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what is the size of xbox 360 headset jack | Xbox 360 controller - wikipedia
Wireless version (with batteries): 265 g / 9.35 oz Wired version:
The Xbox 360 controller is the primary controller for the Microsoft Xbox 360 video game console and was introduced at E3 2005. The Xbox 360 controller comes in both wired and wireless versions. Original Xbox controllers are not compatible with the Xbox 360. The wired and wireless versions are also compatible with Microsoft PC operating systems, such as Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, and Windows 10.
The wireless controllers run on either AA batteries or a rechargeable battery pack. The wired controllers may be connected to any of the USB ports on the console, or to an attached USB hub.
The Xbox 360 controller has the same basic familiar button layout as the Controller S except that a few of the auxiliary buttons have been moved. The "back '' and "start '' buttons have been moved to a more central position on the face of the controller, and the "white '' and "black '' buttons have been removed and replaced with two new bumpers that are positioned over the analog triggers on the back of the controller. The controller has a 2.5 mm TRS connector on the front, allowing users to connect a headset for voice communication. It also features a proprietary serial connector (which is split into 2 parts on either side of the headset connector) for use with additional accessories, such as the chatpad.
On August 31, 2010, Microsoft 's Larry Hryb (a.k.a. Major Nelson) revealed a new design of the Xbox 360 controller which is set to replace the Wireless controller bundled with the Play & Charge Kit. Among small changes such as the shape of the analog stick tops and grey - colored face buttons, the new controller features an adjustable directional pad which can be changed between a disc type D - pad or a plus shaped D - pad. The control pad was released in North America exclusively with Play & Charge Kits on November 9, 2010 and was released in Europe during February 2011.
The Xbox 360 controller provides a standard USB Human interface device software interface, but is designed for the Microsoft XInput interface library. Although many PC video games support the XInput library, some games might not work with this controller.
A standard Xbox 360 controller features eleven * digital buttons, two analog triggers, two analog sticks, and a digital D - pad. The right face of the controller features four digital actions buttons: a green A button, red B button, blue X button, and amber Y button. The lower right houses the right analog stick, in lower left is a digital D - pad and on the left face is the left analog stick. Both analog sticks can also be "clicked in '' to activate a digital button beneath. In the center of the controller face are digital "Start '', "Back '' and "Guide '' buttons. The "Guide '' button is labelled with the Xbox logo, and is used to turn on the console / controller and to access the guide menu. It is also surrounded by the "ring of light '', which indicates the controller number, as well as flashing when connecting and to provide notifications. The left and right "shoulders '' each feature a digital shoulder button, or "bumper '', and an analog trigger.
* Wireless controllers also feature an additional "connect '' button located between the "bumpers '' to facilitate syncing with the console.
Wired controllers are only available in white and black (Xbox 360 S color scheme). However, wireless controllers are available in numerous different colors including:
The Xbox 360 controller has a guide button in the center of its face that provides a new functionality. This button is surrounded by a ring of lights divided into four quadrants that provide gamers with different types of information during game play. For instance, during a split screen multiplayer match, a particular quadrant will light up to indicate to a player which part of the screen he or she is playing on at that time. In this case, when the user pushes the button, he or she accesses the Xbox guide; a menu which provides access to features like messaging friends, downloading content, voice chat and customizing soundtracks, while staying in the game. The Guide button also allows users to turn off the controller or the console by holding the button for a few seconds (rather than simply pressing it).
The Rechargeable Battery Pack is a nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery pack, which provides up to 24 hours of continuous gaming for the wireless controller. It is recommended in place of disposable AA batteries, which differ slightly in voltage and have higher disposal costs (financial and environmental). It ships as part of, and can be charged by, the Play & Charge Kit and the Quick Charge Kit. To fully charge the battery pack takes approximately 2 hours with the Quick Charge Kit; the Play & Charge Kit takes longer (and depends on whether the controller is being used). An upgraded, 35 - hour version is included with "transforming d - pad '' controllers.
The Wireless Gaming Receiver (sold as "Crossfire Wireless Gaming Receiver '' in the UK) allows wireless Xbox 360 accessories, such as wireless gamepads, racing wheels and headsets, to be used on a Windows - based PC. The device acts in a similar manner to an Xbox 360, allowing up to 4 controllers and 4 headsets at a time to be connected to the receiver. The device has a 30 - foot (10 meter) range and a six - foot (2 meter) USB cable. It is specifically designed to work with games bearing the "Games for Windows '' logo, but will function with most games that permit a standard PC gamepad. The official Xbox website noted that the adapter will work with "all future wireless devices ''.
The Messenger Kit consists of a wired Xbox 360 headset and a small keyboard known as the "Chatpad ''. The Chatpad connects to the front of the controller and may be used for any standard text input on the console. It is not currently compatible with the wireless gaming receiver.
The United States Navy has announced that it plans to use Xbox 360 controllers to control periscopes on new Virginia - class submarines, for both cost and familiarity reasons.
The Xbox 360 controller received positive reviews when it was released. Before then, as IGN stated, the original Xbox controller was "huge, ugly, cheap, and uncomfortable '' and concluded to be an "abomination ''. Many of these problems were corrected with Microsoft 's releases of the Xbox controller S and then the Xbox 360 controller. IGN credited the Xbox 360 controller for its being one of "the most ergonomically comfortable console controllers around ''. It was also praised for its improved button placement, its functioning logo as a button, and Microsoft 's choice of bottom - mounting headset ports as opposed to top - mounting them so as to minimize snagged wire problems.
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in cellular respiration most atp molecules are produced by what | Cellular respiration - wikipedia
Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process, as weak so - called "high - energy '' bonds are replaced by stronger bonds in the products. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. Cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox reaction which releases heat. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, most of which are redox reactions themselves. Although cellular respiration is technically a combustion reaction, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a living cell because of the slow release of energy from the series of reactions.
Nutrients that are commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids, and the most common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O). The chemical energy stored in ATP (its third phosphate group is weakly bonded to the rest of the molecule and is cheaply broken allowing stronger bonds to form, thereby transferring energy for use by the cell) can then be used to drive processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes.
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen (O) in order to create ATP. Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are consumed as reactants, it is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown in glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondria in order to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The products of this process are carbon dioxide and water, but the energy transferred is used to break bonds in ADP as the third phosphate group is added to form ATP (adenosine triphosphate), by substrate - level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH
The negative ΔG indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously.
The potential of NADH and FADH is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor ''. Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system). However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose.
Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose). However some anaerobic organisms, such as methanogens are able to continue with anaerobic respiration, yielding more ATP by using other inorganic molecules (not oxygen) as final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain. They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post-glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.
1. Glycolysis:
-- - 2 ATPs + Glucose → 2 Pyruvic Acid + 4 Hydrogen + 4 ATPs
2. Formation of Acetyl CoA:
-- - 2 Pyruvic Acid + 2 CoA → 2 Acetyl CoA + 2 Carbon Dioxide + 2 Hydrogen
3. Krebs Cycle:
-- - 2 Acetyl CoA + 3 O2 → 6 Hydrogen + 4 Carbon Dioxide + 2 ATPs
4. Electron Transport System:
-- - 12 Hydrogen + 3 O2 → 6 Water + 32 ATPs
Overall Reaction:
-- - Glucose + 6 O2 → 6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water + 36 ATPs
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that takes place in the cytosol of cells in all living organisms. This pathway can function with or without the presence of oxygen. In humans, aerobic conditions produce pyruvate and anaerobic conditions produce lactate. In aerobic conditions, the process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced, however, two are consumed as part of the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to increase the reactivity (decrease its stability) in order for the molecule to be cleaved into two pyruvate molecules by the enzyme aldolase. During the pay - off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate - level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the pyruvate are oxidized. The overall reaction can be expressed this way:
Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6 - phosphate. Glycogen can be converted into glucose 6 - phosphate as well with the help of glycogen phosphorylase. During energy metabolism, glucose 6 - phosphate becomes fructose 6 - phosphate. An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6 - phosphate into fructose 1, 6 - disphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase. Fructose 1, 6 - diphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains which later degrades into pyruvate.
Glycolysis can be literally translated as "sugar splitting ''.
Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl - CoA and CO by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). The PDC contains multiple copies of three enzymes and is located in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes. In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl - CoA, one molecule of NADH and one molecule of CO is formed.
This is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetyl - CoA is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis. Once acetyl - CoA is formed, aerobic or anaerobic respiration can occur. When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl - CoA is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and is oxidized to CO while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl - CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, H O and CO, are created during this cycle.
The citric acid cycle is an 8 - step process involving 18 different enzymes and co-enzymes. During the cycle, acetyl - CoA (2 carbons) + oxaloacetate (4 carbons) yields citrate (6 carbons), which is rearranged to a more reactive form called isocitrate (6 carbons). Isocitrate is modified to become α - ketoglutarate (5 carbons), succinyl - CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate, and, finally, oxaloacetate.
The net gain of high - energy compounds from one cycle is 3 NADH, 1 FADH, and 1 GTP; the GTP may subsequently be used to produce ATP. Thus, the total yield from 1 glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH, and 2 ATP.
In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the boundary of inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesized by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP. The electrons are finally transferred to exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed.
The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide. It is assumed that all the reduced coenzymes are oxidized by the electron transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation.
Although there is a theoretical yield of 38 ATP molecules per glucose during cellular respiration, such conditions are generally not realized because of losses such as the cost of moving pyruvate (from glycolysis), phosphate, and ADP (substrates for ATP synthesis) into the mitochondria. All are actively transported using carriers that utilize the stored energy in the proton electrochemical gradient.
The outcome of these transport processes using the proton electrochemical gradient is that more than 3 H are needed to make 1 ATP. Obviously this reduces the theoretical efficiency of the whole process and the likely maximum is closer to 28 -- 30 ATP molecules. In practice the efficiency may be even lower because the inner membrane of the mitochondria is slightly leaky to protons. Other factors may also dissipate the proton gradient creating an apparently leaky mitochondria. An uncoupling protein known as thermogenin is expressed in some cell types and is a channel that can transport protons. When this protein is active in the inner membrane it short circuits the coupling between the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis. The potential energy from the proton gradient is not used to make ATP but generates heat. This is particularly important in brown fat thermogenesis of newborn and hibernating mammals.
According to some of newer sources the ATP yield during aerobic respiration is not 36 -- 38, but only about 30 -- 32 ATP molecules / 1 molecule of glucose, because:
So finally we have, per molecule of glucose
Altogether this gives 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP per molecule of glucose
The total ATP yield in ethanol or lactic acid fermentation is only 2 molecules coming from glycolysis, because pyruvate is not transferred to the mitochondrion and finally oxidized to the carbon dioxide (CO), but reduced to ethanol or lactic acid in the cytoplasm.
Without oxygen, pyruvate (pyruvic acid) is not metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion, but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD+ for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid. This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain can not process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate - level phosphorylation, which does not require oxygen.
Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose: only 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose nominally produced by aerobic respiration. This is because the waste products of fermentation still contain chemical potential energy that can be released by oxidation. Ethanol, for example, can be burned in an internal combustion engine like gasoline. Glycolytic ATP, however, is created more quickly. For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions. For multicellular organisms, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use fermentation to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so fermentation may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting.
Cellular respiration is the process by which biological fuels are oxidised in the presence of an inorganic electron acceptor (such as oxygen) to produce large amounts of energy, to drive the bulk production of ATP.
Anaerobic respiration is used by some microorganisms in which neither oxygen (aerobic respiration) nor pyruvate derivatives (fermentation) is the final electron acceptor. Rather, an inorganic acceptor such as sulfate or nitrate is used. Such organisms are typically found in unusual places such as underwater caves or near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean.
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where is the castle used in princess diaries | Longford castle - wikipedia
Longford Castle is located on the banks of the River Avon south of Salisbury, Wiltshire, England. It is the seat of the Earl of Radnor, and an example of the Elizabethan prodigy house.
In 1573 Thomas Gorges acquired the manor (at the time written "Langford ''), which was originally owned by the Servington (or Cervington) family. Prior to this the existing mansion house had been damaged by fire. In c. 1576 Thomas Gorges married Helena Snakenborg, the Swedish born dowager Marchioness of Northampton and Lady - in - waiting to Queen Elizabeth. They rebuilt the Longford property as a triangular Swedish pattern castle on the banks of the River Avon. The building work became very expensive due to problems with the subsoil. Sir Thomas Gorges, who was now governor of Hurst Castle, persuaded his wife to beg of the Queen a shipwreck he knew from the defeated Spanish Armada. The gift was granted and the gold and silver retrieved from the shipwreck funded the completion of the castle under the final supervision of John Thorpe in 1591. The family lived in the castle for several years before its final completion.
The main building had several floors and was triangular with a round tower in each corner; the three towers representing the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost. There was a chapel, kitchen department, several boudoirs and sitting rooms, as well as bedrooms. Fresh cold water was pumped to various floors and there were water closets operating with rainwater. A park, fruit garden and kitchen garden were attached.
In 1717 Longford Castle became the Bouverie home, purchased by Sir Edward des Bouverie from the Coleraines. It is said that Sir Edward saw and fell in love with the castle in the valley as he rode past, having enough money in his saddle bags to effect the purchase there and then. Subsequent generations of the family beautified the interior of the castle and surrounding park. However, Jacob, 2nd Earl of Radnor (1749 - 1828), employed James Wyatt to change Longford from a reasonably modest chateau into a hexagonal palace "to the despair of future generations ''. He destroyed one of the Elizabethan towers and replaced it with a larger one of his own design, added two more towers and linked each to each other. The palace concept was not finished. It was Jacob, 4th Earl of Radnor (1815 - 1889), who oversaw the last significant changes to the castle architecture, undertaken by Anthony Salvin. These included the formation of a second courtyard, the doming over of the central courtyard and the addition of a square tower that can be seen in the aerial photograph.
The castle is Grade I listed.
It is currently the seat of William Pleydell - Bouverie, 9th Earl of Radnor, and is open to the public for pre-booked tours on 28 days of each year.
Coordinates: 51 ° 2 ′ 21.0 '' N 1 ° 45 ′ 24.93 '' W / 51.039167 ° N 1.7569250 ° W / 51.039167; - 1.7569250
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when did moneyball win their first playoff series | List of Oakland Athletics seasons - wikipedia
The Oakland Athletics, formerly known as the Philadelphia and Kansas City Athletics, are a professional baseball team based in Oakland, California. The Athletics have played in the American League (AL) ever since the league formed in 1901.
The Athletics have won nine World Series titles, and are the only team apart from the New York Yankees to complete a World Series "three - peat '', which they did between 1972 and 1974. As the Philadelphia Athletics, the team had a golden period between 1909 and 1914, when they won three World Series, and had three consecutive 100 - win seasons between 1929 and 1931 with two further titles. In the period from 1988 to 1992 the Athletics - now based in Oakland - played in three further World Series and won one, whilst from 1999 to 2006 they had winning records every season but never played in another World Series.
The Athletics have had some bad periods of failure to counterbalance these golden eras. During and after World War I, the Athletics had nine consecutive losing seasons including the lowest win percentage in post-1900 major league baseball of. 235 in 1916 and only 36 wins in 1919. Between 1934 and 1967 in Philadelphia and later Kansas City the team had sequences of 13 and 15 consecutive losing seasons and overall won 2,119 games and lost 3,147 for a winning percentage of. 402.
The following table describes the Athletics ' MLB win -- loss record by decade.
These statistics are from Baseball-Reference.com 's Oakland Athletics History & Encyclopedia, and are current as of October 18, 2016.
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who came up with the idea of reincarnation | Reincarnation - wikipedia
Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each biological death. It is also called rebirth or transmigration, and is a part of the Saṃsāra doctrine of cyclic existence. It is a central tenet of all major Indian religions, namely Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The idea of reincarnation is found in many ancient cultures, and a belief in rebirth / metempsychosis was held by Greek historic figures, such as Pythagoras, Socrates, and Plato. It is also a common belief of various ancient and modern religions such as Spiritism, Theosophy, and Eckankar and is found as well in many tribal societies around the world, in places such as Australia, East Asia, Siberia, and South America.
Although the majority of denominations within the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not believe that individuals reincarnate, particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers of Kabbalah, the Cathars, Alawites, the Druze, and the Rosicrucians. The historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic of Neoplatonism, Orphism, Hermeticism, Manicheanism, and Gnosticism of the Roman era as well as the Indian religions have been the subject of recent scholarly research. Unity Church and its founder Charles Fillmore teach reincarnation.
In recent decades, many Europeans and North Americans have developed an interest in reincarnation, and many contemporary works mention it.
The word "reincarnation '' derives from Latin, literally meaning, "entering the flesh again ''. The Greek equivalent metempsychosis (μετεμψύχωσις) derives from meta (change) and empsykhoun (to put a soul into), a term attributed to Pythagoras. An alternate term is transmigration implying migration from one life (body) to another. Reincarnation refers to the belief that an aspect of every human being (or all living beings in some cultures) continues to exist after death, this aspect may be the soul or mind or consciousness or something transcendent which is reborn in an interconnected cycle of existence; the transmigration belief varies by culture, and is envisioned to be in the form of a newly born human being, or animal, or plant, or spirit, or as a being in some other non-human realm of existence. The term has been used by modern philosophers such as Kurt Gödel and has entered the English language. Another Greek term sometimes used synonymously is palingenesis, "being born again ''.
Rebirth is a key concept found in major Indian religions, and discussed with various terms. Punarjanman (Sanskrit: पुनर्जन्मन्) means "rebirth, transmigration ''. Reincarnation is discussed in the ancient Sanskrit texts of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism, with many alternate terms such as punarāvṛtti (पुनरावृत्ति), punarājāti (पुनराजाति), punarjīvātu (पुनर्जीवातु), punarbhava (पुनर्भव), āgati - gati (आगति - गति, common in Buddhist Pali text), nibbattin (निब्बत्तिन्), upapatti (उपपत्ति), and uppajjana (उप्पज्जन). These religions believe that this reincarnation is cyclic and an endless Saṃsāra, unless one gains spiritual insights that ends this cycle leading to liberation. The reincarnation concept is considered in Indian religions as a step that starts each "cycle of aimless drifting, wandering or mundane existence '', but one that is an opportunity to seek spiritual liberation through ethical living and a variety of meditative, yogic (marga), or other spiritual practices. They consider the release from the cycle of reincarnations as the ultimate spiritual goal, and call the liberation by terms such as moksha, nirvana, mukti and kaivalya. However, the Buddhist, Hindu and Jain traditions have differed, since ancient times, in their assumptions and in their details on what reincarnates, how reincarnation occurs and what leads to liberation.
Gilgul, Gilgul neshamot or Gilgulei Ha Neshamot (Heb. גלגול הנשמות) refers to the concept of reincarnation in Kabbalistic Judaism, found in much Yiddish literature among Ashkenazi Jews. Gilgul means "cycle '' and neshamot is "souls ''. Kabbalistic reincarnation says that humans reincarnate only to humans and to the same sex only: men to men, women to women.
The origins of the notion of reincarnation are obscure. Discussion of the subject appears in the philosophical traditions of India. The Greek Pre-Socratics discussed reincarnation, and the Celtic Druids are also reported to have taught a doctrine of reincarnation.
The ideas associated with reincarnation may have arisen independently in different regions, or they might have spread as a result of cultural contact. Proponents of cultural transmission have looked for links between Iron Age Celtic, Greek and Vedic philosophy and religion, some even suggesting that belief in reincarnation was present in Proto - Indo - European religion. In ancient European, Iranian and Indian agricultural cultures, the life cycles of birth, death, and rebirth were recognized as a replica of natural agricultural cycles.
The idea of reincarnation has early roots in the Vedic period (c. 1500 -- c. 500 BCE), predating the Buddha and the Mahavira. The concepts of the cycle of birth and death, samsara, and liberation partly derive from ascetic traditions that arose in India around the middle of the first millennium BCE. Though no direct evidence of this has been found, the tribes of the Ganges valley or the Dravidian traditions of South India have been proposed as another early source of reincarnation beliefs.
Hinduism 's Rigveda makes references to reincarnation in the Brahmanas layer. Though these early textual layers of the Vedas, from 2nd millennium BCE, mention and anticipate the doctrine of Karma and rebirth, the idea is not fully developed. It is in the early Upanishads, which are pre-Buddha and pre-Mahavira, where these ideas are more explicitly developed in a general way. Detailed descriptions first appear around the mid 1st millennium BCE in diverse traditions, including Buddhism, Jainism and various schools of Hindu philosophy, each of which gave unique expression to the general principle.
The texts of ancient Jainism that have survived into the modern era are post-Mahavira, likely from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE, and extensively mention rebirth and karma doctrines. The Jaina philosophy assumes that the soul (Jiva in Jainism, Atman in Hinduism) exists and is eternal, passing through cycles of transmigration and rebirth. After death, reincarnation into a new body is asserted to be instantaneous in early Jaina texts. Depending upon the accumulated karma, rebirth occurs into a higher or lower bodily form, either in heaven or hell or earthly realm. No bodily form is permanent: everyone dies and reincarnates further. Liberation (kevalya) from reincarnation is possible, however, through removing and ending karmic accumulations to one 's soul. From the early stages of Jainism on, a human being was considered the highest mortal being, with the potential to achieve liberation, particularly through asceticism.
The early Buddhist texts discuss rebirth as part of the doctrine of Saṃsāra. This asserts that the nature of existence is a "suffering - laden cycle of life, death, and rebirth, without beginning or end ''. Also referred to as the wheel of existence (Bhavacakra), it is often mentioned in Buddhist texts with the term punarbhava (rebirth, re-becoming). Liberation from this cycle of existence, Nirvana, is the foundation and the most important purpose of Buddhism. Buddhist texts also assert that an enlightened person knows his previous births, a knowledge achieved through high levels of meditative concentration. Tibetan Buddhism discusses death, bardo (an intermediate state), and rebirth in texts such as the Tibetan Book of the Dead. While Nirvana is taught as the ultimate goal in the Theravadin Buddhism, and is essential to Mahayana Buddhism, the vast majority of contemporary lay Buddhists focus on accumulating good karma and acquiring merit to achieve a better reincarnation in the next life.
In early Buddhist traditions, Saṃsāra cosmology consisted of five realms through which the wheel of existence cycled. This included hells (niraya), hungry ghosts (pretas), animals (tiryak), humans (manushya), and gods (devas, heavenly). In latter Buddhist traditions, this list grew to a list of six realms of rebirth, adding demi - gods (asuras).
The earliest layers of Vedic text incorporate the concept of life, followed by an afterlife in heaven and hell based on cumulative virtues (merit) or vices (demerit). However, the ancient Vedic Rishis challenged this idea of afterlife as simplistic, because people do not live an equally moral or immoral life. Between generally virtuous lives, some are more virtuous; while evil too has degrees, and the texts assert that it would be unfair for people, with varying degrees of virtue or vices, to end up in heaven or hell, in "either or '' and disproportionate manner irrespective of how virtuous or vicious their lives were. They introduced the idea of an afterlife in heaven or hell in proportion to one 's merit, and when this runs out, one returns and is reborn. This idea appears in ancient and medieval texts, as the cycle of life, death, rebirth and redeath, such as section 6: 31 of the Mahabharata and section 6.10 of Devi Bhagavata Purana.
Early texts of Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism share the concepts and terminology related to reincarnation. They also emphasize similar virtuous practices and karma as necessary for liberation and what influences future rebirths. For example, all three discuss various virtues -- sometimes grouped as Yamas and Niyamas -- such as non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, non-possessiveness, compassion for all living beings, charity and many others.
Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism disagree in their assumptions and theories about rebirth. Hinduism relies on its foundational assumption that "soul, Self exists '' (Atman, attā), in contrast to Buddhist assumption that there is "no soul, no Self '' (Anatta, anatman). Hindu traditions consider soul to be the unchanging eternal essence of a living being, and what journeys across reincarnations until it attains self - knowledge. Buddhism, in contrast, asserts a rebirth theory without a Self, and considers realization of non-Self or Emptiness as Nirvana (nibbana). Thus Buddhism and Hinduism have a very different view on whether a self or soul exists, which impacts the details of their respective rebirth theories.
The reincarnation doctrine in Jainism differs from those in Buddhism, even though both are non-theistic Sramana traditions. Jainism, in contrast to Buddhism, accepts the foundational assumption that soul exists (Jiva) and asserts this soul is involved in the rebirth mechanism. Further, Jainism considers asceticism as an important means to spiritual liberation that ends all reincarnation, while Buddhism does not.
Early Greek discussion of the concept likewise dates to the 6th century BCE. An early Greek thinker known to have considered rebirth is Pherecydes of Syros (fl. 540 BCE). His younger contemporary Pythagoras (c. 570 -- c. 495 BCE), its first famous exponent, instituted societies for its diffusion. Plato (428 / 427 -- 348 / 347 BCE) presented accounts of reincarnation in his works, particularly the Myth of Er.
Authorities have not agreed on how the notion arose in Greece: sometimes Pythagoras is said to have been Pherecydes ' pupil, sometimes to have introduced it with the doctrine of Orphism, a Thracian religion that was to be important in the diffusion of reincarnation, or else to have brought the teaching from India. In Phaedo, Plato makes his teacher Socrates, prior to his death, state: "I am confident that there truly is such a thing as living again, and that the living spring from the dead. '' However Xenophon does not mention Socrates as believing in reincarnation and Plato may have systematised Socrates ' thought with concepts he took directly from Pythagoreanism or Orphism.
The Orphic religion, which taught reincarnation, about the 6th century BC, organized itself into mystery schools at Eleusis and elsewhere, and produced a copious literature. Orpheus, its legendary founder, is said to have taught that the immortal soul aspires to freedom while the body holds it prisoner. The wheel of birth revolves, the soul alternates between freedom and captivity round the wide circle of necessity. Orpheus proclaimed the need of the grace of the gods, Dionysus in particular, and of self - purification until the soul has completed the spiral ascent of destiny to live for ever.
An association between Pythagorean philosophy and reincarnation was routinely accepted throughout antiquity. In the Republic Plato makes Socrates tell how Er, the son of Armenius, miraculously returned to life on the twelfth day after death and recounted the secrets of the other world. There are myths and theories to the same effect in other dialogues, in the Chariot allegory of the Phaedrus, in the Meno, Timaeus and Laws. The soul, once separated from the body, spends an indeterminate amount of time in "formland '' (see The Allegory of the Cave in The Republic) and then assumes another body.
In later Greek literature the doctrine is mentioned in a fragment of Menander and satirized by Lucian. In Roman literature it is found as early as Ennius, who, in a lost passage of his Annals, told how he had seen Homer in a dream, who had assured him that the same soul which had animated both the poets had once belonged to a peacock. Persius in his satires (vi. 9) laughs at this, it is referred to also by Lucretius and Horace.
Virgil works the idea into his account of the Underworld in the sixth book of the Aeneid. It persists down to the late classic thinkers, Plotinus and the other Neoplatonists. In the Hermetica, a Graeco - Egyptian series of writings on cosmology and spirituality attributed to Hermes Trismegistus / Thoth, the doctrine of reincarnation is central.
In Greco - Roman thought, the concept of metempsychosis disappeared with the rise of Early Christianity, reincarnation being incompatible with the Christian core doctrine of salvation of the faithful after death. It has been suggested that some of the early Church Fathers, especially Origen, still entertained a belief in the possibility of reincarnation, but evidence is tenuous, and the writings of Origen as they have come down to us speak explicitly against it.
Some early Christian Gnostic sects professed reincarnation. The Sethians and followers of Valentinus believed in it. The followers of Bardaisan of Mesopotamia, a sect of the 2nd century deemed heretical by the Catholic Church, drew upon Chaldean astrology, to which Bardaisan 's son Harmonius, educated in Athens, added Greek ideas including a sort of metempsychosis. Another such teacher was Basilides (132 --? CE / AD), known to us through the criticisms of Irenaeus and the work of Clement of Alexandria (see also Neoplatonism and Gnosticism and Buddhism and Gnosticism).
In the third Christian century Manichaeism spread both east and west from Babylonia, then within the Sassanid Empire, where its founder Mani lived about 216 -- 276. Manichaean monasteries existed in Rome in 312 AD. Noting Mani 's early travels to the Kushan Empire and other Buddhist influences in Manichaeism, Richard Foltz attributes Mani 's teaching of reincarnation to Buddhist influence. However the inter-relation of Manicheanism, Orphism, Gnosticism and neo-Platonism is far from clear.
In the 1st century BCE Alexander Cornelius Polyhistor wrote:
The Pythagorean doctrine prevails among the Gauls ' teaching that the souls of men are immortal, and that after a fixed number of years they will enter into another body.
Julius Caesar recorded that the druids of Gaul, Britain and Ireland had metempsychosis as one of their core doctrines:
The principal point of their doctrine is that the soul does not die and that after death it passes from one body into another... the main object of all education is, in their opinion, to imbue their scholars with a firm belief in the indestructibility of the human soul, which, according to their belief, merely passes at death from one tenement to another; for by such doctrine alone, they say, which robs death of all its terrors, can the highest form of human courage be developed.
The belief in reincarnation had first existed amongst Jewish mystics in the Ancient World, among whom differing explanation given of the after - life, although with a universal belief in an immortal soul. Today, reincarnation is an esoteric belief within many streams of modern Judaism. Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism), teaches a belief in gilgul, transmigration of souls, and hence the belief in reincarnation is universal in Hasidic Judaism, which regards the Kabbalah as sacred and authoritative, and is also held as an esoteric belief within Modern Orthodox Judaism. In Judaism, the Zohar, first published in the 13th century, discusses reincarnation at length, especially in the Torah portion "Balak. '' The most comprehensive kabbalistic work on reincarnation, Shaar HaGilgulim, was written by Chaim Vital, based on the teachings of his mentor, the 16th century kabbalist Isaac Luria, who was said to know the past lives of each person through his semi-prophetic abilities. The 18th century Lithuanian master scholar and kabbalist, Rabbi Elijah, known as the Vilna Gaon (Elijah of Vilna), authored a commentary on the biblical Book of Jonah as an allegory of reincarnation.
The practice of conversion to Judaism is sometimes understood within Orthodox Judaism in terms of reincarnation. According to this school of thought in Judaism, when non-Jews are drawn to Judaism, it is because they had been Jews in a former life. Such souls may "wander among nations '' through multiple lives, until they find their way back to Judaism, including through finding themselves born in a gentile family with a "lost '' Jewish ancestor.
There is an extensive literature of Jewish folk and traditional stories that refer to reincarnation.
Taoist documents from as early as the Han Dynasty claimed that Lao Tzu appeared on earth as different persons in different times beginning in the legendary era of Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. The (ca. 3rd century BC) Chuang Tzu states: "Birth is not a beginning; death is not an end. There is existence without limitation; there is continuity without a starting - point. Existence without limitation is Space. Continuity without a starting point is Time. There is birth, there is death, there is issuing forth, there is entering in. ''
Around the 11 -- 12th century several reincarnationist movements were persecuted as heresies, through the establishment of the Inquisition in the Latin west. These included the Cathar, Paterene or Albigensian church of western Europe, the Paulician movement, which arose in Armenia, and the Bogomils in Bulgaria.
Christian sects such as the Bogomils and the Cathars, who professed reincarnation and other gnostic beliefs, were referred to as "Manichean '', and are today sometimes described by scholars as "Neo-Manichean ''. As there is no known Manichaean mythology or terminology in the writings of these groups there has been some dispute among historians as to whether these groups truly were descendants of Manichaeism.
Reincarnation also appears in Norse mythology, in the Poetic Edda. The editor of the Poetic Edda says that Helgi Hjörvarðsson and his mistress, the valkyrie Sváfa, whose love story is told in the poem Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar, were reborn as Helgi Hundingsbane and the valkyrie Sigrún. Helgi and Sigrún 's love story is the matter of a part of the Völsunga saga and the lays Helgakviða Hundingsbana I and II. They were reborn a second time as Helgi Haddingjaskati and the valkyrie Kára, but unfortunately their story, Káruljóð, only survives in a probably modified form in the Hrómundar saga Gripssonar.
The belief in reincarnation may have been commonplace among the Norse since the annotator of the Poetic Edda wrote that people formerly used to believe in it:
Sigrun was early dead of sorrow and grief. It was believed in olden times that people were born again, but that is now called old wives ' folly. Of Helgi and Sigrun it is said that they were born again; he became Helgi Haddingjaskati, and she Kara the daughter of Halfdan, as is told in the Lay of Kara, and she was a Valkyrie.
While reincarnation has been a matter of faith in some communities from an early date it has also frequently been argued for on principle, as Plato does when he argues that the number of souls must be finite because souls are indestructible, Benjamin Franklin held a similar view. Sometimes such convictions, as in Socrates ' case, arise from a more general personal faith, at other times from anecdotal evidence such as Plato makes Socrates offer in the Myth of Er.
During the Renaissance translations of Plato, the Hermetica and other works fostered new European interest in reincarnation. Marsilio Ficino argued that Plato 's references to reincarnation were intended allegorically, Shakespeare made fun but Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake by authorities after being found guilty of heresy by the Roman Inquisition for his teachings. But the Greek philosophical works remained available and, particularly in north Europe, were discussed by groups such as the Cambridge Platonists.
By the 19th century the philosophers Schopenhauer and Nietzsche could access the Indian scriptures for discussion of the doctrine of reincarnation, which recommended itself to the American Transcendentalists Henry David Thoreau, Walt Whitman and Ralph Waldo Emerson and was adapted by Francis Bowen into Christian Metempsychosis.
By the early 20th century, interest in reincarnation had been introduced into the nascent discipline of psychology, largely due to the influence of William James, who raised aspects of the philosophy of mind, comparative religion, the psychology of religious experience and the nature of empiricism. James was influential in the founding of the American Society for Psychical Research (ASPR) in New York City in 1885, three years after the British Society for Psychical Research (SPR) was inaugurated in London, leading to systematic, critical investigation of paranormal phenomena.
At this time popular awareness of the idea of reincarnation was boosted by the Theosophical Society 's dissemination of systematised and universalised Indian concepts and also by the influence of magical societies like The Golden Dawn. Notable personalities like Annie Besant, W.B. Yeats and Dion Fortune made the subject almost as familiar an element of the popular culture of the west as of the east. By 1924 the subject could be satirised in popular children 's books.
Théodore Flournoy was among the first to study a claim of past - life recall in the course of his investigation of the medium Hélène Smith, published in 1900, in which he defined the possibility of cryptomnesia in such accounts. Carl Gustav Jung, like Flournoy based in Switzerland, also emulated him in his thesis based on a study of cryptomnesia in psychism. Later Jung would emphasise the importance of the persistence of memory and ego in psychological study of reincarnation: "This concept of rebirth necessarily implies the continuity of personality... (that) one is able, at least potentially, to remember that one has lived through previous existences, and that these existences were one 's own... '' Hypnosis, used in psychoanalysis for retrieving forgotten memories, was eventually tried as a means of studying the phenomenon of past life recall.
According to various Buddhist scriptures, Gautama Buddha believed in the existence of an afterlife in another world and in reincarnation,
Since there actually is another world (any world other than the present human one, i.e. different rebirth realms), one who holds the view ' there is no other world ' has wrong view...
The Buddha also asserted that karma influences rebirth, and that the cycles of repeated births and deaths are endless. Before the birth of Buddha, ancient Indian scholars had developed competing theories of afterlife, including the materialistic school such as Charvaka, which posited that death is the end, there is no afterlife, no soul, no rebirth, no karma, and they described death to be a state where a living being is completely annihilated, dissolved. Buddha rejected this theory, adopted the alternate existing theories on rebirth, criticizing the materialistic schools that denied rebirth and karma, states Damien Keown. Such beliefs are inappropriate and dangerous, stated Buddha, because such annihilationism views encourage moral irresponsibility and material hedonism; he tied moral responsibility to rebirth.
The Buddha introduced the concept that there is no permanent self (soul), and this central concept in Buddhism is called anattā. Major contemporary Buddhist traditions such as Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions accept the teachings of Buddha. These teachings assert there is rebirth, there is no permanent self and no irreducible ātman (soul) moving from life to another and tying these lives together, there is impermanence, that all compounded things such as living beings are aggregates dissolve at death, but every being reincarnates. The rebirth cycles continue endlessly, states Buddhism, and it is a source of Dukkha (suffering, pain), but this reincarnation and Dukkha cycle can be stopped through nirvana. The anattā doctrine of Buddhism is a contrast to Hinduism, the latter asserting that "soul exists, it is involved in rebirth, and it is through this soul that everything is connected ''.
Different traditions within Buddhism have offered different theories on what reincarnates and how reincarnation happens. One theory suggests that it occurs through consciousness (Pali: samvattanika - viññana) or stream of consciousness (Pali: viññana - sotam, Sanskrit: vijñāna - srotām, vijñāna - santāna, or citta - santāna) upon death, which reincarnates into a new aggregation. This process, states this theory, is similar to the flame of a dying candle lighting up another. The consciousness in the newly born being is neither identical to nor entirely different from that in the deceased but the two form a causal continuum or stream in this Buddhist theory. Transmigration is influenced by a being 's past karma (kamma). The root cause of rebirth, states Buddhism, is the abiding of consciousness in ignorance (Pali: avijja, Sanskrit: avidya) about the nature of reality, and when this ignorance is uprooted, rebirth ceases.
Buddhist traditions also vary in their mechanistic details on rebirth. Theravada Buddhists assert that rebirth is immediate while the Tibetan schools hold to the notion of a bardo (intermediate state) that can last up to 49 days. The bardo rebirth concept of Tibetan Buddhism, along with yidam, developed independently in Tibet without Indian influence, and involves 42 peaceful deities, and 58 wrathful deities. These ideas led to mechanistic maps on karma and what form of rebirth one takes after death, discussed in texts such as The Tibetan Book of the Dead. The major Buddhist traditions accept that the reincarnation of a being depends on the past karma and merit (demerit) accumulated, and that there are six realms of existence in which the rebirth may occur after each death.
Within Japanese Zen, reincarnation is accepted by some, but rejected by others. A distinction can be drawn between "folk Zen '', as in the Zen practiced by devotional lay people, and "philosophical Zen ''. Folk Zen generally accepts the various supernatural elements of Buddhism such as rebirth. Philosophical Zen, however, places more emphasis on the present moment.
Some schools conclude that karma continues to exist and adhere to the person until it works out its consequences. For the Sautrantika school, each act "perfumes '' the individual or "plants a seed '' that later germinates. Tibetan Buddhism stresses the state of mind at the time of death. To die with a peaceful mind will stimulate a virtuous seed and a fortunate rebirth; a disturbed mind will stimulate a non-virtuous seed and an unfortunate rebirth.
The body dies, assert the Hindu traditions, but not the soul, which they assume to be the eternal reality, indestructible and bliss. Everything and all existence is believed to be connected and cyclical in Hinduism, all living beings composed of two things, the soul and the body or matter. Atman does not change and can not change by its innate nature in the Hindu belief. In contrast, the body and personality, can change, constantly changes, is born and dies. Current Karma impacts the future circumstances in this life, as well as the future forms and realms of lives. Good intent and actions lead to good future, bad intent and actions lead to bad future, impacting how one reincarnates, in the Hindu view of existence.
There is no permanent heaven or hell in Hinduism. In the afterlife, based on one 's karma, the soul is reborn as another being in heaven, hell, or a living being on earth (human, animal). Gods too die once their past karmic merit runs out, as do those in hell, and they return getting another chance on earth. This reincarnation continues, endlessly in cycles, until one embarks on a spiritual pursuit, realizes self - knowledge, and thereby gains mokṣa, the final release out of the reincarnation cycles. This release is believed to be a state of utter bliss, which Hindu traditions believe is either related or identical to Brahman, the unchanging reality that existed before the creation of universe, continues to exist, and shall exist after the universe ends.
The Upanishads, part of the scriptures of the Hindu traditions, primarily focus on the liberation from reincarnation. The Bhagavad Gita discusses various paths to liberation. The Upanishads, states Harold Coward, offer a "very optimistic view regarding the perfectibility of human nature '', and the goal of human effort in these texts is a continuous journey to self - perfection and self - knowledge so as to end Saṃsāra -- the endless cycle of rebirth and redeath. The aim of spiritual quest in the Upanishadic traditions is find the true self within and to know one 's soul, a state that it believes leads to blissful state of freedom, moksha.
The Bhagavad Gita states:
Just as in the body childhood, adulthood and old age happen to an embodied being. So also he (the embodied being) acquires another body. The wise one is not deluded about this. -- (2: 13)
As, after casting away worn out garments, a man later takes new ones. So after casting away worn out bodies, the embodied Self encounters other new ones. -- (2: 22)
When an embodied being transcends, these three qualities which are the source of the body. Released from birth, death, old age and pain, he attains immortality. -- (14: 20)
There are internal differences within Hindu traditions on reincarnation and the state of moksha. For example, the dualistic devotional traditions such as Madhvacharya 's Dvaita Vedanta tradition of Hinduism champion a theistic premise, assert that human soul and Brahman are different, loving devotion to Brahman (god Vishnu in Madhvacharya 's theology) is the means to release from Samsara, it is the grace of God which leads to moksha, and spiritual liberation is achievable only in after - life (videhamukti). The nondualistic traditions such as Adi Shankara 's Advaita Vedanta tradition of Hinduism champion a monistic premise, asserting that the individual human soul and Brahman are identical, only ignorance, impulsiveness and inertia leads to suffering through Saṃsāra, in reality they are no dualities, meditation and self - knowledge is the path to liberation, the realization that one 's soul is identical to Brahman is moksha, and spiritual liberation is achievable in this life (jivanmukti).
In Jainism, the reincarnation doctrine, along with its theories of Saṃsāra and Karma, are central to its theological foundations, as evidenced by the extensive literature on it in the major sects of Jainism, and their pioneering ideas on these topics from the earliest times of the Jaina tradition. Reincarnation in contemporary Jainism traditions is the belief that the worldly life is characterized by continuous rebirths and suffering in various realms of existence.
Karma forms a central and fundamental part of Jain faith, being intricately connected to other of its philosophical concepts like transmigration, reincarnation, liberation, non-violence (ahiṃsā) and non-attachment, among others. Actions are seen to have consequences: some immediate, some delayed, even into future incarnations. So the doctrine of karma is not considered simply in relation to one life - time, but also in relation to both future incarnations and past lives. Uttarādhyayana - sūtra 3.3 -- 4 states: "The jīva or the soul is sometimes born in the world of gods, sometimes in hell. Sometimes it acquires the body of a demon; all this happens on account of its karma. This jīva sometimes takes birth as a worm, as an insect or as an ant. '' The text further states (32.7): "Karma is the root of birth and death. The souls bound by karma go round and round in the cycle of existence. ''
Actions and emotions in the current lifetime affect future incarnations depending on the nature of the particular karma. For example, a good and virtuous life indicates a latent desire to experience good and virtuous themes of life. Therefore, such a person attracts karma that ensures that his future births will allow him to experience and manifest his virtues and good feelings unhindered. In this case, he may take birth in heaven or in a prosperous and virtuous human family. On the other hand, a person who has indulged in immoral deeds, or with a cruel disposition, indicates a latent desire to experience cruel themes of life. As a natural consequence, he will attract karma which will ensure that he is reincarnated in hell, or in lower life forms, to enable his soul to experience the cruel themes of life.
There is no retribution, judgment or reward involved but a natural consequences of the choices in life made either knowingly or unknowingly. Hence, whatever suffering or pleasure that a soul may be experiencing in its present life is on account of choices that it has made in the past. As a result of this doctrine, Jainism attributes supreme importance to pure thinking and moral behavior.
The Jain texts postulate four gatis, that is states - of - existence or birth - categories, within which the soul transmigrates. The four gatis are: deva (demi - gods), manuṣya (humans), nāraki (hell beings) and tiryañca (animals, plants and micro-organisms). The four gatis have four corresponding realms or habitation levels in the vertically tiered Jain universe: demi - gods occupy the higher levels where the heavens are situated; humans, plants and animals occupy the middle levels; and hellish beings occupy the lower levels where seven hells are situated.
Single - sensed souls, however, called nigoda, and element - bodied souls pervade all tiers of this universe. Nigodas are souls at the bottom end of the existential hierarchy. They are so tiny and undifferentiated, that they lack even individual bodies, living in colonies. According to Jain texts, this infinity of nigodas can also be found in plant tissues, root vegetables and animal bodies. Depending on its karma, a soul transmigrates and reincarnates within the scope of this cosmology of destinies. The four main destinies are further divided into sub-categories and still smaller sub-sub - categories. In all, Jain texts speak of a cycle of 8.4 million birth destinies in which souls find themselves again and again as they cycle within samsara.
In Jainism, God has no role to play in an individual 's destiny; one 's personal destiny is not seen as a consequence of any system of reward or punishment, but rather as a result of its own personal karma. A text from a volume of the ancient Jain canon, Bhagvati sūtra 8.9. 9, links specific states of existence to specific karmas. Violent deeds, killing of creatures having five sense organs, eating fish, and so on, lead to rebirth in hell. Deception, fraud and falsehood lead to rebirth in the animal and vegetable world. Kindness, compassion and humble character result in human birth; while austerities and the making and keeping of vows lead to rebirth in heaven.
Each soul is thus responsible for its own predicament, as well as its own salvation. Accumulated karma represent a sum total of all unfulfilled desires, attachments and aspirations of a soul. It enables the soul to experience the various themes of the lives that it desires to experience. Hence a soul may transmigrate from one life form to another for countless of years, taking with it the karma that it has earned, until it finds conditions that bring about the required fruits. In certain philosophies, heavens and hells are often viewed as places for eternal salvation or eternal damnation for good and bad deeds. But according to Jainism, such places, including the earth are simply the places which allow the soul to experience its unfulfilled karma.
Founded in the 15th century, Sikhism 's founder Guru Nanak had a choice between the cyclical reincarnation concept of ancient Indian religions and the linear concept of early 7th - century Islam, and he chose the cyclical concept of time. Sikhism teaches reincarnation theory similar to those in Hinduism, but with some differences from its traditional doctrines. Sikh rebirth theories about the nature of existence are similar to ideas that developed during the devotional Bhakti movement particularly within some Vaishnavism traditions, which define liberation as a state of union with God attained through the grace of God.
The doctrines of Sikhism teach that the soul exists, and is passed from one body to another in endless cycles of Saṃsāra, until liberation. Each birth begins karma (karam), these actions leave a karni (karmic signature) on one 's soul which influences rebirth states Sikhism, but it is God whose grace that liberates. The way out of the reincarnation cycle, asserts Sikhism, is to live an ethical life, devote oneself to God and constantly remember God 's name. The precepts of Sikhism encourage the bhakti of One Lord for mukti (liberation).
The Yoruba believe in reincarnation within the family. The names Babatunde (Father returns), Yetunde (Mother returns), Babatunji (Father wakes once again) and Sotunde (The wise man returns) all offer vivid evidence of the Ifa concept of familial or lineal rebirth. There is no simple guarantee that your grandfather or great uncle will "come back '' in the birth of your child, however.
Whenever the time arrives for a spirit to return to Earth (otherwise known as The Marketplace) through the conception of a new life in the direct bloodline of the family, one of the component entities of a person 's being returns, while the other remains in Heaven (Ikole Orun). The spirit that returns does so in the form of a Guardian Ori. One 's Guardian Ori, which is represented and contained in the crown of the head, represents not only the spirit and energy of one 's previous blood relative, but the accumulated wisdom he or she has acquired through a myriad of lifetimes. This is not to be confused with one 's spiritual Ori, which contains personal destiny, but instead refers to the coming back to The Marketplace of one 's personal blood Ori through one 's new life and experiences.
Jewish mystical texts (the Kabbalah), from their classic Medieval canon onward, teach a belief in Gilgul Neshamot (Hebrew for metempsychosis of souls: literally "soul cycle '', plural "gilgulim ''). It is a common belief in contemporary Hasidic Judaism, which regards the Kabbalah as sacred and authoritative, though unstressed in favour of a more innate psychological mysticism. Kabbalah also teaches that "The soul of Moses is reincarnated in every generation. '' Other, Non-Hasidic, Orthodox Jewish groups while not placing a heavy emphasis on reincarnation, do acknowledge it as a valid teaching. Its popularization entered modern secular Yiddish literature and folk motif.
The 16th century mystical renaissance in communal Safed replaced scholastic Rationalism as mainstream traditional Jewish theology, both in scholarly circles and in the popular imagination. References to gilgul in former Kabbalah became systematized as part of the metaphysical purpose of creation. Isaac Luria (the Ari) brought the issue to the centre of his new mystical articulation, for the first time, and advocated identification of the reincarnations of historic Jewish figures that were compiled by Haim Vital in his Shaar HaGilgulim. Gilgul is contrasted with the other processes in Kabbalah of Ibbur ("pregnancy ''), the attachment of a second soul to an individual for (or by) good means, and Dybuk ("possession ''), the attachment of a spirit, demon, etc. to an individual for (or by) "bad '' means.
In Lurianic Kabbalah, reincarnation is not retributive or fatalistic, but an expression of Divine compassion, the microcosm of the doctrine of cosmic rectification of creation. Gilgul is a heavenly agreement with the individual soul, conditional upon circumstances. Luria 's radical system focused on rectification of the Divine soul, played out through Creation. The true essence of anything is the divine spark within that gives it existence. Even a stone or leaf possesses such a soul that "came into this world to receive a rectification ''. A human soul may occasionally be exiled into lower inanimate, vegetative or animal creations. The most basic component of the soul, the nefesh, must leave at the cessation of blood production. There are four other soul components and different nations of the world possess different forms of souls with different purposes. Each Jewish soul is reincarnated in order to fulfill each of the 613 Mosaic commandments that elevate a particular spark of holiness associated with each commandment. Once all the Sparks are redeemed to their spiritual source, the Messianic Era begins. Non-Jewish observance of the 7 Laws of Noah assists the Jewish people, though Biblical adversaries of Israel reincarnate to oppose.
Among the many rabbis who accepted reincarnation are Nahmanides (the Ramban) and Rabbenu Bahya ben Asher, Levi ibn Habib (the Ralbah), Shelomoh Alkabez, Moses Cordovero, Moses Chaim Luzzatto; early Hasidic masters such as the Baal Shem Tov, Schneur Zalman of Liadi and Nachman of Breslov, as well as many later Hasidic masters; contemporary Hasidic teachers such as DovBer Pinson and Moshe Weinberger; and key Mitnagdic leaders, such as the Vilna Gaon and Chaim Volozhin and their school, as well as the Ben Ish Chai of Baghdad, Baba Sali and Rabbi Joel Landau. Rabbis who have rejected the idea include Saadia Gaon, David Kimhi, Hasdai Crescas, Joseph Albo, Abraham ibn Daud, Leon de Modena, Solomon ben Aderet, Maimonides and Asher ben Jehiel. Among the Geonim, Hai Gaon argued in favour of gilgulim.
Reincarnation is an intrinsic part of many Native American and Inuit traditions. In the now heavily Christian Polar North (now mainly parts of Greenland and Nunavut), the concept of reincarnation is enshrined in the Inuit language.
The following is a story of human - to - human reincarnation as told by Thunder Cloud, a Winnebago (Ho - Chunk tribe) shaman referred to as T.C. in the narrative. Here T.C. talks about his two previous lives and how he died and came back again to this his third lifetime. He describes his time between lives, when he was "blessed '' by Earth Maker and all the abiding spirits and given special powers, including the ability to heal the sick.
T.C. 's Account of His Two Reincarnations:
I (my ghost) was taken to the place where the sun sets (the west)... While at that place, I thought I would come back to earth again, and the old man with whom I was staying said to me, "My son, did you not speak about wanting to go to the earth again? '' I had, as a matter of fact, only thought of it, yet he knew what I wanted. Then he said to me, "You can go, but you must ask the chief first. '' Then I went and told the chief of the village of my desire, and he said to me, "You may go and obtain your revenge upon the people who killed your relatives and you. '' Then I was brought down to earth... There I lived until I died of old age... As I was lying (in my grave), someone said to me, "Come, let us go away. '' So then we went toward the setting of the sun. There we came to a village where we met all the dead... From that place I came to this earth again for the third time, and here I am. (Radin, 1923)
Though the major Christian denominations reject the concept of reincarnation, a large number of Christians profess the belief. In a survey by the Pew Forum in 2009, 24 % of American Christians expressed a belief in reincarnation. In a 1981 Survey in Europe 31 % of regular churchgoing Catholics expressed a belief in reincarnation.
Geddes MacGregor, an Episcopalian priest and professor of Philosophy, makes a case for the compatibility of Christian doctrine and reincarnation.
There is evidence that the writing of Origen, a Church father in early Christian times, was mistranslated into Latin due to religious bias and that he taught reincarnation in his lifetime. One of the epistles written by St. Jerome, "To Avitus '' (Letter 124; Ad Avitum. Epistula CXXIV), asserts that Origen 's On First Principles (Latin: De Principiis; Greek: Περὶ Ἀρχῶν) was mistranscribed from Greek into Latin:
About ten years ago that saintly man Pammachius sent me a copy of a certain person 's (Rufinus 's) rendering, or rather misrendering, of Origen 's First Principles; with a request that in a Latin version I should give the true sense of the Greek and should set down the writer 's words for good or for evil without bias in either direction. When I did as he wished and sent him the book, he was shocked to read it and locked it up in his desk lest being circulated it might wound the souls of many.
Under the impression that Origen was a heretic like Arius, St. Jerome criticizes ideas described in On First Principles. Further in "To Avitus '' (Letter 124), St. Jerome writes about "convincing proof '' that Origen teaches reincarnation in the original version of the book:
The following passage is a convincing proof that he holds the transmigration of the souls and annihilation of bodies. ' If it can be shown that an incorporeal and reasonable being has life in itself independently of the body and that it is worse off in the body than out of it; then beyond a doubt bodies are only of secondary importance and arise from time to time to meet the varying conditions of reasonable creatures. Those who require bodies are clothed with them, and contrariwise, when fallen souls have lifted themselves up to better things, their bodies are once more annihilated. They are thus ever vanishing and ever reappearing. '
The original text of On First Principles has almost completely disappeared. It remains extant as De Principiis in fragments faithfully translated into Latin by St. Jerome and in "the not very reliable Latin translation of Rufinus. ''
Islamic scriptures reject any idea of reincarnation of human beings or God. It teaches a linear concept of life, wherein a human being has only one life and upon death he or she is judged by God, then rewarded in heaven or punished in hell. Islam teaches final resurrection and Judgement Day, but there is no prospect for the reincarnation of a human being into a different body or being. During the early history of Islam, some of the Caliphs persecuted all reincarnation - believing people to the point of extinction (Manichaeism) in Mesopotamia and Persia (modern day Iraq and Iran). However, some Muslim minority sects such as those found among Sufis, and some Muslims in South Asia and Indonesia have retained their pre-Islamic Hindu and Buddhist beliefs in reincarnation. For instance, historically, South Asian Isma'ilis performed chantas yearly, one of which is for seeking forgiveness of sins committed in past lives.
The idea of reincarnation is accepted by a few Muslim sects, particularly of the Ghulat, and by other sects in the Muslim world. Alawis belonging to Shia denomination of Islam hold that they were originally stars or divine lights that were cast out of heaven through disobedience and must undergo repeated reincarnation (or metempsychosis) before returning to heaven. They can be reincarnated as Christians or others through sin and as animals if they become infidels.
Reincarnation was also accepted by some streams of Sufism. Modern Sufis who embrace the idea include Bawa Muhaiyadeen. However Hazrat Inayat Khan has criticized the idea as unhelpful to the spiritual seeker.
Reincarnation is a paramount tenet in the Druze faith. There is an eternal duality of the body and the soul and it is impossible for the soul to exist without the body. Therefore, reincarnations occur instantly at one 's death. While in the Hindu and Buddhist belief system a soul can be transmitted to any living creature, in the Druze belief system this is not possible and a human soul will only transfer to a human body. Furthermore, a male Druze can only be reincarnated as another male Druze and a female Druze can only be reincarnated as another female Druze. Additionally, souls can not be divided and the number of souls existing is finite.
Very few Druzes are able to recall their past but, if they are able to they are called a Nateq. Typically souls who have died violent deaths in their previous incarnation will be able to recall memories. Since death is seen as a quick transient state, mourning is discouraged. Unlike other Abrahamic faiths, heaven and hell are spiritual. Heaven is the ultimate happiness received when soul escapes the cycle of rebirths and reunites with the Creator, while hell is conceptualized as the bitterness of being unable to reunite with the Creator and escape from the cycle of rebirth.
The Theosophical Society draws much of its inspiration from India. The idea is, according to a recent Theosophical writer, "the master - key to modern problems '', including heredity. In the Theosophical world - view reincarnation is the vast rhythmic process by which the soul, the part of a person which belongs to the formless non-material and timeless worlds, unfolds its spiritual powers in the world and comes to know itself. It descends from sublime, free, spiritual realms and gathers experience through its effort to express itself in the world. Afterwards there is a withdrawal from the physical plane to successively higher levels of reality, in death, a purification and assimilation of the past life. Having cast off all instruments of personal experience it stands again in its spiritual and formless nature, ready to begin its next rhythmic manifestation, every lifetime bringing it closer to complete self - knowledge and self - expression. However it may attract old mental, emotional, and energetic karma patterns to form the new personality.
Inspired by Helena Blavatsky 's major works, including Isis Unveiled and The Secret Doctrine, astrologers in the early twentieth - century integrated the concepts of karma and reincarnation into the practice of Western astrology. Notable astrologers who advanced this development included Alan Leo, Charles E.O. Carter, Marc Edmund Jones, and Dane Rudhyar. A new synthesis of East and West resulted as Hindu and Buddhist concepts of reincarnation were fused with Western astrology 's deep roots in Hermeticism and Neoplatonism. In the case of Rudhyar, this synthesis was enhanced with the addition of Jungian depth psychology. This dynamic integration of astrology, reincarnation and depth psychology has continued into the modern era with the work of astrologers Steven Forrest and Jeffrey Wolf Green. Their respective schools of Evolutionary Astrology are based on "an acceptance of the fact that human beings incarnate in a succession of lifetimes. ''
Anthroposophy describes reincarnation from the point of view of Western philosophy and culture. The ego is believed to transmute transient soul experiences into universals that form the basis for an individuality that can endure after death. These universals include ideas, which are intersubjective and thus transcend the purely personal (spiritual consciousness), intentionally formed human character (spiritual life), and becoming a fully conscious human being (spiritual humanity). Rudolf Steiner described both the general principles he believed to be operative in reincarnation, such as that one 's will activity in one life forms the basis for the thinking of the next, and a number of successive lives of various individualities.
Past reincarnation, usually termed "past lives '', is a key part of the principles and practices of the Church of Scientology. Scientologists believe that the human individual is actually a thetan, an immortal spiritual entity, that has fallen into a degraded state as a result of past - life experiences. Scientology auditing is intended to free the person of these past - life traumas and recover past - life memory, leading to a higher state of spiritual awareness. This idea is echoed in their highest fraternal religious order, the Sea Organization, whose motto is "Revenimus '' or "We Come Back '', and whose members sign a "billion - year contract '' as a sign of commitment to that ideal. L. Ron Hubbard, the founder of Scientology, does not use the word "reincarnation '' to describe its beliefs, noting that: "The common definition of reincarnation has been altered from its original meaning. The word has come to mean ' to be born again in different life forms ' whereas its actual definition is ' to be born again into the flesh of another body. ' Scientology ascribes to this latter, original definition of reincarnation. ''
The first writings in Scientology regarding past lives date from around 1951 and slightly earlier. In 1960, Hubbard published a book on past lives entitled Have You Lived Before This Life. In 1968 he wrote Mission into Time, a report on a five - week sailing expedition to Sardinia, Sicily and Carthage to see if specific evidence could be found to substantiate L. Ron Hubbard 's recall of incidents in his own past, centuries ago.
The Indian spiritual teacher Meher Baba stated that reincarnation occurs due to desires and once those desires are extinguished the ego - mind ceases to reincarnate.
Spiritism is a Christian philosophy codified in the 19th century by the French educator Allan Kardec. Spiritism teaches reincarnation or rebirth into human life after death. This basically distinguishes Spiritism from Spiritualism. According to the Spiritist doctrine, reincarnation explains the moral and intellectual differences among men. It also provides the path to man 's moral and intellectual perfection by amending for his mistakes and increasing his knowledge in successive lives. For this reason Spiritism does not accept rebirth in animals as this would be retrogressive. Reincarnation is the natural method of the perfection process through which the Spirit faces countless different situations, problems and obstacles, and needs to learn how to deal with them. The central tenet of Spiritist doctrine is the belief in spiritual life. The spirit is eternal, and evolves through a series of incarnations in the material world. The true life is the spiritual one; life in the material world is just a short - termed stage, where the spirit has the opportunity to learn and develop its potentials. Reincarnation is the process where the spirit, once free in the spiritual world, comes back to the world for further learning.
Wicca is a neo-pagan religion focused on nature, guided by the philosophy of Wiccan Rede that advocates Harm None, Do As Ye Will. The concept of karmic return in Wicca states that our deeds return to us threefold, or multiple times to teach us lessons (The Threefold Law), whether in this lifetime or the next. Reincarnation therefore is an accepted part of the Wiccan faith. Wiccans also believe in death and afterlife as important experiences for the soul to transform and prepare for future lifetimes.
Psychiatrist Ian Stevenson, from the University of Virginia, investigated many reports of young children who claimed to remember a past life. He conducted more than 2,500 case studies over a period of 40 years and published twelve books, including Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation and Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect. Stevenson methodically documented each child 's statements and then identified the deceased person the child identified with, and verified the facts of the deceased person 's life that matched the child 's memory. He also matched birthmarks and birth defects to wounds and scars on the deceased, verified by medical records such as autopsy photographs, in Reincarnation and Biology.
Stevenson searched for disconfirming evidence and alternative explanations for the reports, and believed that his strict methods ruled out all possible "normal '' explanations for the child 's memories. However, a significant majority of Stevenson 's reported cases of reincarnation originated in Eastern societies, where dominant religions often permit the concept of reincarnation. Following this type of criticism, Stevenson published a book on European Cases of the Reincarnation Type. Other people who have undertaken reincarnation research include Jim B. Tucker, Antonia Mills, Satwant Pasricha, Godwin Samararatne, and Erlendur Haraldsson.
Skeptics such as Paul Edwards have analyzed many of these accounts, and called them anecdotal, while also suggesting that claims of evidence for reincarnation originate from selective thinking and from the false memories that often result from one 's own belief system and basic fears, and thus can not be counted as empirical evidence. Carl Sagan referred to examples apparently from Stevenson 's investigations in his book The Demon - Haunted World as an example of carefully collected empirical data, though he rejected reincarnation as a parsimonious explanation for the stories. Sam Harris cited Stevenson 's works in his book The End of Faith as part of a body of data that seems to attest to the reality of psychic phenomena.
Stevenson claimed there were a handful of cases that suggested evidence of xenoglossy. These included two where a subject under hypnosis could allegedly converse with people speaking the foreign language, instead of merely being able to recite foreign words. Sarah Thomason, a linguist at the University of Michigan, reanalyzed these cases, concluding that "the linguistic evidence is too weak to provide support for the claims of xenoglossy. ''
Ian Wilson argued that a large number of Stevenson 's cases consisted of poor children remembering wealthy lives or belonging to a higher caste. He speculated that such cases may represent a scheme to obtain money from the family of the alleged former incarnation. The philosopher Keith Augustine has written "the vast majority of Stevenson 's cases come from countries where a religious belief in reincarnation is strong, and rarely elsewhere, seems to indicate that cultural conditioning (rather than reincarnation) generates claims of spontaneous past - life memories. '' According to the research of Robert Baker many of the alleged past - life experiences investigated by Stevenson and other parapsychologists can be explained in terms of known psychological factors. Baker has written that recalling past lives is a mixture of cryptomnesia and confabulation. The philosopher Paul Edwards noted that reincarnation invokes assumptions and is inconsistent with modern science.
Objections to claims of reincarnation include the facts that the vast majority of people do not remember previous lives and there is no mechanism known to modern science that would enable a personality to survive death and travel to another body. Researchers such as Stevenson have acknowledged these limitations.
During recent decades, many people in the West have developed an interest in reincarnation. Recent studies have indicated that some Westerners accept the idea of reincarnation including certain contemporary people who were from Catholic families, modern Neopagans, followers of Spiritism, Theosophists and students of esoteric philosophies such as Kabbalah, and Gnostic and Esoteric Christianity as well as followers of Indian religions. Demographic survey data from 1999 -- 2002 shows a significant minority of people from Europe and America, where there is reasonable freedom of thought and access to ideas but no outstanding recent reincarnationist tradition, believe we had a life before we were born, will survive death and be born again physically. The mean for the Nordic countries is 22 %. The belief in reincarnation is particularly high in the Baltic countries, with Lithuania having the highest figure for the whole of Europe, 44 %. The lowest figure is in East Germany, 12 %. In Russia, about one - third believes in reincarnation. The effect of communist anti-religious ideas on the beliefs of the populations of Eastern Europe seems to have been rather slight, if any, except apparently in East Germany. Overall, 22 % of respondents in Western Europe believe in reincarnation. According to a 2005 Gallup poll 20 percent of U.S. adults believe in reincarnation. Recent surveys by the Barna Group, a Christian research nonprofit organization, have found that a quarter of U.S. Christians, including 10 percent of all born again Christians, embrace the idea.
Skeptic Carl Sagan asked the Dalai Lama what he would do if a fundamental tenet of his religion (reincarnation) were definitively disproved by science. The Dalai Lama answered, "If science can disprove reincarnation, Tibetan Buddhism would abandon reincarnation... but it 's going to be mighty hard to disprove reincarnation. ''
Ian Stevenson reported that belief in reincarnation is held (with variations in details) by adherents of almost all major religions except Christianity and Islam. In addition, between 20 and 30 percent of persons in western countries who may be nominal Christians also believe in reincarnation.
One 1999 study by Walter and Waterhouse reviewed the previous data on the level of reincarnation belief and performed a set of thirty in - depth interviews in Britain among people who did not belong to a religion advocating reincarnation. The authors reported that surveys have found about one fifth to one quarter of Europeans have some level of belief in reincarnation, with similar results found in the USA. In the interviewed group, the belief in the existence of this phenomenon appeared independent of their age, or the type of religion that these people belonged to, with most being Christians. The beliefs of this group also did not appear to contain any more than usual of "new age '' ideas (broadly defined) and the authors interpreted their ideas on reincarnation as "one way of tackling issues of suffering '', but noted that this seemed to have little effect on their private lives.
Waterhouse also published a detailed discussion of beliefs expressed in the interviews. She noted that although most people "hold their belief in reincarnation quite lightly '' and were unclear on the details of their ideas, personal experiences such as past - life memories and near - death experiences had influenced most believers, although only a few had direct experience of these phenomena. Waterhouse analyzed the influences of second - hand accounts of reincarnation, writing that most of the people in the survey had heard other people 's accounts of past - lives from regression hypnosis and dreams and found these fascinating, feeling that there "must be something in it '' if other people were having such experiences.
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who played a major role in the 1810 mexican revolution by leading a native american revolt | Mexican war of independence - Wikipedia
Mexican independence
Spanish Empire
100,000 irregular
The Mexican War of Independence (Spanish: Guerra de Independencia de México) was an armed conflict, and the culmination of a political and social process which ended the rule of Spain in 1821 in the territory of New Spain. The war had its antecedent in Napoleon 's French invasion of Spain in 1808; it extended from the Grito de Dolores by Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla on September 16, 1810, to the entrance of the Army of the Three Guarantees led by Agustín de Iturbide to Mexico City on September 27, 1821. September 16 is celebrated as Mexican Independence Day.
The movement for independence was inspired by the Age of Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions. By that time the educated elite of New Spain had begun to reflect on the relations between Spain and its colonial kingdoms. Changes in the social and political structure occasioned by Bourbon Reforms and a deep economic crisis in New Spain caused discomfort among the native - born Creole elite.
The dramatic political events in Europe, the French Revolutionary Wars and the conquests of Napoleon deeply influenced events in New Spain. In 1808, Charles IV and Ferdinand VII were forced to abdicate in favor of the French Emperor, who then made his elder brother Joseph king. The same year, the ayuntamiento (city council) of Mexico City, supported by viceroy José de Iturrigaray, claimed sovereignty in the absence of the legitimate king. That led to a coup against the viceroy; when it was suppressed, the leaders of the movement were jailed.
Despite the defeat in Mexico City, small groups of rebels met in other cities of New Spain to raise movements against colonial rule. In 1810, after being discovered, Querétaro conspirators chose to take up arms on September 16 in the company of peasants and indigenous inhabitants of Dolores (Guanajuato), who were called to action by the secular Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo, former rector of the Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo.
After 1810 the independence movement went through several stages, as leaders were imprisoned or executed by forces loyal to Spain. At first they recognized the sovereignty of Ferdinand VII over Spain and its colonies, but later the leaders took more radical positions, including such issues of social order as the abolition of slavery. Secular priest José María Morelos called the separatist provinces to form the Congress of Chilpancingo, which gave the insurgency its own legal framework. After the defeat of Morelos, the movement survived as a guerrilla war under the leadership of Vicente Guerrero. By 1820, the few rebel groups survived most notably in the Sierra Madre del Sur and Veracruz.
The reinstatement of the liberal Constitution of Cadiz in 1820 caused a change of mind among the elite groups who had supported Spanish rule. Monarchist Creoles affected by the constitution decided to support the independence of New Spain; they sought an alliance with the former insurgent resistance. Agustín de Iturbide led the military arm of the conspirators and in early 1821 he met Vicente Guerrero. Both proclaimed the Plan of Iguala, which called for the union of all insurgent factions and was supported by both the aristocracy and clergy of New Spain. It called for monarchy in an independent Mexico. Finally, the independence of Mexico was achieved on September 27, 1821.
After that, the mainland of New Spain was organized as the Mexican Empire. This ephemeral Catholic monarchy changed to a federal republic in 1823, due to internal conflicts and the separation of Central America from Mexico.
After some Spanish reconquest attempts, including the expedition of Isidro Barradas in 1829, Spain under the rule of Isabella II recognized the independence of Mexico in 1836.
Mexican resistance and struggle for independence began with the brutal Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire when Spanish conquerors had considerable autonomy from crown control. Don Martín Cortés (son of Hernán Cortés), the second marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca, led a conspiracy of holders of encomiendas against the Spanish crown after it sought to eliminate privileges for the conquistadors, particularly putting limitations on encomiendas. After the suppression of that mid-16th - century conspiracy, elites raised no substantial challenge to royal rule until the Hidalgo revolt of 1810.
Elites in Mexico City in the seventeenth century did force the removal of a reformist viceroy, the Marqués de Gelves, following an urban riot in 1624 fomented by those elites. He attempted to eliminate corrupt practices by creole elites as well as rein in the opulent displays of the clergy 's power, but ecclesiastical authorities in conjunction with creole elites mobilized urban plebeians to oust the viceroy. The crowd was reported to shout, "Long live the King! Love live Christ! Death to bad government! Death to the heretic Lutheran (Viceroy Gelves)! Arrest the viceroy! '' The attack was against Gelves as a bad representative of the crown and not against the monarchy or colonial rule itself.
There was also a brief conspiracy in the mid-seventeenth century to unite creole elites, blacks, and indigenous against the Spanish crown and proclaim Mexican independence. The man pushing this notion called himself Don Guillén Lampart y Guzmán, an Irishman born William Lamport. Lamport 's conspiracy was discovered, and he was arrested by the Inquisition in 1642, and executed fifteen years later for sedition. There is a statue of Lamport in the mauseleum at the base of the Angel of Independence in Mexico City.
At the end of the seventeenth century, there was a major riot in Mexico City where a mob attempted to burn down the viceroy 's palace and the archbishop 's residence. A painting by Cristóbal Villalpando shows the damage of the 1692 tumulto. Unlike the earlier one in 1624 in which elites were involved, the viceroy ousted, and no repercussions against the instigators, the 1692 riot was by plebeians alone and racially charged. The rioters attacked key symbols of Spanish power and shouted political slogans. "Kill the (American - born) Spaniards and the Gachupines (Iberian - born Spaniards) who eat our corn! We go to war happily! God wants us to finish off the Spaniards! We do not care if we die without confession! Is this not our land? '' The viceroy attempted to address the apparent cause of the riot, higher maize prices that affected the urban poor. But the 1692 riot "represented class warfare that put Spanish authority at risk. Punishment was swift and brutal, and no further riots in the capital challenged the Pax Hispanica. ''
The various indigenous rebellions in the colonial era were often to throw off crown rule, but they were not an independence movement as such. However, during the war of independence, issues at the local level in rural areas constituted what one historian has called "the other rebellion. ''
American - born Spaniards in New Spain developed a special understanding and ties to their New World homeland, what has been seen the formation of Creole patriotism. They did not, however, pursue political independence from Spain until the Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian peninsula and defeat of Spain destabilized the monarchy. With the implementation of the Bourbon Reforms starting in the mid-eighteenth century, the Spanish crown sought to impose restrictions on creole elites.
In the early 19th century, Napoleon 's occupation of Spain led to an outbreak of numerous revolts against colonial government across Spanish America. After the abortive Conspiracy of the Machetes in 1799, a massive revolt in the Bajío region was led by secular cleric Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. His Grito de Dolores was the first stage of the insurgency for Mexican independence. Before 1810, there was no significant support for independence. Once the Hidalgo revolt was underway, it received major support only in the Bajío and parts of Jalisco.
