward friends and co-workers, aerospace engineer Howard Wolowitz and astrophysicist Raj Koothrappali. The geekiness and intellect of the four men are contrasted for comic effect with Penny 's social skills and common sense.
Over time, supporting characters have been promoted to starring roles: Leslie Winkle, a physicist who dated Leonard and Howard; neuroscientist Amy Farrah Fowler, who joins the group after being matched to Sheldon on a dating website (and later becomes Sheldon 's girlfriend and fiancée); Bernadette Rostenkowski, Howard 's wife (previously his girlfriend), a microbiologist and former part - time waitress alongside Penny; Stuart Bloom, the cash - strapped owner of the comic book store the characters often visit; and Emily Sweeney, a dermatologist who dated Raj.
The show 's pilot episode premiered on September 24, 2007. This was the second pilot produced for the show. A different pilot was produced for the 2006 -- 07 television season but never aired. The structure of the original unaired pilot was substantially different from the series ' current form. The only characters retained in both pilots were Leonard (Johnny Galecki) and Sheldon (Jim Parsons), who are named after Sheldon Leonard, a longtime figure in episodic television as producer, director and actor. Althea (Vernee Watson) was a character featured in both pilots and the first series episode. Two female leads were Canadian actress Amanda Walsh as Katie, "a street - hardened, tough - as - nails woman with a vulnerable interior, '' and Iris Bahr as Gilda, a scientist colleague and friend of the male characters. Sheldon and Leonard meet Katie after she breaks up with a boyfriend and they invite her to share their apartment. Gilda is threatened by Katie 's presence. Test audiences reacted negatively to Katie, but they liked Sheldon and Leonard. The original pilot used Thomas Dolby 's hit "She Blinded Me with Science '' as its theme song.
Although the original pilot was not picked up, its creators were given an opportunity to retool it and produce a second pilot. They brought in the remaining cast and retooled the show to its final format. Katie was replaced by Penny (Kaley Cuoco). The original unaired pilot never has officially been released, but it has circulated on the Internet. On the evolution of the show, Chuck Lorre said, "We did the ' Big Bang Pilot ' about two and a half years ago, and it sucked... but there were two remarkable things that worked perfectly, and that was Johnny and Jim. We rewrote the thing entirely and then we were blessed with Kaley and Simon and Kunal. '' As to whether the world will ever see the original pilot on a future DVD release, Lorre said, "Wow, that would be something. We will see. Show your failures... ''
The first and second pilots of The Big Bang Theory were directed by James Burrows, who did not continue with the show. The reworked second pilot led to a 13 - episode order by CBS on May 14, 2007. Prior to its airing on CBS, the pilot episode was distributed on iTunes free of charge. The show premiered on September 24, 2007, and was picked up for a full 22 - episode season on October 19, 2007. The show is filmed in front of a live audience, and is produced by Warner Bros. Television and Chuck Lorre Productions. Production was halted on November 6, 2007, due to the Writers Guild of America strike. Nearly three months later, on February 4, 2008, the series was temporarily replaced by a short - lived sitcom, Welcome to the Captain. The series returned on March 17, 2008, in an earlier time slot and ultimately only 17 episodes were produced for the first season.
After the strike ended, the show was picked up for a second season, airing in the 2008 -- 2009 season, premiering in the same time slot on September 22, 2008. With increasing ratings, the show received a two - year renewal through the 2010 -- 11 season in 2009. In 2011, the show was picked up for three more seasons. In March 2014, the show was renewed again for three more years through the 2016 -- 17 season. This marks the second time the series has gained a three - year renewal. In March 2017, the series was renewed for two additional seasons, bringing its total to 12, and running through the 2018 -- 19 television season.
David Saltzberg, a professor of physics and astronomy at the University of California, Los Angeles, checks scripts and provides dialogue, mathematics equations, and diagrams used as props. According to executive producer / co-creator Bill Prady, "We 're working on giving Sheldon an actual problem that he 's going to be working on throughout the (first) season so there 's actual progress to the boards... We worked hard to get all the science right. ''
Several of the actors in The Big Bang Theory previously worked together on the sitcom Roseanne, including Johnny Galecki, Sara Gilbert, Laurie Metcalf (who plays Sheldon 's mother, Mary Cooper), and Meagen Fay (who plays Bernadette 's mother). Additionally, Lorre was a writer on the series for several seasons.
The Canadian alternative rock band Barenaked Ladies wrote and recorded the show 's theme song, which describes the history and formation of the universe and the Earth. Co-lead singer Ed Robertson was asked by Lorre and Prady to write a theme song for the show after the producers attended one of the band 's concerts in Los Angeles. By coincidence, Robertson had recently read Simon Singh 's book Big Bang, and at the concert improvised a freestyle rap about the origins of the universe. Lorre and Prady phoned him shortly thereafter and asked him to write the theme song. Having been asked to write songs for other films and shows, but ending up being rejected because producers favored songs by other artists, Robertson agreed to write the theme only after learning that Lorre and Prady had not asked anyone else.
On October 9, 2007, a full - length (1 minute and 45 seconds) version of the song was released commercially. Although some sources identify the song title as "History of Everything, '' the cover art for the single identifies the title as "Big Bang Theory Theme. '' A music video also was released via special features on The Complete Fourth Season DVD and Blu - ray set. The theme was included on the band 's greatest hits album, Hits from Yesterday & the Day Before, released on September 27, 2011. In September 2015, TMZ uncovered court documents showing that Steven Page sued former bandmate Robertson over the song, alleging that he was promised 20 % of the proceeds, but that Robertson has kept that money entirely for himself.
For the first three seasons, Galecki, Parsons, and Cuoco, the three main stars of the show, received at most $60,000 per episode. The salary for the three went up to $200,000 per episode for the fourth season. Their per - episode pay went up an additional $50,000 in each of the following three seasons, culminating in $350,000 per episode in the seventh season. In September 2013, Bialik and Rauch renegotiated the contracts they held since they were introduced to the series in 2010. On their old contracts, each was making $20,000 -- $30,000 per episode, while the new contracts doubled that, beginning at $60,000 per episode, increasing steadily to $100,000 per episode by the end of the contract, as well as adding another year for both.
By season seven, Galecki, Parsons, and Cuoco were also receiving 0.25 % of the series ' back - end money. Before production began on the eighth season, the three plus Helberg and Nayyar, looked to renegotiate new contracts, with Galecki, Parsons, and Cuoco seeking around $1 million per episode, as well as more back - end money. Contracts were signed in the beginning of August 2014, giving the three principal actors an estimated $1 million per episode for three years, with the possibility to extend for a fourth year. The deals also include larger pieces of the show, signing bonuses, production deals, and advances towards the back - end. Helberg and Nayyar were also able to renegotiate their contracts, giving them a per - episode pay in the "mid-six - figure range '', up from around $100,000 per episode they each received in years prior. The duo, who were looking to have salary parity with Parsons, Galecki, and Cuoco, signed their contracts after the studio and producers threatened to write the characters out of the series if a deal could not be reached before the start of production on season eight. By season 10, Helberg and Nayyar reached the $1 million per episode parity with Parsons, Galecki, and Cuoco, due to a clause in their deals signed in 2014.
In March 2017, the main cast members (Galecki, Parsons, Cuoco, Helberg, and Nayyar) took a 10 % pay cut to allow Bialik and Rauch an increase in their earnings. This put Galecki, Parsons, Cuoco, Helberg and Nayyar at $900,000 per episode, with Parsons, Galecki, and Helberg also receiving overall deals with Warner Bros. Television. By the end of April, Bialik and Rauch had signed deals to earn $500,000 per episode, each, with the deals also including a separate development component for both actors. The deal was an increase from the $175,000 -- $200,000 the duo had been making per episode.
These actors are credited in all episodes of the series:
These actors were first credited as guest stars and later promoted to main cast:
As the theme of the show revolves around science, many distinguished and high - profile scientists have appeared as guest stars on the show. Famous astrophysicist and Nobel laureate George Smoot had a cameo appearance in the second season. Theoretical physicist Brian Greene appeared in the fourth season, as well as astrophysicist, science populizer, and physics outreach specialist Neil deGrasse Tyson.
Cosmologist Stephen Hawking made a short guest appearance in the fifth - season episode; in the eighth season, Hawking video conferences with Sheldon and Leonard, and makes another appearance in the 200th episode. In the fifth and sixth seasons, NASA astronaut Michael J. Massimino played himself multiple times in the role of Howard 's fellow astronaut. Bill Nye appeared in the seventh season, and Elon Musk made an appearance in the ninth season.
Much of the series focuses on science, particularly physics. The four main male characters are employed at Caltech and have science - related occupations, as do Bernadette and Amy. The characters frequently banter about scientific theories or news (notably around the start of the show), and make science - related jokes.
Science has also interfered with the characters ' romantic lives. Leslie breaks up with Leonard when he sides with Sheldon in his support for string theory rather than loop quantum gravity. When Leonard joins Sheldon, Raj, and Howard on a three - month Arctic research trip, it separates Leonard and Penny at a time when their relationship is budding. When Bernadette takes an interest in Leonard 's work, it makes both Penny and Howard envious and results in Howard confronting Leonard, and Penny asking Sheldon to teach her physics. Sheldon and Amy also briefly end their relationship after an argument over which of their fields is superior.
David Saltzberg, who has a Ph. D. in physics, has served as the science consultant for the show for six seasons and attends every taping. While Saltzberg knows physics, he sometimes needs assistance from Mayim Bialik, who has a Ph. D. in neuroscience. Saltzberg sees early versions of scripts which need scientific information added to them, and he also points out where the writers, despite their knowledge of science, have made a mistake. He is usually not needed during a taping unless a lot of science, and especially the whiteboard, is involved.
The four main male characters are all avid science fiction, fantasy, and comic book fans and memorabilia collectors.
Star Trek in particular is frequently referenced and Sheldon identifies strongly with the character of Spock, so much so that when he is given a used napkin signed by Leonard Nimoy as a Christmas gift from Penny he is overwhelmed with excitement and gratitude ("I possess the DNA of Leonard Nimoy?! ''). Star Trek: The Original Series cast member George Takei has made a cameo, and Leonard Nimoy made a cameo as the voice of Sheldon 's vintage Mr. Spock action figure (both cameos were in dream sequences). Star Trek: The Next Generation cast members Brent Spiner and LeVar Burton have had cameos as themselves, while Wil Wheaton has a recurring role as a fictionalized version of himself.
They are also fans of Star Wars, Battlestar Galactica, and Doctor Who. In the episode "The Ornithophobia Diffusion '', when there is a delay in watching Star Wars on Blu - ray, Howard complains, "If we do n't start soon, George Lucas is going to change it again '' (referring to Lucas ' controversial alterations to the films) and in "The Hot Troll Deviation '', Katee Sackhoff of Battlestar Galactica appeared as Howard 's fantasy dream girl. The characters have different tastes in franchises with Sheldon praising Firefly but disapproving of Leonard 's enjoyment of Babylon 5. With regard to fantasy, the four make frequent references to The Lord of the Rings and Harry Potter novels and movies. Additionally, Howard can speak Sindarin, one of the two Elvish languages from The Lord of the Rings.
Wednesday night is the group 's designated "comic book night '' because that is the day of the week when new comic books are released. The comic book store is run by fellow geek and recurring character Stuart. On a number of occasions, the group members have dressed up as pop culture characters, including The Flash, Aquaman, Frodo Baggins, Superman, Batman, Spock, The Doctor, Green Lantern, and Thor. As a consequence of losing a bet to Stuart and Wil Wheaton, the group members are forced to visit the comic book store dressed as Catwoman, Wonder Woman, Batgirl, and Supergirl. DC Comics announced that, to promote its comics, the company will sponsor Sheldon wearing Green Lantern T - shirts.
Various games have been featured, as well as referenced, on the series (e.g. World of Warcraft, Halo, Mario, etc.), including fictional games like Mystic Warlords of Ka'a (which became a reality in 2011) and Rock - paper - scissors - lizard - Spock.
One of the recurring plot lines is the relationship between Leonard and Penny. Leonard becomes attracted to Penny in the pilot episode and his need to do favors for her is a frequent point of humor in the first season. Meanwhile, Penny dates a series of muscular, attractive, unintelligent, and insensitive jocks. Their first long - term relationship begins when Leonard returns from a three - month expedition to the North Pole in the season 3 premiere. However, when Leonard tells Penny that he loves her, she realizes she can not say it back. Both Leonard and Penny go on to date other people; most notably with Leonard dating Raj 's sister Priya for much of season 4. This relationship is jeopardized when Leonard comes to falsely believe that Raj has slept with Penny, and ultimately ends when Priya sleeps with a former boyfriend in "The Good Guy Fluctuation ''.
Penny, who admits to missing Leonard in "The Roommate Transmogrification '', accepts his request to renew their relationship in "The Beta Test Initiation ''. After Penny suggests having sex in "The Launch Acceleration '', Leonard breaks the mood by proposing to her. Penny says "no '' but does not break up with him. She stops a proposal a second time in "The Tangible Affection Proof ''. In the sixth - season episode, "The 43 Peculiarity '', Penny finally tells Leonard that she loves him. Although they both feel jealousy when the other receives significant attention from the opposite sex, Penny is secure enough in their relationship to send him off on an exciting four - month expedition without worrying in "The Bon Voyage Reaction ''. After Leonard returns, their relationship blossoms over the seventh season. In the penultimate episode "The Gorilla Dissolution '', Penny admits that they should marry and when Leonard realizes that she is serious, he proposes with a ring that he had been saving for years. Leonard and Penny decide to elope to Las Vegas in the season 8 finale, but beforehand, wanting no secrets, Leonard admits to kissing another woman, Mandy Chow (Melissa Tang) while on an expedition on the North Sea. Despite this, Leonard and Penny finally elope in the season 9 premiere.
In the third - season finale, Raj and Howard search for a woman compatible with Sheldon and discover neurobiologist Amy Farrah Fowler. Like him, she has a history of social ineptitude and participates in online dating only to fulfill an agreement with her mother. This spawns a storyline in which Sheldon and Amy communicate daily while insisting to Leonard and Penny that they are not romantically involved. In "The Agreement Dissection '', Sheldon and Amy talk in her apartment after a night of dancing and she kisses him on the lips. Instead of getting annoyed, Sheldon says "fascinating '' and later asks Amy to be his girlfriend in "The Flaming Spittoon Acquisition ''. The same night he draws up "The Relationship Agreement '' to verify the ground rules of him as her boyfriend and vice versa (similar to his "Roommate Agreement '' with Leonard). Amy agrees but later regrets not having had a lawyer read through it.
In the episode "The Launch Acceleration '', Amy tries to use her "neurobiology bag of tricks '' to increase the attraction between herself and Sheldon. In the final fifth - season episode "The Countdown Reflection '', Sheldon takes Amy 's hand as Howard is launched into space. In the sixth season first episode "The Date Night Variable '', after a dinner in which Sheldon fails to live up to this expectation, Amy gives Sheldon an ultimatum that their relationship is over unless he tells her something from his heart. Amy accepts Sheldon 's romantic speech even after learning that it is a line from the first Spider - Man movie. In "The Cooper / Kripke Inversion '' Sheldon states that he has been working on his discomfort about physical contact and admits that "it 's a possibility '' that he could one day have sex with Amy. Amy is revealed to have similar feelings in "The Love Spell Potential ''. Sheldon explains that he never thought about intimacy with anyone before Amy.
"The Locomotive Manipulation '' is the first episode in which Sheldon initiates a kiss with Amy. Although initially done in a fit of sarcasm, he discovers that he enjoys the feeling. Consequently, Sheldon slowly starts to open up over the rest of the season, and starts a more intimate relationship with Amy. However, in the season finale, Sheldon leaves temporarily to cope with several changes and Amy becomes distraught. However, in "The Prom Equivalency '', he hides in his room to avoid going to a mock prom reenactment with her. In the resulting stand - off, Amy is about to confess that she loves Sheldon, but he surprises her by saying that he loves her too. This prompts Amy to have a panic attack.
In the season eight finale, Sheldon and Amy get into a fight about commitment on their fifth anniversary. Amy tells Sheldon that she needs to think about the future of their relationship, unaware that Sheldon was about to propose to her. Season nine sees Sheldon harassing Amy about making up her mind until she breaks up with him. Both struggle with singlehood and trying to be friends for the next few weeks until they reunite in episode ten and have sex for the first time on Amy 's birthday.
In the season eleven premiere, Sheldon proposes to Amy and she accepts.
In the show, the song Soft Kitty was described by Sheldon as a song sung by his mother when he was ill. Its repeated use in the series popularized the song. A scene depicting the origin of the song in Sheldon 's childhood is depicted in an episode of Young Sheldon, which aired on February 1, 2018. It shows Sheldon 's mother Mary singing the song to her son, who is suffering with the flu.
In scenes set at Howard 's home, he interacts with his rarely - seen mother (voiced by Carol Ann Susi until her death) by shouting from room to room in the house. She similarly interacts with other characters in this manner. She reflects the Jewish mother stereotype in some ways, such as being overly controlling of Howard 's adult life and sometimes trying to make him feel guilty about causing her trouble. She is dependent on Howard, as she requires him to help her with her wig and makeup in the morning. Howard, in turn, is attached to his mother to the point where she still cuts his meat for him, takes him to the dentist, does his laundry and "grounds '' him when he returns home after briefly moving out. Until Howard 's marriage to Bernadette in the fifth - season finale, Howard 's former living situation led Leonard 's psychiatrist mother to speculate that he may suffer from some type of pathology, and Sheldon to refer to their relationship as Oedipal. In season 8, Howard 's mother dies in her sleep while in Florida, which devastates Howard and Stuart, who briefly lived with Mrs. Wolowitz.
Like most shows created by Chuck Lorre, The Big Bang Theory ends by showing a vanity card written by Lorre after the credits, followed by the Warner Bros. Television closing logo. These cards are archived on Lorre 's website.
Initial reception for the series was mixed. The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 55 % approval rating for the first season based on reviews from 22 critics, with an average rating of 5.18 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "The Big Bang Theory brings a new class of character to mainstream television, but much of the comedy feels formulaic and stiff. '' On Metacritic, the season holds a score of 57 out of 100, based on reviews from 23 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Later seasons received more acclaim and in 2013, TV Guide ranked the series # 52 on its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time.
The Big Bang Theory started off slowly in the ratings, failing to make the top 50 in its first season (ranking 68th), and ranking 40th in its second season. When the third season premiered on September 21, 2009, however, The Big Bang Theory ranked as CBS 's highest - rated show of that evening in the adults 18 -- 49 demographic (4.6 / 10) along with a then - series - high 12.83 million viewers. After the first three seasons aired at different times on Monday nights, CBS moved the show to Thursdays at 8: 00 ET for the 2010 -- 2011 schedule, to be in direct competition with NBC 's Comedy Block and Fox 's American Idol (then the longest reigning leading primetime show on U.S. television from 2004 to 2011). During its fourth season, it became television 's highest rated comedy, just barely beating out eight - year champ Two and a Half Men. However, in the age 18 -- 49 demographic (the show 's target age range), it was the second highest rated comedy, behind ABC 's Modern Family. The fifth season opened with viewing figures of over 14 million.
The sixth season boasts some of the highest - rated episodes for the show so far, with a then - new series high set with "The Bakersfield Expedition '', with 20 million viewers, a first for the series, which along with NCIS, made CBS the first network to have two scripted series reach that large an audience in the same week since 2007. In the sixth season, the show became the highest rated and viewed scripted show in the 18 -- 49 demographic, trailing only the live regular NBC Sunday Night Football coverage, and was third in total viewers, trailing NCIS and Sunday Night Football. Season seven of the series opened strong, continuing the success gained in season six, with the second episode of the premiere, "The Deception Verification '', setting the new series high in viewers with 20.44 million.
Showrunner Steve Molaro, who took over from Bill Prady with the sixth season, credits some of the show 's success to the sitcom 's exposure in off - network syndication, particularly on TBS, while Michael Schneider of TV Guide attributes it to the timeslot move two seasons earlier. Chuck Lorre and CBS Entertainment president Nina Tassler also credit the success to the influence of Molaro, in particular the deepening exploration of the firmly established regular characters and their interpersonal relationships, such as the on - again, off - again relationship between Leonard and Penny. Throughout much of the 2012 -- 13 season, The Big Bang Theory placed first in all of syndication ratings, receiving formidable competition from only Judge Judy and Wheel of Fortune (first - run syndication programs). By the end of the 2012 -- 13 television season, The Big Bang Theory had dethroned Judge Judy as the ratings leader in all of syndicated programming with 7.1, Judy descending to second place for that season with a 7.0. The Big Bang Theory did not place first in syndication ratings for the 2013 -- 14 television season, beaten out by Judge Judy.
The show made its United Kingdom debut on Channel 4 on February 14, 2008. The show was also shown as a ' first - look ' on Channel 4 's digital offshoot E4 prior to the main channel 's airing. While the show 's ratings were not deemed strong enough for the main channel, they were considered the opposite for E4. For each following season, all episodes were shown first - run on E4, with episodes only aired on the main channel in a repeat capacity, usually on a weekend morning. From the third season, the show aired in two parts, being split so that it could air new episodes for longer throughout the year. This was due to rising ratings. The first part began airing on December 17, 2009, at 9: 00 p.m. while the second part, containing the remaining eleven episodes, began airing in the same time period from May 6, 2010. The first half of the fourth season began airing on November 4, 2010, at 9: 00 p.m., drawing 877,000 viewers, with a further 256,000 watching on the E4 + 1 hour service. This gave the show an overall total of 1.13 million viewers, making it E4 's most - watched programme for that week. The increased ratings continued over subsequent weeks.
The fourth season 's second half began on June 30, 2011. Season 5 began airing on November 3, 2011, at 8: 00 p.m. as part of E4 's Comedy Thursdays, acting as a lead - in to the channel 's newest comedy, Perfect Couples. Episode 19, the highest - viewed episode of the season, attracted 1.4 million viewers. Season 6 premiered on November 15, 2012, with 1.89 million viewers and a further 469,000 on the time shift channel, bringing the total to 2.31 million, E4 's highest viewing ratings of 2012, and the highest the channel had received since June 2011. The sixth season returned in mid-2013 to finish airing the remaining episodes. Season 7 premiered on E4 on October 31, 2013 at 8: 30pm and hit multiple ratings records this season. The second half of season seven aired in mid 2014. The eighth season premiered on E4 on October 23, 2014 at 8: 30 p.m. During its eighth season, The Big Bang Theory shared its 8: 30 p.m. time period with fellow CBS comedy, 2 Broke Girls. Following the airing of the first eight episodes of that show 's fourth season, The Big Bang Theory returned to finish airing its eighth season on March 19, 2015.
Netflix UK & Ireland announced on February 13, 2016 that seasons 1 -- 8 would be available to stream from February 15, 2016.
The Big Bang Theory started off quietly in Canada, but managed to garner major success in later seasons. The Big Bang Theory is telecast throughout Canada via the CTV Television Network in simultaneous substitution with cross-border CBS affiliates. Now immensely popular in Canada, The Big Bang Theory is also rerun daily on the Canadian cable channel The Comedy Network.
The season 4 premiere garnered an estimated 3.1 million viewers across Canada. This is the largest audience for a sitcom since the series finale of Friends (12.4 million viewers). The Big Bang Theory has pulled ahead and has now become the most - watched entertainment television show in Canada.
The Big Bang Theory premiered in the United States on September 24, 2007 on CBS. The series debuted in Canada on CTV in September 2007. On February 14, 2008, the series debuted in the United Kingdom on channels E4 and Channel 4. In Australia the first seven seasons of the series began airing on the Seven Network and 7mate from October 2015 and also gained the rights to season 8 in 2016, though the Nine Network has rights to air seasons nine & ten. On January 22, 2018, it was announced that Nine had acquired the rights to Season 1 -- 8.
In May 2010, it was reported that the show had been picked up for syndication, mainly among Fox 's owned and operated stations and other local stations, with Warner Bros. Television 's sister cable network TBS holding the show 's cable syndication rights. Broadcast of old shows began airing in September 2011. TBS now airs the series in primetime on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays, with evening broadcasts on Saturdays (TBS 's local sister station in Atlanta also holds local weeknight rights to the series). Although details of the syndication deal have not been revealed, it was reported the deal "set a record price for a cable off - network sitcom purchase ''. CTV holds national broadcast syndication rights in Canada, while sister cable network The Comedy Network holds cable rights.
Warner Bros. Television controls the online rights for the show. Full episodes are available at tv.com, while short clips and recently aired full episodes are available on cbs.com. In Canada, recent episode (s) and pictures are available on CTV.ca. Additionally in Canada, the first six seasons are available for streaming on Bell Media 's CraveTV. After the show has aired in New Zealand the shows are available in full online at TVNZ 's on demand web service.
The first and second seasons were only available on DVD at their time of release in 2008 and 2009. Starting with the release of the third season in 2010 and continuing every year with every new season, a Blu - ray disc set has also been released in conjunction with the DVD. In 2012, Warner Bros. released the first two seasons on Blu - ray, marking the first time that all episodes were available on the Blu - ray disc format.
In August 2009, the sitcom won the best comedy series TCA award and Jim Parsons (Sheldon) won the award for individual achievement in comedy. In 2010, the show won the People 's Choice Award for Favorite Comedy, while Parsons won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. On January 16, 2011, Parsons was awarded a Golden Globe for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series -- Comedy or Musical, an award that was presented by co-star Kaley Cuoco. On September 18, 2011, Parsons was again awarded an Emmy for Best Actor in a Comedy Series. On January 9, 2013, the show won People 's Choice Award for Favorite Comedy for the second time. August 25, 2014, Jim Parsons was awarded an Emmy for Best Actor in a Comedy Series. The Big Bang Theory also won the 2016 People 's Choice Awards for under Favorite TV Show and Favorite Network TV Comedy with Jim Parsons winning Favorite Comedic TV Actor. On January 20, 2016, The Big Bang Theory also won the International category at the UK 's National Television Awards.
On March 16, 2014, a Lego Ideas project portraying the living room scene in Lego style with the main cast as mini-figures reached 10,000 supporters on the platform, which qualified it to be considered as an official set by the Lego Ideas review board. On November 7, 2014, Lego Ideas approved the design and began refining it. The set was released in August 2015, with an exclusive pre-sale taking place at the San Diego Comic - Con International.
Through the use of his vanity cards at the end of episodes, Lorre alleged that the program had been plagiarized by a show produced and aired in Belarus. Officially titled Теоретики (The Theorists), the show features "clones '' of the main characters, a similar opening sequence, and what appears to be a very close Russian translation of the scripts. Lorre expressed annoyance and described his inquiry with the Warner Bros. legal department about options. The television production company and station 's close relationship with the Belarus government was cited as the reason that any attempt to claim copyright infringement would be in vain because the company copying the episodes is operated by the government.
However, no legal action was required to end production of the other show: as soon as it became known that the show was unlicensed, the actors quit and the producers canceled it. Dmitriy Tankovich (who plays Leonard 's counterpart, "Seva '') said in an interview, "I 'm upset. At first, the actors were told all legal issues were resolved. We did n't know it was n't the case, so when the creators of The Big Bang Theory started talking about the show, I was embarrassed. I ca n't understand why our people first do, and then think. I consider this to be the rock bottom of my career. And I do n't want to take part in a stolen show ''.
In November 2016, it was reported that CBS was in negotiations to create a spin - off of The Big Bang Theory centered on Sheldon as a young boy. The prequel series, described as "a Malcolm in the Middle-esque single - camera family comedy '' would be executive - produced by Lorre and Molaro, with Prady expected to be involved in some capacity, and intended to air in the 2017 -- 18 season alongside The Big Bang Theory. The initial idea for the series came from Parsons, who passed it along to The Big Bang Theory producers. In early March 2017, Iain Armitage was cast as the younger Sheldon, as well as Zoe Perry as his mother, Mary Cooper. Perry is the real - life daughter of Laurie Metcalf, who portrays Mary Cooper on The Big Bang Theory.
On March 13, 2017, CBS ordered the spin - off Young Sheldon series. Jon Favreau directed and executive produced the pilot. Created by Lorre and Molaro, the series follows 9 - year - old Sheldon Cooper as he attends high school in East Texas. Alongside Armitage as 9 - year - old Sheldon Cooper and Perry as Mary Cooper, Lance Barber stars as George Cooper, Sheldon 's father; Raegan Revord stars as Missy Cooper, Sheldon 's twin sister; and Montana Jordan as George Cooper Jr., Sheldon 's older brother. Jim Parsons reprises his role as adult Sheldon Cooper, as narrator for the series. Parsons, Lorre, Molaro and Todd Spiewak will also serve as executive producers on the series, for Chuck Lorre Productions, Inc. in association with Warner Bros. Television. The show 's pilot episode premiered on September 25, 2017. Subsequent weekly episodes began airing on November 2, 2017 following the broadcast of the 237th episode of The Big Bang Theory.