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a priest and member of a group of educated Criollos in Querétaro City, hosted secret gatherings in his home to discuss whether it was better to obey or to revolt against a tyrannical government, as he defined the Spanish colonial government in Mexico. Famed military leader Ignacio Allende was among the attendees. In 1810 Hidalgo concluded that a revolt was needed because of injustices against the poor of Mexico. By this time Hidalgo was known for his achievements at the prestigious San Nicolás Obispo school in Valladolid (now Morelia), and later service there as rector. He also became known as a top theologian. When his older brother died in 1803, Hidalgo took over as priest for the town of Dolores.
Hidalgo was in Dolores on 15 September 1810, with other rebel leaders including commander Allende, when they learned their conspiracy had been discovered. Hidalgo ran to the church, calling for all the people to gather, where from the pulpit he called upon them to revolt. They all shouted in agreement. The people were a comparatively small group, and poorly armed with whatever was at hand, including sticks and rocks. On the morning of 16 September 1810, Hidalgo called upon the remaining locals who happened to be in the market, and again, from the pulpit, exhorted the people of Dolores to join him. Most did: Hidalgo had a mob of some 600 men within minutes. This became known as the Grito de Dolores or Cry of Dolores.
Hidalgo and Allende marched their little army through towns including San Miguel and Celaya, where the angry rebels killed all the Spaniards they found. Along the way they adopted the standard of the Virgin of Guadalupe as their symbol and protector. When they reached the town of Guanajuato on September 28, they found Spanish forces barricaded inside the public granary. Among them were some ' forced ' Royalists, creoles who had served and sided with the Spanish. By this time, the rebels numbered 30,000 and the battle was horrific. They killed more than 500 Spanish and creoles, and marched on toward Mexico City.
The Viceroy quickly organized a defense, sending out the Spanish general Torcuato Trujillo with 1,000 men, 400 horsemen, and 2 cannons - all that could be found on such short notice. On October 30, Hidalgo 's army encountered Spanish military resistance at the Battle of Monte de las Cruces, fought them, and achieved victory. When the cannons were captured by the rebels, the surviving Royalists retreated to the City.
Despite having the advantage, Hidalgo retreated, against the counsel of Allende. This retreat, on the verge of apparent victory, has puzzled historians and biographers ever since. They generally believe that Hidalgo wanted to spare the numerous Mexican citizens in Mexico City from the inevitable sacking and plunder that would have ensued. His retreat is considered Hidalgo 's greatest tactical error.
Rebel survivors sought refuge in nearby provinces and villages. The insurgent forces planned a defensive strategy at a bridge on the Calderón River, pursued by the Spanish army. In January 1811, Spanish forces fought the Battle of the Bridge of Calderón and defeated the insurgent army, forcing the rebels to flee towards the United States -- Mexican border, where they hoped to escape.
But they were intercepted by the Spanish army. Hidalgo and his remaining soldiers were captured in the state of Coahuila at the Wells of Baján (Norias de Baján). All of the rebel leaders were found guilty of treason and sentenced to death, except for Mariano Abasolo. He was sent to Spain to serve a life sentence in prison. Allende, Jiménez and Aldama were executed on 26 June 1811, shot in the back as a sign of dishonor. Hidalgo, as a priest, had to undergo a civil trial and review by the Inquisition. He was eventually stripped of his priesthood, found guilty, and executed on 30 July. The heads of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and Jiménez were preserved and hung from the four corners of the granary of Guanajuato as a warning to those who dared follow in their footsteps.
Following the execution of Hidalgo, José María Morelos took over leadership of the insurgency. He achieved the occupation of the cities of Oaxaca and Acapulco. In 1813, he convened the Congress of Chilpancingo to bring representatives together and, on 6 November of that year, the Congress signed the first official document of independence, known as the "Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America ''. A long period of war followed in the Siege of Cuautla. In 1815, Morelos was captured by Spanish colonial authorities, tried and executed for treason.
Father Hidalgo is today remembered as the Father of his Country, the great hero of Mexico 's War for Independence. There are numerous hagiographic biographies of him.
The truth about Hidalgo is more complex. His was the first serious insurrection on Mexican soil against Spanish authority, and his achievements with his poorly armed mob were significant. He was a charismatic leader and worked well with Allende despite their differences. But Hidalgo 's shortcomings make historians ask, "What if? '' After decades of abuse of Creoles and poor mestizos, Hidalgo found that there was a vast well of resentment and hatred of the Spanish government. He provided the catalyst for Mexico 's poor to vent their anger on the hated "gachipines '' or Spaniards, but his "army '' was impossible to manage or control.
His leadership decisions, most importantly his retreat from Mexico City, contributed to his defeat. Historians can only speculate about the result if Hidalgo had pushed into Mexico City in November 1810. Hidalgo appeared to be too proud or stubborn to listen to the sound military advice offered by Allende and others and press his advantage.
Finally, Hidalgo 's approval of the violent sacking and looting by his forces in Guanajuato and other towns alienated the group most vital to any independence movement: middle - class and wealthy creoles like himself. They were needed to develop a new identity and government for Mexico, one that would allow Mexicans to break from Spain.
Hidalgo achieved mythic status after his death. His martyrdom was an example to others who picked up the fallen banner of freedom and independence. He influenced later fighters such as José María Morelos, Guadalupe Victoria and others. Today, Hidalgo 's remains are held in a Mexico City monument known as "the Angel of Independence '', along with other Revolutionary heroes.
From 1815 to 1821 most of the fighting for independence from Spain was done by small and isolated guerrilla bands. From these, two leaders arose: Guadalupe Victoria (born José Miguel Fernández y Félix) in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca, both of whom gained allegiance and respect from their followers. Believing the situation under control, the Spanish viceroy issued a general pardon to every rebel who would lay down his arms. After ten years of civil war and the death of two of its founders, by early 1820 the independence movement was stalemated and close to collapse. The rebels faced stiff Spanish military resistance and the apathy of many of the most influential criollos.
In what was supposed to be the final government campaign against the insurgents, in December 1820, Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent a force led by a royalist criollo Colonel Agustín de Iturbide, to defeat Guerrero 's army in Oaxaca. Iturbide, a native of Valladolid (now Morelia), had gained renown for his zeal against Hidalgo 's and Morelos 's rebels during the early independence struggle. A favorite of the Mexican church hierarchy, Iturbide symbolized conservative criollo values; he was devoutly religious, and committed to the defense of property rights and social privileges. He also resented his lack of promotion and failure to gain wealth.
Iturbide 's assignment to the Oaxaca expedition coincided with a successful military coup in Spain against the monarchy of Ferdinand VII. The coup leaders, part of an expeditionary force assembled to suppress the independence movements in the Americas, had turned against the monarchy. They compelled the reluctant Ferdinand to reinstate the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 that created a constitutional monarchy. When news of the liberal charter reached Mexico, Iturbide perceived it both as a threat to the status quo and a catalyst to rouse the criollos to gain control of Mexico. Independence was achieved when conservative Royalist forces in the colonies chose to rise up against the liberal regime in Spain; it was an about - face compared to their previous opposition to the peasant insurgency. After an initial clash with Guerrero 's forces, Iturbide assumed command of the royal army. At Iguala, he allied his formerly royalist force with Guerrero 's radical insurgents to discuss the renewed struggle for independence.
While stationed in the town of Iguala, Iturbide proclaimed three principles, or "guarantees, '' for Mexican independence from Spain. Mexico would be an independent monarchy governed by King Ferdinand, another Bourbon prince, or some other conservative European prince; criollos would be given equal rights and privileges to peninsulares; and the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico would retain its privileges and position as the established religion of the land. After convincing his troops to accept the principles, which were promulgated on February 24, 1821 as the Plan of Iguala, Iturbide persuaded Guerrero to join his forces in support of this conservative independence movement. A new army, the Army of the Three Guarantees, was placed under Iturbide 's command to enforce the Plan of Iguala. The plan was so broadly based that it pleased both patriots and loyalists. The goal of independence and the protection of Roman Catholicism brought together all factions.
Iturbide 's army was joined by rebel forces from all over Mexico. When the rebels ' victory became certain, the Viceroy resigned. On August 24, 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown and Iturbide signed the Treaty of Córdoba, which recognized Mexican independence under the Plan of Iguala. On September 27, 1821 the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City, and the following day Iturbide proclaimed the independence of the Mexican Empire, as New Spain was henceforth to be called. The Treaty of Córdoba was not ratified by the Spanish Cortes. Iturbide included a special clause in the treaty that left open the possibility for a criollo monarch to be appointed by a Mexican congress if no suitable member of the European royalty would accept the Mexican crown. Half of the new government employees appointed were Iturbide 's followers.
On the night of the May 18, 1822, a mass demonstration led by the Regiment of Celaya, which Iturbide had commanded during the war, marched through the streets and demanded their commander - in - chief to accept the throne. The following day, the congress declared Iturbide emperor of Mexico. On October 31, 1822 Iturbide dissolved Congress and replaced it with a sympathetic junta.
In 1910, as part of the celebrations marking the centennial of the Hidalgo revolt of 1810, President Porfirio Díaz inaugurated the monument to Mexico 's political separation from Spain, the Angel of Independence on Avenida Reforma. The creation of this architectural monument is part of the long process of the construction of historical memory of Mexican independence.
Although Mexico gained its independence in September 1821, the marking of this historical event did not take hold immediately. The choice of date to celebrate was problematic, because Iturbide, who achieved independence from Spain, was rapidly created emperor of Mexico. His short - lived reign from 1821 -- 22 ended when he was forced by the military to abdicate. This was a rocky start for the new nation, which made celebrating independence on the anniversary of Iturbide 's Army of the Three Guarantees marching into Mexico City in triumph a less than perfect day for those who had opposed him. Celebrations of independence during his reign were marked on September 27. Following his ouster, there were calls to commemorate Mexican independence along the lines that the United States celebrated in grand style its Independence Day on July 4. The creation of a committee of powerful men to mark independence celebrations, the Junta Patriótica, organized celebrations of both September 16, to commemorate Hidalgo 's grito and the start of the independence insurgency, and September 27, to celebrate actual political independence.
During the Díaz regime (1876 -- 1911), the president 's birthday coincided with the September 15 / 16 celebration of independence. The largest celebrations took place and continue to do so in the capital 's main square, the zócalo, with the peeling of the Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City 's bells. In the 1880s, government officials attempted to move the bell that Hidalgo rang in 1810 to gather parishioners in Dolores for what became his famous "grito ''. Initially the pueblo 's officials said the bell no longer existed, but in 1896, the bell, known as the Bell of San José, was taken to the capital. It was renamed the "Bell of Independence '' and ritually rung by Díaz. It is now an integral part of Independence Day festivities.
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give an account of rio de janeiro earth summit 1992 | Earth Summit - wikipedia
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, the Rio Summit, the Rio Conference, and the Earth Summit (Portuguese: ECO92), was a major United Nations conference held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992.
Earth Summit was created as a response for Member States to cooperate together internationally on development issues after the Cold War. Due to conflict relating to sustainability being too big for individual member states to handle, Earth Summit was held as a platform for other Member States to collaborate. Since the creation, many others in the field of sustainability show a similar development to the issues discussed in these conferences, including non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
In 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development was also held in Rio, and is also commonly called Rio + 20 or Rio Earth Summit 2012. It was held from 13 to 22 June.
The issues addressed included:
An important achievement of the summit was an agreement on the Climate Change Convention which in turn led to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. Another agreement was to "not to carry out any activities on the lands of indigenous peoples that would cause environmental degradation or that would be culturally inappropriate ''.
The Convention on Biological Diversity was opened for signature at the Earth Summit, and made a start towards redefinition of measures that did not inherently encourage destruction of natural ecoregions and so - called uneconomic growth.
Although President George H.W. Bush signed the Earth Summit 's Convention on Climate, his EPA Administrator William K. Reilly acknowledges that U.S. goals at the conference were difficult to negotiate and the agency 's international results were mixed, including the U.S. failure to sign the proposed Convention on Biological Diversity.
Twelve cities were also honoured by the Local Government Honours Award for innovative local environmental programs. These included Sudbury in Canada for its ambitious program to rehabilitate environmental damage from the local mining industry, Austin in the United States for its green building strategy, and Kitakyūshū in Japan for incorporating an international education and training component into its municipal pollution control program.
The Earth Summit resulted in the following documents:
Moreover, important legally binding agreements (Rio Convention) were opened for signature:
In order to ensure compliance to the agreements at Rio (particularly the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and Agenda 21), delegates to the Earth Summit established the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD). In 2013, the CSD was replaced by the High - level Political Forum on Sustainable Development that meets every year as part of the ECOSOC meetings, and every fourth year as part of the General Assembly meetings.
Critics point out that many of the agreements made in Rio have not been realized regarding such fundamental issues as fighting poverty and cleaning up the environment.
Green Cross International was founded to build upon the work of the Summit.
The first edition of Water Quality Assessments, published by WHO / Chapman & Hall, was launched at the Rio Global Forum.
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where is salvador dali persistence of memory located | The Persistence of Memory - wikipedia
The Persistence of Memory (Catalan: La persistència de la memòria) is a 1931 painting by artist Salvador Dalí, and is one of his most recognizable works. First shown at the Julien Levy Gallery in 1932, since 1934 the painting has been in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City, which received it from an anonymous donor. It is widely recognized and frequently referenced in popular culture, and sometimes referred to by more descriptive (though incorrect) titles, such as ' Melting Clocks ', ' The Soft Watches ' or ' The Melting Watches '.
The well - known surrealist piece introduced the image of the soft melting pocket watch. It epitomizes Dalí 's theory of "softness '' and "hardness '', which was central to his thinking at the time. As Dawn Adès wrote, "The soft watches are an unconscious symbol of the relativity of space and time, a Surrealist meditation on the collapse of our notions of a fixed cosmic order ''. This interpretation suggests that Dalí was incorporating an understanding of the world introduced by Albert Einstein 's theory of special relativity. Asked by Ilya Prigogine whether this was in fact the case, Dalí replied that the soft watches were not inspired by the theory of relativity, but by the surrealist perception of a Camembert melting in the sun.
It is possible to recognize a human figure in the middle of the composition, in the strange "monster '' (with a lot of texture near its face, and lots of contrast and tone in the picture) that Dalí used in several contemporary pieces to represent himself -- the abstract form becoming something of a self - portrait, reappearing frequently in his work. The figure can be read as a "fading '' creature, one that often appears in dreams where the dreamer can not pinpoint the creature 's exact form and composition. One can observe that the creature has one closed eye with several eyelashes, suggesting that the creature is also in a dream state. The iconography may refer to a dream that Dalí himself had experienced, and the clocks may symbolize the passing of time as one experiences it in sleep or the persistence of time in the eyes of the dreamer.
The orange clock at the bottom left of the painting is covered in ants. Dalí often used ants in his paintings as a symbol of decay. The Persistence of Memory employs "the exactitude of realist painting techniques '' to depict imagery more likely to be found in dreams than in waking consciousness.
The craggy rocks to the right represent a tip of Cap de Creus peninsula in north - eastern Catalonia. Many of Dalí 's paintings were inspired by the landscapes of his life in Catalonia. The strange and foreboding shadow in the foreground of this painting is a reference to Mount Pani.
Dalí returned to the theme of this painting with the variation The Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory (1954), showing his earlier famous work systematically fragmenting into smaller component elements, and a series of rectangular blocks which reveal further imagery through the gaps between them, implying something beneath the surface of the original work; this work is now in the Dalí Museum in St. Petersburg, Florida, while the original Persistence of Memory remains at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. Dalí also produced various lithographs and sculptures on the theme of soft watches late in his career. Some of these sculptures are the Persistence of Memory, the Nobility of Time, the Profile of Time, and the Three Dancing Watches.
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what year did the drummer lose his arm | Rick Allen (drummer) - wikipedia
Richard John Cyril "Rick '' Allen (born 1 November 1963) is an English drummer who has played for the hard rock band Def Leppard since 1978. He overcame the amputation of his left arm in 1985 and continued to play with the band, which subsequently went on to its most commercially successful phase. He is known as "The Thunder God '' by fans.
Allen started playing drums at the age of 9. He performed in bands called Grad, Smokey Blue, Rampant, and the Johnny Kalendar Band. When Allen was 14, his mother replied on his behalf to an ad placed by a band called "Def Leppard '' looking for a drummer to replace Tony Kenning ("Leppard loses skins '' was the ad 's headline). Later, on 1 November 1978, his fifteenth birthday, Allen joined the band. In 1979, he dropped out of school (other band members left their jobs around the same time) to concentrate on a career in music. In September 1979, they opened for Sammy Hagar at London 's Hammersmith Odeon. Subsequently, Def Leppard played shows as a support act for AC / DC during October and November 1979. Allen celebrated his 16th birthday with a performance at the Hammersmith Odeon. On 14 March 1980, the band released their first album, On Through the Night. Since their first album, Allen still continues to record and tour with the band.
On the afternoon of 31 December 1984, Allen was involved in a car accident with his girlfriend Miriam Barendsen in the English countryside a few miles west of Sheffield. While trying to pass another car at a high speed, he lost control of his Corvette C4, which hit a dry stone wall and entered a field. He was thrown from the car because his seatbelt had been improperly fastened, causing his left arm to be severed, while his girlfriend suffered head injuries, resulting in grade 2 concussion and brain swelling; she also suffered neck and spine injuries from severe whiplash. Doctors initially reattached Allen 's arm, but because of an infection, it had to be re-amputated. His right shoulder was also severely broken in the accident.
Allen initially had doubts about continuing to play with the band, but was encouraged by the other members to continue. Allen, along with a few engineers, started to design a drum set to assist his drumming. At the time, he was still able to play some drum rhythms with one hand and use his left leg, typically for hi - hat pedals in common drum kits, to play the snare drum. Then - Status Quo drummer Jeff Rich helped and encouraged Allen during his convalescence, and designed an electronic kit Allen could play using only one arm. The Ludwig acoustic drum kit he used on earlier albums High ' n ' Dry and Pyromania was later given away by Def Leppard 's one - time management. Electronic drum manufacturer Simmons created a kit to their specifications, and Allen made his post-accident debut in 1986 at the Monsters of Rock festival at Castle Donington.
Allen has used custom - manufactured cable routing by Whirlwind. He uses four electronic pedals for his left foot to play the pieces he used to play with his left arm, which from left to right trigger sounds of a closing hi - hat, bass drum, snare drum, and a tom drum. He is ranked No. 7 on the UK website Gigwise in The Greatest Drummers of All Time list.
On 16 October 2009, Yamaha announced the addition of Rick Allen to their artist roster. Allen plays Yamaha Oak Custom drums with a matching subkick.
Along with Yamaha Oak Custom drums, Allen also uses Remo drumheads (usually he has coated ambassadors on his drums and a clear powerstroke 3 on his bass drum), Zildjian cymbals (mostly K customs and A customs), and a LP rock cowbell for Rock of Ages.
Rick Allen had used Vater drumsticks and Zildjian drumsticks from the 1980s until 1994. In 1995 up to the present, he uses Easton Ahead drumsticks.
Allen and his wife Lauren Monroe are the co-founders of The Raven Drum Foundation, a charity located in Malibu, California, with a mission to serve, educate, and empower veterans and people in crisis. The Raven Drum Foundation commonly works to help individuals and communities in crisis through healing arts programs, drum circle events, and collaborative partnerships. Allen described the foundations involvement with Camp Kilpatrick in 2009:
Rhythm is such a big part of their culture and their own way of communicating, so we were able to go in there and design a program around them. It developed into drum council, which is an ongoing program that we provided for the camp. We had tremendous success.
The One Hand Drum Company was created by Allen to assist in providing awareness and funding for his Raven Drum Foundation. Currently, the primary focus of the One Hand Drum Company is promoting StikRick, a drawing by Rick of a one - armed drummer that he sometimes uses with his autograph. The StikRick site sells T - shirts, hats, and other items with the StikRick drawing along with a "Life Is Great!! Be A Rockstar!! '' slogan. Proceeds from the One Hand Drum Company go to support the Raven Drum Foundation charity.
In May and June 2000, Allen played two shows with the Mark Mason Project, featuring guitarist Mark Englert previously of Dramarama. Allen has written music with his wife Lauren as well as played on her albums. In November 2004, Allen collaborated with Krishna Das in the recording of a CD entitled All One.
Allen was married to his first wife Stacy from 1991 to 2000; they had a daughter in 1997. In 1995, Allen was arrested for spousal abuse. He pleaded guilty to the charge and was sentenced on 6 August 1996 to attend Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, sought counselling, and served 30 days on a graffiti - removal work crew. They divorced in 2000.
Allen married again, on 10 October 2003, to Lauren Monroe. On 1 December 2010, Monroe gave birth to a daughter.
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which of the following was not a provision of the crittenden compromise | Crittenden Compromise - wikipedia
The Crittenden Compromise was an unsuccessful proposal introduced by United States Senator John J. Crittenden (Constitutional Unionist of Kentucky) on December 18, 1860. It aimed to resolve the secession crisis of 1860 -- 1861 by addressing the fears and grievances about slavery that led many slave - holding states to contemplate secession from the United States.
The compromise proposed six constitutional amendments and four Congressional resolutions. Crittenden introduced the package on December 18. It was tabled on December 31.
It guaranteed the permanent existence of slavery in the slave states and addressed Southern demands in regard to fugitive slaves and slavery in the District of Columbia. It proposed extending the Missouri Compromise line to the west, with slavery prohibited north of the 36 ° 30 ′ parallel and guaranteed south of it. The compromise included a clause that it could not be repealed or amended.
The compromise was popular among Southern members of the Senate, but it was generally unacceptable to the Republicans, who opposed the expansion of slavery beyond the states where it already existed into the territories. The opposition of their party 's leader, President - elect Abraham Lincoln, was crucial. Republicans said the compromise "would amount to a perpetual covenant of war against every people, tribe, and state owning a foot of land between here and Tierra del Fuego. '' The only territories south of the line were parts of New Mexico Territory and Indian Territory. There was considerable agreement on both sides that slavery would never flourish in New Mexico. The South refused the House Republicans ' proposal, approved by committee on December 29, to admit New Mexico as a state immediately. However, not all opponents of the Crittenden Compromise also opposed further territorial expansion of the United States. The New York Times referred to "the whole future growth of the Republic '' and "all the Territory that can ever belong to the United States, -- the whole of Mexico and Central America ''.
Both the House of Representatives and the Senate rejected Crittenden 's proposal. It was part of a series of last - ditch efforts to provide the Southern states with sufficient reassurances to forestall their secession during the final session of Congress prior to the Lincoln administration taking office.
The Crittenden proposals were also discussed at the Peace Conference of 1861, a meeting of more than 100 of the nation 's leading politicians, held February 8 - 27, 1861, in Washington, D.C. The conference, led by former President John Tyler, was the final formal effort of the states to avert the start of war. There too, the Compromise proposals failed, as the provision guaranteeing slave ownership throughout all Western territories and future acquisitions again proved unpalatable.
A February 1861 editorial in the Charleston Courier (Charleston, Missouri) summed up the mood prevalent in Southern - leaning border counties as the Crittenden proposals went down in defeat: "Men at Washington think there is no chance for peace, and indeed we can see but little, everything looks gloomy. The Crittenden resolutions have been voted down again and again. Is there any other proposition which will win, that the South can accept? If not -- there comes war -- and woe to the wives and daughters of our land; beauty will be but an incentive to crime, and plunder but pay for John Brown raids. Let our citizens be prepared for the worst, it may come. '' This statement by editor George Whitcomb came in response to a fiery "letter to the editor '' excoriating "disunion '', from US Representative John William Noell, whose district included Charleston.
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who was the mexican president who distributed land to the peasants in the 1930s | Land reform in Mexico - wikipedia
Before the 1910 Mexican Revolution that overthrew Porfirio Díaz, most of the land was owned by a single elite ruling class. Legally there was no slavery or serfdom; however, those with heavy debts, native wage workers, or peasants, were essentially debt - slaves to the landowners. A small percentage of rich landowners owned most of the country 's farm land. With so many people brutally suppressed, revolts and revolution were common in Mexico. To relieve the Mexican peasant 's plight and stabilize the country, various leaders tried different types of agrarian land reform.
During the first five years of agrarian reform, very few hectares were evenly distributed. Land reform attempts by past leaders and governments proved futile, as the revolution from 1910 - 1920 had been a battle of dependent labor, capitalism, and industrial ownership. Fixing the Agrarian problem was a question of education, methods, and creating new social relationships through co-operative effort and government assistance. Initially the agrarian reform led to the development of many Ejidos for communal land use, while parceled ejidos emerged in the later years.
Land tenure in Mexico has over the long term seen the transfer of lands into the hands of private proprietors engaged in agricultural production for profit. But the social and economic problems that resulted from this concentration of ownership brought reformist solutions that attempted to reverse this trend. In the current era, there is a retreat from agrarian land reform and a return to consolidation of land holding of large enterprises.
The rich lands of central and southern Mexico were the home to dense, hierarchically organized, settled populations that produced agricultural surpluses, allowing the development of sectors that did not directly cultivate the soil. These populations lived in settlements and held land in common, although generally they worked individual plots. During the Aztec period, roughly 1450 to 1521, the Nahuas of central Mexico had names for civil categories of land, many of which persisted into the colonial era. There were special lands attached to the office of ruler (tlatoani) called tlatocatlalli; land devoted to the support of temples, tecpantlalli, but also private lands of the nobility, pillalli. Lands owned by the calpulli, the local kin - based social organization, were calpullalli. Most commoners held individual plots of land, often in scattered locations, which were worked by a family and rights passed to subsequent generations. A community member could lose those usufruct rights if they did not cultivate the land. A person could lose land as a result of gambling debts, a type of alienation from which the inference can be drawn that land was private property.
It is important to note that there were lands classified as "purchased land '' (in Nahuatl, tlalcohualli). In the Texcoco area, there were prehispanic legal rules for land sales, indicating that transfers by sale were not a post-conquest innovation. Local - level records in Nahuatl from the 16th century show that individuals and community members kept track of these categories, including purchased land, and often the previous owners of particular plots.
When the Spanish took control of central Mexico in the early 16th century, they initially left intact existing indigenous land tenure, with the exception of the disappearance of lands devoted to the gods. A 16th - century Spanish judge in New Spain, Alonso de Zorita, collected extensive information about the Nahuas in the Cuauhtinchan region, including land tenure. Zorita notes there was a diversity of land tenure in central Mexico, so that if the information he gives for one place contradicts information in another it is due to that very diversity Zorita, along with Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, a member of the noble family that ruled Texcoco, and Franciscan Fray Juan de Torquemada are the most important sources for prehispanic and early colonial indigenous land tenure in central Mexico.
In early colonial Mexico, many Spanish conquerors (and a few indigenous allies) received grants of labor and tribute from particular indigenous communities as rewards for services via an institution called encomienda. These grants did not include land, which in the immediate post-conquest era was not as important as the tribute and labor service that Indians could provide as a continuation from the prehispanic period. Spaniards were interested in appropriating products and labor from their grants, but they saw no need to acquire the land itself. The crown began to phase out the encomienda in the mid-16th century by limiting the number of times the grant could be inherited. At the same time, the indigenous population was decreasing due to epidemics and Spanish migration to Mexico created a demand for foodstuffs familiar to them, such as wheat rather than maize, European fruits, and animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats for meat and hides or wool. Spaniards began acquiring land and securing labor separate from the encomienda grants. This was the initial stage of the formation of Spanish landed estates.
Spaniards bought land from individual Indians and from Indian communities; they also usurped Indians ' land; and they occupied land that was deemed "empty '' (terrenos baldíos) and requested grants (mercedes) to acquire title to it. There is evidence that nobles sold common land to Spaniards, treating that land as private property. Some Indians were alarmed at this transfer of land, and explicitly forbade sale of land to Spaniards.
The Spanish crown was concerned about the material welfare of its indigenous vassals and in 1567 set aside an endowment of land adjacent to Indian towns that were legally held by the community, the fundo legal, initially 500 varas. The legal framework for these entailed indigenous community lands was the establishment of settlements (designated pueblos de indios or merely pueblos) as legal entities in Spanish colonial law, with a framework for rule established with via the town council (cabildo). Land traditionally held by pueblos was now transformed to entailed community lands. There was not a unitary process of the creation of these lands, but a combination of claims based on occupation and use since time immemorial, grants, purchase, and a process of regularization of land titles via a process known as composición.
To protect Indians ' legal rights, the Spanish crown also set up the General Indian Court in 1590, where Indians and indigenous communities could litigate over property. Although the Juzgado de Naturales supposedly did not have jurisdiction in cases where Indians sought redress against Spaniards, an analysis of the actual cases shows that a high percentage of the court 's casework included such complaints. For the Spanish crown, the court not only protected the interests of its Indian vassals, but it was also a way to rein in Spaniards who might seek greater autonomy from the crown.
Indian communities experienced devastating population losses due to epidemics, which meant that there was for a period more land than individual Indians or Indian communities needed. The crown attempted to cluster remaining indigenous populations in new communities in a process known as congregacion or reducción, with mixed results. During this period Spaniards acquired land, often with no immediate damage to Indians ' access to land. In the 17th century, Indian populations began to recover, but the loss of land could not be reversed. Indian communities rented land to Spanish haciendas, which over time left those lands vulnerable to appropriation. There were crown regulations about sale or rental of Indian lands, with requirements for the public posting of the proposed transaction and an investigation as to whether the land on offer was, in fact, the property of the ones offering it.
Since the crown held title to all vacant land in Central Mexico, it could grant title to whomever it chose. In theory, there was to be an investigation to see if there were claims on the property, with notice given to those in the vicinity of the proposed grant. The Spanish crown granted mercedes to favored Spaniards, and in the case of the conqueror Hernán Cortés, created the entailment of the Marquesado del Valle de Oaxaca.
In the 17th century, there was a push to regularize land titles via the composición, in which for a fee paid to the crown clouded titles could be cleared, and indigenous communities had to prove title to land that they had held "since time immemorial, '' as the legal phrase goes. This was the period when Spaniards began regularizing their titles via composición.
Landless or land - poor Indians were often driven to sell their labor to Spanish landed estates, haciendas on a seasonal basis. Others took up residence on haciendas on a permanent basis. Others migrated to the cities or to other regions, such as the northern mining districts where labor was well paid. However, many indigenous communities continued to exist with the fundo legal held in common a guarantee of some access to land.
In the 18th century, the Spanish crown was concerned about concentration of land in the hands of a few in Spain and the lack of productiveness of those landed estates. Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos drafted the Informe para una ley Agraria ("A report for an Agrarian Law '') published in 1795 for the Royal Society of Friends of the Country of Madrid ("es: Real Sociedad Económica Matritense de Amigos del País '') calling for reform. He saw the need for disentailment of landed estates, sale of land owned by the Catholic Church and privatizing common lands as key to making agriculture more productive in Spain. Barriers to productive use of land and a real estate market that would attract investors kept land scare and prices high and for investors was not a profitable enough enterprise to enter agriculture. Jovellanos was influenced by Adam Smith 's Wealth of Nations (1776), which asserted that the impetus for economic activity was self - interest.
Jovellanos 's writings influenced (without attribution) a prominent cleric in independence - era New Spain, Manuel Abad y Queipo, who compiled copious data about the agrarian situation in the late 18th century and who conveyed it to Alexander von Humboldt. Humboldt incorporated it into his Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, an important text on economic and social conditions in New Spain around 1800. Abad y Queipo "fixed upon the inequitable distribution of property as the chief cause of New Spain 's social squalor and advocated ownership of land as the chief remedy. ''
The crown did not undertake major land reform in New Spain, but it moved against the wealthy and influential Society of Jesus in its realms, expelling them in 1767. In Mexico, the Jesuits had created prosperous haciendas whose profits helped fund the Jesuits ' missions in northern Mexico and its colegios for elite American - born Spaniards. The most well - studied of the Jesuit haciendas in Mexico is that Santa Lucía. With their expulsion, their estates were sold, mainly to private - land owning elites. Although the Jesuits owned and ran large estates, in Mexico the more common pattern was for the Church to extend credit to private individuals of means for long - term real estate mortgages. Small holders had little access to credit, which meant it was difficult for them to acquire property or expand their operations, thereby privileging large land owners over small.
The landed elite and the Catholic Church as an institution were closely connected financially. The church was the recipient of donations for pious works (obras pías) for particular charities as well as chantries (capellanías). Through the institution of the chantry, a family would lien income from a particular piece of property to pay a priest to say masses for the soul of the one endowing the funds. In many cases, families had sons who had become priests and the chantry became a source of income for the family member. At the turn of the 19th century the Spanish crown attempted to tap what it thought was the vast wealth of the church by demanding that those holding mortgages pay the principal as a lump sum immediately rather than incrementally over the long term. The Act of Consolidation in 1804 threatened to bring down the whole structure of credit to landed elites who were seldom in the position of enough liquidity. Bishop - elect of Michoacan Manuel Abad y Queipo protested the crown 's demands and drafted a lengthy memorial to the crown analyzing the situation. From the point of view of the landed elite, the crown 's demands were "a savage capital levy '' which would "destroy the country 's credit system and drain the economy of its currency. '' The availability of credit had enabled haciendas to increase in size, but they were not efficiently run in general, with much land not planted. Hacienda owners were reluctant to lease lands to Indians for fear that they would then claim land as part of the fundo legal for a newly established community. Abad y Queipo concluded "The indivisibility of haciendas, the difficulty in managing them, the lack of property among the people, has produced and continues to produce deplorable effects for agriculture, for the population, and for the State in general. '' One scholar has suggested that "Abad y Queipo is best regarded as the intellectual progenitor of Mexican Liberalism. '' Mexican liberalism in mid-19th - century Reforma attacked the legal basis of corporate land ownership of the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico and indigenous communities, seeking these reforms to create a nation of small yeoman farmers. Once Mexico achieved independence in 1821, the paternalistic crown protections of the Indians institutionalized in the General Indian Court and the special status of Indians before the law ceased to exist, leaving the indigenous population and their lands vulnerable to those more powerful.
The outbreak of the insurgency in September 1810 led by secular cleric Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla was joined by Indians and castas in huge numbers in the commercial agricultural region of the Bajío. The Bajío did not have an established sedentary indigenous population prior to the arrival of the Spaniards even though the area had fertile soils. Once the Spanish pushed fierce northern indigenous from the region, Spaniards created towns and commercial agricultural enterprises that were cultivated by workers who had no rights to land via indigenous communities. Workers were entirely dependent on the haciendas for employment and sustenance. When Hidalgo denounced bad government to his parishioners, (in what is known as the Grito de Dolores), he quickly gained a following, which then expanded to tens of thousands.
The Spanish crown had not seen such a challenge from below during its nearly 300 years of colonial rule. Most rural protests lasted about a day, had local grievances, and were resolved quickly often in the colonial courts. Hidalgo 's political call for a rising against bad government during the period when Napoleon 's forces controlled the Iberian peninsula and Spain 's Bourbon monarch had been forced to abdicate in favor of Joseph Bonaparte meant that there was a crisis of authority and legitimacy in the Spanish empire, touching off the Spanish American wars of independence.
Until Hidalgo 's revolt, there had been no large mobilization in New Spain. It has been argued that the perception that the ruling elites were divided in 1810, embodied in the authority figure of a Spanish priest denouncing bad government, gave the masses in the Bajío the idea that violent rebellion might succeed in changing their circumstances for the better. Those following Hidalgo 's call went from town to town in the Bajío, looting and sacking haciendas in their path. Hacendados did not resist, but watched the destruction unfold, since they had no means to effectively suppress it. Hidalgo had hoped to gain the support of creole elites for the cause of independence and he tried to prevent attacks on haciendas owned by potential supporters, but the mob made no distinction between Iberian - born Spaniards ' estates and those of American - born Spaniards. Any support those creole estate owners might have for independence disappeared as the mob destroyed their property. Although for the largely landless peasants of the Bajío inequality of land ownership fueled their violence, Hidalgo himself did not have an economic program of land reform. Only after Hidalgo 's defeat on the march to Mexico City did he issue a proclamation to return lands rented by villages to their residents.
Hidalgo appeal to indigenous communities in central Mexico to join his movement, but they did not. It is argued that the crown 's protection of indigenous communities ' rights and lands made them loyal to the regime and that the symbiotic relationship between indigenous communities and haciendas created a strong economic incentive to preserve the existing relationships. In central Mexico, loss of land was incremental so that there was no perception that the crown or the haciendas were the agents of the difficulties of the indigenous. Although the Hidalgo revolt showed the extent of mass discontent among some rural populations, it was a short - lived regional revolt that did not expand beyond the Bajío.
More successful in demonstrating that agrarian violence could achieve gains for peasants was the guerrilla warfare that continued after the failure of the Hidalgo revolt and the execution of its leaders. Rather than a massed group of men attempting to achieve a quick and decisive victory pitted against the small but effective royal army, guerrilla warfare waged over time undermined the security and stability of the colonial regime. The survival of guerrilla movements was dependent on support from surrounding villages and the continuing violence undermined the local economies, however, they did not formulate an ideology of agrarian reform.
Hidalgo did not formulate a program of land reform, although the inequality of land ownership was at the core of the Bajío peasants ' economic situation. The political plan of secular priest José María Morelos likewise did not revolve around land reform, nor did the Plan de Iguala of Agustín de Iturbide. But the alliance that former royalist officer Iturbide with guerrilla leader Vicente Guerrero to create the Army of the Three Guarantees that bought about Mexican independence in September 1821 is rooted in the political force that agrarian guerrillas exerted. The agrarian violence of the independence era was the start of more than a century of peasant struggle.
During the Reform War, a reform instituted by the liberals who came to power following the ouster of Antonio López de Santa Anna in 1854 was aimed at restructuring the country on liberal principles. Initially a series of individual laws were passed, one of which dealt with land tenure and was named after the Finance Minister, Miguel Lerdo de Tejada.
The lerdo law (Ley Lerdo) empowered the Mexican state to force the sale of corporately held property, specifically those of the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico and the lands held by indigenous communities. The Lerdo Law did not directly expropriate ecclesiastical property or peasant communities but were to be sold to those renting the properties and the price to be amortized over 20 years. Properties not being rented or claimed could be auctioned. The church and indigenous communities were to receive the proceeds of the sale and the state would receive a transaction tax payment. Not all church land was confiscated; however, land not used for specific religious purposes was sold to private individuals.
This law changed the nature of land ownership allowing more individuals to own land, rather than institutions.
One of the aims of the reform government was to develop the economy by returning to productive cultivation the underutilized lands of the Church and the municipal communities (Indian commons), which required the distribution of these lands to small owners. This was to be accomplished through the provisions of Ley Lerdo that prohibited ownership of land by the Church and the municipalities. The reform government also financed its war effort by seizing and selling church property and other large estates.
The aim of the Lerdo Law with Indian corporate land was to transform Indian peasants pursuing subsistence agriculture into Mexican yeoman farmers. This did not happen. Most Indian land was acquired by large estates, which had the means to purchase it and made Indians even further dependent on landed estates.
During the presidency of liberal general Porfirio Díaz, the situation of landless Mexicans became increasingly worse, since the economic boom of the late 19th century meant that haciendas expanded and actively utilized more of its land, displacing squatters who were not a problem when land was not needed. By the end of the Porfiriato, virtually all (95 %) of villages lost their lands. In Morelos, the expansion of sugar plantations triggered peasant protests against the Díaz regime and were a major factor in the outbreak and outcomes of the Mexican Revolution. There was resistance in Michoacán.
In 1906, the Liberal Party of Mexico wrote a program of specific demands, many of which were incorporated into the Constitution of 1917. Leftist Ricardo Flores Magón was president of the PLM and his brother Enrique Flores Magón was treasurer. Two demands that were adopted were (Point 34) that landowners needed to make their land productive or risk confiscation by the state. (Point 35) demands that "The Government will grant land to anyone who solicits it, without any conditions other than that the land be used for agricultural production and not be sold. The maximum amount of land that the Government may allot to one person will be fixed. ''
Some historical studies of land tenure and attempts at land reform remain important for understanding the issue, although written in the first half of the 20th century. In particular, George McBride 's The Land Systems of Mexico, Helen Phipps 's "Some aspects of the agrarian question in Mexico: A historical study, '', Frank Tannenbaum 's The Mexican Agrarian Revolution, Eyler N. Simpson 's The Ejido: Mexico 's Way Out and Nathan Whetten 's Rural Mexico.
A key influence on agrarian land reform in revolutionary Mexico was of Andrés Molina Enríquez, who is considered the intellectual father of Article 27 of the 1917 Constitution. His 1909 book, Los Grandes Problemas Nacionales (The Great National Problems) laid out his analysis of Mexico 's unequal land tenure system and his vision of land reform. On his mother 's side Molina Enríquez had come from a prominent, politically well - connected, land - owning family, but his father 's side was from a far more modest background and he himself had modest circumstances. For nine years in the late 19th century, Molina Enríquez was a notary in Mexico State, where he observed first - hand how the legal system in Porfirian Mexico was slanted in favor of large estate owners, as he dealt with large estate owners (hacendados), small holders (rancheros), and peasants who were buying, transferring, or titling land. In his observations, it was not the large estates or the subsistence peasants that produced the largest amount of maize in the region, but the rancheros and considered the hacendado group "inherently evil ''. In his views on the need for land reform in Mexico, he advocated for the increase in the ranchero group.
In The Great National Problems, Molina Enríquez concluded that the Porfirio Díaz regime had promoted the growth of large haciendas although they were not as productive as small holdings. Citing his nearly decade long tenure as a notary, his claims were well - founded that haciendas were vastly under - assessed for tax purposes and that small holders were disadvantaged against the wealth and political connections of large estate owners. Since title transfers of property required payment of fees and that the fee was high enough to negatively affect small holders but not large. In addition, the local tax on title transfers was based on a property 's assessment, so in a similar fashion, small holders paid a higher percentage than large holders who had ample means to pay such taxes. Large estates often occupied more land than they actually held title to, counting on their size and clout to survive challenges by those on whom they infringed. A great number of individual small holders had only imperfect title to their land, some no title at all, so that Díaz 's requirement that land be properly titled or be subject to appropriation under the "vacant lands '' law (terrenos baldíos) meant that they were at risk for losing their land. Indian pueblos also lost their land, but the two processes of land loss were not one and the same.
Land loss accelerated for small holders during the Porfiriato as well as indigenous communities. Small holders were further disadvantaged in that they could not get bank loans for their enterprises since the amounts were not worth the expense to the bank of assessing the property. Molina Enríquez 's work published just prior to the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution had a tremendous impact on the legal framework on land tenure that was codified in Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution of 1917. Peasant mobilization during the Revolution brought about land reform, but the intellectual and legal framework in how it was accomplished is extremely important.
In 1914, Constitutionalist generals Alvaro Obregón and Pancho Villa called upon Venustiano Carranza, the political leader of the northern opposition to the government of Victoriano Huerta, to form a policy of land distribution. One of Carranza 's principal aides, Luis Cabrera Lobato drafted the Agrarian Decree of January 1, 1915, which promised to provide land for those in need of it. During the Álvaro Obregón presidency (1920 - 1924), Mexico began to concentrate on land reform. Agrarian reform was a revolutionary goal for land redistribution as part of a process of nationalization and "Mexicanization ''. Land distribution began almost immediately and affected both foreign and large domestic land owners (hacendados). The process was very slow, however. Between 1915 and 1928, 53,000 square kilometres was distributed to over 500,000 recipients in some 1500 communities. By 1930, ejidal (communal land holdings) constituted only 6.3 % of national agricultural property (by area) or 9.4 % by value.
The revolution reversed the Porfirian trend towards land concentration and set in motion a long process of agrarian mobilization. The power and legitimacy of the landlord class, which had underpinned Porfirian rule, never recovered. The radical and egalitarian sentiments produced by the revolution had made landlord rule of the old kind impossible.
President Lázaro Cárdenas passed the 1934 Agrarian Code and accelerated the pace of land reform. He helped redistribute 45,000,000 acres (180,000 km) of land, 4,000,000 acres (16,000 km) of which were expropriated from American owned agricultural property. This caused conflict between Mexico and the United States. Cárdenas employed tactics of noncompliance and deception to gain leverage in this international dispute.
Agrarian reform had come close to extinction in the early 1930s. The first few years of the Cárdenas ' reform were marked by high food prices, falling wages, high inflation, and low agricultural yields. In 1935 land reform began sweeping across the country in the periphery and core of commercial agriculture. The Cárdenas alliance with peasant groups was awarded by the destruction of the hacienda system. Cárdenas distributed more land than all his revolutionary predecessors put together, a 400 % increase. The land reform justified itself in terms of productivity; average agricultural production during the three - year period from 1939 to 1941 was higher than it had been at any time since the beginning of the revolution.
Starting with the government of Miguel Alemán (1946 -- 52), land reform steps made in previous governments were rolled back. Alemán 's government allowed entrepreneurs to rent peasant land. This created phenomenon known as "neolatifundismo, '' where land owners build up large - scale private farms on the basis of controlling land which remains ejidal but is not cultivated by the peasants to whom it is assigned.
In 1970, President Luis Echeverría began his term by declaring land reform dead. In the face of peasant revolt, he was forced to backtrack, and embarked on the biggest land reform program since Cárdenas. Echeverría legalized take - overs of huge foreign - owned private farms, which were turned into new collective ejidos.
In 1988, President Carlos Salinas de Gortari was elected. In December 1991, he amended Article 27 of the Constitution, making it legal to sell ejido land and allow peasants to put up their land as collateral for a loan.
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what's the largest cities in united states | List of United States cities by population - wikipedia
Population
The following is a list of the most populous incorporated places of the United States. As defined by the United States Census Bureau, an "incorporated place '' includes a variety of designations, including city, town, village, borough, and municipality. A few exceptional Census Designated Places (CDPs) are also included in the Census Bureau 's listing of incorporated places. Consolidated city - counties represent a distinct type of government that includes the entire population of a county, or county equivalent. Some consolidated city - counties, however, include multiple incorporated places. This list presents only that portion (or "balance '') of such consolidated city - counties that are not a part of another incorporated place.
This list refers only to the population of individual municipalities within their defined limits, which does not include other municipalities or unincorporated suburban areas within urban agglomerations. A different ranking is evident when considering U.S. metropolitan area populations.
The following table lists the 307 incorporated places in the United States with a population of at least 100,000 on July 1, 2016, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau. A city is displayed in bold if it is a state or federal capital, and in italics if it is the most populous city in the state. Five states -- Delaware, Maine, Vermont, West Virginia and Wyoming -- do not have cities with populations of 100,000 or more. The table below contains the following information:
For cities with populations of 100,000 or more, the following distributions hold. Smaller incorporated places are not included.
The mean density is 4,128.21 inhabitants per square mile (1,593.91 / km).
The median is 3,160.85 inhabitants per square mile (1,220.41 / km).
The following table lists the five municipalities (municipios) of Puerto Rico with a population greater than 100,000 on July 1, 2016, as estimated by the United States Census Bureau.
The table below contains the following information:
The following table lists U.S. census - designated places (CDPs) with populations of at least 100,000 according to the 2010 Census. A CDP is a concentration of population identified by the United States Census Bureau for statistical purposes. CDPs are delineated for each decennial census as the statistical counterparts of incorporated places such as cities, towns and villages. CDPs are populated areas that lack separate municipal government, but which otherwise physically resemble incorporated places. Unlike the incorporated cities in the main list, the US Census Bureau does not release annual population estimates for CDPs.
The table below contains the following information:
The following table lists U.S. cities that, in past censuses, have had populations of at least 100,000 but have since decreased beneath this threshold or have been consolidated with or annexed into a neighboring city.
The table below contains the following information:
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what country is in between poland and lithuania | Kaliningrad - wikipedia
Kaliningrad (Russian: Калининград, IPA: (kəljɪnjɪnˈɡrat); former German name: Königsberg; Yiddish: קעניגסבערג, Kenigsberg; Russian: Кёнигсберг, tr. Kyonigsberg; Old Prussian: Twangste, Kunnegsgarbs, Knigsberg) is the administrative center of Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave between Poland and Lithuania on the Baltic Sea.
In the Middle Ages, it was the site of Old Prussian settlement Twangste. In 1255, during the Northern Crusades, a new fortress was built by the Teutonic Knights. The city became the capital of the Duchy of Prussia and East Prussia (part of Germany). It was heavily damaged during World War II and its population fled or was removed by force when it became a Russian city. According to the 2010 Census, its population was 431,902. In 2018, Kaliningrad will be a host city to games of the FIFA World Cup.
Kaliningrad is at the mouth of the navigable Pregolya River, which empties into the Vistula Lagoon, an inlet of the Baltic Sea.
Sea vessels can access Gdańsk Bay / Bay of Danzig and the Baltic Sea by way of the Vistula Lagoon and the Strait of Baltiysk.
Until around 1900, ships drawing more than 2 meters (6 ft 7 in) of water could not pass the bar and come into town; larger vessels had to anchor at Pillau (now Baltiysk), where cargo was transferred to smaller vessels. In 1901, a ship canal between Königsberg and Pillau, completed at a cost of 13 million German marks, enabled vessels of a 6.5 meters (21 ft) draught to moor alongside the town (see also Ports of the Baltic Sea).
The Pregolya River in Kaliningrad
The pseudo-historic "Fishermen 's village ''
13th - century Juditten Church
Kaliningrad has a humid continental climate (Dfb), with cold, cloudy, (though moderate compared to most of Russia) winters and mild summers with frequent showers and thunderstorms. Average temperatures range from − 1.5 to + 18.1 ° C (29.3 to 64.6 ° F) and rainfall varies from 36.0 millimeters (1.42 in) / month to 97.0 millimeters (3.82 in) / month. In general, it has maritime climate influences and therefore damp, variable and mild, with vast temperature differences between July and January.
The seasons are clearly differentiated. Spring starts in March and is initially cold and windy, later becoming pleasantly warm and often very sunny. Summer, which begins in June, is predominantly warm but hot at times (with temperature reaching as high as + 30 -- + 35 ° C (86 -- 95 ° F) at least once per year) with plenty of sunshine interspersed with heavy rain. The average annual hours of sunshine for Kaliningrad are 1700, similar to other northern cities. Autumn comes in September and is at first warm and usually sunny, turning cold, damp and foggy in November. Winter includes periods of snow. January and February are the coldest months with the temperature sometimes dropping as low as − 15 ° C (5 ° F).
Königsberg was preceded by a Sambian (Old Prussian) fort called Twangste (Tuwangste or Tvankste), meaning Oak Forest. During the conquest of the Sambians by the Teutonic Knights in 1255, Twangste was destroyed and replaced with a new fortress named Königsberg. The declining Old Prussian culture finally became extinct around the 17th century, after the surviving Old Prussians were integrated through assimilation and Germanization.
Kaliningrad was the East Prussian provincial capital Königsberg. Founded in 1255 by the Teutonic Knights, the city was named in honor of the Bohemian King Ottokar II. Through immigration and development over the following seven centuries, the area became predominantly German, though having Polish and Lithuanian minorities. During World War II the city of Königsberg was heavily damaged by a British bombing attack in 1944 and the massive Soviet siege in spring 1945.
At the end of World War II in 1945, the city became part of the Soviet Union pending the final determination of territorial questions at the peace settlement (as part of the Russian SFSR) as agreed upon by the Allies at the Potsdam Conference:
The Conference agreed in principle to the proposal of the Soviet Government concerning the ultimate transfer to the Soviet Union of the city of Königsberg and the area adjacent to it as described above, subject to expert examination of the actual frontier.
The President of the United States and the British Prime Minister declared that they would support the proposal of the Conference at the forthcoming peace settlement.
Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946 after the death of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, Mikhail Kalinin, one of the original Bolsheviks. The survivors of the German population were forcibly expelled in 1946 -- 1949, and the city was repopulated with Soviet citizens. The German language was replaced by the Russian language.
The city was rebuilt, and as the westernmost territory of the USSR, the Kaliningrad Oblast became a strategically important area during the Cold War. The Soviet Baltic Fleet was headquartered in the city in the 1950s. Because of its strategic importance, Kaliningrad was closed to foreign visitors.
In 1957 an agreement was signed and later came into force which delimited the border between Poland and the Soviet Union.
The town of Baltiysk, just outside Kaliningrad, is the only Russian Baltic Sea port said to be "ice - free '' all year round, and the region hence plays an important role in maintenance of the Baltic Fleet.
While in the 1990s many Soviet - era city names commemorating Communist leaders were changed (e.g. Leningrad reverting to Saint Petersburg), Kaliningrad remains named for a Soviet leader.
Due to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Kaliningrad Oblast became an exclave, geographically separated from the rest of Russia. This isolation from the rest of Russia became even more pronounced politically when Poland and Lithuania became members of NATO and subsequently the European Union in 2004. All military and civilian land links between the region and the rest of Russia have to pass through members of NATO and the EU. Special travel arrangements for the territory 's inhabitants have been made through the Facilitated Transit Document (FTD) and Facilitated Rail Transit Document (FRTD).
Since the early 1990s, the Kaliningrad oblast has been a Free Economic Zone (FEZ Yantar). In 2005 the city marked 750 years of existence as Königsberg / Kaliningrad. In July 2007, Russian First Deputy Prime Minister Sergei Ivanov declared that if US - controlled missile defense systems were deployed in Poland, then nuclear weapons might be deployed in Kaliningrad. On November 5, 2008, Russian leader Dmitry Medvedev said that installing missiles in Kaliningrad was almost a certainty. These plans were suspended, however, in January 2009.
But during late 2011, a long range Voronezh radar was commissioned to monitor missile launches within about 6,000 kilometres (3,728 miles). It is situated in the settlement of Pionersky (formerly German Neukuhren) in Kaliningrad Oblast.
Even though the current German government has stated it has no claim over Kaliningrad, the former Königsberg, the possibility of such a return to German rule at some future time continues to come up in discussion, creating what is known as "The Kaliningrad question ''.
In 2018, Kaliningrad became one of the host cities to games of the FIFA World Cup.
Kaliningrad is the administrative center of the oblast. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the city of oblast significance of Kaliningrad -- an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of oblast significance of Kaliningrad is incorporated as Kaliningrad Urban Okrug.
As of 2014, the city was divided into three administrative districts:
Two administrative districts were abolished in June 2009:
Kaliningrad has many museums. A few examples are the Immanuel Kant museum on the Kneiphof island, the Regional Museum of History and Arts, which has parts of Königsberg Castle 's Prussia Museum of local archaeological findings, and the Kaliningrad Amber Museum, which is situated in the Dohna Tower near the Rossgarten Gate. The city is also home to the Kaliningrad State Art Gallery, established in 1988, that is developing as a contemporary art museum. The Museum of the World 's Oceans is located on the former research vessel Wityaz on the shore of the Pregel river. The museum displays the newest technologies on sea research and also shows the diversity of the flora and fauna of the world 's oceans. An anchored Foxtrot - class submarine next to the museum, the B - 413, hosts an exhibit about the Russian submarine fleet.
The Kaliningrad Philharmonic Orchestra is accommodated in the former Catholic Church of the Holy Family of Königsberg, built in 1907. The church escaped major damage in World War II and was refurbished afterwards. The building, which has noted acoustics, functions as an organ hall since re-opening in 1980.
The Kaliningrad Regional Drama Theater is located in the former Königsberg Neues Schauspielhaus, which was opened in 1910. The building was rebuilt after the war using earlier plans for the theater and opened in 1960. The colonnade in front of the entrance was modeled after the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow.
The regionally notable Kaliningrad Puppet Theater has had its seat since 1975 in the Queen Louise Remembrance Church. This neo-romantic church, designed by architect Fritz Heitmann, was built in 1901.
The pre-war city center (Altstadt and Kneiphof) currently consists of parks, broad avenues, a square on the site of the former Königsberg Castle, and two buildings: the House of Soviets ("Dom Sovyetov ''), roughly on the site of the former castle, and the restored Königsberg Cathedral on the Kneiphof island (now "Kant island ''). Immanuel Kant 's grave is situated next to the cathedral. Many German - era buildings in the historic city center have been preserved and even rebuilt, including the reconstruction of the Königsberg Synagogue. The new city center is concentrated around Victory Square. The Cathedral of Christ the Savior, consecrated in 2005, is located on that square.
The oldest building in Kaliningrad is the Juditten Church (built before 1288). Also worth seeing are the former Stock Exchange, the surviving churches, and the remaining city gates. In counter-clockwise order these gates are: the Sackheim Gate, King 's Gate, Rossgarten Gate, Attack Gate (German: Ausfallstor, or Sally Port), Railway Gate (Eisenbahntor), Brandenburg Gate, and Friedland Gate (Friedländer Tor (Kaliningrad) (de)). Apart from the already mentioned Dohna Tower, which houses the Amber Museum, the Wrangel Tower also remains as a reminder of the former Königsberg city walls. Only the gate of the former Fort Friedrichsburg remains.
Notable monuments include the statue of Immanuel Kant in front of the Immanuel Kant State University of Russia. The statue was made by notable sculptor Christian Daniel Rauch and unveiled in 1864. The statue was destroyed in 1945, but was remoulded in 1992 on the initiative of Marion Dönhoff, a native East Prussian who became prominent in the West. Also worth seeing is the Cosmonaut monument, which honours the Kaliningrad cosmonauts Alexei Leonov, Yuri Romanenko and Aleksandr Viktorenko. Other statues and monuments include the statue for Duke Albert, the statue for Friedrich Schiller, the statue for Tsar Peter the Great, Vladimir Vysotsky, the "Mother Russia '' monument, and the Monument for the 1200 Guardsmen, remembering the Battle of Königsberg.
Kaliningrad is a very "green '' city with a large number of parks and areas with lots of trees and lawns. Parks range from tiny city squares to massive parks.
Youth Recreation Park is one of the well known and popular parks in the city. The park was established in the ' 20s - ' 30s in the English style. It reopened its doors post war and was popular among citizens in the ' 80s - ' 90s with its beautiful boat house and tennis courts, as well as merry - go - rounds. The park had a massive reconstruction in 2004 adding to the park a cafe, carting, and various modern entertainments. It is located in the quiet area of the city, in Leningradsky area, and is connected to the Lower Pond. Youth Recreation Park provides entertainment for all age groups. There is also Interpersonal Communications Development Central located in the park. Its beautiful building became a popular backdrop for wedding pictures.
The Kaliningrad Zoo was opened as the Königsberg Zoo in 1896. The collection, which extends over 16.5 ha, comprises 315 species with a total of 2,264 individual animals (as of 2005). The Kaliningrad Zoo is also an arboretum.
Centrally located in the city is Lower Pond, an artificial lake. Lower Pond is surrounded by a promenade and is an area for recreation especially in summer. North of the Lower Pond is the larger Upper Pond in northern Kaliningrad.
Leonhard Euler 's 1736 paper on the puzzle of the Seven Bridges of Königsberg was a seminal work in the fields of graph theory and topology. Only two of the structures from his era survive.
In 2018, a new stadium, Kaliningrad Arena, was built on the Oktyabsrky Island, near the embankment of the Staraya Pregolya River. The stadium has a seating capacity of 35,000.
An important education centre in Kaliningrad is the Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University. It is the successor to the Albertina, which was the old university of Königsberg founded in 1544, and whose faculty included noted scholars as Abraomas Kulvietis, Stanislovas Rapalionis, Immanuel Kant, and Jan Mikulicz - Radecki.
The modern city of Kaliningrad is home to the Kaliningrad Regional Philharmonic and Symphony Orchestra, the Lik male chamber choir and the Garmonika Russian music ensemble, as well as the Kaliningrad Chamber Orchestra.
Kaliningrad has its own vodka and beer brands, Stari Königsberg and Ostmark respectively. Since the early 1990s many new restaurants have opened in the city. These restaurants offer culinary specialities of former East Prussia, like Königsberger Klopse, but also many fish and salad dishes, Italian pizza and sushi, which is as popular in Kaliningrad as in the rest of Russia. Königsberger Fleck, a bovine tripe soup and yet another culinary specialty from former Königsberg, no longer belongs to the culinary culture of Kaliningrad.
The people of Kaliningrad generally imported their respective culinary traditions to the region when they settled in the area after 1945. Borshch and okroshka may be served as in the rest of Russia. Many Italian and Asian restaurants (or fusions of both traditions) are in operation all over the city. Pizza and sushi are among the most popular dishes today. Fast food is widely available from various chains, including those of foreign origin. Shawarma is also gaining considerable prominence.
Khrabrovo Airport, 24 kilometers (15 mi) north of Kaliningrad, has scheduled and charter services to several destinations throughout Europe. There is the smaller Kaliningrad Devau Airport for general aviation. Kaliningrad is also home to Kaliningrad Chkalovsk naval air base.
In Baltiysk, one can take a ferry to St. Petersburg, Stockholm, Copenhagen, Riga, and Kiel.
Kaliningrad 's international railway station is Kaliningrad Passazhirsky, which in German times was known as Königsberg Hauptbahnhof. Trains depart in the directions of Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Adler and Chelyabinsk. A unique feature of the Kaliningrad railway is that some tracks in the direction of Poland and Berlin have a standard gauge of 1,435 - millimeter (56.5 in) track parallel to the commonly Russian broad gauge of 1,520 millimeters (60 in) mostly for strategic reasons during the Cold War and nowadays for goods traffic. Platform number 6 at the Passazhirsky station can be reached on standard gauge over the former Ostbahn main line from Elbing (Elbląg) making passenger through traffic from Berlin possible.
Regional trains also depart from Kaliningrad - North, the former Königsberg Nordbahnhof, which is situated on Victory Square, the current city center. Trains depart to Zelenogradsk and Svetlogorsk, and also once a day to Sovetsk. The lines to the Zelenogradsk and Svetlogorsk have been electrified. Many local pre-war lines have been broken up or are no longer in use, because the new border with Poland disrupted the former traffic flows.
In 1881, the Königsberg tramway system was opened, and it still functions to this day. In 1975, a trolleybus system was also introduced.
Mercedes - Benz bus. Pobedy Square (Victory Square)
VMZ trolley
Port of Kaliningrad
In 1996, Kaliningrad was designated a Special Economic Zone, referred to as FEZ Yantar. Manufacturers based there get tax and customs duty breaks on the goods they send to other parts of Russia. Although corruption was an early deterrent, that policy means the region is now a manufacturing hub. One in three televisions in Russia is made in Kaliningrad (including Ericsson brand by Telebalt Ltd. and Polar by an eponymous firm located in the city of Chernyakhovsk) and it is home to Cadillac, Hummer and BMW related car plants (produced by Avtotor). Currently, Kaliningrad 's major industries are manufacturing, shipping, fishing and amber products. In 2006, Moscow declared it would turn the region into "the Russian Hong Kong ''.
The European Commission provides funds for business projects under its special programme for Kaliningrad. With an average GDP growth of more than 10 % per year for three years to 2007, Kaliningrad grew faster than any other region in Russia, even outstripping the success of its EU neighbours. By early 2015, the BBC reported the region 's trade with the countries of the EU was increasing, with improved economic growth and industrial output.
In preparation for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, 4 new hotels have been built in the city, including a five star apartment hotel, Crystal House.
Kaliningrad Oblast used to be the most heavily militarized area of what is now the Russian Federation, and the density of military infrastructure was the highest in Europe. It was the headquarters of the former Soviet Baltic Military District. Kaliningrad also functions as the headquarters of Russia 's Baltic Fleet, ringed by Chernyakhovsk (air base), Donskoye (air base) and Kaliningrad Chkalovsk (naval air base).
Access and control to the Baltic Sea was imperative because of Soviet perceptions that this meant that the hegemonic power had "influence on European and global affairs ''. Russia had replaced Sweden as the hegemon since the 18th century, but during the late 19th and early 20th century it was increasingly ousted by Germany 's growing naval power. At any point in time during the Soviet era, there would be at least 100,000 troops stationed in Kaliningrad (though there are some estimates that run up to 300,000). Therefore, the population of the city was fluid and almost always temporary. Many military officers and their families would refer to the Kaliningrad Oblast as "the West ''. The Soviet Union also kept nuclear weapons for use in case a war occurred.
The overwhelming majority Kaliningrad 's residents are of Russian ethnicity. As the Soviet Union and the Russian Empire which preceded it were both multi-ethnic states, the area 's annexation into the USSR resulted in the city being settled by a slew of other peoples, mostly Slavs. Kaliningrad today is home to communities of Ukrainian, Belarusian, Tatar, German, Armenian, Polish, and Lithuanian descent. Although there is a lack of continuity between the inhabitants of Königsberg and contemporary Kaliningrad, these ethnic groups were all present when the city was part of the Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Ethnic composition, Russian 2010 census:
In the 1940s and 1950s the Soviets resettled Poles from Belarus, the Baltic states, Ukraine, and Russia to Kaliningrad. According to Wacław Podbereski after the Second World War and the takeover of the administration in these areas by the Soviets, the development of the Polish element in this region effectively ceased. The oldest church in Königsberg was the Polish church of St. Nicholas, which had been founded with the city in 1255 in the historic district of Steindamm and was dismantled in 1950. Change came with the disintegration of the Soviet Union, due mainly to pastoral activities that began the repolonization of the Poles in Russia. The first steps were made by a Polish priest from Grodno (Hrodna), Fr. Jerzy Steckiewicz.
The "Polish Cultural Community in Kaliningrad '' operates as the main Polish organization among Kaliningrad 's Polonia, one of six such Polish organizations within Kaliningrad Oblast. Wspolnota Polska estimates that it is likely there are between 15,000 and 20,000 Poles living in the entire oblast. The "Polish Cultural Community in Kaliningrad '' organizes poetry contests and is the publisher of the local Polish language newspaper "The Voice from the Pregel ''. The whole Kaliningrad Oblast has witnessed an increase in Polish cultural activity since the fall of the Soviet Union, partly due to the immigration of Polish families from Kazakhstan, who had been deported by Stalin during the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939.
Kaliningrad is home to the football club FC Baltika Kaliningrad, which plays in the Football Championship of the National League (formerly Russian First Division). It played in the Russian Premier League for 3 seasons between 1996 and 1998.
Kaliningrad will be the host of some games in the 2018 FIFA World Cup.
The city will host 4 matches of the World Cup:
The FIFA Fan Fest in Kaliningrad will be held on the Central Square in front of the House of the Soviets (Shevchenko Street). The Fan Fest venue has a capacity of 15,000 people. A big screen (about 120 sq m) at the venue will be used to broadcast the World Cup games. The venue will be serviced by a food outlet area and a hospitality area and will offer a concert program. The stadium and the Fan Fest venue are made accessible to people with disabilities.
In 2004, Germany opened a consulate general in Kaliningrad. This consulate allows Kaliningrad residents to get Schengen visas without having to travel to Moscow. An agreement between Gerhard Schröder, Chancellor of Germany, and President of Russia Vladimir Putin established the consulate in light of Lithuania and Poland, which surround Kaliningrad, joining the EU. Russian concerns with Germany wanting the former Königsberg back had stifled earlier plans for a German consulate.
As of 2004 the German consulate was still in the process of getting a new building.
Poland and the Russian Federation have an arrangement whereby residents of Kaliningrad and the Polish cities of Olsztyn, Elbląg and Gdańsk may obtain special cards permitting repeated travel between the two countries, crossing the Polish -- Russian border. As of July 2013, Poland had issued 100,000 of the cards. That year, Russians visiting Poland to shop at the Biedronka and Lidl supermarkets featured in songs by musical group Parovoz.
Kaliningrad is twinned with
Kaliningrad is also partnered with:
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when did hitchcock start appearing in his movies | List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances - wikipedia
English film director Alfred Hitchcock made cameo appearances in 39 of his 52 surviving major films (his second film, The Mountain Eagle, is lost). For the films in which he appeared, he would be seen for a brief moment in a non-speaking part in boarding a bus, crossing in front of a building, standing in an apartment across the courtyard, or even appearing in a newspaper photograph (as seen in the film Lifeboat, which otherwise provided no other opportunity for him to appear).
This playful gesture became one of Hitchcock 's signatures; and fans would make sport of trying to spot his cameos. As a recurring theme, he would carry a musical instrument -- especially memorable was the double bass case that he wrestles onto the train at the beginning of Strangers on a Train. In his earliest appearances, he filled in as an obscure extra in crowds or walking through scenes in long camera shots. His later appearances became more prominent, such as when he turns to see Jane Wyman 's disguise as she passes him in Stage Fright, and in stark silhouette in his final film Family Plot.
His appearances became so popular that he began to make them earlier in his films so as not to distract the audience from the plot. Hitchcock confirms this in extended interviews with François Truffaut, and indeed the majority of his appearances occur within the first half - hour of his films.
Hitchcock 's longest cameo appearances are in his British films Blackmail and Young and Innocent. He appears in all 30 features from Rebecca (his first American film) onward; before his move to Hollywood, he only occasionally performed cameos.
This is a list of Hitchcock 's cameo appearances in films that he directed.
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who said the quote treat others how you want to be treated | Golden Rule - wikipedia
The Golden Rule is the principle of treating others as one would wish to be treated. It is a maxim that is found in many religions and cultures. The Golden Rule can be considered a law of reciprocity in some religions, although other religions treat it differently. The maxim may appear as either a positive or negative injunction governing conduct:
The idea dates at least to the early Confucian times (551 -- 479 BCE) according to Rushworth Kidder, who identifies that this concept appears prominently in Buddhism, Christianity, Judaism, Taoism, Zoroastrianism, and "the rest of the world 's major religions ''. 143 leaders encompassing the world 's major faiths endorsed the Golden Rule as part of the 1993 "Declaration Toward a Global Ethic '', including the Baha'i Faith, Brahmanism, Brahma Kumaris, Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Indigenous, Interfaith, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Native American, Neo-Pagan, Sikhism, Taoism, Theosophist, Unitarian Universalist and Zoroastrian. According to Greg M. Epstein, "' do unto others '... is a concept that essentially no religion misses entirely, '' but belief in God is not necessary to endorse it. Simon Blackburn also states that the Golden Rule can be "found in some form in almost every ethical tradition ''.
The Golden Rule has been criticised for a number of reasons, to include the possibility of differing preferences, situations where there is a significant power disparity between actors (e.g., a judge and a prisoner being judged), and the need to apply the Golden Rule along with with other ethical action guides.
The term "Golden Rule '', or "Golden law '', began to be used widely in the early 17th century in Britain by Anglican theologians and preachers; the earliest known usage is that of Anglicans Charles Gibbon and Thomas Jackson in 1604.
Possibly the earliest affirmation of the maxim of reciprocity, reflecting the ancient Egyptian goddess Ma'at, appears in the story of The Eloquent Peasant, which dates to the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040 -- 1650 BC): "Now this is the command: Do to the doer to make him do. '' This proverb embodies the do ut des principle. A Late Period (c. 664 -- 323 BC) papyrus contains an early negative affirmation of the Golden Rule: "That which you hate to be done to you, do not do to another. ''
In Mahābhārata, the ancient epic of India, there is a discourse in which the wise minister Vidura advises the King Yuddhiśhṭhira
Listening to wise scriptures, austerity, sacrifice, respectful faith, social welfare, forgiveness, purity of intent, compassion, truth and self - control -- are the ten wealth of character (self). O king aim for these, may you be steadfast in these qualities. These are the basis of prosperity and rightful living. These are highest attainable things. All worlds are balanced on dharma, dharma encompasses ways to prosperity as well. O King, dharma is the best quality to have, wealth the medium and desire (kāma) the lowest. Hence, (keeping these in mind), by self - control and by making dharma (right conduct) your main focus, treat others as you treat yourself.
In Chapter 32 in the Part on Virtue of the Tirukkuṛaḷ (c. 200 BC -- c. 500 AD), Tiruvalluvar says: "Do not do to others what you know has hurt yourself '' (K. 316.); "Why does one hurt others knowing what it is to be hurt? '' (K. 318). He furthermore opined that it is the determination of the spotless (virtuous) not to do evil, even in return, to those who have cherished enmity and done them evil. (K. 312) The (proper) punishment to those who have done evil (to you), is to put them to shame by showing them kindness, in return and to forget both the evil and the good done on both sides (K. 314)
The Golden Rule in its prohibitive (negative) form was a common principle in ancient Greek philosophy. Examples of the general concept include:
The Pahlavi Texts of Zoroastrianism (c. 300 BC -- 1000 AD) were an early source for the Golden Rule: "That nature alone is good which refrains from doing to another whatsoever is not good for itself. '' Dadisten - I - dinik, 94, 5, and "Whatever is disagreeable to yourself do not do unto others. '' Shayast - na - Shayast 13: 29
Seneca the Younger (c. 4 BC -- 65 AD), a practitioner of Stoicism (c. 300 BC -- 200 AD) expressed the Golden Rule in his essay regarding the treatment of slaves: "Treat your inferior as you would wish your superior to treat you. ''
According to Simon Blackburn, the Golden Rule "can be found in some form in almost every ethical tradition ''.
A rule of altruistic reciprocity was first stated positively in a well - known Torah verse (Hebrew: ואהבת לרעך כמוך ):
You shall not take vengeance or bear a grudge against your kinsfolk. Love your neighbor as yourself: I am the LORD.
Hillel the Elder (c. 110 BC -- 10 AD), used this verse as a most important message of the Torah for his teachings. Once, he was challenged by a gentile who asked to be converted under the condition that the Torah be explained to him while he stood on one foot. Hillel accepted him as a candidate for conversion to Judaism but, drawing on Leviticus 19: 18, briefed the man:
What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow: this is the whole Torah; the rest is the explanation; go and learn.
Hillel recognized brotherly love as the fundamental principle of Jewish ethics. Rabbi Akiva agreed and suggested that the principle of love must have its foundation in Genesis chapter 1, which teaches that all men are the offspring of Adam, who was made in the image of God (Sifra, Ḳedoshim, iv.; Yer. Ned. ix. 41c; Genesis Rabba 24). According to Jewish rabbinic literature, the first man Adam represents the unity of mankind. This is echoed in the modern preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. And it is also taught, that Adam is last in order according to the evolutionary character of God 's creation:
Why was only a single specimen of man created first? To teach us that he who destroys a single soul destroys a whole world and that he who saves a single soul saves a whole world; furthermore, so no race or class may claim a nobler ancestry, saying, ' Our father was born first '; and, finally, to give testimony to the greatness of the Lord, who caused the wonderful diversity of mankind to emanate from one type. And why was Adam created last of all beings? To teach him humility; for if he be overbearing, let him remember that the little fly preceded him in the order of creation.
The Jewish Publication Society 's edition of Leviticus states:
Thou shalt not hate thy brother. in thy heart; thou shalt surely rebuke thy neighbour, and not bear sin because of him. 18 Thou shalt not take vengeance, nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people, but thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself: I am the LORD.
This Torah verse represents one of several versions of the Golden Rule, which itself appears in various forms, positive and negative. It is the earliest written version of that concept in a positive form.
At the turn of the eras, the Jewish rabbis were discussing the scope of the meaning of Leviticus 19: 18 and 19: 34 extensively:
The stranger who resides with you shall be to you as one of your citizens; you shall love him as yourself, for you were strangers in the land of Egypt: I the LORD am your God.
Commentators summed up foreigners (= Samaritans), proselytes (= ' strangers who resides with you ') (Rabbi Akiva, bQuid 75b) or Jews (Rabbi Gamaliel, yKet 3, 1; 27a) to the scope of the meaning.
On the verse, "Love your fellow as yourself, '' the classic commentator Rashi quotes from Torat Kohanim, an early Midrashic text regarding the famous dictum of Rabbi Akiva: "Love your fellow as yourself -- Rabbi Akiva says this is a great principle of the Torah. ''
Israel 's postal service quoted from the previous Leviticus verse when it commemorated the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on a 1958 postage stamp.
The "Golden Rule '' was given by Jesus of Nazareth (Matthew 7: 12 NCV, see also Luke 6: 31). The common English phrasing is "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you ''. A similar form of the phrase appeared in a Catholic catechism around 1567 (certainly in the reprint of 1583). The Golden Rule is stated positively numerous times in the Hebrew Pentateuch as well as the Prophets and Writings. Leviticus 19: 18 ("Forget about the wrong things people do to you, and do not try to get even. Love your neighbor as you love yourself. ''; see also Great Commandment) and Leviticus 19: 34 ("But treat them just as you treat your own citizens. Love foreigners as you love yourselves, because you were foreigners one time in Egypt. I am the Lord your God. '').
The Old Testament Deuterocanonical books of Tobit and Sirach, accepted as part of the Scriptural canon by Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, and the Non-Chalcedonian Churches, express a negative form of the golden rule:
"Do to no one what you yourself dislike. ''
"Recognize that your neighbor feels as you do, and keep in mind your own dislikes. ''
Two passages in the New Testament quote Jesus of Nazareth espousing the positive form of the Golden rule:
Matthew 7: 12
Do to others what you want them to do to you. This is the meaning of the law of Moses and the teaching of the prophets.
Luke 6: 31
Do to others what you would want them to do to you.
A similar passage, a parallel to the Great Commandment, is Luke 10: 25 - 28
And one day an authority on the law stood up to put Jesus to the test. "Teacher, '' he asked, "what must I do to receive eternal life? ''
What is written in the Law? '' Jesus replied. "How do you understand it? '' He answered, "' Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul. Love him with all your strength and with all your mind. ' (Deuteronomy 6: 5) And, ' Love your neighbor as you love yourself. ' '' "You have answered correctly, '' Jesus replied. "Do that, and you will live. ''.
The passage in the book of Luke then continues with Jesus answering the question, "Who is my neighbor? '', by telling the parable of the Good Samaritan, indicating that "your neighbor '' is anyone in need. This extends to all, including those who are generally considered hostile.
Jesus ' teaching goes beyond the negative formulation of not doing what one would not like done to themselves, to the positive formulation of actively doing good to another that, if the situations were reversed, one would desire that the other would do for them. This formulation, as indicated in the parable of the Good Samaritan, emphasizes the needs for positive action that brings benefit to another, not simply restraining oneself from negative activities that hurt another. Taken as a rule of judgment, both formulations of the golden rule, the negative and positive, are equally applicable.
In one passage of the New Testament, Paul the Apostle refers to the golden rule:
Galatians 5: 14
For all the law is fulfilled in one word, even in this; Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.
The Arabian peninsula was known to not practice the golden rule prior to the advent of Islam. "Pre-Islamic Arabs regarded the survival of the tribe, as most essential and to be ensured by the ancient rite of blood vengeance ''
However, this all changed when Muhammad came on the scene:
Fakir al - Din al - Razi and several other Qur'anic commentators have pointed out that Qur'an 83: 1 - 6 is an implicit statement of the Golden Rule, which is explicitly stated in the tradition, "Pay, Oh Children of Adam, as you would love to be paid, and be just as you would love to have justice! ''
Similar examples of the golden rule are found in the hadith of the prophet Muhammad. The hadith recount what the prophet is believed to have said and done, and traditionally Muslims regard the hadith as second to only the Qur'an as a guide to correct belief and action. ''
From the hadith, the collected oral and written accounts of Muhammad and his teachings during his lifetime:
A Bedouin came to the prophet, grabbed the stirrup of his camel and said: O the messenger of God! Teach me something to go to heaven with it. Prophet said: "As you would have people do to you, do to them; and what you dislike to be done to you, do n't do to them. Now let the stirrup go! '' (This maxim is enough for you; go and act in accordance with it!) ''
None of you (truly) believes until he wishes for his brother what he wishes for himself.
Seek for mankind that of which you are desirous for yourself, that you may be a believer.
That which you want for yourself, seek for mankind.
The most righteous person is the one who consents for other people what he consents for himself, and who dislikes for them what he dislikes for himself.
Ali ibn Abi Talib (4th Caliph in Sunni Islam, and first Imam in Shia Islam) says:
O ' my child, make yourself the measure (for dealings) between you and others. Thus, you should desire for others what you desire for yourself and hate for others what you hate for yourself. Do not oppress as you do not like to be oppressed. Do good to others as you would like good to be done to you. Regard bad for yourself whatever you regard bad for others. Accept that (treatment) from others which you would like others to accept from you... Do not say to others what you do not like to be said to you.
One should never do that to another which one regards as injurious to one 's own self. This, in brief, is the rule of dharma. Other behavior is due to selfish desires.
By making dharma your main focus, treat others as you treat yourself
Also,
श्रूयतां धर्मसर्वस्वं श्रुत्वा चाप्यवधार्यताम् । आत्मनः प्रतिकूलानि परेषां न समाचरेत् । ।
If the entire Dharma can be said in a few words, then it is -- that which is unfavorable to us, do not do that to others.
Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama, c. 623 -- 543 BC) made this principle one of the cornerstones of his ethics in the 6th century BC. It occurs in many places and in many forms throughout the Tripitaka.
Comparing oneself to others in such terms as "Just as I am so are they, just as they are so am I, '' he should neither kill nor cause others to kill.
One who, while himself seeking happiness, oppresses with violence other beings who also desire happiness, will not attain happiness hereafter.
Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful.
Putting oneself in the place of another, one should not kill nor cause another to kill.
The Golden Rule is paramount in the Jainist philosophy and can be seen in the doctrines of Ahimsa and Karma. As part of the prohibition of causing any living beings to suffer, Jainism forbids inflicting upon others what is harmful to oneself.
The following quotation from the Acaranga Sutra sums up the philosophy of Jainism:
Nothing which breathes, which exists, which lives, or which has essence or potential of life, should be destroyed or ruled over, or subjugated, or harmed, or denied of its essence or potential.
In support of this Truth, I ask you a question -- "Is sorrow or pain desirable to you? '' If you say "yes it is '', it would be a lie. If you say, "No, It is not '' you will be expressing the truth. Just as sorrow or pain is not desirable to you, so it is to all which breathe, exist, live or have any essence of life. To you and all, it is undesirable, and painful, and repugnant.
A man should wander about treating all creatures as he himself would be treated.
In happiness and suffering, in joy and grief, we should regard all creatures as we regard our own self.
Saman Suttam of Jinendra Varni gives further insight into this precept: -
Just as pain is not agreeable to you, it is so with others. Knowing this principle of equality treat other with respect and compassion.
Killing a living being is killing one 's own self; showing compassion to a living being is showing compassion to oneself. He who desires his own good, should avoid causing any harm to a living being.
Precious like jewels are the minds of all. To hurt them is not at all good. If thou desirest thy Beloved, then hurt thou not anyone 's heart.
The same idea is also presented in V. 12 and VI. 30 of the Analects (c. 500 BC), which can be found in the online Chinese Text Project. The phraseology differs from the Christian version of the Golden Rule. It does not presume to do anything unto others, but merely to avoid doing what would be harmful. It does not preclude doing good deeds and taking moral positions, but there is slim possibility for a Confucian missionary outlook, such as one can justify with the Christian Golden Rule.
The sage has no interest of his own, but takes the interests of the people as his own. He is kind to the kind; he is also kind to the unkind: for Virtue is kind. He is faithful to the faithful; he is also faithful to the unfaithful: for Virtue is faithful.
Regard your neighbor 's gain as your own gain, and your neighbor 's loss as your own loss.
If people regarded other people 's states in the same way that they regard their own, who then would incite their own state to attack that of another? For one would do for others as one would do for oneself. If people regarded other people 's cities in the same way that they regard their own, who then would incite their own city to attack that of another? For one would do for others as one would do for oneself. If people regarded other people 's families in the same way that they regard their own, who then would incite their own family to attack that of another? For one would do for others as one would do for oneself. And so if states and cities do not attack one another and families do not wreak havoc upon and steal from one another, would this be a harm to the world or a benefit? Of course one must say it is a benefit to the world.
Mozi regarded the golden rule as a corollary to the cardinal virtue of impartiality, and encouraged egalitarianism and selflessness in relationships.
Do not do unto others whatever is injurious to yourself. -- Shayast - na - Shayast 13.29
The writings of the Bahá'í Faith encourages everyone to treat others as they would treat themselves and even prefer others over oneself:
O SON OF MAN! Deny not My servant should he ask anything from thee, for his face is My face; be then abashed before Me.
Blessed is he who preferreth his brother before himself.
And if thine eyes be turned towards justice, choose thou for thy neighbour that which thou choosest for thyself.
Ascribe not to any soul that which thou wouldst not have ascribed to thee, and say not that which thou doest not.
Here ye these words and heed them well, the words of Dea, thy Mother Goddess, "I command thee thus, O children of the Earth, that that which ye deem harmful unto thyself, the very same shall ye be forbidden from doing unto another, for violence and hatred give rise to the same. My command is thus, that ye shall return all violence and hatred with peacefulness and love, for my Law is love unto all things. Only through love shall ye have peace; yea and verily, only peace and love will cure the world, and subdue all evil. ''
The Way to Happiness expresses the Golden Rule both in its negative / prohibitive form and in its positive form. The negative / prohibitive form is expressed in Precept 19 as:
19. Try not to do things to others that you would not like them to do to you.
The positive form is expressed in Precept 20 as:
20. Try to treat others as you would want them to treat you.
One who is going to take a pointed stick to pinch a baby bird should first try it on himself to feel how it hurts.
Egbe bere, ugo bere. (Let the eagle perch, let the hawk perch.)
Nke si ibe ya ebene gosi ya ebe o ga - ebe. (Whoever says the other shall not perch, may they show the other where to perch.)
The "Declaration Toward a Global Ethic '' from the Parliament of the World 's Religions (1993) proclaimed the Golden Rule ("We must treat others as we wish others to treat us '') as the common principle for many religions. The Initial Declaration was signed by 143 leaders from all of the world 's major faiths, including Baha'i Faith, Brahmanism, Brahma Kumaris, Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Indigenous, Interfaith, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Native American, Neo-Pagan, Sikhism, Taoism, Theosophist, Unitarian Universalist and Zoroastrian. In the folklore of several cultures the Golden Rule is depicted by the allegory of the long spoons.
In the view of Greg M. Epstein, a Humanist chaplain at Harvard University, "' do unto others '... is a concept that essentially no religion misses entirely. But not a single one of these versions of the golden rule requires a God ''. Various sources identify the Golden Rule as a humanist principle:
Trying to live according to the Golden Rule means trying to empathise with other people, including those who may be very different from us. Empathy is at the root of kindness, compassion, understanding and respect -- qualities that we all appreciate being shown, whoever we are, whatever we think and wherever we come from. And although it is n't possible to know what it really feels like to be a different person or live in different circumstances and have different life experiences, it is n't difficult for most of us to imagine what would cause us suffering and to try to avoid causing suffering to others. For this reason many people find the Golden Rule 's corollary -- "do not treat people in a way you would not wish to be treated yourself '' -- more pragmatic.
Do not do to others what you would not want them to do to you. (is) (...) the single greatest, simplest, and most important moral axiom humanity has ever invented, one which reappears in the writings of almost every culture and religion throughout history, the one we know as the Golden Rule. Moral directives do not need to be complex or obscure to be worthwhile, and in fact, it is precisely this rule 's simplicity which makes it great. It is easy to come up with, easy to understand, and easy to apply, and these three things are the hallmarks of a strong and healthy moral system. The idea behind it is readily graspable: before performing an action which might harm another person, try to imagine yourself in their position, and consider whether you would want to be the recipient of that action. If you would not want to be in such a position, the other person probably would not either, and so you should not do it. It is the basic and fundamental human trait of empathy, the ability to vicariously experience how another is feeling, that makes this possible, and it is the principle of empathy by which we should live our lives.
When we say that man chooses for himself, we do mean that every one of us must choose himself; but by that we also mean that in choosing for himself he chooses for all men. For in effect, of all the actions a man may take in order to create himself as he wills to be, there is not one which is not creative, at the same time, of an image of man such as he believes he ought to be. To choose between this or that is at the same time to affirm the value of that which is chosen; for we are unable ever to choose the worse. What we choose is always the better; and nothing can be better for us unless it is better for all.
According to Marc H. Bornstein, and William E. Paden, the Golden Rule is arguably the most essential basis for the modern concept of human rights, in which each individual has a right to just treatment, and a reciprocal responsibility to ensure justice for others.
However Leo Damrosch argued that the notion that the Golden Rule pertains to "rights '' per se is a contemporary interpretation and has nothing to do with its origin. The development of human "rights '' is a modern political ideal that began as a philosophical concept promulgated through the philosophy of Jean Jacques Rousseau in 18th century France, among others. His writings influenced Thomas Jefferson, who then incorporated Rousseau 's reference to "inalienable rights '' into the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776. Damrosch argued that to confuse the Golden Rule with human rights is to apply contemporary thinking to ancient concepts.
There has been research published arguing that some ' sense ' of fair play and the Golden Rule may be stated and rooted in terms of neuroscientific and neuroethical principles.
The Golden Rule can also be explained from the perspectives of psychology, philosophy, sociology, human evolution, and economics. Psychologically, it involves a person empathizing with others. Philosophically, it involves a person perceiving their neighbor also as "I '' or "self ''. Sociologically, "love your neighbor as yourself '' is applicable between individuals, between groups, and also between individuals and groups. In evolution, "reciprocal altruism '' is seen as a distinctive advance in the capacity of human groups to survive and reproduce, as their exceptional brains demanded exceptionally long childhoods and ongoing provision and protection even beyond that of the immediate family. In economics, Richard Swift, referring to ideas from David Graeber, suggests that "without some kind of reciprocity society would no longer be able to exist. ''
Philosophers, such as Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Nietzsche, have objected to the rule on a variety of grounds. The most serious among these is its application. How does one know how others want to be treated? The obvious way is to ask them, but this can not be done if one assumes they have not reached a particular and relevant understanding.
George Bernard Shaw wrote, "Do not do unto others as you would that they should do unto you. Their tastes may be different. '' This suggests that if your values are not shared with others, the way you want to be treated will not be the way they want to be treated. Hence, the Golden Rule of "do unto others '' is "dangerous in the wrong hands, '' according to philosopher Iain King, because "some fanatics have no aversion to death: the Golden Rule might inspire them to kill others in suicide missions. ''
Immanuel Kant famously criticized the golden rule for not being sensitive to differences of situation, noting that a prisoner duly convicted of a crime could appeal to the golden rule while asking the judge to release him, pointing out that the judge would not want anyone else to send him to prison, so he should not do so to others. Kant 's Categorical Imperative, introduced in Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, is often confused with the Golden Rule.
In his book How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time, philosopher Iain King has argued that "(although) the idea of mirroring your treatment of others with their treatment of you is very widespread indeed... most ancient wisdoms express this negatively -- advice on what you should not do, rather than what you should. '' He argues this creates a bias in favour of inertia which allows bad actions and states of affairs to persist. The positive formulation, meanwhile, can be "incendiary '', since it "can lead to cycles of tit - for - tat reciprocity, '' unless it is accompanied by a corrective mechanism, such as a concept of forgiveness. Therefore, he concludes that there can be no viable formulation of the Golden Rule, unless it is heavily qualified by other maxims.
Walter Terence Stace, in The Concept of Morals (1937), wrote:
Mr. Bernard Shaw 's remark "Do not do unto others as you would that they should do unto you. Their tastes may be different '' is no doubt a smart saying. But it seems to overlook the fact that "doing as you would be done by '' includes taking into account your neighbor 's tastes as you would that he should take yours into account. Thus the "golden rule '' might still express the essence of a universal morality even if no two men in the world had any needs or tastes in common.
Marcus George Singer observed that there are two importantly different ways of looking at the golden rule: as requiring (1) that you perform specific actions that you want others to do to you or (2) that you guide your behavior in the same general ways that you want others to. Counter-examples to the golden rule typically are more forceful against the first than the second.
In his book on the golden rule, Jeffrey Wattles makes the similar observation that such objections typically arise while applying the golden rule in certain general ways (namely, ignoring differences in taste, in situation, and so forth). But if we apply the golden rule to our own method of using it, asking in effect if we would want other people to apply the golden rule in such ways, the answer would typically be no, since it is quite predictable that others ' ignoring of such factors will lead to behavior which we object to. It follows that we should not do so ourselves -- according to the golden rule. In this way, the golden rule may be self - correcting. An article by Jouni Reinikainen develops this suggestion in greater detail.
It is possible, then, that the golden rule can itself guide us in identifying which differences of situation are morally relevant. We would often want other people to ignore any prejudice against our race or nationality when deciding how to act towards us, but would also want them to not ignore our differing preferences in food, desire for aggressiveness, and so on. This principle of "doing unto others, wherever possible, as they would be done by... '' has sometimes been termed the platinum rule.
Charles Kingsley 's The Water Babies (1863) includes a character named Mrs Do - As - You - Would - Be-Done - By (and another, Mrs Be-Done - By - As - You - Did).
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who was the father of scully's baby | William (the X-Files) - wikipedia
"William '' is the sixteenth episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X-Files, which originally aired on the Fox network on April 28, 2002. The teleplay of the episode was written by series creator Chris Carter, from a story by former series star David Duchovny, Carter, and executive producer Frank Spotnitz; the entry was directed by Duchovny. "William '' helps to explore the series ' overarching mythology. The episode received a Nielsen household rating of 5.8, being watched by 6.1 million households and 9.3 million viewers upon its initial broadcast. It received mixed reviews from television critics, many of whom were unhappy with the episode 's conclusion.
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called X-Files; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett (Robert Patrick), Monica Reyes (Annabeth Gish), and Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson). In this episode, Doggett finds a strange, disfigured man (Chris Owens) in the X-Files office and, on his whim, they test his DNA. They learn that the man shares DNA with Fox Mulder (Duchovny), and may possibly even be him. The answers become even more surprising when Scully 's son, baby William, is put on the line.
"William '' marked the return of David Duchovny to the series, after his departure following the eighth season finale "Existence ''. The genesis for the episode was a storyline Duchovny had developed during the series ' eighth season; he originally pitched an idea featuring a mysteriously disfigured person introducing himself to Scully and admitting that he possessed a connection to Mulder. Chris Owens, whose character Jeffrey Spender had previously been killed off in the sixth season episode "One Son '', was asked to return to the series for the episode.
In the teaser, a couple, the Van De Kamps (Adam Nelson and Shannon Hile), adopt Dana Scully 's (Gillian Anderson) infant son, William (James and Travis Riker). The episode then jumps back a week. Scully takes William out of her car while an unknown man (Chris Owens) watches them. Later, John Doggett (Robert Patrick) is attacked in the X-Files office by the same man. After a struggle, Doggett subdues him. His face is revealed to be horribly scarred.
Later, Scully speaks with the man. He claims he received his burns due to alien testing and that he knew Fox Mulder (David Duchovny). He further elaborates that he was sent to the FBI to retrieve certain files. Scully suspects the man is lying, but asks to examine his burns to investigate his strange claims. He notes that they are the result of an injection that failed to transform him into one of the aliens. The man claims a new conspiracy has formed after the previous one was destroyed; the new one being hidden within the government and the conspirators involved being alien. Doggett theorizes that the man is actually Mulder. Scully takes the man to her house to give him the files he seeks. Suddenly, William begins to cry, only to be quieted when the scarred man picks him up. Meanwhile, Walter Skinner (Mitch Pileggi) meets with Doggett and the two discuss the idea that the man is actually Mulder. Skinner points out the inconsistencies in Doggett 's reasoning, but a DNA test is undertaken anyway.
Scully is told by the scarred man that William is part alien and that she is being used to raise the child. Monica Reyes (Annabeth Gish) and Doggett tell Scully that the man 's DNA is a match to Mulder 's, but Scully refuses to believe it. While the three are talking, the scarred man quietly slips into William 's room with a syringe. Though William 's crying alerts the agents, the scarred man manages to sneak out of the room before they reach William. Reyes and Scully take the baby to the hospital and Doggett discovers the man 's syringe. The doctor reports that William is fine except for an elevated amount of iron in his blood. In interrogation, Scully confronts the scarred man about his motives. It is revealed that he is actually Jeffrey Spender, a former FBI agent supposedly killed by The Smoking Man (William B. Davis) three years earlier. Spender is also Mulder 's half - brother. Spender admits his actions were a ruse and that the syringe contained magnetite meant to make William normal. He explains that the aliens need the child in order to successfully invade the world, but now they have lost him. However, he notes that the conspirators will always pursue the child, despite what he has done. Spender says that he acted out of his hatred for his father, since the new conspiracy was created by The Smoking Man after the alien rebels burned the original group.
Scully muses over Spender 's words and decides that the only way to truly protect William is to give him up for adoption so that he may have a better life. The episode then jumps to the Van De Kamps, who tuck in their new son. William looks at his mobile but he can no longer move it telekinetically, an event which happened in "Nothing Important Happened Today ''.
The story for "William '' was written by former series co-star David Duchovny, series creator Chris Carter, and executive producer Frank Spotnitz; the screenplay was written solely by Carter, and the entry was directed by Duchovny. "William '' marked the return of David Duchovny, in some capacity, to the series, after his departure following the eighth season finale "Existence ''. In fact, Duchovny makes a cameo appearance in the episode, appearing as a reflection in Scully 's eye.
The genesis for the episode was a storyline Duchovny had developed during the series ' eighth season. He had originally pitched an idea featuring a mysteriously disfigured person introducing himself to Scully and admitting that he has a connection to Mulder. Reportedly, the idea for Scully to give William up for adoption was mandated by Carter and Spotnitz. Duchovny, Anderson, and executive producer John Shiban were not happy with this turn of events, due to them being parents and feeling that the action was not realistic, but "grudgingly consented ''.
Three years after Spender had been written out of the series -- in the sixth season episode "One Son '' -- and actor Chris Owens had moved to Toronto, Ontario in Canada, Owens received an unexpected phone call from David Duchovny, who said that The X-Files ' production crew was filming the series ' finale as well as another episode late in the season, and that he wanted to bring Spender back for these two episodes. Duchovny reassured Owens that Spender 's survival of the shooting years earlier could be explained away via the plot device of an alien injection but mentioned that the experience would not be fun for Owens, as he would be "under all that shit ''; Owens did not realize what Duchovny meant until he got to the studio and personally saw the makeup for Spender 's disfigured appearance, a sight that shocked Owens.
"William '' originally aired on the Fox network on April 28, 2002, and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on March 2, 2003. The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 6.1 million households, and 9.3 million viewers. "William '' earned a Nielsen household rating of 5.8, meaning that roughly 5.8 percent of all television - equipped households, were tuned in to the episode. It was the fifty - fourth most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending April 28. The episode was later included on The X-Files Mythology, Volume 4 -- Super Soldiers, a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien super soldiers arc.
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics. Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode an A -- grade. John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it an 8 out of 10. He wrote, "Overall, this was an uneven yet highly enjoyable mythology episode, far better than the episode that appears to have spawned it (' Trustno1 ') (sic). I look forward to whatever directorial / writing work David Duchovny might do in the future. And if this is indeed the last we see of William, well, I 'm not going to complain! Still, by now, Carter and Spotnitz ought to know how to write an episode with the time constraints in mind. ''
Other reviews were not as positive. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated the episode three stars out of five. The two criticized the idea that Scully would give her child up for adoption solely based on the word of Jeffrey Spender, noting "if she was n't going to give it away for the sake of its own protection after a UFO cult abducted it (in ' Provenance ' / ' Providence '), then why should she because Jeffrey Spender of all people comes along and informs her that it 's under threat? '' Shearman and Pearson, however, did praise Chris Owens ' acting, writing that he did a "great job ''. Tom Kessenich, in his book Examinations, wrote a largely negative review of the episode and derided its plot. He heavily criticized the idea that Scully would offer William up for adoption. Kessenich did however praise Duchovny 's directing, noting that "(he) did a masterful job of luring me back to this world of The X-Files ''. Aaron Kinney from Salon wrote that the episode "scuttled the entire '' baby William subplot. M.A. Crang, in his book Denying the Truth: Revisiting The X-Files after 9 / 11, praised the decision to conclude the William subplot but called the episode 's conclusion "sappy ''.
This article incorporates material derived from the "William (episode) '' article on the X-Files wiki at Wikia and is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution - Share Alike License (July 15, 2012).
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who was never nominated for a noble peace prize | Nobel Peace Prize - wikipedia
The Nobel Peace Prize (Swedish, Norwegian: Nobels fredspris) is one of the five Nobel Prizes created by the Swedish industrialist, inventor, and armaments manufacturer Alfred Nobel, along with the prizes in Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature. Since March 1901, it has been awarded annually (with some exceptions) to those who have "done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses ''.
As per Alfred Nobel 's will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five - member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year. The prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law (1947 -- 1989), the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905 -- 1946), and the Parliament (1901 -- 1904).
Due to its political ideology and interferences, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history, been the subject of controversies.
According to Nobel 's will, the Peace Prize shall be awarded to the person who in the preceding year "shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses ''.
Alfred Nobel 's will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five people chosen by the Norwegian Parliament.
Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category. As he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear. According to the Norwegian Nobel Committee, his friendship with Bertha von Suttner, a peace activist and later recipient of the prize, profoundly influenced his decision to include peace as a category. Some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobel 's way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite, both of which were used violently during his lifetime. Ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company.
It is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobel 's death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, as it did not have the same militaristic traditions as Sweden. It also notes that at the end of the 19th century, the Norwegian parliament had become closely involved in the Inter-Parliamentary Union 's efforts to resolve conflicts through mediation and arbitration.
The Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate.
Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. The statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. These nominators are:
Nominations must usually be submitted to the Committee by the beginning of February in the award year. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline.
In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was broken again in 2010 with 237 nominations; in 2011, the record was broken once again with 241 nominations. The statutes of the Nobel Foundation do not allow information about nominations, considerations, or investigations relating to awarding the prize to be made public for at least 50 years after a prize has been awarded. Over time, many individuals have become known as "Nobel Peace Prize Nominees '', but this designation has no official standing, and means only that one of the thousands of eligible nominators suggested the person 's name for consideration. Indeed, in 1939, Adolf Hitler received a satirical nomination from a member of the Swedish parliament, mocking the (serious but unsuccessful) nomination of Neville Chamberlain. Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have been released in a database.
Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for further review is created. This short list is then considered by permanent advisers to the Nobel institute, which consists of the Institute 's Director and the Research Director and a small number of Norwegian academics with expertise in subject areas relating to the prize. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are then considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a unanimous decision, but this is not always possible. The Nobel Committee typically comes to a conclusion in mid-September, but occasionally the final decision has not been made until the last meeting before the official announcement at the beginning of October.
The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year (the anniversary of Nobel 's death). The Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount. As of 2013, the prize was worth 10 million SEK (about US $1.5 million). Since 1990, the Nobel Peace Prize Ceremony is held at Oslo City Hall.
From 1947 to 1989, the Nobel Peace Prize ceremony was held in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, a few hundred metres from Oslo City Hall. Between 1905 and 1946, the ceremony took place at the Norwegian Nobel Institute. From 1901 to 1904, the ceremony took place in the Storting (Parliament).
It has been expressed that the Peace Prize has been awarded in politically motivated ways for more recent or immediate achievements, or with the intention of encouraging future achievements. Some commentators have suggested that to award a peace prize on the basis of unquantifiable contemporary opinion is unjust or possibly erroneous, especially as many of the judges can not themselves be said to be impartial observers.
In 2011, a feature story in the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten contended that major criticisms of the award were that the Norwegian Nobel Committee ought to recruit members from professional and international backgrounds, rather than retired members of parliament; that there is too little openness about the criteria that the committee uses when they choose a recipient of the prize; and that the adherence to Nobel 's will should be more strict. In the article, Norwegian historian Øivind Stenersen argues that Norway has been able to use the prize as an instrument for nation building and furthering Norway 's foreign policy and economic interests.
In another 2011 Aftenposten opinion article, the grandson of one of Nobel 's two brothers, Michael Nobel, also criticised what he believed to be the politicisation of the award, claiming that the Nobel Committee has not always acted in accordance with Nobel 's will. Norwegian lawyer Fredrik S. Heffermehl has criticized the management of the Peace Prize.
The awards given to Mikhail Gorbachev, Yitzhak Rabin, Shimon Peres, Menachem Begin and Yasser Arafat, Lê Đức Thọ, Henry Kissinger, Jimmy Carter, Al Gore, IPCC, Liu Xiaobo, Aung San Suu Kyi Barack Obama, and the European Union have all been the subject of controversy.
The awards given to Lê Đức Thọ and Henry Kissinger prompted two dissenting Committee members to resign. Thọ refused to accept the prize, on the grounds that such "bourgeois sentimentalities '' were not for him and that peace had not actually been achieved in Vietnam. Kissinger donated his prize money to charity, did not attend the award ceremony and would later offer to return his prize medal after the fall of South Vietnam to North Vietnamese forces 18 months later.
Foreign Policy has listed Mahatma Gandhi, Eleanor Roosevelt, U Thant, Václav Havel, Ken Saro - Wiwa, Fazle Hasan Abed, and Corazon Aquino as people who "never won the prize, but should have ''. Many believe that the prize should have gone to Pope John Paul II, Hélder Câmara,, Zilda Arns and Dorothy Day. Both Eleanor Roosevelt and Dorothy Day were recipients of the Gandhi Peace Award.
The omission of Mahatma Gandhi has been particularly widely discussed, including in public statements by various members of the Nobel Committee. The Committee has confirmed that Gandhi was nominated in 1937, 1938, 1939, 1947, and, finally, a few days before his assassination in January 1948. The omission has been publicly regretted by later members of the Nobel Committee. Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006 said, "The greatest omission in our 106 - year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize, whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question ''. In 1948, following Gandhi 's death, the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the ground that "there was no suitable living candidate '' that year. Later, when the Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi ''.
As of 2016, the Peace Prize has been awarded to 104 individuals and 23 organizations. Sixteen women have won the Nobel Peace Prize, more than any other Nobel Prize. Only two recipients have won multiple Prizes: the International Committee of the Red Cross has won three times (1917, 1944, and 1963) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has won twice (1954 and 1981). Lê Đức Thọ is the only person who refused to accept the Nobel Peace Prize.
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left handed guitarists who play right handed guitars | List of musicians who play left - handed - wikipedia
This is a list of notable left - handed musicians who play their instruments naturally. (This does not include left - handed people who play right - handed, such as Noel Gallagher, Duane Allman, Gregg Allman, Steve Morse, Billy Corgan, David Bowie, Dave Hill, Mark Knopfler, Gary Moore, Barry Gibb, George Michael, Duff McKagan and Paul Simon.)
Left - handed people play guitar or electric bass in one of the following four ways: (1) play a right - handed guitar or right - handed bass in a right - handed manner, (2) play a true left - handed guitar or bass, (3) play a right - handed guitar or bass that has been altered to play left - handed, or (4) turn a right - handed guitar or bass upside down, pick with the left hand, but leave the strings as they were -- which makes them reversed from the normal order. (The fingering is the same for methods 2 and 3.) Any style of picking with the left hand (flatpicking or fingerstyle guitar) is considered playing left - handed.
Tony Iommi 's guitar, a custom - made Gibson SG
Jimi Hendrix 's Les Paul Custom -- a right - handed guitar with the strings reversed for playing left - handed
A left - handed Martin D - 28. The internal and external construction is the mirror image of a right - handed guitar.
Guitarists in this category pick with their left hand and have the strings in the conventional order for a left - handed player (i.e. the low string on the top side of the neck). They either have true left - handed guitars or have right - handed guitars altered so the strings are correct for a left - handed player. Some guitarists in this category (e.g. Paul McCartney) play both genuine left - handed instruments and right - handed instruments altered for left - handed playing.
Changing the strings on a right - handed guitar involves several things. The nut of the guitar has to be changed to accommodate the string widths. The bridge needs to be changed to make the lower strings longer than the top strings for correct intonation. On almost all acoustic guitars the bracing is non-symmetrical. On electric guitars altered this way, the controls will be backwards.
These are left - handed players who play naturally too, but with the strings as on an unaltered right - handed guitar, thus the strings are backwards for a left - handed player (e.g. Bob Geldof). Some players in this category (e.g. Dick Dale and Albert King) had custom instruments that were basically a left - handed guitar with the strings as on a right - handed guitar, since they had learned to play that way.
A drum kit for a left - handed person is set up so that percussion instruments drummers would normally play with their right hand (ride cymbal, floor tom, etc.) are played with the left hand. The bass drum and hi - hat configurations are also set up so that the drummer plays the bass drum with their left foot, and operate the hi - hat with their right foot. Some drummers however have been known to play right - handed kit, but play leading with their left hand (e.g. playing open - handed on the hi - hat). This list does not include drummers who are naturally left - handed but play drums purely right - handed such as Ringo Starr, Stewart Copeland, Dave Lombardo, Travis Barker and Chris Adler.
The violin can be learned in either hand, and most left - handed players hold the violin under their left chins, the same as right - handed players. This allows all violinists to sit together in an orchestra.
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how did nationalism affect austria hungary and the ottoman empire | Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire - wikipedia
The rise of the Western notion of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire eventually caused the breakdown of the Ottoman millet concept. An understanding of the concept of the nationhood prevalent in the Ottoman Empire, which was different from the current one as it was centered on religion, helps us to understand what happened during the decline of the Ottoman Empire.
In the Ottoman Empire, the Islamic faith was the official religion, with members holding all rights, as opposed to non-Muslims who were restricted. Non-Muslim (dhimmi) ethno - religious legal groups were identified by different millets, meaning "nations ''.
Ideas of nationalism emerged in Europe as a result of the Enlightenment and Romanticism. In the early 19th century most of the Balkans were still under Ottoman rule. The Christian peoples of Serbs and Greeks, under Ottoman yoke for four centuries but nevertheless preserving national counsciousness, rose up and succeeded in obtaining autonomy through the Serbian Revolution of 1804 -- 17 and Greek War of Independence of 1821 -- 29, establishing the Principality of Serbia and Hellenic Republic. The first revolt in the Ottoman Empire to acquire a national character was the Serbian Revolution.
The 1877 -- 78 Russo - Turkish War dealt a decisive blow to Ottoman power in the Balkan Peninsula, leaving the empire with only a precarious hold on Macedonia and the Albanian - populated lands. The Albanians ' fear that the lands they inhabited would be partitioned among Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece fueled the rise of Albanian nationalism. The first postwar treaty, the abortive Treaty of San Stefano signed on March 3, 1878, assigned Albanian - populated lands to Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria. Austria - Hungary and the United Kingdom blocked the arrangement because it awarded Russia a predominant position in the Balkans and thereby upset the European balance of power. A peace conference to settle the dispute was held later in the year in Berlin.
Arab nationalism is a nationalist ideology that arose in the 20th century mainly as a reaction to Turkish nationalism. It is based on the premise that nations from Morocco to the Arabian peninsula are united by their common linguistic, cultural and historical heritage. Pan-Arabism is a related concept, which calls for the creation of a single Arab state, but not all Arab nationalists are also Pan-Arabists. In the 19th century in response to Western influences, a radical change took shape. Conflict erupted between Muslims and Christians in different parts of the empire in a challenge to that hierarchy. This marked the beginning of the tensions which have to a large extent inspired the nationalist and religious rhetoric in the empire 's successor states throughout the 20th century.
A sentiment of Arab tribal solidarity (asabiyya), underlined by claims of Arab tribal descent and the continuance of classical Arabic exemplified in the Qur'an, preserved, from the rise of Islam, a vague sense of Arab identity among Arabs. However, this phenomenon had no political manifestations (the 18th - century Wahhabi movement in Arabia was a religio - tribal movement, and the term "Arab '' was used mainly to describe the inhabitants of Arabia and nomads) until the late 19th century, when the revival of Arabic literature was followed in the Syrian provinces of the Ottoman Empire by discussion of Arab cultural identity and demands for greater autonomy for Syria. This movement, however, was confined almost exclusively to certain Christian Arabs, and had little support. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 in Turkey, these demands were taken up by some Syrian Muslim Arabs and various public or secret societies (the Beirut Reform Society led by Salim Ali Salam, 1912; the Ottoman Administrative Decentralization Party, 1912; al - Qahtaniyya, 1909; al - Fatat, 1911; and al - Ahd, 1912) were formed to advance demands ranging from autonomy to independence for the Ottoman Arab provinces. Members of some of these groups came together at the request of al - Fatat to form the Arab Congress of 1913 in Paris, where desired reforms were discussed.
Until the Tanzimat reforms were established, the Armenian millet was under the supervision of an Ethnarch (' national ' leader), the Armenian Apostolic Church. The Armenian millet had a great deal of power - they set their own laws and collected and distributed their own taxes. During the Tanzimat period, a series of constitutional reforms provided a limited modernization of the Ottoman Empire also to the Armenians. In 1856, the "Reform Edict '' promised equality for all Ottoman citizens irrespective of their ethnicity and confession, widening the scope of the 1839 Edict of Gülhane.
To deal with the Armenian national awakening, the Ottomans gradually gave more rights to its Armenian and other Christian citizens. In 1863 the Armenian National Constitution was the Ottoman - approved form of the "Code of Regulations '' composed of 150 articles drafted by the "Armenian intelligentsia '', which defined the powers of the Armenian Patriarch and the newly formed "Armenian National Assembly ''. The reformist period peaked with the Ottoman constitution of 1876, written by members of the Young Ottomans, which was promulgated on 23 November 1876. It established freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before law. The Armenian National Assembly formed a "governance in governance '' to eliminate the aristocratic dominance of the Armenian nobility by development of the political strata among the Armenian society.
Under the millet system of the Ottoman Empire, each sect of the Assyrian nation was represented by their respective patriarch. Under the Church of the East sect, the patriarch was the temporal leader of the millet which then had a number of "maliks '' beneath the patriarch who would govern each of their own tribes.
The rise of modern Assyrian nationalism began with intellectuals such as Ashur Yousif, Naum Faiq and Farid Nazha who pushed for a united Assyrian nation comprising the Jacobite, Nestorian and Chaldean sects.
The Ottoman Sultans attempted to implement various economic reforms in the early 19th century in order to address the grave issues mostly caused by the border wars. The reforms, however, were usually met with resistance by the military captaincies of Bosnia. The most famous of these insurrections was the one by captain Husein Gradaščević in 1831. Gradaščević felt that giving autonomy to the eastern lands of Serbia, Greece and Albania would weaken the position of the Bosnian state, and the Bosniak peoples. The situation worsened when the Ottomans took 2 Bosnian provinces and gave them to Serbia, as a friendly gift to the Serbs. Outraged, Gradaščević raised a full - scale rebellion in the province, joined by thousands of native Bosnian soldiers who believed in the captain 's prudence and courage, calling him Zmaj od Bosne (dragon of Bosnia). Despite winning several notable victories, notably at the famous Battle of Kosovo, the rebels were eventually defeated in a battle near Sarajevo in 1832 after Gradaščević was betrayed by Herzegovinian nobility. Husein - kapetan was banned from ever entering the country again, and was eventually poisoned in Istanbul. Bosnia and Herzegovina would remain part of the Ottoman Empire until 1878. Before it was formally occupied by Austria - Hungary, the region was de facto independent for several months.
The rise of national conscience in Bulgaria led to the Bulgarian revival movement. Unlike Greece and Serbia, the nationalist movement in Bulgaria did not concentrate initially on armed resistance against the Ottoman Empire but on peaceful struggle for cultural and religious autonomy, the result of which was the establishment of the Bulgarian Exarchate on February 28, 1870. A large - scale armed struggle movement started to develop as late as the beginning of the 1870s with the establishment of the Internal Revolutionary Organisation and the Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee, as well as the active involvement of Vasil Levski in both organisations. The struggle reached its peak with the April Uprising which broke out in April 1876 in several Bulgarian districts in Moesia, Thrace and Macedonia. The barbaric suppression of the uprising and the atrocities committed against the civilian population increased the Bulgarian desire for independence. They also caused a tremendous indignation in Europe, where they became known as the Bulgarian Horrors. (1) Consequently, at the 1876 -- 1877 Constantinople Conference, European statesmen proposed a series of reforms. However, the sultan refused to implement them and Russia declared war. During the war Bulgarian volunteer forces (in Bulgarian опълченци) fought alongside the Russian army. They earned particular distinction in the epic battle for the Shipka Pass (2). Upon the end of the war Russia and Turkey signed the Treaty of San Stefano, which granted Bulgaria autonomy from the Sultan. The Treaty of Berlin, signed in 1878, essentially nullified the Treaty of San Stefano. Instead, Bulgaria was divided into two provinces. The northern province was granted political autonomy, while the southern province of Eastern Rumelia was placed under direct political and military control of the Sultan.
With the decline of the Eastern Roman Empire, the pre-eminent role of Greek culture, literature and language became more apparent. From the 13th century onwards, with the territorial reduction of the Empire to strictly Greek speaking areas, the old multiethnic tradition, already weakened, gave way to a self - consciously national Greek consciousness, and a greater interest in Hellenic culture evolved. Byzantines began to refer to themselves not just as Romans (Rhomaioi) but as Greeks (Hellenes). With the political extinction of the Empire, it was the Greek Orthodox Church, and the Greek speaking communities in the areas of Greek colonization and emigration, that continued to cultivate this identity, through schooling as well as the ideology of a Byzantine imperial heritage rooted both in the classical Greek past and in the Roman Empire.
The position of educated and privileged Greeks within the Ottoman Empire improved in the 17th and 18th centuries. As the empire became more settled, and began to feel its increasing backwardness in relation to the European powers, it increasingly recruited Greeks who had the kind of academic, administrative, technical and financial skills which the larger Ottoman population lacked. Greeks made up the majority of the Empire 's translators, financiers, doctors and scholars. From the late 1600s, Greeks began to fill some of the highest offices of the Ottoman state. The Phanariotes, a class of wealthy Greeks who lived in the Phanar district of Constantinople, became increasingly powerful. Their travels to other parts of Western Europe, as merchants or diplomats, brought them into contact with advanced ideas of the Enlightenment notably liberalism, radicalism and nationalism, and it was among the Phanariotes that the modern Greek nationalist movement matured. However, the dominant form of Greek nationalism (that later developed into the Megali Idea) was a messianic ideology of imperial Byzantine restoration, that specifically looked down upon Frankish culture, and enjoyed the patronage of the Orthodox Church.
Ideas of nationalism began to develop in Europe long before they reached the Ottoman Empire. Some of the first effects nationalism had on the Ottomans had much to do with the Greek War of Independence. The war began as an uprising against the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. At the time, Mehmet Ali, a former Albanian mercenary, was ruling Egypt quite successfully. One of his biggest projects was creating a modern army of conscripted peasants. The Sultan commanded him to lead his army to Greece and put a stop to these uprisings. At the time, nationalism had become an established concept in Europe and certain Greek intellectuals began to embrace the idea of a purely Greek state. Most of Europe greatly supported this notion, partly because ideas of Ancient Greece 's mythology were being greatly romanticized in the Western world. Though the Greece at the time of the revolution looked very little like the European view, most supported it blindly based on this notion.
Mehmet Ali had his own motives for agreeing to invade Greece. The Sultan promised Ali that he would make him Governor of Crete, which would increase Ali 's status. Ali 's army had considerable success in putting down the Christian revolts at first, however before too long the European Powers intervened. They endorsed Greek nationalism and pushed both Ali 's army and the rest of the Ottoman forces out of Greece.
The instance of Greek Nationalism was a major factor in introducing the concept to the Ottomans. Because of their failure in Greece, the Ottomans were forced to acknowledge the changes taking place in the West, in favor of Nationalism. The result would be the beginning of a defensive developmentalism period of Ottoman history in which they attempted to modernize to avoid the Empire falling to foreign powers. The idea of nationalism that develops out of this is called Ottomanism, and would result in many political, legal, and social changes in the Empire.
The system of administration introduced by Idris remained unchanged until the close of the Russo - Turkish War of 1828 -- 29. But the Kurds, owing to the remoteness of their country from the capital and the decline of Ottoman Empire, had greatly increased in influence and power, and had spread westwards over the country as far as Angora.
After the war the Kurds attempted to free themselves from Ottoman control, and in 1834, after the Bedirkhan clan uprising, it became necessary to reduce them to subjection. This was done by Reshid Pasha. The principal towns were strongly garrisoned, and many of the Kurd beys were replaced by Turkish governors. A rising under Bedr Khan Bey in 1843 was firmly repressed, and after the Crimean War the Turks strengthened their hold on the country.
The Russo - Turkish War of 1877 -- 78 was followed by the attempt of Sheikh Obaidullah in 1880 -- 1881 to found an independent Kurd principality under the protection of the Ottoman Empire. The attempt, at first encouraged by the Porte, as a reply to the projected creation of an Armenian state under the suzerainty of Russia, collapsed after Obaidullah 's raid into Persia, when various circumstances led the central government to reassert its supreme authority. Until the Russo - Turkish War of 1828 -- 1829 there had been little hostile feeling between the Kurds and the Armenians, and as late as 1877 -- 1878 the mountaineers of both races had co-existed fairly well together.
In 1891 the activity of the Armenian Committees induced the Porte to strengthen the position of the Kurds by raising a body of Kurdish irregular cavalry, which was well - armed and called Hamidieh after the Sultan Abd - ul - Hamid II. Minor disturbances constantly occurred, and were soon followed by the massacre of Armenians at Sasun and other places, 1894 -- 1896, in which the Kurds took an active part. Some of the Kurds, like the nationalist Armenians, aimed to establish a Kurdish country.
Zionism is an international political movement; although started outside the Ottoman Empire, Zionism regards the Jews as a national entity and seeks to preserve that entity. This has primarily focused on the creation of a homeland for the Jewish People in the Promised Land, and (having achieved this goal) continues as support for the modern state of Israel.
Although its origins are earlier, the movement became better organised and more closely linked with the imperial powers of the day following the involvement of the Austro - Hungarian journalist Theodor Herzl in the late 19th century. The movement was eventually successful in establishing Israel in 1948, as the world 's first and only modern Jewish State. Described as a "diaspora nationalism, '' its proponents regard it as a national liberation movement whose aim is the self - determination of the Jewish people.
The national awakening of the Macedonians can be said to have begun in the late 19th century; this is the time of the first expressions of ethnic nationalism by limited groups of intellectuals in Belgrade, Sofia, Thessaloniki and St. Petersburg. The "Macedonian Question '' became especially prominent after the Balkan wars in 1912 -- 1913 and the subsequent division of the Ottoman Macedonia between three neighboring Christian states, followed by tensions between them over its possession. In order to legitimize their claims, each of these countries tried to ' persuade ' the population into allegiance. The Macedonist ideas grew in significance after the First World War, both in Kingdom of Yugoslavia and among the left - leaning diaspora in Kingdom of Bulgaria, and were endorsed by the Comintern.
The Wallachian uprising of 1821 began as an anti-Phanariote revolt, which grew into an insurrection through the involvement of the Greek Filiki Eteria. Moldavia was occupied by Ypsilantis, while Wallachia was held by Tudor Vladimirescu. As the latter was uncapable of maintaining discipline in his rebel army (the "Pandurs '') and also was willing to compromise with the Ottomans, the Eteria had him arrested after the Ottoman army retook Bucharest without resistance. His army was disbanded and the rebellion suppressed after the Ottomans destroyed the Eterists in the Danubian Principalities. While unsuccessful in obtaining liberty, it ended the Phanariote era; Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II consented in 1822 to the nomination of two native boyars, Ioan Sturdza and Grigore IV Ghica as hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia.
1848 saw rebellion in both Moldavia and Wallachia.
The Serbian national movement represents one of the first examples of successful national resistance against the Ottoman rule. It culminated in two mass uprisings at the beginning of the 19th century, leading to national liberation and establishment of the modern Serbian state and Montenegro. One of the main centers of this movement was the Sanjak of Smederevo ("Belgrade Pashaluk '') which became the core of the reestablished Serbian national state.
A number of factors contributed to its rise. Above all the nucleus of national identity was preserved in the form of the Serbian Orthodox Church which remained autonomous in one form or another throughout the period of Ottoman occupation. Adherence to Orthodox Christianity is still considered an important factor in ethnic self - determination. The Serbian Church preserved links with the medieval Serbian past, keeping the idea of national liberation alive.
The other group of factors stem from regional political events during the period of Ottoman rule, the 17th and 18th centuries in particular. The Austrian wars against the Ottoman Empire resulted in periods of Austrian rule in central Serbia (in 1718 -- 39 and 1788 -- 92), thus, the turn of the 19th century had saw relatively recent experience of European rule. Although the territory of northern Serbia had first reverted to Ottoman rule according to the Treaty of Belgrade, the region saw almost continuous conflict during the 18th century. As a result, the Ottomans never established full feudal order in the Belgrade Pashaluk, and free peasants owning small plots of land constituted the majority of population. Furthermore, most of the leaders of future armed rebellions earned valuable military knowledge serving in Austrian irregular troops, freikorps. The proximity of the Austrian border provided the opportunity of getting the needed military material. The Serbian leaders could also count on financial and logistic support of fellow Serbs living in relative prosperity in the Austrian Empire.
The immediate cause for the start of the First Serbian Uprising (1804 -- 13) was mismanagement of the province by renegade Janissary troops (known as Dahije) who had seized power. While the Serbian population first rose up against the Dahije, their quick success fueled the desire of national liberation and led to a full - fledged war. Though unsuccessful, this rebellion paved the way for the Second Serbian Uprising of 1815, which eventually succeeded. Serbia became a center of resistance to Ottomans, actively or secretly supporting liberation movements in neighboring Christian - inhabited lands, especially Bosnia, Herzegovina and Macedonia. The Serbian -- Ottoman conflict culminated in the First Balkan War of 1912.
Pan-Turkism emerged with the Turanian Society founded in 1839 by Tatars. However Turkish nationalism was developed much later in 1908 with the Turkish Society, which later expanded into the Turkish Hearth and eventually expanded to include ideologies such as Pan-Turanism and Pan-Turkism. With the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, the Turkish populations of the empire which were mostly expelled from the newly established states in the Balkans and the Caucasus formed a new national identity under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal along the Kemalist ideology.
Turkish revolutionaries were patriots of the Turkish national movement who rebelled against the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire by the Allies and the Ottoman government in the aftermath of the Armistice of Mudros which ended the Ottoman Empire 's participation in World War I; and against the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920, which was signed by the Ottoman government and partitioned Anatolia among Allies and their supporters.
Turkish revolutionaries under the leadership of Ataturk fought during the Turkish war of independence against the Allies supported by Armenians (First Republic of Armenia), Greeks (Greece) and the French Armenian Legion, accompanied by the Armenian militia during the Franco - Turkish War. Turkish revolutionaries rejected the Treaty of Sèvres and negotiated the Treaty of Lausanne, which recognized the independence of the Republic of Turkey and its absolute sovereignty over Eastern Thrace and Anatolia.
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three provinces that are most productive copper and gold producers in the philippines | Mines and Geosciences Bureau Region 13 (Philippines) - wikipedia
Caraga Region is located at northeastern part of Mindanao. It has five (5) provinces, namely: Dinagat Province, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, Agusan del Norte and Agusan del Sur. Caraga Region is now hosting several mining projects producing various mineral commodities particularly but not limited to gold, copper, chrome, nickel, iron and limestone for concrete cement production. This makes the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Mines and Geosciences Bureau, Regional Office No. 13 with Office located in Surigao City plays important role in the region 's economy, job generation, social and environmental enhancement and protection and ensuring government shares through royalties and taxes.
Caraga Region is one of the regions notably located in the eastern seaboard of the Philippines. With its geographic location facing the Pacific Ocean and famous Philippine Trench, the Region is prone to various weather conditions and geologic phenomenon like, but not limited to, typhoon, tsunami and other coastal surges and seismic activities. With these, DENR - MGB13 is expeditiously utilizing its human and financial resources to generate geohazard maps as necessary source of information to spatial planners and other government and non-government agencies working for public safety and disaster management.
In the broader physiographic framework of the Philippine archipelago, Caraga Region occupies the northernmost portion of the Eastern Mindanao Ridge or Mindanao Pacific Cordillera, a more than 400 - km, NNW - SSE trending orogenic belt comprising eastern Mindanao. The Mindanao Pacific Cordillera is bounded by two major structures that played a key role in the neotectonic evolution of the Philippine Mobile Belt, namely the Philippine Trench and the Philippine Fault Zone.
The geologic evolution of the Mindanao Pacific Cordillera was largely controlled by convergent and transcurrent tectonics intermittently active during Upper Cretaceous to Pleistocene times. These complex tectonic processes brought about the juxtaposition of older metamorphic basement rocks with ophiolite suite of rocks later superposed by younger multiple stage island arc volcano - sedimentary sequences. The broad geomorphic configuration of the region is largely controlled by these tectonic processes of the past.
Oldest rocks in the region are pre-Tertiary metamorphics and ophiolitic suite of rocks of Cretaceous age. Limited exposures of post-ophiolitic sedimentary rocks of Eocene age suggest dominant erosional processes from Paleocene to Eocene period. On the contrary, the Oligocene to Middle Miocene age is marked by thick accumulation of arc basaltic volcano - sedimentary sequence and turbidites later succeeded by mid-Miocene to Pliocene volcanic flows, pyroclastics and epiclastic of more andesitic composition. Arc magmatism was also active during the mid-Miocene to Pliocene times generating monzonitic and dioritic stocks and plutons and hornblende andesite porphyry intrusions. In areas away from paleo - volcanic centers, thick sedimentary clastic rocks with sporadic limestone horizons and intercalated calcareous sediments, marls and / or coal seams were formed during the Miocene to Pliocene. Reefal limestone, some of dubious stratigraphic position unconformably capped older rocks with age assignment ranging from Miocene to Plio - Pleistocene. The Paco - Maniayao volcanic complex north of Lake Mainit represents the latest Quaternary volcanism in the region.
The rich mineral heritage of Caraga Region greatly owes its genesis to these complex natural processes operative during a long span of geologic time. Two (2) major geological events are noteworthy in influencing the high mineral endowment of the Region. These are: 1) the emplacement of Upper Cretaceous ophiolites over the eastern Philippines proto - arc during the Paleocene times and 2) island arc calc - alkalic magmatic and volcanic activity during the Miocene to Pliocene times coeval with the inception of the Philippine Trench -- Philippine Fault system resulting from the oblique convergence of the Philippine Sea Plate with eastern Mindanao.
The superposition of the younger island arc plutonic and sub-volcanic rocks with associated hydrothermal base and precious metal deposits with an older ophiolite suite of rocks with affiliated nickel and chromite deposits makes Caraga Region as one of the most prolifically endowed belt of the Philippines in terms of mineral resource potential and diversity.
Ophiolite and associated nickel and chromite deposits
Caraga Region is situated in the Samar -- Surigao segment of the Eastern Bicol -- Eastern Mindanao ophiolite belt, one of the nine (9) major ophiolite. Ophiolites, particularly the ultramafic member of the assemblage, are of economic significance as they play host to two strategic ferro - alloy metallic commodities namely nickel and chromium. Large tracts of ultramafic terrains are exposed in the province of Surigao del Norte and northern Surigao del Sur, a majority of which are within the Surigao Mineral Reservation (SMR). Minor occurrences can also be found in the western range of Agusan del Norte.
The nickel resources of the region are in the form of nickeliferous laterites, soils of unique geochemistry derived from the tropical weathering of parent serpentinized ultramafites. Two types of nickel ore are of commercial importance, limonite (oxide) ore and saprolite (nickel silicate) ore. Nickel content is higher in the saprolite zone although cobalt is an important by - product of the limonite horizon. Potential is high in Surigao del Norte and northern Surigao del Sur particularly in Dinagat and Nonoc group of islands as well as in Claver -- Carrascal area, Surigao mainland. Potential, but of lower tonnage occur in the western highlands of Agusan del Norte particularly from Jabonga to Tubay area.
Chromite deposits of typical metallurgical grade are also widely distributed in the ultramafic rocks and are of two types namely primary and secondary chromites, also known in simple parlance as lumpy and sandy chromite, respectively. Primary or orthomagmatic chromites are sporadically distributed in the ultramafics although major economic deposits are generally concentrated in the transition zone between residual harzburgite and cumulate dunite unit. Secondary chromite are either concentrated as residual deposits in latosols or as alluvial deposits in streams and coastal beaches. Large potential of chromite deposits occur in Dinagat Island, Surigao del Norte while sporadic occurrences are also present in the Claver - Carrascal area, Surigao mainland.
Island arc volcanism and associated hydrothermal copper and gold deposits
Caraga Region likewise occupies the northern and central part of the Eastern Mindanao Gold District, one of the principal gold belts of the country. The province is traditionally known for its productive epithermal to mesothermal gold ± silver deposits even during the pre-WWII times and has been a prime producer of the royal metal during the last two decades. Gold mineralization is generally associated with Miocene to Pliocene plutonic and volcanic rocks of calc - alkalic affinity.
The discovery of the Boyongan porphyry copper deposit further enhance the mineral prospectivity of the region in targeting additional concealed copper ± gold deposits beneath or adjacent to known upper - level hydrothermal gold systems. The recognition of presence of telescoped epithermal -- hypothermal deposit pairs offers a new dimension in copper -- gold exploration for the Region.
In terms of potential for gold, Surigao del Norte still ranks high followed by Agusan del Sur and Agusan del Norte. For porphyry copper, rank is still the same although Agusan del Norte have a slight edge than Agusan del Sur as low - level diorite is already exposed in the Asiga area. At present, Surigao del Sur relatively ranks as lowest in potential for both epithermal gold and porphyry copper prospects among the provinces of the Region although its prospectivity may improve as exploration work progresses in the future.
Manganese
Geologically, manganese prospects in the region are typically associated with basaltic rocks. Numerous, although sporadic occurrences are reported in the basalts in Surigao del Sur as well as in basalt -- limestone contact in RTR town, Agusan del Norte. Continuity is less established and is deemed amenable at present to small scale mining.
Bauxite
Aluminous bauxite deposit had been reported in Bucas Grande Island, Surigao del Norte but at present, the island is declared as a protected area under the NIPA 's domain.
Magnetite
Two types of magnetite deposits are found in the region. Primary magnetite in the form of skarn deposit has been reported in Jubgan, San Francisco, Surigao del Norte hosted in ultramafic rocks intruded by felsic intrusives. Secondary titaniferous magnetite sands are reported in the coastal beaches of Bacuag - Gigaquit - Claver area, Surigao del Norte mainland. Of still unresolved genesis are the recently discovered magnetite bodies overlying ultramafic rocks in Urbiztondo, Claver, Surigao del Norte adjacent to ultramafic terrain -- arc basalt / limestone lithology.
Limestone and Guano
Limestone exposures of varying age are widespread in the Region. Application broadly differs with age. The only cement plant in the Region located in Surigao City derived its raw materials from limestone of Mio - Pliocene age. Industrial and agri - lime are mostly derived from younger limestone bodies (Plio - Pleistocene age). Slightly metamorphosed / marbolized limestone of Oligo - Miocene and pre-Tertiary age are potential for dimension and ornamental stones but production is locally limited and largely untapped.
Numerous caves developed in limestone terrains had been inventoried in the past for presence of phosphate -- guano deposits. However, with the current thrust on prioritization of cave for protection and use as eco-tourism spots, extraction of guanos from caves is currently minimal.
Silica
High grade silica bodies (90 % and above) amenable to small - scale mining occur in Dinagat Island associated with Cretaceous metamorphics. Lower grade local silica source for cement additive is derived from plagiophyric andesite porphyry in Surigao City.
Dimension Stones
Serpentinized ultramafics form the bulk of materials that are utilized as dimension / ornamental stones. Presently, raw source from Dinagat are being shipped to Cebu where they are further polished and formed into finished products. Other sources are from foliated -- schistosed metamorphics primarily used as local landscape materials. Overall, utilization of rocks with ornamental properties as well as semi-precious gemstone gatherings remain an undeveloped industry in the Region.
Coal
Although several coal seams had been reported in the literature, those of viable quality are found mostly in Surigao del Sur particularly in the Bislig - Lingig coal district and in San Miguel town.
Based on the rapid appraisal of water supply sources covering Caraga Region, existing water resources can be broadly categorized into three types namely; groundwater, springs and surface waters.
Groundwater
In terms of groundwater availability, the percentage per province in terms of area per category are as follows:
The extent of completely shallow well area is limited, because most of the recent sedimentary deposits are thick or deposited on younger, permeable rocks that usually have multiple aquifers at greater depths.
Surface Waters
Major surface water sources in Agusan del Norte are Agusan River, Cabadbaran River, Kalinawan River, Linugos River, Tubay River and Lake Mainit. About 99.5 % of the surface water rights were registered for irrigation
Major surface water sources in the province are the Agusan River and its tributaries. Surface water use is however mainly for irrigation purposes.
Major surface water sources in the province of Surigao del Norte are the Surigao River, Valencia River, Mayag River, Sonkoy Creek, Bacuag River and Gigaguit River. About 94 % of the surface water rights were registered for irrigation and the remaining 6 % were for domestic, industrial and fisheries by water supply systems and a few private companies. For domestic water supply, the Surigao Metropolitan Water District (SMWD) has registered water from the Parang - Parang Creek (tributary of the Surigao River) since 1994. Actually, SMWD has been collecting surface water from protected spring fields.
Major surface water sources in the province of Surigao del Sur are the Carac - an River, Tago River and Bislig River. The bulk of surface water rights were registered for irrigation and the remaining were for domestic, industrial and fisheries by water supply systems and a few private companies.
Springs
Developed spring sources are usually exploited in hilly to mountainous areas generally classified as difficult areas for groundwater development. Springs are generally localized in occurrence and emanate along contact between pervious and massive rocks; faults, joints, sheared zones and other rock discontinuities; and enlarged solution cavities in limestone / karstic terrain. Higher yield spring waters usually occur in areas underlain by limestone. Developed spring sources inventoried and identified untapped but with potential for future development per province are as follows:
No detailed spring sources inventory had been undertaken so far for the province of Surigao del Sur.
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which of the following is not a factor to be considered when determining curtilage | Curtilage - wikipedia
In law, the curtilage of a house or dwelling is the land immediately surrounding it, including any closely associated buildings and structures, but excluding any associated "open fields beyond '', and also excluding any closely associated buildings, structures, or divisions that contain the separate intimate activities of their own respective occupants with those occupying residents being persons other than those residents of the house or dwelling of which the building is associated. It delineates the boundary within which a home owner can have a reasonable expectation of privacy and where "intimate home activities '' take place. It is an important legal concept in certain jurisdictions for the understanding of search and seizure, conveyancing of real property, burglary, trespass, and land use planning.
In urban properties, the location of the curtilage may be evident from the position of fences, wall and similar; within larger properties it may be a matter of some legal debate as to where the private area ends and the "open fields '' start.
The word derives from Middle English: courtelage; Old French: cortillage or cortil ("court, yard, garden ''); cort (court) + - il (diminutive suffix) + - age (- age).
At common law, which derives from English law, curtilage has been defined as "the open space situated within a common enclosure belonging to a dwelling - house. '' Black 's Law Dictionary of 1891 defined it as:
"The enclosed space of ground and buildings immediately surrounding a dwelling - house. In its most comprehensive and proper legal signification, it includes all that space of ground and buildings thereon which is usually enclosed within the general fence immediately surrounding a principal messuage and outbuildings, and yard closely adjoining to a dwelling - house, but it may be large enough for cattle to be levant and couchant therein. ''
Where American homes are generally less likely than their English counterparts to include fenced or walled enclosures, the courts have not strictly held to such a requirement. In practice, determining the boundaries of curtilage has proven to be imprecise and subject to controversy.
The U.S. Supreme Court has held that for the purposes of the Fourth Amendment, an area immediately surrounding a house or dwelling is curtilage if it harbors the "intimate activity associated with the ' sanctity of a man 's home and the privacies of life. ' ''
In United States v. Dunn (1987), the Court provided guidance, saying that, "curtilage questions should be resolved with particular reference to four factors: the proximity of the area claimed to be curtilage to the home, whether the area is included within an enclosure surrounding the home, the nature of the uses to which the area is put, and the steps taken by the resident to protect the area from observation by people passing by. ''
In Florida v. Jardines (2013), the Court held, in a 5 - 4 decision by Justice Antonin Scalia, that the curtilage may not be used by a police dog to sniff for marijuana:
We therefore regard the area "immediately surrounding and associated with the home '' -- what our cases call the curtilage -- as "part of the home itself for Fourth Amendment purposes. ''... That principle has ancient and durable roots. Just as the distinction between the home and the open fields is "as old as the common law, ''... so too is the identity of home and what Blackstone called the "curtilage or homestall, '' for the "house protects and privileges all its branches and appurtenants. ''... This area around the home is "intimately linked to the home, both physically and psychologically, '' and is where "privacy expectations are most heightened. ''
In Collins v. Virginia (2018), the Court ruled that motor vehicles parked within the curtilage do not qualify for the motor vehicle exception for a warrantless reasonable search.
In Dunn, the Court said that the location of a barn, being 60 yards (55 m) from the home and 50 yards (46 m) outside of the fence which completely encircled the home, suggested that it was outside the home 's curtilage.
In Jardines, the Court found that a porch right in front of a private house is part of the curtilage.
In Dunn, the Court said that although the area was surrounded by a fence, the home was surrounded by a different fence and that fence was obviously intended to demark a specific area of land immediately adjacent to the house that is readily identifiable as part and parcel of the house.
In Dunn, the Court said that law enforcement officials had evidence that the area was not being used for intimate activities of the home, namely that it was being used to store large amounts of phenylacetic acid (used in the illegal manufacture of drugs) and that it had a very, very strong smell.
In Jardines, the Court specifically named a front porch as a prime example of curtilage; even though Girl Scouts or salespersons can knock on the front door, they must leave immediately if there is no answer.
In Dunn, the Court said the area was not protected at all from observation by those standing in open fields. Although agents did peer into a barn that was arguably protected by the Fourth Amendment, any such observation from open fields was not protected. (This is the "plain view doctrine '', though it is not labeled as such in Dunn.)
In Jardines, the Court noted that, while police can stop a person on an open highway, they are prohibited from peering into the windows of a private home from the front porch, absent probable cause.
The Fourth Amendment protects "persons, houses, papers, and effects ''. In modern cases, the Supreme Court interprets "a house '' to mean "a home and its curtilage ''. It is not obvious when the Court first equated "house '' with "home '', though Prigg v. Pennsylvania (1842) seems to assume that "house '' means "home ''.
The first uses of the term "curtilage '' by the Supreme Court appeared in the decisions of two unrelated cases from 1864. United States v. Stone (1864), involved a boundary dispute over Fort Leavenworth, as to "what lands properly belonged to this military post, and the proper curtilage necessary for the use and enjoyment of it ''.
In Sheets v. Selden 's Lessee (1864), the Court referred to "a grant of a messuage or a messuage with the appurtenances will carry the dwelling - house and adjoining buildings, and also its orchard, garden, and curtilage. ''
The Supreme Court holds that the Fourth Amendment protects homes and their curtilage from unreasonable searches without a warrant. However, curtilage is afforded less protection than a home. Absent "No Trespassing '' signs or fences with locked gates, it is considered reasonable for a person (including a police officer) to walk from a public area to the obvious main entrance to the home using the most obvious path in order to "knock and talk '' with a resident. But otherwise, government agents need consent, a warrant, or probable cause of exigent circumstances to enter a home 's curtilage.
Many state constitutions have clauses similar to the Fourth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, and many have "castle laws '' which use the term "curtilage ''. Although states are entitled to interpret their definitions different from (and subordinate to) the U.S. Fourth Amendment, they generally interpret "houses '' the same way as does the Supreme Court, including its definition of "curtilage ''.
The concept of curtilage is relevant to town and country planning in the United Kingdom, particularly as it relates to listed building legislation. The consideration afforded to a listed building may extend to other structures or landscape within the curtilage of the primary structure, if the item (s) in the curtilage is old enough, and physically attached to the main building or otherwise important to the setting of the structure. Current legislation uses a cut - off date of 1947, so that later additions, while they may be within the curtilage, are not included in the listing designation.
The listing of a building or structure does not define its specific curtilage, and so this can become a matter of interpretation and contention. Various factors need to be taken into account, such as the way that the setting works with the primary object, the ownership of the land, the historic use of the land, and physical or visual boundaries, such as fences, walls and hedges.
Curtilage is frequently undefined until someone wishes to make a change to a structure or landscape in the immediate vicinity of a listed building. Some Local Planning Authorities (such as Bournemouth Borough Council) publish provisional curtilages, to assist property owners; but frequently the curtilage is left undefined until such time as it may be challenged in the planning process or in law.
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who owns liberty national golf course in new jersey | Liberty National Golf club - wikipedia
Liberty National is a country club in Jersey City, New Jersey with the club house, guest villas, teaching super center and halfway house referred to as "Cafe 12 '' designed by Lindsay Newman Architecture and Design and with a 7,353 - yard (6,724 m) course designed by Robert E. Cupp and Tom Kite.
The club cost over $250 million to build, making it one of the most expensive golf courses in history. Club designers added amenities such as an on - site helistop, yacht services, a spa and a restaurant. Nine hundred adjacent homes, slated to be built in the coming years, are said to cost from $1.5 million to $5 million. Liberty National is noted as a unique course because of its proximity to both the Statue of Liberty and Manhattan, as well as the fact it was built on a former landfill.
Liberty National hosted The Barclays, formerly the Westchester Classic, in 2009 after Westchester Country Club decided it would no longer host the event after 40 years of doing so. Heath Slocum won the event with a score of 275 (-- 9). Liberty National hosted The Barclays again in August 2013, prior to which the course underwent many changes.
Liberty National hosted the Presidents Cup in 2017, from September 28 through October 1.
Liberty National has notable members such as:
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who is working for a in pretty little liars | A (Pretty Little Liars) - wikipedia
"A '' is a fictional character created in 2006 by author Sara Shepard. It is a character of both Pretty Little Liars ' books and television series, and primarily appears as a stalker and the main antagonist of the stories. "A '' is one of the main characters of the stories, appearing anonymously in the majority of the episodes and books.
The villain has already had many portrayals. Its basic occupation is to pursue and threaten the four protagonists of the stories. Thus, many identities have been revealed to be "A ''. "A '' has a specific and unhealthy way of dealing with the protagonists; it often calls them as "bitches '', "dolls '' and "liars ''. Its handling and acts of terrorism caused great psychological and emotional damage to the protagonists, even leading them to be hospitalized.
After the revelation of Mona Vanderwaal as the first and original "A '', she began receiving visits from someone, known as Red Coat, who offered her a partnership and together they built up the "A-Team ''. The team had many members but disbanded after the season three finale and Big A began working with a single ally. The identity of the second "A '', Red Coat, and the leader of the "A-Team '' was revealed to be CeCe Drake, while her ally that donned the Black Widow and other Red Coat disguise was revealed to be Sara Harvey. Five years later, a new mysterious entity arises and begins using Emojis to communicate but later baptizes themselves as "A.D. '', while the Liars refer to the anonymous figure as Uber A. Then, in the Series Finale, "A.D. '' reveals themselves to be Alex Drake, the twin sister of Spencer.
"A '' makes appearances as a figure with black leather gloves, a black hood, dark pants, and dark shoes. Throughout the seasons, the story focuses on the mystery of "A ''. However, "Big A '' also sported different disguises, including that of Red Coat, while their ally disguised themselves as The Black Widow, while also donning the Red Coat identity on certain occasions.