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what two forces influence the movement of earth's plates | Plate tectonics - wikipedia
Plate tectonics (from the Late Latin tectonicus, from the Greek: τεκτονικός "pertaining to building '') is a scientific theory describing the large - scale motion of seven large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth 's lithosphere, since tectonic processes began on Earth between 3 and 3.5 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted plate - tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (the crust and upper mantle), is broken into tectonic plates. The Earth 's lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain - building, and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries (or faults). The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually.
Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust. Along convergent boundaries, subduction, or one plate moving under another, carries the lower one down into the mantle; the material lost is roughly balanced by the formation of new (oceanic) crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading. In this way, the total surface of the lithosphere remains the same. This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred to as the conveyor belt principle. Earlier theories, since disproven, proposed gradual shrinking (contraction) or gradual expansion of the globe.
Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth 's lithosphere has greater mechanical strength than the underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection; that is, the slow creeping motion of Earth 's solid mantle. Plate movement is thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from spreading ridges due to variations in topography (the ridge is a topographic high) and density changes in the crust (density increases as newly formed crust cools and moves away from the ridge). At subduction zones the relatively cold, dense crust is "pulled '' or sinks down into the mantle over the downward convecting limb of a mantle cell. Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by tidal forces of the Sun and Moon. The relative importance of each of these factors and their relationship to each other is unclear, and still the subject of much debate.
The outer layers of the Earth are divided into the lithosphere and asthenosphere. The division is based on differences in mechanical properties and in the method for the transfer of heat. The lithosphere is cooler and more rigid, while the asthenosphere is hotter and flows more easily. In terms of heat transfer, the lithosphere loses heat by conduction, whereas the asthenosphere also transfers heat by convection and has a nearly adiabatic temperature gradient. This division should not be confused with the chemical subdivision of these same layers into the mantle (comprising both the asthenosphere and the mantle portion of the lithosphere) and the crust: a given piece of mantle may be part of the lithosphere or the asthenosphere at different times depending on its temperature and pressure.
The key principle of plate tectonics is that the lithosphere exists as separate and distinct tectonic plates, which ride on the fluid - like (visco - elastic solid) asthenosphere. Plate motions range up to a typical 10 -- 40 mm / year (Mid-Atlantic Ridge; about as fast as fingernails grow), to about 160 mm / year (Nazca Plate; about as fast as hair grows). The driving mechanism behind this movement is described below.
Tectonic lithosphere plates consist of lithospheric mantle overlain by one or two types of crustal material: oceanic crust (in older texts called sima from silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium). Average oceanic lithosphere is typically 100 km (62 mi) thick; its thickness is a function of its age: as time passes, it conductively cools and subjacent cooling mantle is added to its base. Because it is formed at mid-ocean ridges and spreads outwards, its thickness is therefore a function of its distance from the mid-ocean ridge where it was formed. For a typical distance that oceanic lithosphere must travel before being subducted, the thickness varies from about 6 km (4 mi) thick at mid-ocean ridges to greater than 100 km (62 mi) at subduction zones; for shorter or longer distances, the subduction zone (and therefore also the mean) thickness becomes smaller or larger, respectively. Continental lithosphere is typically about 200 km thick, though this varies considerably between basins, mountain ranges, and stable cratonic interiors of continents.
The location where two plates meet is called a plate boundary. Plate boundaries are commonly associated with geological events such as earthquakes and the creation of topographic features such as mountains, volcanoes, mid-ocean ridges, and oceanic trenches. The majority of the world 's active volcanoes occur along plate boundaries, with the Pacific Plate 's Ring of Fire being the most active and widely known today. These boundaries are discussed in further detail below. Some volcanoes occur in the interiors of plates, and these have been variously attributed to internal plate deformation and to mantle plumes.
As explained above, tectonic plates may include continental crust or oceanic crust, and most plates contain both. For example, the African Plate includes the continent and parts of the floor of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The distinction between oceanic crust and continental crust is based on their modes of formation. Oceanic crust is formed at sea - floor spreading centers, and continental crust is formed through arc volcanism and accretion of terranes through tectonic processes, though some of these terranes may contain ophiolite sequences, which are pieces of oceanic crust considered to be part of the continent when they exit the standard cycle of formation and spreading centers and subduction beneath continents. Oceanic crust is also denser than continental crust owing to their different compositions. Oceanic crust is denser because it has less silicon and more heavier elements ("mafic '') than continental crust ("felsic ''). As a result of this density stratification, oceanic crust generally lies below sea level (for example most of the Pacific Plate), while continental crust buoyantly projects above sea level (see the page isostasy for explanation of this principle).
Three types of plate boundaries exist, with a fourth, mixed type, characterized by the way the plates move relative to each other. They are associated with different types of surface phenomena. The different types of plate boundaries are:
It has generally been accepted that tectonic plates are able to move because of the relative density of oceanic lithosphere and the relative weakness of the asthenosphere. Dissipation of heat from the mantle is acknowledged to be the original source of the energy required to drive plate tectonics through convection or large scale upwelling and doming. The current view, though still a matter of some debate, asserts that as a consequence, a powerful source of plate motion is generated due to the excess density of the oceanic lithosphere sinking in subduction zones. When the new crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, this oceanic lithosphere is initially less dense than the underlying asthenosphere, but it becomes denser with age as it conductively cools and thickens. The greater density of old lithosphere relative to the underlying asthenosphere allows it to sink into the deep mantle at subduction zones, providing most of the driving force for plate movement. The weakness of the asthenosphere allows the tectonic plates to move easily towards a subduction zone. Although subduction is thought to be the strongest force driving plate motions, it can not be the only force since there are plates such as the North American Plate which are moving, yet are nowhere being subducted. The same is true for the enormous Eurasian Plate. The sources of plate motion are a matter of intensive research and discussion among scientists. One of the main points is that the kinematic pattern of the movement itself should be separated clearly from the possible geodynamic mechanism that is invoked as the driving force of the observed movement, as some patterns may be explained by more than one mechanism. In short, the driving forces advocated at the moment can be divided into three categories based on the relationship to the movement: mantle dynamics related, gravity related (mostly secondary forces), and earth rotation related.
For much of the last quarter century, the leading theory of the driving force behind tectonic plate motions envisaged large scale convection currents in the upper mantle, which can be transmitted through the asthenosphere. This theory was launched by Arthur Holmes and some forerunners in the 1930s and was immediately recognized as the solution for the acceptance of the theory as originally discussed in the papers of Alfred Wegener in the early years of the century. However, despite its acceptance, it was long debated in the scientific community because the leading theory still envisaged a static Earth without moving continents up until the major breakthroughs of the early sixties.
Two - and three - dimensional imaging of Earth 's interior (seismic tomography) shows a varying lateral density distribution throughout the mantle. Such density variations can be material (from rock chemistry), mineral (from variations in mineral structures), or thermal (through thermal expansion and contraction from heat energy). The manifestation of this varying lateral density is mantle convection from buoyancy forces.
How mantle convection directly and indirectly relates to plate motion is a matter of ongoing study and discussion in geodynamics. Somehow, this energy must be transferred to the lithosphere for tectonic plates to move. There are essentially two main types of forces that are thought to influence plate motion: friction and gravity.
Lately, the convection theory has been much debated, as modern techniques based on 3D seismic tomography still fail to recognize these predicted large scale convection cells; therefore, alternative views have been proposed:
In the theory of plume tectonics developed during the 1990s, a modified concept of mantle convection currents is used. It asserts that super plumes rise from the deeper mantle and are the drivers or substitutes of the major convection cells. These ideas, which find their roots in the early 1930s with the so - called "fixistic '' ideas of the European and Russian Earth Science Schools, find resonance in the modern theories which envisage hot spots or mantle plumes which remain fixed and are overridden by oceanic and continental lithosphere plates over time and leave their traces in the geological record (though these phenomena are not invoked as real driving mechanisms, but rather as modulators). Modern theories that continue building on the older mantle doming concepts and see plate movements as a secondary phenomena are beyond the scope of this article and are discussed elsewhere (for example on the Plume tectonics article).
Another theory is that the mantle flows neither in cells nor large plumes but rather as a series of channels just below the Earth 's crust, which then provide basal friction to the lithosphere. This theory, called "surge tectonics '', became quite popular in geophysics and geodynamics during the 1980s and 1990s. Recent research, based on three - dimensional computer modeling, suggests that plate geometry is governed by a feedback between mantle convection patterns and the strength of the lithosphere.
Forces related to gravity are usually invoked as secondary phenomena within the framework of a more general driving mechanism such as the various forms of mantle dynamics described above.
Gravitational sliding away from a spreading ridge: According to many authors, plate motion is driven by the higher elevation of plates at ocean ridges. As oceanic lithosphere is formed at spreading ridges from hot mantle material, it gradually cools and thickens with age (and thus adds distance from the ridge). Cool oceanic lithosphere is significantly denser than the hot mantle material from which it is derived and so with increasing thickness it gradually subsides into the mantle to compensate the greater load. The result is a slight lateral incline with increased distance from the ridge axis.
This force is regarded as a secondary force and is often referred to as "ridge push ''. This is a misnomer as nothing is "pushing '' horizontally and tensional features are dominant along ridges. It is more accurate to refer to this mechanism as gravitational sliding as variable topography across the totality of the plate can vary considerably and the topography of spreading ridges is only the most prominent feature. Other mechanisms generating this gravitational secondary force include flexural bulging of the lithosphere before it dives underneath an adjacent plate which produces a clear topographical feature that can offset, or at least affect, the influence of topographical ocean ridges, and mantle plumes and hot spots, which are postulated to impinge on the underside of tectonic plates.
Slab - pull: Current scientific opinion is that the asthenosphere is insufficiently competent or rigid to directly cause motion by friction along the base of the lithosphere. Slab pull is therefore most widely thought to be the greatest force acting on the plates. In this current understanding, plate motion is mostly driven by the weight of cold, dense plates sinking into the mantle at trenches. Recent models indicate that trench suction plays an important role as well. However, the fact that the North American Plate is nowhere being subducted, although it is in motion, presents a problem. The same holds for the African, Eurasian, and Antarctic plates.
Gravitational sliding away from mantle doming: According to older theories, one of the driving mechanisms of the plates is the existence of large scale asthenosphere / mantle domes which cause the gravitational sliding of lithosphere plates away from them. This gravitational sliding represents a secondary phenomenon of this basically vertically oriented mechanism. This can act on various scales, from the small scale of one island arc up to the larger scale of an entire ocean basin.
Alfred Wegener, being a meteorologist, had proposed tidal forces and centrifugal forces as the main driving mechanisms behind continental drift; however, these forces were considered far too small to cause continental motion as the concept was of continents plowing through oceanic crust. Therefore, Wegener later changed his position and asserted that convection currents are the main driving force of plate tectonics in the last edition of his book in 1929.
However, in the plate tectonics context (accepted since the seafloor spreading proposals of Heezen, Hess, Dietz, Morley, Vine, and Matthews (see below) during the early 1960s), the oceanic crust is suggested to be in motion with the continents which caused the proposals related to Earth rotation to be reconsidered. In more recent literature, these driving forces are:
Forces that are small and generally negligible are:
For these mechanisms to be overall valid, systematic relationships should exist all over the globe between the orientation and kinematics of deformation and the geographical latitudinal and longitudinal grid of the Earth itself. Ironically, these systematic relations studies in the second half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century underline exactly the opposite: that the plates had not moved in time, that the deformation grid was fixed with respect to the Earth equator and axis, and that gravitational driving forces were generally acting vertically and caused only local horizontal movements (the so - called pre-plate tectonic, "fixist theories ''). Later studies (discussed below on this page), therefore, invoked many of the relationships recognized during this pre-plate tectonics period to support their theories (see the anticipations and reviews in the work of van Dijk and collaborators).
Of the many forces discussed in this paragraph, tidal force is still highly debated and defended as a possible principal driving force of plate tectonics. The other forces are only used in global geodynamic models not using plate tectonics concepts (therefore beyond the discussions treated in this section) or proposed as minor modulations within the overall plate tectonics model.
In 1973, George W. Moore of the USGS and R.C. Bostrom presented evidence for a general westward drift of the Earth 's lithosphere with respect to the mantle. He concluded that tidal forces (the tidal lag or "friction '') caused by the Earth 's rotation and the forces acting upon it by the Moon are a driving force for plate tectonics. As the Earth spins eastward beneath the moon, the moon 's gravity ever so slightly pulls the Earth 's surface layer back westward, just as proposed by Alfred Wegener (see above). In a more recent 2006 study, scientists reviewed and advocated these earlier proposed ideas. It has also been suggested recently in Lovett (2006) that this observation may also explain why Venus and Mars have no plate tectonics, as Venus has no moon and Mars ' moons are too small to have significant tidal effects on the planet. In a recent paper, it was suggested that, on the other hand, it can easily be observed that many plates are moving north and eastward, and that the dominantly westward motion of the Pacific Ocean basins derives simply from the eastward bias of the Pacific spreading center (which is not a predicted manifestation of such lunar forces). In the same paper the authors admit, however, that relative to the lower mantle, there is a slight westward component in the motions of all the plates. They demonstrated though that the westward drift, seen only for the past 30 Ma, is attributed to the increased dominance of the steadily growing and accelerating Pacific plate. The debate is still open.
The vector of a plate 's motion is a function of all the forces acting on the plate; however, therein lies the problem regarding the degree to which each process contributes to the overall motion of each tectonic plate.
The diversity of geodynamic settings and the properties of each plate result from the impact of the various processes actively driving each individual plate. One method of dealing with this problem is to consider the relative rate at which each plate is moving as well as the evidence related to the significance of each process to the overall driving force on the plate.
One of the most significant correlations discovered to date is that lithospheric plates attached to downgoing (subducting) plates move much faster than plates not attached to subducting plates. The Pacific plate, for instance, is essentially surrounded by zones of subduction (the so - called Ring of Fire) and moves much faster than the plates of the Atlantic basin, which are attached (perhaps one could say ' welded ') to adjacent continents instead of subducting plates. It is thus thought that forces associated with the downgoing plate (slab pull and slab suction) are the driving forces which determine the motion of plates, except for those plates which are not being subducted. This view however has been contradicted by a recent study which found that the actual motions of the Pacific Plate and other plates associated with the East Pacific Rise do not correlate mainly with either slab pull or slab push, but rather with a mantle convection upwelling whose horizontal spreading along the bases of the various plates drives them along via viscosity - related traction forces. The driving forces of plate motion continue to be active subjects of on - going research within geophysics and tectonophysics.