Uber A also dressed up as several disguises, including those of a gardener, a maid and a surgeon. They later costume themselves with the traditional look.
Three year after the disappearance of Alison DiLaurentis, her four friends, Aria Montgomery, Spencer Hastings, Emily Fields, and Hanna Marin, each receive messages from someone calling themselves "A. '' The girls had drifted apart over the years, so they had no idea that other people were getting texts as well. Additionally, the texts were about secrets only Ali knew about. At first, the messages were simply teasing and all of the girls wonder if their missing friend was the one who sent them. Though they knew she was most likely dead, she was still the only one who knew their darkest secrets. Once Ali 's body is discovered in her old backyard, the girls are even more baffled when they continue to receive threats. At Ali 's funeral, the girls are reunited and they find out that they 've all been receiving weird messages. As the girls stand outside after the funeral ends, they all get a text saying, "I 'm still here, bitches. And I know everything. -- A ''.
From that point on, the messages take on a distinctly more threatening tone. Aria is given an ultimatum to tell her mother about her father 's affair by midnight after the Foxy event, or A will do it for her. A continues to play life - altering games with the girls, from encouraging suspicion of Spencer 's involvement in Ali 's death to outing Emily 's sexuality to her conservative mother. However, A makes a serious mistake in texting Hanna on the night of Mona 's birthday party. Instead of using the plain Blackberry she bought just for tormenting the girls, A accidentally uses his / her own phone. Hanna, who has a new phone without all of her contacts recognizes the number, compelling A to act before Hanna can reveal A 's true identity to the others. A hits Hanna with an SUV, successfully destroying Hanna 's phone and putting her into a coma that eventually leads to a temporary loss of memory. Soon after that, "A '' puts a drug in Emily 's pain cream which causes an Ulcer in the spot where she has been putting the cream. She ends up in the hospital and might not be able to swim again.
A knew that there was a very good chance Hanna would regain her memory. Hanna 's best friend, Mona Vanderwaal, informs the girls that she has also received texts from A, drawing the five closer together in trying to figure out who their tormentor is. Mona subtly encourages Spencer 's fears that her sister, Melissa, might be A as well as Alison 's killer. During Hanna 's recovery masquerade celebration, she suddenly regains her memory, revealing that Mona is A. However, she, Emily, and Aria ca n't do much about it, because Spencer and Mona are on their way to the police station. After Spencer is warned about Mona by text, she tries to escape Mona 's car, but Mona catches on rather quickly and diverts to a path in a more remote area of Rosewood. She tells Spencer everything, from seeing Ali launch a firework into Toby Cavanaugh 's garage and blind her friend Jenna, to finding Ali 's diary of secrets among a pile of old DiLaurentis junk the St. Germains left at the curb, discovering the girls ' secrets that only Ali knew. Her motivation was to get revenge for her friend 's blindness, even though Jenna and Ali had planned together to launch the firework. Mona did n't know this and got a scar on her stomach from the ordeal. Mona also drops the bombshell that Ian Thomas killed Ali, due to Ali 's last diary entry about giving him an ultimatum to break up with Melissa. She then offers Spencer to become A with her and tell Hanna that she must not be remembering correctly, but she refuses. The two fight at Floating Man 's Quarry and Spencer accidentally pushes Mona, who falls and has her neck caught between rocks.
As the girls move into the big red house they are shocked to receive messages from a new person claiming to be Alison. At first, they believe it 's just a prank, especially since the first "A '' got major news time. Then the girls believe it 's Ian Thomas, who is the prime suspect of the investigation. Spencer is especially certain of this until finding Ian 's body in the woods bordering her estate and the old DiLaurentis home. The girls all get a message from "A, '' saying "He had to go. - A ''.
However, this Alison is even more twisted than the first; Ian 's body disappears and the town is largely convinced that it was a hoax. "A '' even teases Spencer, stating, "Just because I said Ian had to go, it did n't mean he had to die. '' "A '' pretends to be Ian, using an IM screenname of USCMidfielderRoxx, a testament to his alma mater and his love for field hockey. Through this new fake identity, "A '' feeds Spencer some interesting information about her family, specifically her father 's affair with Mrs. DiLaurentis and the possibility that Ali is her half sister. "A '' proceeds to torment the girls even more: they force Spencer to focus more on her father 's secret by enabling Spencer 's surrogate mother to scam her and clear out her two million dollar trust fund. "A '' taunts Aria with pictures of her and her mother 's new love interest in compromising situations. They threaten to send these to her mother, even though Aria has tried to ward off her mother 's new boyfriend. "A '' lands Hanna in the Preserve at Addison - Stevens, a lush clinic for troubled patients. "A '' sends Emily on a trip to the Amish community in Lancaster to dig up more dirt on Officer Wilden.
Throughout the second half of the series, the second "A '' keeps up this forced information search with the girls, pushing them to find more information on Wilden and Jason DiLaurentis. "A '' even plants the idea that they killed Ali. However, when Jenna is found dead in Heartless, "A '' plants all of their texts, pictures, etc. on a random lecherous construction worker. This is one of the same workers who was involved in building the DiLaurentises ' gazebo when "Alison '' was still alive. The girls believe it is all over now, though the fact that the suspect is such a random person bothers them.
Everyone in Rosewood is shocked when the DiLaurentis 's introduce the existence of a third child, Courtney DiLaurentis. She is the twin of Alison and was kept in various clinics because she was "ill ''. However, "Courtney '' is actually Alison DiLaurentis herself. She reveals her true identity to each of the girls, hoping to gain their friendship and telling them she never died the night of the sleepover. She claims that Courtney must have gotten out of the house and ran into the construction worker, who killed her. Though the girls believe her and are glad to have their friend back, Aria is the most suspicious of her. It was recently discovered that Courtney liked to pretend to be Ali and she was n't completely buying her story. Additionally, Wilden and Melissa are also suspicious of "Courtney ''. Melissa knew about the twins since high school, as their brother Jason confided in her. He told her they hated each other, but Spencer tells her about "Courtney 's '' statements that she and Ali shared everything together. ''
Ali 's time is running out, for besides the few people suspicious of her, the police start to say that the construction worker has an alibi and might not be guilty. Her secret is further endangered when Aria finds and sends in a photo of a reflection of someone spying on the girls during the sleepover. The reflection is too blurry, but it is clearly a female. Ali takes Mona 's idea and convinces Spencer that Melissa is the culprit. Meanwhile, she kidnaps Melissa - who has just figured out the truth - and keeps her in her family 's Poconos home. She stuffs Melissa in a closet with Ian 's corpse.
On the night of the school 's Valentine dance, Ali convinces the girls to hang out with her at the Poconos home. They ditch the party and get wasted at her home. She asks them if she could reenact the night of the sleepover and hypnotize them. Everyone reluctantly agrees, and minutes later they wake up to find Ali gone and the door of the room locked. A letter is slid underneath, informing the girls of the horrible truth: The Alison that they had been friends with had been Courtney all along and the real Ali killed her.
Courtney was mentally unsound and wanted to be Ali so badly that she tried to drown her when they were children. One day, when she was home from the mental institute, Courtney stole Ali 's ring and imitated her when she saw Spencer and the others sneaking into their backyard. Ali was sent to the new mental institute, the Preserve, in Courtney 's place, and was forced to take her sister 's messed up life. On the night of the sleepover, she spied on the girls, followed Courtney after her fight with Spencer, and killed her in revenge for taking her perfect life. She hates the girls for ruining her life and tries to kill them too by boarding up the entire home and setting it on fire. The girls, including Melissa, manage to escape, but no one knows whether Ali is alive. It 's hinted that she might be, as Emily hears a faint giggle in the distance as she visits Courtney 's grave in the evening.
By the end of Crushed, the Liars know that the Second "A '', Alison, has had an accomplice the whole time, and that this accomplice is the Third "A ''. They believe that Alison did indeed survive the fire in the Poconos house, and thus that the Second and Third "A '' are currently operating together to bring them down (and eventually kill them). The helper later is revealed to be Nick Maxwell, Alison 's boyfriend when she was hospitalized. Nick was caught by the police when he and Alison planned to kill the Liars via poisoning. However, months later, the Liars visit Nick in the prison in order to discover some clues about Alison 's whereabouts, and he gives them some information.
Original A was the first "A '' and revealed to be Mona Vanderwaal. Mona began torturing Alison by sending her gifts, threats and soon attacking her while wearing a zombie costume. "A '' continued to mess with Ali and her mother Jessica DiLaurentis, whom she believed it to be Spencer Hastings. After Alison 's disappearance, "A '' went away for a year but after the corpse of Bethany Young (believed to be Alison at the time) was found, she reemerged. "A '' began sending the Liars messages about things only Alison knew about them and soon even began messing with their parents. Doctor Anne Sullivan had previously dealt with the person behind the hoodie and when "A '' trashed her office she immediately recognized the person. She almost exposes her identity to the Liars but "A '' kidnaps her and went as far as to threaten her son 's life. But the Liars are still close to figuring it out and during the second half of season two they manage to get a hold of "A 's '' phone. They hatch a plan to catch her with this and it works. They find out that "A '' had a lair at the Lost woods resort and Spencer and Mona ("A 's '' newest victim) head over there and find a room full of pictures of Alison and the girls along with a sketch of "A 's '' costume to the ball, The Black Swan. However, Spencer begins to notice other clues and soon realizes "A '' is right there with her. She turns around to see Mona in a black hoodie, who reveals herself as "A ''. She kidnaps Spencer and gives her an opportunity to join the "A '' team but Spencer declines and the two get into a fight, where Mona is pushed off of a cliff. Though Mona survives, she is sent to Radley Sanitarium for medical assistance. While in the psychiatric hospital, Mona takes up a partnership suggested by the then unknown CeCe Drake that starts off the second game. After this, Mona became another henchmen in the "A '' hierarchy, obeying the orders of CeCe, whom she knew as Red Coat. Mona was kicked off of the A-Team in the season three finale. However, Mona joins the new "A.D. '' team in Season 7, after "A.D. '' sends Wren to kill her and she offers to help instead. She helps them kidnap Spencer and wears a Melissa mask, but ultimately turns on them and brings the Liars to them, as well as a cop. However, this turns out to be a ruse and the "cop '' is actually Mona 's French boyfriend, who helps her take Mary and Alex (the two remaining members) to France to live in her own personal Dollhouse. Mona is the final "A '' of the series, being the "winner '' of the game.
Big A was the person who took over the "A '' game from Mona Vanderwaal after she was admitted to Radley Sanitarium and revealed to be CeCe Drake. She had visited Mona in Radley and used her to get information about the Liars before taking over the game herself and had used Mona, Toby and Spencer to do her dirty work and sometimes went under the Red Coat disguise. Big A often hid out at a lair situated in Room A at an apartment building at Mayflower Hill and a mobile RV which was stolen but Toby gave it back to "A '' in exchange for information about his mother 's death. However, the Team was disbanded in the third - season finale and CeCe acted on her own with a few minions and an ally, who is Sara Harvey. It is revealed that Charlotte had been hiding out in the basement of the DiLaurentis house and drilled holes through the floor to spy on the family in her Red Coat disguise and shared the identity with Alison. Her disguise as Red Coat was exposed in the fourth season mid finale when Emily was trapped on a saw at Ravenswood and later got into a fight with Aria who discovered her identity and Charlotte later fell off a platform and escaped. In "A is for Answers '' the Liars are under attack by "A '' who shoots Ezra Fitz on the rooftop. However, in the fifth - season premiere, the shooter is revealed to be Shana Fring who attempted to kill Alison but was later shoved off a stage by Aria and died from the impact. After all of this, Charlotte fled to France under the Vivian Darkbloom identity to escape custody for Wilden 's death but returned. In the series 's 100 episode, Charlotte placed a bomb in the Cavanaugh house which detonated, signalling her return to Rosewood. In season five, CeCe breaks into the Vanderwaal home and kidnaps Mona just as she is about to tell the Liars that Alison is "A '' and covers up her kidnapping as a homicide. She then brings Mona to the Dollhouse and tortures her and forces her to dress up and act like Alison. Just as the Liars are being brought to jail, CeCe kidnaps them and tortures them inside the Dollhouse. Inside, the Liars discover that Big "A '' is named Charles DiLaurentis. CeCe / Charlotte reveals herself as "A '' and tells her story; saying that she is transgender, was formerly known as Charles DiLaurentis, and became ' A ' because the Liars were happy that Alison was gone. She worked with Sara Harvey, who was the Black Widow and a decoy Red Coat, and was also responsible for the "death '' of Alison and the death of Wilden, and after telling her story, she attempts suicide by jumping off Radley but is stopped. She is admitted to Welby State and her reign as "A '' finally ends and stays in the psychiatric hospital for five years. When she is released, Charlotte is murdered by Mona Vanderwaal and her death causes the birth of "A.D. '', the new Uber A. After her death, it is revealed that Noel Kahn and Jenna Marshall were also working for Charlotte. It is also revealed that her birth mother is Jessica 's twin, Mary Drake, and her birth father is Ted Wilson, while Spencer is her sister. The series finale reveals that "A.D. '' is her sister and Spencer 's twin, Alex Drake, whom Charlotte met after boarding the plane to France. She and Alex become very close after meeting, until Charlotte returned to Rosewood to play the game some more. Alex reveals that Charlotte never returned to her in London and the next time she saw her was when she visited her grave.
Uber A, also known as A.D., is the third major "A '' to have tormented the Liars. In the show 's series finale, Uber A 's identity is revealed to be Alex Drake, Spencer 's twin sister who was put up for adoption at birth. She desperately craves vengeance over the tragic passing of Charlotte DiLaurentis, who was her half - sister, and is trying to seek out the person responsible. Unlike Mona or Charlotte, Alex does not use any nicknames at first but instead signs their messages with emojis, which differentiates her from the A-Team. This causes Caleb to nickname her Amoji. However, in the sixth - season finale, she begins using the alias "A.D. '' and kidnaps Hanna, whom she believes is accountable for her sister 's homicide. Hanna manages to escape Uber A 's clutches and Alex goes after Alison, who the Liars suggested as guilty for her own cousin 's murder. Uber A eventually finds out that Alison is innocent after searching her jacket. While Uber A does work on their own, she also works through a new "A-Team '' of helpers, known to consist of Jenna Marshall, Sydney Driscoll, and Aria Montgomery, who are assisting them in completing the endgame. The series finale explains that Alex Drake was put up for adoption in exchange for a sum of money (for Mary), but then left at an orphanage by her adopted parents who were concerned for their image. She ran away from the orphanage at ten years old and eventually started working in a bar in London, where Wren Kingston mistook her for Spencer, revealing the existence of Alex 's twin and Charlotte. Wren introduces Charlotte and Alex in an airport (just after Charlotte met Archer Dunhill) and they immediately connect, becoming very close in a short amount of time. After Charlotte is released from Welby, she tells Alex that she wishes to return to Rosewood and resume the game, but Alex says she should n't go unless she gets to come too, since she wants to meet Spencer. Charlotte says no and describes the Hastings as "toxic people '' before leaving for Rosewood, where she was murdered by Mona. Alex is enraged and forces Wren to shoot her so that she looks exactly like Spencer and can successfully impersonate her. She then goes to Rosewood and picks up the game as "Uber A ''. Alex has made several appearances where she impersonates Spencer, including, but not limited to: The run in with Ezra at the airport where she introduced Wren, the kiss between "Spencer '' and Toby just before the latter planned to leave Rosewood with Yvonne, and Hanna 's "dream '' where she "hallucinated '' Spencer while A.D held her hostage. The latter was done so that Alex could find out whether Hanna was telling the truth about killing Charlotte.
The A-Team is a group of anonymous characters that worked together as "A ''. The team would work under the orders of the "A '' in charge, who has been Mona Vanderwaal, the original leader and founder and CeCe Drake, the second leader. Five years later, Alex Drake, also known as Uber A, assembles a team of their own. This team continues using the same name, though is also referred to as the "A.D. - Team ''.
Sara was the right - hand woman to Charlotte and also revealed as an A-Team member halfway throughout the sixth season. Sara is revealed as a Red Coat and the Black Widow, hired to pose as a decoy whenever Charlotte could n't sport the Red Coat disguise. She then became Charlotte 's friend and ally in the "A '' game and assisted her in most of her schemes. Sara was allegedly diagnosed with Stockholm Syndrome following Charlotte 's arrest, but later discloses to Alison that she lied under oath, also admitting that she and Charlotte were in fact close friends and she felt as though they were sisters. Later, Sara was possibly enlisted by Jenna Marshall and Noel Kahn (and possibly "A.D. '') to work with them. However, Sara was killed by Noel after she tried to reveal more than she should to Emily.
Sydney is Uber A 's helper for a brief while. She is first seen communicating with them through text messages, when she makes a donation under their name at the Vogel Vision Institute. When Aria and Emily confront her, Driscoll claims that she is simply representing a client who prefers to remain anonymous. However, she returns in the following episode and reveals herself to be "A.D. ''. She offers Aria the chance to join their team, but Aria realizes that Sydney is communicating with someone through an ear piece, revealing that she 's just a minion. Aria asks her why she would join their tormentor and Driscoll replies that she wants to be part of the "winning team ''. However, Uber A, who reveals herself as Spencer 's twin sister Alex Drake, reveals in the series finale that Sydney was n't involved in the Blind School shooting and joined the A-Team because Alex found out she had been stealing from a bank and she fit the hoodie.
Toby was recruited by Mona to join the A-Team when he got a job in Bucks County. His participation in the team was revealed in the mid-season finale of the third season. He worked hand in hand with Mona and did most of the dirty work for the team, like running down Lucas and attacking Hanna. However, like Mona, he did n't know the identity of Red Coat. Spencer finds out about his betrayal and goes off the deep end, especially after discovering his corpse. However, it is revealed that he is alive and well, with the corpse being a trick by Mona and Red Coat that he says he did n't know about until after. He is also revealed to be a double agent and gets kicked off the team.
Spencer joined the A-Team briefly near the ending of the third season after having been invited by Mona at the Radley while hospitalized. Initially, Spencer was extremely determined to be part of the team. However, she later unfolds the truth behind the disappearance of Toby and became a double agent as well. Likewise Toby, she got kicked off from the team. She is the "A '' who kidnapped Malcolm, causing a break up between Ezra and Aria.
Lucas was the personal assistant to Mona. He was blackmailed by Mona and the A-Team into sending texts and doing their dirty work. Lucas claims his blackmail began after Mona discovered he was selling test answers, however Mona later discloses that Lucas was the "A '' who gave Emily a massage back in the second season while Mona was off riding with Hanna. During the seventh - season episode "Hold Your Piece '', Pastor Ted Wilson reveals to Hanna that he used to run a summer camp for troubled boys, and Charlotte was a camper there prior to her sex change. Wilson is disheartened when describing that he interacted with his offspring without awareness they were related. Ted then showcases Hanna a picture of himself back when he worked at the camp, chaperoning Charles and Lucas, whom he described as his son 's "only friend ''.
Melissa was blackmailed by Mona into wearing the Black Swan disguise to the Masquerade Ball in order to distract Jenna. Mona threatened to reveal her fake pregnancy if she did n't obey her orders. Later, Melissa got onto the Halloween Train dressed as the Queen of Hearts and drugged Aria. Wilden then attempted to push her off of the train in a box with Garrett 's dead body. It is implied that she was once again blackmailed. It is implied in "A Dark Ali '' that Melissa is once again working for "A '', as she is seen handing a recording (presumed stolen by "A '') to a man resembling Cyrus Petrillo and later implies to Spencer that "A '' has something in store for Ali and the Liars.
Wilden was also part of the team as he was the Queens of Hearts responsible for trying to kill Spencer. He also murdered Garrett Reynolds fearing he 'd expose him as a crooked cop and placed his corpse in a box beside a fainted Aria. Wilden 's reasoning for helping the team is unknown but implied to be blackmail.
Jenna was a member of the A-Team during the reign of Big A and was also working anonymously for Uber A. She remains around Rosewood in "Along Comes Mary '' and befriends Sara Harvey. Meanwhile, Aria Montgomery and Emily Fields discover that Jenna was on Archer 's payroll for unknown reasons. On the episode 's closing scene, Marshall and Sara are having drinks at The Radley when an unknown figure approaches the two and reveals themselves to be Noel Kahn, who proceeds to join the duo. When confronted by Emily in regards to her involvement with Archer during "Wanted: Dead or Alive '', Jenna admits she befriended Charlotte DiLaurentis after reading about her stay at Welby and reached out. In a flashback, Charlotte enlists Jenna 's help to track down the whereabouts of her birth mother and come up with an alias for Archer. The pseudonym "Elliott Rollins '' was later created so Archer could deliberately meet Alison and take advantage of her good intentions to benefit Charlotte 's eventual release from the psychiatric hospital. In "The DArkest Knight '' all of the Liars get a text message, ordering them to head over to 1465, Elm Street. After being lured to an abandoned school for blind students, they 're held hostage by Noel and Jenna, with Marshall tracking them down at gunpoint. During the cat - and - mouse chase, Jenna takes aim at the Liars only to backfire, until a second gunshot is heard and it injures Spencer. As Marshall prepares to finish her off, Mary Drake suddenly emerges from behind and knocks her out. While Drake attempts to help Spencer, an unknown figure drags Jenna away from the building. On the closing scene of the episode, the anonymous entity places her in the back of a van, while she questions them if they were responsible for the gunshot that hit Spencer. As the mysterious figure proceeds to rip off an old man 's mask and toss it over to Jenna 's side, Marshall feels it up and realizes that A.D. was the one who rescued her. At the end of "Playtime '', Jenna is seated in A.D. 's lair, sipping tea. She thanks the unidentified individual for the drink and reminds them of their promise to update her on the "game ''. Dressed in a nurse 's uniform, A.D. drops a binder on Marshall 's lap with pages of information written in braille. After Jenna reads a paragraph, she mutters the word "endgame '' and grins in delight. During "These Boots Were Made for Stalking '', Jenna walks into the police station in order to come clean about her actions and interrupts a conversation between Spencer and detective Marco Furey. Marshall reports that she kept a low profile after the events that took place at the abandoned school for blind students to avoid being harmed by Noel. According to Jenna, Noel was accountable for Sara Harvey 's homicide and she feared to be his ensuing victim. Kahn recruited Jenna with the assertion that Charlotte left enough money in her will to afford Marshall another eye surgery. Nevertheless, Jenna suspected Noel of stealthily plotting to steal the cash all to himself since his parents had financially cut him off. In an attempt to spare her life, Marshall brought a gun to the deserted sight school as an act of self - defense and pretended to hold a grudge against the Liars. After Jenna describes her side of the story, Furey orders one of his associates to escort Marshall to a conference room so she can make an official statement. As Jenna exits the room, Spencer claims that she 's an unreliable narrator. However, Furey informs Spencer that the authorities do n't have enough evidence against Marshall because the bullet that injured Spencer did n't match the gun found at the location. Later in the episode, Caleb confronts Jenna stating that the authorities were already detecting holes in her allegations. However, Marshall assures Caleb they wo n't be able to prosecute her since Noel was the only person who could contradict her statement. In the series finale, Spencer 's twin, Alex Drake, is revealed to be "A.D. ''. She reveals that Jenna was looking for her and recruited Noel to help. However, Jenna was desperate for another chance to see and offered to help her in the game.
Noel Kahn returned to Rosewood to team up with Jenna Marshall and Sara Harvey. Kahn served as one of Charlotte 's former minions and worked for her at the Dollhouse, having been responsible for placing blood all over Spencer Hastings to convince she had hurt someone. Noel became the prime suspect for Uber A, particularly after Alison reveals that he pushed a girl down a flight of stairs when he was drunk during a UPenn frat party. Hanna abducts him at the end of "The Wrath of Kahn '' in an attempt to obtain a video confession that proves he 's their tormentor. In the following episode "The DArkest Knight '', she instead ends up slashing his leg with a knife in order to test his DNA and see if it matches Mary Drake 's. The results later come back negative and Kahn ends up escaping. Noel and Jenna later lure the Liars to an abandoned school for blind students so they could be held hostage and eventually murdered. During a cat - and - mouse chase, Kahn ends up stumbling upon an axe that decapitates his head after failing to fight Emily and Hanna. In the following episode, "Playtime '', Detective Marco Furey informs Spencer that Jenna and Noel frequently visited Archer Dunhill at Welby. During "These Boots Were Made for Stalking '', Jenna walks into the police station in order to come clean about her actions and interrupts a conversation between Spencer and detective Marco Furey. Marshall reports that she kept a low profile after the events that took place at the abandoned school for blind students to avoid being harmed by Noel. According to Jenna, Noel was accountable for Sara Harvey 's homicide and she feared to be his ensuing victim. Kahn recruited Jenna with the assertion that Charlotte left enough money in her will to afford Marshall another eye surgery. Nevertheless, Jenna suspected Noel of stealthily plotting to steal the cash all to himself since his parents had financially cut him off. In an attempt to spare her life, Marshall brought a gun to the deserted sight school as an act of self - defense and pretended to hold a grudge against the Liars. However, when Caleb later confronts Jenna about the authorities detecting holes in her allegations, she informs him that the only person who could contradict her side of the story was Noel.
Aria is "A.D. 's '' helper. Aria is given the offer to join the team in "Power Play ''. She accepts in the following episode and begins supplying information to Uber A. After the Liars discover Lucas ' graphic novel, Aria is sent by Uber A to retrieve it. Once she delivers it, she is given an "A '' hoodie in return. She breaks into Alison 's house sporting the disguise and trashes the nursery for her baby. In the next episode, Aria is sent by "A.D. '' to deliver a "gift '' to the Hastings family. She connects to their Bluetooth and leaves a burner phone there to play a video recording of Peter and Mary discussing Jessica 's murder. She later gets back into her "A '' disguise and breaks into Alison 's house to put the puzzle piece onto the and retrieve her file. "A.D. '' contacts Aria again and gives her a phone to communicate on. "A.D. '' asks Aria to meet them and to wear the uniform to do so. Mona overhears the call and tells the Liars of Aria 's involvement with the A-Team. Aria gets into her "A '' hoodie and goes to meet "A.D. '', only to be confronted by the Liars. She then officially defects from the team and rejoins the Liars.
Mary joins the A.D. - Team after the time jump, when Mona breaks her out of prison for Alex and she then helps Alex with kidnapping Spencer and keeping her locked away in the bunker. When Alex tries to kill Spencer, Mary tries to convince her to just keep her locked up, but Alex refuses and punches her to keep her from interfering. Mary and Alex are then kidnapped by Mona and kept as her dolls in her own personal dollhouse. Mary is also Jessica DiLaurentis ' killer and seemingly the "A '' who buried her.
Wren was a member of the A-Team and is one of the helpers to Alex / Uber A. He helped CeCe / Charlotte sneak into Radley with a fake visitors passes to visit Mona and later informs her of Alex 's existence. When Alex takes over, he shoots her so that she will have the same scar as Spencer and then later comes to Welby to kill Mona as "A.D. '' for Alex, only stopping once Mona says she can help get Mary out. Alex kills Wren so that she does n't have to break up with him in order to get her endgame wishes. Despite Wren being the only person to know almost everything about Alex 's game, he does n't participate much during the actual game, only doing a few things for Alex.
Caleb used the identity of "A '' to text Hanna in Season 3, in order to trick her into meeting him. He sent her the text "The Apple Rose Grille at closing time. Go alone or Caleb pays. - A '' to find out this information from her about the new "A ''.
Shana pretended to be "A '' to attack the Liars in New York. She donned a black hoodie and attacked them at the coffee shop, only to end up shooting Ezra instead, who had found out her identity. In the following episode, she continued to hunt down the Liars, and sent a group of black hoodies to trick them. The black hoodies used the alias "A '' during their taunting of the Liars. Shana revealed herself to the girls and revealed that she wanted justice for Jenna. The Liars falsely believed that Shana was Big A.
During the TV series, the antagonists used various disguises at parties and events, in order to watch over the girls. They are:
Red Coat is a disguise used by two members of the A-Team. CeCe Drake took on the disguise to lead the A-Team and go out in public, while she hired Sara Harvey to act as a decoy whenever she could n't sport the disguise in her assignments.
The Black Widow is a previously anonymous character who attended detective Darren Wilden 's funeral in "' A ' Is for A-l-i-v-e ''. The disguise is all black clothing, with her face concealed by a black veil. The Black Widow is shown to be a part of the A-Team, when she is seen inside the "A '' R.V. placing a Mona doll with the rest of the "A '' doll collection. She then lifts up her veil to reveal a burned Ali mask underneath, revealing that she was the Red Coat at the Lodge. In the fifth season, the disguise is seen inside one of "A '' 's lairs. In "Game Over, Charles '', it is revealed that Sara Harvey was the Black Widow. Charlotte sent her to Wilden 's funeral to make sure he was deceased. In "Of Late I Think of Rosewood '', Sara shows up to Charlotte 's funeral in a variation of the disguise, though this time revealing her face.
In a nightmare that Alison had during "How the ' A ' Stole Christmas '', her mom, Jessica DiLaurentis shows up as the Black Widow.
The Queen of Hearts is a previously anonymous character that made an appearance during the third season 's Halloween special, "This Is a Dark Ride ''. In the fourth season 's premiere, it is revealed that there were actually two of them in the Halloween train, Melissa Hastings and Darren Wilden. Wilden attacked Spencer and fought Paige, while Melissa drugged Aria and took her body. Wilden also murdered Garrett Reynolds fearing he 'd expose his corrupt activities and Melissa later admits to Spencer that she was blackmailed into doing his bidding. However, in Mona 's footage, evidence shows that Wilden tried to abandon the train and Melissa is heard ordering him to stay. Wilden would later place a fainted Aria in a box beside Garrett 's corpse and then gathered with Melissa in an attempt to push them off the train. They fled the scene once Aria regained her consciousness and stabbed Wilden.
The Black Swan is a previously anonymous character that made an appearance during the Masquerade Ball. Melissa was revealed to be the person behind the disguise in "Birds of a Feather ''. She claimed that "A '' (Mona) threatened her, stating that her false pregnancy would 've been exposed if she did not distract Jenna during the event. The disguise is inspired by Odile from Swan Lake.
Of course, the black hoodie has been the most significant disguise over the years and probably the most well known. Almost every single "A '' has worn the signature black hoodie and it will be one of the biggest things for as long as Pretty Little Liars will be remembered. The disguise has been used by Mona, Charlotte, Toby, Spencer, Lucas, Sydney, Aria, Wren, and Alex.
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what is the traditional cheese on a philly cheese steak | Cheesesteak - wikipedia
A cheesesteak, also known as a Philadelphia cheesesteak, Philly cheesesteak, cheesesteak sandwich, cheese steak, or steak and cheese, is a sandwich made from thinly sliced pieces of beefsteak and melted cheese in a long hoagie roll. A popular regional fast food, it has its roots in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States.
The cheesesteak was developed in the early 20th century "by combining frizzled beef, onions, and cheese in a small loaf of bread '', according to a 1987 exhibition catalog published by the Library Company of Philadelphia and the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
Philadelphians Pat and Harry Olivieri are often credited with inventing the sandwich by serving chopped steak on an Italian roll in the early 1930s. The exact story behind its creation is debated, but in some accounts, Pat and Harry Olivieri originally owned a hot dog stand, and on one occasion, decided to make a new sandwich using chopped beef and grilled onions. While Pat was eating the sandwich, a cab driver stopped by and was interested in it, so he requested one for himself. After eating it, the cab driver suggested that Olivieri quit making hot dogs and instead focus on the new sandwich. They began selling this variation of steak sandwiches at their hot dog stand near South Philadelphia 's Italian Market. They became so popular that Pat opened up his own restaurant which still operates today as Pat 's King of Steaks. The sandwich was originally prepared without cheese; Olivieri said provolone cheese was first added by Joe "Cocky Joe '' Lorenza, a manager at the Ridge Avenue location.
Cheesesteaks have become popular at restaurants and food carts throughout the city with many locations being independently owned, family - run businesses. Variations of cheesesteaks are now common in several fast food chains. Versions of the sandwich can also be found at high - end restaurants. Many establishments outside of Philadelphia refer to the sandwich as a "Philly cheesesteak. ''
The meat traditionally used is thinly sliced rib - eye or top round, although other cuts of beef are also used. On a lightly oiled griddle at medium temperature, the steak slices are quickly browned and then scrambled into smaller pieces with a flat spatula. Slices of cheese are then placed over the meat, letting it melt, and then the roll is placed on top of the cheese. The mixture is then scooped up with a spatula and pressed into the roll, which is then cut in half.
Common additions include sautéed onions, bell peppers, mushrooms, mayonnaise, hot sauce, salt, pepper.
In Philadelphia, most cheesesteak places use Amoroso rolls; these rolls are long, soft, and slightly salted. One source writes that "a proper cheesesteak consists of provolone or Cheez Whiz slathered on an Amoroso roll and stuffed with thinly shaved grilled meat, '' while a reader 's letter to an Indianapolis magazine, lamenting the unavailability of good cheesesteaks, wrote that "the mention of the Amoroso roll brought tears to my eyes. '' After commenting on the debates over types of cheese and "chopped steak or sliced, '' Risk and Insurance magazine declared "The only thing nearly everybody can agree on is that it all has to be piled onto a fresh, locally baked Amoroso roll. ''
American cheese, Cheez Whiz, and provolone are the most commonly used cheeses or cheese products put on to the Philly cheesesteak.
White American cheese, along with provolone cheese, are the favorites due to their mild flavor and medium consistency. Some establishments melt the American cheese to achieve the creamy consistency, while others place slices over the meat, letting them melt slightly under the heat. Philadelphia Inquirer restaurant critic Craig LaBan says "Provolone is for aficionados, extra-sharp for the most discriminating among them. '' Geno 's owner, Joey Vento, said, "We always recommend the provolone. That 's the real cheese. ''
Cheez Whiz, first marketed in 1952, was not yet available for the original 1930 version, but has spread in popularity. A 1986 New York Times article called Cheez Whiz "the sine qua non of cheesesteak connoisseurs. '' In a 1985 interview, Pat Olivieri 's nephew Frank Olivieri said that he uses "the processed cheese spread familiar to millions of parents who prize speed and ease in fixing the children 's lunch for the same reason, because it is fast. '' Cheez Whiz is "overwhelmingly the favorite '' at Pat 's, outselling runner - up American by a ratio of eight or ten to one, while Geno 's claims to go through eight to ten cases of Cheez Whiz a day.
In 2003, while running for President of the United States, John Kerry made what was considered a major faux pas when campaigning in Philadelphia and went to Pat 's King of Steaks and ordered a cheesesteak with Swiss.
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who did the houston rockets play in the nba finals | Houston Rockets - wikipedia
The Houston Rockets are an American professional basketball team based in Houston, Texas. The Rockets compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA), as a member of the league 's Western Conference Southwest Division. The team plays its home games at the Toyota Center, located in downtown Houston. The Rockets have won two NBA championships and four Western Conference titles. The team was established as the San Diego Rockets, an expansion team originally based in San Diego, in 1967. In 1971, the Rockets moved to Houston.
The Rockets won only 15 games in their debut season as a franchise in 1967. In the 1968 NBA draft, the Rockets, picking first overall, selected power forward Elvin Hayes, who would lead the team to its first playoff appearance in his rookie season. The Rockets did not finish a season with a winning record until the 1976 -- 77 season, when they traded for center Moses Malone. Malone went on to win the NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) award twice and led Houston to the conference finals in his first year with the team. He also led the Rockets to the NBA Finals in 1981 where they were defeated in six games by the Boston Celtics, led by Larry Bird and future Rockets coach Kevin McHale.
In 1984, the Rockets drafted center Hakeem Olajuwon, who would be paired with 7 feet 4 inches (2.24 m) Ralph Sampson, forming one of the tallest front courts in the NBA. Nicknamed the "Twin Towers '', they led the team to the 1986 NBA Finals -- the second NBA Finals appearance in franchise history -- where Houston was again defeated by the Boston Celtics. The Rockets continued to reach the playoffs throughout the 1980s, but failed to advance past the first round for several years following a second - round defeat to the Seattle SuperSonics in 1987. Rudy Tomjanovich took over as head coach midway through the 1991 -- 92 season, ushering in the most successful period in franchise history. The Olajuwon - led Rockets went to the 1994 NBA Finals and won the franchise 's first championship against Patrick Ewing and the New York Knicks. The following season, reinforced by another All - Star, Clyde Drexler, the Rockets repeated as champions with a four - game sweep of the Orlando Magic, who were led by a young Shaquille O'Neal and Penny Hardaway. Houston, which was seeded sixth in the Western Conference during the 1995 playoffs, became the lowest - seeded team in NBA history to win the title.
The Rockets acquired all - star forward Charles Barkley in 1996, but the presence of three of the NBA 's 50 greatest players of all - time (Olajuwon, Drexler, and Barkley) was not enough to propel Houston past the Western Conference Finals. Each one of the aging trio had left the team by 2001, and the Rockets of the early 2000s, led by superstars Tracy McGrady and Yao Ming, followed the trend of consistent regular season respectability followed by playoff underachievement as both players struggled with injuries. After Yao 's early retirement in 2011, the Rockets entered a period of rebuilding, completely dismantling and retooling their roster. The acquisition of franchise player James Harden in 2012 has launched the Rockets back into championship contention in the mid-2010s.
The Rockets, under general manager Daryl Morey, are notable for popularizing the use of advanced statistical analytics (similar to sabermetrics in baseball) in player acquisitions and style of play.
The Rockets were founded in 1967 in San Diego by Robert Breitbard, who paid an entry fee of US $1.75 million to join the NBA as an expansion team for the 1967 -- 68 season. The NBA wanted to add more teams in the Western United States, and chose San Diego based on the city 's strong economic and population growth, along with the local success of an ice hockey team owned by Breitbard, the San Diego Gulls. The resulting contest to name the franchise chose the name "Rockets '', which paid homage to San Diego 's theme of "a city in motion '' and the local arm of General Dynamics developing the Atlas missile and booster rocket program. Breitbard brought in Jack McMahon, then coach of the Cincinnati Royals, to serve as the Rockets ' coach and general manager. The team, that would join the league along with the Seattle SuperSonics, then built its roster with both veteran players at an expansion draft, and college players from the 1967 NBA draft, where San Diego 's first ever draft pick was Pat Riley. The Rockets lost 67 games in their inaugural season, which was an NBA record for losses in a season at the time.
In 1968, after the Rockets won a coin toss against the Baltimore Bullets to determine who would have the first overall pick in the 1968 NBA draft, they selected Elvin Hayes from the University of Houston. Hayes improved the Rockets ' record to 37 wins and 45 losses, enough for the franchise 's first ever playoff appearance in 1969, but the Rockets lost in the semi-finals of the Western Division to the Atlanta Hawks, four games to two. Despite the additions of Calvin Murphy and Rudy Tomjanovich and the management of Hall of Fame coach Alex Hannum, the Rockets tallied a 67 -- 97 record in the following two seasons and did not make the playoffs in either season. Because of the low performance and attendance, Breitbard looked to sell the team, and in 1971, Texas Sports Investments bought the franchise for $5.6 million, and moved the team to Houston. The franchise became the first NBA team in Texas, and the nickname "Rockets '' took on even greater relevance after the move, given Houston 's long connection to the space industry.
Before the start of the 1971 -- 72 season, Hannum left for the Denver Rockets of the American Basketball Association -- later renamed Denver Nuggets, who joined the NBA in 1976 -- and Tex Winter was hired in his place. However, Winter 's clashes with Hayes, due to a system that contrasted with the offensive style to which Hayes was accustomed, made Hayes ask for a trade, leaving for the Baltimore Bullets at the end of the 1971 -- 72 season.
It was also around this time that the Rockets would unveil their classic yellow and red logo and accompanying uniforms used until the end of the 1994 -- 95 season. Winter left soon after, being fired in January 1973 following a ten - game losing streak, and was replaced by Johnny Egan. Egan led the Rockets back to the playoffs in 1975, where the franchise also managed to win their first round against the New York Knicks, subsequently losing to the veteran Boston Celtics in 5 games. At that time the Rockets gained popularity in Houston, selling out several home games during the regular season as the Rockets battled for a playoff spot and then selling out all of their home playoff games.
In the 1975 -- 76 season the Rockets finally had a permanent home in Houston as they moved into The Summit, which they would call home for the next 29 years. During the period, the franchise was owned by Kenneth Schnitzer, developer of the Greenway Plaza which included The Summit. After missing the 1976 playoffs, Tom Nissalke was hired as a coach, and pressed the team to add a play - making guard in college standout John Lucas and a rebounding center through Moses Malone, who he had coached in the ABA. The additions had an immediate impact, with the 1976 -- 77 Rockets winning the Central Division and going all the way to the Eastern Conference Finals, losing to the Julius Erving 's Philadelphia 76ers 4 games to 2. The following season had the team regressing to just 28 wins due to an injury to captain Tomjanovich, who got numerous facial fractures after being punched by Kermit Washington of the Los Angeles Lakers and wound up spending five months in rehabilitation. After trading Lucas to the Golden State Warriors in exchange for Rick Barry, the Rockets returned to the playoffs in 1978 -- 79, with "The Chairman Of The Boards '' Moses Malone receiving the 1979 MVP Award, but the team was swept 2 -- 0 by Atlanta in the first round. Nissalke was let go, and assistant Del Harris was promoted to head coach.
In 1979, George Maloof, a businessperson from Albuquerque, New Mexico, bought the Rockets for $9 million. He died the following year, and while the Maloof family expressed interest in selling the team, George 's 24 - year - old son Gavin took over the Rockets. A buyer was eventually found in 1982 as businessman Charlie Thomas and Sidney Shlenker purchased the franchise for $11 million. The Maloof period of ownership marked the first dominant period of the Rockets, highlighted by the team 's first NBA Finals appearance in 1981. Prior to the 1980 -- 81 season, the arrival of the Dallas Mavericks led to an NBA realignment that sent the Rockets back to the Western Conference. Houston qualified for the playoffs only in the final game of the season with a 40 -- 42 record. The postseason had the Rockets beat the Lakers, in - state rivals San Antonio Spurs, and the equally underdog Kansas City Kings to become only the second team in NBA history (after the 1959 Minneapolis Lakers) to have advanced to the Finals after achieving a losing record in the regular season. In the final round facing Larry Bird 's Boston Celtics in the finals round, the Rockets blew a late lead in Game 1 and won Game 2 at the Boston Garden. However, afterwards the team failed to capitalize on the early success against the favored Celtics, and eventually lost in six games.
While new owner Charlie Thomas expressed interest in renewing with Moses Malone, who had been again chosen as MVP in 1981 -- 82, the Rockets traded him to the Philadelphia 76ers for Caldwell Jones, as a declining regional economy made the Rockets unable to pay Malone 's salary. When the Rockets finished a league worst 14 -- 68, Celtics coach Bill Fitch was hired to replace outgoing Del Harris, and the team won the first pick of the 1983 NBA draft, used to select Ralph Sampson from the University of Virginia. Sampson had good numbers and was awarded the NBA Rookie of the Year award, but the Rockets still finished last overall, again getting the top pick at the upcoming 1984 NBA draft, used to select Hakeem Olajuwon from the University of Houston.
In his first season, Olajuwon finished second to Michael Jordan in NBA Rookie of the Year balloting, and the Rockets record improved by 19 games, good enough for a return to the playoffs as the third best team in the West, where they were upset by the sixth - seeded Utah Jazz. The Olajuwon and Sampson duo earned much praise, and was nicknamed "Twin Towers ''. In the following season, Houston won the Midwest Division title with a 51 -- 31 record. The subsequent playoffs had the Rockets sweeping the Sacramento Kings, having a hard - fought six - game series with Alex English 's Denver Nuggets, and then facing defending champion Lakers, losing the first game but eventually managing to win the series -- the only Western Playoffs defeat of the Showtime Lakers -- to get to the franchise 's second Finals appearance. The NBA Finals once again matched the Rockets up against the Celtics, a contrast to Houston 's young front challenging the playoff - hardened Celtics front court of Larry Bird, Kevin McHale and Robert Parish. The Celtics won the first two games in Boston, gave the Rockets their only home playoff defeat that season in game 4, and clinched the title as Bird scored a triple - double on Game 6.
After the Finals, Boston coach K.C. Jones called the Rockets "the new monsters on the block '' feeling they had a bright future. But the team had a poor start to the following season amidst players getting injured or suspended for cocaine usage, and during the playoffs were defeated in the second round by Seattle SuperSonics in six games, with the final game being a double - overtime classic that saw Olajuwon notching 49 points, 25 rebounds and 6 blocks in defeat. Early in the 1987 -- 88 season, Sampson, who had signed a new contract, was traded to the Golden State Warriors, bringing the Twin Towers era to an end just 18 months after their Finals appearance. Sampson 's once - promising career was shortened due to chronic knee injuries, which forced his retirement in 1991. Jones ' prophecy of a Rockets dynasty never materialized until the early 1990s.
In the next five seasons, the Rockets either failed to qualify for the playoffs or were eliminated in the first round. The first elimination in 1988 led to Fitch 's dismissal, with Don Chaney replacing him as head coach. Chaney, like Olajuwon, also played for the Houston Cougars under Guy Lewis, having played along Elvin Hayes in the late 1960s. Chaney had his best season during 1990 -- 91, where he was named the Coach of the Year after leading the Rockets to a 52 - 30 record despite Olajuwon 's absence due to injury for 25 games. Despite Olajuwon 's usual strong numbers, the underwhelming roster could not be lifted out of mediocrity. However, the attempts to rebuild the team nucleus incorporated players that would later make an impact in the years to come, such as Kenny Smith, Vernon Maxwell, Robert Horry, Mario Elie, Sam Cassell and Otis Thorpe.
Midway through the 1991 -- 92 season, with the Rockets ' record only 26 -- 26, Chaney was fired and replaced by his assistant Rudy Tomjanovich, a former Houston player himself. While the Rockets did not make the playoffs, Tomjanovich 's arrival was considered a step forward. In the next year, the Rockets improved their record by 13 games, getting the Midwest Division title, and winning their first playoff series in 6 years by defeating the Los Angeles Clippers, before an elimination by the SuperSonics in a closely contested Game 7 overtime loss.
On July 30, 1993, Leslie Alexander purchased the Rockets for $85 million. Following the bitter Game 7 loss in Seattle in overtime, Olajuwon gathered the team and famously stated "we go from here ''. The next season, in Tomjanovich 's second full year as head coach, the Rockets began the 1993 -- 94 season by tying an NBA record with a start of 15 -- 0. Led by Olajuwon, who was named the MVP and Defensive Player of the Year, the Rockets won 58 games, a franchise record at the time. After quickly dispatching the Portland Trail Blazers (who had made the finals just two years prior) in 4 games, they then faced the defending Western Conference champion Phoenix Suns, led by the previous year 's MVP Charles Barkley. The series opened up in Houston, which saw the Rockets open up a big lead going into the fourth quarter. In both games, however, the Rockets inexplicably collapsed to allow the Suns a 2 - 0 lead going back to Phoenix. Following recent heart - breaking playoff losses by the Houston Oilers, it appeared as though the Rockets were doomed. Local newspapers labeled Houston as "Choke City '', which the Rockets took to heart and ultimately came back to win the series in seven games. As "Choke City '' became "Clutch City '', the name permanently became a part of Houston folklore. The Rockets then soon defeated John Stockton and Karl Malone 's Utah Jazz in five in the Conference Finals to advance to their third finals. The New York Knicks opened a 3 - 2 advantage, but the Rockets managed to win the last two games on their home court and claimed their first championship in franchise history. Olajuwon was awarded the Finals MVP, after averaging 27 points, nine rebounds and four blocked shots a game.
The Rockets initially struggled in the first half of the 1994 -- 95 season, which they fixed by sending Otis Thorpe to the Portland Trail Blazers in exchange for Olajuwon 's former college teammate Clyde Drexler. With only 47 wins, the Rockets entered the playoffs as the sixth seed in the Western Conference. Still, a strong playoff run that earned Houston the nickname "Clutch City '' had the Rockets defeating the West 's top three seeds -- the Jazz, Suns and Spurs -- to reach back - to - back finals, this time against the Orlando Magic, led by Shaquille O'Neal and Anfernee "Penny '' Hardaway. When Houston swept the series in four straight games, they became the first team in NBA history to win the championship as a sixth seed, and the first to beat four 50 - win teams in a single postseason en route to the championship. Olajuwon was again the Finals MVP, only the second player after Michael Jordan to win the award two years in a row. It was on the floor of The Summit after they captured their second title that head coach Rudy Tomjanovich proclaimed, "Do n't ever underestimate the heart of a champion! ''
During the off - season, the Rockets went for a change of visual identity, making navy blue and silver the new primary colors while adopting a new cartoon - inspired logo and pinstriped jerseys. The Rockets won 48 games in the 1995 -- 96 season, in which Olajuwon became the NBA 's all - time leader in blocked shots. The playoffs had the Rockets beating the Lakers before a sweep by the SuperSonics.
Before the start of the succeeding season, the Rockets sent four players to Phoenix in exchange for Charles Barkley. The resulting "Big Three '' of Olajuwon, Drexler, and Barkley had a strong debut season with a 57 -- 25 record, going all the way to the Western Conference finals before losing to the Utah Jazz 4 -- 2 on a dramatic last - second shot by John Stockton. The following season was marked by injuries, and Houston finished 41 -- 41 and the 8th seed, leading to another elimination by the top - seeded Jazz.
Drexler retired after the season, and the Rockets traded to bring in Scottie Pippen to take his place. In the lockout - shortened 1998 -- 99 season, the Rockets lost to the Lakers in the first round of the playoffs. After the 1999 draft, the Rockets traded for the second overall pick Steve Francis from the Vancouver Grizzlies, in exchange for four players and a first - round draft pick. However, after Houston traded a discontented Pippen to Portland, and Barkley suffered a career - ending injury, the rebuilt Rockets went 34 -- 48 and missed the playoffs, for only the second time in 15 years.
In the 2000 -- 01 season, the Rockets worked their way to a 45 -- 37 record. However, in a competitive Western Conference where seven teams won 50 games, this left the Rockets two games out of the playoffs. In the following off - season, a 38 - year - old Olajuwon requested a trade, and, despite stating their desire to keep him, the Rockets reached a sign - and - trade agreement, sending him to the Toronto Raptors. The ensuing 2001 -- 02 season -- the first without Hakeem in two decades -- was unremarkable, and the Rockets finished with only 28 wins.
After Houston was awarded the first overall pick in the 2002 NBA draft, they selected Yao Ming, a 7 feet 6 inches (2.29 m) Chinese center. The Rockets missed the 2003 playoffs by one game, improving their record by 15 victories.
The 2003 -- 04 season marked the Rockets ' arrival to a new arena, the Toyota Center, a redesign of their uniforms and logo, and their first season without Rudy Tomjanovich, who resigned as head coach after being diagnosed with bladder cancer. Led by former Knicks coach Jeff Van Gundy, the Rockets finished the regular season with a record of 45 -- 37, earning their first playoff berth since 1999, again losing to the Lakers in the first round.
In the off - season, Houston saw major changes in the roster as the Rockets acquired Tracy McGrady in a seven - player deal with the Orlando Magic. The scoring champion McGrady and the strong rebounder Yao formed a well - regarded pair that helped the Rockets win 22 consecutive games in the 2007 -- 08 season, which was at the time the 3rd longest winning streak in NBA history. Still, the duo was plagued with injuries -- of the 463 regular season games for which they were teammates, Yao missed 146 and McGrady 160 -- and did not win any playoff series, despite gathering leads over the Dallas Mavericks in 2005 and the Jazz in 2007. After the 2007 elimination, Van Gundy was fired, and the Rockets hired Rick Adelman to replace him.
For the 2008 -- 09 season, the Rockets signed forward Ron Artest. While McGrady wound up playing only half the games before enduring a season - ending microfracture surgery, the Rockets ended the season 53 -- 29, enough for the Western Conference 's fifth seed. During the playoffs, the Rockets beat the Portland Trail Blazers four games to two, winning their first playoff round since 1997. During the series, Dikembe Mutombo injured his knee, which forced him to retire after 18 seasons in the NBA. However, the second round against the Lakers had the Rockets losing 4 - 3 and Yao Ming suffering yet another season - ending injury, this time a hairline fracture in his left foot.
During the 2009 -- 10 season, the Rockets saw the departures of Artest in the off - season and McGrady, Joey Dorsey and Carl Landry during mid-season trades. Despite great play by Kevin Martin, who arrived from the Kings, and Aaron Brooks, who would eventually be chosen as the Most Improved Player of the season, the Rockets could not make it to the playoffs, finishing 42 -- 40, 3rd in the Southwest Division. At that time, the Rockets set an NBA record for best record by a team with no All - Stars. The Rockets would also finish ninth in the Western Conference for the following two seasons, with Yao Ming getting a season - ending injury seven games into the 2010 -- 11 season and deciding to retire during the 2011 off - season. Said off - season, which saw the NBA going through a lockout, had Adelman dismissed, and general manager Daryl Morey deciding to start a revamp of the Rockets based on advanced statistical analytics (similar to sabermetrics in baseball) in player acquisitions and style of play. Kevin McHale was named head coach, and the roster saw significant changes.
After the roster moves made by Morey during the 2012 NBA off - season, only four players were left from the 2011 -- 12 Rockets roster: Chandler Parsons, Greg Smith, Marcus Morris and Patrick Patterson, with the latter two leaving through trades during the 2012 -- 13 season. The most important acquisition was reigning sixth man of the year James Harden, who Morey called a "foundational '' player which he expected to be Houston 's featured player after a supporting role in the Oklahoma City Thunder. Harden caused an immediate impact as part of the starting lineup for the Rockets, with 37 points, 12 assists, 6 rebounds, 4 steals, and a block in the season opener against the Detroit Pistons, and an average of 25.9 points a game through the season. Combining Harden 's performance and McHale 's up - tempo offense, the Rockets became one of the highest scoring offenses in the NBA, leading the league in scoring for the majority of the season. In the postseason, the Rockets fell to the Oklahoma City Thunder in the first round, losing the series 4 -- 2.
Eager to add another franchise player to their team, the Rockets heavily pursued Jeremy Lin, the first American of Taiwanese and Chinese descent to play in the National Basketball Association (NBA), led the Knicks to seven straight victories while establishing an NBA scoring record in July 2012. Also, they pursued free agent center Dwight Howard in the 2013 off - season. He officially signed with the Rockets on July 13, 2013. Led by the new inside - out combination of Howard and James Harden, and with a strong supporting cast including Chandler Parsons, Jeremy Lin, and Ömer Aşık, the Rockets were expected to jump into title contention in the upcoming season. However, that postseason, the Rockets were defeated in the first round by the Portland Trail Blazers, losing the series 4 -- 2. Still, in the 2014 -- 15 season, without Lin and Parsons but reinforced by Trevor Ariza, the Rockets started the season well, winning the first four games of the season for the first time since 1996 -- 97, and winning each of their first six games by 10 points or more, the first team to accomplish this feat since the 1985 -- 86 Denver Nuggets. While the Rockets had many key players miss time throughout the entire season, James Harden took it upon himself to keep the Rockets near the top of the conference, turning him into an MVP front - runner. He became the first Rocket to score 50 points in a game since Hakeem Olajuwon, as well as the only player in franchise history to record multiple 50 point games in a season. On April 15, 2015, the Rockets beat the Jazz to claim their first ever Southwest Division title and first Division crown since 1994, and by completing 56 wins finished with the third - best regular season record in franchise history. During the playoffs, the Rockets beat the Mavericks 4 -- 1 in the first round, and overcame a 3 -- 1 deficit against the Los Angeles Clippers to win the Western Semifinals and return to the Conference Finals for the first time in 18 years. In the Conference Finals, the Rockets were defeated by the Golden State Warriors 4 -- 1.
The 2015 -- 16 season saw Kevin McHale fired after a bad start where the team only won 4 of its first 11 games, and assistant J.B. Bickerstaff took over coaching duties. Inconsistent play led to the Rockets struggling to remain in the playoff qualifying zone, and surrounded by trade rumors. Houston only clinched its 2016 playoffs spot by winning its last game, finishing the season 41 -- 41 to earn an eight seed and a match - up against the Warriors. Like in the previous year, the Rockets were once again defeated by Golden State in 5 games.
During the 2016 off - season, Mike D'Antoni was named as the Rockets ' new head coach, and Dwight Howard opted out of his contract 's final year, becoming a free agent. In the following free - agency period, the Rockets looked to embrace the play styles of both coach D'Antoni and Harden through the signings of Ryan Anderson and Eric Gordon, two predominately perimeter players and good fits in Houston 's up - tempo offense style.
When the 2016 -- 17 season started, Harden was off to a great start and was widely considered a top MVP runner along with Kawhi Leonard, alongside former teammate Russell Westbrook. When the season ended, the Rockets were third in both the Western Conference and overall rankings, a major improvement from the season before. D'Antoni was named the NBA Coach of the Year, Eric Gordon the Sixth Man of the Year, and Harden finished second in MVP voting to Russell Westbrook. In the playoffs, the Rockets faced the sixth seeded Oklahoma City Thunder in a battle of the MVP frontrunners, as the winner was not announced until after the finals. The Rockets won the series 4 -- 1 including Nene Hilario 's perfect 12 -- 12 in field goals in Game 4. In the following round, Houston opened with a dominating 27 points win over the San Antonio Spurs, lost the following two games and then tied the series again. Game 5 went into overtime and had both Manu Ginobili blocking James Harden 's game tying three point attempt at the final second, and Nene injuring himself out of the postseason. Without Nene, the Rockets could not guard LaMarcus Aldridge, who scored 34 points and grabbed 12 rebounds in the series - closing match.
During the 2017 off - season, the Rockets were purchased by Houston restaurant billionaire Tilman Fertitta for $2.2 billion, breaking the record for the price to purchase an American professional sports team. The team also acquired 8 time All - NBA player and 9 time All - Star Chris Paul in a trade from the Los Angeles Clippers, in exchange for seven players, cash considerations, and a top three protected 2018 first round draft pick. Even if Paul missed many games due to a knee injury, he was a key addition to the Rockets. The team finished the season with 65 wins, a record both league - leading and the best in franchise history. During the playoffs, Houston easily beat the Minnesota Timberwolves and Utah Jazz before another confrontation with the Golden State Warriors. In game 5 of the Conference Finals, the Rockets took a 3 -- 2 lead in the series, but saw Paul leave with an injured hamstring. His absence was felt in the two remaining games, where Houston led by halftime only to suffer a comeback by Golden State.
List of the last five seasons completed by the Rockets. For the full season - by - season history, see List of Houston Rockets seasons.
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, % = Winning percentage
During the four years the Rockets were in San Diego, they played their games in the San Diego Sports Arena, which had a seating capacity of 14,400. In their first season after moving to Houston, the Rockets did not have their own arena, and they played their first two years at various venues in the city, including the Astrodome, AstroHall, Sam Houston Coliseum and Hofheinz Pavilion, the latter eventually being adopted as their home arena until 1975. They also had to play "home '' games in other cities such as San Antonio, Waco, Albuquerque, and even San Diego in efforts to extend the fan - base. During their first season, the Rockets averaged less than 5,000 fans per game (roughly half full), and in one game in Waco, there were only 759 fans in attendance.
Their first permanent arena in Houston was the 10,000 seat Hofheinz Pavilion on the campus of the University of Houston, which they moved into starting in their second season. They played in the arena for four years, before occupying The Summit in 1975. The arena, which could hold 16,611 spectators, was their home for the next 28 years. It was renamed the Compaq Center from 1998 to 2003. Following the 1994 title, the Rockets had a sellout streak of 176 consecutive home games, including the playoffs, which lasted until 1999. However, the struggling 2000 -- 01 and 2001 -- 02 seasons saw Houston having the worst attendance average in the league, with less than 12,000 spectators each season.
For the 2003 -- 04 season, the Rockets moved into their new arena, the Toyota Center, with a seating capacity of 18,500. During the 2007 -- 08 season where the team achieved a 22 - game winning streak, the Rockets got their best numbers to date, averaging 17,379 spectators. These were exceeded once James Harden joined the team in 2013. The Rockets averaged 18,123 spectators during the 2013 -- 14 season, selling out 39 out of the 41 home games. The 2014 -- 15 season had even better numbers, with 40 sellouts and an average of 18,230 tickets sold.
When the Rockets debuted in San Diego, their colors were green and gold. Road uniforms featured the city name, while the home uniforms feature the team name, both in a serifed block lettering. This was the only uniform design the Rockets would use throughout their years in San Diego. The Rockets ' first logo featured a rocket streaking with a basketball surrounded by the team name.
Upon moving to Houston in 1971, the Rockets replaced green with red. They kept the same design from their San Diego days, save for the change of color and city name. The logo used is of a player with a spinning basketball launching upward, with boosters on his back, leaving a trail of red and gold flames and the words "Houston Rockets '' below it.
For the 1972 -- 73 season, the Rockets introduced the famous "mustard and ketchup '' logo, so dubbed by fans, featuring a gold basketball surrounded by two red trails, with "Houston '' atop the first red trail and "Rockets '' (all capitalized save for the lowercase ' E ' and ' T ') in black surrounding the basketball. The initial home uniforms, used until the 1975 -- 76 season, features the city name, numbers and serifed player name in red with gold trim, while the away uniforms feature the city name (all capitalized except for the lower case ' T ' and ' N '), numbers and serifed player name in gold with white trim.
In the 1976 -- 77 season, the Rockets modified their uniforms, featuring a monotone look on the Cooper Black fonts and white lettering on the road uniforms. On the home shorts, the team logo is located on the right leg, while the away shorts feature the team name wordmark on the same location. With minor modifications in the number font, this version was used in all four of their NBA Finals appearances, including their 1994 and 1995 championships.
Following the 1995 title, the Rockets opted to modernize their look. After a fan contest with over 5,000 entries, the team went with the idea of Missouri City artist Thomas Nash of a rocket orbiting a basketball, which was then reworked by Houston designer Chris Hill. Nash would later sue the Rockets for breach of contract, given they were using his idea despite not having paid the contest prizes. The NBA suggested that the identity should follow the cartoon - inspired imagery that other teams adopted during the 1990s, leading to a rocket painted with sharkmouth nose art orbiting a basketball. Red was retained, but navy blue and silver became the uniform 's primary colors. Both the home white and away navy uniforms featured gradient - fading pinstripes and futuristic number fonts, with side stripes of navy fading to red. This was used until the 2002 -- 03 season.
The Rockets ' current logos and uniforms were introduced in the 2003 -- 04 season, created by New York - based agency Alfafa Studio in association with Japanese designer Eiko Ishioka. The logo is a stylized ' R ' in the shape of a rocket during takeoff, surrounded by a red orbit streak that can be interpreted as the central circle of a basketball court. Said "R '' inspired the team 's new custom typeface, designed so that every single digit could be read well from a distance, whether in the arena or on television. Red once again became the dominant color, with silver and black as secondary. In 2009, the Rockets invoked the championship years with an alternate red uniform, featuring gold numbers and side stripes. The Rockets had two sleeved alternate jerseys for the 2015 -- 16 season, an alternate silver - colored uniform whose design referenced the design of NASA 's Gemini - Titan rocket, and a red and gold jersey featuring the nickname "Clutch City ''. For the 2016 -- 17 season, the Rockets began to wear a black alternate uniform.
The mascot of the Houston Rockets in the 1980s was called Booster. From 1993 to 1995, the mascot was Turbo, a costumed man that performed acrobatic dunks and other maneuvers. In 1995, the Rockets debuted Clutch the Bear as a second mascot, a large teddy bear - like mascot that performs a variety of acts during the games. After eight years of serving as dual mascots, the performer playing Turbo retired, making Clutch the sole mascot for the team.
The Rockets have developed many rivalries within the Western Conference ever since the team returned there in 1980. Two are intrastate rivalries, with the San Antonio Spurs, who moved along with the Rockets after four years with them in the Eastern Conference, and the Dallas Mavericks, introduced that very season. Houston faced both Texas teams in playoffs since 1980, beating the Spurs three times and losing once. The Rockets lost twice to the Mavericks, while beating them once. Other famed rivalries were with the Los Angeles Lakers, who in the 1980s Showtime era only missed the NBA Finals when beaten by the Rockets, and the Utah Jazz, who the Rockets beat in both championship seasons but were defeated by Utah in five other occasions.
NBA Most Valuable Player Award
NBA Finals MVP
NBA Scoring Champions
NBA Defensive Player of the Year
NBA Rookie of the Year
NBA Sixth Man of the Year
NBA Most Improved Player
NBA Coach of the Year
NBA Executive of the Year
J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award
NBA All - Defensive First Team
NBA All - Defensive Second Team
NBA All - Rookie First Team
NBA All - Rookie Second Team
All - NBA First Team
All - NBA Second Team
All - NBA Third Team
All - Star
All - Star head coach
All - Star Game MVP
Bold denotes still active with team. Italics denotes still active but not with team.
Points scored (regular season) (as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season)
Other Statistics (regular season) (as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season)
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2018 -- 04 -- 29
The Rockets hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
Notes:
See also: List of companies in Houston
See: List of colleges and universities in Houston
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how many words are there in the arabic language | Arabic - Wikipedia
Arabic (Arabic: العَرَبِيَّة , al - ʻarabiyyah (ʔalʕaraˈbijːah) (listen) or Arabic: عَرَبِيّ ʻarabī (ˈʕarabiː) (listen) or (ʕaraˈbijː)) is a Central Semitic language that first emerged in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. It is named after the Arabs, a term initially used to describe peoples living from Mesopotamia in the east to the Anti-Lebanon mountains in the west, in northwestern Arabia, and in the Sinai peninsula.
The modern written language (Modern Standard Arabic) is derived from Classical Arabic. It is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic (fuṣḥā), which is the official language of 26 states and the liturgical language of Islam. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties, and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-classical era, especially in modern times.
During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a major vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have also borrowed many words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages, mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese, Valencian and Catalan, owing to both the proximity of Christian European and Muslim Arab civilizations and 800 years of Arabic culture and language in the Iberian Peninsula, referred to in Arabic as al - Andalus. Sicilian has about 500 Arabic words as result of Sicily being progressively conquered by Saracens from North Africa, from the mid 9th to mid 10th centuries. Many of these words relate to agriculture and related activities (Hull and Ruffino). Balkan languages, including Greek and Bulgarian, have also acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish.
Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. Some of the most influenced languages are Persian, Turkish, Spanish, Maltese, Urdu, Kashmiri, Kurdish, Bosnian, Kazakh, Bengali, Hindi, Malay, Maldivian, Indonesian, Pashto, Punjabi, Tagalog, Sindhi and Hausa and some languages in parts of Africa. Conversely, Arabic has borrowed words from other languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times, and contemporary European languages such as English and French in modern times.
Classical Arabic is the liturgical language of 1.7 billion Muslims and Modern Standard Arabic is one of six official languages of the United Nations. It is spoken by perhaps as many as 422 million speakers (native and non-native) in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet, which is an abjad script and is written from right to left, although the spoken varieties are sometimes written in ASCII Latin from left to right with no standardized orthography.
Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages (Aramaic, Hebrew, Ugaritic and Phoenician), the Ancient South Arabian languages, and various other Semitic languages of Arabia such as Dadanitic. The Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto - Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages -- all maintained in Arabic -- include:
There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of the northern Hijaz. These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor, Proto - Arabic. The following features can be reconstructed with confidence for Proto - Arabic:
Arabia boasted a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in a script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic. Finally, on the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B, Thamudic D, Safaitic, and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are in fact early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic.
Beginning in the 1st century CE, fragments of Northern Old Arabic are attested in the Nabataean script across northern Arabia. By the 4th century CE, the Nabataean Aramaic writing system had come to express varieties of Arabic other than that of the Nabataeans.
In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hijaz which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra, most strongly in Judeo - Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from the "learned '' tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay '' iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Qur'ān was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi.
In the late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine '' distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd, probably in connection with the court of al - Ḥīra. During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic - writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax. The standardization of Classical Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic '', Sībawayhi 's al - Kitāb, is based first of all upon a corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'ān usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya. By the 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world.
Charles Ferguson 's koine theory (Ferguson 1959) claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al - Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on the eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al - Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA.
Arabic usually designates one of three main variants: Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic and colloquial or dialectal Arabic. Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran, used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate. Theoretically, Classical Arabic is considered normative, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as the Lisān al - ʻArab). In practice, however, modern authors almost never write in pure Classical Arabic, instead using a literary language with its own grammatical norms and vocabulary, commonly known as Modern Standard Arabic (MSA).
MSA is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa, and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic '' and "Standard Arabic '' (فُصْحَى fuṣḥá) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic.
Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows:
MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., dhahaba ' to go ') that is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined a large number of terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages -- notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., فِلْم film ' film ' or ديمقراطية dīmuqrāṭiyyah ' democracy ').
However, the current preference is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., فرع farʻ ' branch ', also used for the branch of a company or organization; جناح janāḥ ' wing ', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots (استماتة istimātah ' apoptosis ', using the root موت m / w / t ' death ' put into the Xth form, or جامعة jāmiʻah ' university ', based on جمع jamaʻa ' to gather, unite '; جمهورية jumhūriyyah ' republic ', based on جمهور jumhūr ' multitude '). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., هاتف hātif ' telephone ' < ' invisible caller (in Sufism) '; جريدة jarīdah ' newspaper ' < ' palm - leaf stalk ').
Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language and evolved from Classical Arabic. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible, and some linguists consider them distinct languages. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows, as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising.
The only variety of modern Arabic to have acquired official language status is Maltese, which is spoken in (predominately Catholic) Malta and written with the Latin script. It is descended from Classical Arabic through Siculo - Arabic, but is not mutually intelligible with any other variety of Arabic. Most linguists list it as a separate language rather than as a dialect of Arabic.
Even during Muhammad 's lifetime, there were dialects of spoken Arabic. Muhammad spoke in the dialect of Mecca, in the western Arabian peninsula, and it was in this dialect that the Quran was written down. However, the dialects of the eastern Arabian peninsula were considered the most prestigious at the time, so the language of the Quran was ultimately converted to follow the eastern phonology. It is this phonology that underlies the modern pronunciation of Classical Arabic. The phonological differences between these two dialects account for some of the complexities of Arabic writing, most notably the writing of the glottal stop or hamzah (which was preserved in the eastern dialects but lost in western speech) and the use of alif maqṣūrah (representing a sound preserved in the western dialects but merged with ā in eastern speech).
The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia, which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school - taught Standard Arabic as well as their native, mutually unintelligible "dialects ''; these dialects linguistically constitute separate languages which may have dialects of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code - switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. Arabic speakers often improve their familiarity with other dialects via music or film.
The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese, Hindi and Urdu, Serbian and Croatian, Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they can not understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they can not. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a significant complicating factor: A single written form, significantly different from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites a number of sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak a single language, despite significant issues of mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions.
From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages. This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar -- perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for the Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb, a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq, much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages.
The influence of Arabic has been most important in Islamic countries, because it is the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Quran. Arabic is also an important source of vocabulary for languages such as Baluchi, Bengali, Berber, Bosnian, Catalan, Chechen, Dagestani, English, French, German, Gujarati, Hausa, Hindustani, Italian, Indonesian, Kazakh, Kurdish, Kutchi, Malay, Pashto, Persian, Portuguese, Punjabi, Rohingya, Saraiki, Sicilian, Sindhi, Somali, Spanish, Swahili, Tagalog, Turkish, Uzbek, and Wolof, as well as other languages in countries where these languages are spoken.
In addition, English has many Arabic loanwords, some directly, but most via other Mediterranean languages. Examples of such words include admiral, adobe, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, algorithm, alkaline, almanac, amber, arsenal, assassin, candy, carat, cipher, coffee, cotton, ghoul, hazard, jar, kismet, lemon, loofah, magazine, mattress, sherbet, sofa, sumac, tariff, and many other words. Other languages such as Maltese and Kinubi derive ultimately from Arabic, rather than merely borrowing vocabulary or grammatical rules.
Terms borrowed range from religious terminology (like Berber taẓallit, "prayer '', from salat (صلاة ṣalāh)), academic terms (like Uyghur mentiq, "logic ''), and economic items (like English coffee) to placeholders (like Spanish fulano, "so - and - so ''), everyday terms (like Hindustani lekin, "but '', or Spanish taza and French tasse, meaning "cup ''), and expressions (like Catalan a betzef, "galore, in quantity ''). Most Berber varieties (such as Kabyle), along with Swahili, borrow some numbers from Arabic. Most Islamic religious terms are direct borrowings from Arabic, such as صلاة (salat), "prayer '', and إمام (imam), "prayer leader. ''
In languages not directly in contact with the Arab world, Arabic loanwords are often transferred indirectly via other languages rather than being transferred directly from Arabic. For example, most Arabic loanwords in Hindustani and Turkish entered through Persian though Persian is an Indo - Iranian language. Older Arabic loanwords in Hausa were borrowed from Kanuri.
Some words in English and other European languages are derived from Arabic, often through other European languages, especially Spanish and Italian. Among them are commonly used words like "coffee '' (قهوة qahwah), "cotton '' (قطن quṭn), and "magazine '' (مخازن makhāzin). English words more recognizably of Arabic origin include "algebra '', "alcohol '', "alchemy '', "alkali '', "zenith '', and "nadir ''.
Arabic words also made their way into several West African languages as Islam spread across the Sahara. Variants of Arabic words such as كتاب kitāb ("book '') have spread to the languages of African groups who had no direct contact with Arab traders.