In line with other previous and contemporaneous proposals, in 1912 the meteorologist Alfred Wegener amply described what he called continental drift, expanded in his 1915 book The Origin of Continents and Oceans and the scientific debate started that would end up fifty years later in the theory of plate tectonics. Starting from the idea (also expressed by his forerunners) that the present continents once formed a single land mass (which was called Pangea later on) that drifted apart, thus releasing the continents from the Earth 's mantle and likening them to "icebergs '' of low density granite floating on a sea of denser basalt. Supporting evidence for the idea came from the dove - tailing outlines of South America 's east coast and Africa 's west coast, and from the matching of the rock formations along these edges. Confirmation of their previous contiguous nature also came from the fossil plants Glossopteris and Gangamopteris, and the therapsid or mammal - like reptile Lystrosaurus, all widely distributed over South America, Africa, Antarctica, India, and Australia. The evidence for such an erstwhile joining of these continents was patent to field geologists working in the southern hemisphere. The South African Alex du Toit put together a mass of such information in his 1937 publication Our Wandering Continents, and went further than Wegener in recognising the strong links between the Gondwana fragments.
But without detailed evidence and a force sufficient to drive the movement, the theory was not generally accepted: the Earth might have a solid crust and mantle and a liquid core, but there seemed to be no way that portions of the crust could move around. Distinguished scientists, such as Harold Jeffreys and Charles Schuchert, were outspoken critics of continental drift.
Despite much opposition, the view of continental drift gained support and a lively debate started between "drifters '' or "mobilists '' (proponents of the theory) and "fixists '' (opponents). During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the former reached important milestones proposing that convection currents might have driven the plate movements, and that spreading may have occurred below the sea within the oceanic crust. Concepts close to the elements now incorporated in plate tectonics were proposed by geophysicists and geologists (both fixists and mobilists) like Vening - Meinesz, Holmes, and Umbgrove.
One of the first pieces of geophysical evidence that was used to support the movement of lithospheric plates came from paleomagnetism. This is based on the fact that rocks of different ages show a variable magnetic field direction, evidenced by studies since the mid -- nineteenth century. The magnetic north and south poles reverse through time, and, especially important in paleotectonic studies, the relative position of the magnetic north pole varies through time. Initially, during the first half of the twentieth century, the latter phenomenon was explained by introducing what was called "polar wander '' (see apparent polar wander), i.e., it was assumed that the north pole location had been shifting through time. An alternative explanation, though, was that the continents had moved (shifted and rotated) relative to the north pole, and each continent, in fact, shows its own "polar wander path ''. During the late 1950s it was successfully shown on two occasions that these data could show the validity of continental drift: by Keith Runcorn in a paper in 1956, and by Warren Carey in a symposium held in March 1956.
The second piece of evidence in support of continental drift came during the late 1950s and early 60s from data on the bathymetry of the deep ocean floors and the nature of the oceanic crust such as magnetic properties and, more generally, with the development of marine geology which gave evidence for the association of seafloor spreading along the mid-oceanic ridges and magnetic field reversals, published between 1959 and 1963 by Heezen, Dietz, Hess, Mason, Vine & Matthews, and Morley.
Simultaneous advances in early seismic imaging techniques in and around Wadati -- Benioff zones along the trenches bounding many continental margins, together with many other geophysical (e.g. gravimetric) and geological observations, showed how the oceanic crust could disappear into the mantle, providing the mechanism to balance the extension of the ocean basins with shortening along its margins.
All this evidence, both from the ocean floor and from the continental margins, made it clear around 1965 that continental drift was feasible and the theory of plate tectonics, which was defined in a series of papers between 1965 and 1967, was born, with all its extraordinary explanatory and predictive power. The theory revolutionized the Earth sciences, explaining a diverse range of geological phenomena and their implications in other studies such as paleogeography and paleobiology.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, geologists assumed that the Earth 's major features were fixed, and that most geologic features such as basin development and mountain ranges could be explained by vertical crustal movement, described in what is called the geosynclinal theory. Generally, this was placed in the context of a contracting planet Earth due to heat loss in the course of a relatively short geological time.
It was observed as early as 1596 that the opposite coasts of the Atlantic Ocean -- or, more precisely, the edges of the continental shelves -- have similar shapes and seem to have once fitted together.
Since that time many theories were proposed to explain this apparent complementarity, but the assumption of a solid Earth made these various proposals difficult to accept.
The discovery of radioactivity and its associated heating properties in 1895 prompted a re-examination of the apparent age of the Earth. This had previously been estimated by its cooling rate under the assumption that the Earth 's surface radiated like a black body. Those calculations had implied that, even if it started at red heat, the Earth would have dropped to its present temperature in a few tens of millions of years. Armed with the knowledge of a new heat source, scientists realized that the Earth would be much older, and that its core was still sufficiently hot to be liquid.
By 1915, after having published a first article in 1912, Alfred Wegener was making serious arguments for the idea of continental drift in the first edition of The Origin of Continents and Oceans. In that book (re-issued in four successive editions up to the final one in 1936), he noted how the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa looked as if they were once attached. Wegener was not the first to note this (Abraham Ortelius, Antonio Snider - Pellegrini, Eduard Suess, Roberto Mantovani and Frank Bursley Taylor preceded him just to mention a few), but he was the first to marshal significant fossil and paleo - topographical and climatological evidence to support this simple observation (and was supported in this by researchers such as Alex du Toit). Furthermore, when the rock strata of the margins of separate continents are very similar it suggests that these rocks were formed in the same way, implying that they were joined initially. For instance, parts of Scotland and Ireland contain rocks very similar to those found in Newfoundland and New Brunswick. Furthermore, the Caledonian Mountains of Europe and parts of the Appalachian Mountains of North America are very similar in structure and lithology.
However, his ideas were not taken seriously by many geologists, who pointed out that there was no apparent mechanism for continental drift. Specifically, they did not see how continental rock could plow through the much denser rock that makes up oceanic crust. Wegener could not explain the force that drove continental drift, and his vindication did not come until after his death in 1930.
As it was observed early that although granite existed on continents, seafloor seemed to be composed of denser basalt, the prevailing concept during the first half of the twentieth century was that there were two types of crust, named "sial '' (continental type crust) and "sima '' (oceanic type crust). Furthermore, it was supposed that a static shell of strata was present under the continents. It therefore looked apparent that a layer of basalt (sial) underlies the continental rocks.
However, based on abnormalities in plumb line deflection by the Andes in Peru, Pierre Bouguer had deduced that less - dense mountains must have a downward projection into the denser layer underneath. The concept that mountains had "roots '' was confirmed by George B. Airy a hundred years later, during study of Himalayan gravitation, and seismic studies detected corresponding density variations. Therefore, by the mid-1950s, the question remained unresolved as to whether mountain roots were clenched in surrounding basalt or were floating on it like an iceberg.
During the 20th century, improvements in and greater use of seismic instruments such as seismographs enabled scientists to learn that earthquakes tend to be concentrated in specific areas, most notably along the oceanic trenches and spreading ridges. By the late 1920s, seismologists were beginning to identify several prominent earthquake zones parallel to the trenches that typically were inclined 40 -- 60 ° from the horizontal and extended several hundred kilometers into the Earth. These zones later became known as Wadati -- Benioff zones, or simply Benioff zones, in honor of the seismologists who first recognized them, Kiyoo Wadati of Japan and Hugo Benioff of the United States. The study of global seismicity greatly advanced in the 1960s with the establishment of the Worldwide Standardized Seismograph Network (WWSSN) to monitor the compliance of the 1963 treaty banning above - ground testing of nuclear weapons. The much improved data from the WWSSN instruments allowed seismologists to map precisely the zones of earthquake concentration worldwide.
Meanwhile, debates developed around the phenomena of polar wander. Since the early debates of continental drift, scientists had discussed and used evidence that polar drift had occurred because continents seemed to have moved through different climatic zones during the past. Furthermore, paleomagnetic data had shown that the magnetic pole had also shifted during time. Reasoning in an opposite way, the continents might have shifted and rotated, while the pole remained relatively fixed. The first time the evidence of magnetic polar wander was used to support the movements of continents was in a paper by Keith Runcorn in 1956, and successive papers by him and his students Ted Irving (who was actually the first to be convinced of the fact that paleomagnetism supported continental drift) and Ken Creer.
This was immediately followed by a symposium in Tasmania in March 1956. In this symposium, the evidence was used in the theory of an expansion of the global crust. In this hypothesis the shifting of the continents can be simply explained by a large increase in size of the Earth since its formation. However, this was unsatisfactory because its supporters could offer no convincing mechanism to produce a significant expansion of the Earth. Certainly there is no evidence that the moon has expanded in the past 3 billion years; other work would soon show that the evidence was equally in support of continental drift on a globe with a stable radius.
During the thirties up to the late fifties, works by Vening - Meinesz, Holmes, Umbgrove, and numerous others outlined concepts that were close or nearly identical to modern plate tectonics theory. In particular, the English geologist Arthur Holmes proposed in 1920 that plate junctions might lie beneath the sea, and in 1928 that convection currents within the mantle might be the driving force. Often, these contributions are forgotten because:
In 1947, a team of scientists led by Maurice Ewing utilizing the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 's research vessel Atlantis and an array of instruments, confirmed the existence of a rise in the central Atlantic Ocean, and found that the floor of the seabed beneath the layer of sediments consisted of basalt, not the granite which is the main constituent of continents. They also found that the oceanic crust was much thinner than continental crust. All these new findings raised important and intriguing questions.
The new data that had been collected on the ocean basins also showed particular characteristics regarding the bathymetry. One of the major outcomes of these datasets was that all along the globe, a system of mid-oceanic ridges was detected. An important conclusion was that along this system, new ocean floor was being created, which led to the concept of the "Great Global Rift ''. This was described in the crucial paper of Bruce Heezen (1960), which would trigger a real revolution in thinking. A profound consequence of seafloor spreading is that new crust was, and still is, being continually created along the oceanic ridges. Therefore, Heezen advocated the so - called "expanding Earth '' hypothesis of S. Warren Carey (see above). So, still the question remained: how can new crust be continuously added along the oceanic ridges without increasing the size of the Earth? In reality, this question had been solved already by numerous scientists during the forties and the fifties, like Arthur Holmes, Vening - Meinesz, Coates and many others: The crust in excess disappeared along what were called the oceanic trenches, where so - called "subduction '' occurred. Therefore, when various scientists during the early sixties started to reason on the data at their disposal regarding the ocean floor, the pieces of the theory quickly fell into place.
The question particularly intrigued Harry Hammond Hess, a Princeton University geologist and a Naval Reserve Rear Admiral, and Robert S. Dietz, a scientist with the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey who first coined the term seafloor spreading. Dietz and Hess (the former published the same idea one year earlier in Nature, but priority belongs to Hess who had already distributed an unpublished manuscript of his 1962 article by 1960) were among the small handful who really understood the broad implications of sea floor spreading and how it would eventually agree with the, at that time, unconventional and unaccepted ideas of continental drift and the elegant and mobilistic models proposed by previous workers like Holmes.
In the same year, Robert R. Coats of the U.S. Geological Survey described the main features of island arc subduction in the Aleutian Islands. His paper, though little noted (and even ridiculed) at the time, has since been called "seminal '' and "prescient ''. In reality, it actually shows that the work by the European scientists on island arcs and mountain belts performed and published during the 1930s up until the 1950s was applied and appreciated also in the United States.
If the Earth 's crust was expanding along the oceanic ridges, Hess and Dietz reasoned like Holmes and others before them, it must be shrinking elsewhere. Hess followed Heezen, suggesting that new oceanic crust continuously spreads away from the ridges in a conveyor belt -- like motion. And, using the mobilistic concepts developed before, he correctly concluded that many millions of years later, the oceanic crust eventually descends along the continental margins where oceanic trenches -- very deep, narrow canyons -- are formed, e.g. along the rim of the Pacific Ocean basin. The important step Hess made was that convection currents would be the driving force in this process, arriving at the same conclusions as Holmes had decades before with the only difference that the thinning of the ocean crust was performed using Heezen 's mechanism of spreading along the ridges. Hess therefore concluded that the Atlantic Ocean was expanding while the Pacific Ocean was shrinking. As old oceanic crust is "consumed '' in the trenches (like Holmes and others, he thought this was done by thickening of the continental lithosphere, not, as now understood, by underthrusting at a larger scale of the oceanic crust itself into the mantle), new magma rises and erupts along the spreading ridges to form new crust. In effect, the ocean basins are perpetually being "recycled, '' with the creation of new crust and the destruction of old oceanic lithosphere occurring simultaneously. Thus, the new mobilistic concepts neatly explained why the Earth does not get bigger with sea floor spreading, why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor, and why oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks.
Beginning in the 1950s, scientists like Victor Vacquier, using magnetic instruments (magnetometers) adapted from airborne devices developed during World War II to detect submarines, began recognizing odd magnetic variations across the ocean floor. This finding, though unexpected, was not entirely surprising because it was known that basalt -- the iron - rich, volcanic rock making up the ocean floor -- contains a strongly magnetic mineral (magnetite) and can locally distort compass readings. This distortion was recognized by Icelandic mariners as early as the late 18th century. More important, because the presence of magnetite gives the basalt measurable magnetic properties, these newly discovered magnetic variations provided another means to study the deep ocean floor. When newly formed rock cools, such magnetic materials recorded the Earth 's magnetic field at the time.
As more and more of the seafloor was mapped during the 1950s, the magnetic variations turned out not to be random or isolated occurrences, but instead revealed recognizable patterns. When these magnetic patterns were mapped over a wide region, the ocean floor showed a zebra - like pattern: one stripe with normal polarity and the adjoining stripe with reversed polarity. The overall pattern, defined by these alternating bands of normally and reversely polarized rock, became known as magnetic striping, and was published by Ron G. Mason and co-workers in 1961, who did not find, though, an explanation for these data in terms of sea floor spreading, like Vine, Matthews and Morley a few years later.
The discovery of magnetic striping called for an explanation. In the early 1960s scientists such as Heezen, Hess and Dietz had begun to theorise that mid-ocean ridges mark structurally weak zones where the ocean floor was being ripped in two lengthwise along the ridge crest (see the previous paragraph). New magma from deep within the Earth rises easily through these weak zones and eventually erupts along the crest of the ridges to create new oceanic crust. This process, at first denominated the "conveyer belt hypothesis '' and later called seafloor spreading, operating over many millions of years continues to form new ocean floor all across the 50,000 km - long system of mid-ocean ridges.
Only four years after the maps with the "zebra pattern '' of magnetic stripes were published, the link between sea floor spreading and these patterns was correctly placed, independently by Lawrence Morley, and by Fred Vine and Drummond Matthews, in 1963, now called the Vine - Matthews - Morley hypothesis. This hypothesis linked these patterns to geomagnetic reversals and was supported by several lines of evidence:
By explaining both the zebra - like magnetic striping and the construction of the mid-ocean ridge system, the seafloor spreading hypothesis (SFS) quickly gained converts and represented another major advance in the development of the plate - tectonics theory. Furthermore, the oceanic crust now came to be appreciated as a natural "tape recording '' of the history of the geomagnetic field reversals (GMFR) of the Earth 's magnetic field. Today, extensive studies are dedicated to the calibration of the normal - reversal patterns in the oceanic crust on one hand and known timescales derived from the dating of basalt layers in sedimentary sequences (magnetostratigraphy) on the other, to arrive at estimates of past spreading rates and plate reconstructions.
After all these considerations, Plate Tectonics (or, as it was initially called "New Global Tectonics '') became quickly accepted in the scientific world, and numerous papers followed that defined the concepts:
The Plate Tectonics Revolution was the scientific and cultural change which developed from the acceptance of the plate tectonics theory. The event was a paradigm shift and scientific revolution.
Continental drift theory helps biogeographers to explain the disjunct biogeographic distribution of present - day life found on different continents but having similar ancestors. In particular, it explains the Gondwanan distribution of ratites and the Antarctic flora.
Reconstruction is used to establish past (and future) plate configurations, helping determine the shape and make - up of ancient supercontinents and providing a basis for paleogeography.
Current plate boundaries are defined by their seismicity. Past plate boundaries within existing plates are identified from a variety of evidence, such as the presence of ophiolites that are indicative of vanished oceans.
Tectonic motion is believed to have begun around 3 to 3.5 billion years ago.
Various types of quantitative and semi-quantitative information are available to constrain past plate motions. The geometric fit between continents, such as between west Africa and South America is still an important part of plate reconstruction. Magnetic stripe patterns provide a reliable guide to relative plate motions going back into the Jurassic period. The tracks of hotspots give absolute reconstructions, but these are only available back to the Cretaceous. Older reconstructions rely mainly on paleomagnetic pole data, although these only constrain the latitude and rotation, but not the longitude. Combining poles of different ages in a particular plate to produce apparent polar wander paths provides a method for comparing the motions of different plates through time. Additional evidence comes from the distribution of certain sedimentary rock types, faunal provinces shown by particular fossil groups, and the position of orogenic belts.
The movement of plates has caused the formation and break - up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a supercontinent that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent Columbia or Nuna formed during a period of 2,000 to 1,800 million years ago and broke up about 1,500 to 1,300 million years ago. The supercontinent Rodinia is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth 's continents, and broken up into eight continents around 600 million years ago. The eight continents later re-assembled into another supercontinent called Pangaea; Pangaea broke up into Laurasia (which became North America and Eurasia) and Gondwana (which became the remaining continents).
The Himalayas, the world 's tallest mountain range, are assumed to have been formed by the collision of two major plates. Before uplift, they were covered by the Tethys Ocean.
Depending on how they are defined, there are usually seven or eight "major '' plates: African, Antarctic, Eurasian, North American, South American, Pacific, and Indo - Australian. The latter is sometimes subdivided into the Indian and Australian plates.
There are dozens of smaller plates, the seven largest of which are the Arabian, Caribbean, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Nazca, Philippine Sea, and Scotia.
The current motion of the tectonic plates is today determined by remote sensing satellite data sets, calibrated with ground station measurements.
The appearance of plate tectonics on terrestrial planets is related to planetary mass, with more massive planets than Earth expected to exhibit plate tectonics. Earth may be a borderline case, owing its tectonic activity to abundant water (silica and water form a deep eutectic).
Venus shows no evidence of active plate tectonics. There is debatable evidence of active tectonics in the planet 's distant past; however, events taking place since then (such as the plausible and generally accepted hypothesis that the Venusian lithosphere has thickened greatly over the course of several hundred million years) has made constraining the course of its geologic record difficult. However, the numerous well - preserved impact craters have been utilized as a dating method to approximately date the Venusian surface (since there are thus far no known samples of Venusian rock to be dated by more reliable methods). Dates derived are dominantly in the range 500 to 750 million years ago, although ages of up to 1,200 million years ago have been calculated. This research has led to the fairly well accepted hypothesis that Venus has undergone an essentially complete volcanic resurfacing at least once in its distant past, with the last event taking place approximately within the range of estimated surface ages. While the mechanism of such an impressive thermal event remains a debated issue in Venusian geosciences, some scientists are advocates of processes involving plate motion to some extent.
One explanation for Venus 's lack of plate tectonics is that on Venus temperatures are too high for significant water to be present. The Earth 's crust is soaked with water, and water plays an important role in the development of shear zones. Plate tectonics requires weak surfaces in the crust along which crustal slices can move, and it may well be that such weakening never took place on Venus because of the absence of water. However, some researchers remain convinced that plate tectonics is or was once active on this planet.
Mars is considerably smaller than Earth and Venus, and there is evidence for ice on its surface and in its crust.
In the 1990s, it was proposed that Martian Crustal Dichotomy was created by plate tectonic processes. Scientists today disagree, and think that it was created either by upwelling within the Martian mantle that thickened the crust of the Southern Highlands and formed Tharsis or by a giant impact that excavated the Northern Lowlands.
Valles Marineris may be a tectonic boundary.
Observations made of the magnetic field of Mars by the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft in 1999 showed patterns of magnetic striping discovered on this planet. Some scientists interpreted these as requiring plate tectonic processes, such as seafloor spreading. However, their data fail a "magnetic reversal test '', which is used to see if they were formed by flipping polarities of a global magnetic field.
Some of the satellites of Jupiter have features that may be related to plate - tectonic style deformation, although the materials and specific mechanisms may be different from plate - tectonic activity on Earth. On 8 September 2014, NASA reported finding evidence of plate tectonics on Europa, a satellite of Jupiter -- the first sign of subduction activity on another world other than Earth.
Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, was reported to show tectonic activity in images taken by the Huygens probe, which landed on Titan on January 14, 2005.
On Earth - sized planets, plate tectonics is more likely if there are oceans of water. However, in 2007, two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger super-Earths with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-earths even if the planet is dry.
Consideration of plate tectonics is a part of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence and extraterrestrial life.
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what was the function of the leaning tower of pisa during the world war ii | Leaning tower of Pisa - wikipedia
The Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italian: Torre pendente di Pisa) or simply the Tower of Pisa (Torre di Pisa (ˈtorre di ˈpiːza)) is the campanile, or freestanding bell tower, of the cathedral of the Italian city of Pisa, known worldwide for its unintended tilt. The tower is situated behind the Pisa Cathedral and is the third oldest structure in the city 's Cathedral Square (Piazza del Duomo), after the cathedral and the Pisa Baptistry.
The tower 's tilt began during construction in the 12th century, caused by an inadequate foundation on ground too soft on one side to properly support the structure 's weight. The tilt increased in the decades before the structure was completed in the 14th century. It gradually increased until the structure was stabilized (and the tilt partially corrected) by efforts in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
The height of the tower is 55.86 metres (183.27 feet) from the ground on the low side and 56.67 metres (185.93 feet) on the high side. The width of the walls at the base is 2.44 m (8 ft 0.06 in). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 metric tons (16,000 short tons). The tower has 296 or 294 steps; the seventh floor has two fewer steps on the north - facing staircase. Prior to restoration work performed between 1990 and 2001, the tower leaned at an angle of 5.5 degrees, but the tower now leans at about 3.99 degrees. This means the top of the tower is displaced horizontally 3.9 metres (12 ft 10 in) from the centre.
There has been controversy about the real identity of the architect of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. For many years, the design was attributed to Guglielmo and Bonanno Pisano, a well - known 12th - century resident artist of Pisa, famous for his bronze casting, particularly in the Pisa Duomo. Pisano left Pisa in 1185 for Monreale, Sicily, only to come back and die in his home town. A piece of cast bearing his name was discovered at the foot of the tower in 1820, but this may be related to the bronze door in the façade of the cathedral that was destroyed in 1595. A 2001 study seems to indicate Diotisalvi was the original architect, due to the time of construction and affinity with other Diotisalvi works, notably the bell tower of San Nicola and the Baptistery, both in Pisa.
Construction of the tower occurred in three stages over 199 years. Work on the ground floor of the white marble campanile began on August 14, 1173 during a period of military success and prosperity. This ground floor is a blind arcade articulated by engaged columns with classical Corinthian capitals.
The tower began to sink after construction had progressed to the second floor in 1178. This was due to a mere three - metre foundation, set in weak, unstable subsoil, a design that was flawed from the beginning. Construction was subsequently halted for almost a century, because the Republic of Pisa was almost continually engaged in battles with Genoa, Lucca, and Florence. This allowed time for the underlying soil to settle. Otherwise, the tower would almost certainly have toppled. In 1198, clocks were temporarily installed on the third floor of the unfinished construction.
In 1272, construction resumed under Giovanni di Simone, architect of the Camposanto. In an effort to compensate for the tilt, the engineers built upper floors with one side taller than the other. Because of this, the tower is curved. Construction was halted again in 1284 when the Pisans were defeated by the Genoans in the Battle of Meloria.
The seventh floor was completed in 1319. The bell - chamber was finally added in 1372. It was built by Tommaso di Andrea Pisano, who succeeded in harmonizing the Gothic elements of the bell - chamber with the Romanesque style of the tower. There are seven bells, one for each note of the musical major scale. The largest one was installed in 1655.
After a phase (1990 -- 2001) of structural strengthening, the tower is currently undergoing gradual surface restoration, in order to repair visible damage, mostly corrosion and blackening. These are particularly pronounced due to the tower 's age and its exposure to wind and rain.
Galileo Galilei is said to have dropped two cannonballs of different masses from the tower to demonstrate that their speed of descent was independent of their mass. However, the only primary source for this is the biography Racconto istorico della vita di Galileo Galilei (Historical Account of the Life of Galileo Galilei), written by Galileo 's secretary Vincenzo Viviani and published in 1717, long after Viviani 's death.
During World War II, the Allies suspected that the Germans were using the tower as an observation post. A U.S. Army sergeant sent to confirm the presence of German troops in the tower was impressed by the beauty of the cathedral and its campanile, and thus refrained from ordering an artillery strike, sparing it from destruction.
Numerous efforts have been made to restore the tower to a vertical orientation or at least keep it from falling over. Most of these efforts failed; some worsened the tilt. On February 27, 1964, the government of Italy requested aid in preventing the tower from toppling. It was, however, considered important to retain the current tilt, due to the role that this element played in promoting the tourism industry of Pisa.
A multinational task force of engineers, mathematicians, and historians gathered on the Azores islands to discuss stabilisation methods. It was found that the tilt was increasing in combination with the softer foundations on the lower side. Many methods were proposed to stabilise the tower, including the addition of 800 tonnes of lead counterweights to the raised end of the base.
The tower and the neighbouring cathedral, baptistery, and cemetery are included in the Piazza del Duomo UNESCO World Heritage Site, which was declared in 1987.
The tower was closed to the public on January 7, 1990, after more than two decades of stabilisation studies and spurred by the abrupt collapse of the Civic Tower of Pavia in 1989. The bells were removed to relieve some weight, and cables were cinched around the third level and anchored several hundred meters away. Apartments and houses in the path of the tower were vacated for safety. The solution chosen to prevent the collapse of the tower was to slightly straighten it to a safer angle by removing 38 cubic metres (1,342 cubic feet) of soil from underneath the raised end. The tower was straightened by 45 centimetres (17.7 inches), returning to its 1838 position. After a decade of corrective reconstruction and stabilization efforts, the tower was reopened to the public on December 15, 2001 and was declared stable for at least another 300 years. In total, 70 metric tons (77 short tons) of earth were removed.
In May 2008, engineers announced that the tower had been stabilized such that it had stopped moving for the first time in its history. They stated that it would be stable for at least 200 years.
Two German churches have challenged the tower 's status as the world 's most lop - sided building: the 15th - century square Leaning Tower of Suurhusen and the 14th - century bell tower in the town of Bad Frankenhausen. Guinness World Records measured the Pisa and Suurhusen towers, finding the former 's tilt to be 3.97 degrees. In June 2010, Guinness World Records certified the Capital Gate building in Abu Dhabi, UAE as the "World 's Furthest Leaning Man - made Tower ''. The Capital Gate tower has an 18 - degree slope, almost five times more than the Pisa Tower; however the Capital Gate tower has been deliberately engineered to slant. The Leaning Tower of Wanaka in New Zealand, also deliberately built, leans at 53 degrees to the ground.
About the 5th bell: The name Pasquareccia comes from Easter, because it used to ring on Easter day. However, this bell is older than the bell - chamber itself, and comes from the tower Vergata in Palazzo Pretorio in Pisa, where it was called La Giustizia (The Justice). The bell was tolled to announce executions of criminals and traitors, including Count Ugolino in 1289. A new bell was installed in the bell tower at the end of the 18th century to replace the broken Pasquareccia.
View looking up
Entrance door to the bell tower
External loggia
Inner staircase from sixth to seventh floor
Inner staircase from seventh to eighth (the top) floor
View from the top
Assunta bell
Pasquareccia bell
View, looking down from the top
A popular photo opportunity with tourists is to pose as if one was either holding up or pushing over the tower
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where are the spores found in mosses and ferns | Moss - wikipedia
Mosses are small flowerless plants that typically grow in dense green clumps or mats, often in damp or shady locations. The individual plants are usually composed of simple leaves that are generally only one cell thick, attached to a stem that may be branched or unbranched and has only a limited role in conducting water and nutrients. Although some species have conducting tissues, these are generally poorly developed and structurally different from similar tissue found in vascular plants. Mosses do not have seeds and after fertilisation develop sporophytes with unbranched stalks topped with single capsules containing spores. They are typically 0.2 -- 10 cm (0.1 -- 3.9 in) tall, though some species are much larger. Dawsonia, the tallest moss in the world, can grow to 50 cm (20 in) in height.
Mosses are commonly confused with lichens, hornworts, and liverworts. Lichens may superficially look like mosses, and have common names that include the word "moss '' (e.g., "reindeer moss '' or "iceland moss ''), but are not related to mosses. Mosses used to be grouped together with the hornworts and liverworts as "non-vascular '' plants in the former division "bryophytes '', all of them having the haploid gametophyte generation as the dominant phase of the life cycle. This contrasts with the pattern in all vascular plants (seed plants and pteridophytes), where the diploid sporophyte generation is dominant.
Mosses are now classified on their own as the division Bryophyta. There are approximately 12,000 species.
The main commercial significance of mosses is as the main constituent of peat (mostly the genus Sphagnum), although they are also used for decorative purposes, such as in gardens and in the florist trade. Traditional uses of mosses included as insulation and for the ability to absorb liquids up to 20 times their weight.