Since throughout the Islamic world, Arabic occupied a position similar to that of Latin in Europe, many of the Arabic concepts in the fields of science, philosophy, commerce, etc. were coined from Arabic roots by non-native Arabic speakers, notably by Aramaic and Persian translators, and then found their way into other languages. This process of using Arabic roots, especially in Kurdish and Persian, to translate foreign concepts continued through to the 18th and 19th centuries, when swaths of Arab - inhabited lands were under Ottoman rule.
The most important sources of borrowings into (pre-Islamic) Arabic are from the related (Semitic) languages Aramaic, which used to be the principal, international language of communication throughout the ancient Near and Middle East, Ethiopic, and to a lesser degree Hebrew (mainly religious concepts). In addition, many cultural, religious and political terms have entered Arabic from Iranian languages, notably Middle Persian, Parthian, and (Classical) Persian, and Hellenistic Greek (kīmiyāʼ has as origin the Greek khymia, meaning in that language the melting of metals; see Roger Dachez, Histoire de la Médecine de l'Antiquité au XXe siècle, Tallandier, 2008, p. 251), alembic (distiller) from ambix (cup), almanac (climate) from almenichiakon (calendar). (For the origin of the last three borrowed words, see Alfred - Louis de Prémare, Foundations of Islam, Seuil, L'Univers Historique, 2002.) Some Arabic borrowings from Semitic or Persian languages are, as presented in De Prémare 's above - cited book:
There have been many instances of national movements to convert Arabic script into Latin script or to Romanize the language. Currently, the only Arabic language to use Latin script is Maltese.
The Beirut newspaper La Syrie pushed for the change from Arabic script to Latin letters in 1922. The major head of this movement was Louis Massignon, a French Orientalist, who brought his concern before the Arabic Language Academy in Damacus in 1928. Massignon 's attempt at Romanization failed as the Academy and population viewed the proposal as an attempt from the Western world to take over their country. Sa'id Afghani, a member of the Academy, mentioned that the movement to Romanize the script was a Zionist plan to dominate Lebanon.
After the period of colonialism in Egypt, Egyptians were looking for a way to reclaim and re-emphasize Egyptian culture. As a result, some Egyptians pushed for an Egyptianization of the Arabic language in which the formal Arabic and the colloquial Arabic would be combined into one language and the Latin alphabet would be used. There was also the idea of finding a way to use Hieroglyphics instead of the Latin alphabet, but this was seen as too complicated to use. A scholar, Salama Musa agreed with the idea of applying a Latin alphabet to Arabic, as he believed that would allow Egypt to have a closer relationship with the West. He also believed that Latin script was key to the success of Egypt as it would allow for more advances in science and technology. This change in alphabet, he believed, would solve the problems inherent with Arabic, such as a lack of written vowels and difficulties writing foreign words that made it difficult for non-native speakers to learn. Ahmad Lutfi As Sayid and Muhammad Azmi, two Egyptian intellectuals, agreed with Musa and supported the push for Romanization. The idea that Romanization was necessary for modernization and growth in Egypt continued with Abd Al - Aziz Fahmi in 1944. He was the chairman for the Writing and Grammar Committee for the Arabic Language Academy of Cairo. However, this effort failed as the Egyptian people felt a strong cultural tie to the Arabic alphabet. In particular, the older Egyptian generations believed that the Arabic alphabet had strong connections to Arab values and history, which is easy to believe due to the long history of the Arabic alphabet (Shrivtiel, 189) in Muslim societies.
The Quran introduced a new way of writing to the world. People began studying applying the unique styles they learned from the Quran into not only their own writing, but also their culture. The deep level on which the Quran addresses the reader creates a strong bond and connection to the reader 's soul. Writers studied the unique structure and format of the Quran in order to identify and apply the figurative devices and their impact on the reader.
The Quran inspired musicality in poetry through the internal rhythm of the verses. The arrangement of words, how certain sounds create harmony, and the agreement of rhymes create the sense of rhythm within each verse. At times, the chapters of the Quran only have the rhythm in common.
The repetition in the Quran introduced the true power and impact repetition can have in poetry. The repetition of certain words and phrases made them appear more firm and explicit in the Quran. The Quran uses constant metaphors of blindness and deafness to imply unbelief. Metaphors were not a new concept to poetry, however the strength of extended metaphors was. The explicit imagery in the Quran inspired many poets to include and focus on the feature in their own work. The poet ibn al mu'tazz wrote a book regarding the figures of speech inspired by his study of the Quran. OPoets such as badr Shakir al sayyab expresses his political opinion in his work through imagery inspired by the forms of more harsher imagery used in the Quran. The Quran uses figurative devices in order to express the meaning in the most beautiful form possible. The study of the pauses in the Quran as well as other rhetoric allow it to be approached in a multiple ways.
Although the Quran is known for its fluency and harmony, the structure can be best described as chaotic. The suras also known as verses of the Quran are not placed in chronological order. The only constant in their structure is that the longest are placed first and shorter ones follow. The topics discussed in the chapter often have no relation to each other and only share their sense of rhyme. The Quran introduces to poetry the idea of abandoning order and scattering narratives throughout the text. Harmony is also present in the sound of the Quran. The elongations and accents present in the Quran create a harmonious flow within the writing. Unique sound of the Quran recited, due to the accents, create a deeper level of understanding through a deeper emotional connection.
The Quran is written in a language that is simple and understandable by people. The simplicity of the writing inspired later poets to write in a more clear and clear - cut style. The words of the Quran, although unchanged, are to this day understandable and frequently used in both formal and informal Arabic. The simplicity of the language makes memorizing and reciting the Quran a slightly easier task.
The writer al - Khattabi explains how culture is a required element to create a sense of art in work as well as understand it. He believes that fluency and harmony the Quran possess are not the only elements that make it beautiful and create a bond between the reader and the text. While a lot of poetry was deemed comparable to the Quran in that it is equal to or better than the composition of the Quran, a debate rose that such statements are not possible because humans are incapable of composing work comparable to the Quran. Because the structure of the Quran made it difficult for a clear timeline to be seen, Hadith were the main source of chronological order. The Hadith were passed down from generation to generation and this tradition became a large resource for understanding the context. Poetry after the Quran began possessing this element of tradition by including ambiguity and background information to be required to understand the meaning.
After the Quran came down to the people, the tradition of memorizing the verses became present. It is believed that the larger amount of the Quran memorized is a sign of a stronger faith. As technology improved overtime, hearing recitations of Quran became more available as well as more tools to help memorize the versus. The tradition of Love Poetry served as a symbolic representation of a Muslim 's desire for a closer contact with their Lord.
While the influence of the Quran on Arabic poetry is explained and defended by numerous writers, some writers such as Al - Baqillani believe that poetry and the Quran are in no conceivable way related due to the uniqueness of the Quran. Poetry 's imperfections prove his points that that they can not be compared with the fluency the Quran holds.
Classical Arabic is the language of poetry and literature (including news); it is also mainly the language of the Quran. At present, Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is also used in modernized versions of literary forms of the Quran. Arabic is closely associated with the religion of Islam because the Quran was written in Arabic, but it is nevertheless also spoken by other religious groups such as Arab Christians, Mizrahi Jews, Druze and Iraqi Mandaeans. Most of the world 's Muslims do not speak Classical Arabic as their native language, but many can read the Quranic script and recite the Quran. Among non-Arab Muslims, translations of the Quran are most often accompanied by the original text.
Some Muslims present a monogenesis of languages and claim that the Arabic language was the language revealed by God for the benefit of mankind and the original language as a prototype system of symbolic communication, based upon its system of triconsonantal roots, spoken by man from which all other languages were derived, having first been corrupted. Judaism has a similar account with the Tower of Babel.
Colloquial Arabic is a collective term for the spoken dialects of Arabic used throughout the Arab world, which differ radically from the literary language. The main dialectal division is between the varieties within and outside of the Arabian peninsula, followed by that between sedentary varieties and the much more conservative Bedouin varieties. All of the varieties outside of the Arabian peninsula (which include the large majority of speakers) have a large number of features in common with each other that are not found in Classical Arabic. This has led researchers to postulate the existence of a prestige koine dialect in the one or two centuries immediately following the Arab conquest, whose features eventually spread to all of the newly conquered areas. (These features are present to varying degrees inside the Arabian peninsula. Generally, the Arabian peninsula varieties have much more diversity than the non-peninsula varieties, but have been understudied.)
Within the non-peninsula varieties, the largest difference is between the non-Egyptian North African dialects (especially Moroccan Arabic) and the others. Moroccan Arabic in particular is hardly comprehensible to Arabic speakers east of Libya (although the converse is not true, in part due to the popularity of Egyptian films and other media).
One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided a significant number of new words and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order; however, a much more significant factor for most dialects is, as among Romance languages, retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus Iraqi aku, Levantine fīh and North African kayən all mean ' there is ', and all come from Classical Arabic forms (yakūn, fīhi, kā'in respectively), but now sound very different.
Transcription is a broad IPA transcription, so minor differences were ignored for easier comparison. Also, the pronunciation of Modern Standard Arabic differs significantly from region to region.
According to Charles A. Ferguson, the following are some of the characteristic features of the koine that underlies all of the modern dialects outside the Arabian peninsula. Although many other features are common to most or all of these varieties, Ferguson believes that these features in particular are unlikely to have evolved independently more than once or twice and together suggest the existence of the koine:
Of the 29 Proto - Semitic consonants, only one has been lost: * / ʒ /, which merged with / ʃ /. But the consonant * / ʒ / is still found in many colloquial Arabic dialects. Various other consonants have changed their sound too, but have remained distinct. An original * / p / lenited to / f /, and * / ɡ / - consistently attested in pre-Islamic Greek transcription of Arabic languages - became palatalized to / ɡj / or / ɟ / by the time of the Quran and / d͡ʒ /, / ɡ /, / ʒ / or / ɟ / in MSA (see Arabic phonology # Local variations for more detail). An original voiceless alveolar lateral fricative * / ɬ / became / ʃ /. Its emphatic counterpart / ɬɣ ~ ɮʕ / was considered by Arabs to be the most unusual sound in Arabic (Hence the Classical Arabic 's appellation لُغَةُ ٱلضَّادِ lughat al - ḍād or "language of the ḍād ''); for most modern dialects, it has become an emphatic stop / dʕ / with loss of the laterality or with complete loss of any pharyngealization or velarization, / d /. (The classical ḍād pronunciation of pharyngealization / ɮʕ / still occurs in the Mehri language and the similar sound without velarization, / ɮ /, exists in other Modern South Arabian languages.)
Other changes may also have happened. Classical Arabic pronunciation is not thoroughly recorded and different reconstructions of the sound system of Proto - Semitic propose different phonetic values. One example is the emphatic consonants, which are pharyngealized in modern pronunciations but may have been velarized in the eighth century and glottalized in Proto - Semitic.
Reduction of / j / and / w / between vowels occurs in a number of circumstances and is responsible for much of the complexity of third - weak ("defective '') verbs. Early Akkadian transcriptions of Arabic names shows that this reduction had not yet occurred as of the early part of the 1st millennium BC.
The Classical Arabic language as recorded was a poetic koine that reflected a consciously archaizing dialect, chosen based on the tribes of the western part of the Arabian Peninsula, who spoke the most conservative variants of Arabic. Even at the time of Muhammed and before, other dialects existed with many more changes, including the loss of most glottal stops, the loss of case endings, the reduction of the diphthongs / aj / and / aw / into monophthongs / eː, oː /, etc. Most of these changes are present in most or all modern varieties of Arabic.
An interesting feature of the writing system of the Quran (and hence of Classical Arabic) is that it contains certain features of Muhammad 's native dialect of Mecca, corrected through diacritics into the forms of standard Classical Arabic. Among these features visible under the corrections are the loss of the glottal stop and a differing development of the reduction of certain final sequences containing / j /: Evidently, final / - awa / became / aː / as in the Classical language, but final / - aja / became a different sound, possibly / eː / (rather than again / aː / in the Classical language). This is the apparent source of the alif maqṣūrah ' restricted alif ' where a final / - aja / is reconstructed: a letter that would normally indicate / j / or some similar high - vowel sound, but is taken in this context to be a logical variant of alif and represent the sound / aː /.
The "colloquial '' spoken varieties of Arabic are learned at home and constitute the native languages of Arabic speakers. "Formal '' Literary Arabic (usually specifically Modern Standard Arabic) is learned at school; although many speakers have a native - like command of the language, it is technically not the native language of any speakers. Both varieties can be both written and spoken, although the colloquial varieties are rarely written down and the formal variety is spoken mostly in formal circumstances, e.g., in radio broadcasts, formal lectures, parliamentary discussions and to some extent between speakers of different colloquial varieties. Even when the literary language is spoken, however, it is normally only spoken in its pure form when reading a prepared text out loud. When speaking extemporaneously (i.e. making up the language on the spot, as in a normal discussion among people), speakers tend to deviate somewhat from the strict literary language in the direction of the colloquial varieties. In fact, there is a continuous range of "in - between '' spoken varieties: from nearly pure Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), to a form that still uses MSA grammar and vocabulary but with significant colloquial influence, to a form of the colloquial language that imports a number of words and grammatical constructions in MSA, to a form that is close to pure colloquial but with the "rough edges '' (the most noticeably "vulgar '' or non-Classical aspects) smoothed out, to pure colloquial. The particular variant (or register) used depends on the social class and education level of the speakers involved and the level of formality of the speech situation. Often it will vary within a single encounter, e.g., moving from nearly pure MSA to a more mixed language in the process of a radio interview, as the interviewee becomes more comfortable with the interviewer. This type of variation is characteristic of the diglossia that exists throughout the Arabic - speaking world.
Although Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is a unitary language, its pronunciation varies somewhat from country to country and from region to region within a country. The variation in individual "accents '' of MSA speakers tends to mirror corresponding variations in the colloquial speech of the speakers in question, but with the distinguishing characteristics moderated somewhat. Note that it is important in descriptions of "Arabic '' phonology to distinguish between pronunciation of a given colloquial (spoken) dialect and the pronunciation of MSA by these same speakers. Although they are related, they are not the same. For example, the phoneme that derives from Proto - Semitic / g / has many different pronunciations in the modern spoken varieties, e.g., (d͡ʒ ~ ʒ ~ j ~ ɡj ~ ɡ). Speakers whose native variety has either (d͡ʒ) or (ʒ) will use the same pronunciation when speaking MSA. Even speakers from Cairo, whose native Egyptian Arabic has (ɡ), normally use (ɡ) when speaking MSA. The (j) of Persian Gulf speakers is the only variant pronunciation which is n't found in MSA; (d͡ʒ ~ ʒ) is used instead.
Another example: Many colloquial varieties are known for a type of vowel harmony in which the presence of an "emphatic consonant '' triggers backed allophones of nearby vowels (especially of the low vowels / aː /, which are backed to (ɑ (ː)) in these circumstances and very often fronted to (æ (ː)) in all other circumstances). In many spoken varieties, the backed or "emphatic '' vowel allophones spread a fair distance in both directions from the triggering consonant; in some varieties (most notably Egyptian Arabic), the "emphatic '' allophones spread throughout the entire word, usually including prefixes and suffixes, even at a distance of several syllables from the triggering consonant. Speakers of colloquial varieties with this vowel harmony tend to introduce it into their MSA pronunciation as well, but usually with a lesser degree of spreading than in the colloquial varieties. (For example, speakers of colloquial varieties with extremely long - distance harmony may allow a moderate, but not extreme, amount of spreading of the harmonic allophones in their MSA speech, while speakers of colloquial varieties with moderate - distance harmony may only harmonize immediately adjacent vowels in MSA.)
Modern Standard Arabic has six pure vowels, with short / aiu / and corresponding long vowels / aː iː uː /. There are also two diphthongs: / aj / and / aw /.
The pronunciation of the vowels differs from speaker to speaker, in a way that tends to reflect the pronunciation of the corresponding colloquial variety. Nonetheless, there are some common trends. Most noticeable is the differing pronunciation of / a / and / aː /, which tend towards fronted (æ (ː)), (a (ː)) or (ɛ (ː)) in most situations, but a back (ɑ (ː)) in the neighborhood of emphatic consonants. Some accents and dialects, such as those of the Hijaz, have central (ä (ː)) in all situations. The vowel / a / varies towards (ə (ː)) too. Listen to the final vowel in the recording of al - ʻarabiyyah at the beginning of this article, for example. The point is, Arabic has only three short vowel phonemes, so those phonemes can have a very wide range of allophones. The vowels / u / and / ɪ / are often affected somewhat in emphatic neighborhoods as well, with generally more back or centralized allophones, but the differences are less great than for the low vowels. The pronunciation of short / u / and / i / tends towards (ʊ ~ o) and (i ~ e ~ ɨ), respectively, in many dialects.
The definition of both "emphatic '' and "neighborhood '' vary in ways that reflect (to some extent) corresponding variations in the spoken dialects. Generally, the consonants triggering "emphatic '' allophones are the pharyngealized consonants / tʕ dʕ sʕ ðʕ /; / q /; and / r /, if not followed immediately by / i (ː) /. Frequently, the velar fricatives / x ɣ / also trigger emphatic allophones; occasionally also the pharyngeal consonants / ʕ ħ / (the former more than the latter). Many dialects have multiple emphatic allophones of each vowel, depending on the particular nearby consonants. In most MSA accents, emphatic coloring of vowels is limited to vowels immediately adjacent to a triggering consonant, although in some it spreads a bit farther: e.g., وقت waqt (wɑqt) ' time '; وطن waṭan (wɑtʕɑn) ' homeland '; وسط المدينة wasṭ al - madīnah (wæstʕɑl - mædiːnɐ) ' downtown ' (sometimes (wɑstʕɑl - mædiːnæ) or similar).
In a non-emphatic environment, the vowel / a / in the diphthong / aj / tends to be fronted even more than elsewhere, often pronounced (æj) or (ɛj): hence سيف sayf (sajf ~ sæjf ~ sɛjf) ' sword ' but صيف ṣayf (sʕɑjf) ' summer '. However, in accents with no emphatic allophones of / a / (e.g., in the Hijaz), the pronunciation (äj) occurs in all situations.
The phoneme / d͡ʒ / is represented by the Arabic letter jīm (ج) and has many standard pronunciations. (d͡ʒ) is characteristic of north Algeria, Iraq, also in most of the Arabian peninsula but with an allophonic (ʒ) in some positions; (ʒ) occurs in most of the Levant and most North Africa; and (ɡ) is used in most of Egypt and some regions in Yemen and Oman. Generally this corresponds with the pronunciation in the colloquial dialects. In some regions in Sudan and Yemen, as well as in some Sudanese and Yemeni dialects, it may be either (ɡj) or (ɟ), representing the original pronunciation of Classical Arabic. Foreign words containing / ɡ / may be transcribed with ج , غ , ك , ق , گ , ݣ or ڨ , mainly depending on the regional spoken variety of Arabic or the commonly diacriticized Arabic letter. Note also that in northern Egypt, where the Arabic letter jīm (ج) is normally pronounced (ɡ), a separate phoneme / ʒ /, which may be transcribed with چ, occurs in a small number of mostly non-Arabic loanwords, e.g., / ʒakitta / ' jacket '.
/ θ / (ث) can be pronounced as (t) or even (s). In some places of Maghreb it can be also pronounced as (t͡s).
/ x / and / ɣ / (خ, غ) are velar, post-velar, or uvular.
In many varieties, / ħ, ʕ / (ح, ع) are actually epiglottal (ʜ, ʢ) (despite what is reported in many earlier works).
/ l / is pronounced as velarized (ɫ) in الله / ʔallaːh /, the name of God, q.e. Allah, when the word follows a, ā, u or ū (after i or ī it is unvelarized: بسم الله bismi l -- lāh / bismillaːh /). Some speakers velarize other occurrences of / l / in MSA, in imitation of their spoken dialects.
The emphatic consonant / dʕ / was actually pronounced (ɮʕ), or possibly (d͡ɮʕ) -- either way, a highly unusual sound. The medieval Arabs actually termed their language lughat al - ḍād ' the language of the Ḍād ' (the name of the letter used for this sound), since they thought the sound was unique to their language. (In fact, it also exists in a few other minority Semitic languages, e.g., Mehri.)
Arabic has consonants traditionally termed "emphatic '' / tʕ, dʕ, sʕ, ðʕ / (ط, ض, ص, ظ), which exhibit simultaneous pharyngealization (tʕ, dʕ, sʕ, ðʕ) as well as varying degrees of velarization (tɣ, dɣ, sɣ, ðɣ), so they may be written with the "Velarized or pharyngealized '' diacritic (̴) as: / t̴, d̴, s̴, ð̴ /. This simultaneous articulation is described as "Retracted Tongue Root '' by phonologists. In some transcription systems, emphasis is shown by capitalizing the letter, for example, / dʕ / is written ⟨ D ⟩; in others the letter is underlined or has a dot below it, for example, ⟨ ḍ ⟩.
Vowels and consonants can be phonologically short or long. Long (geminate) consonants are normally written doubled in Latin transcription (i.e. bb, dd, etc.), reflecting the presence of the Arabic diacritic mark shaddah, which indicates doubled consonants. In actual pronunciation, doubled consonants are held twice as long as short consonants. This consonant lengthening is phonemically contrastive: قبل qabila ' he accepted ' vs. قبّل qabbala ' he kissed '.
Arabic has two kinds of syllables: open syllables (CV) and (CVV) -- and closed syllables (CVC), (CVVC) and (CVCC). The syllable types with two morae (units of time), i.e. CVC and CVV, are termed heavy syllables, while those with three morae, i.e. CVVC and CVCC, are superheavy syllables. Superheavy syllables in Classical Arabic occur in only two places: at the end of the sentence (due to pausal pronunciation) and in words such as حارّ ḥārr ' hot ', مادّة māddah ' stuff, substance ', تحاجوا taḥājjū ' they disputed with each other ', where a long ā occurs before two identical consonants (a former short vowel between the consonants has been lost). (In less formal pronunciations of Modern Standard Arabic, superheavy syllables are common at the end of words or before clitic suffixes such as - nā ' us, our ', due to the deletion of final short vowels.)
In surface pronunciation, every vowel must be preceded by a consonant (which may include the glottal stop (ʔ)). There are no cases of hiatus within a word (where two vowels occur next to each other, without an intervening consonant). Some words do have an underlying vowel at the beginning, such as the definite article al - or words such as اشترا ishtarā ' he bought ', اجتماع ijtimāʻ ' meeting '. When actually pronounced, one of three things happens:
Word stress is not phonemically contrastive in Standard Arabic. It bears a strong relationship to vowel length. The basic rules for Modern Standard Arabic are:
Examples: kitāb (un) ' book ', kā - ti - b (un) ' writer ', mak - ta - b (un) ' desk ', ma - kā - ti - b (u) ' desks ', mak - ta - ba - tun ' library ' (but mak - ta - ba (- tun) ' library ' in short pronunciation), ka - ta - bū (Modern Standard Arabic) ' they wrote ' = ka - ta - bu (dialect), ka - ta - bū - h (u) (Modern Standard Arabic) ' they wrote it ' = ka - ta - bū (dialect), ka - ta - ba - tā (Modern Standard Arabic) ' they (dual, fem) wrote ', ka - tab - tu (Modern Standard Arabic) ' I wrote ' = ka - tabt (short form or dialect). Doubled consonants count as two consonants: ma - jal - la - (tan) ' magazine ', ma - ḥall (- un) "place ''.
These rules may result in differently stressed syllables when final case endings are pronounced, vs. the normal situation where they are not pronounced, as in the above example of mak - ta - ba - tun ' library ' in full pronunciation, but mak - ta - ba (- tun) ' library ' in short pronunciation.
The restriction on final long vowels does not apply to the spoken dialects, where original final long vowels have been shortened and secondary final long vowels have arisen from loss of original final - hu / hi.
Some dialects have different stress rules. In the Cairo (Egyptian Arabic) dialect a heavy syllable may not carry stress more than two syllables from the end of a word, hence mad - ra - sah ' school ', qā - hi - rah ' Cairo '. This also affects the way that Modern Standard Arabic is pronounced in Egypt. In the Arabic of Sanaa, stress is often retracted: bay - tayn ' two houses ', mā - sat - hum ' their table ', ma - kā - tīb ' desks ', zā - rat - ḥīn ' sometimes ', mad - ra - sat - hum ' their school '. (In this dialect, only syllables with long vowels or diphthongs are considered heavy; in a two - syllable word, the final syllable can be stressed only if the preceding syllable is light; and in longer words, the final syllable can not be stressed.)
The final short vowels (e.g., the case endings - a - i - u and mood endings - u - a) are often not pronounced in this language, despite forming part of the formal paradigm of nouns and verbs. The following levels of pronunciation exist:
This is the most formal level actually used in speech. All endings are pronounced as written, except at the end of an utterance, where the following changes occur:
This is a formal level of pronunciation sometimes seen. It is somewhat like pronouncing all words as if they were in pausal position (with influence from the colloquial varieties). The following changes occur:
This is the pronunciation used by speakers of Modern Standard Arabic in extemporaneous speech, i.e. when producing new sentences rather than simply reading a prepared text. It is similar to formal short pronunciation except that the rules for dropping final vowels apply even when a clitic suffix is added. Basically, short - vowel case and mood endings are never pronounced and certain other changes occur that echo the corresponding colloquial pronunciations. Specifically:
As mentioned above, many spoken dialects have a process of emphasis spreading, where the "emphasis '' (pharyngealization) of emphatic consonants spreads forward and back through adjacent syllables, pharyngealizing all nearby consonants and triggering the back allophone (ɑ (ː)) in all nearby low vowels. The extent of emphasis spreading varies. For example, in Moroccan Arabic, it spreads as far as the first full vowel (i.e. sound derived from a long vowel or diphthong) on either side; in many Levantine dialects, it spreads indefinitely, but is blocked by any / j / or / ʃ /; while in Egyptian Arabic, it usually spreads throughout the entire word, including prefixes and suffixes. In Moroccan Arabic, / iu / also have emphatic allophones (e ~ ɛ) and (o ~ ɔ), respectively.
Unstressed short vowels, especially / iu /, are deleted in many contexts. Many sporadic examples of short vowel change have occurred (especially / a / → / i / and interchange / i / ↔ / u /). Most Levantine dialects merge short / iu / into / ǝ / in most contexts (all except directly before a single final consonant). In Moroccan Arabic, on the other hand, short / u / triggers labialization of nearby consonants (especially velar consonants and uvular consonants), and then short / aiu / all merge into / ǝ /, which is deleted in many contexts. (The labialization plus / ǝ / is sometimes interpreted as an underlying phoneme / ŭ /.) This essentially causes the wholesale loss of the short - long vowel distinction, with the original long vowels / aː iː uː / remaining as half - long (aˑ iˑ uˑ), phonemically / aiu /, which are used to represent both short and long vowels in borrowings from Literary Arabic.
Most spoken dialects have monophthongized original / aj aw / to / eː oː / (in all circumstances, including adjacent to emphatic consonants). In Moroccan Arabic, these have subsequently merged into original / iː uː /.
In some dialects, there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above. For example, non-Arabic (v) is used in the Maghrebi dialects as well in the written language mostly for foreign names. Semitic (p) became (f) extremely early on in Arabic before it was written down; a few modern Arabic dialects, such as Iraqi (influenced by Persian and Kurdish) distinguish between (p) and (b). The Iraqi Arabic also uses sounds (ɡ), (t͡ʃ) and uses Persian adding letters, e.g.: گوجة gawjah -- a plum; چمة chimah -- a truffle and so on.
Early in the expansion of Arabic, the separate emphatic phonemes (ɮʕ) and (ðʕ) coalesced into a single phoneme (ðʕ). Many dialects (such as Egyptian, Levantine, and much of the Maghreb) subsequently lost interdental fricatives, converting (θ ð ðʕ) into (td dʕ). Most dialects borrow "learned '' words from the Standard language using the same pronunciation as for inherited words, but some dialects without interdental fricatives (particularly in Egypt and the Levant) render original (θ ð ðʕ dʕ) in borrowed words as (sz zʕ dʕ).
Another key distinguishing mark of Arabic dialects is how they render the original velar and uvular plosives / q /, / d͡ʒ / (Proto - Semitic / ɡ /), and / k /:
Pharyngealization of the emphatic consonants tends to weaken in many of the spoken varieties, and to spread from emphatic consonants to nearby sounds. In addition, the "emphatic '' allophone (ɑ) automatically triggers pharyngealization of adjacent sounds in many dialects. As a result, it may difficult or impossible to determine whether a given coronal consonant is phonemically emphatic or not, especially in dialects with long - distance emphasis spreading. (A notable exception is the sounds / t / vs. / tʕ / in Moroccan Arabic, because the former is pronounced as an affricate (t͡s) but the latter is not.)
As in other Semitic languages, Arabic has a complex and unusual morphology (i.e. method of constructing words from a basic root). Arabic has a nonconcatenative "root - and - pattern '' morphology: A root consists of a set of bare consonants (usually three), which are fitted into a discontinuous pattern to form words. For example, the word for ' I wrote ' is constructed by combining the root k-t-b ' write ' with the pattern - a-a - tu ' I Xed ' to form katabtu ' I wrote '. Other verbs meaning ' I Xed ' will typically have the same pattern but with different consonants, e.g. qaraʼtu ' I read ', akaltu ' I ate ', dhahabtu ' I went ', although other patterns are possible (e.g. sharibtu ' I drank ', qultu ' I said ', takallamtu ' I spoke ', where the subpattern used to signal the past tense may change but the suffix - tu is always used).
From a single root k-t-b, numerous words can be formed by applying different patterns:
Nouns in Literary Arabic have three grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, and genitive (also used when the noun is governed by a preposition)); three numbers (singular, dual and plural); two genders (masculine and feminine); and three "states '' (indefinite, definite, and construct). The cases of singular nouns (other than those that end in long ā) are indicated by suffixed short vowels (/ - u / for nominative, / - a / for accusative, / - i / for genitive).
The feminine singular is often marked by / - at /, which is reduced to / - ah / or / - a / before a pause. Plural is indicated either through endings (the sound plural) or internal modification (the broken plural). Definite nouns include all proper nouns, all nouns in "construct state '' and all nouns which are prefixed by the definite article / al - /. Indefinite singular nouns (other than those that end in long ā) add a final / - n / to the case - marking vowels, giving / - un /, / - an / or / - in / (which is also referred to as nunation or tanwīn).
Adjectives in Literary Arabic are marked for case, number, gender and state, as for nouns. However, the plural of all non-human nouns is always combined with a singular feminine adjective, which takes the / - ah / or / - at / suffix.
Pronouns in Literary Arabic are marked for person, number and gender. There are two varieties, independent pronouns and enclitics. Enclitic pronouns are attached to the end of a verb, noun or preposition and indicate verbal and prepositional objects or possession of nouns. The first - person singular pronoun has a different enclitic form used for verbs (/ - ni /) and for nouns or prepositions (/ - ī / after consonants, / - ya / after vowels).
Nouns, verbs, pronouns and adjectives agree with each other in all respects. However, non-human plural nouns are grammatically considered to be feminine singular. Furthermore, a verb in a verb - initial sentence is marked as singular regardless of its semantic number when the subject of the verb is explicitly mentioned as a noun. Numerals between three and ten show "chiasmic '' agreement, in that grammatically masculine numerals have feminine marking and vice versa.
Verbs in Literary Arabic are marked for person (first, second, or third), gender, and number. They are conjugated in two major paradigms (past and non-past); two voices (active and passive); and six moods (indicative, imperative, subjunctive, jussive, shorter energetic and longer energetic), the fifth and sixth moods, the energetics, exist only in Classical Arabic but not in MSA. There are also two participles (active and passive) and a verbal noun, but no infinitive.
The past and non-past paradigms are sometimes also termed perfective and imperfective, indicating the fact that they actually represent a combination of tense and aspect. The moods other than the indicative occur only in the non-past, and the future tense is signaled by prefixing sa - or sawfa onto the non-past. The past and non-past differ in the form of the stem (e.g., past katab - vs. non-past - ktub -), and also use completely different sets of affixes for indicating person, number and gender: In the past, the person, number and gender are fused into a single suffixal morpheme, while in the non-past, a combination of prefixes (primarily encoding person) and suffixes (primarily encoding gender and number) are used. The passive voice uses the same person / number / gender affixes but changes the vowels of the stem.
The following shows a paradigm of a regular Arabic verb, kataba ' to write '. Note that in Modern Standard, the energetic mood (in either long or short form, which have the same meaning) is almost never used.
Like other Semitic languages, and unlike most other languages, Arabic makes much more use of nonconcatenative morphology (applying a large number of templates applied roots) to derive words than adding prefixes or suffixes to words.
For verbs, a given root can occur in many different derived verb stems (of which there are about fifteen), each with one or more characteristic meanings and each with its own templates for the past and non-past stems, active and passive participles, and verbal noun. These are referred to by Western scholars as "Form I '', "Form II '', and so on through "Form XV '' (although Forms XI to XV are rare). These stems encode grammatical functions such as the causative, intensive and reflexive. Stems sharing the same root consonants represent separate verbs, albeit often semantically related, and each is the basis for its own conjugational paradigm. As a result, these derived stems are part of the system of derivational morphology, not part of the inflectional system.
Examples of the different verbs formed from the root k-t-b ' write ' (using ḥ - m-r ' red ' for Form IX, which is limited to colors and physical defects):
Form II is sometimes used to create transitive denominative verbs (verbs built from nouns); Form V is the equivalent used for intransitive denominatives.
The associated participles and verbal nouns of a verb are the primary means of forming new lexical nouns in Arabic. This is similar to the process by which, for example, the English gerund "meeting '' (similar to a verbal noun) has turned into a noun referring to a particular type of social, often work - related event where people gather together to have a "discussion '' (another lexicalized verbal noun). Another fairly common means of forming nouns is through one of a limited number of patterns that can be applied directly to roots, such as the "nouns of location '' in ma - (e.g. maktab ' desk, office ' < k-t-b ' write ', maṭbakh ' kitchen ' < ṭ - b - kh ' cook ').
The only three genuine suffixes are as follows:
The spoken dialects have lost the case distinctions and make only limited use of the dual (it occurs only on nouns and its use is no longer required in all circumstances). They have lost the mood distinctions other than imperative, but many have since gained new moods through the use of prefixes (most often / bi - / for indicative vs. unmarked subjunctive). They have also mostly lost the indefinite "nunation '' and the internal passive.
The following is an example of a regular verb paradigm in Egyptian Arabic.
The Arabic alphabet derives from the Aramaic through Nabatean, to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of Coptic or Cyrillic scripts to Greek script. Traditionally, there were several differences between the Western (North African) and Middle Eastern versions of the alphabet -- in particular, the faʼ had a dot underneath and qaf a single dot above in the Maghreb, and the order of the letters was slightly different (at least when they were used as numerals).
However, the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself, and remains in use mainly in the Quranic schools (zaouias) of West Africa. Arabic, like all other Semitic languages (except for the Latin - written Maltese, and the languages with the Ge'ez script), is written from right to left. There are several styles of script, notably naskh, which is used in print and by computers, and ruqʻah, which is commonly used in handwriting.
After Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi finally fixed the Arabic script around 786, many styles were developed, both for the writing down of the Quran and other books, and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration.
Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as calligraphy has in the Western world, and is still considered by Arabs as a major art form; calligraphers are held in great esteem. Being cursive by nature, unlike the Latin script, Arabic script is used to write down a verse of the Quran, a hadith, or simply a proverb. The composition is often abstract, but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal. One of the current masters of the genre is Hassan Massoudy.
In modern times the intrinsically calligraphic nature of the written Arabic form is haunted by the thought that a typographic approach to the language, necessary for digitized unification, will not always accurately maintain meanings conveyed through calligraphy.
There are a number of different standards for the romanization of Arabic, i.e. methods of accurately and efficiently representing Arabic with the Latin script. There are various conflicting motivations involved, which leads to multiple systems. Some are interested in transliteration, i.e. representing the spelling of Arabic, while others focus on transcription, i.e. representing the pronunciation of Arabic. (They differ in that, for example, the same letter ي is used to represent both a consonant, as in "you '' or "yet '', and a vowel, as in "me '' or "eat ''.) Some systems, e.g. for scholarly use, are intended to accurately and unambiguously represent the phonemes of Arabic, generally making the phonetics more explicit than the original word in the Arabic script. These systems are heavily reliant on diacritical marks such as "š '' for the sound equivalently written sh in English. Other systems (e.g. the Bahá'í orthography) are intended to help readers who are neither Arabic speakers nor linguists with intuitive pronunciation of Arabic names and phrases. These less "scientific '' tend to avoid diacritics and use digraphs (like sh and kh). These are usually simpler to read, but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems, and may lead to ambiguities, e.g. whether to interpret sh as a single sound, as in gash, or a combination of two sounds, as in gashouse. The ALA - LC romanization solves this problem by separating the two sounds with a prime symbol (′); e.g., as ′ hal ' easier '.
During the last few decades and especially since the 1990s, Western - invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the Arab world, such as personal computers, the World Wide Web, email, bulletin board systems, IRC, instant messaging and mobile phone text messaging. Most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the Latin script only, and some of them still do not have the Arabic script as an optional feature. As a result, Arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the Arabic text using the Latin script, sometimes known as IM Arabic.
To handle those Arabic letters that can not be accurately represented using the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. For example, the numeral "3 '' may be used to represent the Arabic letter ⟨ ع ⟩. There is no universal name for this type of transliteration, but some have named it Arabic Chat Alphabet. Other systems of transliteration exist, such as using dots or capitalization to represent the "emphatic '' counterparts of certain consonants. For instance, using capitalization, the letter ⟨ د ⟩, may be represented by d. Its emphatic counterpart, ⟨ ض ⟩, may be written as D.
In most of present - day North Africa, the Western Arabic numerals (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) are used. However, in Egypt and Arabic - speaking countries to the east of it, the Eastern Arabic numerals (٠ -- ١ -- ٢ -- ٣ -- ٤ -- ٥ -- ٦ -- ٧ -- ٨ -- ٩ ) are in use. When representing a number in Arabic, the lowest - valued position is placed on the right, so the order of positions is the same as in left - to - right scripts. Sequences of digits such as telephone numbers are read from left to right, but numbers are spoken in the traditional Arabic fashion, with units and tens reversed from the modern English usage. For example, 24 is said "four and twenty '' just like in the German language (vierundzwanzig) and Classical Hebrew, and 1975 is said "a thousand and nine - hundred and five and seventy '' or, more eloquently, "a thousand and nine - hundred five seventy ''
Academy of the Arabic Language is the name of a number of language - regulation bodies formed in the Arab League. The most active are in Damascus and Cairo. They review language development, monitor new words and approve inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts.
Arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around the world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages, Middle Eastern studies, and religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study the language. Software and books with tapes are also important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries.
Historically, Arab linguists considered the Arabic language to be superior to all other languages, and took almost no interest in learning any language other than Arabic. With the sole example of Medieval linguist Abu Hayyan al - Gharnati - who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab - scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior.
In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of the Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code - switching practises. '' Arab - American professor Franck Salamah went as far as to declare Arabic a dead language conveying dead ideas, blaming its stagnation for Arab intellectual stagnation and lamenting that great writers in Arabic are judged by their command of the language and not the merit of the ideas they express with it.
Notes
Bibliography
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what five countries border on the caspian sea | Caspian Sea - wikipedia
The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed inland body of water on Earth by area, variously classed as the world 's largest lake or a full - fledged sea. It is an endorheic basin (a basin without outflows) located between Europe and Asia. It is bounded by Kazakhstan to the northeast, Russia to the northwest, Azerbaijan to the west, Iran to the south, and Turkmenistan to the southeast.
The Caspian Sea presently lies about 28 m (92 ft) below sea level in the Caspian Depression, to the east of the Caucasus Mountains and to the west of the vast steppe of Central Asia. The sea bed in the southern part reaches as low as 1,023 m (3,356 ft) below sea level, which is the second lowest natural depression on earth after Lake Baikal (− 1,180 m, − 3,871 ft). The ancient inhabitants of its coast perceived the Caspian Sea as an ocean, probably because of its saltiness and large size.
The sea has a surface area of 371,000 km (143,200 sq mi) (not including the detached lagoon of Garabogazköl) and a volume of 78,200 km (18,800 cu mi). It has a salinity of approximately 1.2 % (12 g / l), about a third of the salinity of most seawater.
The word Caspian is derived from the name of the Caspi, an ancient people who lived to the southwest of the sea in Transcaucasia. Strabo wrote that "to the country of the Albanians belongs also the territory called Caspiane, which was named after the Caspian tribe, as was also the sea; but the tribe has now disappeared ''. Moreover, the Caspian Gates, which is the name of a region in Iran 's Tehran province, possibly indicates that they migrated to the south of the sea. The Iranian city of Qazvin shares the root of its name with that of the sea. In fact, the traditional Arabic name for the sea itself is Baḥr al - Qazwin (Sea of Qazvin).
In classical antiquity among Greeks and Persians it was called the Hyrcanian Ocean. In Persian antiquity, as well as in modern Iran, it is known as درياى خزر, Daryā - e Khazar; it is also sometimes referred to as Mazandaran Sea (Persian: دریای مازندران ) in Iran. Ancient Arabic sources refer to it as Baḥr Gīlān (بحر گیلان) meaning "the Gilan Sea ''.
Turkic languages refer to the lake as Khazar Sea. In Turkmen, the name is Hazar deňizi, in Azeri, it is Xəzər dənizi, and in modern Turkish, it is Hazar denizi. In all these cases, the second word simply means "sea '', and the first word refers to the historical Khazars who had a large empire based to the north of the Caspian Sea between the 7th and 10th centuries. An exception is Kazakh, where it is called Каспий теңізі, Kaspiy teñizi (Caspian Sea).
Renaissance European maps labelled it as Abbacuch Sea (Oronce Fine 's 1531 world map), Mar de Bachu (Ortellius ' 1570 map), or Mar de Sala (Mercator 's 1569 map).
Old Russian sources call it the Khvalyn or Khvalis Sea (Хвалынское море / Хвалисское море) after the name of Khwarezmia. In modern Russian, it is called Каспи́йское мо́ре, Kaspiyskoye more.
The Caspian Sea, like the Black Sea, Namak Lake, and Lake Urmia, is a remnant of the ancient Paratethys Sea. It became landlocked about 5.5 million years ago due to tectonic uplift and a fall in sea level. During warm and dry climatic periods, the landlocked sea almost dried up, depositing evaporitic sediments like halite that were covered by wind - blown deposits and were sealed off as an evaporite sink when cool, wet climates refilled the basin. (Comparable evaporite beds underlie the Mediterranean.) Due to the current inflow of fresh water, the Caspian Sea is a freshwater lake in its northern portions, and is most saline on the Iranian shore, where the catchment basin contributes little flow. Currently, the mean salinity of the Caspian is one third that of Earth 's oceans. The Garabogazköl embayment, which dried up when water flow from the main body of the Caspian was blocked in the 1980s but has since been restored, routinely exceeds oceanic salinity by a factor of 10.
The Caspian Sea is the largest inland body of water in the world and accounts for 40 to 44 % of the total lacustrine waters of the world. The coastlines of the Caspian are shared by Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan. The Caspian is divided into three distinct physical regions: the Northern, Middle, and Southern Caspian. The Northern -- Middle boundary is the Mangyshlak Threshold, which runs through Chechen Island and Cape Tiub - Karagan. The Middle -- Southern boundary is the Apsheron Threshold, a sill of tectonic origin between the Eurasian continent and an oceanic remnant, that runs through Zhiloi Island and Cape Kuuli. The Garabogazköl Bay is the saline eastern inlet of the Caspian, which is part of Turkmenistan and at times has been a lake in its own right due to the isthmus that cuts it off from the Caspian.
Differences between the three regions are dramatic. The Northern Caspian only includes the Caspian shelf, and is very shallow; it accounts for less than 1 % of the total water volume with an average depth of only 5 -- 6 metres (16 -- 20 ft). The sea noticeably drops off towards the Middle Caspian, where the average depth is 190 metres (620 ft). The Southern Caspian is the deepest, with oceanic depths of over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), greatly exceeding the depth of other regional seas, such as the Persian Gulf. The Middle and Southern Caspian account for 33 % and 66 % of the total water volume, respectively. The northern portion of the Caspian Sea typically freezes in the winter, and in the coldest winters ice forms in the south as well.
Over 130 rivers provide inflow to the Caspian, with the Volga River being the largest. A second affluent, the Ural River, flows in from the north, and the Kura River flows into the sea from the west. In the past, the Amu Darya (Oxus) of Central Asia in the east often changed course to empty into the Caspian through a now - desiccated riverbed called the Uzboy River, as did the Syr Darya farther north. The Caspian also has several small islands; they are primarily located in the north and have a collective land area of roughly 2,000 km (770 sq mi). Adjacent to the North Caspian is the Caspian Depression, a low - lying region 27 metres (89 ft) below sea level. The Central Asian steppes stretch across the northeast coast, while the Caucasus mountains hug the western shore. The biomes to both the north and east are characterized by cold, continental deserts. Conversely, the climate to the southwest and south are generally warm with uneven elevation due to a mix of highlands and mountain ranges; the drastic changes in climate alongside the Caspian have led to a great deal of biodiversity in the region.
The Caspian Sea has numerous islands throughout, all of them near the coasts; none in the deeper parts of the sea. Ogurja Ada is the largest island. The island is 37 km (23 mi) long, with gazelles roaming freely on it. In the North Caspian, the majority of the islands are small and uninhabited, like the Tyuleniy Archipelago, an Important Bird Area (IBA), although some of them have human settlements.
The Caspian has characteristics common to both seas and lakes. It is often listed as the world 's largest lake, although it is not a freshwater lake. It contains about 3.5 times more water, by volume, than all five of North America 's Great Lakes combined. The Caspian was once part of the Tethys Ocean, but became landlocked about 5.5 million years ago due to plate tectonics. The Volga River (about 80 % of the inflow) and the Ural River discharge into the Caspian Sea, but it has no natural outflow other than by evaporation. Thus the Caspian ecosystem is a closed basin, with its own sea level history that is independent of the eustatic level of the world 's oceans.
The level of the Caspian has fallen and risen, often rapidly, many times over the centuries. Some Russian historians claim that a medieval rising of the Caspian, perhaps caused by the Amu Darya changing its inflow to the Caspian from the 13th century to the 16th century, caused the coastal towns of Khazaria, such as Atil, to flood. In 2004, the water level was 28 metres (92 feet) below sea level.
Over the centuries, Caspian Sea levels have changed in synchrony with the estimated discharge of the Volga, which in turn depends on rainfall levels in its vast catchment basin. Precipitation is related to variations in the amount of North Atlantic depressions that reach the interior, and they in turn are affected by cycles of the North Atlantic oscillation. Thus levels in the Caspian Sea relate to atmospheric conditions in the North Atlantic, thousands of miles to the northwest.
The last short - term sea - level cycle started with a sea - level fall of 3 m (10 ft) from 1929 to 1977, followed by a rise of 3 m (10 ft) from 1977 until 1995. Since then smaller oscillations have taken place.
The Volga River, the largest in Europe, drains 20 % of the European land area and is the source of 80 % of the Caspian 's inflow. Its lower reaches are heavily developed with numerous unregulated releases of chemical and biological pollutants. Although existing data is sparse and of questionable quality, there is ample evidence to suggest that the Volga is one of the principal sources of transboundary contaminants into the Caspian.
The magnitude of fossil fuel extraction and transport activity in the Caspian also poses a risk to the environment. The island of Vulf off Baku, for example, has suffered ecological damage as a result of the petrochemical industry; this has significantly decreased the number of species of marine birds in the area. Existing and planned oil and gas pipelines under the sea further increase the potential threat to the environment.
The Vladimir Filanovsky field in the Russian section of the body of water was discovered for its wealth of oil in 2005. It is reportedly the largest discovery of oil in 25 years. It was announced in October 2016 that Lukoil would start production in this region.
The rising level of the Caspian Sea between 1994 and 1996 reduced the number of habitats for rare species of aquatic vegetation. This has been attributed to a general lack of seeding material in newly formed coastal lagoons and water bodies.
The Caspian turtle (Mauremys caspica), although found in neighboring areas, is a wholly freshwater species. The zebra mussel is native to the Caspian and Black Sea basins, but has become an invasive species elsewhere, when introduced. The area has given its name to several species, including the Caspian gull and the Caspian tern. The Caspian seal (Pusa caspica) is the only aquatic mammal and is endemic to the Caspian Sea, being one of very few seal species that live in inland waters, but it is different from the those inhabiting freshwaters due to the hydrological environment of the sea.
Archeological studies of Gobustan petroglyphs indicate that there once had been dolphins and porpoises, or a certain species of beaked whales and a whaling scene indicates large baleen whales likely being present in Caspian Sea at least until when the Caspian Sea ceased being a part of the ocean system or until the Quaternary or much more recent periods such as until the last glacial period or antiquity. Although the rock art on Kichikdash Mountain is assumed to be of a dolphin or of a beaked whale, it might instead represent the famous beluga sturgeon due to its size (430 cm in length), but fossil records suggest certain ancestors of modern dolphins and whales, such as Macrokentriodon morani (bottlenose dolphins) and Balaenoptera sibbaldina (blue whales) were presumably larger than their present descendants. From the same artworks, auks, like Brunnich 's Guillemot could also have been in the sea as well, and these petroglyphs suggest marine inflow between the current Caspian Sea and the Arctic Ocean or North Sea, or the Black Sea. This is supported by the existences of current endemic, oceanic species such as lagoon cockles which was genetically identified to originate in Caspian / Black Seas regions.
The sea 's basin (including associated waters such as rivers) has 160 native species and subspecies of fish in more than 60 genera. About 62 % of the species and subspecies are endemic, as are 4 -- 6 genera (depending on taxonomic treatment). The lake proper has 115 natives, including 73 endemics (63.5 %). Among the more than 50 genera in the lake proper, 3 -- 4 are endemic: Anatirostrum, Caspiomyzon, Chasar (often included in Ponticola) and Hyrcanogobius. By far the most numerous families in the lake proper are gobies (35 species and subspecies), cyprinids (32) and clupeids (22). Two particularly rich genera are Alosa with 18 endemic species / subspecies and Benthophilus with 16 endemic species. Other examples of endemics are four species of Clupeonella, Gobio volgensis, two Rutilus, three Sabanejewia, Stenodus leucichthys, two Salmo, two Mesogobius and three Neogobius. Most non-endemic natives are either shared with the Black Sea basin or widespread Palearctic species such as crucian carp, Prussian carp, common carp, common bream, common bleak, asp, white bream, sunbleak, common dace, common roach, common rudd, European chub, sichel, tench, European weatherfish, wels catfish, northern pike, burbot, European perch and zander. Almost 30 non-indigenous, introduced fish species have been reported from the Caspian Sea, but only a few have become established.
Six sturgeon species, the Russian, bastard, Persian, sterlet, starry and beluga, are native to the Caspian Sea. The last of these is arguably the largest freshwater fish in the world. The sturgeon yield roe (eggs) that are processed into caviar. Overfishing has depleted a number of the historic fisheries. In recent years, overfishing has threatened the sturgeon population to the point that environmentalists advocate banning sturgeon fishing completely until the population recovers. The high price of sturgeon caviar, however, allows fishermen to afford bribes to ensure the authorities look the other way, making regulations in many locations ineffective. Caviar harvesting further endangers the fish stocks, since it targets reproductive females.
Many rare and endemic plant species of Russia are associated with the tidal areas of the Volga delta and riparian forests of the Samur River delta. The shoreline is also a unique refuge for plants adapted to the loose sands of the Central Asian Deserts. The principal limiting factors to successful establishment of plant species are hydrological imbalances within the surrounding deltas, water pollution, and various land reclamation activities. The water level change within the Caspian Sea is an indirect reason for which plants may not get established.
These affect aquatic plants of the Volga Delta, such as Aldrovanda vesiculosa and the native Nelumbo caspica. About 11 plant species are found in the Samur River Delta, including the unique liana forests that date back to the Tertiary period.
Reptiles native to the region include spur - thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca buxtoni) and Horsfield 's tortoise.
The earliest hominid remains found around the Caspian Sea are from Dmanisi dating back to around 1.8 Ma and yielded a number of skeletal remains of Homo erectus or Homo ergaster. More later evidence for human occupation of the region came from a number of caves in Georgia and Azerbaijan such as Kudaro and Azykh Caves. There is evidence for Lower Palaeolithic human occupation south of the Caspian from western Alburz. These are Ganj Par and Darband Cave sites.
Neanderthal remains also have been discovered at a cave site in Georgia. Discoveries in the Huto cave and the adjacent Kamarband cave, near the town of Behshahr, Mazandaran south of the Caspian in Iran, suggest human habitation of the area as early as 11,000 years ago.
The Caspian area is rich in energy resources. Oil wells were being dug in the region as early as the 10th century to reach oil "for use in everyday life, both for medicinal purposes and for heating and lighting in homes ''. By the 16th century, Europeans were aware of the rich oil and gas deposits around the area. English traders Thomas Bannister and Jeffrey Duckett described the area around Baku as "a strange thing to behold, for there issueth out of the ground a marvelous quantity of oil, which serveth all the country to burn in their houses. This oil is black and is called nefte. There is also by the town of Baku, another kind of oil which is white and very precious (i.e., petroleum). ''
In the 18th century, during the rule of Peter I the Great, Fedor I. Soimonov, hydrographer and pioneering explorer of the Caspian Sea charted the until then little known body of water. Soimonov drew a set of four maps and wrote Pilot of the Caspian Sea, the first report and modern maps of the Caspian, that were published in 1720 by the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Today, oil and gas platforms abound along the edges of the sea.
The world 's first offshore wells and machine - drilled wells were made in Bibi - Heybat Bay, near Baku, Azerbaijan. In 1873, exploration and development of oil began in some of the largest fields known to exist in the world at that time on the Absheron Peninsula near the villages of Balakhanli, Sabunchi, Ramana, and Bibi Heybat. Total recoverable reserves were more than 500 million tons. By 1900, Baku had more than 3,000 oil wells, 2,000 of which were producing at industrial levels. By the end of the 19th century, Baku became known as the "black gold capital '', and many skilled workers and specialists flocked to the city.
By the beginning of the 20th century, Baku was the centre of international oil industry. In 1920, when the Bolsheviks captured Azerbaijan, all private property -- including oil wells and factories -- was confiscated. Afterwards, the republic 's entire oil industry came under the control of the Soviet Union. By 1941, Azerbaijan was producing a record 23.5 million tons of oil per year, and the Baku region supplied nearly 72 percent of all oil extracted in the entire Soviet Union.
In 1994, the "Contract of the Century '' was signed, signalling the start of major international development of the Baku oil fields. The Baku -- Tbilisi -- Ceyhan pipeline, a major pipeline allowing Azerbaijan oil to flow straight to the Turkish Mediterranean port of Ceyhan, opened in 2006.
Many of the islands along the Azerbaijani coast continue to hold significant geopolitical and economic importance because of the potential oil reserves found nearby. Bulla Island, Pirallahı Island, and Nargin, which is still used as a former Soviet base and is the largest island in the Baku bay, all hold oil reserves.
The collapse of the Soviet Union and subsequent opening of the region has led to an intense investment and development scramble by international oil companies. In 1998, Dick Cheney commented that "I ca n't think of a time when we 've had a region emerge as suddenly to become as strategically significant as the Caspian. ''
A key problem to further development in the region is the status of the Caspian Sea and the establishment of the water boundaries among the five littoral states. The current disputes along Azerbaijan 's maritime borders with Turkmenistan and Iran could potentially affect future development plans.
Much controversy currently exists over the proposed Trans - Caspian oil and gas pipelines. These projects would allow Western markets easier access to Kazakh oil and, potentially, Uzbek and Turkmen gas as well. Russia officially opposes the project on environmental grounds. However, analysts note that the pipelines would bypass Russia completely, thereby denying the country valuable transit fees, as well as destroying its current monopoly on westward - bound hydrocarbon exports from the region. Recently, both Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan have expressed their support for the Trans - Caspian Pipeline.
U.S. diplomatic cables disclosed by WikiLeaks revealed that BP covered up a gas leak and blowout incident in September 2008 at an operating gas field in the Azeri - Chirag - Guneshi area of the Azerbaijan Caspian Sea.
As of 2000, negotiations related to the demarcation of the Caspian Sea had been going on for nearly a decade among the states bordering the Caspian -- Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Iran. The status of the Caspian Sea is the key problem. Access to mineral resources (oil and natural gas), access for fishing, and access to international waters (through Russia 's Volga river and the canals connecting it to the Black Sea and Baltic Sea) all depend upon the outcomes of negotiations. Access to the Volga River is particularly important for the landlocked states of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. This concerns Russia, because the potential traffic would use its inland waterways. If a body of water is labelled as a sea, then there would be some precedents and international treaties obliging the granting of access permits to foreign vessels. If a body of water is labelled merely as a lake, then there are no such obligations. Environmental issues are also somewhat connected to the status and borders issue.
All five Caspian littoral states maintain naval forces on the sea.
According to a treaty signed between Iran and the Soviet Union, the Caspian Sea is technically a lake and was divided into two sectors (Iranian and Soviet), but the resources (then mainly fish) were commonly shared. The line between the two sectors was considered an international border in a common lake, like Lake Albert. The Soviet sector was sub-divided into the four littoral republics ' administrative sectors.
Russia, Kazakhstan, and Azerbaijan have bilateral agreements with each other based on median lines. Because of their use by the three nations, median lines seem to be the most likely method of delineating territory in future agreements. However, Iran insists on a single, multilateral agreement between the five nations (as this is the only way for it to achieve a one - fifth share of the sea). Azerbaijan is at odds with Iran over some oil fields that both states claim. Occasionally, Iranian patrol boats have fired at vessels sent by Azerbaijan for exploration into the disputed region. There are similar tensions between Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan (the latter claims that the former has pumped more oil than agreed from a field, recognized by both parties as shared).
The Caspian littoral states ' meeting in 2007 signed an agreement that bars any ship not flying the national flag of a littoral state from entering the sea.
Negotiations among the five littoral states have been ongoing, amidst ebbs and flows, for the past 20 years, with some degree of progress being made at the fourth Caspian Summit held in Astrakhan in 2014.
The Caspian Summit is a head of state - level meeting of the five littoral states. The fifth Caspian Summit took place on August 12, 2018 in the Kazakh port city of Aktau. The five leaders signed the ' Convention on the Legal Status of the Caspian Sea '.
The five littoral states build consensus on legally binding governance of the Caspian Sea through Special Working Groups of a Convention on the Legal Status of the Caspian Sea. In advance of a Caspian Summit, 51st Special Working Group took place in Astana in May 2018 and found consensus on multiple agreements: Agreements on cooperation in the field of transport; trade and economic cooperation; prevention of incidents on the sea; combating terrorism; fighting against organized crime; and border security cooperation.
The Convention grants jurisdiction over 15 miles of territorial waters to each neighboring country, plus additional 10 miles of exclusive fishing rights on the surface, while the rest is international waters. The seabed, on the other hand, remains undefined, subject to bilateral agreements between countries. Thus, the Caspian Sea is legally neither fully a sea nor a lake.
UNECE recognizes several rivers that cross international borders which flow into the Caspian Sea. These are:
Although the Caspian Sea is endorheic, its main tributary, the Volga, is connected by important shipping canals with the Don River (and thus the Black Sea) and with the Baltic Sea, with branch canals to Northern Dvina and to the White Sea.
Another Caspian tributary, the Kuma River, is connected by an irrigation canal with the Don basin as well.
Several scheduled ferry services (including train ferries) operate on the Caspian Sea, including:
The ferries are mostly used for cargo; only the Baku -- Aktau and Baku -- Türkmenbaşy routes accept passengers.
As an endorheic basin, the Caspian Sea basin has no natural connection with the ocean. Since the medieval period, traders reached the Caspian via a number of portages that connected the Volga and its tributaries with the Don River (which flows into the Sea of Azov) and various rivers that flow into the Baltic Sea. Primitive canals connecting the Volga Basin with the Baltic have been constructed as early as the early 18th century. Since then, a number of canal projects have been completed.
The two modern canal systems that connect the Volga Basin, and hence the Caspian Sea, with the ocean are the Volga -- Baltic Waterway and the Volga -- Don Canal.
The proposed Pechora -- Kama Canal was a project that was widely discussed between the 1930s and 1980s. Shipping was a secondary consideration. Its main goal was to redirect some of the water of the Pechora River (which flows into the Arctic Ocean) via the Kama River into the Volga. The goals were both irrigation and the stabilization of the water level in the Caspian, which was thought to be falling dangerously fast at the time. During 1971, some peaceful nuclear construction experiments were carried out in the region by the U.S.S.R.
In June 2007, in order to boost his oil - rich country 's access to markets, Kazakhstan 's President Nursultan Nazarbayev proposed a 700 - kilometre (435 - mile) link between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea. It is hoped that the "Eurasia Canal '' (Manych Ship Canal) would transform landlocked Kazakhstan and other Central Asian countries into maritime states, enabling them to significantly increase trade volume. Although the canal would traverse Russian territory, it would benefit Kazakhstan through its Caspian Sea ports. The most likely route for the canal, the officials at the Committee on Water Resources at Kazakhstan 's Agriculture Ministry say, would follow the Kuma -- Manych Depression, where currently a chain of rivers and lakes is already connected by an irrigation canal (Kuma -- Manych Canal). Upgrading the Volga -- Don Canal would be another option.
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where do they record america's got talent | Got Talent - wikipedia
Got Talent is a British talent show television format conceived and owned by Simon Cowell 's SYCOtv company. A pilot was made in the United Kingdom in 2005, hosted by Paul O'Grady, but after O'Grady's split with ITV, the series was postponed, resulting in NBC 's America 's Got Talent -- the first full series of the format.
It has spawned spin - offs in over 58 countries (as of April 2014), in what is now referred to as the ' Got Talent ' format, similar to that described by FremantleMedia of the Idol and The X Factor formats. Unlike those shows, Got Talent showcases several artistic disciplines in addition to singing. In April 2014, the format was named the world 's most successful reality TV format ever by the Guinness World Records.
Got Talent was an invention by The X Factor creator Simon Cowell, with comedian and talk show host Paul O'Grady producing a pilot for ITV in 2005 under the provisional title Paul O'Grady's Got Talent. O'Grady left the network after disputes with ITV, resulting in Cowell moving the concept to the United States while he and ITV searched for a new show host.
Due to these issues, the Got Talent franchise ended up debuting first as America 's Got Talent on NBC on 21 June 2006, with judges David Hasselhoff, Brandy Norwood, and Piers Morgan. The show 's original series was hosted by Regis Philbin. In 2016, the judging panel consisted of Howie Mandel, Heidi Klum, Melanie Brown, and Simon Cowell, and hosted by Nick Cannon, who has been the presenter since 2009. From season 12 (2017), the new host of AGT is Tyra Banks. The grand prize for the winner (s) is US $1 million, and, since season 3, a chance to headline a show on the Las Vegas Strip. America 's Got Talent proved extremely successful for NBC, pulling in high ratings in both total viewers and the younger 18 - 49 demographic. The show 's initial success in America is credited with the eventual launch of the British series, and the overall global launch of the Got Talent franchise.
ITV eventually debuted Britain 's Got Talent on 9 June 2007 with Cowell, Morgan and Amanda Holden as judges, and Ant & Dec as hosts of the show. For series 5, Morgan stepped down due to commitments hosting Piers Morgan Tonight on CNN, and Cowell only attended the live shows as he was busy launching The X Factor USA, so Michael McIntyre and David Hasselhoff joined the panel with Holden. In October 2011, it was confirmed that McIntyre and Hasselhoff would not return for series 6 and they were replaced by David Walliams and Alesha Dixon, along with Cowell returning as a judge full - time. The top prize is £ 250,000 (£ 100,000 in series 1 -- 5 and £ 500,000 in series 6) and a performance at the Royal Variety Show in front of the British Royal Family.
In June 2010, following Britain 's Got Talent 's success at the BAFTA television awards, Cowell voiced his ideas regarding World 's Got Talent, a global version of Got Talent. However, he argued that the format would not work with judges as they had all "tried to be him '' in previous attempts (such as World Idol), and instead proposed a commentary format, similar to that of the Eurovision Song Contest. During the same week, more details were announced, with Cowell explaining 20 previous winning contestants from global variations of Got Talent would be brought together at the Royal Albert Hall with himself and Jonathan Lopez both having roles in the show. A proposed prize of £ 1 million was announced, along with a projected global television audience of 300 million, and an intended airdate of 2011.
However, Cowell halted plans for the series because it would conflict with his judging commitments with The X Factor USA and Britain 's Got Talent for the years to come. In February 2014, The X Factor USA was cancelled by Fox due to low ratings and Cowell 's decision to return to the UK version of that show.
There have been a total of 296 winners of "Got Talent '' around the world.