Botanically, mosses are non-vascular plants in the land plant division Bryophyta. They are small (a few centimeters tall) herbaceous (non-woody) plants that absorb water and nutrients mainly through their leaves and harvest carbon dioxide and sunlight to create food by photosynthesis. They differ from vascular plants in lacking water - bearing xylem tracheids or vessels. As in liverworts and hornworts, the haploid gametophyte generation is the dominant phase of the life cycle. This contrasts with the pattern in all vascular plants (seed plants and pteridophytes), where the diploid sporophyte generation is dominant. Mosses reproduce using spores, not seeds, and have no flowers.
Moss gametophytes have stems which may be simple or branched and upright or prostrate. Their leaves are simple, usually only a single layer of cells with no internal air spaces, often with thicker midribs. They do not have proper roots, but have threadlike rhizoids that anchor them to their substrate. Mosses do not absorb water or nutrients from their substrate through their rhizoids. They can be distinguished from liverworts (Marchantiophyta or Hepaticae) by their multi-cellular rhizoids. Spore - bearing capsules or sporangia of mosses are borne singly on long, unbranched stems, thereby distinguishing them from the polysporangiophytes, which include all vascular plants. The spore - bearing sporophytes (i.e. the diploid multicellular generation) are short - lived and dependent on the gametophyte for water supply and nutrition. Also, in most mosses, the spore - bearing capsule enlarges and matures after its stalk elongates, while in liverworts the capsule enlarges and matures before its stalk elongates. Other differences are not universal for all mosses and all liverworts, but the presence of clearly differentiated stem with simple - shaped, ribbed leaves, without deeply lobed or segmented leaves and not arranged in three ranks, all point to the plant being a moss.
Vascular plants have two sets of chromosomes in their vegetative cells and are said to be diploid, i.e. each chromosome has a partner that contains the same, or similar, genetic information. By contrast, mosses and other bryophytes have only a single set of chromosomes and so are haploid (i.e. each chromosome exists in a unique copy within the cell). There is a period in the moss life cycle when they do have a double set of paired chromosomes, but this happens only during the sporophyte stage.
The moss life - cycle starts with a haploid spore that germinates to produce a protonema (pl. protonemata), which is either a mass of thread - like filaments or thalloid (flat and thallus - like). Massed moss protonemata typically look like a thin green felt, and may grow on damp soil, tree bark, rocks, concrete, or almost any other reasonably stable surface. This is a transitory stage in the life of a moss, but from the protonema grows the gametophore ("gamete - bearer '') that is structurally differentiated into stems and leaves. A single mat of protonemata may develop several gametophore shoots, resulting in a clump of moss.
From the tips of the gametophore stems or branches develop the sex organs of the mosses. The female organs are known as archegonia (sing. archegonium) and are protected by a group of modified leaves known as the perichaetum (plural, perichaeta). The archegonia are small flask - shaped clumps of cells with an open neck (venter) down which the male sperm swim. The male organs are known as antheridia (sing. antheridium) and are enclosed by modified leaves called the perigonium (pl. perigonia). The surrounding leaves in some mosses form a splash cup, allowing the sperm contained in the cup to be splashed to neighboring stalks by falling water droplets.
Mosses can be either dioicous (compare dioecious in seed plants) or monoicous (compare monoecious). In dioicous mosses, male and female sex organs are borne on different gametophyte plants. In monoicous (also called autoicous) mosses, both are borne on the same plant. In the presence of water, sperm from the antheridia swim to the archegonia and fertilisation occurs, leading to the production of a diploid sporophyte. The sperm of mosses is biflagellate, i.e. they have two flagellae that aid in propulsion. Since the sperm must swim to the archegonium, fertilisation can not occur without water. Some species (for example Mnium hornum or several species of Polytrichum) keep their antheridia in so called ' splash cups ', bowl - like structures on the shoot tips that propel the sperm several decimeters when water droplets hit it, increasing the fertilization distance.
After fertilisation, the immature sporophyte pushes its way out of the archegonial venter. It takes about a quarter to half a year for the sporophyte to mature. The sporophyte body comprises a long stalk, called a seta, and a capsule capped by a cap called the operculum. The capsule and operculum are in turn sheathed by a haploid calyptra which is the remains of the archegonial venter. The calyptra usually falls off when the capsule is mature. Within the capsule, spore - producing cells undergo meiosis to form haploid spores, upon which the cycle can start again. The mouth of the capsule is usually ringed by a set of teeth called peristome. This may be absent in some mosses.
Most mosses rely on the wind to disperse the spores. In the genus Sphagnum the spores are projected about 10 -- 20 cm (4 -- 8 in) off the ground by compressed air contained in the capsules; the spores are accelerated to about 36,000 times the earth 's gravitational acceleration g.
It has recently been found that microarthropods, such as springtails and mites, can effect moss fertilization and that this process is mediated by moss - emitted scents. Male and female fire moss, for example emit different and complex volatile organic scents. Female plants emit more compounds than male plants. Springtails were found to choose female plants preferentially, and one study found that springtails enhance moss fertilization, suggesting a scent - mediated relationship analogous to the plant - pollinator relationship found in many seed plants. The stinkmoss species Splachnum sphaericum develops insect pollination further by attracting flies to its sporangia with a strong smell of carrion, and providing a strong visual cue in the form of red - coloured swollen collars beneath each spore capsule. Flies attracted to the moss carry its spores to fresh herbivore dung, which is the favoured habitat of the species of this genus.
In many mosses, e.g. Ulota phyllantha, green vegetative structures called gemmae are produced on leaves or branches, which can break off and form new plants without the need to go through the cycle of fertilization. This is a means of asexual reproduction, and the genetically identical units can lead to the formation of clonal populations.
Moss dwarf males (also known as nannandry or phyllodioicy) originate from wind - dispersed male spores that settle and germinate on the female shoot where their growth is restricted to a few millimeters. In some species, dwarfness is genetically determined, in that all male spores become dwarf. More often, however, it is environmentally determined in that male spores that land on a female become dwarf, while those that land elsewhere develop into large, female - sized males. In the latter case, dwarf males that are transplanted from females to another substrate develop into large shoots, suggesting that the females emit a substance which inhibits the growth of germinating males and possibly also quickens their onset of sexual maturation. The nature of such a substance is unknown, but the phytohormone auxin may be involved
Having the males growing as dwarfs on the female is expected to increase the fertilization efficiency by minimizing the distance between male and female reproductive organs. Accordingly, it has been observed that fertilization frequency is positively associated with the presence of dwarf males in several phyllodioicous species.
Dwarf males occur in several unrelated lineages and is showing to be more common than previously thought. For example, it is estimated that between one quarter and half of all dioicous pleurocarps have dwarf males.
The moss Phycomitrella patens has been used as a model organism to study how plants repair damage to their DNA, especially the repair mechanism known as homologous recombination. If the plant can not repair DNA damage, e.g. double - strand breaks, in their somatic cells, the cells can lose normal functions or die. If this occurs during meiosis (part of sexual reproduction), they could become infertile. The genome of P. patens has been sequenced, which has allowed several genes involved in DNA repair to be identified. P. patens mutants that are defective in key steps of homologous recombination have been used to work out how the repair mechanism functions in plants. For example, a study of P. patens mutants defective in RpRAD51, a gene that encodes a protein at the core of the recombinational repair reaction, indicated that homologous recombination is essential for repairing DNA double - strand breaks in this plant. Similarly, studies of mutants defective in Ppmre11 or Pprad50 (that encode key proteins of the MRN complex, the principal sensor of DNA double - strand breaks) showed that these genes are necessary for repair of DNA damage as well as for normal growth and development.
Traditionally, mosses were grouped with the liverworts and hornworts in the division Bryophyta (bryophytes, or Bryophyta sensu lato), within which the mosses made up the class Musci. However, this definition of Bryophyta was paraphyletic, as the mosses appear to be more closely related to vascular plants than to liverworts. Bryophytes are now split among three divisions: Bryophyta, Marchantiophyta and Anthocerotophyta. The current circumscription of Bryophyta includes only the mosses.
The mosses, now division Bryophyta (Bryophyta sensu stricto), are divided into eight classes:
liverworts
hornworts
vascular plants
Takakiopsida
Sphagnopsida
Andreaeopsida
Andreaeobryopsida
Oedipodiopsida
Polytrichopsida
Tetraphidopsida
Bryopsida
Six of the eight classes contain only one or two genera each. Polytrichopsida includes 23 genera, and Bryopsida includes the majority of moss diversity with over 95 % of moss species belonging to this class.
The Sphagnopsida, the peat - mosses, comprise the two living genera Ambuchanania and Sphagnum, as well as fossil taxa. However, the genus Sphagnum is a diverse, widespread, and economically important one. These large mosses form extensive acidic bogs in peat swamps. The leaves of Sphagnum have large dead cells alternating with living photosynthetic cells. The dead cells help to store water. Aside from this character, the unique branching, thallose (flat and expanded) protonema, and explosively rupturing sporangium place it apart from other mosses.
Andreaeopsida and Andreaeobryopsida are distinguished by the biseriate (two rows of cells) rhizoids, multiseriate (many rows of cells) protonema, and sporangium that splits along longitudinal lines. Most mosses have capsules that open at the top.
Polytrichopsida have leaves with sets of parallel lamellae, flaps of chloroplast - containing cells that look like the fins on a heat sink. These carry out photosynthesis and may help to conserve moisture by partially enclosing the gas exchange surfaces. The Polytrichopsida differ from other mosses in other details of their development and anatomy too, and can also become larger than most other mosses, with e.g. Polytrichum commune forming cushions up to 40 cm (16 in) high. The tallest land moss, a member of the Polytrichidae is probably Dawsonia superba, a native to New Zealand and other parts of Australasia.
The fossil record of moss is sparse, due to their soft - walled and fragile nature. Unambiguous moss fossils have been recovered from as early as the Permian of Antarctica and Russia, and a case is put forwards for Carboniferous mosses. It has further been claimed that tube - like fossils from the Silurian are the macerated remains of moss calyptræ. Mosses also appear to evolve 2 -- 3 times slower than ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
Recent research show that ancient moss could explain why the Ordovician ice ages occurred. When the ancestors of today 's moss started to spread on land 470 million years ago, they absorbed CO from the atmosphere and extracted minerals by secreting organic acids that dissolved the rocks they were growing on. These chemically altered rocks in turn reacted with the atmospheric CO and formed new carbonate rocks in the ocean through the weathering of calcium and magnesium ions from silicate rocks. The weathered rocks also released a lot of phosphorus and iron which ended up in the oceans, where it caused massive algal blooms, resulting in organic carbon burial, extracting more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Small organisms feeding on the nutrients created large areas without oxygen, which caused a mass extinction of marine species, while the levels of CO dropped all over the world, allowing the formation of ice caps on the poles.
Since moss gametophytes are autotrophic they require enough sunlight to perform photosynthesis. Shade tolerance varies by species, just as it does with higher plants. In most areas, mosses grow chiefly in areas of dampness and shade, such as wooded areas and at the edges of streams; but they can grow anywhere in cool damp cloudy climates, and some species are adapted to sunny, seasonally dry areas like alpine rocks or stabilized sand dunes.
Choice of substrate varies by species as well. Moss species can be classed as growing on: rocks, exposed mineral soil, disturbed soils, acid soil, calcareous soil, cliff seeps and waterfall spray areas, streamsides, shaded humusy soil, downed logs, burnt stumps, tree trunk bases, upper tree trunks, and tree branches or in bogs. Moss species growing on or under trees are often specific about the species of trees they grow on, such as preferring conifers to broadleaf trees, oaks to alders, or vice versa. While mosses often grow on trees as epiphytes, they are never parasitic on the tree.
Mosses are also found in cracks between paving stones in damp city streets, and on roofs. Some species adapted to disturbed, sunny areas are well adapted to urban conditions and are commonly found in cities. Examples would be Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus, a garden weed in Vancouver and Seattle areas; Bryum argenteum, the cosmopolitan sidewalk moss, and Ceratodon purpureus, red roof moss, another cosmopolitan species. A few species are wholly aquatic, such as Fontinalis antipyretica, common water moss; and others such as Sphagnum inhabit bogs, marshes and very slow - moving waterways. Such aquatic or semi-aquatic mosses can greatly exceed the normal range of lengths seen in terrestrial mosses. Individual plants 20 -- 30 cm (8 -- 12 in) or more long are common in Sphagnum species for example.
Wherever they occur, mosses require liquid water for at least part of the year to complete fertilisation. Many mosses can survive desiccation, sometimes for months, returning to life within a few hours of rehydration.
It is generally believed that in northern latitudes, the north side of trees and rocks will generally have more luxuriant moss growth on average than other sides. This is assumed to be because the sun on the south side creates a dry environment. South of the equator the reverse would be true. However, naturalists feel that mosses grow on the damper side of trees and rocks. In some cases, such as sunny climates in temperate northern latitudes, this will be the shaded north side of the tree or rock. On steep slopes it may be the uphill side. For mosses that grow on tree branches, this is generally the upper side of the branch on horizontally growing sections or near the crotch. In cool damp cloudy climates, all sides of tree trunks and rocks may be equally damp enough for mosses. And different species of mosses have different moisture and sun requirements so will grow on different sections of the same tree or rock.
In boreal forests, some species of moss play an important role in providing nitrogen for the ecosystem due to their relationship with nitrogen - fixing cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria colonizes moss and receives shelter in return for providing fixed nitrogen. Moss releases the fixed nitrogen, along with other nutrients, into the soil "upon disturbances like drying - rewetting and fire events, '' making it available throughout the ecosystem.
Moss is often considered a weed in grass lawns, but is deliberately encouraged to grow under aesthetic principles exemplified by Japanese gardening. In old temple gardens, moss can carpet a forest scene. Moss is thought to add a sense of calm, age, and stillness to a garden scene. Moss is also used in bonsai to cover the soil and enhance the impression of age. Rules of cultivation are not widely established. Moss collections are quite often begun using samples transplanted from the wild in a water - retaining bag. However, specific species of moss can be extremely difficult to maintain away from their natural sites with their unique requirements of combinations of light, humidity, substrate chemistry, shelter from wind, etc.
Growing moss from spores is even less controlled. Moss spores fall in a constant rain on exposed surfaces; those surfaces which are hospitable to a certain species of moss will typically be colonised by that moss within a few years of exposure to wind and rain. Materials which are porous and moisture retentive, such as brick, wood, and certain coarse concrete mixtures, are hospitable to moss. Surfaces can also be prepared with acidic substances, including buttermilk, yogurt, urine, and gently puréed mixtures of moss samples, water and ericaceous compost.
In the cool cloudy damp Pacific Northwest, moss is sometimes allowed to grow naturally as a lawn substitute, one that needs little or no mowing, fertilizing or watering. In this case, grass is considered to be the weed. Landscapers in the Seattle area sometimes collect boulders and downed logs growing mosses for installation in gardens and landscapes. Woodland gardens in many parts of the world can include a carpet of natural mosses. The Bloedel Reserve on Bainbridge Island, Washington State, is famous for its moss garden. The moss garden was created by removing shrubby underbrush and herbaceous groundcovers, thinning trees, and allowing mosses to fill in naturally.
Mosses are sometimes used in green roofs. Advantages of mosses over higher plants in green roofs include reduced weight loads, increased water absorption, no fertilizer requirements, and high drought tolerance. Since mosses do not have true roots, they require less planting medium than higher plants with extensive root systems. With proper species selection for the local climate, mosses in green roofs require no irrigation once established and are low maintenance.
Moss can be a troublesome weed in containerized nursery operations and greenhouses. Vigorous moss growth can inhibit seedling emergence and penetration of water and fertilizer to the plant roots.
Moss growth can be inhibited by a number of methods:
The application of products containing ferrous sulfate or ferrous ammonium sulfate will kill moss; these ingredients are typically in commercial moss control products and fertilizers. Sulfur and Iron are essential nutrients for some competing plants like grasses. Killing moss will not prevent regrowth unless conditions favorable to their growth are changed.
A passing fad for moss - collecting in the late 19th century led to the establishment of mosseries in many British and American gardens. The mossery is typically constructed out of slatted wood, with a flat roof, open to the north side (maintaining shade). Samples of moss were installed in the cracks between wood slats. The whole mossery would then be regularly moistened to maintain growth.
Preindustrial societies made use of the mosses growing in their areas.
Laplanders, North American tribes, and other circumpolar people used mosses for bedding. Mosses have also been used as insulation both for dwellings and in clothing. Traditionally, dried moss was used in some Nordic countries and Russia as an insulator between logs in log cabins, and tribes of the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada used moss to fill chinks in wooden longhouses. Circumpolar and alpine peoples have used mosses for insulation in boots and mittens. Ötzi the Iceman had moss - packed boots.
The capacity dried mosses have to absorb fluids, has made their use practical in both medical and culinary uses. North American tribal people used mosses for diapers, wound dressing, and menstrual fluid absorption. Tribes of the Pacific Northwest in the United States and Canada used mosses to clean salmon prior to drying, and packed wet moss into pit ovens for steaming camas bulbs. Food storage baskets and boiling baskets were also packed with mosses.
There is a substantial market in mosses gathered from the wild. The uses for intact moss are principally in the florist trade and for home decoration. Decaying moss in the genus Sphagnum is also the major component of peat, which is "mined '' for use as a fuel, as a horticultural soil additive, and in smoking malt in the production of Scotch whisky.
Sphagnum moss, generally the species S. cristatum and S. subnitens, is harvested while still growing and is dried out to be used in nurseries and horticulture as a plant growing medium.
The practice of harvesting peat moss should not be confused with the harvesting of moss peat. Peat moss can be harvested on a sustainable basis and managed so that regrowth is allowed, whereas the harvesting of moss peat is generally considered to cause significant environmental damage as the peat is stripped with little or no chance of recovery.
Some Sphagnum mosses can absorb up to 20 times their own weight in water. In World War I, Sphagnum mosses were used as first - aid dressings on soldiers ' wounds, as these mosses said to absorb liquids three times faster than cotton, retain liquids better, better distribute liquids uniformly throughout themselves, and are cooler, softer, and be less irritating. It is also claimed to have antibacterial properties. Native Americans were one of the peoples to use Sphagnum for diapers and napkins, which is still done in Canada.
In rural UK, Fontinalis antipyretica was traditionally used to extinguish fires as it could be found in substantial quantities in slow - moving rivers and the moss retained large volumes of water which helped extinguish the flames. This historical use is reflected in its specific Latin / Greek name, the approximate meaning of which is "against fire ''.
In Finland, peat mosses have been used to make bread during famines. In Mexico, Moss is used as a Christmas decoration.
Physcomitrella patens is increasingly used in biotechnology. Prominent examples are the identification of moss genes with implications for crop improvement or human health and the safe production of complex biopharmaceuticals in the moss bioreactor, developed by Ralf Reski and his co-workers.
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what is the difference between lab test and diagnostic test | Medical test - wikipedia
A medical test is a kind of medical procedure performed to detect, diagnose, or monitor diseases, disease processes, susceptibility, and determine a course of treatment. It is related to clinical chemistry and molecular diagnostics, and the procedures are typically performed in a medical laboratory.
Medical tests can be classified by what the test result will be used for, mainly including usage for diagnosis, screening or evaluation, as separately detailed below.
A diagnostic test is a procedure performed to confirm, or determine the presence of disease in an individual suspected of having the disease, usually following the report of symptoms, or based on the results of other medical tests. This includes posthumous diagnosis. Such tests include:
Screening refers to a medical test or series of tests used to detect or predict the presence of disease in individuals at risk for disease within a defined group, such as a population, family, or workforce. Screenings may be performed to monitor disease prevalence, manage epidemiology, aid in prevention, or strictly for statistical purposes.
Examples of screenings include measuring the level of TSH in the blood of a newborn infant as part of newborn screening for congenital hypothyroidism, checking for Lung cancer in non-smoking individuals who are exposed to second - hand smoke in an unregulated working environment, and Pap smear screening for prevention or early detection of cervical cancer.
Some medical tests are used to monitor the progress of, or response to medical treatment.
Most test methods can be classified into one of the following broad groups:
In vitro tests can be classified according to the location of the sample being tested, including:
Tests performed in a physical examination are usually aimed at detecting a symptom or sign, and in these cases, a test that detects a symptom or sign is designated a positive test, and a test that indicated absence of a symptom or sign is designated a negative test, as further detailed in separate section below.
A quantification of a target substance, a cell type or another specific entity is a common output of, for example, most blood tests. This is not only answering if a target entity is present or absent, but also how much is present. In blood tests, the quantification is relatively well specified, such as given in mass concentration, while most other tests may be quantifications as well although less specified, such as a sign of being "very pale '' rather than "slightly pale ''. Similarly, radiologic images are technically quantifications of radiologic opacity of tissues.
Especially in the taking of a medical history, there is no clear limit between a detecting or quantifying test versus rather descriptive information of an individual. For example, questions regarding the occupation or social life of an individual may be regarded as tests that can be regarded as positive or negative for the presence of various risk factors, or they may be regarded as "merely '' descriptive, although the latter may be at least as clinically important.
The result of a test aimed at detection of an entity may be positive or negative: this has nothing to do with a bad prognosis, but rather means that the test worked or not, and a certain parameter that was evaluated was present or not. For example, a negative screening test for breast cancer means that no sign of breast cancer could be found (which is in fact very positive for the patient).
The classification of tests into either positive or negative gives a binary classification, with resultant ability to perform bayesian probability and performance metrics of tests, including calculations of sensitivity and specificity.
Tests whose results are of continuous values, such as most blood values, can be interpreted as they are, or they can be converted to a binary ones by defining a cutoff value, with test results being designated as positive or negative depending on whether the resultant value is higher or lower than the cutoff.
In the finding of a pathognomonic sign or symptom it is almost certain that the target condition is present, and in the absence of finding a sine qua non sign or symptom it is almost certain that the target condition is absent. In reality, however, the subjective probability of the presence of a condition is never exactly 100 % or 0 %, so tests are rather aimed at estimating a post-test probability of a condition or other entity.
Most diagnostic tests basically use a reference group to establish performance data such as predictive values, likelihood ratios and relative risks, which are then used to interpret the post-test probability for an individual.
In monitoring tests of an individual, the test results from previous tests on that individual may be used as a reference to interpret subsequent tests.
Some medical testing procedures have associated health risks, and even require general anesthesia, such as the mediastinoscopy. Other tests, such as the blood test or pap smear have little to no direct risks. Medical tests may also have indirect risks, such as the stress of testing, and riskier tests may be required as follow - up for a (potentially) false positive test result. Consult the health care provider (including physicians, physician assistants, and nurse practitioners) prescribing any test for further information.
Each test has its own indications and contraindications. An indication is a valid medical reason to perform the test. A contraindication is a valid medical reason to reject the test. For example, a basic cholesterol test may be indicated (medically appropriate) for a middle - aged person. However, if the same test was performed on that person very recently, then the existence of the previous test is a contraindication for the test (a medically valid reason to not perform it).
Information bias is the cognitive bias that causes healthcare providers to order tests that produce information that they do not realistically expect or intend to use for the purpose of making a medical decision. Medical tests are indicated when the information they produce will be used. For example, a screening mammogram is not indicated (not medically appropriate) for a woman who is dying, because even if breast cancer is found, she will die before any cancer treatment could begin.
In a simplified fashion, how much a test is indicated for an individual depends largely on its net benefit for that individual. Tests are chosen when the expected benefit is greater than the expected harm. The net benefit may roughly be estimated by:
b n = Δ p × r i × (b i − h i) − h t (\ displaystyle b_ (n) = \ Delta p \ times r_ (i) \ times (b_ (i) - h_ (i)) - h_ (t))
, where:
Some additional factors that influence a decision whether a medical test should be performed or not included: cost of the test, availability of additional tests, potential interference with subsequent test (such as an abdominal palpation potentially inducing intestinal activity whose sounds interfere with a subsequent abdominal auscultation), time taken for the test or other practical or administrative aspects. The possible benefits of a diagnostic test may also be weighed against the costs of unnecessary tests and resulting unnecessary follow - up and possibly even unnecessary treatment of incidental findings.
In some cases, tests being performed are expected to have no benefit for the individual being tested. Instead, the results may be useful for the establishment of statistics in order to improve health care for other individuals. Patients may give informed consent to undergo medical tests that will benefit other people.
The QUADAS - 2 revision is available.
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where is the hallmark show when calls the heart filmed | When Calls the Heart - wikipedia
When Calls the Heart is a Canadian - American television drama series, inspired by Janette Oke 's book of the same name from her Canadian West series, and developed by Michael Landon Jr. The series began airing on the Hallmark Channel in the United States on January 11, 2014, and on April 16, 2014 on Super Channel in Canada.
The series originally debuted as a two - hour television movie pilot in October 2013, starring Maggie Grace as young teacher Elizabeth Thatcher and Stephen Amell as North West Mounted Police officer Wynn Delaney. In the television series Erin Krakow is cast as her niece, whose name is also Elizabeth Thatcher (played by Poppy Drayton in the movie), and Daniel Lissing plays a Mountie named Jack Thornton, with Lori Loughlin reprising her role as coal mine widow Abigail Stanton.
On April 24, 2017, Krakow announced via the Hallmark Channel website that the show would return for a fifth season. The season premiered with a two - hour Christmas special that was broadcast as part of Hallmark 's Countdown to Christmas event, and continues for 10 episodes which began February 18, 2018. On March 21, 2018, Hallmark renewed the series for a sixth season.
When Calls the Heart tells the story of Elizabeth Thatcher (Erin Krakow), a young teacher accustomed to her high - society life. She receives her first classroom assignment in Coal Valley, a small coal - mining town in Western Canada which is located just south of Robb, Alberta. There, life is simple -- but often fraught with challenges. Elizabeth charms most everyone in Coal Valley, except Royal North West Mounted Police Constable Jack Thornton (Daniel Lissing). He believes Thatcher 's wealthy father has doomed the lawman 's career by insisting he be assigned in town to protect the shipping magnate 's daughter. The town of Coal Valley was renamed Hope Valley in Episode 2, Season 2 after the coal mine was closed.
Living in this 1910 coal town, Elizabeth must learn the ways of the Canadian frontier movement if she wishes to thrive in the rural west on her own. Lori Loughlin portrays Abigail Stanton, whose husband, the foreman of the mine, and her only son -- along with 45 other miners -- have recently been killed in an explosion, which turns out to have been a tragic accident waiting to happen -- a result of the mining - company site manager 's irresponsible management and lack of due care in his management of the mine. The newly widowed women find their faith tested when they must go to work in the mine to keep a roof over their heads, food on the table, and compile a wage for the town 's teacher.
As of March 25, 2018, 46 episodes of When Calls the Heart have aired.
The series, originally planned to be filmed in Colorado, is filmed south of Vancouver, British Columbia, on a farm surrounded by vineyards. The fictional frontier town of Coal Valley was erected in late 2013. Some of the set trimmings and a stage coach came from the Hell on Wheels set. The Thatcher home is the University Women 's Club of Vancouver.
The series was renewed for a second season, which aired from April 25 to June 13, 2015. Hallmark Channel announced in July 2015 that the series had been renewed for a third season, which aired from February 21 to April 10, 2016, with a sneak peek airing during the 2015 Christmas season.
In mid-2016, it was announced that Season 4 would premiere on the Hallmark Channel Christmas Day with a two - hour special. On April 11, 2016, Lissing and Krakow announced via the series ' Facebook page that Hallmark Channel had renewed the series for a fourth season, which aired from February 19 to April 23, 2017.
Filming for season five began in Vancouver on August 22, 2017, and ended on December 21, 2017.
The first season of the series was subsequently picked up by CBC Television for rebroadcast as a summer series in 2015. The network has since aired the second and third seasons. The series became available internationally on Netflix in August 2017.
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when does the weather get cold in georgia | Climate of Georgia (U.S. state) - wikipedia
The climate of Georgia is a humid subtropical climate with most of the state having short, mild winters and long, hot summers. The Atlantic Ocean on the east coast of Georgia and the hill country in the north impact the state 's climate. Also, the Chattahoochee River divides Georgia into separate climatic regions with the mountain region to the northwest being cooler than the rest of the state, the average temperatures for that region in January and July being 39 ° F (4 ° C) and 78 ° F (26 ° C) respectively. Winter in Georgia is characterized by mild temperatures and little snowfall around the state, with the potential for snow and ice increasing in the northern parts of the state. Summer daytime temperatures in Georgia often exceed 95 ° F (35 ° C). The state experiences widespread precipitation. Tornadoes and tropical cyclones are common.
Most of Georgia has a sub-tropical climate, with hot and humid summers, except at the highest elevations. Weather conditions in various localities of Georgia depend on how close they are to the Atlantic Ocean or Gulf of Mexico, and their altitude. This is especially true in the mountainous areas in the northern part of the state, which are farther away from ocean waters and can be up to 4,500 feet (1,400 m) or higher above sea level. The areas near the Florida - Georgia border, extending from the Atlantic Ocean westward to the Chattahoochee River, experience the most subtropical weather, similar to that of Florida: hot, humid summers with frequent afternoon thunderstorms and mild, somewhat drier winters.