Season 1, 2016: Two brothers sylla (acrobats) Season 2, 2017: Current Season
Season 1, 2011: Amr Qatamesh (stand - up satirical poetry) Season 2, 2012: Khawater Al - Zalam (glow - in - the - dark) Season 3, 2013: Sima group (artistic dance) Season 4, 2014 -- 15: Salah (dancer) Season 5, 2017: Eman Bisha (8 year old opera singer)
Season 1, 2008: Martin Bustos (comedian / impersonator) Season 2, 2009: Daniel Ferreyra (guitarist) Season 3, 2010 -- 11: Diego Gutierrez (accordion player)
Season 1, 2009: Samvel Davtyan (singer) Season 2, 2010: Samvel Harutyunyan (singer)
Season 1, 2015: El Gamma Penumbra (shadow play group) Season 2, 2017: Current Season
Season 1, 2007: Bonnie Anderson (12 - year - old singer) Season 2, 2008: "Smokin '' Joe Robinson (16 - year - old guitarist) Season 3, 2009: Mark Vincent (15 - year - old - opera singer) Season 4, 2010: Justice Crew (dance troupe) Season 5, 2011: Jack Vidgen (14 - year - old singer) Season 6, 2012: Andrew De Silva (37 - year - old singer) Season 7, 2013: Uncle Jed (Funk / Soul / Jazz / Reggae band) Season 8, 2016: Fletcher Pilon (15 - year - old singer)
Season 1, 2015: Elkhan Mammadov (magician)
Season 1, 2007: Triple E (singing trio sisters)
Season 1, 2012: Karolien Goris (11 - year - old singer) Season 2, 2013: Michael Lanzo (34 - year - old singer) Season 3, 2015: Domenico Vaccaro (22 - year - old pole dancer) Season 4, 2016 -- 17: Baba Yega (dance troupe) Season 5, 2018: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2012: 2 Mad (dance troupe) Season 2, 2013: Junbox (Dancer)
Season 1, 2013: Domingues da Palha (45 - year - old coconut leaf musician)
Season 1, 2010: Bogdana Petrova (17 - year - old visually impaired singer) Season 2, 2012: Kristina Arabadzhieva (12 - year - old singer) Season 3, 2014: Thomas Tomov (17 - year - old opera singer) Season 4, 2015: Plamen Lubenov (20 - year - old braker) Season 5, 2016: Vivo Montana (18 - 44 - year - olds musical band)
Season 1, 2014 - 15: Yoeun Pisey (15 - year - old blind singer) Season 2, 2017: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2012: Sagkeeng 's Finest (tap dance troupe)
Season 1, 2010: Camila Silva (16 - year - old singer) Season 2, 2011: Ignacio Venegas (23 - year - old singer) Season 3, 2012: Susana Sáez (35 - year - old singer) Season 4, 2013: Carolina and Felipe (tango dancers) Season 5, 2014: Hugo Macaya (38 - year - old blind singer) Season 6, 2015: Cristofer Mera (19 - year - old singer) & Samsara (Band)
Zhou Libo (1 -- 3) Gao Xiaosong (1 -- 4) Annie Yi Nengjing (1 -- 4) Chen Yao Chun (2) Yang Lan (2) Jerry Huang Shu - chun (2 -- 4) Ni Ping (3) Cui Yong Yuan (3) Liu Wei (3) Huang Doudou (3 -- 4) Dou Wentao (4) Xu Jinglei (4) Leon Lai Ming (4) Yang Wei (4) Ying Da (4) Vicki Zhao Wei (5) Liu Ye (5) Alec Su You - peng (5) Wang Wei - chung (5)
Season 1, 2010: Liu Wei (armless pianist) Season 2, 2011: Zhuo Jun (popper) Season 3, 2011 -- 12: Pan Qianqian (female baritone singer) Season 4, 2012 -- 13: Wang Jungru (17 - year old contortionist) Season 5, 2013 -- 14: Yin Zhonghua (acrobat)
Season 1, 2012: Paolo Alexander González (24 - year - old pianist) Season 2, 2013: Byron González (19 - year - old speed painter)
Season 1, 2009: Tihomir Bendelja (15 - year - old gymnastics twirler) Season 2, 2010: Viktorija Novosel (21 - year - old singer) Season 3, 2011: Promenada Klub (shadow theatre) Season 4, 2016: Petar Bruno Basić (23 - year - old pole dancer) Season 5, 2017: Current Season
Season 1, 2010: DaeMen (hand - to - hand acrobatics) Season 2, 2011: Atai Omurzakov (21 - year - old dancer) Season 3, 2012: Jozef Pavlusík (24 - year - old opera singer) Season 4, 2013: Miroslav Sýkora (25 - year - old opera singer) Season 5, 2015: Gyöngyi Bodišová (22 - year - old singer) Season 6, 2016: Act 4 Slovakia (acrobation on bicycles) Season 7, 2018: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2008: Robot Boys (robot dancing duo) Season 2, 2009: Kalle Pimp (23 - year - old rapper) Season 3, 2010: Copenhagen Drummers (military drummers)
Season 1, 2014 -- 15: Thor Mikkelsen (17 - year - old beatboxer) Season 2, 2015 -- 16: Matias Rasmussen (23 - year - old Rubik 's Cube solver) Season 3, 2017: Johanne Astrid (10 - year - old Drummer) Season 4, 2018: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2012: Luis Castillo (37 - year - old street comedian) Season 2, 2013: José Fernando Lara (26 - year - old singer) Season 3, 2014: Ledesma Brothers (foldclore singers) Season 4, 2015: Christian Loaiza (30 - year - old singer) Season 5, 2016: CAN Group (Talented police dogs) Season 6, 2017: Current Season
Season 1, 2010 -- 11: Erki - Andres Nuut (leaf instrument player) Season 2, 2012: Unknown
Season 1, 2007: Aleksi Vähäpassi (beatbox) Season 2, 2009: Miikka Mäkelä (pantomim dance) Season 3, 2011: VIP Bartenders (flair bartenders) Season 4, 2012: Daniel Helakorpi (poem reader) Season 5, 2016: Antton Puonti (hand player)
Season 1, 2006: Salah Benlemqawanssa (popper / b - boy) Season 2, 2007: Junior (break dancer) Season 3, 2008: Alex (fire artist) Season 4, 2009: Les Echos - liés (comic group) Season 5, 2010: Axel et Alizée (young dancing duo) Season 6, 2011: Marina Dalmas (13 - year - old singer) Season 7, 2012: Die - Mobiliés (shadow play) Season 8, 2013: Simon Heule (acrobat) Season 9, 2014: Bagad de Vannes (choir) Season 10, 2015: Juliette and Charlie (Dog Act) Season 11, 2016: Antonio (42 - year - old magician) Season 12, 2017: Upcoming Season
Former Gega Palavandishvili (1 -- 4) Nikoloz Memanishvili (1) Maia Asatiani (1) Sopho Nizharadze (2 -- 3) Vano Javakhishvili (2 -- 3) Nika Gvaramia (4 -- 7) Ia Parulava (4 -- 6) Khatia Buniatishvili (4) Nanuka Jorjoliani (4) Levan "Chola '' Tsuladze (5 -- 7) Nanuka Jorjoliani (5 -- 6) Zaal Udumashvili (7)
Season 1, 2010: Levan Shavadze (singer) Season 2, 2011: Vano Pipia (singer) Season 3, 2012: Nona Giunashvili (sand artist) Season 4, 2013: City Band Group (musical band) Season 5, 2014: Temo Da Qeti (dancer and wheelchair dancer) Season 6, 2015: Barbara Samkharadze (singer) Season 7, 2016 - 17: Eka Abuladze (singer) Season 8, 2017: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2007: Ricardo Marinello (19 - year - old singer) Season 2, 2008: Michael Hirte (44 - year - old harmonica player) Season 3, 2009: Yvo Antoni & Primadonna (dog training) Season 4, 2010: Freddy Sahin - Scholl (57 - year - old two - voice singer) Season 5, 2011: Leo Rojas (27 - year - old panpipe player) Season 6, 2012: Jean - Michel Aweh (20 - year - old singer and pianist) Season 7, 2013: Lukas & Falco (dog act) Season 8, 2014: Marcel Kaupp (26 - year - old drag queen and singer) Season 9, 2015: Jay Oh (29 - year - old singer) Season 10, 2016: Angel Flukes (28 - year - old singer) Season 11, 2017: Current Season Season 12, 2018: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2007: Christos Zacharopoulos (12 - year - old singer) Season 2, 2009: Kiss Madiam (band) Season 3, 2010: Nikos Georgeas (55 - year - old singer) Season 4, 2012: Stelios Legakis (14 - year - old singer) Season 5, 2017: Current Season
Season 1, 2015: Dirty Led Light Crew (electronic light act)
Season 1, 2013 -- 14: Brynjar Dagur (15 - year - old dancer) Season 2, 2014 -- 15: Alda Dís (22 - year - old singer) Season 3, 2016: Johanna Ruth (14 - year - old singer)
Season 1, 2009: Prince Dance Group Season 2, 2010: Shillong Chamber Choir Season 3, 2011: Suresh and Vernon Group Season 4, 2012: Bivash Dance Academy Season 5, 2014: Naadyong Academy Dance Troupe Season 6, 2015: Manik Paul (22 - year - old aerial dancer) Season 7, 2016: Flautist Suleiman (13 - year - old flute player)
Season 1, 2010: Vania Larissa (15 - year - old opera singer) Season 2, 2014: Ariani Putri (8 - year - old blind singer)
Season 1, 2018: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2007: Keren Elnekave and Yaniv Swissa (aerial acrobatics)
Season 1, 2018: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2009 -- 10: Carmen Masola (39 - year - old opera singer) Season 2, 2011: Fabrizio Vendramin (painter) Season 3, 2012: Stefano Scarpa (acro pole flag man) Season 4, 2013 (Spring): Daniel Adomako (22 - year - old singer) Season 5, 2013 (Autumn): Samuel Barletti (50 - year - old ventriloquist) Season 6, 2015: Simone Al Ani (27 - year - old manipulator dynamic) Season 7, 2016: Moses (26 - year - old harmonica player) Season 8, 2017: Trejolie (Triple - duo - Comedian) Season 9, 2018: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2013: Arman Qarınsaw
Season 1, 2009: Mikas Stankevičius (22 - year - old teeth player) Season 2, 2010: Martynas Levickis (20 - year - old accordionist) Season 3, 2011: Marius Petrauskas (26 - year - old singer) Season 4, 2014: Project Mayhem (street gymnasts) Season 5, 2017: Kasparas Bujanauskas (18 - year - old juggler)
Season 1, 2014: Pablo López (43 - year - old singer) Season 2, 2015: Fernando Badillo (24 - year - old violinist)
Season 1, 2015: Egshiglent Chimee (children 's orchestra) Season 2, 2016: Enkherdene (Country singer) Season 3, 2018: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2013: Monica Pîrlici (11 - year - old poetry artist) Season 2, 2014: Ana Munteanu (13 - year - old singer)
Season 1, 2014: Wai Yan Naing (danger magician) Season 2, 2015: Jar Jet Aung (13 - year - old robot dancer) Season 3, 2016: Jimmy Ko Ko (23 - year - old contemporary dancer) Season 4, 2017: Ayar Maung Team (traditional elephant dancing team)
Season 1, 2008: Daniëlle Bubberman (13 - year - old contortionist) Season 2, 2009: Tessa Kersten (11 - year - old guitarist / singer) Season 3, 2010: Martin Hurkens (57 - year - old opera singer) Season 4, 2011: Aliyah Kolf (11 - year - old singer) Season 5, 2012: DDF Crew (ropeskipping) Season 6, 2013: Amira Willighagen (9 - year - old opera singer) Season 7, 2014: León Lissitza (81 - year - old opera singer) Season 8, 2016: Nick Nicolai (18 - year - old singer) Season 9, 2017: The Fire (Hip - Hop Dance Group) Season 10, 2018: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2008: Chaz Cummings (16 - year - old dancer) Season 2, 2012: / Clara van Wel (15 - year - old singer) Season 3, 2013: Renee Maurice (22 - year - old singer)
Season 1, 2012: Amarachi Uyanne (8 - year - old dancer) Season 2, 2013: Robots for Christ (poppin dance duo)
Season 1, 2008: Erlend Bratland (16 - year - old singer) Season 2, 2009: Quick (hip - hop dance group) Season 3, 2010: Kristian Rønning (23 - year - old rapper) Season 4, 2011: Daniel Johansen Elmhari (11 - year old dancer) Season 5, 2012: Stine H. Ulla (17 - year - old opera singer) Season 6, 2014: Angelina Jordan (8 - year - old singer) Season 7, 2015: Odin Landbakk (13 - year - old guitarist) Season 8, 2017: Vilde Winge (14 - year - old sign language performer) Season 9, 2018: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2012: Alessandra Aguirre (11 - year - old singer) Season 2, 2013: Rod Martin (18 - year - old painter) Season 3, 2014: Gianfranco Huanqui (18 - year - old Rubik 's Cube solver)
Season 1, 2010: Jovit Baldivino (16 - year - old singer) Season 2, 2011: Marcelito Pomoy (25 - year - old falsetto singer) Season 3, 2011: Maasinhon Trio (singing trio) Season 4, 2013: Roel Manlangit (13 - year - old singer) Season 5, 2016: Power Duo (acrobatic dancesport duo) Season 6: 2017: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2008: Mellkart Ball (duo acrobatics) Season 2, 2009: Marcin Wyrostek (28 - year - old accordion player) Season 3, 2010: Magdalena Welc (12 - year - old singer) Season 4, 2011: Kacper Sikora (19 - year - old singer) Season 5, 2012: Delfina & Bartek (acrobatic duo) Season 6, 2013: Tetiana Galitsyna (28 - year - old sand artist) Season 7, 2014: Adrian Makar (15 - year - old singer) Season 8, 2015: Aleksandra Kiedrowicz (21 - year - old aerial silk artist) Season 9, 2016: Jakub Herfort (20 - year - old singer) Season 10, 2017: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2015: The ArtGym Company (acrobatic ginastic) Season 2, 2016: Micaela Abreu (15 - year - old singer) Season 3, 2017: António Casalinho (13 - year - old dancer)
Season 1, 2011: Adrian Ţuţu (rapper) Season 2, 2012: Cristian Gog (mentalist) Season 3, 2013: Bruno Icobet (dancing dog act) Season 4, 2014: Brio Sonores (opera singers) Season 5, 2015: Speedcubing (rubik 's cube solving trio) Season 6, 2016: Laura Bretan (13 - year old opera singer) Season 7, 2017: Lorelai Mosneguțu (armless singer, pianist and painter) Season8, 2018: Upcoming Season
Tatyana Tolstaya (1 -- 3) Alexander Maslyakov (1 -- 8) Alexander Tsekalo (2) Leonid Parfyonov (4) Mariya Shukshina (5) Larisa Guzeyeva (6 -- 8) Sergei Yursky (7, 9) Vladimir Posner (9) Renata Litvinova (9) Sergei Svetlakov (9)
Season 1, 2007: Maxim Tokayev (14 - year - old musician) Season 2, 2007: Dimitry Bulkin a.k.a. Dima Shine (22 - year - old gymnastics parade) Season 3, 2008: Grace (ensemble) Season 4, 2009 -- 10: Brothers of Grinchenko (acrobats) Season 5, 2010 -- 11: Viktor Kochkin and Danil Anastasin (breakdancers without legs) Season 6, 2011 -- 12: Igor Butorin (hula hoops) Season 7, 2012 -- 13: "I Team '' group (jumping on a trampoline) Season 8, 2013 -- 14: Alex Magala (sword swallowing antics) Season 8, 2013 -- 14: Olga Trifonova (aeralist) Season 8, 2013 -- 14: Nikita Izmaylov (juggler) Season 9, 2017: Vardanyan brothers (acrobat duo)
Season 1, 2009: Danijel, Darko and Sandra Piler (young music trio) Season 2, 2011: Milica Dokić and Nenad Mahmutović (deaf dancers) Season 3, 2011 - 12: Bojana and Nikola Peković (young traditional musicians) Season 4, 2012 - 13: Katarina Kovačević (21 - year - old singer) Season 5: 2016 - 17 Bar strong (acrobatic team)
Season 1, 2008: Old School Brothers (hip - hop breakers)
Season 1, 2010: Lina Kuduzović (7 - year - old singer) Season 2, 2011: Julija Kramar (35 - year - old opera singer) Season 3, 2013: Alja Krušič (16 - year - old singer) Season 4, 2014: Jana Šušterič (29 - year - old singer) Season 5, 2015: Jernej Kozan (21 - year - old dancer) Season 6, 2016: WildArt (Timotej & Lenart) (string duo)
Season 1, 2009: Darren Rajbal (19 - year - old deaf hip hop dancer) Season 2, 2010: James Bhemgee (45 - year - old opera singer) Season 3, 2012: Botlhale Boikanyo (11 - year - old praise poet) Season 4, 2013: Johnny Apple (16 - year - old singer) Season 5, 2014: Tholwana Mohale (14 - year - old singer and guitarist) Season 6, 2015: DJ Arch Jnr (3 - year - old DJ) Season 7, 2016: Kryptonite Dance Academy (Dance Group) Season 8, 2017: Current Season '
Season 1, 2011: Joo Ming - Jong (17 - year - old poppin dancer) Season 2, 2012: Blue Whale Bros (poppin dance duo)
Season 2, 2017: Antonio "El Tekila '' (44 - year - old rockabilly dancer) Season 3, 2018: Upcoming season
Season 1, 2017: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2007: Zillah & Totte (ventriloquist) Season 2, 2008: Zara Larsson (10 - year - old singer) Season 3, 2009: Charlie Caper (30 - year - old magician) Season 4, 2010: Jill Svensson (14 - year - old opera singer) Season 5, 2011: Simon Westlund (17 - year - old Rubik 's Cube solver) Season 6, 2017: Ibrahim Nasrullayeu (17 - year - old singer) Season 7, 2018: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2014: / Jon Henrik Fjällgren (27 - year - old Sami singer)
Season 1, 2011: Maya Wirz (49 - year - old opera singer) Season 2, 2012: Eliane Müller (21 - year - old singer) Season 3, 2015: Flavio Rizzello (10 - year - old singer) Season 4, 2016: Jason Brügger (22 - year - old acrobat)
Former Nirut Sirijanya (1) Pinyo Ruedhamma (1 -- 3) Pornchita na Songkhla (1 -- 5) Jirayut Wattanasin (2 -- 3)
Season 1, 2011: / Myra Maneepatsorn Molloy (13 - year - old opera singer) Season 2, 2012: Leng Rachanikorn Keawdee (aerial acrobatics) Season 3, 2013: Somchai Nilsree (southern Thailand singer) Season 4, 2014: Wheelchair Dance (dance with wheelchair) Season 5, 2015: Thaiphukuew (dance troupe) Season 6, 2016: Duo Soul Sister (Aerial hoop duo)
Season 1, 2009 -- 10: Bilal Avcı and Uğur Karameşe (popping dance) Season 2, 2011: Sefa Doğanay (imitator) Season 3, 2011 -- 12: Ali Yeşilırmak and Max the dog (dog act) Season 4, 2012 -- 13: Atalay Demirci (comedian) Season 5, 2013 -- 14: Burak & Kıvanç (illusion) Season 6, 2014 -- 15: Yunus Karaca (comedian) Season 7, 2015 -- 16: Hayatın Ritmini Yakala (comedian) Season 8, 2017: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2009: Kseniya Simonova (sand artist) Season 2, 2010: Olena Kovtun (songstress) Season 3, 2011: Vitaliy Luzkar (illusionist) Season 4, 2012: The team of "Workout '' (acrobats) Season 5, 2013: The team of "Lisapetny Batalion '' (singers) Season 6, 2014: The Dudnik Family (acrobats) Season 7, 2015: Said Abd Allah Dzhurdi (singer)
Season 1, 2007: Paul Potts (36 - year - old opera singer) Season 2, 2008: George Sampson (14 - year - old street dancer) Season 3, 2009: / Diversity (dance troupe) Season 4, 2010: Spelbound (gymnastics troupe) Season 5, 2011: Jai McDowall (24 - year - old singer) Season 6, 2012: Ashleigh and Pudsey (dancing dog act) Season 7, 2013: Attraction (shadow theatre group) Season 8, 2014: Collabro (boy band) Season 9, 2015: Jules O'Dwyer & Matisse (dancing dog act) Season 10, 2016: Richard Jones (25 - year - old close up magician) Season 11, 2017: Tokio Myers (32 - year - old pianist) Season 12, 2018: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2006: Bianca Ryan (11 - year - old singer) Season 2, 2007: Terry Fator (42 - year - old ventriloquist / singer) Season 3, 2008: Neal E. Boyd (32 - year - old opera singer) Season 4, 2009: Kevin Skinner (singer) Season 5, 2010: Michael Grimm (singer) Season 6, 2011: Landau Eugene Murphy, Jr. (singer) Season 7, 2012: / Olate Dogs (dog act) Season 8, 2013: Kenichi Ebina (dance / mime act) Season 9, 2014: Mat Franco (close - up magician) Season 10, 2015: Paul Zerdin (43 - year - old ventriloquist) Season 11, 2016: Grace VanderWaal (12 - year - old singer / songwriter / ukulele player) Season 12, 2017: Darci Lynne Farmer (12 - year - old ventriloquist / singer) Season 13, 2018: Upcoming Season
Season 1, 2011 -- 12: Đăng Quân & Bảo Ngọc (11 - and - 6 - year - old sport dancers) Season 2, 2012 -- 13: Trần Hữu Kiên (26 - year - old opera singer) Season 3, 2014 -- 15: Nguyễn Đức Vĩnh (8 - year - old Hát tuồng) Season 4, 2016: Nguyễn Trọng Nhân (9 - year - old Drummer)
Season 1, 2016: Arinka Shuhalevych Season 2, 2017: Veronika Morska
Season 1, 2016: No Winner Season 2, 2017: Upcoming Season
Laco Kováč
In 2014, ITV had broadcast a series of spin - off shows ' Planet 's Got Talent ' which showed the clips of Got Talent from all over the world. It has been broadcast in Italy on TV8 and Sky Uno. Then Slovenia had made a show as same as the British one.
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when you combine an egg with the material in pollen you get | Pollen tube - wikipedia
A pollen tube is part of the male gametophyte of seed plants. It acts as a conduit to transport the male gamete cells from the pollen grain, either from the stigma (in flowering plants) to the ovules. In maize, this single cell can grow longer than 12 inches to traverse the length of the pistil.
Pollen tubes were first discovered by Giovanni Battista Amici.
Angiosperm reproduction is a complex process that includes several steps that may vary among species. Each step is a vast procedure in its own right. Pollen is produced by the stamen, the male reproductive organ of the flower. Each pollen grain contains a vegetative cell, and a generative cell that divides to form two sperm cells. The pollen is delivered by the opening of anthers for subsequent pollination, that is, for the transfer of pollen grains to the pistil, the female reproductive organ. Pollination is usually carried out by wind, water or insects. The ovaries hold the ovules that produce the female gamete: the egg cell, which waits in place for fertilization.
Once a pollen grain settles on a compatible pistil, it may germinate in response to a sugary fluid secreted by the mature stigma of certain plants. Lipids at the surface of the stigma may also stimulate pollen tube growth for compatible pollen. Plants that are self - sterile often inhibit the pollen grains from their own flowers from growing pollen tubes. The presence of multiple grains of pollen has been observed to stimulate quicker pollen tube growth in some plants. The vegetative cell then produces the pollen tube, a tubular protrusion from the pollen grain, which carries the sperm cells within its cytoplasm. The sperm cells are the male gametes that will join with the egg cell and the central cell in double fertilization.
The germinated pollen tube must then drill its way through the nutrient - rich style and curl to the bottom of the ovary to reach the ovule. Once the pollen tube successfully attains an ovule, it delivers the two sperm cells with a burst. One of them fertilizes the egg cell to form an embryo, which will become the future plant. The other one fuses with both polar nuclei of the central cell to form the endosperm, which serves as the embryo 's food supply. Finally, the ovary will develop into a fruit and the ovules will develop into seeds.
Pollen tubes are an excellent model for the understanding of plant cell behavior. They are easily cultivated in vitro and have a very dynamic cytoskeleton that polymerizes at very high rates, providing the pollen tube with interesting mechanical properties. The pollen tube has an unusual kind of growth; it extends exclusively at its apex. Extending the cell wall only at the tip minimizes friction between the tube and the invaded tissue. This tip growth is performed in a pulsating manner rather than in a steady fashion. Remarkably, the pollen tube 's journey through the style often results in depth - to - diameter ratios above 100: 1 and up to 1000: 1 in certain species. The internal machinery and the external interactions that govern the dynamics of pollen tube growth are far from being fully understood.
Extensive work has been dedicated to comprehend how the pollen tube responds to extracellular guidance signals to achieve fertilization. It is believed that pollen tubes react to a combination of chemical, electrical, and mechanical cues during its journey through the pistil. However, it is not clear how these external cues work or how they are processed internally. Moreover, sensory receptors for any external cue have not been identified yet. Nevertheless, several aspects have already been identified as central in the process of pollen tube growth. The actin filaments in the cytoskeleton, the peculiar cell wall, secretory vesicle dynamics, and the flux of ions, to name a few, are some of the fundamental features readily identified as crucial, but whose role has not yet been completely elucidated.
During pollen tube growth, DNA damages that arise need to be repaired in order for the male genomic information to be transmitted intact to the next generation. In the plant Cyrtanthus mackenii, bicellular mature pollen contains a generative cell and a vegetative cell. Sperm cells are derived by mitosis of the generative cell during pollen tube elongation. The vegetative cell is responsible for pollen tube development. Double - strand breaks in DNA that arise appear to be efficiently repaired in the generative cell, but not in the vegetative cell, during the transport process to the female gametophyte.
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name any three major occupation in mysore division | Mysore division - wikipedia
Mysore Division includes the districts of Mysore, Chamarajanagar, Chikmagalur, Dakshina Kannada, Hassan, Kodagu, Mandya, and Udupi. The administrative headquarters of the division is Mysore. This division is home to Shivanasamudra, India 's oldest (established in 1902) operating hydroelectric power project.
Coordinates: 12 ° 18 ′ N 76 ° 42 ′ E / 12.3 ° N 76.7 ° E / 12.3; 76.7
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meaning of the ending of the ninth gate | The Ninth Gate - wikipedia
The Ninth Gate is a 1999 mystery thriller film directed, produced, and co-written by Roman Polanski. An international co-production between the United States, Portugal, France, and Spain, the film is loosely based upon Arturo Pérez - Reverte 's 1993 novel The Club Dumas. The plot involves the search for a rare and ancient book that purportedly contains a magical secret for summoning the Devil. The premiere showing was at San Sebastián, Spain, on 25 August 1999, a month before the 47th San Sebastian International Film Festival. Though critically and commercially unsuccessful in North America, where reviewers compared it unfavorably with Polanski 's celebrated supernatural film Rosemary 's Baby (1968), The Ninth Gate earned a worldwide gross of $58.4 million against a $38 million budget.
Dean Corso (Johnny Depp), a New York City rare book dealer, makes his living conning people into selling him valuable antique books for a low price, and then re-selling them to private collectors. Corso meets with wealthy book collector Boris Balkan (Frank Langella), who has recently acquired a copy of the (fictional) book The Nine Gates of the Kingdom of Shadows by 17th - century author Aristide Torchia, one of only three extant copies. The book is an adaptation of one written by the Devil himself and purportedly contains the means to summon the Devil and acquire invincibility and immortality. Balkan believes two of the copies are forgeries. He hires Corso to check all three and acquire the legitimate one by any means necessary.
Balkan 's copy was acquired from Andrew Telfer (Willy Holt), who killed himself soon after. Telfer 's widow Liana (Lena Olin) seduces Corso, in a failed attempt to get the book back. Meanwhile, Corso leaves the book for safekeeping with bookseller Bernie Rothstein (James Russo), who is then murdered; his corpse is found posed like an engraving in The Nine Gates.
Corso travels to Toledo, Spain. The Ceniza brothers, book restorers, show him that three of the engravings are signed "LCF ''. Corso deduces that Lucifer himself designed and cut them. Corso travels to Sintra, Portugal, to compare Victor Fargas ' (Jack Taylor) copy of the book to Balkan 's. To Corso 's surprise, he discovers that the signature "LCF '' is found in three different engravings, which vary in small but significant details from the images in the Balkan copy. The next morning, a mysterious young woman (identified only as "the Girl '') (Emmanuelle Seigner) who appears to have been shadowing Corso since Balkan hired him, awakens Corso and leads him to Fargas ' house. He finds the old man murdered and the "LCF '' - signed engravings ripped out of that copy.
In Paris, Corso visits the Baroness Kessler (Barbara Jefford), who owns the third copy. At first, the Baroness refuses to cooperate, but Corso intrigues her with evidence that the engravings differ among the three copies. He explains his idea: each copy contains three different "LCF '' - signed engravings, therefore all three copies are required for the ritual. Corso finds "LCF '' on three different engravings in the Baroness 's book, confirming his theory.
Kessler is killed, and the Girl rescues Corso from Liana 's bodyguard. When Liana steals Balkan 's copy from Corso 's hotel room, he follows her, and witnesses her using the book in a Satanist ceremony. Balkan suddenly interrupts the ceremony, kills Liana, and leaves with the engraved pages and his own intact copy.
Corso pursues Balkan to a remote castle, depicted in one of the engravings, and finds Balkan preparing the final ritual. After a struggle, Balkan traps Corso in a hole in the floor. Balkan performs his summoning ritual: he arranges the engravings on a makeshift altar, and recites a series of phrases related to each of the nine engravings. Balkan then douses the floor and himself with gasoline and sets it alight, believing himself to be immune to suffering. Balkan 's invocation fails, and he screams in pain as the flames engulf him. Corso frees himself, shoots Balkan, takes the engravings, and escapes.
Outside, the Girl appears and has sex with him by the light of the burning castle, her eyes and face seeming to change as she writhes on top of Corso. She tells him that Balkan failed because the ninth engraving he had used was a forgery. On her suggestion before she disappears, Corso returns to the Ceniza brothers ' now vacant shop. By chance, he finds there the authentic ninth engraving. On it, there is a likeness of the Girl. With the last engraving in hand, Corso returns to the castle. He completes the ritual and crosses through the Ninth Gate into the light.
Roman Polanski read the screenplay by Enrique Urbizu, an adaptation of the Spanish novel El Club Dumas (The Club Dumas, 1993), by Arturo Pérez - Reverte. Impressed with the script, Polanski read the novel, liking it because he "saw so many elements that seemed good for a movie. It was suspenseful, funny, and there were a great number of secondary characters that are tremendously cinematic ''. Pérez - Reverte 's novel, El Club Dumas features intertwined plots, so Polanski wrote his own adaptation with his usual partner, John Brownjohn (Tess, Pirates and Bitter Moon). They deleted the novel 's literary references and a sub-plot about Corso 's investigation of an original manuscript of a chapter of The Three Musketeers and concentrated upon Dean Corso 's pursuing the authentic copy of The Nine Gates.
Polanski approached the subject skeptically, saying, "I do n't believe in the occult. I do n't believe. Period. '' Yet he enjoyed the genre. "There (are) a great number of clichés of this type in The Ninth Gate, which I tried to turn around a bit. You can make them appear serious on the surface, but you can not help but laugh at them. '' The appeal of the film was that it featured "a mystery in which a book is the leading character '' and its engravings "are also essential clues ''.
In reading El Club Dumas, Polanski pictured Johnny Depp as "Dean Corso '', who joined the production as early as 1997, when he met Polanski at the Cannes Film Festival, while promoting The Brave, his directorial debut, then in festival competition. Initially, he did not think Depp right as "Corso '', because the character was forty years old (Depp at the time was only 34). He considered an older actor, but Depp persisted; he wanted to work with Roman Polanski.
The film press reported, around the time of the North American release of The Ninth Gate, creative friction between Depp and Polanski. Depp said, "It 's the director 's job to push, to provoke things out of an actor ''. Polanski said of Depp, "He decided to play it rather flat, which was n't how I envisioned it; and I did n't tell him it was n't how I saw it ''. Visually, in the neo-noir genre style, rare - book dealer Dean Corso 's disheveled grooming derives from Philip Marlowe, Raymond Chandler 's quintessential literary private investigator.
Polanski cast Frank Langella as Boris Balkan based upon his performance as Clare Quilty in Lolita (1997), directed by Adrian Lyne. Barbara Jefford was a last - minute replacement for the German actress originally cast as the Baroness Frida Kessler, who fell sick with pneumonia, and after a second actress proved unable to learn the character 's dialogue; with only days ' notice, Barbara Jefford learned her part, spoken with a German accent. Depp met his long - time partner Vanessa Paradis during the shooting.
The Ninth Gate was filmed in France, Portugal, and Spain in the summer of 1998. Selected prominent buildings in the film are:
The musical score for The Ninth Gate was composed by Wojciech Kilar, who previously collaborated with Polanski on Death and the Maiden (1994). The film 's main theme is loosely based upon Havanaise, for violin and orchestra, by Camille Saint - Saëns; some of the score is a vocalise by Korean soprano Sumi Jo. A soundtrack album was released on November 16, 1999 via Silva Screen label.
The premiere screening of The Ninth Gate was in San Sebastián, Spain, on 25 August 1999; in North America, it appeared in 1,586 cinemas during the March 10th, 2000 weekend, earning a gross income of $6.6 million, and $18.6 million in total. Worldwide, it earned $58.4 million against a $38 million production budget.
The film received mixed reviews. The Ninth Gate holds a 41 % rating at Rotten Tomatoes and a metascore of 44 on Metacritic. Most movie reviewers said that the suspense in The Ninth Gate was less than that of Rosemary 's Baby (1968), director Polanski 's famous supernatural - themed film. Roger Ebert said the ending was lackluster, "while at the end, I did n't yearn for spectacular special effects, I did wish for spectacular information -- something awesome, not just a fade - to - white ''. In his review for The New York Times, Elvis Mitchell said the movie was "about as scary as a sock - puppet re-enactment of The Blair Witch Project, and not nearly as funny ''. Entertainment Weekly rated the film "D + '', and Lisa Schwarzbaum said it had an "aroma of middle - brow, art - house Euro - rot, a whiff of decay and hauteur in a film not even a star as foxed, and foxy, as Johnny Depp, himself, could save ''. In the Los Angeles Times, Kenneth Turan said the film was "too laid - back, and unconcerned about the pacing of its story to be satisfying '', because "a thriller that 's not high - powered, is an intriguing concept, in reality it can hold our attention for only so long ''. In the Village Voice, J. Hoberman said the film was "barely releasable hokum, stuffed with cheesy blah - blah ''. European reviews were generally more attentive and praised the film 's fine pace and irony.
In Sight and Sound magazine, Phillip Strick said it was "not particularly liked at first outing -- partly because Johnny Depp, in fake grey temples, personifies the odious Corso of the book a little too accurately -- the film is intricately well - made, deserves a second chance, despite its disintegrations, and, in time, will undoubtedly acquire its own coven of heretical fans ''.
In Time magazine, Richard Corliss said that The Ninth Gate was Polanski 's most accessible effort "since fleeing the U.S. soon after Chinatown ''.
In the San Francisco Chronicle, Bob Graham said that "Depp is the best reason to see Polanski 's satanic thriller '' and "Polanski 's sly sense of film - noir conventions pokes fun at the genre, while, at the same time, honoring it ''.
On his website Groucho Reviews, web critic Peter Canavese called the film "an insinuating trip into devilish darkness '' and a "sorely underrated occult mystery ''.
After the release of The Ninth Gate, Artisan sued Polanski for taking more than $1 million from the budget, refunds of France 's value - added tax that he did not give to the completion bond company guaranteeing Artisan Entertainment a completed film.
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who plays santa in the santa clause movies | David Krumholtz - wikipedia
David Krumholtz (born May 15, 1978) is an American actor. He played Charlie Eppes in the CBS drama series Numb3rs. He also played Seth Goldstein in the Harold & Kumar film series and Bernard the Elf in the Santa Clause film series.
Krumholtz was born in Queens, New York City. He is the son of Judy and Michael Krumholtz, a dental assistant and a postal worker respectively. He grew up in a "very working - class, almost poor '' Jewish family. His paternal grandparents had emigrated from Poland, and his mother moved from Hungary to the U.S. in 1956.
At the age of 13, Krumholtz followed his friends to an open audition for the Broadway play Conversations with My Father (1992). When he tried out, he won the role of Young Charlie, with Judd Hirsch, Tony Shalhoub and Jason Biggs, who was also making his Broadway debut. Soon after his run on Broadway, Krumholtz co-starred in two feature films, Life With Mikey (1993) with Michael J. Fox and Addams Family Values (1993) with Christina Ricci. For his role in Mikey, David was nominated for a 1993 Young Artist Award. Although his work in these two films garnered him critical attention, David is probably best known by children as the sarcastic head elf Bernard from The Santa Clause (1994) and its first sequel The Santa Clause 2 (2002). However, because of his filming schedule on "Numb3rs '', which conflicted with the filming schedule on the second sequel, he could not reprise the role of Bernard in The Santa Clause 3: The Escape Clause (2006).
In 1994, Krumholtz co-starred in his first television series, Monty, with Henry Winkler; the show lasted only a few episodes. Krumholtz later starred in several short - lived series over the years. Along the way, he had the opportunity to work with Jason Bateman (Chicago Sons, 1997), Tom Selleck (The Closer, 1998), Jon Cryer (The Trouble with Normal, 2000), and Rob Lowe (The Lyon 's Den, 2003). In 2005, he finally found television success with the CBS series Numbers. Along with his starring roles on television, Krumholtz made guest appearances on ER as schizophrenic patient Paul Sobriki, as well as on Law & Order, Undeclared, Lucky, and Freaks and Geeks.
He broke out of the children 's movie genre with The Ice Storm (1997), directed by Ang Lee, and Slums of Beverly Hills (1998), starring Alan Arkin and Natasha Lyonne. In 1999, David starred as Michael Eckman in the popular teen movie 10 Things I Hate About You with Larisa Oleynik, Joseph Gordon - Levitt, Julia Stiles, and Heath Ledger. That same year, he portrayed a completely different teen character -- that of Yussel, a young conflicted Jewish man in Liberty Heights (1999).
It was the role of Yussel that brought Krumholtz to the attention of actor and filmmaker Edward Burns, who cast him in the independent film Sidewalks of New York (2001). Playing the romantic and slightly obsessed Benny, Krumholtz was on a path to larger, more complex film roles. His first role as a leading man was in the romantic comedy You Stupid Man (2002), opposite Milla Jovovich. Although never released theatrically in the United States, You Stupid Man, directed by Edward Burns 's brother Brian Burns, was released on DVD (2006). Krumholtz carried his first leading role in a released American film when he starred Big Shot: Confessions of a Campus Bookie (2002), which premiered on FX Networks.
Big Shot was a true story based on the Arizona State University basketball fixing scandal in 1994. Krumholtz played Benny Silman, a college student and campus bookmaker, who was jailed for his part in shaving points off key Arizona State basketball games. Benny was unlike any character Krumholtz had played before; and he garnered critical praise for his performance, proving that he was not just a sidekick.
In 2005, Krumholtz played Max in My Suicidal Sweetheart (formerly Max and Grace), once again starring opposite actress Natasha Lyonne. Krumholtz also returned to smaller key roles in the successful films Ray (2004) and Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle (2004). In September 2005, he was seen in Joss Whedon 's science fiction film Serenity as "Mr. Universe '', a hacker and information broker. Most recently, in early 2006, Krumholtz 's 2003 film Kill the Poor screened in New York City at IFC Center and across the country on Comcast 's On Demand cable service.
He played Charlie Eppes, a mathematical genius who helped his brother Don (Rob Morrow), an FBI agent, solve crimes using mathematics, on CBS ' show Numbers. The cast of Numbers also included Judd Hirsch and Peter MacNicol, who appeared with him in Addams Family Values as a camp counselor. Television critic Matt Roush (TV Guide) called Krumholtz 's work on Numbers "probably his best TV work to date ''. Numbers was officially cancelled by CBS on May 18, 2010.
In 2012, Krumholtz was cast opposite Michael Urie in CBS ' comedy TV series Partners but the show was cancelled after six episodes.
He appeared in two documentaries on the Knocked Up DVD (one being staged and the other being genuine). "Gummy: The Sixth Roommate '' tells the true story of how David dropped out of the film to play the lead part in a Woody Allen movie in Paris that got canceled before production, and Apatow would not write him back into his script. He would have played one of the main character 's five roommates (along with other Freaks and Geeks alumni Seth Rogen, Jason Segel and Martin Starr). Friend and fellow Freaks actor Jason Segel appears with him in a short scene in Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny.
On May 22, 2010, Krumholtz married actress Vanessa Britting (born Vanessa Almeda Goonan), at The Plaza Hotel, in New York City; they had been engaged since July 2008. They have a daughter, Pemma Mae Krumholtz, who was born in 2014.
In July 2011, Krumholtz was diagnosed with thyroid cancer, and began a radioactive iodine treatment five months later. At the end of January 2012, he was diagnosed cancer - free.
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who was the maitre d on hell's kitchen | Jean - Philippe Susilovic - Wikipedia
Jean - Philippe Susilovic (born 1975) is a Belgian television personality of Croatian ancestry, known for his appearances as the maître d'hôtel on the American version of Gordon Ramsay 's cooking reality show Hell 's Kitchen; he was also the Maître d'hôtel for the first series of the original British version of the show.
Susilovic joined Ramsay in 1995 in Ramsay 's restaurant Aubergine. Susilovic 's experience in Michelin - starred restaurants broadened when he moved to the U.S. to work in restaurants such as New York 's La Panetiere, Danube and Daniel 's. In October 2001, he moved to the Middle East to work with Ramsay as the manager of Verre at the Hilton Dubai Creek.
Along with his native French, Susilovic speaks English and Dutch.
Susilovic left the American Hell 's Kitchen show following the seventh season due to his commitment as Restaurant Director at Gordon Ramsay 's London restaurant Pétrus. Susilovic returned to the show for seasons 11 and 12 but again left before filming began on season 13.
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mr ya miss full movie with english subtitles | Mr. Ya Miss - Wikipedia
Mr Ya Miss (English: Mr or Miss) is a 2005 Indian Hindi - language comedy film written and directed by Antara Mali. Also starring herself along with Ritesh Deshmukh, Aftab Shivdasani and Divya Dutta.
A womaniser is accidentally killed by one of his many girlfriends. He then finds himself reincarnated as a woman. This is not a second chance but punishment for his behaviour in his past life. He has several problems as the things he used to do with other girls like flirting, are being done with him.
Slowly whilst leading a girl 's life he understands the error of his ways.
He starts to understand what girls feel and later when he realises it was a dream he starts respecting them.
Along with directing the film, Antara Mali also wrote script for it. The film is loosely inspired by 2002 Americal film The Hot Chick. The film is similar to the 1991 film Switch (1991 film).
The soundtrack album consists of four tracks written (lyrics and composition) by Nitin Raikwar while Kanha Kanha song 's lyrics are written by Satchit Puranik (also director of the film) and composed by Ronkini Sharma and Zoeb Khan.
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who is running for governor of ct 2018 | Connecticut Gubernatorial election, 2018 - wikipedia
Dannel Malloy Democratic
The 2018 Connecticut gubernatorial election will take place on November 6, 2018, to elect the next Governor and Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut, concurrently with the election of Connecticut 's Class I U.S. Senate seat, as well as other elections to the United States Senate in other states and elections to the United States House of Representatives and various state and local elections.
As Connecticut does not have gubernatorial term limits, incumbent Democratic Governor Dannel Malloy is eligible to run for a third term, but has declined to do so.
The Republican statewide nominating convention was held May 11 - 12, 2018 at Foxwoods Resort Casino in Ledyard, Connecticut. Under the rules established by the convention, any candidate not receiving 8 percent of the vote would be eliminated in the first round of voting. In the second round of voting, candidates not receiving 15 percent of the vote would be eliminated. In all subsequent rounds of voting, the candidate with the least amount of votes would be eliminated, regardless of percentage. Voting would continue until one candidate receives 50 percent plus one of all votes cast.
Hypothetical polling
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how did oregon become part of the united states | Oregon territory - wikipedia
Seal of the Oregon Territory
The Territory of Oregon was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from August 14, 1848, until February 14, 1859, when the southwestern portion of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Oregon. Originally claimed by several countries (see Oregon Country), the region was divided between the UK and US in 1846. When established, the territory encompassed an area that included the current states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, as well as parts of Wyoming and Montana. The capital of the territory was first Oregon City, then Salem, followed briefly by Corvallis, then back to Salem, which became the state capital upon Oregon 's admission to the Union.
Originally inhabited by Native Americans, the region that became the Oregon Territory was explored by Europeans first by sea. The first documented voyage of exploration was made in 1777 by the Spanish, and both British and American vessels visited the region not long thereafter. Subsequent land - based exploration by Alexander Mackenzie and the Lewis and Clark Expedition and development of the fur trade in the region strengthened the competing claims of Great Britain and the United States.
The competing interests of the two foremost claimants were addressed in the Treaty of 1818, which sanctioned a "joint occupation '', by British and Americans, of a vast "Oregon Country '' (as the American side called it) that comprehended the present - day U.S. states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, parts of Montana and Wyoming, and the portion of what is now the Canadian province of British Columbia south of the parallel 54 ° 40 ′ north.
During the period of joint occupation, most activity in the region outside of the activities of the indigenous people came from the fur trade, which was dominated by the British Hudson 's Bay Company. Over time, some trappers began to settle down in the area and began farming, and missionaries started to arrive in the 1830s. Some settlers also began arriving in the late 1830s, and covered wagons crossed the Oregon Trail beginning in 1841. At that time, no government existed in the Oregon Country, as no one nation held dominion over the territory.
A group of settlers in the Willamette Valley began meeting in 1841 to discuss organizing a government for the area. These earliest documented discussions, mostly concerning forming a government, were held in an early pioneer and Native American encampment and later town known as Champoeg, Oregon. These first Champoeg Meetings eventually led to further discussions, and in 1843 the creation of the Provisional Government of Oregon. In 1846, the Oregon boundary dispute between the U.S. and Britain was settled with the signing of the Oregon Treaty. The British gained sole possession of the land north of the 49th parallel and all of Vancouver Island, with the United States receiving the territory south of that line.
The United States federal government left their part of the region unorganized for two years until news of the Whitman massacre reached the United States Congress and helped to facilitate the organization of the region into a U.S. territory. On August 14, 1848, Congress passed the Act to Establish the Territorial Government of Oregon, which created what was officially the Territory of Oregon. The Territory of Oregon originally encompassed all of the present - day states of Idaho, Oregon and Washington, as well as those parts of present - day Montana and Wyoming west of the Continental Divide. Its southern border was the 42nd parallel north (the boundary of the Adams - Onis Treaty of 1819), and it extended north to the 49th parallel. Oregon City, Oregon, was designated as the first capital.
The territorial government consisted of a governor, a marshal, a secretary, an attorney, and a three - judge supreme court. Judges on the court also sat as trial level judges as they rode circuit across the territory. All of these offices were filled by appointment by the President of the United States. The two - chamber Oregon Territorial Legislature was responsible for passing laws, with seats in both the upper - chamber council and lower - chamber house of representatives filled by local elections held each year.
Taxation took the form of an annual property tax of 0.25 % for territorial purposes with an additional county tax not to exceed this amount. This tax was to be paid on all town lots and improvements, mills, carriages, clocks and watches, and livestock; farmland and farm products were not taxed. In addition, a poll tax of 50 cents for every qualified voter under age 60 was assessed and a graduated schedule of merchants ' licenses established, ranging from the peddlar 's rate of $10 per year to a $60 annual fee on firms with more than $20,000 of capital.
Oregon City served as the seat of government from 1848 to 1851, followed by Salem from 1851 to 1855. Corvallis served briefly as the capital in 1855, followed by a permanent return to Salem later that year. In 1853, the portion of the territory north of the lower Columbia River and north of the 46th parallel east of the river was organized into the Washington Territory. The Oregon Constitutional Convention was held in 1857 to draft a constitution in preparation for becoming a state, with the convention delegates approving the document in September, and then general populace approving the document in November.
On February 14, 1859, the territory entered the Union as the U.S. state of Oregon within its current boundaries. The remaining eastern portion of the territory (the portions in present - day southern Idaho and western Wyoming) was added to the Washington Territory.
Coordinates: 45 ° 30 ′ N 117 ° 00 ′ W / 45.5 ° N 117 ° W / 45.5; - 117
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when is the new season of black clover coming out | List of Black Clover episodes - wikipedia
Black Clover is a Japanese fantasy shōnen manga series written and illustrated by Yūki Tabata. The anime premiered on October 3, 2017. It is directed by Tatsuya Yoshihara, with Kazuyuki Fudeyasu writing scripts, Itsuko Takeda doing character designs, and Minako Seki composing the music. The first season was initially listed as running for 13 episodes, but was later expanded to 51 episodes. On September 3, 2018, Crunchyroll announced that a second season will continue on October 2, 2018.
An original video animation produced by Xebec that is based on the series was shown at the 2016 Jump Festa between November 27 and December 18, 2016. It was bundled with the 11th volume of the manga, which was released on May 2, 2017. Crunchyroll is streaming the series as it airs in Japan while Funimation is streaming an English simuldub. Adult Swim 's Toonami block premiered the English dub on December 2, 2017.
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last episode of are you the one season 6 | Are You the One? - Wikipedia
Are You the One? is an American reality television series on MTV, in which young singles try to find love. A group of men and women are secretly paired into male - female couples by producers, via a matchmaking algorithm. Then, while living together, the contestants try to identify all of these "perfect matches. '' If they succeed, the entire group shares a prize of up to $1 million. Over the course of each season, the contestants have the opportunity to pair up in different combinations to compete against each other to win dates, as well as the opportunity to learn in the "truth booth '' if a given couple is a correct match. At the end of each episode, the contestants pair up in a "matching ceremony '' and learn how many perfect matches they have, but not which matches are correct. From season 3 onward, the prize was reduced any time that the house failed to identify any matches other than those already confirmed via the truth booth.
On March 22, 2017, spin - off Are You The One: Second Chances premiered. 10 perfect matches from previous seasons returned to compete in tasks designed to test the strength of their bonds. Each week, teams could add to their potential winnings, but individual contestants had the opportunity to take their team 's winnings from their partner and remove their team from the game.
Filmed in Hawaii
Season one premiered on January 21, 2014.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match
In Week 5, Ryan Awarded the house 2 Truth Booths, which gave the house their first perfect match in Dillan and Coleysia.
Chris T. and Paige were a confirmed match in episode 6, but due to his relationship with Shanley, the episode ended with a "to be continued... '' instead of a Match - up Ceremony.
child and expecting another
Adam Kuhn & Shanley McIntee returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances and finished in 3rd place.
Baby Special and Reunion aired on September 29, 2014. During this reunion, the gender of Ethan and Amber 's baby was revealed to be a girl. Both parents - to - be got emotional when they found out they were having a girl. There were also conflicts between Scali and Jacy, Shanley and Chris T, and Ryan and Adam. The end of the episode resulted in most conflicts being resolved. Jacy stated that she would be moving to New York (where Scali is currently based) and they would take their relationship from there. Brittany told the camera that she would be taking Ryan home to meet her parents.
Challenge in bold indicates that the contestant was a finalist on The Challenge.
Filmed in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Season two premiered on October 6, 2014.It was set in Puerto Rico. This time, one guy has two matches which means that there will be eleven girls, but only ten boys. Christina is revealed as the first girl of the threeway couple. It is a race between Christina and another girl to find her perfect match and be confirmed as such in the Truth - Booth. The first couple of the threeway - couple to do so will end up in the honeymoon - suite. The other girl will have to leave empty - handed.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match N / A This girl was not chosen in the match - up ceremony
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
Nathan "Nate '' Siebenmark & Ellie Puckett returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances and finished in 9th place.
Challenge in bold indicates that the contestant was a finalist on The Challenge.
Filmed in Kona, Hawaii.
Season three premiered on September 21, 2015.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
Due to the blackout in Episode 2, the whole cast lost $250,000, lowering the total money at the end to $750,000, instead of $1,000,000.
In Episode 9, Mike was removed from the competition due to an altercation that turned violent with Amanda. Kiki was left without a match that week and was automatically paired with Mike. In the end it turned out that Mike and Kiki were perfect matches.
Mike Crescenzo was later a cast member of the 32nd season of Real World, Real World Seattle: Bad Blood.
Devin Walker - Molaghan & Rashida Beach returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances and finished in 1st place earning themselves $170,000.
Challenge in bold indicates that the contestant was a finalist on The Challenge.
Filmed in Maui, Hawaii. Season four premiered on June 13, 2016.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
Due to the blackout in Episode 8, the whole cast lost $250,000, lowering the total money at the end to $750,000, instead of $1,000,000.
Asaf Goren & Kaylen Zahara, Cameron Kolbo & Mikala Thomas, Giovanni Rivera & Francesca Duncan and Morgan St. Pierre & Tori Deal returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances. Rivera and Duncan finished in 8th place after Duncan stole all of the money from Rivera. Goren and Zahara finished in 6th place. Kolbo & Thomas finished in 4th place. St. Pierre and Deal finished in 2nd place earning themselves $25,000.
Note: Tori competed on the Champs vs. Stars special.
Note: Tori made an appearance on Vendettas for an elimination.
Filmed in Cabarete, Dominican Republic.
Season five premiered on January 11 2017.
This season featured 2 big changes. When a couple gets sent into the truth booth to see if they are a perfect match, the rest of the house can either vote to see if they are a perfect match, or earn $150,000, and not see the result of the couple. This only will pertain to certain weeks. Also, if the house blacks out at a match - up ceremony, their money will decrease by 50 % each time instead of $250,000.
Name Confirmed Perfect Match Name Unconfirmed Perfect Match Name Confirmed Not A Match for the whole season. Correct Matching is in parentheses.
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
Due to the blackout in Episode 2, the whole cast lost $500,000, lowering the total money at the end to $500,000 instead of $1,000,000.
In Episode 9, the cast decided to take the trade offer instead of finding out if Derrick and Tyranny were a perfect match, which increased the total money at stake to $650,000
In Episode 10, the cast decided to take the trade offer instead of finding out if Joey and Casandra were a perfect match, which increased the total money at stake to $800,000
In Episode 10, the cast did not find all their perfect matches, winning no money at the end.
After the reunion, final Perfect Matches were revealed as the following:
Note: In Episode 9, the cast decided to take the $150,000 trade instead of finding out if Derrick and Tyranny were a match. The result of their match is unavailable.
Note: In Episode 10, the cast decided to take the $150,000 trade instead of finding out if Joey and Casandra were a match. The result of their match is unavailable.
Note: Look at the revealed perfect matches this will give you the results of the Derrick / Tyranny and Joey / Casandra Truth Booths.
Derrick Henry & Casandra Martinez, Hayden Weaver & Carolina Duarte and Mike Cerasani & Alicia Wright returned for the Are You The One?: Second Chances. Henry and Martinez finished in 10th place. Weaver and Duarte finished in 7th place after Weaver stole all of the money from Duarte. Cerasani and Wright finished in 5th Place.
Filmed in New Orleans, Louisiana. The new host is Terrence J.
Season six premiered on September 20th, 2017.
Name = Confirmed perfect match Name = Unconfirmed perfect match
Once the truth booth confirms a perfect match, that couple will go to the honeymoon suite and will automatically be paired up for the remainder of the match ceremonies.
At the reunion, it was confirmed that Keith was dating Carolina from season 5 and Anthony was dating Shannon from season 5. Nurys is casually dating Nelson from season 3.
Casting Began for season 7 on the 22nd January 2018.
Filmed in Melbourne, Australia. Hosted by Karamo Brown. Premiered March 22, 2017.
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when was season 12 of grey's anatomy filmed | Grey 's Anatomy (season 12) - wikipedia
The twelfth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy was ordered on May 7, 2015, by ABC. It premiered on September 24, 2015, in the United States on ABC. The twelfth season includes the show 's 250th episode, Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner, which is the fifth episode in the season. The season is produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Stacy McKee and William Harper. The season commenced airing with the episode "Sledgehammer '' and concluded with "Family Affair ''.
This season was the first not to feature Patrick Dempsey as Dr. Derek Shepherd following the death of the character at the end of the eleventh season. On June 5, 2015 ABC announced that Jason George has been promoted to series regular status after having performed a recurring role as Dr. Ben Warren since the sixth season of the medical drama. Part way into the season Martin Henderson was introduced as new regular character, Dr. Nathan Riggs. In the tenth episode of the season Giacomo Gianniotti was also promoted to series regular status as intern Andrew DeLuca.
The season, garnered 11.21 million average viewers and was ranked 21st overall in total viewers which is fifteen spots higher than the previous season. TV critics and analysts noted the renewed interest in viewership with Rich Kissell of Variety calling it a ' renaissance. ' Grey 's Anatomy finished the 2015 -- 16 television season as ABC 's highest - rated drama in the 18 - 49 demographics and also ranked among the top five dramas on all of broadcast, averaging a 3.9 rating in the demo, an unprecedented accomplishment for a show in its 12th season. On March 3, 2016, the network renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a thirteenth season.
The season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington.
The season takes place three months after the events of the last season finale in which Richard and Catherine got married. April and Jackson 's relationship has hit the rocks after April has resumed her work overseas in Jordan, leaving Jackson high and dry once again. Once the new intern year begins, Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) starts teaching the new interns an anatomy class. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) is appointed the new Chief of Surgery, much to the dismay of her husband Ben Warren (Jason George), who starts to feel like he is the inferior one in their relationship, leading to some tension between the two.
Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) begins a relationship with intern Andrew DeLuca (Giacomo Gianniotti), however they face some problems that many new relationships face. However these problems become much worse for the two when Andrew starts to avoid Maggie. April Kepner (Sarah Drew) returns from Jordan in the premiere wanting to improve her relationship with her husband, Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams), while Jackson does n't feel the same way and wants to end their relationship. The two start trying to work through their problems and end up have a one - night stand. This results in April becoming pregnant with Jackson 's baby, although she does not wish to tell him. Jackson then believes that there is no way of the two working through their problems and wants a divorce, to which April agrees, withholding her pregnancy from him.
Penelope "Penny '' Blake (Samantha Sloyan) is introduced as a new transfer resident from Dillard Medical Center and new love interest for Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez). Callie brings Penny to a dinner party hosted by Meredith, Amelia and Maggie. Once arriving Meredith immediately recognizes Penny as one of the doctors that worked on her husband, Derek Shepherd at the time of his death. This news brings much dismay to Callie, however she still continues into a relationship with Penny causing tension between herself, Meredith and Amelia Shepherd. Meredith begins working with Penny and finds it very difficult, although after seeking the advice of Richard Webber (James Pickens Jr.), Meredith forms a working relationship with Penny and the two form a student and mentor bond.
Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson), a friend of April 's from Jordan, is hired by Bailey. He is revealed to have a dark history with Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd), resulting in much friction between Hunt and Riggs, to the point where there is even a physical conflict. Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone) seeks to help Owen through his traumatic relationship with Riggs, although Owen does not accept the help offered to him by Amelia. This leads to Amelia feeling hurt and to her drinking, despite the fact that she is a recovering addict.
On January 23, 2014 it was reported that Ellen Pompeo and Patrick Dempsey had renewed their contracts for another two seasons, as Drs. Meredith Grey and Derek Shepherd, respectively, meaning their characters would be staying on the medical drama for seasons 11 and 12. On April 24, 2015, Patrick Dempsey revealed that he would be leaving Grey 's Anatomy after the eleventh season despite having a contract through another season. Thus, this will be the first season in which Dr. Derek Shepherd, portrayed by Patrick Dempsey, is not included in the main cast of characters. Dempsey 's character Dr. Derek Shepherd was killed off towards the end of the eleventh season in the episode "How to Save a Life '', meaning he will not return for the twelfth season as previously thought. ABC put out a statement claiming Dempsey wanted to pursue other interests.
On May 2, 2014, the rest of the six original cast mates, Justin Chambers, Chandra Wilson and James Pickens Jr., excluding Sandra Oh, renewed their contracts for another two seasons (11 and 12) as Drs. Alex Karev, Miranda Bailey, and Richard Webber, respectively. Sara Ramirez also renewed her contract for another two seasons as Dr. Callie Torres, which will run out after the twelfth season. However, it was later announced on May 20, 2016 that Sara Ramirez, who portrayed Callie Torres for ten seasons, would leave Grey 's. Chambers announced on March 11, 2016, on Twitter that he will return as Dr. Alex Karev for the 13th season.
On June 5, 2015, it was announced that after several seasons of being a recurring role, Jason George was upgraded to a series regular. It was announced on June 15, 2015, that Martin Henderson, who played a doctor on the ShondaLand produced show Off the Map, would be added as a series regular for the twelfth season. He will make his debut in the middle of the season, according to Rhimes. On June 28, 2015, it was announced that Jessica Capshaw, whose contract expired after Season 11, had renewed her contract for another three seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins. This means that her character will be staying on the show through seasons 12 as well as possible seasons 13 and 14.
It was announced on September 11, 2015 that Chasing Amy actress Joey Lauren Adams would guest star as Dr. Tracy McConnell, Dr. Bailey 's opponent for Chief of Surgery, and appeared in the season premiere. TV veteran Bill Smitrovich was announced on November 12, 2015, to guest star as a therapist in the tenth episode of the season. After appearing as Dr. Andrew DeLuca as a guest star in the first eight episodes, Giacomo Gianniotti was upgraded to a series regular on January 8, 2016. It was announced on January 8, 2016 that Maya Stojan will appear in one episode as a guest star which later turned out to be Jackson 's patient Tatiana whom he treated over several years. On February 26, 2016, it was announced that Casey Wilson and Rita Moreno would both guest star in episode fourteen of the season. Variety announced on March 8, 2016, that Wilmer Valderrama was cast as Kyle Diaz, a recurring role which he will play in a multi-episode arc.
On May 7, 2015, ABC renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a twelfth season for the 2015 - 16 television season. ABC president Paul Lee confirmed that the twelfth season would not be the final season, as he said "I would like to see it run for many, many years to come. It is powerful, vibrant brand with incredibly passionate audiences '' Debbie Allen was promoted to executive producer for the twelfth season, and directed multiple episodes for the season while still recurring on camera as Dr. Catherine Avery. Production began on May 21, 2015, when Rhimes announced on Twitter that the writers were in full swing mapping the twelfth season. A promotional poster was released on September 16, 2015.
The season included the 250th episode named "Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner '', being the fifth episode. The cast of Grey 's Anatomy had a special celebration for the 250th episode of the show with several actors sharing the celebration on Twitter on September 15, 2015. Jessica Capshaw revealed that the episode included her favorite scene so far in the season. Because of the annual Halloween television special It 's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown, the twelfth season had a hiatus on October 29, 2015 following the 250th episode.
The remaining fall schedule for ABC was announced on November 16, 2015 where it was announced that Grey 's Anatomy would air eight episodes in the fall with the fall finale to air on November 19, 2015, just like the rest of ABC 's primetime lineup "TGIT '' Scandal and How to Get Away with Murder, which was the same last year. The remaining 16 episodes will air after the winter break, beginning on February 11, 2016, and ending on May 19, 2016, as a result of ABC airing the television miniseries Madoff over two nights on February 3 -- 4, 2016 in the same time - slot as Grey 's Anatomy and Scandal. On March 3, 2016, ABC announced that Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a 13th season.
Regarding the death of Dr. Derek Shepherd, showrunner Shonda Rhimes commented on how future seasons would be affected by the death as she said: "Now, Meredith and the entire Grey 's Anatomy family are about to enter uncharted territory as we head into this new chapter of her life. The possibilities for what may come are endless. As Ellis Grey would say: the carousel never stops turning. ''
During an interview with TVLine, Shonda Rhimes said that the twelfth season will take "a much lighter tone '' in the wake of Derek 's death. She continued talking about Meredith 's evolvement as she said "Meredith is single, and she is living this life that she 's never thought she 'd be living again. She 's living in a house with her sisters. She 's surrounded by women who are dating and having a whole life, and she 's not interested in all that. (Meredith is) starting to wonder is there a second life here or are your best years behind you? I guess the theme (of Season 12) is rebirth. That evolution for that character is beautiful ''.
Rumors began back in 2012 about a possible return of Katherine Heigl 's character Izzie Stevens to Grey 's Anatomy after Heigl expressed her desire to return for an arc to complete Izzie 's story. In May 2015, rumors began to swirl that Heigl would return for the twelfth season. Michael Ausiello from TVLine speculated on the return as he thought the upcoming twelfth season would be the perfect opportunity for Heigl to return to the show. He wrote that "the show needs a jolt of old - school energy to improve its vitals going into Season 12, and an Izzie comeback would be just what the doctor ordered. '' Heigl declined the rumors of returning to the show 's current season in an interview with Entertainment Tonight. At the ABC 's Television Critics Association press tours, Rhimes declined the rumors as she explained her reasons: "I 'm done with that story. I 've turned that idea over in my mind a thousand times and thought about how it would go. And I do n't think so. ''
The season marked the last appearance for long - time cast member Sara Ramirez who played Dr. Callie Torres on the series since 2006. Her character was involved in a custody battle with ex-wife Dr. Arizona Robbins, played by Jessica Capshaw, which led to the former 's move to New York from Seattle. On May 19, in a note posted on Twitter after the season finale, Ramirez wrote that she was "taking some welcome time off. '' Rhimes replied to the tweet by saying, "I will miss Callie tremendously, but am excited for what the future holds for Sara. She will always have a home at Shondaland. '' Later, speaking at the Vulture Festival in New York City on May 22, Rhimes, told that she did n't know that Ramirez was leaving until they had shot the finale. She addressed Callie 's send - off and said, "This one was different because it was n't a big planned thing, I had a different plan going and when Sara came in and said, ' I really need to take this break, ' I was lucky that we 'd shot the end of the season with her going to New York. ''
Prepping for the season began on July 13, 2015. The table read for the premiere was on July 15, 2015. Filming began on July 22, 2015. Two - time Academy Awards winner Denzel Washington was announced by TVLine to direct the ninth episode of the season, which will be Washington 's first go at directing television. He previously directed the films Antwone Fisher and The Great Debaters.
The number in the "No. overall '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
NPR listed Grey 's Anatomy as No. 7 on their list of the best television of 2015.
The A.V. Club 's Caroline Siede described the twelfth season of Grey 's Anatomy as "phenomenal '', stating that the series underwent a "powerful renaissance this year ''. A final grade of B+ was given to the season.
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only person to win two nobel prizes in two fields | Marie Curie - wikipedia
Marie Skłodowska Curie (/ ˈkjʊəri /; French: (kyʁi); Polish: (kjiˈri); born Maria Salomea Skłodowska; 7 November 1867 -- 4 July 1934) was a Polish and naturalized - French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person and only woman to win twice, the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different sciences, and was part of the Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes. She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris, and in 1995 became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon in Paris.
She was born in Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire. She studied at Warsaw 's clandestine Flying University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her older sister Bronisława to study in Paris, where she earned her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work. She shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with her husband Pierre Curie and with physicist Henri Becquerel. She won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Her achievements included the development of the theory of radioactivity (a term that she coined), techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes, and the discovery of two elements, polonium and radium. Under her direction, the world 's first studies into the treatment of neoplasms were conducted using radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and in Warsaw, which remain major centres of medical research today. During World War I, she developed mobile radiography units to provide X-ray services to field hospitals.
While a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who used both surnames, never lost her sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland. She named the first chemical element that she discovered in 1898 polonium, after her native country.
Marie Curie died in 1934, aged 66, at a sanatorium in Sancellemoz (Haute - Savoie), France, of aplastic anemia from exposure to radiation in the course of her scientific research and in the course of her radiological work at field hospitals during World War I.
Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Congress Poland in the Russian Empire, on 7 November 1867, the fifth and youngest child of well - known teachers Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski. The elder siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born 1862, nicknamed Zosia), Józef (born 1863, nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born 1865, nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born 1866, nicknamed Hela).
On both the paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland 's independence (the most recent had been the January Uprising of 1863 -- 65). This condemned the subsequent generation, including Maria and her elder siblings, to a difficult struggle to get ahead in life. Maria 's paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski, had been a respected teacher in Lublin, where he taught the young Bolesław Prus, who would become a leading figure in Polish literature.
Władysław Skłodowski taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pursue, and was also director of two Warsaw gymnasia for boys. After Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools, he brought much of the laboratory equipment home, and instructed his children in its use. He was eventually fired by his Russian supervisors for pro-Polish sentiments, and forced to take lower - paying posts; the family also lost money on a bad investment, and eventually chose to supplement their income by lodging boys in the house. Maria 's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls; she resigned from the position after Maria was born. She died of tuberculosis in May 1878, when Maria was ten years old. Less than three years earlier, Maria 's oldest sibling, Zofia, had died of typhus contracted from a boarder. Maria 's father was an atheist; her mother a devout Catholic. The deaths of Maria 's mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic.
When she was ten years old, Maria began attending the boarding school of J. Sikorska; next she attended a gymnasium for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal. After a collapse, possibly due to depression, she spent the following year in the countryside with relatives of her father, and the next year with her father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring. Unable to enroll in a regular institution of higher education because she was a woman, she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying University (sometimes translated as Floating University), a Polish patriotic institution of higher learning that admitted women students.
Maria made an agreement with her sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance during Bronisława 's medical studies in Paris, in exchange for similar assistance two years later. In connection with this, Maria took a position as governess: first as a home tutor in Warsaw; then for two years as a governess in Szczuki with a landed family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father. While working for the latter family, she fell in love with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, a future eminent mathematician. His parents rejected the idea of his marrying the penniless relative, and Kazimierz was unable to oppose them. Maria 's loss of the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both. He soon earned a doctorate and pursued an academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and rector of Kraków University. Still, as an old man and a mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Maria Skłodowska which had been erected in 1935 before the Radium Institute that she had founded in 1932.
At the beginning of 1890, Bronisława -- who a few months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish physician and social and political activist -- invited Maria to join them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition; it would take her a year and a half longer to gather the necessary funds. She was helped by her father, who was able to secure a more lucrative position again. All that time she continued to educate herself, reading books, exchanging letters, and being tutored herself. In early 1889 she returned home to her father in Warsaw. She continued working as a governess, and remained there till late 1891. She tutored, studied at the Flying University, and began her practical scientific training (1890 -- 91) in a chemical laboratory at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw 's Old Town. The laboratory was run by her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant in Saint Petersburg to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev.
In late 1891, she left Poland for France. In Paris, Maria (or Marie, as she would be known in France) briefly found shelter with her sister and brother - in - law before renting a garret closer to the university, in the Latin Quarter, and proceeding with her studies of physics, chemistry, and mathematics at the University of Paris, where she enrolled in late 1891. She subsisted on her meager resources, suffering from cold winters and occasionally fainting from hunger.
Skłodowska studied during the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. In 1893, she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory of Professor Gabriel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued studying at the University of Paris, and with the aid of a fellowship she was able to earn a second degree in 1894.
Skłodowska had begun her scientific career in Paris with an investigation of the magnetic properties of various steels, commissioned by the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry (Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale (1)). That same year Pierre Curie entered her life; it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together. Pierre Curie was an instructor at the School of Physics and Chemistry, the École supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles de la ville de Paris (ESPCI). They were introduced by the Polish physicist, Professor Józef Wierusz - Kowalski, who had learned that she was looking for a larger laboratory space, something that Wierusz - Kowalski thought Pierre Curie had access to. Though Curie did not have a large laboratory, he was able to find some space for Skłodowska where she was able to begin work.
Their mutual passion for science brought them increasingly closer, and they began to develop feelings for one another. Eventually Pierre Curie proposed marriage, but at first Skłodowska did not accept as she was still planning to go back to her native country. Curie, however, declared that he was ready to move with her to Poland, even if it meant being reduced to teaching French. Meanwhile, for the 1894 summer break, Skłodowska returned to Warsaw, where she visited her family. She was still laboring under the illusion that she would be able to work in her chosen field in Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków University because she was a woman. A letter from Pierre Curie convinced her to return to Paris to pursue a Ph. D. At Skłodowska 's insistence, Curie had written up his research on magnetism and received his own doctorate in March 1895; he was also promoted to professor at the School. A contemporary quip would call Skłodowska, "Pierre 's biggest discovery. '' On 26 July 1895 they were married in Sceaux (Seine); neither wanted a religious service. Curie 's dark blue outfit, worn instead of a bridal gown, would serve her for many years as a laboratory outfit. They shared two pastimes: long bicycle trips, and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer. In Pierre, Marie had found a new love, a partner, and a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend.
In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen discovered the existence of X-rays, though the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood. In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power. He demonstrated that this radiation, unlike phosphorescence, did not depend on an external source of energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from uranium itself. Influenced by these two important discoveries, Curie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for a thesis.
She used an innovative technique to investigate samples. Fifteen years earlier, her husband and his brother had developed a version of the electrometer, a sensitive device for measuring electric charge. Using her husband 's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity. Using this technique, her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present. She hypothesized that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of molecules but must come from the atom itself. This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the ancient assumption that atoms were indivisible.
In 1897, her daughter Irène was born. To support her family, Curie began teaching at the École Normale Supérieure. The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next to the School of Physics and Chemistry. The shed, formerly a medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof. They were unaware of the deleterious effects of radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances. The School did not sponsor her research, but she would receive subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organizations and governments.
Curie 's systematic studies included two uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite (also known as chalcolite). Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. She concluded that, if her earlier results relating the quantity of uranium to its activity were correct, then these two minerals must contain small quantities of another substance that was far more active than uranium. She began a systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation, and by 1898 she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive. Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her work. By mid-1898 he was so invested in it that he decided to drop his work on crystals and to join her.
The (research) idea (writes Reid) was her own; no one helped her formulate it, and although she took it to her husband for his opinion she clearly established her ownership of it. She later recorded the fact twice in her biography of her husband to ensure there was no chance whatever of any ambiguity. It (is) likely that already at this early stage of her career (she) realized that... many scientists would find it difficult to believe that a woman could be capable of the original work in which she was involved.
She was acutely aware of the importance of promptly publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her priority. Had not Becquerel, two years earlier, presented his discovery to the Académie des Sciences the day after he made it, credit for the discovery of radioactivity, and even a Nobel Prize, would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson. Curie chose the same rapid means of publication. Her paper, giving a brief and simple account of her work, was presented for her to the Académie on 12 April 1898 by her former professor, Gabriel Lippmann. Even so, just as Thompson had been beaten by Becquerel, so Curie was beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his own finding in Berlin.
At that time, no one else in the world of physics had noticed what Curie recorded in a sentence of her paper, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende and chalcolite than uranium itself: "The fact is very remarkable, and leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium. '' She later would recall how she felt "a passionate desire to verify this hypothesis as rapidly as possible. '' On 14 April 1898, the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100 - gram sample of pitchblende and ground it with a pestle and mortar. They did not realize at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities that they would eventually have to process tons of the ore.
In July 1898, Curie and her husband published a joint paper announcing the existence of an element which they named "polonium '', in honour of her native Poland, which would for another twenty years remain partitioned among three empires (Russian, Austrian, and Prussian). On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the existence of a second element, which they named "radium '', from the Latin word for "ray ''. In the course of their research, they also coined the word "radioactivity ''.
To prove their discoveries beyond any doubt, the Curies sought to isolate polonium and radium in pure form. Pitchblende is a complex mineral; the chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task. The discovery of polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the element bismuth, and polonium was the only bismuth - like substance in the ore. Radium, however, was more elusive; it is closely related chemically to barium, and pitchblende contains both elements. By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium, but appreciable quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach. The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salt by differential crystallization. From a ton of pitchblende, one - tenth of a gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902. In 1910, she isolated pure radium metal. She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half - life of only 138 days.
Between 1898 and 1902, the Curies published, jointly or separately, a total of 32 scientific papers, including one that announced that, when exposed to radium, diseased, tumor - forming cells were destroyed faster than healthy cells.
In 1900, Curie became the first woman faculty member at the École Normale Supérieure, and her husband joined the faculty of the University of Paris. In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion of her father 's death.
In June 1903, supervised by Gabriel Lippmann, Curie was awarded her doctorate from the University of Paris. That month the couple were invited to the Royal Institution in London to give a speech on radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, and Pierre Curie alone was allowed to. Meanwhile, a new industry began developing, based on radium. The Curies did not patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business.
In December 1903, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics, "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel. '' At first the committee had intended to honor only Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel, but a committee member and advocate for women scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Goesta Mittag - Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and after his complaint, Marie 's name was added to the nomination. Marie Curie was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize.
Curie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm to receive the prize in person; they were too busy with their work, and Pierre Curie, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill. As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a lecture, the Curies finally undertook the trip in 1905. The award money allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant. Following the award of the Nobel Prize, and galvanized by an offer from the University of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a position, the University of Paris gave him a professorship and the chair of physics, although the Curies still did not have a proper laboratory. Upon Pierre Curie 's complaint, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish a new laboratory, but it would not be ready until 1906.
In December 1904, Curie gave birth to their second daughter, Ève. She hired Polish governesses to teach her daughters her native language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland.
On 19 April 1906, Pierre Curie was killed in a road accident. Walking across the Rue Dauphine in heavy rain, he was struck by a horse - drawn vehicle and fell under its wheels, causing his skull to fracture. Curie was devastated by her husband 's death. On 13 May 1906 the physics department of the University of Paris decided to retain the chair that had been created for her late husband and to offer it to Marie. She accepted it, hoping to create a world - class laboratory as a tribute to her husband Pierre. She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris.
Curie 's quest to create a new laboratory did not end with the University of Paris, however. In her later years, she headed the Radium Institute (Institut du radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory created for her by the Pasteur Institute and the University of Paris. The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur Institute, who had been disappointed that the University of Paris was not giving Curie a proper laboratory and had suggested that she move to the Pasteur Institute. Only then, with the threat of Curie leaving, did the University of Paris relent, and eventually the Curie Pavilion became a joint initiative of the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute.
In 1910 Curie succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international standard for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her and Pierre: the curie. Nevertheless, in 1911 the French Academy of Sciences failed, by one or two votes, to elect her to membership in the Academy. Elected instead was Édouard Branly, an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the wireless telegraph. It was only over half a century later, in 1962, that a doctoral student of Curie 's, Marguerite Perey, became the first woman elected to membership in the Academy.
Despite Curie 's fame as a scientist working for France, the public 's attitude tended toward xenophobia -- the same that had led to the Dreyfus affair -- which also fueled false speculation that Curie was Jewish. During the French Academy of Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right - wing press as a foreigner and atheist. Her daughter later remarked on the French press ' hypocrisy in portraying Curie as an unworthy foreigner when she was nominated for a French honor, but portraying her as a French heroine when she received foreign honors such as her Nobel Prizes.
In 1911 it was revealed that in 1910 - 11 Curie had conducted an affair of about a year 's duration with physicist Paul Langevin, a former student of Pierre Curie 's, a married man who was estranged from his wife. This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited by her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mid-40s) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home - wrecker. When the scandal broke, she was away at a conference in Belgium; on her return, she found an angry mob in front of her house and had to seek refuge, with her daughters, in the home of her friend, Camille Marbo.
International recognition for her work had been growing to new heights, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, overcoming opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal, honored her a second time, with the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. This award was "in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element. '' She was the first person to win or share two Nobel Prizes, and remains alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates in two fields each. A delegation of celebrated Polish men of learning, headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to return to Poland and continue her research in her native country. Curie 's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the French government into supporting the Radium Institute, built in 1914, where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, and medicine. A month after accepting her 1911 Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and a kidney ailment. For most of 1912 she avoided public life but did spend time in England with her friend and fellow physicist, Hertha Ayrton. She returned to her laboratory only in December, after a break of about 14 months.
In 1912, the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her the directorship of a new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Radium Institute to be completed in August 1914, and on a new street named Rue Pierre - Curie. She was appointed Director of the Curie Laboratory in the Radium Institute of the University of Paris, founded in 1914. She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but the visit was mostly ignored by the Russian authorities. The Institute 's development was interrupted by the coming war, as most researchers were drafted into the French Army, and it fully resumed its activities in 1919.
During World War I, Curie recognised that wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as soon as possible. She saw a need for field radiological centres near the front lines to assist battlefield surgeons. After a quick study of radiology, anatomy, and automotive mechanics she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, auxiliary generators, and developed mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known as petites Curies ("Little Curies ''). She became the director of the Red Cross Radiology Service and set up France 's first military radiology centre, operational by late 1914. Assisted at first by a military doctor and by her 17 - year - old daughter Irène, Curie directed the installation of 20 mobile radiological vehicles and another 200 radiological units at field hospitals in the first year of the war. Later, she began training other women as aides.
In 1915, Curie produced hollow needles containing "radium emanation '', a colorless, radioactive gas given off by radium, later identified as radon, to be used for sterilizing infected tissue. She provided the radium from her own one - gram supply. It is estimated that over a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X-ray units. Busy with this work, she carried out very little scientific research during that period. In spite of all her humanitarian contributions to the French war effort, Curie never received any formal recognition of it from the French government.
Also, promptly after the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Nobel Prize medals to the war effort but the French National Bank refused to accept them. She did buy war bonds, using her Nobel Prize money. She said:
I am going to give up the little gold I possess. I shall add to this the scientific medals, which are quite useless to me. There is something else: by sheer laziness I had allowed the money for my second Nobel Prize to remain in Stockholm in Swedish crowns. This is the chief part of what we possess. I should like to bring it back here and invest it in war loans. The state needs it. Only, I have no illusions: this money will probably be lost.
She was also an active member in committees of Polonia in France dedicated to the Polish cause. After the war, she summarized her wartime experiences in a book, Radiology in War (1919).
In 1920, for the 25th anniversary of the discovery of radium, the French government established a stipend for her; its previous recipient was Louis Pasteur (1822 -- 95). In 1921, she was welcomed triumphantly when she toured the United States to raise funds for research on radium. Mrs. William Brown Meloney, after interviewing Curie, created a Marie Curie Radium Fund and raised money to buy radium, publicising her trip.
In 1921, U.S. President Warren G. Harding received her at the White House to present her with the 1 gram of radium collected in the United States. Before the meeting, recognising her growing fame abroad, and embarrassed by the fact that she had no French official distinctions to wear in public, the French government offered her a Legion of Honour award, but she refused. In 1922 she became a fellow of the French Academy of Medicine. She also travelled to other countries, appearing publicly and giving lectures in Belgium, Brazil, Spain, and Czechoslovakia.
Led by Curie, the Institute produced four more Nobel Prize winners, including her daughter Irène Joliot - Curie and her son - in - law, Frédéric Joliot - Curie. Eventually it became one of the world 's four major radioactivity - research laboratories, the others being the Cavendish Laboratory, with Ernest Rutherford; the Institute for Radium Research, Vienna, with Stefan Meyer; and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, with Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner.
In August 1922 Marie Curie became a member of the League of Nations ' newly created International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation. She sat on the Committee until 1934 and contributed to League of Nations scientific coordination with other prominent researchers such as Albert Einstein, Hendrik Lorentz, and Henri Bergson. In 1923 she wrote a biography of her late husband, titled Pierre Curie. In 1925 she visited Poland to participate in a ceremony laying the foundations for Warsaw 's Radium Institute. Her second American tour, in 1929, succeeded in equipping the Warsaw Radium Institute with radium; the Institute opened in 1932, with her sister Bronisława its director. These distractions from her scientific labours, and the attendant publicity, caused her much discomfort but provided resources for her work. In 1930 she was elected to the International Atomic Weights Committee, on which she served until her death.
Curie visited Poland for the last time in early 1934. A few months later, on 4 July 1934, she died at the Sancellemoz sanatorium in Passy, Haute - Savoie, from aplastic anemia believed to have been contracted from her long - term exposure to radiation.
The damaging effects of ionising radiation were not known at the time of her work, which had been carried out without the safety measures later developed. She had carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket, and she stored them in her desk drawer, remarking on the faint light that the substances gave off in the dark. Curie was also exposed to X-rays from unshielded equipment while serving as a radiologist in field hospitals during the war. Although her many decades of exposure to radiation caused chronic illnesses (including near - blindness due to cataracts) and ultimately her death, she never really acknowledged the health risks of radiation exposure.
She was interred at the cemetery in Sceaux, alongside her husband Pierre. Sixty years later, in 1995, in honour of their achievements, the remains of both were transferred to the Panthéon, Paris. She became the first woman to be honoured with interment in the Panthéon on her own merits. In 2015, two other women were also interred on their own merits.
Because of their levels of radioactive contamination, her papers from the 1890s are considered too dangerous to handle. Even her cookbook is highly radioactive. Her papers are kept in lead - lined boxes, and those who wish to consult them must wear protective clothing. In her last year, she worked on a book, Radioactivity, which was published posthumously in 1935.
The physical and societal aspects of the Curies ' work contributed to shaping the world of the twentieth and twenty - first centuries. Cornell University professor L. Pearce Williams observes:
The result of the Curies ' work was epoch - making. Radium 's radioactivity was so great that it could not be ignored. It seemed to contradict the principle of the conservation of energy and therefore forced a reconsideration of the foundations of physics. On the experimental level the discovery of radium provided men like Ernest Rutherford with sources of radioactivity with which they could probe the structure of the atom. As a result of Rutherford 's experiments with alpha radiation, the nuclear atom was first postulated. In medicine, the radioactivity of radium appeared to offer a means by which cancer could be successfully attacked.
If Curie 's work helped overturn established ideas in physics and chemistry, it has had an equally profound effect in the societal sphere. To attain her scientific achievements, she had to overcome barriers, in both her native and her adoptive country, that were placed in her way because she was a woman. This aspect of her life and career is highlighted in Françoise Giroud 's Marie Curie: A Life, which emphasizes Curie 's role as a feminist precursor.
She was known for her honesty and moderate life style. Having received a small scholarship in 1893, she returned it in 1897 as soon as she began earning her keep. She gave much of her first Nobel Prize money to friends, family, students, and research associates. In an unusual decision, Curie intentionally refrained from patenting the radium - isolation process, so that the scientific community could do research unhindered. She insisted that monetary gifts and awards be given to the scientific institutions she was affiliated with rather than to her. She and her husband often refused awards and medals. Albert Einstein reportedly remarked that she was probably the only person who could not be corrupted by fame.
As one of the most famous women scientists to date, Marie Curie has become an icon in the scientific world and has received tributes from across the globe, even in the realm of pop culture. In a 2009 poll carried out by New Scientist, she was voted the "most inspirational woman in science ''. Curie received 25.1 per cent of all votes cast, nearly twice as many as second - place Rosalind Franklin (14.2 per cent).
Poland and France declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie, and the United Nations declared that this would be the International Year of Chemistry. An artistic installation celebrating "Madame Curie '' filled the Jacobs Gallery at San Diego 's Museum of Contemporary Art. On 7 November, Google celebrated the anniversary of her birth with a special Google Doodle. On 10 December, the New York Academy of Sciences celebrated the centenary of Marie Curie 's second Nobel Prize in the presence of Princess Madeleine of Sweden.
Marie Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win two Nobel Prizes, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in multiple sciences. Awards that she received include:
Marie Curie 's 1898 publication with her husband and their collaborator Gustave Bémont for their discovery of radium and polonium was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the ESPCI Paris (Ecole supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles de la Ville de Paris) in 2015.
In 1995, she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon, Paris. The curie (symbol Ci), a unit of radioactivity, is named in honour of her and Pierre Curie (although the commission which agreed on the name never clearly stated whether the standard was named after Pierre, Marie or both of them). The element with atomic number 96 was named curium. Three radioactive minerals are also named after the Curies: curite, sklodowskite, and cuprosklodowskite. She received numerous honorary degrees from universities across the world. The Marie Skłodowska - Curie Actions fellowship program of the European Union for young scientists wishing to work in a foreign country is named after her. In Poland, she had received honorary doctorates from the Lwów Polytechnic (1912), Poznań University (1922), Kraków 's Jagiellonian University (1924), and the Warsaw Polytechnic (1926). In 1921, in the U.S., she was awarded membership in the Iota Sigma Pi women scientists ' society.
Her name is included on the Monument to the X-ray and Radium Martyrs of All Nations, erected in Hamburg, Germany in 1936.
Numerous locations around the world are named after her. In 2007, a metro station in Paris was renamed to honour both of the Curies. Polish nuclear research reactor Maria is named after her. The 7000 Curie asteroid is also named after her. A KLM McDonnell Douglas MD - 11 (registration PH - KCC) is named in her honour.
Several institutions bear her name, starting with the two Curie institutes: the Maria Skłodowska -- Curie Institute of Oncology, in Warsaw and the Institut Curie in Paris. She is the patron of Maria Curie - Skłodowska University, in Lublin, founded in 1944; and of Pierre and Marie Curie University (Paris VI), France 's pre-eminent science university. In Britain, Marie Curie Cancer Care was organized in 1948 to care for the terminally ill.
Two museums are devoted to Marie Curie. In 1967, the Maria Skłodowska - Curie Museum was established in Warsaw 's "New Town '', at her birthplace on ulica Freta (Freta Street). Her Paris laboratory is preserved as the Musée Curie, open since 1992.
Several works of art bear her likeness. In 1935, Michalina Mościcka, wife of Polish President Ignacy Mościcki, unveiled a statue of Marie Curie before Warsaw 's Radium Institute. During the 1944 Second World War Warsaw Uprising against the Nazi German occupation, the monument was damaged by gunfire; after the war it was decided to leave the bullet marks on the statue and its pedestal. In 1955 Jozef Mazur created a stained glass panel of her, the Maria Skłodowska - Curie Medallion, featured in the University at Buffalo Polish Room.
A number of biographies are devoted to her. In 1938 her daughter, Ève Curie, published Madame Curie. In 1987 Françoise Giroud wrote Marie Curie: A Life. In 2005 Barbara Goldsmith wrote Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie. In 2011 Lauren Redniss published Radioactive: Marie and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout.
Greer Garson and Walter Pidgeon starred in the 1943 U.S. Oscar - nominated film, Madame Curie, based on her life. More recently, in 1997, a French film about Pierre and Marie Curie was released, Les Palmes de M. Schutz. It was adapted from a play of the same name. In the film, Marie Curie was played by Isabelle Huppert.
Curie is the subject of the play False Assumptions by Lawrence Aronovitch, in which the ghosts of three other women scientists observe events in her life. Curie has also been portrayed by Susan Marie Frontczak in her play Manya: The Living History of Marie Curie, a one - woman show performed in 30 US states and nine countries, by 2014.
Curie 's likeness also has appeared on banknotes, stamps and coins around the world. She was featured on the Polish late - 1980s 20,000 - złoty banknote as well as on the last French 500 - franc note, before the franc was replaced by the euro. Curie themed postage stamps from Mali, the Republic of Togo, Zambia, and the Republic of Guinea actually show a picture of Susan Marie Frontczak portraying Curie in a 2001 picture by Paul Schroeder.
On the first centenary of Marie Curie 's second Nobel Prize in 2011, an allegorical mural was painted on the façade of her Warsaw birthplace. It depicts an infant Maria Skłodowska holding a test tube from which emanate the elements that she would discover as an adult: polonium and radium. Also in 2011, a new Warsaw bridge over the Vistula was named in her honor.
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who is the god of the underworld in greek mythology | Hades - Wikipedia
Hades (/ ˈheɪdiːz /; Greek: ᾍδης Háidēs) was the ancient Greek chthonic god of the underworld, which eventually took his name.
In Greek mythology, Hades was regarded as the oldest son of Cronus and Rhea, although the last son regurgitated by his father. He and his brothers Zeus and Poseidon defeated their father 's generation of gods, the Titans, and claimed rulership over the cosmos. Hades received the underworld, Zeus the sky, and Poseidon the sea, with the solid earth -- long the province of Gaia -- available to all three concurrently. Hades was often portrayed with his three - headed guard dog Cerberus.
The Etruscan god Aita and Roman gods Dis Pater and Orcus were eventually taken as equivalent to the Greek Hades and merged as Pluto, a Latinization of his euphemistic Greek name Plouton (Greek: Πλούτων Ploútōn).
The origin of Hades ' name is uncertain, but has generally been seen as meaning "the unseen one '' since antiquity. An extensive section of Plato 's dialogue Cratylus is devoted to the etymology of the god 's name, in which Socrates is arguing for a folk etymology not from "unseen '' but from "his knowledge (eidenai) of all noble things ''. Modern linguists have proposed the Proto - Greek form * Awides ("unseen ''). The earliest attested form is Aḯdēs (Ἀΐδης), which lacks the proposed digamma. West argues instead for an original meaning of "the one who presides over meeting up '' from the universality of death.
In Homeric and Ionic Greek, he was known as Áïdēs. Other poetic variations of the name include Aïdōneús (Ἀϊδωνεύς) and the inflected forms Áïdos (Ἄϊδος, gen.), Áïdi (Ἄϊδι, dat.), and Áïda (Ἄϊδα, acc.), whose reconstructed nominative case * Áïs (* Ἄϊς) is, however, not attested. The name as it came to be known in classical times was Háidēs (Ἅιδης). Later the iota became silent, then a subscript marking (ᾍδης), and finally omitted entirely (Άδης).
Perhaps from fear of pronouncing his name, around the 5th century BC, the Greeks started referring to Hades as Pluto (Πλούτων Ploútōn), with a root meaning "wealthy '', considering that from the abode below (i.e., the soil) come riches (e.g., fertile crops, metals and so on). Plouton became the Roman god who both rules the underworld and distributed riches from below. This deity was a mixture of the Greek god Hades and the Eleusinian icon Ploutos, and from this he also received a priestess, which was not previously practiced in Greece. More elaborate names of the same genre were Ploutodótēs (Πλουτοδότης) or Ploutodotḗr (Πλουτοδοτήρ) meaning "giver of wealth ''.
Epithets of Hades include Agesander (Ἀγήσανδρος) and Agesilaos (Ἀγεσίλαος), both from ágō (ἄγω, "lead '', "carry '' or "fetch '') and anḗr (ἀνήρ, "man '') or laos (λαός, "men '' or "people ''), describing Hades as the god who carries away all. Nicander uses the form Hegesilaus (Ἡγεσίλαος). He was also referred to as Zeus katachthonios (Ζεὺς καταχθόνιος), meaning "the Zeus of the Underworld '', by those avoiding his actual name, as he had complete control over the Underworld.
In Greek mythology, Hades, the god of the underworld, was a son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. He had three sisters, Demeter, Hestia, and Hera, as well as two brothers, Poseidon and Zeus, the youngest of the three. Upon reaching adulthood, Zeus managed to force his father to disgorge his siblings. After their release, the six younger gods, along with allies they managed to gather, challenged the elder gods for power in the Titanomachy, a divine war. The war lasted for ten years and ended with the victory of the younger gods. Following their victory, according to a single famous passage in the Iliad (xv. 187 -- 93), Hades and his two brothers, Poseidon and Zeus, drew lots for realms to rule. Zeus received the sky, Poseidon received the seas, and Hades received the underworld, the unseen realm to which the souls of the dead go upon leaving the world as well as any and all things beneath the earth. Some myths suggest that Hades was dissatisfied with his turnout, but had no choice and moved to his new realm.
Hades obtained his wife and queen, Persephone, through abduction at the behest of Zeus. This myth is the most important one Hades takes part in; it also connected the Eleusinian Mysteries with the Olympian pantheon, particularly as represented in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, which is the oldest story of the abduction, most likely dating back to the beginning of the 6th Century BC. Helios told the grieving Demeter that Hades was not unworthy as a consort for Persephone:
Aidoneus, the Ruler of Many, is no unfitting husband among the deathless gods for your child, being your own brother and born of the same stock: also, for honor, he has that third share which he received when division was made at the first, and is appointed lord of those among whom he dwells.
Despite modern connotations of death as evil, Hades was actually more altruistically inclined in mythology. Hades was often portrayed as passive rather than evil; his role was often maintaining relative balance. That said, he was also depicted as cold and stern, and he held all of his subjects equally accountable to his laws. Any other individual aspects of his personality are not given, as Greeks refrained from giving him much thought to avoid attracting his attention.
Hades ruled the dead, assisted by others over whom he had complete authority. The House of Hades was described as full of "guests, '' though he rarely left the Underworld. He cared little about what happened in the Upperworld, as his primary attention was ensuring none of his subjects ever left.
He strictly forbade his subjects to leave his domain and would become quite enraged when anyone tried to leave, or if someone tried to steal the souls from his realm. His wrath was equally terrible for anyone who tried to cheat death or otherwise crossed him, as Sisyphus and Pirithous found out to their sorrow. While usually indifferent to his subjects, Hades was very focused on the punishment of these two people; particularly Pirithous, as he entered the underworld in an attempt to steal Persephone for himself, and consequently was forced onto the "Chair of Forgetfulness ''. Another myth is about the Roman god Asclepius who was originally a demigod, fathered by Apollo and birthed by Coronis, a Thessalian princess. During his lifetime, he became a famous and talented physician, who eventually was able to bring the dead back to life. Feeling cheated, Plouton persuaded Zeus to kill him with a thunderbolt. After his death, he was brought to Olympus where he became a god. Hades was only depicted outside of the Underworld once in myth, and even that is believed to have been an instance where he had just left the gates of the Underworld, which was when Heracles shot him with an arrow as Hades was attempting to defend the city of Plyus. After he was shot, however, he traveled to Olympus to heal. Besides Heracles, the only other living people who ventured to the Underworld were also heroes: Odysseus, Aeneas (accompanied by the Sibyl), Orpheus, who Hades showed uncharacteristic mercy towards at Persephone 's persuasion, who was moved by Orpheus ' music, Theseus with Pirithous, and, in a late romance, Psyche. None of them were pleased with what they witnessed in the realm of the dead. In particular, the Greek war hero Achilles, whom Odysseus conjured with a blood libation, said:
O shining Odysseus, never try to console me for dying. I would rather follow the plow as thrall to another man, one with no land allotted to him and not much to live on, than be a king over all the perished dead.
Hades, as the god of the dead, was a fearsome figure to those still living; in no hurry to meet him, they were reluctant to swear oaths in his name, and averted their faces when sacrificing to him. Since to many, simply to say the word "Hades '' was frightening, euphemisms were pressed into use. Since precious minerals come from under the earth (i.e., the "underworld '' ruled by Hades), he was considered to have control of these as well, and was referred to as Πλούτων (Plouton, related to the word for "wealth ''), Latinized as Pluto. Sophocles explained the notion of referring to Hades as "the rich one '' with these words: "the gloomy Hades enriches himself with our sighs and our tears. '' In addition, he was called Clymenus ("notorious ''), Polydegmon ("who receives many ''), and perhaps Eubuleus ("good counsel '' or "well - intentioned ''), all of them euphemisms for a name that was unsafe to pronounce, which evolved into epithets.
He spent most of the time in his dark realm. Formidable in battle, he proved his ferocity in the famous Titanomachy, the battle of the Olympians versus the Titans, which established the rule of Zeus.
Feared and loathed, Hades embodied the inexorable finality of death: "Why do we loathe Hades more than any god, if not because he is so adamantine and unyielding? '' The rhetorical question is Agamemnon 's. He was not, however, an evil god, for although he was stern, cruel, and unpitying, he was still just. Hades ruled the Underworld and was therefore most often associated with death and feared by men, but he was not Death itself -- the actual embodiment of Death was Thanatos, although Euripides ' play "Alkestis '' states fairly clearly that Thanatos and Hades were one and the same deity, and gives an interesting description of him as dark - cloaked and winged; moreover, Hades was also referred to as "Hesperos Theos '' ("God of Death and Darkness '').
When the Greeks propitiated Hades, they banged their hands on the ground to be sure he would hear them. Black animals, such as sheep, were sacrificed to him, and the very vehemence of the rejection of human sacrifice expressed in myth suggests an unspoken memory of some distant past. The blood from all chthonic sacrifices including those to propitiate Hades dripped into a pit or cleft in the ground. The person who offered the sacrifice had to avert his face.
One ancient source says that he possessed the Cap of invisibility. His chariot, drawn by four black horses, made for a fearsome and impressive sight. His other ordinary attributes were the narcissus and cypress plants, the Key of Hades and Cerberus, the three - headed dog. In certain portraits, snakes also appeared to be attributed to Hades as he was occasionally portrayed to be either holding them or accompanied by them. This is believed to hold significance as in certain classical sources Hades ravished Kore in the guise of a snake, who went on to give birth to Zagreus - Dionysus. While bearing the name ' Zeus ', Zeus Olympios, the great king of the gods, noticeably differs from the Zeus Meilichios, a decidedly Chthonian character, often portrayed as a snake, and as seen beforehand, they can not be different manifestations of the same god, in fact whenever ' another Zeus ' is mentioned, this always refers to Hades. Zeus Meilichios and Zeus Eubouleus are often referred to being alternate names for Hades.
The philosopher Heraclitus, unifying opposites, declared that Hades and Dionysus, the very essence of indestructible life (zoë), are the same god. Among other evidence, Karl Kerényi notes in his book that the Homeric Hymn To Demeter, votive marble images and epithets all link Hades to being Dionysus. He also notes that the grieving goddess Demeter refused to drink wine, as she states that it would be against themis for her to drink wine, which is the gift of Dionysus, after Persephone 's abduction, because of this association; indicating that Hades may in fact have been a "cover name '' for the underworld Dionysus. He suggests that this dual identity may have been familiar to those who came into contact with the Mysteries. Dionysus also shared several epithets with Hades such as Chthonios, meaning "the subterranean '', Eubouleus, meaning "Good Counselor '', and Euclius, meaning "glorious '' or "renowned ''.
Evidence for a cult connection is quite extensive, particularly in southern Italy, especially when considering the death symbolism included in Dionysian worship; statues of Dionysus found in the Ploutonion at Eleusis gives further evidence as the statue bears a striking resemblance to the statue of Eubouleus also known as the youthful depiction of the Lord of the Underworld. The statue of Eubouleus is described as being radiant but disclosing a strange inner darkness. Ancient portrayals show Dionysus holding in his hand the kantharos, a wine - jar with large handles, and occupying the place where one would expect to see Hades. Archaic artist Xenocles portrayed on one side of a vase, Zeus, Poseidon and Hades, each with his emblems of power; with Hades ' head turned back to front and, on the other side, Dionysus striding forward to meet his bride Persephone, with the kantharos in his hand, against a background of grapes.
Both Hades and Dionysus were associated with a divine tripartite deity with Zeus. The Orphics in particular believed that Zeus and Hades were the same deity and portrayed them as such. Zeus was portrayed as having an incarnation in the underworld identifying him as literally being Hades and leading to Zeus and Hades essentially being two representations and different facets of the same god and extended divine power. This nature and aspect of Hades and Zeus displayed in the Orphic stories is the explanation for why both Hades and Zeus are considered to be the father of Melinoë and Zagreus. The role of unifying Hades, Zeus and Dionysus as a single tripartite god was used to represent the birth, death and resurrection of a deity and to unify the ' shining ' realm of Zeus and the dark underworld realm of Hades.
Hades was depicted so infrequently in artwork, as well as mythology, because the Greeks were so afraid of him. His artistic representations, which are generally found in Archaic pottery, are not even concretely thought of as the deity; however at this point in time it is heavily believed that the figures illustrated are indeed Hades. He was later presented in the classical arts in the depictions of the Rape of Persephone. Within these illustrations, Hades was often young, yet he was also shown as varying ages in other works. Due to this lack of depictions, there were n't very strict guidelines when representing the deity. On pottery, he has a dark beard and is presented as a stately figure on an "ebony throne. '' His attributes in art include a scepter, cornucopia, rooster, and a key, which both represented his control over the underworld and acted as a reminder that the gates of the Underworld were always locked so that souls could not leave. Even if the doors were open, Cerberus, the three - headed guard dog of the Underworld, ensured that while all souls were allowed to enter into The Underworld freely, none could ever escape. The dog is often portrayed next to the god as a means of easy identification, since no other deity relates to it so directly. Sometimes, artists painted Hades as looking away from the other gods, as he was disliked by them as well as humans.
As Plouton, he was regarded in a more positive light. He holds a cornucopia, representing the gifts he bestows upon people as well as fertility, which he becomes connected to.
The consort of Hades was Persephone, represented by the Greeks as the beautiful daughter of Demeter.
Persephone did not submit to Hades willingly, but was abducted by him while picking flowers in the fields of Nysa. In protest of his act, Demeter cast a curse on the land and there was a great famine; though, one by one, the gods came to request she lift it, lest mankind perish, she asserted that the earth would remain barren until she saw her daughter again. Finally, Zeus intervened; via Hermes, he requested that Hades return Persephone. Hades complied,
But he on his part secretly gave her sweet pomegranate seed to eat, taking care for himself that she might not remain continually with grave, dark - robed Demeter.
Demeter questioned Persephone on her return to light and air:
... but if you have tasted food, you must go back again beneath the secret places of the earth, there to dwell a third part of the seasons every year: yet for the two parts you shall be with me and the other deathless gods.
This bound her to Hades and the Underworld, much to the dismay of Demeter. It is not clear whether Persephone was accomplice to the ploy. Zeus proposed a compromise, to which all parties agreed: of the year, Persephone would spend one third with her husband.
It is during this time that winter casts on the earth "an aspect of sadness and mourning. ''
Theseus and Pirithous pledged to kidnap and marry daughters of Zeus. Theseus chose Helen and together they kidnapped her and decided to hold onto her until she was old enough to marry. Pirithous chose Persephone. They left Helen with Theseus ' mother, Aethra, and traveled to the Underworld. Hades knew of their plan to capture his wife, so he pretended to offer them hospitality and set a feast; as soon as the pair sat down, snakes coiled around their feet and held them there. Theseus was eventually rescued by Heracles but Pirithous remained trapped as punishment for daring to seek the wife of a god for his own.
Heracles ' final labour was to capture Cerberus. First, Heracles went to Eleusis to be initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries. He did this to absolve himself of guilt for killing the centaurs and to learn how to enter and exit the underworld alive. He found the entrance to the underworld at Taenarum. Athena and Hermes helped him through and back from Hades. Heracles asked Hades for permission to take Cerberus. Hades agreed as long as Heracles did n't harm Cerberus. When Heracles dragged the dog out of Hades, he passed through the cavern Acherusia.
The nymph Minthe, associated with the river Cocytus, loved by Hades, was turned into the mint plant, by a jealous Persephone.
In older Greek myths, the realm of Hades is the misty and gloomy abode of the dead (also called Erebus) where all mortals go when they die. Very few mortals could leave Hades once they entered. The exceptions, Heracles and Theseus, are heroic. Even Odysseus in his Nekyia (Odyssey, xi) calls up the spirits of the departed, rather than descend to them. Later Greek philosophy introduced the idea that all mortals are judged after death and are either rewarded or cursed.
There were several sections of the realm of Hades, including Elysium, the Asphodel Meadows, and Tartarus. Greek mythographers were not perfectly consistent about the geography of the afterlife. A contrasting myth of the afterlife concerns the Garden of the Hesperides, often identified with the Isles of the Blessed, where the blessed heroes may dwell.
In Roman mythology, the entrance to the Underworld located at Avernus, a crater near Cumae, was the route Aeneas used to descend to the realm of the dead. By synecdoche, "Avernus '' could be substituted for the underworld as a whole. The di inferi were a collective of underworld divinities.
For Hellenes, the deceased entered the underworld by crossing the Styx, ferried across by Charon kair ' - on), who charged an obolus, a small coin for passage placed in the mouth of the deceased by pious relatives. Paupers and the friendless gathered for a hundred years on the near shore according to Book VI of Vergil 's Aeneid. Greeks offered propitiatory libations to prevent the deceased from returning to the upper world to "haunt '' those who had not given them a proper burial. The far side of the river was guarded by Cerberus, the three - headed dog defeated by Heracles (Roman Hercules). Passing beyond Cerberus, the shades of the departed entered the land of the dead to be judged.
The five rivers of the realm of Hades, and their symbolic meanings, are Acheron (the river of sorrow, or woe), Cocytus (lamentation), Phlegethon (fire), Lethe (oblivion), and Styx (hate), the river upon which even the gods swore and in which Achilles was dipped to render him invincible. The Styx forms the boundary between the upper and lower worlds. See also Eridanos.
The first region of Hades comprises the Fields of Asphodel, described in Odyssey xi, where the shades of heroes wander despondently among lesser spirits, who twitter around them like bats. Only libations of blood offered to them in the world of the living can reawaken in them for a time the sensations of humanity.
Beyond lay Erebus, which could be taken for a euphonym of Hades, whose own name was dread. There were two pools, that of Lethe, where the common souls flocked to erase all memory, and the pool of Mnemosyne ("memory ''), where the initiates of the Mysteries drank instead. In the forecourt of the palace of Hades and Persephone sit the three judges of the Underworld: Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Aeacus. There at the trivium sacred to Hecate, where three roads meet, souls are judged, returned to the Fields of Asphodel if they are neither virtuous nor evil, sent by the road to Tartarus if they are impious or evil, or sent to Elysium (Islands of the Blessed) with the "blameless '' heroes.
In the Sibylline oracles, a curious hodgepodge of Greco - Roman and Judaeo - Christian elements, Hades again appears as the abode of the dead, and by way of folk etymology, it even derives Hades from the name Adam (the first man), saying it is because he was the first to enter there. Owing to its appearance in the New Testament of the Bible, Hades also has a distinct meaning in Christianity.
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how does shakespeare's work influence us today | Shakespeare 's influence - wikipedia
Shakespeare 's influence extends from theatre and literature to present - day movies, Western philosophy, and the English language itself. William Shakespeare is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the history of the English language, and the world 's pre-eminent dramatist. He transformed European theatre by expanding expectations about what could be accomplished through innovation in characterization, plot, language and genre. Shakespeare 's writings have also impacted a large number of notable novelists and poets over the years, including Herman Melville Charles Dickens, and Maya Angelou, and continue to influence new authors even today. Shakespeare is the most quoted writer in the history of the English - speaking world after the various writers of the Bible; many of his quotations and neologisms have passed into everyday usage in English and other languages.
Early Modern English as a literary medium was unfixed in structure and vocabulary in comparison to Greek and Latin, and was in a constant state of flux. When William Shakespeare began writing his plays, the English language was rapidly absorbing words from other languages due to wars, exploration, diplomacy and colonization. By the age of Elizabeth, English had become widely used with the expansion of philosophy, theology and physical sciences, but many writers lacked the vocabulary to express such ideas. To accommodate, writers such as Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sidney, Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare expressed new ideas and distinctions by inventing, borrowing or adopting a word or a phrase from another language, known as neologizing. Scholars estimate that, between the years 1500 and 2018, nouns, verbs and modifiers of Latin, Greek and modern Romance languages added 30,000 new words to the English language.
Shakespeare 's works have been a major influence on subsequent theatre. Shakespeare created some of the most admired plays in Western literature (with Macbeth, Hamlet and King Lear being ranked among the world 's greatest plays), and transformed English theatre by expanding expectations about what could be accomplished through plot and language. Specifically, in plays like Hamlet, Shakespeare "integrated characterization with plot, '' such that if the main character was different in any way, the plot would be totally changed. In Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare mixed tragedy and comedy together to create a new romantic tragedy genre (previous to Shakespeare, romance had not been considered a worthy topic for tragedy). Through his soliloquies, Shakespeare showed how plays could explore a character 's inner motivations and conflict (up until Shakespeare, soliloquies were often used by playwrights to "introduce (characters), convey information, provide an exposition or reveal plans '').
His plays exhibited "spectacular violence, with loose and episodic plotting, and with mingling of comedy with tragedy ''. In King Lear, Shakespeare had deliberately brought together two plots of different origins. Shakespeare 's work is also lauded for its insight into emotion. His themes regarding the human condition make him more acclaimed than any of his contemporaries. Humanism and contact with popular thinking gave vitality to his language. Shakespeare 's plays borrowed ideas from popular sources, folk traditions, street pamphlets, and sermons. Shakespeare also used groundlings widely in his plays. The use of groundlings "saved the drama from academic stiffness and preserved its essential bias towards entertainment in comedy ". Hamlet is an outstanding example of "groundlings '' quickness and response. Use of groundlings enhanced Shakespeare 's work practically and artistically. He represented English people more concretely and not as puppets. His skills have found expression in chronicles, or history plays, and tragedies.
Shakespeare 's earliest years were dominated by history plays and a few comedies that formed a link to the later written tragedies. Nine out of eighteen plays he produced in the first decade of his career were chronicles or histories. His histories were based on the prevailing Tudor political thought. They portrayed the follies and achievements of kings, their misgovernment, church and problems arising out of these. "In shaping, compressing, and altering chronicles, Shakespeare gained the art of dramatic design; and in the same way he developed his remarkable insight into character, its continuity and its variation ''. His characters were very near to reality.
"Shakespeare 's characters are more sharply individualized after Love 's Labour 's Lost ''. His Richard II and Bolingbroke are complex and solid figures whereas Richard III has more "humanity and comic gusto ''. The Falstaff trilogy is in this respect very important. Falstaff, although a minor character, has a powerful reality of its own. "Shakespeare uses him as a commentator who passes judgments on events represented in the play, in the light of his own super abundant comic vitality ''. Falstaff, although outside "the prevailing political spirit of the play '', throws insight into the different situations arising in the play. This shows that Shakespeare had developed a capacity to see the plays as whole, something more than characters and expressions added together. In Falstaff trilogy, through the character of Falstaff, he wants to show that in society "where touchstone of conduct is success, and in which humanity has to accommodate itself to the claims of expediency, there is no place for Falstaff '', a loyal human - being. This sentiment is so true even after centuries.
Shakespeare united the three main streams of literature: verse, poetry, and drama. To the versification of the English language, he imparted his eloquence and variety giving highest expressions with elasticity of language. The second, the sonnets and poetry, was bound in structure. He imparted economy and intensity to the language. In the third and the most important area, the drama, he saved the language from vagueness and vastness and infused actuality and vividness. Shakespeare 's work in prose, poetry, and drama marked the beginning of modernization of English language by introduction of words and expressions, style and form to the language.
Shakespeare is cited as an influence on a large number of writers in the following centuries, including major novelists such as Herman Melville, Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy and William Faulkner. Examples of this influence include the large number of Shakespearean quotations throughout Dickens ' writings and the fact that at least 25 of Dickens ' titles are drawn from Shakespeare, while Melville frequently used Shakespearean devices, including formal stage directions and extended soliloquies, in Moby - Dick. In fact, Shakespeare so influenced Melville that the novel 's main antagonist, Captain Ahab, is a classic Shakespearean tragic figure, "a great man brought down by his faults. '' Shakespeare has also influenced a number of English poets, especially Romantic poets such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge who were obsessed with self - consciousness, a modern theme Shakespeare anticipated in plays such as Hamlet. Shakespeare 's writings were so influential to English poetry of the 1800s that critic George Steiner has called all English poetic dramas from Coleridge to Tennyson "feeble variations on Shakespearean themes. ''
Shakespeare 's writings greatly influenced the entire English language. Prior to and during Shakespeare 's time, the grammar and rules of English were not standardized. But once Shakespeare 's plays became popular in the late seventeenth and eighteenth century, they helped contribute to the standardization of the English language, with many Shakespearean words and phrases becoming embedded in the English language, particularly through projects such as Samuel Johnson 's A Dictionary of the English Language which quoted Shakespeare more than any other writer. He expanded the scope of English literature by introducing new words and phrases, experimenting with blank verse, and also introducing new poetic and grammatical structures. He also inspired modern terms commonly used in the twenty - first century, such as the word "swag '', which derives from "swagger '', first seen in the text of his plays "Henry V '' and "A Midsummer Night 's Dream ''.
Among Shakespeare 's greatest contributions to the English language must be the introduction of new vocabulary and phrases which have enriched the language making it more colourful and expressive. Some estimates at the number of words coined by Shakespeare number in the several thousands. Warren King clarifies by saying that, "In all of his work -- the plays, the sonnets and the narrative poems -- Shakespeare uses 17,677 words: Of those, 1,700 were first used by Shakespeare. '' He is also well known for borrowing from the classical literature and foreign languages. He created these words by "changing nouns into verbs, changing verbs into adjectives, connecting words never before used together, adding prefixes and suffixes, and devising words wholly original. '' Many of Shakespeare 's original phrases are still used in conversation and language today. These include, but are not limited to; "seen better days, strange bedfellows, a sorry sight, '' and "full circle ''. Shakespeare added a considerable number of words to the English language when compared to additions to English vocabulary made in other times. Shakespeare helped to further develop style and structure to an otherwise loose, spontaneous language. Written Elizabethan English stylistically closely followed the spoken language. The naturalness gave force and freedom since there was no formalized prescriptive grammar binding the expression. While lack of prescribed grammatical rules introduced vagueness in literature, it also expressed feelings with profound vividness and emotion which created, "freedom of expression '' and "vividness of presentment ''. It was a language which expressed feelings explicitly. Shakespeare 's gift involved using the exuberance of the language and decasyllabic structure in prose and poetry of his plays to reach the masses and the result was "a constant two way exchange between learned and the popular, together producing the unique combination of racy tang and the majestic stateliness that informs the language of Shakespeare ''.
While it is true that Shakespeare created many new words (the Oxford English Dictionary records over 2,000), an article in National Geographic points out the findings of historian Jonathan Hope who wrote in "Shakespeare 's ' Native English ' '' that "the Victorian scholars who read texts for the first edition of the OED paid special attention to Shakespeare: his texts were read more thoroughly, and cited more often, so he is often credited with the first use of words, or senses of words, which can, in fact, be found in other writers. ''
Many critics and scholars consider Shakespeare 's first plays experimental, and believe the playwright was still learning from his own mistakes. Gradually his language followed the "natural process of artistic growth, to find its adequate projection in dramatic form ''. As he continued experimenting, his style of writing found many manifestations in plays. The dialogues in his plays were written in verse form and followed a decasyllabic rule. In Titus Andronicus, decasyllables have been used throughout. "There is considerable pause; and though the inflexibility of the line sound is little affected by it, there is a certain running over of sense ''. His work is still experimental in Titus Andronicus. However, in Love 's Labour 's Lost and The Comedy of Errors, there is "perfect metre - abundance of rime (rhyme), plenty of prose, arrangement in stanza ''. After these two comedies, he kept experimenting until he reached a maturity of style. "Shakespeare 's experimental use of trend and style, as well as the achieved development of his blank verses, are all evidences of his creative invention and influences ''. Through experimentation of tri-syllabic substitution and decasyllabic rule he developed the blank verse to perfection and introduced a new style.
"Shakespeare 's blank verse is one of the most important of all his influences on the way the English language was written ''. He used the blank verse throughout in his writing career experimenting and perfecting it. The free speech rhythm gave Shakespeare more freedom for experimentation. "Adaptation of free speech rhythm to the fixed blank - verse framework is an outstanding feature of Shakespeare 's poetry ''. The striking choice of words in common place blank verse influenced "the run of the verse itself, expanding into images which eventually seem to bear significant repetition, and to form, with the presentation of character and action correspondingly developed, a more subtle and suggestive unity ''. Expressing emotions and situations in form of a verse gave a natural flow to language with an added sense of flexibility and spontaneity.
He introduced in poetry two main factors -- "verbal immediacy and the moulding of stress to the movement of living emotion ''. Shakespeare 's words reflected passage of time with "fresh, concrete vividness '' giving the reader an idea of the time frame. His remarkable capacity to analyze and express emotions in simple words was noteworthy:
"When my love swears that she is made of truth, I do believe her, though I know she lies - ''
In the sonnet above, he has expressed in very simple words "complex and even contradictory attitudes to a single emotion ''.
The sonnet form was limited structurally, in theme and in expressions. Liveliness of Shakespeare 's language and strict discipline of the sonnets imparted economy and intensity to his writing style. "It encouraged the association of compression with depth of content and variety of emotional response to a degree unparalleled in English ''. Complex human emotions found simple expressions in Shakespeare 's language.
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aparición de la virgen de los angeles en costa rica | Virgen de los Ángeles - wikipedia
The Virgen de los Angeles (the Virgin of the Angels) is Costa Rica 's patron saint, also known as La Negrita. Virgen de los Angeles Day is a Costa Rican holiday celebrating the Virgen.
According to tradition, La Negrita, the Black Virgin, is a small (less than a meter tall), probably mulatto, representation of the Virgin Mary found on this spot on August 2, 1635 by a native woman. As the story goes, when she tried to take the statuette with her, it miraculously reappeared twice back where she 'd found it. The townspeople then built a shrine around her.
In 1824, the Virgin was declared Costa Rica 's patron saint. La Negrita now resides on a gold, jewel - studded platform at the main altar in the Basílica de Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles in Cartago. Each August 2, on the anniversary of the statuette 's miraculous discovery, pilgrims from every corner of the country (and beyond) walk the 22 km from San José to the basilica. Many of the penitent complete the last few hundred meters of the pilgrimage on their knees. This basilica is equally visited by tourists and locals.
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where was their eyes were watching god filmed | Their Eyes Were Watching God (film) - wikipedia
Their Eyes Were Watching God is an American Broadcasting Company television movie aired on March 6, 2005 at 9 p.m. EDT based upon Zora Neale Hurston 's 1937 novel of the same name. The film was directed by Darnell Martin and produced by Oprah Winfrey 's Harpo Productions (Winfrey served as the host for the broadcast). Its teleplay was by Suzan - Lori Parks, Misan Sagay, and Bobby Smith, Jr.
Sharon L. Jones, an English professor at Wright State University writes that the film bears no comparison to the novel. The novel emphasizes Janie 's life journey of living with others who try to help to establish identity for her; therefore, she struggles to find such an identity. However, Jones says the film leaves out many important concepts that help convey the central theme. She says that it is believed that Harpo 's production focused the movie on the general idea of love more to reach a broad range of audience since most of her viewers are white females.
Virginia Heffernan of The New York Times comments on Halle Berry 's performance as Janie. She states that out of all the actresses, Halle Berry excels at acting Janie 's role. She pinpoints that the sexual scenes that Berry acts impacts viewers greatly to the point where they will definitely not forget the movie.
Ester Iverem, a journalist states that the movie stands out for its Black romance and sexuality. She also mentions the chemistry seen between Halle Berry and Michael Ealy. Their acting skills as each other 's lover is what this movie stand out beyond its natural storyline. She furthers her thoughts by stating that the romance and sexuality seen in the movie are topics that compares to the romance and sexuality described in Hurston 's novel.
1. Cotton, Trystan T. and Kimberly Springer. Stories of Oprah. Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi Jackson, 2010. Print.
2. Felder, Deborah G. A Bookshelf of Our Own. New York, NY: Kensington Publishing Corp., 2005. Print.
3. Heffernan, Virginia. "NY Times Review: Their Eyes Were Watching God Interversity.Org. '' Interversity.Org A Bureaucracy - Free Zone. 4 March 2005. Web. 13 February 2011. < http://www.interversity.org/commentary/tewwg_review >.
4. Iverem, Esther. "Reviews of "Their Eyes Were Watching God, '' "Born into Brothels '' and Spike Lee 's "Sucker - Free City '' Plus, in Brief, "Hitch '' and "Diary of a Mad Black Woman ''. '' Seeing Black. 4 March 2005. Web. 13 February 2011. < http://www.seeingblack.com/2005/x030405/eyes_movies.shtml >.
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who does the voices of the characters in the lion king | List of the Lion King characters - wikipedia
Disney 's The Lion King franchise features an extensive cast of fictional characters created by Irene Mecchi, Jonathan Roberts and Linda Woolverton.
The lead character of the series is Simba. During the course of the franchise, he grows up to take his father 's place as the King of the Pride Lands.
Simba (voiced by Matthew Broderick in the films, Jonathan Taylor Thomas as a cub in the original film, Matt Weinberg as a cub in The Lion King 11⁄2, Cam Clarke in Timon & Pumbaa, Rob Lowe in The Lion Guard, and Donald Glover in the 2019 remake) is the son of Mufasa and Sarabi, Scar 's nephew, Nala 's mate, and Kiara and Kion 's father. After defeating Scar, Simba take 's Mufasa 's place as King of Pride Rock before marrying Nala and having Kiara and Kion with her.
Nala (voiced by Moira Kelly in The Lion King, The Lion King ll: Simba 's Pride, and The Lion King 11⁄2, Niketa Calame as a cub in the original film, Gabrielle Union in The Lion Guard) is the daughter of Sarafina, the best friend and later mate of Simba and Kiara and Kion 's mother. Although she is a prominent character in The Lion King, she makes minor appearances in Simba 's Pride, The Lion King 11⁄2, and The Lion Guard.
In the first film, she is portrayed as Simba 's childhood friend. After helping Simba enter the elephant graveyard, she has to be rescued by Mufasa when the hyenas attack them. Several years later, Nala encounters Simba as a young adult and develops a romance with him. After returning to Pride Rock, she helps Simba defeat Scar and take his rightful place as King of Pride Rock. In Simba 's Pride, Nala is depicted as slightly older, calmer and less overprotective than her mate.
Timon and Pumbaa (voiced by Nathan Lane and Ernie Sabella in the films and TV series, respectively) are a meerkat and warthog duo. Although they are supporting characters in the first two films, they are featured as the main characters in The Lion King 11⁄2 as well as in the Timon & Pumbaa TV series. In the first film they become friends with Simba and teach him the basics of life in the jungle. After helping Simba stop Scar 's tyrannical reign, the two become Simba 's royal advisors, and as revealed in the TV series The Lion Guard, the adoptive uncles of the honey badger, Bunga.
While Lane voiced Timon in early episodes of Timon & Pumbaa, for the majority of the series Timon is voiced by Kevin Schon or Quinton Flynn. Schon voices Timon in The Lion Guard.
Scar (voiced by Jeremy Irons in The Lion King, Jim Cummings in The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride, and David Oyelowo in The Lion Guard) is the main antagonist of The Lion King franchise, Simba 's paternal uncle and Mufasa 's younger brother. In The Lion King, after he commits a coup d'état by murdering Mufasa and exiling Simba, he becomes "King of the Pride Lands ''. However, years later, Simba returns to Pride Rock and overthrows Scar to become King of the Pride Lands.
The Lion Guard: Return of the Roar reveals that Scar was once the leader of the titular group and, like his great - nephew Kion, once possessed the Roar of the Elders. Scar lost the Roar after using it to destroy the other members of his Lion Guard, as the Roar is meant to be used for good, not evil.
In season 2 of The Lion Guard, Kion unknowingly summons Scar back as a fiery spirit in a volcano after using the Roar in anger when Janja the hyena provokes him. Scar then conspires with the animals in the Outlands to take over the Pride Lands and defeat the new Lion Guard and Simba, who were initially unaware that Scar had returned. Later in the season, Kion and the guard find out that Scar has returned while they are in the Outlands getting volcanic ash needed to cure Simba from a scorpion sting.
Mufasa (voiced by James Earl Jones in the films and Gary Anthony Williams in The Lion Guard) is Scar 's older brother, Sarabi 's mate, Simba 's father and Kiara and Kion 's paternal grandfather who is introduced as the King of the Pride Lands. The name "Mufasa '' means "King '' in the Manazoto language. In The Lion King, he teaches Simba on what a king is supposed to be. However, Mufasa later dies after being thrown into a wildebeest stampede by Scar while rescuing Simba. He returns years later as a ghostly apparition in the clouds to help an older Simba return to the Pride Lands and remember who he is as King.
In The Lion Guard, Mufasa serves as a spirit guide to his grandson Kion.
According to Roger Allers and Rob Minkoff, they knew that Jones ' voice was powerful and similar to the roar of a lion. Jones is scheduled to reprise his role in the upcoming live - action adaptation of the film directed by Jon Favreau.
Sarabi (voiced by Madge Sinclair) is Mufasa 's mate, Simba 's mother and Kiara and Kion 's paternal grandmother. Her name means "mirage '' in Swahili. In The Lion King, she serves as the Queen of Pride Rock. Years after Scar usurps the throne, Sarabi helps Simba fight against Scar and his hyenas. When Simba defeats Scar, Nala becomes Queen and Sarabi becomes the Queen Dowager.
Zazu (voiced by Rowan Atkinson in The Lion King, Edward Hibbert in Timon & Pumbaa, The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride, and The Lion King 11⁄2, and Jeff Bennett in The Lion Guard) is a red - billed hornbill and majordomo to Mufasa and later Simba. After Mufasa 's death, Zazu becomes a prisoner of Scar before Pumbaa breaks the bone cage releasing him when Simba returns to the Pride Lands. He eventually acts as a scout and advises Simba on royal protocol. In the musical, Zazu is a puppet controlled by an actor dressed in blue striped clothes and a bowler hat, much like a stereotypical butler. Zazu 's blue feathers have been replaced with white and the puppet is partially constructed from parachute silk with a slinky contained in the neck for ease in movement.
Rafiki (voiced by Robert Guillaume in the films and Timon & Pumbaa and Khary Payton in The Lion Guard), whose name means "friend '' in Swahili, is a mandrill with an unnaturally long tail. He lives in a baobab tree in the Pride Lands and performs shamanistic services for the lions of Pride Rock.
In The Lion King, Rafiki is introduced in the opening scene when he travels to Pride Rock to perform newborn Simba 's presentation ceremony. During the film, Rafiki sings a nonsense chant: "Asante sana, squash banana, wewe nugu, mimi hapana. '' This is a Swahili playground rhyme which translates to "Thank you very much (squash banana), you 're a baboon and I 'm not! '' Like "hakuna matata '' (no worries), the chant was heard by the filmmakers on their research trip to Kenya. Rafiki travels to the jungle where Simba lives with Timon and Pumbaa, and teaches him lessons about learning from the past: "Yes, the past can hurt but, the way I see it you can either run from it, or learn from it ''. During the battle for Pride Rock, Rafiki saves Simba from a hyena. At the end of the film, Rafiki presents Simba and Nala 's newborn cub.
In the sequel The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride, Rafiki is more closely involved with the affairs and politics of the pride and is often seen with the lions. Mufasa 's spirit persuades him to bring Simba 's daughter Kiara and Zira 's son Kovu together as a way of uniting the Outsiders with the pride. Rafiki tries to make them fall in love by singing to them about a place called "Upendi '', which means "love '' in Swahili. In the end, he blesses the union of Kovu and Kiara, and Kovu is welcomed into the pride. Rafiki appears briefly in The Lion King 11⁄2, teaching Timon the philosophy of "Hakuna Matata '', talking to Timon 's mother about her son, and later convincing Timon to follow Simba to Pride Rock to confront Scar.
In the musical, the character of Rafiki was significantly modified. Because director Julie Taymor felt that the story lacked a strong female character, Rafiki was changed into a female mandrill and sangoma. She acts as narrator throughout the story, at one point speaking to the audience in a click language for comic effect. She sings the opening song "Circle of Life '', a keening song called "Rafiki Mourns '' following Mufasa 's death, and a brief part in Nala 's song "Shadowland '', when she blesses Nala for her journey to find help. Instead of detecting Simba 's scent on dust, Rafiki hears Simba 's song "Endless Night '' on the wind. Rafiki finds Simba and shows him that his father lives on in him through the song "He Lives in You ''. She is present during the battle, fighting a hyena, and adorns Simba with the king 's mantle after his victory; the play ends with her at the presentation of Simba and Nala 's newborn cub.
Rafiki makes occasional appearances in the Timon and Pumbaa TV series and has his own segments called "Rafiki Fables '' in the same show. He appears briefly in the Pride Lands world of Kingdom Hearts II.
Rafiki serves as a recurring character in The Lion Guard, and takes on an apprentice named Makini in season 2.
Shenzi (voiced by Whoopi Goldberg in the films and Tress MacNeille in Timon & Pumbaa and Kingdom Hearts II), Banzai (voiced by Cheech Marin in the films and Kingdom Hearts II and Rob Paulsen in Timon & Pumbaa) and Ed (voiced by Jim Cummings) are the three spotted hyenas who make up Scar 's henchmen. After Scar promises them that they will have food, the hyenas trigger the wildebeest stampede and chase Simba out of Pride Rock. When Simba returns to Pride Rock, Shenzi and Banzai are defeated by Pumbaa. The three turn on Scar when the latter tries to blame them for Mufasa 's death and the ruin of the Pride Lands, and eat him alive during a thunderstorm.
Gopher (voiced by Jim Cummings) is a gopher who works for Zazu as an informant. In the film he is seen warning Zazu that the hyenas have invaded the Pride Lands. His scene is expanded in the 2003 special edition. He appears during the song The Morning Report and is spotted by Simba who tries to pounce him, but Gopher pops back inside the dirt. Gopher reappears, trying to get Mufasa 's attention, but Simba notices him again, to which the gopher hides back in the dirt. For the third time, Gopher reappears near a small rock, and Simba notices him again to try to pounce him, Gopher disappears to which Simba hits his head on the rock.
The character is expanded in the Timon & Pumbaa television series. He acts as Zazu 's primary lieutenant, even sharing Zazu 's home within a large tree. He is seen reporting to Zazu on the movements of elephants. In one episode Gopher is temporarily given Zazu 's job after Zazu makes an error while counting the animal population. Cummings reprises his role for these episodes.
Quint (voiced by Corey Burton) is Timon and Pumbaa 's archenemy, a sneaky, muscular man with black hair, a pink nose, and a shaven face, and he has varying roles. His wears different clothes in each episode because of the different jobs he has, but he is often seen wearing a hat. He also has different first names that show what his jobs are (in which they all happen to start with C).
Quint is a con artist who tricks Timon into stealing a gold nugget Pumbaa found in the episode "Yukon Con '', a criminal who stole a suitcase that has $1,290,000 in the episode "How to Beat the High Costa Rica '', an evil clock inspector who wants to get revenge on a timekeeper in the episode "Swiss Missed '', a French chef who wants to make Speedy the Snail an escargot in the episode "French Fried '', etc. In the episode "The Pain in Spain '', two Quints are seen together, which may prove that there is more than one of him.
In some episodes, Quint appears to be a respectable man with an honest job, but he still seems to annoy Timon and Pumbaa. Notably in Season 2, Quint 's face appears to be clean - shaven, except in the episode "Klondike Con '' when he becomes a gold thief. Also, in the episode "Escape From Newark '', his nose is the same color as his body for the first time.
Speedy (voiced by Corey Burton) is a talking grayish / bluish snail with a shiny red shell and a yellow fedora. Timon and Pumbaa plan to eat him at first, but his ability to speak and sing and his bon viveur, good - humored attitude gets him to become friends with them. Timon gives him the name "Speedy '', because he thinks that it would be a brilliant incongruity. Speedy always finds himself in danger, such as becoming a French gourmet snail and an earring out of his shell, and it 's always up for Timon and Pumbaa to save him.
In the episode "The Man from J.U.N.G.L.E. '', Speedy is revealed to be a superhero called Super Duper Hero X after Timon and Pumbaa were captured by his nemesis Chromosome Quint. Every episode featuring Speedy end with Timon and Pumbaa saying bye to Speedy when they return him home, a seagull capturing Speedy, and then Timon and Pumbaa trying to save him once again. Speedy 's voice was based on that of Bing Crosby. Speedy also makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the episode "Washington Applesauce ''.
Fred (voiced by S. Scott Bullock) is a meerkat who is Timon 's other best friend back at the meerkat colony. He is a practical joker, employing such gags as the hand buzzer, the squirting flower, and the whoopee cushion. He also loved Timon 's hyena jokes. When Fred visits Timon and Pumbaa, he pulls more practical jokes on the duo, such as impersonating Timon 's mother or impersonating a Billy Goat guard. Timon and Pumbaa, however, do n't find Fred 's jokes very funny and they often overpower him. Aside from pulling practical jokes, Fred enjoys doing all sorts of activities, such as playing Turtle Tennis and Fishing for Flamingos. He also mentions that he and Timon have always gone Bowling for Buzzards.
At the meerkat colony, Fred 's duty was to guard the Duke Meerkat 's castle, although on the day the Duke left the colony, he snuck away to get a snack and convinced Timon that it was now his chance to go on a date with Princess Tatiana. When the Duke banished Timon from the colony after a cobra kidnapped the princess, Fred 's new duty was to guard the back gate, which indicates that he has been demoted for failing to protect the castle.
Fred appears in a total of four episodes: "Tanzania Zany '', "Mombasa - In - Law '', "Once Upon a Timon '', and "Mind Over Matterhorn ''.
Boss Beaver (voiced by Brad Garrett) is an ill - tempered and cantankerous beaver with a white hard hat. His lifestyle is the exact opposite of Timon and Pumbaa 's Hakuna Matata lifestyle: Boss Beaver likes to work while Timon and Pumbaa like to relax. He owns a lumber mill and an amusement park called "Boss Beaver 's Log Land ''. Boss Beaver also has three mottos: "Makuta Hamaka '', which means "work real hard '', "safety first '' and "you break it, you buy it. ''
Boss Beaver 's favorite quote is "I am Boss Beaver and the reason they call me Boss Beaver is that I am your boss and I am a beaver. Therefore, I am Boss Beaver. '' In the episode "Amusement Bark '', it is revealed that he has a mischievous son named Boy Beaver, who keeps breaking things at his amusement park and getting Timon blamed for it. Boss Beaver appears in a total of three episodes. He also makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the episode "Washington Applesauce. ''
Irwin (voiced by Charlie Adler) is a clumsy, accident - prone penguin with a green scarf and a brown hat. Timon and Pumbaa befriend him at a boat stop in Antarctica when they see that he has two extra tickets for the duo to get on the ship. When Irwin leaves his home with the duo, it is shown that he has obviously injured all of his penguin "friends '', as they are all seen wearing bandages. Timon dislikes Irwin 's clumsiness, and tries to get rid of him by tricking him into playing a game of Hide - and - Seek. Irwin accidentally causes the boat to sink and Timon and Pumbaa run into him on an island. Timon confronts the penguin and he tricks him into playing another game and Irwin accidentally causes the island to sink.
Irwin meets Timon and Pumbaa again at a Hakuna Matata Megamall. Due to his clumsiness, Timon and Pumbaa try to avoid him by hiding in various stores. Irwin appears in two episodes of the series: "Frantic Atlantic '' and "Shopping Mauled. ''
Toucan Dan (Jeff Bennett) is a dangerously clever criminal mastermind lying toucan who wears a red fez. He is a convincing liar and impersonator and would also do anything to get someone in trouble. In his debut episode "I Do n't Bolivia '', he keeps tricking Timon into freeing him from his cage. Later in the episode, while Timon impersonates Toucan Dan in order to not be in trouble with the police, Toucan Dan impersonates Timon and this makes Pumbaa have to decide which one is the real Timon.
Toucan Dan makes his second and final appearance in the episode "Alcatraz Mataz ''. In that episode, he frames Timon and Pumbaa for stealing a train car full of beak polish and the police throw them in jail. Angry at Toucan Dan, Timon and Pumbaa escape to catch the toucan and make him tell the truth.
Rabbit (voiced by Charlie Adler) is a large and tall pink hare who appears to be very annoying, tiring. He made his debut in the episode "Mojave Desserted ''. In that episode, Timon and Pumbaa save his life when he was drowning in quicksand and he decides to repay the duo hand and foot. Annoyed by Rabbit, Timon and Pumbaa hatch a plan to put themselves in danger and have Rabbit save them and then leave them alone.
Rabbit makes his second and final appearance in the episode "Africa - Dabra!, '' this time appearing as an unsympathetic and ruthless magician. After Timon pulls him out of a hat, he teams up with the meerkat to become part of his magic act, telling him that he has been looking for a partner for years. When he gets annoyed by Pumbaa ruining the magic acts, he breaks up Timon and Pumbaa 's friendship. When Pumbaa finds out that Timon would never truly said anything mean about him, he gets revenge on Rabbit by trapping him in a cage.
The Vulture Police (voiced by Townsend Coleman and Brian Cummings) are recurring characters in the Timon & Pumbaa series. They appear in a total of six episodes. They make their first appearance in the episode "The Law of the Jungle, '' where they arrest Timon for using the Forbidden Stick to scratch his back and take him to a rhino judge, who gives a number of tests to see whether he 's innocent or guilty. In the episode "Yosemite Remedy, '' Timon and Pumbaa go to the police after a criminal raccoon steals their suitcase full of valuables. When they handcuff the thief, he tells them that he did n't steal Timon and Pumbaa 's suitcase, he found it. The police let him go but later arrest him again when they find out that he really stole the duo 's suitcase.
In the episode "Alcatraz Mataz '', the Vulture Police throw Timon and Pumbaa in jail after they were convinced by Toucan Dan that they stole the train car full of beak polish. After Timon and Pumbaa confront Toucan Dan, the police show up and realize that it was really Toucan Dan who stole the train car, so they arrest the toucan. However, they also throw Timon and Pumbaa back in jail since they escaped when they told them not to.
The Vulture Police make a brief appearance in the episode "Wide Awake in Wonderland, '' in the meerkat and warthog version of Goldilocks and the Three Bears.
Cheetata (voiced by Rob Paulsen) and Cheetato (voiced by Jim Cummings) are a pair of sophisticated twin cheetahs, reminiscent of Warner Bros ' Goofy Gophers, speaking in British accents and using similar phrases ("Indubitably, '' "How very kind of you ''). In order to tell them apart, not only do they have different voices, they also have different personalities: Cheetata appears to be more eager and aggressive while Cheetato seems more likely to think things through.
The cheetahs first appear in the episode "Cooked Goose '', where they are annoyed by Shenzi, Banzai, and Ed getting in the way of their wildebeest hunt, so they try sending them on various wild goose chases. They also appear in "Gabon with the Wind, '' where they are convinced by Timon that he is going to catch Pumbaa for them, when he is actually going to find his friend so that they can both run away to safety.
In the episode "Boary Glory Days '', Timon and Pumbaa use Cheetata and Cheetato to play a game of Predator Tag. While the cheetahs are chasing Timon and Pumbaa, the duo outsmarts the brothers by having them jump over a mud pool and fall into it.
The Three Natives (voiced by Jeff Bennett) are a trio of tribes who are really university students. They have a leader (also voiced by Jeff Bennett) who is also a university student and who usually precedes what he says with "Bungala, bungala. '' The natives first appear in "Boara Boara ''. This episode shows that they used to have a warthog king of the island, which is unknown what might 've happened to him. Therefore, the natives might have not seen their king in a really long time. When Timon and Pumbaa visit the island, the natives mistake Pumbaa for their long - lost king and they make Timon his servant. Everything goes well until they make Pumbaa relight the fire and realize that he 's an impostor when they see that he is unable to do so.
The natives also appear in the episode "New Guinea Pig, '' where Pumbaa decides to trade his tusks to them, and "Beast of Eden '', where they steal a golden magic tooth that belongs to a beast and Timon and Pumbaa have to retrieve it from them. They also make a brief appearance in the episode "Mozam - Beaked '' when Timon and Pumbaa go to Bora Bora to throw a woodpecker into the volcano.
Smolder (voiced by Jim Cummings) is a grumpy, short - tempered, but nice grizzly bear, although he gets easily angered, such as when he is awoken from his nap or when someone gets his food order wrong. He also has a romantic interest in a beautiful supermodel named Leslie Lambeau (voiced by Grey DeLisle). He appears in seven episodes, from "Slalom Problem '' to "It Runs Good ''.
In the episode "Jailhouse Shock, '' Smolder becomes cell mates with Little Jimmy, who gets even with Timon and Pumbaa by taking advantage of him by convincing him that the duo hurt him so that he could beat them up. Smolder starts to show compassion for Timon and Pumbaa in the episodes "Ready, Aim, Fire '' and "Stay Away from my Honey! ''
Tatiana (voiced by Tress MacNeille) is the daughter of the Duke Meerkat and the princess of the meerkat colony. She only appears in one episode but she 's vital for Timon 's past. After Timon leaves his sentry duty post to prepare for his date with Tatiana, a king cobra enters the colony and kidnaps the princess, which makes everyone believe she 's dead and which causes Timon to get banished. After Timon and Pumbaa meet for the first time, they see that Tatiana is still alive and rescue her from a cobra. When Tatiana returns to the colony with Timon and Pumbaa, Timon is offered her hand in marriage. When the Duke makes him choose between Tatiana or Pumbaa, he chooses to be Bestest Best friends with Pumbaa.
Although "Once Upon a Timon '' was meant to be Tatiana 's only appearance, there is a female meerkat who bears a striking resemblance to her in the episode "Timon in Love ''. The only difference is that Tatiana has blond hair while the other meerkat has red hair and she 's not wearing a tiara.
Sharla (voiced by Lisa Ortiz) is a female warthog who is the leader of Pumbaa 's former sounder as well as Pumbaa 's former girlfriend. While she only appears in one episode, she is vital for Pumbaa 's past. She and three other male warthogs of the sounder banished Pumbaa from the group due to his awful scent, which was appalling even by warthog standards.
Years later, Sharla and the three warthogs carry around a big bag of bugs for the rainy season, but come across a flock of Guinea fowl, who are their natural enemies and nightmares. Due to the birds ' abilities to remove their furs in just a few seconds, the warthogs refuge in a hut and make a distress call, which Pumbaa answers. When Pumbaa reunites with his sounder, he has Timon come up with ideas on how they can get rid of the Guinea fowl. However, none of Timon 's ideas work, so Pumbaa suggests that he and Timon use the jeep so that they carry a fake bag of bugs (which have firecrackers inside) to distract the Guinea fowl while Sharla and the other warthogs leave the hut with the real bag of bugs.
Although Sharla banished Pumbaa from the group, they still have romantic feelings for each other. When Pumbaa (and Timon) show up to the hut, they tell each other that they have never forgotten one another. Sharla tells Pumbaa that he should stay with the group, but Pumbaa decides to continue living his Hakuna Matata lifestyle with Timon, which the female warthog understands.
Ned (voiced by Frank Welker) is a high and mighty elephant who thinks he 's wonderful at everything. He seems to enjoy teasing Timon and Pumbaa when they fail at proving their worth to him. In the episode "Uganda be an Elephant '', Timon states that Ned is the most popular guy in the jungle and Pumbaa decides to turn himself into an elephant in order to be popular as well. Although Ned is selfish and sarcastic, he gets a change of heart after Pumbaa rescues him and his hippo henchmen from falling off a cliff.
In the episode "Unlucky in Lesotho '', it is revealed that Ned has a Good Luck Club, which lost most of its members due to Ned bringing an unlucky jar. Because he gets eaten by piranhas (or tigerfish), Ned is never seen or heard from again after this episode.
Little Jimmy (voiced by Joe Alaskey) is a cute, yet dangerous bluebird. He is similar to Toucan Dan, with the fact that he is also a criminal mastermind and he can also be dishonest. He also has two voices: his fake cute, innocent voice to pass himself off as a hatchling and his criminal voice to show that he is truly an adult. Little Jimmy first appears in the episode "Nest Best Thing, '' where he tricks Pumbaa into building a birdhouse for him, which is actually a hideout. The pigeon police show up and arrest Little Jimmy.
In the episode "Jailhouse Shock, '' Little Jimmy is cell mates with Smolder the Bear. In order to get revenge on Timon and Pumbaa for turning him in, he tricks Smolder into thinking that Timon and Pumbaa hurt him so that he could hurt them back.
Pimon (voiced by Billy West) and Tumbaa (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) are a buff meerkat and warthog duo who are evil counterparts of Timon and Pumbaa. They are shown to be bullies of the jungle, as they enjoy pushing Timon and Pumbaa around, giving them atomic wedgies, as well as being shown picking on a squirrel. They also have their own philosophy: Kahuna Potato, which means that they will never leave Timon and Pumbaa (or anyone) alone.
Pimon and Tumbaa make their first and only appearance in the episode "Kahuna Potato ''. After Timon and Pumbaa successfully catch some bugs, the bullies steal their bag of bugs, give the two wedgies, and walk off with the bugs. Fed up of being picked on by the bullies, Timon decides that it is time for himself and Pumbaa to learn how to fight. Timon and Pumbaa go to Rafiki to have him teach them self - defense, which Rafiki suggests that they should snatch some bugs off his palm and he will teach them the secret to Kung - Fu. After Timon and Pumbaa learn Kung - Fu from Rafiki, they go confront Pimon and Tumbaa, who show them that they also know Kung - Fu. While the two groups fight each other, the bullies give Timon and Pumbaa more atomic wedgies, causing the two to give up until Rafiki appears and tells the two to use Hakuna Matata to fight. Listening to Rafiki 's advice, Timon and Pumbaa continue fighting Pimon and Tumbaa and they end up defeating the bullies.
Later that night, Pimon and Tumbaa get their hairs shaved off and feed Timon and Pumbaa the bugs they stole from them.
Kiara (voiced by Neve Campbell as a young adult and Michelle Horn as a cub in The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride, and Eden Riegel in The Lion Guard) is the only daughter of Simba and Nala, Kion 's older sister and Kovu 's mate. She makes a cameo appearance at the very end of The Lion King when Rafiki holds up the newborn cub of Simba and Nala. She is a major character in The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride and The Lion Guard. Kiara is also a descendant of Mufasa and Sarabi, who are Simba 's parents and Sarafina, who is Nala 's mother.
Kiara is portrayed as a feisty, playful, and adventurous princess whom Simba easily fears for her safety. As a cub, Kiara befriends Kovu and rescues him from a group of nile crocodiles. As a young adult, Kiara is rescued by Kovu as part of Zira 's plan to avenge Scar 's death and the two lions eventually fall in love. When Kovu is exiled from the Pride Lands following Zira 's ambush on Simba, Kiara helps him return to the Pride Lands to reunite the Pridelanders and Outsiders. Afterwards, she becomes Kovu 's wife.
Kovu (voiced by Jason Marsden as a young adult and Ryan O'Donohue as a cub in The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride, and Marsden in The Lion Guard) is the youngest child of Zira, Nuka and Vitani 's younger brother, Scar 's chosen heir and Kiara 's mate. Kovu means "scar '' in Swahili, a reference to his character conception as Scar 's son, which was changed due to the implications of him and Kiara being first cousins once removed and falling in love.
During his childhood, Zira trains Kovu to assassinate Simba and take his place as King of Pride Rock. As a young adult, Kovu rescues Kiara during a planned ambush and Simba reluctantly allows him to stay in the Pride Lands. While spending time with Kiara, Rafiki gets the two young lions to fall in love, and Kovu realizes he can not hurt Simba. However, after Simba is ambushed by the Outsiders and Nuka is killed, Kovu angrily disowns Scar and leaves the Outlands but is quickly exiled from the Pride Lands as a traitor. Kovu returns to Pride Rock and stops the fighting between the Outsiders and Pridelanders with the help of Kiara. Simba later reconciles with Kovu and allows him to become his eventual successor.
Zira (voiced by Suzanne Pleshette in The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride and Nika Futterman in The Lion Guard), meaning "hate '' in Swahili, is the mother of Nuka, Kovu and Vitani. She was Scar 's most loyal follower, and plots to avenge Scar 's death by forming the Outsiders. However, after taking advantage of Kovu 's friendship with Simba 's daughter Kiara, she devises a plan to assassinate Simba. Eventually, the Pridelanders and the Outsiders fight each other, but with Kiara and Kovu 's help, Vitani and the other Outsiders abandon Zira. Attempting to attack Simba, Zira is intercepted by Kiara and falls to her death despite the latter 's attempt to rescue her.
Zira made an appearance in The Lion Guard (which takes place in the middle of the film) alongside Kovu, Nuka, Vitani and the rest of her pride in the episode "Lions of the Outlands ''. It is revealed in this episode that Zira attacked Simba after he defeated Scar and denied Kovu 's position as the next king, resulting in the Outsiders ' exile. She tries to convince Simba 's son Kion that using the Roar of the Elders against her and the other Outsiders would cause him to lose it just as Scar did (in reality, he lost it because he used it for evil), and to side with his fellow lions. However, Kion is eventually able to see through her deceptions and drives her and the others off with the Roar.
Nuka (voiced by Andy Dick) is the eldest child of Zira and Kovu and Vitani 's older brother. His name means "stink '' in Swahili. Jealous of Zira 's greater relationship with Kovu, Nuka often attempts to gain his mother 's approval. During the Outsiders ' ambush, Nuka attempts to kill Simba to prove himself to his mother, but is crushed to death.
Vitani (voiced by Jennifer Lien as a young adult and Lacey Chabert as a cub), a Swahili portmanteau of the words Vita ("War ''), Ni ("I Am ''), and Shetani, is the middle child and only daughter of Zira and Kovu and Nuka 's sister. Although she has a prominent appearance in The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride, she makes a cameo appearance in The Lion Guard. As a young adult, Vitani is Zira 's strongest lieutenant, supporting and acting on her mother 's violent plans. With Kovu and Kiara 's help, Vitani and the Outsiders turn on Zira and join the Pridelanders to stop the fighting between the two prides.
She was originally named "Shetani '' ("She - Demon '' in Swahili) in early drafts of The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride, but this was softened to "Vitani '', which is a portmanteau that can be roughly translated to "I Am War '' or, more commonly, "Demon of War ''.
Ma (voiced by Julie Kavner) is Timon 's mother. Generally encouraging and optimistic, she believes in Timon convinces Uncle Max to give him a job as a sentry or look - out. After Timon fails in his duty, she remains convinced that he can still find a place in the colony, but when he insists that he has to go, Ma supports him.
Later, she gets worried about Timon after speaking to Rafiki and searches for him. They finally reunite at Pride Rock and Ma helps in the battle against the hyenas by digging a long tunnel to trap them. After Simba becomes king, the death of Scar and avenging Mufasa, Timon takes them and the entire meerkat colony to the jungle paradise he and Pumbaa discovered.
She is mentioned in The Lion Guard episode "Beware the Zimwi '' by Timon, who claims that her cousin 's friend knew an ox that was eaten by the Zimwi.
Uncle Max (voiced by Jerry Stiller) is a prominent member of the meerkat colony and relative of Timon and Ma. He has grey head - fur and a very large nose. Max is a pessimist by nature and very paranoid, believing that a meerkat 's fate is to be "food for other animals! Feared by nothing and eaten by all! '' Max reluctantly agrees to let Timon be a sentry for the colony and attempts to train him for the job, but is nearly eaten by the hyenas when they attack. He is glad to see Timon go but ends up going with Ma to find him. Max appears again towards the end of the film, where he and Ma encounter Timon and Pumbaa at Pride Rock, and helps Timon get rid of the hyenas by digging a tunnel. Max finally believes in Timon, and after Timon takes the meerkats to his jungle paradise, Max teaches the meerkats tai chi instead of how not to be eaten.
Some of Max 's role was originally going to be filled by Timon 's father, who was considered for inclusion in the film but ultimately dropped.
Kion (voiced by Max Charles) is the son of Simba and Nala, Kiara 's younger brother, Mufasa, Sarabi, Sarafina and Nala 's father 's grandson and Scar 's great - nephew. His name is derived from the Swahili word "Kiongozi '' ("leader ''). His catchphrase is "Hevi kabisa! '' which means "totally intense! '' in the same tongue. In the series pilot The Lion Guard: Return of the Roar, Simba has Kion organize the titular guard along with Bunga, Beshte, Fuli, and Ono. As leader of the Lion Guard and second - born to the throne, Kion is gifted with a power called the Roar of the Elders which when used, causes the great lion spirits of the Pride Lands past to roar with him.