Despite having moderate weather compared to many other states, Georgia has occasional extreme weather. The highest temperature ever recorded is 112 ° F (44 ° C), while the lowest ever recorded is − 29 ° F (− 34 ° C). Heat waves with temperatures over 100 ° F (38 ° C) have often been recorded.
The entire state, including the North Georgia mountains, receives moderate to heavy rain, which varies from 45 inches (1,100 mm) in central Georgia to approximately 75 inches (1,900 mm) around the Northeast part of the state. Georgia has had severe droughts in the past, especially in 2007. Tropical Storm Alberto in July 1994 looped across central Georgia, leading to 24 - hour rainfall amounts exceeding 20 inches (510 mm) across central sections of the state. It also became the wettest tropical cyclone on record for the state of Georgia, eclipsing the record set in 1929. Snowfall, which occurs in most winters, increases in frequency and average amounts per year to the north.
Southern and southeast areas of the state experience snow much less frequently than other parts of Georgia. The Georgia Piedmont, sometimes referred to as the Blue Ridge province, is somewhat cooler in winter than the coastal areas. The Southern areas of the Piedmont may receive snow every other year, while areas close to the foothills get snow a couple times a year averaging anywhere from a trace up 2 '' of annual snowfall. The biggest winter threat to the northern piedmont is freezing rain which is rain that freezes on contact. The mountains of Georgia have the coolest climate and most frequent snowfall in the state, although snowfall is less than any other part of the Appalachian Mountains. The exception to this is the mountain areas of Fannin, Gilmer, Pickens, Union, White and Rabun Counties, and surrounding counties which average 3 to 8 inches of snow annually. Mountains, however, can average anywhere from 4 - 18 inches annually. Elevations over 4000 feet, can have some brutal winters with some storms blanketing the mountains with over a foot of snow. Heavy snow in the extreme northern counties is considered 5 inches (13 cm) or more of snow in a 12 - hour period or 7 inches (18 cm) or more of snow in a 24 - hour period ". Watches for heavy snow are issued when a 50 percent or greater chance of 2 inches (5.1 cm) or more of snow falling in a 12 - hour period, or 4 inches (10 cm) or more in a 24 - hour period is expected. The Deceptive Killers), Accessed December 11, 2007
Winterweather watches are issued when there is a "50 percent or greater chance of significant and damaging accumulations of ice during freezing rain situations ''; these watches are normally issued 12 to 48 hours in advance. A winter storm warning for an ice storm means that icy conditions are "occurring, imminent, or have a very high probability of occurring ''. These warnings are usually issued when there is an 80 percent or greater chance of meeting ice storm conditions.
Blizzards in Georgia are rare. The last blizzard the state had was in March 1993.
Winter in South Georgia, which lasts from December to January, is much more mild. Daytime highs range from approximately 50 ° F (10 ° C) in the northernmost interior areas to near 70 ° F (21 ° C) along the coast and in the extreme south.
Winters in Georgia are determined by the Pacific Ocean. During El Niño, the jet stream is located along the Southern U.S., allowing for colder and wetter conditions with greater snowfall. The opposite phase, La Niña, keeps the jet stream further north, thus winters are warmer and drier across Georgia.
Weather during springtime in North Georgia and the mountains changes from day to day and year to year. Early spring in the North Georgia Mountains can be very chilly during the day; average highs are near 62 ° F (17 ° C). The weather can be highly variable with temperatures ranging between 75 ° F (24 ° C) and 40 ° F (4 ° C). The rainiest time of the year is normally April, which can also be a windy month where daytime temperatures can rise to near 75 ° F (24 ° C) and evening temperatures fall to around 40 ° F (4 ° C)
Summers are hot and humid with temperatures in the afternoons that reach, on average, to near 90 ° F (32 ° C). Overnight lows fall to near 68 ° F (20 ° C) and there is usually an 8 ° F (4 ° C) difference in temperature between the mountains and Atlanta. While humidity in North Georgia, especially in the mountains, can be high it is not as high as it is in South Georgia. Summer thunderstorms add to the humidity in the area by providing 4.5 inches (110 mm) to 5.5 inches (140 mm) of rain during the summer months.
Although Georgia experiences many tropical cyclones, it only rarely experiences a direct hurricane strike due to its fairly small coastline. The last hurricane to directly affect the Georgia coastline was Hurricane David in 1979. The last major hurricane (Category 3 or higher) to hit the Georgia coast directly was in 1898. More common are hurricanes which strike the Florida Panhandle, weaken over land, and bring tropical storm or hurricane - force winds and heavy rain to the Georgia interior (especially the southwestern areas), as well as hurricanes that come close to the Georgia coastline, brushing the coast on their way up to hit the Carolinas.
Georgia is one of the leading states in incidents of tornadoes though they are rarely stronger than F1. Southwestern and northern sections of the state have historically reported the largest amount of tornadoes. The areas closest to the Florida border report F0 and F1 tornadoes associated with summer afternoon thunderstorms. However, tornadoes of F3 intensity or greater within Georgia are uncommon, with three events reported on average each year.
Georgia 's autumns are normally sunny and cool. September and October, the driest months of the year, qualify as "Indian Summer '' weather with temperatures that are near 78 ° F (26 ° C) during the daytime. At night, the temperature drops to near 50 ° F (10 ° C). It is much cooler in November with an average high of 62 ° F (17 ° C) and low of 36 ° F (2 ° C). The first freeze of the year normally falls within November, except in the northern mountains, where it occurs in October.
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impact of trade unions on the south african economy | Trade unions in South Africa - Wikipedia
Trade unions in South Africa have a history dating back to the 1880s. From the beginning unions could be viewed as a reflection of the racial disunity of the country, with the earliest unions being predominantly for white workers. Through the turbulent years of 1948 -- 1991 trade unions played an important part in developing political and economic resistance, and eventually were one of the driving forces in realising the transition to an inclusive democratic government.
Today trade unions are still an important force in South Africa, with 3.11 million members representing 25.3 % of the formal work force. The Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) is the largest of the three major trade union centres, with a membership of 1.8 million, and is part of the Tripartite alliance with the ruling African National Congress (ANC) and the South African Communist Party (SACP).
Early trade unions were often for whites only, with organizations like the South African Confederation of Labour (SACoL) favouring employment policies based on racial discrimination. They also often did not fully accept women into the unions. Mary Fitzgerald is considered the first female South African trade unionist and who led many strikes and sit ins before 1911. The first trade union to organise black workers was the Industrial Workers of Africa (IWA), formed in September 1917 by the revolutionary syndicalist International Socialist League (ISL). The IWA merged into the Industrial and Commercial Workers ' Union of Africa (ICU), formed in 1919, in 1920. The ICU was initially a union for black and coloured dockworkers in Cape Town and formed by Clements Kadalie and Arthur F. Batty. It was the first nationally organized union for black workers who would eventually include rural farm workers, domestic and factory workers, dockworkers, teachers and retailers. By the 1920s it was said to be more popular than the ANC and eventually had branches in the Free State, Transvaal and Natal and in 1925 it moved its headquarters to Johannesburg. In 1924, the South African Trade Union Congress (SATUC) was formed with 30,000 members of black trade unions with Bill Andrews as its secretary. It would attract black trade unions from the dry - cleaning, furniture, sweets and automobile industries.
By the 1930s the South African Trades and Labour Council (SATLC) had united much of the country. The SATLC maintained an explicitly non-racial stance, and accepted affiliation of black trade unions, as well as calling for full legal rights for black trade unionists. Some black unions joined SATLC, while in the 1940s others affiliated with the Council of Non-European Trade Unions, raising it to a peak of 119 unions and 158,000 members in 1945.
In 1946, the CNETU with the African National Congress and the South African Communist Party pushed for the African Mine Workers ' Strike to become a General Strike. The strike was broken by the police brutality which was part of the rise of the National Party (NP) and their slogan of apartheid as all black trade unions were violently suppressed.
By 1954 SATLC was disbanded, and with the formation of the Trade Council of South Africa (TUCSA) union membership included white, coloured, and Asians, with blacks in dependent organizations. Independent black unions were excluded from affiliation and 14 previous unions from SATLC founded the South African Congress of Trade Unions (SACTU). SACTU merged with the Council of Non-European Trade Unions and became the trade union arm of the ANC. The union grew to a membership of 53,000 by 1961, but was driven underground, and for a decade black unionism was again virtually silenced in South Africa. H
In 1979 the Federation of South African Trade Unions (FOSATU) was formed, with the Council of Unions of South Africa (CUSA) being created in the following year.
What was to become one of the largest unions in South Africa, the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) was created in 1982, and was deeply involved in the political conflict against the ruling National Party. The union embraced four "pillars '' of action - armed struggle, mass mobilisation (ungovernability), international solidarity, and underground operation.
The Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) was formed in 1985, and FOSATU merged into it in the same year (more formally known in the teaching industry).
The largest strike up to that date in South Africa 's history took place on 1 May 1986, when 1.5 million black workers "stayed away '' in a demand for recognition of an official May Day holiday. In the following June up to 200 trade union officials, including Elijah Barayi and Jay Naidoo of the COSATU, and Phiroshaw Camay, the general secretary of the CUSA, were reported to be arrested under a renewed state of emergency.
Also in 1986, CUSA joined with the Azanian Confederation of Trade Unions (AZACTU) to form the National Council of Trade Unions (NACTU), and Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi created the United Workers ' Union of South Africa (UWUSA), particularly to oppose disinvestment in South Africa. The UWUSA eventually faded from view, but not before revelations in July 1991 that it had collaborated with anti-union employers in a campaign against both COSATU and NACTU activists, and had received at least 1.5 million Rand from the security police.
In 1988 a new Labour Relations Act placed restrictions on labour activities, including giving the Labour Court the power to ban lawful strikes and lock - outs. This was to be short - lived, and negotiations between COSATU, NACTU and the South African Committee on Labour Affairs (SACCOLA) eventually produced a 1991 amendment which effectively repealed the previous powers.
In 1990 SACTU, which had continued underground activities from exile, dissolved and advised its members to join COSATU. COSATU, as a member of the Tripartite alliance with the ANC and SACP, provided material support in the form of strikes and both political and economic unrest, which eventually led to the displacement of the National Party, and the majority victory of the ANC in the 1994 political elections.
Trade unions are recognized within the 1996 Constitution of South Africa, which provides for the right to join trade unions, and for unions to collectively bargain and strike. This has translated into the Labour Relations Act which established the working framework for both unions and employers. Three institutions have also been created to further the goals of reducing industrial relations conflict, and both eliminating unfair discrimination and redressing past discrimination in the workplace: the National Economic Development and Labour Council (NEDLAC), the Labour Court, and the Council for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration (CCMA).
With the creation of the Federation of Unions of South Africa (FEDUSA) from the merger of the Federation of South African Labour Unions (FEDSAL) and several smaller unions in 1997, the three main union organizations were established. COSATU, with a membership of 1.8 million, is followed by FEDUSA with 560,000 members and NACTU with almost 400,000 members including the powerful mineworkers union. All three are affiliated with the International Trade Union Confederation.
A fourth national trade union centre was formed in 2003. The Confederation of South African Workers ' Unions (CONSAWU) is affiliated with the World Confederation of Labour (WCL).
The 2006 ICFTU Annual Survey of violations of trade union rights noted South Africa:
"Serious violations were reported during the year, including the death of two workers killed by their employer in a wage dispute, and a striking farm worker killed by security guards. Protest strikes and demonstrations met with violent repression, such as the use of rubber bullets, which in the case of striking truck drivers, led to injuries. ''
South Africa has one of the largest incidence of HIV / AIDS in the world, with a 2005 estimate of 5.5 million people living with HIV -- 12.4 % of the population. The trade union movement has taken a role in combating this pandemic. COSATU is a key partner in the Treatment Action Campaign (TAC), a registered charity and political force working to educate and promote understanding about HIV / AIDS, and to prevent new infections, as well as push for greater access to antiretrovirals. COSATU passed a resolution in 1998 to campaign for treatment. "It was clear to the labour movement at that time that its lowest paid members were dying because they could n't afford medicines, '' says Theodora Steel, Campaigns Coordinator at COSATU. "We saw TAC as a natural ally in a campaign for treatment. We passed a formal resolution at our congress to assist and build TAC. ''
Notwithstanding the formal alliance of COSATU with the ruling ANC party, it has been at odds with the government, calling for the roll - out of comprehensive public access to antiretroviral drugs.
The Labour Relations Act was passed in 1995, and subsequently experienced major amendments in 1996, 1998 and 2002. Its stated purpose is to "give effect to section 27 of the Constitution '' by regulating organisational rights of trade unions, promoting collective bargaining, regulating the right to strike and the recourse to lockouts, as well as providing mechanisms for dispute resolution and the establishment of Labour Court and Labour Appeal Court as superior courts, "with exclusive jurisdiction to decide matters arising from the Act ''. The act also addresses employee participation in decision - making, and international law obligations in respect to labour relations.
The Labour Relations Act does not apply to the South African National Defence Force, the National Intelligence Agency, or the South African Secret Service.
Bargaining councils are formed by registered trade unions and employers ' organisations. They deal with collective agreements, attempt to solve labour disputes, and make proposals on labour policies and laws. As well, they may administer pension funds, sick pay, unemployment and training schemes, and other such benefits for their members. The Amended Labour Relations Act also notes that these councils are to "extend the services and functions of the bargaining council to workers in the informal sector and home workers. ''
Agency Shop Agreements are struck by a majority trade union (either one union, or a coalition of unions representing the majority of workers employed) and an employer or employers ' organisation. This agreement requires employers to deduct a fee from the wages of non-union workers to "ensure that non-union workers, who benefit from the union 's bargaining efforts, make a contribution towards those efforts ''.
Permission from the employee is not required for deductions to be assessed. However, if the employee is a conscientious objector, that is refuses membership in a trade union on the grounds of conscience, she or he may request that their fees are paid to a fund administered by the Department of Labour.
Closed shop agreements, which require all workers in the covered workplace to join unions, can be struck if 2 thirds of the workers have voted in favour of the agreement. Workers must join the union or face dismissal. In addition, "if a union expels a member or refuses to allow a new worker to become a union member, and if this expulsion or refusal is in accordance with the union 's constitution or is for a fair reason, then the employer will have to dismiss the worker. This dismissal is not considered unfair. '' Conscientious objectors may not be dismissed for refusing to join the union.
Restrictions on closed shops include the requirement that workers are not compelled to be trade union members before obtaining employment, and that dues collected from employees are only used to "advance or protect the socio - economic interests of workers. ''
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