Kion has a strong sense of responsibility, and does not want to end up like his great - uncle Scar, who used the Roar for evil and lost it forever. Because of this, Kion is mindful not to use the Roar in anger. Sometimes though his emotions get the better of him, as when Nala was once cornered by hyenas causing him to Roar in anger at them.
He also demonstrates a strong yet open sense of discernment, which warms him to scavengers like Jasiri the hyena and her clan. However, more cunning neighbors such as Zira of the Outsiders and Reirei 's jackal pack have used his trusting spirit to exert their will, only to be soundly subdued when Kion 's instincts come into play.
By the end of the hour - long season 2 special The Rise of Scar, Kion travels to the Outlands to save Kiara, and unknowingly summons Scar back as a fiery spirit in the hyenas ' volcano after he uses the Roar in anger when Janja taunts him. Later in the season, Kion and The Lion Guard find out that Scar has returned while they are in the Outlands getting volcanic ash needed to cure Simba from a scorpion sting. Upon returning to the Pride Lands, Kion acknowledges to his team that they have a tough fight ahead, but remains confident that they will be able to defeat Scar.
Bunga (voiced by Joshua Rush) is a young honey badger, Kion 's best friend and the bravest member of the Lion Guard. He is also the adoptive nephew of Timon and Pumbaa. Bunga is shown to be very adventurous and he rarely acts serious or even sits still, as he is always on the move, working off boundless energy and enthusiasm, and makes even the most dire of situations into a fantastic time. Though this makes him a great friend and playmate, it lands him into trouble more often than not. Not only is he willing to put himself in bodily harm, such as his stunt in leaping off Pride Rock, but he will face down predators such as the hyenas in order to save his friends. According to Kiara, Bunga is "brave, bordering on stupid, '' but a valued member of the Lion Guard nonetheless. His catchphrase is "Zuka Zama, '' which means "pop up, dive in '' in Swahili. His name means ' fool ' in the same tongue.
Fuli (voiced by Diamond White) is a cheetah, one of Kion 's friends and the fastest member of the Lion Guard, as well as its only female member. She is quite prideful in her running abilities and shows extreme delight for being able to outpace a pursuer of any species. Despite being friends with Kion, she is somewhat resentful of the Lions for lording over the Pride Lands and was skeptical about Kion 's Roar of the Elders. Despite these negative traits, she was willing to join the Lion Guard with her friends to defend the Circle of Life when Janja and his clan invaded the Pride Lands. Her catchphrase is "Huwezi, '' which means "you ca n't (catch me) '' in Swahili. Her name means ' very fast ' in the same tongue.
Beshte (voiced by Dusan Brown) is a hippo, one of Kion 's friends and the strongest member of the Lion Guard. Being one of the most popular animals of the Pridelands, Beshte is shown to be kind - hearted. His friendliness extends to everyone, as he acts like a big brother to the younger members of his herd, a friend to animals of all different species, and a protector of the Pride Lands at large. Beshte can also, however, be sensitive, being especially tactful when his friend Kion is unable to use the Roar of the Elders. For an animal so large and full of life, Beshte has an appropriately large heart and never fails to treat his friends with kindness. Beshte 's catchphrase is "Twende Kiboko! '', which means "let 's go, hippo! '' in Swahili. He also exclaims "Poa! '' to express amazement or approval. His name means ' friend ' in the same tongue.
Ono (voiced by Atticus Shaffer) is a cattle egret, one of Kion 's friends and the keenest of sight of the Lion Guard, as well as its only non-mammal member. He is one of the more easygoing members of the group, being friendly and group - oriented. He is used to spending time around other animals and is content to be part of The Lion Guard. Ono is also shown to be blunt, as he is able to lay out his feelings without sugar - coating. He is by far the most realistic member of the group, as he always thinks things through before jumping in.
When it comes to his role on the Lion Guard, Ono is brave and has a knack for following the rules. He obeys Kion 's orders without question and proves himself to be plucky and thrifty, considerably useful when it comes to scouting out a situation. His principles are clear in his willingness to fight with his full heart for the Circle of Life, and he is a valued member of the Lion Guard for his intelligence and ability to see things from afar. Ono 's catchphrase is "Hapana! '', which means "oh no! '' in Swahili. His name means "passion '' in the same tongue. It also means "good '' in Hawaiian.
Zuri (voiced by Madison Pettis) meaning "beautiful '' in Swahili, is a lioness cub and one of Kiara 's friends. She appears to be vain about her appearance, as she constantly sharpens her claws on trees in order to keep them shiny. Unlike her friends, Zuri is delicate and timid. She shows considerable anxiety and fear in the face of simple circumstances and harbors deep disgust for grubs.
Tiifu (voiced by Sarah Hyland) is a lioness cub, and a friend of Kiara 's. She is shown to be kind and patient, as seen when she comforts an overreacting Zuri. She is a great rule - follower and trusts the judgment of her friends, showing faith when she leaves Kiara to fetch help as Janja invades the Pride Lands.
Janja 's clan is a small pack of male spotted hyenas that live in the Outlands.
Mzingo (voiced by Greg Ellis) is a white - backed vulture who is one of Janja 's majordomo of the Outlands. He is the leader of a flock of vultures that is allied with Janja 's clan.
Jasiri (voiced by Maia Mitchell) is a friendly female spotted hyena who makes her first appearance in the episode "Never Judge a Hyena By Its Spots. '' She is open to making friends with lions. Bold and spunky, Jasiri is able to look past differences and focus on where different species have common ground. Unlike Janja and his clan, she dislikes selfishness and gluttony, and she respects the Circle of Life. She has blue eyes and mauve fur, unlike the other hyenas.
Makini (voiced by Landry Bender) is a young mandrill who is Rafiki 's new apprentice. She is free - spirited and loves to learn and look up to her mentor. However, she has trouble being calm and she is easy to deceive. Despite this, Makini takes pride in herself and her position, and is friendly and welcoming to everyone she meets.
Mtoto (voiced by Jason Felbinger) is an elephant calf who idolizes Beshte. He appears to be innocent with little understanding of the world. His playful nature often gets him into trouble, though his intentions are usually good.
Ma Tembo (voiced by Lynette Dupree) is an adult elephant who attains leadership of her father Aminifu 's herd after his death. Much like her father, she is always game for a laugh. Even when Simba makes a mistake at her father 's funeral, she is gracious and kind, and makes light of the situation by dwelling on the good. She is similarly gracious to Nala and Kiara when they are the only members of their family to attend the elephant concert.
There are a number of crocodiles who appear in The Lion Guard:
Reirei 's pack is a pack of black - backed jackals who first appeared in the episode "The Kupatana Celebration ''. They trick the Lion Guard into letting them into the Pride Lands so that they can devour all the animals. At Kupatana, the jackals attack the Pridelanders until they are defeated by the Lion Guard. Simba himself approaches the jackal pack and roars, sending them scurrying back into the Outlands. Reirei and Goigoi reappear in the episode "Too Many Termites '', where they attempt to eat a pack of aardwolves, but are stopped by the Lion Guard. They are the first canine villains to appear in the Lion Guard. In Season 2, they become members of Scar 's army.
Ushari (voiced by Christian Slater) is an Egyptian cobra who often conflicted with Bunga and would get disturbed whenever the Lion Guard was near him. In The Rise of Scar, Ushari finally gets fed up with the Lion Guard disturbing his peace and inadvertently finds out that Kion talks to Mufasa 's spirit. With this knowledge he decides to join forces with Janja 's clan and ends up helping them orchestrate the events that allow them to summon Scar 's spirit so that he can guide them in defeating the Lion Guard.
Basi (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) is Beshte 's father and leader of his and his son 's pod. He is amicable and open, willing to engage in conversation and negotiate according to the customs of the Pride Lands. Even in the face of adversity, such as Makuu 's violent takeover of Big Springs, Basi maintains his temper and graciously offers the crocodile a chance to return once the fish have returned in plenty.
Being so learned in the ways of the animals, Basi is knowledgeable and wise. Despite being an animal with a very different way of life, he understands the customs of the crocodiles and how this affects his pod 's everyday life. Unlike the inexperienced young Makuu, Basi grasps an understanding of the Circle of Life and how every animal must give and take in order to keep it in balance.
Several African leopards appear in the series; two are antagonists, while one is an ally of the Lion Guard:
Kopa is the son of Simba and Nala, appearing in the book series The Lion King: Six New Adventures, and is shown to look a lot like his father as a cub, except with a tuft of hair on top of his head. The book series was released before Simba 's Pride, therefore Kopa does not appear in the film.
Ahadi is the father of Mufasa and Taka (Scar), the grandfather of Simba, the great - grandfather of Kopa, Kiara and Kion and the king of the Pride Lands during the events of The Lion King: Six New Adventures story A Tale of Two Brothers. He is shown to look a lot like Mufasa except with darker fur.
Uru is the mother of Mufasa and Taka (Scar), the grandmother of Simba, the great - grandmother of Kopa, Kiara and Kion and the queen of the Pride Lands during the events of The Lion King: Six New Adventures story A Tale of Two Brothers. She is absent from the book but is mentioned to have left to search for water to save the kingdom.
Mohatu is the father of Ahadi or Uru, the grandfather of Mufasa and Scar, the great - grandfather of Simba, and King of the Pride Lands during the events of the story The Brightest Star. He went to find water for the animals of the land during a drought and helped the animals get on with each other. When he died, he became a star which was brighter than the others. He is shown to look a lot like a darker furred version of Mufasa, having facial features like Simba 's and was said to have been one of the greatest kings of the Pride Lands.
Ni is a character who appears in The Lion King: Six New Adventures story Nala 's Dare. He is a young lion who has left his pride to start his own and travels through the Pride Lands during Scar 's reign and saves Nala from hyenas before leaving after meeting the rest of the Pridelanders.
Kula is a character in The Lion King: Six New Adventures story Nala 's Dare. She is one of Nala 's friends and one of the cubs of the Pridelanders who lived during Scar 's reign.
Chumvi is a character in The Lion King: Six New Adventures story Nala 's Dare. He is one of Nala 's friends and one of the cubs of the Pridelanders.
Joka is a giant python in The Lion King: Six New Adventures story A Snake in the Grass. He is extremely intelligent and is able to formulate complicated plans in a short amount of time. He has the power to twist his words into whatever he rightly wants and uses hypnotism to lure unsuspecting victims into believing his empty words. The name Joka translates as ' dragon ' in the Swahili tongue
Jelani is Rafiki 's lazy cousin in The Lion King: Six New Adventures story Follow the Leader. Despite being considered leader of his troop, he is unconcerned about the suffering of his subjects, as he is often too concerned about his own welfare to lead them to a new home.
Kwaheri is Kopa 's monkey friend in The Lion King: Six New Adventures stories Nala 's Dare and How True, Zazu? He is social, talkative, and critical to his friends. He often flaunts his talents around Kopa to either spark a reaction or just be a show - off.
Boma is a cape buffalo who appears in The Lion King: Six New Adventures stories A Tale of Two Brothers and How True, Zazu?. His grandparents were killed during an attack by army ants. He is the leader of the cape buffalo and he is aggressive, controlling, selfish, strong, and short - tempered. He is also somewhat seclusive and gruff, as he does n't seem to understand that there is a balance between species and refuses to share the last remaining water - hole during a draught, which can affect the whole of the Pride Lands. It is due to him that Taka got his scar after which he renamed himself to Scar. If challenged or insulted he becomes very angry. However he is mildly co-operative if not insulted or challenged. Taka tries to get Mufasa in trouble by telling him to talk with Boma to share the water - hole. Mufasa tries to reason with him to share the water - hole however he refuses. Scar then roars and tells him that he must obey or challenge Mufasa. He then chases after Mufasa who is rescued by Rafiki. Rafiki starts to grow tired while running but is picked up by Mufasa who then jumps across a ravine. Boma is unable to make the jumps and falls into it. Mufasa tells him that he does n't have to fight but he keeps hurling thret while saying that the other buffaloes can still harm Taka. Taka is then attacked by three buffaloes during which he receives his scar. Ahadi stops this attack with a large herd of animals and has an elephant push Boma out of the ravine.
Zuzu is Ahadi 's majordomo. She only appeared in A Tale of Two Brothers, though she was mentioned in How True, Zazu?. She turned out to be Zazu 's mother. Flirtatious and gossipy, Zuzu is a very maternal bird who never passes up the chance for some juicy gossip, much like her son, Zazu. Her talkative nature and nosy habits often make her a bit of an annoyance to the other animals, though Ahadi puts her personality to good use in order to get a better grip on the doings of his kingdom. Zuzu is also known for being loyal and brave, as she was willing to help Rafiki even though she did not fully understand the danger Mufasa was in. It said that she retired, and gave Zazu her place as the king 's majordomo.
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when's the last time pittsburgh won the superbowl | Pittsburgh Steelers - wikipedia
National Football League (1933 -- present)
Black, Gold
League championships (6)
Conference championships (8)
Division championships (23)
The Pittsburgh Steelers are a professional American football team based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The Steelers compete in the National Football League (NFL), as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) North division. Founded in 1933, the Steelers are the oldest franchise in the AFC.
In contrast with their status as perennial also - rans in the pre-merger NFL, where they were the oldest team never to win a league championship, the Steelers of the post-merger (modern) era are one of the most successful NFL franchises. Pittsburgh has won more Super Bowl titles (6) and both played in (16) and hosted more conference championship games (11) than any other NFL team. The Steelers have won 8 AFC championships, tied with the Denver Broncos, but behind the New England Patriots ' record 10 AFC championships. The Steelers share the record for second most Super Bowl appearances with the Broncos, and Dallas Cowboys (8). The Steelers lost their most recent championship appearance, Super Bowl XLV, on February 6, 2011.
The Steelers, whose history traces to a regional pro team that was established in the early 1920s, joined the NFL as the Pittsburgh Pirates on July 8, 1933, owned by Art Rooney and taking its original name from the baseball team of the same name, as was common practice for NFL teams at the time. To distinguish them from the baseball team, local media took to calling the football team the Rooneymen, an unofficial nickname which persisted for decades after the team adopted its current nickname. The ownership of the Steelers has remained within the Rooney family since its founding. Art 's son, Dan Rooney owned the team from 1988 until his death in 2017. Much control of the franchise has been given to Dan 's son Art Rooney II. The Steelers enjoy a large, widespread fanbase nicknamed Steeler Nation. The Steelers currently play their home games at Heinz Field on Pittsburgh 's North Side in the North Shore neighborhood, which also hosts the University of Pittsburgh Panthers. Built in 2001, the stadium replaced Three Rivers Stadium which hosted the Steelers for 31 seasons. Prior to Three Rivers, the Steelers had played their games in Pitt Stadium and Forbes Field.
The Pittsburgh Steelers of the NFL first took to the field as the Pittsburgh Pirates on September 20, 1933, losing 23 -- 2 to the New York Giants. Through the 1930s, the Pirates never finished higher than second place in their division, or with a record better than. 500 (1936). Pittsburgh did make history in 1938 by signing Byron White, a future Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, to what was at the time the biggest contract in NFL history, but he played only one year with the Pirates before signing with the Detroit Lions. Prior to the 1940 season, the Pirates renamed themselves the Steelers.
During World War II, the Steelers experienced player shortages. They twice merged with other NFL franchises to field a team. During the 1943 season, they merged with the Philadelphia Eagles forming the "Phil - Pitt Eagles '' and were known as the "Steagles ''. This team went 5 -- 4 -- 1. In 1944, they merged with the Chicago Cardinals and were known as Card - Pitt (or, mockingly, as the "Carpets ''). This team finished 0 -- 10, marking the only winless team in franchise history.
The Steelers made the playoffs for the first time in 1947, tying for first place in the division at 8 -- 4 with the Philadelphia Eagles. This forced a tie - breaking playoff game at Forbes Field, which the Steelers lost 21 -- 0. That would be Pittsburgh 's only playoff game for the next 25 years; they did qualify for a "Playoff Bowl '' in 1962 as the second - best team in their conference, but this was not considered an official playoff.
In 1970, the year they moved into Three Rivers Stadium and the year of the AFL -- NFL merger, the Pittsburgh Steelers were one of three old - guard NFL teams to switch to the newly formed American Football Conference (the others being the Cleveland Browns and the Baltimore Colts), in order to equalize the number of teams in the two conferences of the newly merged league. The Steelers also received a $3 million ($18.9 million today) relocation fee, which was a windfall for them; for years they rarely had enough to build a true contending team.
The Steelers ' history of bad luck changed with the hiring of coach Chuck Noll for the 1969 season. Noll 's most remarkable talent was in his draft selections, taking Hall of Famers "Mean '' Joe Greene in 1969, Terry Bradshaw and Mel Blount in 1970, Jack Ham in 1971, Franco Harris in 1972, and finally, in 1974, pulling off the incredible feat of selecting four Hall of Famers in one draft year, Lynn Swann, Jack Lambert, John Stallworth, and Mike Webster. The Pittsburgh Steelers ' 1974 draft was their best ever; no other team has ever drafted four future Hall of Famers in one year, and only very few (including the 1970 Steelers) have drafted two or more in one year.
The players drafted in the early 1970s formed the base of an NFL dynasty, making the playoffs in eight seasons and becoming the only team in NFL history to win four Super Bowls in six years, as well as the first to win more than two. They also enjoyed a regular season streak of 49 consecutive wins (1971 -- 1979) against teams that would finish with a losing record that year.
The Steelers suffered a rash of injuries in the 1980 season and missed the playoffs with a 9 -- 7 record. The 1981 season was no better, with an 8 -- 8 showing. The team was then hit with the retirements of all their key players from the Super Bowl years. "Mean '' Joe Greene retired after the 1981 season, Lynn Swann and Jack Ham after 1982 's playoff berth, Terry Bradshaw and Mel Blount after 1983 's divisional championship, and Jack Lambert after 1984 's AFC Championship Game appearance.
After those retirements, the franchise skidded to its first losing seasons since 1971. Though still competitive, the Steelers would not finish above. 500 in 1985, 1986, and 1988. In 1987, the year of the players ' strike, the Steelers finished with a record of 8 -- 7, but missed the playoffs. In 1989, they would reach the second round of the playoffs on the strength of Merrill Hoge and Rod Woodson before narrowly missing the playoffs in each of the next two seasons.
Noll 's career record with Pittsburgh was 209 -- 156 -- 1.
In 1992, Chuck Noll retired and was succeeded by Kansas City Chiefs defensive coordinator Bill Cowher, a native of the Pittsburgh suburb of Crafton.
Cowher led the Steelers to the playoffs in each of his first six seasons, a feat that had been accomplished only by legendary coach Paul Brown of the Cleveland Browns. In those first six seasons, Cowher coached them as deep as the AFC Championship Game three times and following the 1995 season an appearance in Super Bowl XXX on the strength of the "Blitzburgh '' defense. However, the Steelers lost to the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowl XXX, two weeks after a thrilling AFC Championship victory over the Indianapolis Colts. Cowher produced the franchise 's record - tying fifth Super Bowl win in Super Bowl XL over the National Football Conference champion Seattle Seahawks ten years later. With that victory, the Steelers became the third team to win five Super Bowls, and the first sixth - seeded playoff team to reach and win the Super Bowl since the NFL expanded to a 12 - team post-season tournament in 1990. He coached through the 2006 season which ended with an 8 -- 8 record, just short of the playoffs. Overall Cowher 's teams reached the playoffs 10 of 15 seasons with six AFC Championship Games, two Super Bowl berths and a championship.
Cowher 's career record with Pittsburgh was 149 -- 90 -- 1 in the regular season and 161 -- 99 -- 1 overall, including playoff games.
On January 7, 2007, Cowher resigned from coaching the Steelers, citing a need to spend more time with his family. He did not use the term "retire '', leaving open a possible return to the NFL as coach of another team. A three - man committee consisting of Art Rooney II, Dan Rooney, and Kevin Colbert was set up to conduct interviews for the head coaching vacancy. The candidates interviewed included: offensive coordinator Ken Whisenhunt, offensive line coach Russ Grimm, former offensive coordinator Chan Gailey, Minnesota Vikings defensive coordinator Mike Tomlin, and Chicago Bears defensive coordinator Ron Rivera. On January 22, 2007, Mike Tomlin was announced as Cowher 's successor as head coach. Tomlin is the first African - American to be named head coach of the Pittsburgh Steelers in its 75 - year history. Tomlin became the third consecutive Steelers Head Coach to go to the Super Bowl, equaling the Dallas Cowboys (Tom Landry, Jimmy Johnson and Barry Switzer) in this achievement. He was named the Motorola 2008 Coach of the Year. On February 1, 2009, Tomlin led the Steelers to their second Super Bowl of this decade, and went on to win 27 -- 23 against the Arizona Cardinals. At age 36, he was the youngest head coach to ever win the Super Bowl, and he is only the second African - American coach to ever win the Super Bowl (Tony Dungy was the first). The 2010 season made Tomlin the only coach to reach the Super Bowl twice before the age of 40. Tomlin led the team to his second Super Bowl (Super Bowl XLV) on Feb. 6, 2011. However, the Steelers were defeated in their eighth Super Bowl appearance by the Green Bay Packers by the score of 31 -- 25. The Steelers recorded their 400th victory in 2012 after defeating the Washington Redskins.
Through the 2016 season, Tomlin 's record is 111 -- 63, including playoffs. He is the first Pittsburgh coach without a losing season. The 2013 -- 2017 seasons were noted for record performances from the "killer B 's ''. This trio consisted of Antonio Brown, Ben Roethlisberger and Le'Veon Bell. Occasionally, the "Killer B 's '' has also included kicker Chris Boswell due to his ability to hit game - winning field goals.
Since the NFL merger in 1970, the Pittsburgh Steelers have compiled a regular season record of 444 -- 282 -- 2 (. 635) and an overall record of 480 - 305 - 2 (. 635) including the playoffs, reached the playoffs 30 times, won their division 22 times, played in 16 AFC championship games, and won six of eight Super Bowls. They are also the only NFL team not to have a season with twelve or more losses since the league expanded to a 16 - game schedule in 1978.
Since 2008, the Rooney family has brought in several investors for the team while retaining control of the team itself. This came about so that the team could comply with NFL ownership regulations. Dan Rooney, and his son, Art Rooney II, president of the franchise, wanted to stay involved with the franchise, while two of the brothers -- Timothy and Patrick -- wanted to further pursue racetracks that they own in Florida and New York. Since 2006, many of the racetracks have added video slot machines, causing them to violate "NFL policy that prohibits involvement with racetrack and gambling interests ''.
Upon Dan Rooney 's death in 2017, he and Art Rooney II retained control of the team with the league - minimum 30 %, the following make up the other investors:
Through the end of the 2015 season, the Steelers have an all - time record of 624 -- 552 -- 21, including playoffs. In recent seasons the Steelers have generally performed well, qualifying for the playoffs six times in the past ten seasons and winning the Super Bowl twice since 2005.
In the NFL 's "modern era '' (since the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970) the Steelers have posted the best record in the league. The franchise has won the most regular season games, the most playoff games (33 playoff wins; the Dallas Cowboys are second with 32), won the most divisional titles (20), has played in the most conference championship games (15), hosted the most conference championship games (11), and is tied with the Dallas Cowboys, the Denver Broncos and the New England Patriots for the most Super Bowl appearances (8). The Steelers have the best winning percentage (including every expansion team), earned the most All - Pro nominations, and have accumulated the most Super Bowl wins (6) since the modern game started in 1970. Since the merger, the team 's playoff record is 33 -- 19 (. 635), which is second best in terms of playoff winning percentage behind the Green Bay Packers ' playoff record of 28 -- 16 (. 636), through January 23, 2011.
The franchise, along with the Rooney family have for generations been strong advocates for equality of opportunity for both minorities and women. Among these achievements of the Steelers was the first to hire an African - American Assistant Coach (September 29, 1957 with Lowell Perry), the first to start an African - American quarterback (December 3, 1973 with Joe Gilliam), the first team to boast of an African - American Super Bowl MVP (January 12, 1975 with Franco Harris), the first to hire an African - American Coordinator (September 2, 1984 with Tony Dungy), the first owner to push for passage of an "equal opportunity '' mandating that at least one minority candidate is given an interview in all head coach hiring decisions throughout the league (the Rooney Rule in the early 2000s), and the first to hire a female as full - time athletic trainer (Ariko Iso on July 24, 2002). Note: Although Marlin Briscoe is sometimes erroneously cited as the first African - American starting quarterback in 1968, this was not for an NFL team and not in an NFL game, additionally the vast majority of Briscoe 's career was not as quarterback.
The Steelers have used black and gold as their colors since the club 's inception, the lone exception being the 1943 season when they merged with the Philadelphia Eagles and formed the "Steagles ''; the team 's colors at that time were green and white as a result of wearing Eagles uniforms. Originally, the team wore solid gold - colored helmets and black jerseys. The Steelers ' black and gold colors are now shared by all major professional teams in the city, including the Pittsburgh Pirates in baseball and the Pittsburgh Penguins in ice hockey, and also the Pittsburgh Power of the re-formed Arena Football League, and the Pittsburgh Passion of the Independent Women 's Football League. The shade of gold differs slightly among teams: the Penguins have previously used "Vegas Gold '', a color similar to metallic gold, and the Pirates ' gold is a darker mustard yellow - gold, while the Steelers "gold '' is more of a bright canary yellow. Black and gold are also the colors of the city 's official flag.
The Steelers logo was introduced in 1962 and is based on the "Steelmark '', originally designed by Pittsburgh 's U.S. Steel and now owned by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). In fact, it was Cleveland - based Republic Steel that suggested the Steelers adopt the industry logo. It consists of the word "Steelers '' surrounded by three astroids (hypocycloids of four cusps). The original meanings behind the astroids were, "Steel lightens your work, brightens your leisure, and widens your world. '' Later, the colors came to represent the ingredients used in the steel - making process: yellow for coal, red for iron ore, and blue for scrap steel. While the formal Steelmark logo contains only the word "Steel '', the team was given permission to add "ers '' in 1963 after a petition to AISI.
The Steelers are the only NFL team that puts its logo on only one side of the helmet (the right side). Longtime field and equipment manager Jack Hart was instructed to do this by Art Rooney as a test to see how the logo appeared on the gold helmets; however, its popularity led the team to leave it that way permanently. A year after introducing the logo, they switched to black helmets to make it stand out more.
The Steelers, along with the New York Giants, are one of only two teams in the National Football League to have the players ' uniform numbers on both the front and back of the helmets.
The current uniform designs were introduced in 1968. The design consists of gold pants and either black jerseys or white jerseys, except for the 1970 and 1971 seasons when the Steelers wore white pants with their white jerseys. In 1997, the team switched to rounded numbers on the jersey to match the number font (Futura Condensed) on the helmets, and a Steelers logo was added to the left side of the jersey.
The 2007 -- 2011 third uniform, consisting of a black jersey with gold lettering, white pants with black and gold stripes, and a gold helmet were first used during the Steelers ' 75th anniversary season in 2007. They were meant to evoke the memory of the 1963 -- 1964 era uniforms. The uniforms were so popular among fans that the Steelers ' organization decided to keep them and use them as a third option during home games only.
In 2012, the Steelers introduced a new third uniform, consisting of a yellow jersey with black horizontal lines (making a bumble bee like pattern) with black lettering and black numbers placed inside a white box, to represent the jerseys worn by the Steelers in their 1934 season. The rest of the uniform consists of beige pants, yellow with black horizontal stripped socks, and the Steelers regular black helmet. The uniforms were used for the Steelers ' 80th anniversary season. Much like the previous alternate these jerseys were so popular that they were used up through the 2016 season. The jerseys were nicknamed the "bumblebee jerseys '' due to looking like the pattern of a bumble bee. The jerseys were retired after the 2016 season.
In 2008 -- 2009, the Steelers became the first team in NFL history to defeat an opponent three times in a single season using three different uniforms. They defeated the Baltimore Ravens in Pittsburgh in Week 4 in their third jerseys, again Week 15 in Baltimore in their road whites, and a final time in the AFC Championship in Pittsburgh in their home black jerseys.
In 1979, the team owners were approached by then - Iowa Hawkeyes Head Coach Hayden Fry about designing his fading college team 's uniforms in the image of the Steelers. Three days later, the owners sent Fry the reproduction jerseys (home and away versions) of then quarterback Terry Bradshaw. Today, the Hawkeyes still retain the 1979 Steelers uniforms as their home, and away colors.
The Pittsburgh Steelers have three primary rivals, all within their division: (Cleveland Browns, Baltimore Ravens, and Cincinnati Bengals). They also have rivalries with other teams that arose from post-season battles in the past, most notably the New England Patriots, Oakland Raiders, Tennessee Titans and Dallas Cowboys. They also have an intrastate rivalry with the Philadelphia Eagles, but under the current scheduling the teams play each other only once every four years.
Prior to the 2007 season, the Steelers introduced Steely McBeam as their official mascot. As part of the 75th anniversary celebrations of the team, his name was selected from a pool of 70,000 suggestions submitted by fans of the team. Diane Roles of Middlesex Township, Butler County, Pennsylvania submitted the winning name which was "meant to represent steel for Pittsburgh 's industrial heritage, "Mc '' for the Rooney family 's Irish roots, and Beam for the steel beams produced in Pittsburgh, as well as for Jim Beam, her husband 's favorite alcoholic beverage. '' Steely McBeam is visible at all home games and participates in the team 's charitable programs and other club - sponsored events. Steely 's autograph is known to be drawn with an oversized ' S ' and the "L '' is drawn to look like a beam of steel.
The Steelers have a tradition of having a large fanbase, which has spread from Pittsburgh. In August 2008, ESPN.com ranked the Steelers ' fans as the best in the NFL, citing their "unbelievable '' sellout streak of 299 consecutive games. The team gained a large fan base nationally based on its success in the 1970s, but many consider the collapse of the city 's steel industry at the end of the 1970s dynasty into the 1980s (and the resulting diaspora) to be a large catalyst for the size of the fan base in other cities. The Steelers have sold out every home game since the 1972 season.
The Pittsburgh Steelers have numerous unofficial fan clubs in many cities throughout the country, that typically meet in bars or taverns on game days. This phenomenon is known to occur for other NFL teams as well, but "Steeler bars '' are more visible than most, including representative establishments even in cities that field their own NFL teams.
The Terrible Towel has been described by the Associated Press as "arguably the best - known fan symbol of any major pro sports team ''. Conceived of by broadcaster Myron Cope in 1975, the towel 's rights have since been given to the Allegheny Valley School in Coraopolis, Pennsylvania, which cares for over 900 people with intellectual disability and physical disabilities, including Cope 's autistic son. Since 1996, proceeds from the Terrible Towel have helped raise more than $2.5 million for the school.
The Steelers have no official fight song, but many fan versions of Here we go Steelers and the Steelers Polka (the latter a parody of Pennsylvania Polka) by ethnic singer Jimmy Pol, both originating in the 1970s, have been recorded. Since 1994, the song Here We Go by local singer Roger Wood has been popular among fans. During Steelers games, Styx 's Renegade is often used to rally the crowd.
During the offseason, the Steelers have long participated in charity basketball games throughout Western Pennsylvania and neighboring areas. The games usually feature six active players as well as their player - coach playing against a group of local civic leaders. The players, whose participants are n't announced until the day the game, sign free autographs for fans during halftime.
In 2001, the Steelers moved into Heinz Field. The franchise dating back to 1933 has had several homes. For thirty - one seasons, the Steelers shared Forbes Field with the Pittsburgh Pirates from 1933 to 1963. In 1958, though they started splitting their home games at Pitt Stadium three blocks away at the University of Pittsburgh. From 1964 to 1969, the Steelers played exclusively at the on campus facility before moving with the Pirates to Three Rivers Stadium on the city 's Northside. Three Rivers is remembered fondly by the Steeler Nation as where Chuck Noll and Dan Rooney turned the franchise into a powerhouse, winning four Super Bowls in just six seasons and making the playoffs 11 times in 13 seasons from 1972 to 1984, the AFC title game seven times. Since 2001 however a new generation of Steeler greats has made Heinz Field legendary with multiple AFC Championship Games being hosted and two Super Bowl championships.
The Steelers hold training camp east of the city at Saint Vincent College in Latrobe, Pennsylvania. The site is one of the most storied in the league with Peter King of SI.com describing it as: "... I love the place. It 's the perfect training - camp setting, looking out over the rolling hills of the Laurel Highlands in west - central Pennsylvania, an hour east of Pittsburgh. On a misty or foggy morning, standing atop the hill at the college, you feel like you 're in Scotland. Classic, wonderful slice of Americana. If you can visit one training camp, this is the one to see.
The team has its headquarters and practice facilities at the state - of - the - art University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Sportsplex on Pittsburgh 's Southside. Constructed in 2000, the facility combines the vast expertise of sports medical professionals and researchers as well as hosting the University of Pittsburgh Panthers football team.
The Rooney family has long had a close relationship with Duquesne University in the city and from the teams founding in the 1930s to the late 1990s used Art Rooney Field and other facilities on campus as either its primary or secondary in - season training site as well as Greenlee Field during the 1930s.
In the 1970s and 1980s, the team had season scrimmages at South Park in the suburban south hills of Pittsburgh. During various seasons including the strike season of 1987, the Steelers used Point Stadium in nearby Johnstown, Pennsylvania for game week practices. During the 1950s St. Bonaventure University and suburban Ligonier also served as a pre-season training camp sites.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Unrestricted FAs
Restricted FAs
Exclusive - Rights FAs
Roster updated February 10, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 46 Active, 16 Inactive, 14 FAs
The Steelers retired Stautner 's # 70 in 1964 before creating a 50 - year tradition of not retiring numbers. The team retired Greene 's # 75 in 2014 and left the possibility open that they would retire other players ' jersey numbers at later dates. Other numbers are no longer issued since the retirement of the players who wore them, including:
The Steelers boast the third most "primary '' inductees into the Pro Football Hall of Fame, i.e. inductees that spent most or all of their NFL careers in Pittsburgh. They also can claim the most honorees of any franchise founded on or after 1933 and the only franchise with three members of ownership in the Hall.
The following Steelers players have been named to the Pro Bowl:
The following Steelers were named to NFL All - Decade Teams (and 75th Anniversary All - Time Team selected in 1994). Only those who spent time with Pittsburgh during the respective decades are listed.
NFL 1930s All - Decade Team Johnny "Blood '' McNally, HB (1934, 1937 -- 38)
NFL 1940s All - Decade Team Bill Dudley, HB (1942, 1945 -- 46) Bucko Kilroy, T (1943) Vic Sears, T (1943) Al Wistert, T (1943)
NFL 1950s All - Decade Team Bobby Layne, QB (1958 -- 62) Ernie Stautner, DT (1950 -- 63) Jack Butler, DB (1951 -- 59)
NFL 1960s All - Decade Team No players selected
NFL 1970s All - Decade Team Terry Bradshaw, QB (1970 -- 83) Franco Harris, RB (1972 -- 83) Lynn Swann, WR (1974 -- 82) Mike Webster, C (1974 -- 88) L.C. Greenwood, DE (1969 -- 81) Joe Greene, DT (1969 -- 81) Jack Lambert, MLB (1974 -- 84) Jack Ham, OLB (1971 -- 82) Chuck Noll, Coach (1969 -- 91)
NFL 1980s All - Decade Team Mike Webster, C (1974 -- 88) Jack Lambert, MLB (1974 -- 84) Mel Blount, CB (1970 -- 83) Gary Anderson, K (1982 -- 94) Chuck Noll, Coach (1969 -- 91)
NFL 1990s All - Decade Team Dermontti Dawson, C (1988 -- 2000) Kevin Greene, LB (1993 -- 95) Hardy Nickerson, LB (1987 -- 92) Levon Kirkland, LB (1992 -- 2000) Rod Woodson, CB (1987 -- 96) Carnell Lake, S (1989 -- 98) Gary Anderson, K (1982 -- 94)
NFL 75th Anniversary All - Time Team Johnny Unitas, QB (1955) Marion Motley, FB (1955) Mike Webster, C (1974 -- 88) Joe Greene, DT (1969 -- 81) Jack Lambert, LB (1974 -- 84) Jack Ham, LB (1971 -- 82) Mel Blount, CB (1970 -- 83) Rod Woodson, CB (1987 -- 96)
NFL 2000s All - Decade Team Alan Faneca, G (1998 -- 2007) Joey Porter, LB (1999 -- 2006) Troy Polamalu, S (2003 -- 14)
In 2007, in celebration of the franchise 's 75th season, the team announced an updated All - Time team of the 33 best players who have ever played for the Steelers. This team supplanted the previous All - Time team of 24 players named as part of the 50th anniversary commemoration in 1982.
A "Legends team '' consisting of the club 's best pre-1970s players was released concurrently with the latest All - Time team.
The regional Dapper Dan Charities has since 1939 named the "Sportsman of the Year '' in the Pittsburgh region. 18 Steelers have won the award in 22 events:
The Pittsburgh Steelers Hall of Honor was established on August 1, 2017. There have been 27 inductees.
The Steelers have had 16 coaches through their history. They have cycled through the least amount of head coaches in the modern NFL history. Their first coach was Forrest Douds, who coached them to a 3 -- 6 -- 2 record in 1933. Chuck Noll had the longest term as head coach with the Steelers; he is one of only four coaches to coach a single NFL team for 23 years. Hired prior to the 2007 season, the Steelers current coach is Mike Tomlin.
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As of 2006, the Steelers ' flagship radio stations were WDVE 102.5 FM and WBGG 970 AM. Both stations are owned by iHeartMedia. Games are also available on 51 radio stations in Pennsylvania, Western Maryland, Ohio, and Northern West Virginia. The announcers are Bill Hillgrove and Tunch Ilkin. Craig Wolfley is the sideline reporter. Myron Cope, the longtime color analyst and inventor of the "Terrible Towel '', retired after the 2004 season, and died in 2008.
Pre-season games not shown on one of the national broadcasters are seen on CBS O&O KDKA - TV, channel 2; sister CW O&O WPCW, channel 19; and AT&T SportsNet Pittsburgh. KDKA - TV 's Bob Pompeani and former Steelers quarterback Charlie Batch do the announcing for the pre-season games, as well as the two hosting the pre-game program Steelers Kickoff during the regular season prior to the national airing of The NFL Today. Pompeani and former Steelers lineman Chris Hoke also host the Xfinity Xtra Point following the game on days when CBS does not have that week 's NFL doubleheader. When CBS has a week 's doubleheader, the show airs on WPCW. Coach Mike Tomlin 's weekly press conference is shown live on AT&T SportsNet Pittsburgh. Both Batch and Hoke replaced former Steelers lineman Edmund Nelson, who retired from broadcasting in 2015.
Thursday Night Football broadcasts are shown locally on KDKA, while national ESPN broadcasts are shown locally on WTAE - TV, channel 4. (WTAE - TV is owned by the Hearst Corporation, which owns a 20 % stake in ESPN.) By virtue of being members of the AFC, most of the Steelers ' games air on CBS except for home games against NFC opponents, which air locally on WPGH - TV, which is a Fox affiliate. NBC Sunday Night Football games are carried by WPXI, channel 11, in the market.
The Steelers hold a national contract with Grupo Imagen for radio rights to their games in Mexico; Imagen broadcasts the Steelers on their stations in 17 Mexican cities.
The Steelers franchise has a rich history of producing well - known sportscasters over the years. The most famous of these is probably Myron Cope, who served as a Steelers radio color commentator for 35 seasons (1970 -- 2004).
Several former Steelers players have gone on to careers in media after completing their playing careers.
The Steelers Digest is the only official newspaper for the Pittsburgh Steelers. It has been published for 22 years and is currently published by Dolphin / Curtis Publishing in Miami, Florida, which also handles several other publications. The newspaper is very widely acknowledged by Steelers fans. Issues are mailed out to paying subscribers weekly through the season after every regular season game and continues through playoffs as long as the Steelers do. After a Super Bowl victory, a bonus issue is published, which is followed by a draft preview, draft recap, and training camp edition every other month, then leading into the pre-season. There are typically 24 issues of the paper within a publishing year. The newspaper is listed on the official Steelers.com page.
The Steelers success over several decades has permeated film and literature. The Steelers are portrayed in the following big - budget Hollywood films:
The protagonist of John Grisham 's novel "The Associate '' is a staunch Steelers fan.
The Steelers helped launch the Chuck Noll Foundation for Brain Injury Research in November 2016 by donating $1 million. The Foundation, started by Steelers president Art Rooney II, focuses on education and research regarding brain injuries and sports - related concussions.
In June 2017, the Steelers announced an inaugural charity walk to raise money for the foundation.
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when does canobie lake park close for the year | Canobie Lake park - wikipedia
Canobie Lake Park is an amusement park in Salem, New Hampshire, United States, located about 31 miles (50 km) north of Boston. Founded as a trolley park on the shore of Canobie Lake on 1902, the park most prominently featured botanical gardens, with few amusement rides. Three local families currently run the park, which draws visitors from throughout the New England region. Canobie Lake Park 's age and history have inspired author Stephen King to use rides and elements from the park in his Joyland novel.
After the automobile became the most popular mode of travel in the United States, the trolley line serving the park was closed. Attendance in the park declined until it was purchased by Patrick J. Holland. He installed a wooden roller coaster named Yankee Cannonball in 1936, a ride which was designated as an ACE Roller Coaster Landmark by American Coaster Enthusiasts in 2016. The park recovered, and the Canobie Corkscrew was installed in 1987, after being relocated from the Old Chicago amusement park in Illinois. Arrow Development designed the Canobie Corkscrew, which was known at the time as the Chicago Loop. Untamed, a Euro - Fighter coaster, is the only other coaster in the park besides the Corkscrew with an inversion.
Canobie Lake Park opened on August 23, 1902, as a trolley park for the Massachusetts Northeast Street Railway Company. The amusement park has opened every summer since then. In the park 's early years, it was known for its flower gardens, promenades and gentle attractions. After the decline of trolley as a mode of travel, the park declined in popularity, culminating in the park 's closure on St. Patrick 's Day in 1929. In 1931, the park was auctioned off, with the intent to subdivide the land into residential lots. Patrick J. Holland, a construction contractor from Ireland, bought the property for USD $17,000. He and his workers restored the park with new gardens, attractions, and modern electricity. In 1932, the park reopened, three years after its initial closure. Its popularity recovered, and the Yankee Cannonball was installed, becoming one of the park 's most popular attractions for decades. Holland passed away in 1943, leaving the park with his wife and son, who continued to own the park until 1958. The park is now owned by three families, who purchased the park afterward.
Some films and novels have used Canobie Lake Park as a setting or filming location. Stephen King, an American author of horror novels, based the amusement park in his novel Joyland on Canobie Lake Park. A resident of the nearby state of Maine, King visited after searching for a park "that was nice and clean and sunlit, but was n't too big ''. During a visit in 2012, King took photographs inside the dark ride attraction, "Mine of Lost Souls '', because he wanted to incorporate a haunted dark ride into his novel. The park was also used as a filming location for the 2013 film Labor Day, based on the coming - of - age novel Labor Day by Joyce Maynard.
Canobie Lake Park features a variety of rides and attractions. The Yankee Cannonball, a 1930s - era wooden roller coaster, is one of the park 's best known rides. The park also has a looping, steel roller coaster named the Canobie Corkscrew, designed by Arrow Dynamics. Originally manufactured in 1975, the Canobie Corkscrew operated at Old Chicago from 1975 to 1980 as the "Chicago Loop '', at the Alabama State Fairgrounds as "Corkscrew '' from 1982 to 1986, before moving to Canobie Lake in 1987. The Canobie Corkscrew is one of the first steel looping roller coasters manufactured in the world and is part of a series of Arrow corkscrew models produced from 1975 - 1979.
Other thrill rides in Canobie Lake Park include Starblaster, an S&S Double Shot. The Starblaster was opened in 2002, replacing the Moon Orbiter. The park also features a rotor ride named "Turkish Twist '', and a shoot - the - chutes ride named "The Boston Tea Party ''. Canobie has one of the few dark rides in New England, named "Mine of Lost Souls ''. Passengers board a mine car and are transported into the depths of a dark mine, which begins to collapse. Another flat ride at Canobie is the "Psychodrome '', a 12 - car Scrambler ride located in a dome, with lighting, music and special effects. In 2005, the park opened Castaway Island, a small water park consisting of a water play structure. In October 2017, the park announced an expansion to the water ride complex, featuring a lazy river and a series of water slides.
The park once had a simulator ride named "USA Missile '', built early in the Space Age by John Taggart and Sam Daugherty. Passengers sit facing the nose of the rocket, which is then inclined. A movie is shown on a screen at the front as a simulation of space flight. While at Canobie Lake Park, it was repainted to mimic the markings used on such launch vehicles as the Saturn rockets. It has since been closed down, and was left standing but not operating.
In 2011, the park added Untamed, a Gerstlauer Euro - Fighter 320 + model. This is the fourth Euro - Fighter to be added in the United States, the only one in the Northeast, and the first roller coaster to be opened in Canobie Lake Park since the Canobie Corkscrew in 1987. The ride features a 72 - foot vertical lift and a beyond vertical drop at a 97 degree angle, as well as three inversions: a vertical loop, an Immelmann loop, and a zero - G roll.
The park added Equinox in 2012, a ride that lifted and spun riders on a giant mechanical arm. Despite the ride 's popularity, it was shut down in 2014 after persistent mechanical problems left the ride operating "sporadically ''. The park has stated that safety was not an issue.
Canobie Lake Park holds many events in the park throughout the year, including live performances and fireworks shows. The park has multiple venues for live entertainment, including the Country Stage, Midway Stage, and Dancehall Theater. The park 's Dancehall Theater has hosted performers such as Duke Ellington, Sonny & Cher, Frank Sinatra, and Ella Fitzgerald. The Canobie Ramblers occasionally perform at the Log Flume Gazebo. On certain weekends in September and October, Canobie Lake Park holds ScrEEEmfest, a Halloween event run in the afternoon that features Canobie 's most popular rides plus five walk - through haunted attractions. Past "haunts '' have included Merriment Incorporated, The Dead Shed, The Village, Head Hunters at Cannibal Lake, Cannibal Island, Demons of Darkness, and Virus. The park hosts performances from impersonators of various celebrities, such as Michael Jackson and Tim McGraw.
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where is the temporal lobe located and what does it do | Temporal lobe - wikipedia
The temporal lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain of mammals. The temporal lobe is located beneath the lateral fissure on both cerebral hemispheres of the mammalian brain.
The temporal lobe is involved in processing sensory input into derived meanings for the appropriate retention of visual memory, language comprehension, and emotion association.
The medial temporal lobe consists of structures that are vital for declarative or long - term memory. Declarative (denotative) or explicit memory is conscious memory divided into semantic memory (facts) and episodic memory (events). Medial temporal lobe structures that are critical for long - term memory include the hippocampus, along with the surrounding hippocampal region consisting of the perirhinal, parahippocampal, and entorhinal neocortical regions. The hippocampus is critical for memory formation, and the surrounding medial temporal cortex is currently theorized to be critical for memory storage. The prefrontal and visual cortices are also involved in explicit memory.
Research has shown that lesions in the hippocampus of monkeys results in limited impairment of function, whereas extensive lesions that include the hippocampus and the medial temporal cortex result in severe impairment.
The temporal lobe communicates with the hippocampus and plays a key role in the formation of explicit long - term memory modulated by the amygdala.
The temporal lobe holds the primary auditory cortex, which is important for the processing of semantics in both speech and vision in humans. Wernicke 's area, which spans the region between temporal and parietal lobes, plays a key role (in tandem with Broca 's area in the frontal lobe) in speech comprehension. The functions of the left temporal lobe are not limited to low - level perception but extend to comprehension, naming, and verbal memory.
The medial temporal lobes (near the sagittal plane) are thought to be involved in encoding declarative long term memory. The medial temporal lobes include the hippocampi, which are essential for memory storage, therefore damage to this area can result in impairment in new memory formation leading to permanent or temporary anterograde amnesia.
Individuals who suffer from medial temporal lobe damage have a difficult time recalling visual stimuli. This neurotransmission deficit is due, not to lacking perception of visual stimuli but, to lacking perception of interpretation. The most common symptom of inferior temporal lobe damage is visual agnosia, which involves impairment in the identification of familiar objects. Another less common type of inferior temporal lobe damage is prosopagnosia which is an impairment in the recognition of faces and distinction of unique individual facial features.
Damage specifically to the anterior portion of the left temporal lobe can cause savant syndrome.
Pick 's disease, also known as frontotemporal amnesia, is caused by atrophy of the frontotemporal lobe. Emotional symptoms include mood changes, which the patient may be unaware of, including poor attention span and aggressive behavior towards themselves and / or others. Language symptoms include loss of speech, inability to read and / or write, loss of vocabulary and overall degeneration of motor ability.
Temporal lobe epilepsy is a chronic neurological condition characterized by recurrent seizures; symptoms include a variety of sensory (visual, auditory, olfactory, and gustation) hallucinations, as well as an inability to process semantic and episodic memories.
Schizophrenia is a severe psychotic disorder characterized by severe disorientation. Its most explicit symptom is the perception of external voices in the form of auditory hallucinations. The cause of such hallucinations has been attributed to deficits in the left temporal lobe, specifically within the primary auditory cortex. Decreased gray matter, among other cellular deficits, contribute to spontaneous neural activity that affect the primary auditory cortex as if it were experiencing acoustic auditory input. The misrepresentation of speech in the auditory cortex results in the perception of external voices in the form of auditory hallucinations in schizophrenic patients. Structural and functional fMRI techniques have accounted for this neural activity by testing affected and non-affected individuals with external auditory stimuli.
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how many knots is the speed of light | Beaufort scale - wikipedia
The Beaufort scale / ˈboʊfərt / is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed conditions at sea or on land. Its full name is the Beaufort wind force scale.
The scale was devised in 1805 by the Irish hydrographer Francis Beaufort (later Rear Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort), a Royal Navy officer, while serving on HMS Woolwich. The scale that carries Beaufort 's name had a long and complex evolution from the previous work of others (including Daniel Defoe the century before) to when Beaufort was Hydrographer of the Navy in the 1830s when it was adopted officially and first used during the voyage of HMS Beagle under Captain Robert FitzRoy, later to set up the first Meteorological Office (Met Office) in Britain giving regular weather forecasts. In the early 19th century, naval officers made regular weather observations, but there was no standard scale and so they could be very subjective -- one man 's "stiff breeze '' might be another 's "soft breeze ''. Beaufort succeeded in standardising the scale.
The initial scale of thirteen classes (zero to twelve) did not reference wind speed numbers but related qualitative wind conditions to effects on the sails of a frigate, then the main ship of the Royal Navy, from "just sufficient to give steerage '' to "that which no canvas sails could withstand ''.
The scale was made a standard for ship 's log entries on Royal Navy vessels in the late 1830s and was adapted to non-naval use from the 1850s, with scale numbers corresponding to cup anemometer rotations. In 1916, to accommodate the growth of steam power, the descriptions were changed to how the sea, not the sails, behaved and extended to land observations. Rotations to scale numbers were standardized only in 1923. George Simpson, CBE (later Sir George Simpson), director of the UK Meteorological Office, was responsible for this and for the addition of the land - based descriptors. The measure was slightly altered some decades later to improve its utility for meteorologists. Today, many countries have abandoned the scale and use the metric system based units, m / s or km / h, instead, but the severe weather warnings given to the public are still approximately the same as when using the Beaufort scale.
The Beaufort scale was extended in 1946, when forces 13 to 17 were added. However, forces 13 to 17 were intended to apply only to special cases, such as tropical cyclones. Nowadays, the extended scale is only used in Taiwan and mainland China, which are often affected by typhoons. Internationally, WMO Manual on Marine Meteorological Services (2012 edition) defined the Beaufort Scale only up to force 12 and there was no recommendation on the use of the extended scale.
Wind speed on the 1946 Beaufort scale is based on the empirical relationship:
Where v is the equivalent wind speed at 10 metres above the sea surface and B is Beaufort scale number. For example, B = 9.5 is related to 24.5 m / s which is equal to the lower limit of "10 Beaufort ''. Using this formula the highest winds in hurricanes would be 23 in the scale.
Today, hurricane - force winds are sometimes described as Beaufort scale 12 through 16, very roughly related to the respective category speeds of the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane scale, by which actual hurricanes are measured, where Category 1 is equivalent to Beaufort 12. However, the extended Beaufort numbers above 13 do not match the Saffir -- Simpson scale. Category 1 tornadoes on the Fujita and TORRO scales also begin roughly at the end of level 12 of the Beaufort scale, but are independent scales -- although the TORRO scale wind values are based on the 3 / 2 power law relating wind velocity to Beaufort force.
Wave heights in the scale are for conditions in the open ocean, not along the shore.
The wind speeds in different units are not mathematically equivalent; e.g. 12 -- 19 km / h is not equivalent to 8 -- 12 mph, and both are not equivalent to 7 -- 10 knots. The reason is that the Beaufort scale is not an exact nor an objective scale. It was based on visual and subjective observation of a ship and of the sea. The corresponding integral wind speeds were determined later, but the values in different units were never made equivalent.
The scale is used in the Shipping Forecasts broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in the United Kingdom, and in the Sea Area Forecast from Met Éireann, the Irish Meteorological Service. Met Éireann issues a "Small Craft Warning '' if winds of Beaufort force 6 (mean wind speed exceeding 22 knots) are expected up to 10 nautical miles offshore. Other warnings are issued by Met Éireann for Irish coastal waters, which are regarded as extending 30 miles out from the coastline, and the Irish Sea or part thereof: "Gale Warnings '' are issued if winds of Beaufort force 8 are expected; "Strong Gale Warnings '' are issued if winds of Beaufort force 9 or frequent gusts of at least 52 knots are expected.; "Storm Force Warnings '' are issued if Beaufort force 10 or frequent gusts of at least 61 knots are expected; "Violent Storm Force Warnings '' are issued if Beaufort force 11 or frequent gusts of at least 69 knots are expected; "Hurricane Force Warnings '' are issued if winds of greater than 64 knots are expected.
This scale is also widely used in the Netherlands, Germany, Greece, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malta and Macau, although with some differences between them. Taiwan uses the Beaufort scale with the extension to 17 noted above. China also switched to this extended version without prior notice on the morning of 15 May 2006, and the extended scale was immediately put to use for Typhoon Chanchu. Hong Kong and Macau retain force 12 as the maximum.
In the United States, winds of force 6 or 7 result in the issuance of a small craft advisory, with force 8 or 9 winds bringing about a gale warning, force 10 or 11 a storm warning ("a tropical storm warning '' being issued instead of the latter two if the winds relate to a tropical cyclone), and force 12 a hurricane - force wind warning (or hurricane warning if related to a tropical cyclone). A set of red warning flags (daylight) and red warning lights (night time) is displayed at shore establishments which coincide with the various levels of warning.
In Canada, maritime winds forecast to be in the range of 6 to 7 are designated as "strong ''; 8 to 9 "gale force ''; 10 to 11 "storm force ''; 12 "hurricane force ''. Appropriate wind warnings are issued by Environment Canada 's Meteorological Service of Canada: strong wind warning, gale (force wind) warning, storm (force wind) warning and hurricane - force wind warning. These designations were standardized nationally in 2008, whereas "light wind '' can refer to 0 to 12 or 0 to 15 knots and "moderate wind '' 12 to 19 or 16 to 19 knots, depending on regional custom, definition or practice. Prior to 2008, a "strong wind warning '' would have been referred to as a "small craft warning '' by Environment Canada, similar to US terminology. (Canada and the USA have the Great Lakes in common.)
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who wants to be a millionare calls dad | John Carpenter (game show contestant) - wikipedia
John Carpenter (born c. 1968) is an American game show contestant and IRS agent. He is best known for becoming the first top prize winner on the United States version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire. He held the record for the largest single win in United States game show history, until it was broken by Rahim Oberholtzer who won $1.12 million on another U.S. quiz show, Twenty One. Carpenter was also the first top prize winner among all international versions of the Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? series.
On the November 19, 1999 episode of Millionaire, Carpenter proceeded to advance to the million - dollar question without using any lifelines. He then used his Phone - A-Friend to call his father not for help, but rather to tell him he was going to win the game. Carpenter answered the question correctly and became the show 's first millionaire. His win gave him national recognition and led to multiple talk show appearances, as well as reappearances on Millionaire itself.
Carpenter is from Northampton, Massachusetts. His father, Tom, worked as a computer program analyst for the Department of Veterans Affairs, while his mother, Gail, served as an administrative assistant for the Massachusetts Audubon Society. In 1986, he enrolled at Rutgers University and graduated in 1990 with a degree in economics. In January 1991, he joined the Internal Revenue Service after completing government exams and tests. In November 1996, Carpenter met his future wife, Deborah, who was studying for a master 's degree at Southern Connecticut State University and worked as a manager of a Fleet Bank branch in New Haven. They married in August 1998. At the time of his appearance on Millionaire, he was 31 years old. When he revealed his profession as an IRS officer on Millionaire, Carpenter was playfully booed by the audience.
Carpenter was originally uninterested in Millionaire but eventually tuned in one night after dinner while having friends over at his house. When he found the show 's higher - tier questions to not be, in his words, "any more difficult '' than the lower - tier ones, he decided to call in to the show 's hotline for a chance to become a contestant. Carpenter answered all of the hotline questions correctly and was on the show within two days.
Host Regis Philbin described Carpenter as having "cruised right through those first fourteen questions, '' he had proceeded to reach the final question without using any of his lifelines. The $1 million question was, "Which of these U.S. Presidents appeared on the television series ' Laugh - In '? '', with the choices being A) Lyndon Johnson, B) Richard Nixon, C) Jimmy Carter, and D) Gerald Ford. Carpenter used his Phone - A-Friend lifeline to call his father not for help, but rather to inform him that he knew the answer. Carpenter later explained, "I thought I 'd look so cocky if I did n't use any lifelines, so I faked it. ''
With his win, Carpenter became the first contestant in the worldwide Millionaire franchise to win the show 's top prize. He said that the only question that had flustered him was one which asked for the location of the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral. Carpenter eventually remembered that the film Tombstone included the gunfight, and he replied correctly with the answer ' Tombstone, Arizona '. While taking a vacation after his win, Carpenter considered quitting his job with the IRS, but eventually decided against it. He explained to Kiplinger 's Personal Finance that "after the taxes, it 's not change - your - life kind of money if you want to eat every day. '' Carpenter also described the fame as having a bigger impact on his life than the money, later stating: "The money does n't change your life. What happens afterwards might. ''
Shortly after winning on Millionaire, Carpenter played himself in a Saturday Night Live skit. Donald Trump, played by Darrell Hammond, announced that Carpenter would be his running - mate in the presidential election. Afterward, Carpenter pretended to call his father, then shouted, "Live from New York, it 's Saturday Night! '' Carpenter also appeared on Good Morning America, Oprah Winfrey Show, Live with Regis and Kathie Lee, and Late Show with David Letterman.
Carpenter appeared as himself in the second half of the fourth season of Oz. He plays a contestant in a fictional TV game show called Up Your Ante that the prisoners in Em City are watching. The show within the show is hosted by Gordon Elliott, with Eartha Kitt and Didi Conn appearing as celebrity participants.
With Rod L. Evans, Carpenter co-authored a trivia book titled Matching Wits With the Million - Dollar Mind: The World 's Hardest Trivia Quizzes From America 's First Quiz Show Millionaire. The book was published by Berkley Books in 2002.
In 2000, Carpenter appeared in the Who Wants to Be a Millionaire Champions Edition, in which previous contestants who won $250,000 -- $1,000,000 played again, with half of their additional winnings from the Champions Edition going to a charity of their choice. Carpenter won $250,000, bringing his total Millionaire winnings to $1,250,000. In 2004, Carpenter participated in Super Millionaire, as one of the "Three Wise Men '' on the episode during which Robert "Bob - O '' Essig won $1,000,000.
He later participated as part of the Mob on NBC 's 1 vs. 100 on October 27, 2006, and as a contestant on the Game Show Network game show Grand Slam. Carpenter appeared on the August 16, 2009 episode of Millionaire in prime time for its tenth anniversary. In the audience with him were his father, his wife, and his son. Additionally, he was also the first expert in the "Ask the Expert '' lifeline for the eighth season of the syndicated series.
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where did the phrase captain obvious come from | Captain Obvious - Wikipedia
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what version of the bible is the gideons | Gideons International - wikipedia
Gideons International is an evangelical Christian association founded in 1899 in Wisconsin. The Gideons ' primary activity is distributing copies of the Bible free of charge. This Bible distribution is a global enterprise taking place in 200 countries, territories and possessions. The association 's members focus on distributing complete Bibles, New Testaments, or portions thereof. These copies are printed in over 100 languages. The association is most widely known for its Bibles placed in hotel and motel rooms. The Gideons also distribute to hospitals and other medical offices, schools and colleges as well as jails and prisons. The association takes its name from the Biblical figure Gideon depicted in Judges 6.
The Gideons began distributing free Bibles, the endeavor for which it is chiefly known, in 1908, when the first Bibles were placed in the rooms of the Superior Hotel in Superior, Montana. Members of The Gideons International currently distribute over 80 million Scriptures annually, and the numbers are growing, especially in places like Brazil, India, and Asia. On average, more than two copies of the Bible are distributed per second through Gideons International. In late April 2015, Gideons distributed their historic two billionth Scripture. The distribution of the first one billion Bibles and New Testaments by Gideon members spanned 93 years (1908 to 2001). The second billion was attained in less than 14 years (2002 to 2015).
The headquarters of Gideons International is in Nashville, Tennessee.
The organization began in fall 1898, when two traveling salesmen, John H. Nicholson of Janesville, Wisconsin, and Samuel E. Hill of Beloit, Wisconsin, met in a hotel room they shared at the Central House Hotel in Boscobel, Wisconsin, where they discussed the formation of an association. In May 1899, the two met again in Beaver Dam, Wisconsin, where they decided the goal of their association would be to unite traveling salesmen for evangelism. In July, 1899, Nicholson, Hill, and Will J. Knights met at the YMCA in Janesville. Two of them continued with the distribution of the Bibles. Gideons began distributing free Bibles, the work they are chiefly known for, in 1908, when the first Bibles were placed in the rooms of the Superior Hotel in Superior, Montana.
The organization describes its link to the story of Gideon:
Gideon was a man who was willing to do exactly what God wanted him to do, regardless of his own judgment as to the plans or results. Humility, faith, and obedience were his great elements of character. This is the standard that The Gideons International is trying to establish in all its members, each man to be ready to do God 's will at any time, at any place, and in any way that the Holy Spirit leads.
In keeping with this symbolism, the symbol of the Gideons is a two - handled pitcher and torch recalling Gideon 's victory over the Midianites as described in Judges, Chapter 7.
In addition to their well - known hotel room Bibles, members of The Gideons International also distribute Bibles to members of the military of various countries, to hospitals, nursing homes, prisons, MPs and students. A typical Bible or New Testament from The Gideons International contains:
Membership is limited to current or retired business or professional men aged 21 or older who are members in good standing of an evangelical or Protestant church. Wives of Gideons may join the Gideons International Auxiliary.
The covers of the New Testaments distributed by Gideons are color - coded based on which groups they are meant for:
During World War II there were Military Issued New Testaments, brown for Army and blue for Navy distributed by the Gideons. In addition to the Desert Camouflage and the Digital Camouflage, there are also Woodland Camouflage editions for the Military.
The distribution of Bibles on school grounds has been an issue because of the U.S. Supreme Court 's interpretation of the Establishment Clause in the Constitution. Five Supreme Court cases discuss this issue: Everson, McCollum, Zorach, Engel, and Schempp.
In 2008, Americans United for Separation of Church and State brought suit against the South Iron R - 1 School District in Missouri for allowing the Gideons to distribute Bibles during class time. In 2009, the 8th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in St. Louis upheld a lower court ruling that found the South Iron district 's distribution of Bibles to the schoolchildren in their classrooms was unconstitutional. An "attorney representing the South Iron School District in Annapolis, Mo., said the decision allows a new policy to finally be implemented, one that allows any group to hand out literature at the rural district, including information on how children can obtain Bibles. ''
The Gideons International continues to contact youth in America through The Life Book, coordinating with churches and their youth to distribute copies of the Bible in high schools. The Alliance Defending Freedom, as of 2013, maintains that there are "constitutionally permissible ways in which Gideons Bibles may be distributed, '' and attorneys Rory Gray and Jeremy Tedesco write that the Alliance Defending Freedom sent letters to 174 school districts in Kentucky stating: "Federal caselaw overwhelmingly supports the decision to grant religious and non-religious community groups an equal opportunity to provide literature to willing students. '' In early 2014, the "Gideons International again distributed Bibles at a public elementary school in Kentucky. ''
The tradition of Gideons handing out small New Testaments continues in many British secondary schools. Some schools have banned Gideons.
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who sang it's a long way to tipperary | It 's a long way to Tipperary - wikipedia
"It 's a Long Way to Tipperary '' is a British music hall song written by Jack Judge and co-credited to Henry James "Harry '' Williams. It was allegedly written for a 5 - shilling bet in Stalybridge on 30 January 1912 and performed the next night at the local music hall. Now commonly called "It 's a Long Way to Tipperary '', the original printed music calls it "It 's a Long, Long Way to Tipperary ''. It became popular among soldiers in the First World War and is remembered as a song of that war.
Welcoming signs in the referenced county of Tipperary, Ireland, humorously declare, "You 've come a long long way... '' in reference to the song.
During the First World War, Daily Mail correspondent George Curnock saw the Irish regiment the Connaught Rangers singing this song as they marched through Boulogne on 13 August 1914 and reported it on 18 August 1914. The song was quickly picked up by other units of the British Army. In November 1914, it was recorded by Irish tenor John McCormack, which helped its worldwide popularity.
One of the most popular hits of the time, the song is atypical in that it is not a warlike song that incites the soldiers to glorious deeds. Popular songs in previous wars (such as the Boer Wars) frequently did this. In the First World War, however, the most popular songs, like this one and "Keep the Home Fires Burning '', concentrated on the longing for home.
This song is not to be confused with a popular song from 1907 simply titled "Tipperary ''. Both were sung at different times by early recording star Billy Murray. Murray, with the American Quartet, sang "It 's A Long Way To Tipperary '' as a straightforward march, complete with brass, drums and cymbals, with a quick bar of "Rule, Britannia! '' thrown into the instrumental interlude between the first and second verse - chorus combination.
Jack Judge 's parents were Irish, and his grandparents came from Tipperary. Judge and Harry Williams met in Oldbury, Worcestershire at the Malt Shovel, where Williams 's brother Ben was the licensee. Judge and Williams began a long - term writing partnership that resulted in 32 music hall songs published by Feldmans. Williams was severely handicapped, having fallen down cellar steps as a child. His parents were publicans (proprietors of pubs) and many of the songs were believed to have been composed with Judge at their home, The Plough Inn (now The Tipperary Inn), in Balsall Common.
After Harry Williams ' death in 1924 Jack Judge claimed sole credit for the song, allegedly writing it for a 5 - shilling bet in Stalybridge on 30 January 1912 and performing it the next night at the local music hall. However, the tune and most of the lyrics to the song already existed in the form of a manuscript, "It 's A Long Way to Connemara ''. This manuscript was co-written by Williams and Judge. The writing partners split the royalties for "It 's a Long, Long, Way to Tipperary '' until Jack Judge sold his royalties to Harry Williams in 1915.
In 1917, Alice Smyth Burton Jay sued song publishers Chappell & Co. for $100,000, alleging she wrote the tune in 1908 for a song played at the Alaska -- Yukon -- Pacific Exposition promoting the Washington apple industry. The chorus began "I 'm on my way to Yakima ''. The court appointed Victor Herbert to act as expert advisor and dismissed the suit in 1920, since the authors of "Tipperary '' had never been to Seattle and Victor Herbert testified the two songs were not similar enough to suggest plagiarism.
Williams ' family got together in 2012 to have Harry Williams officially re-credited with the song. They shared their archives with the Imperial War Museums. The family estate still receives royalties from the song.
First sung on the British music hall stage in 1912 by Jack Judge at the Grand Theatre in Stalybridge and later popularised by the music hall star Florrie Forde, it was featured as one of the songs in the 1951 film On Moonlight Bay, the 1960s stage musical and film Oh! What a Lovely War and the 1970 musical Darling Lili, sung by Julie Andrews. It was also sung by the prisoners of war in Jean Renoir 's film La Grande Illusion (1937) and as background music in The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming (1966). It is also the second part (the other two being Hanging on the Old Barbed Wire and Mademoiselle from Armentières) of the regimental march of Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry. Mystery Science Theater 3000 used it twice, sung by Crow T. Robot in Mystery Science Theater 3000: The Movie (1996), then sung again for the final television episode. It is also sung by British soldiers in the film The Travelling Players (1975) directed by the Theo Angelopoulos, and by Czechoslovak soldiers in the movie Černí baroni (1992).
The song is often cited when documentary footage of the First World War is presented. One example of its use is in the annual television special It 's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown (1966). Snoopy -- who fancies himself as a First World War flying ace -- dances to a medley of First World War - era songs played by Schroeder. This song is included, and at that point Snoopy falls into a left - right - left marching pace. Schroeder also played this song in Snoopy, Come Home (1972) at Snoopy 's send - off party. Also, Snoopy was seen singing the song out loud in a series of strips about his going to the 1968 Winter Olympics. In another strip, Snoopy is walking so long a distance to Tipperary that he lies down exhausted and notes, "They 're right, it is a long way to Tipperary. '' On a different occasion, Snoopy walks along and begins to sing the song, only to meet a sign that reads, "Tipperary: One Block. '' In a Sunday strip wherein Snoopy, in his World War I fantasy state, walks into Marcie 's home, thinking it a French café, and falls asleep after drinking all her root beer, she rousts him awake by loudly singing the song.
It is also featured in For Me and My Gal (1942) starring Judy Garland and Gene Kelly.
The cast of The Mary Tyler Moore Show march off screen singing the song at the conclusion of the series ' final episode.
It was sung by the crew of U-96 in Wolfgang Petersen 's 1981 film Das Boot (that particular arrangement was performed by the Red Army Choir). Morale is boosted in the submarine when the German crew sings the song as they start patrolling in the North Atlantic Ocean. The crew sings it a second time as they cruise toward home port after near disaster.
Up to mighty London Came an Irishman one day. As the streets are paved with gold Sure, everyone was gay, Singing songs of Piccadilly, Strand and Leicester Square, Till Paddy got excited, Then he shouted to them there: Chorus It 's a long way to Tipperary, It 's a long way to go. It 's a long way to Tipperary, To the sweetest girl I know! Goodbye, Piccadilly, Farewell, Leicester Square! It 's a long long way to Tipperary, But my heart 's right there. Paddy wrote a letter To his Irish Molly - O, Saying, "Should you not receive it, Write and let me know! '' "If I make mistakes in spelling, Molly, dear, '' said he, "Remember, it 's the pen that 's bad, Do n't lay the blame on me! '' Chorus Molly wrote a neat reply To Irish Paddy - O, Saying "Mike Maloney Wants to marry me, and so Leave the Strand and Piccadilly Or you 'll be to blame, For love has fairly drove me silly: Hoping you 're the same! '' Chorus
An alternative bawdy concluding chorus:
That 's the wrong way to tickle Mary, That 's the wrong way to kiss. Do n't you know that over here, lad They like it best like this. Hoo - ray pour les français, Farewell Angleterre. We did n't know how to tickle Mary, But we learnt how over there.
* Sheet Music for "It 's a Long, Long Way to Tipperary '', Chappell & Co., Ltd., 1912.
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who is the actor that plays howard on big bang theory | Simon Helberg - wikipedia
Simon Maxwell Helberg (born December 9, 1980) is an American actor, comedian, and musician. He is best known for his role as Howard Wolowitz in the sitcom The Big Bang Theory (2007 -- present), for which he won a Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series, and as Cosmé McMoon in the film Florence Foster Jenkins (2016), which earned him a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture.
Helberg has appeared on the sketch comedy series MADtv and is also known for his role as Moist in Joss Whedon 's web miniseries Dr. Horrible 's Sing - Along Blog (2008). He has further performed in films such as Old School (2003), Good Night, and Good Luck (2005), Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story (2007) and A Serious Man (2009).
Helberg was born on December 9, 1980, in Los Angeles. He is the son of actor Sandy Helberg and casting director Harriet Helberg (née Birnbaum). He was raised in Judaism, "Conservative to Reform but more Reform as time went on. ''
Helberg attended middle and high school at the Crossroads School in Santa Monica, California, with Jason Ritter, who later became his roommate at New York University. He attended New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts, where he trained at the Atlantic Theater Company.
Since the early 2000s, Helberg performed with comedian Derek Waters as the sketch comedy duo Derek & Simon. In 2007, the two starred together in Derek & Simon: The Show, a web series they created with comedian Bob Odenkirk for the comedy website Super Deluxe. They also made two short films "Derek & Simon: The Pity Card '' (co-starring Zach Galifianakis and Bill Hader) and "Derek & Simon: A Bee and a Cigarette '' (co-starring Casey Wilson and Emily Rutherfurd) and had a pilot deal with HBO in 2005. One of Helberg 's earliest jobs in television was briefly joining the cast of MADtv for one season in 2002.
Helberg appeared in the 2002 feature film Van Wilder as one of the geeky students for whom Van Wilder was throwing a party. He had a minor role in the 2003 movie Old School. In 2004, he was in two episodes of Reno 911!: Student Driver in Raineesha X and Hooker Buying Son in Not Without My Mustache. He had a small role in the sixth episode of Quintuplets, Get a Job, as a man called Neil working behind the counter at a shoe shop where Paige and Patton were working.
In 2004, he appeared in the film A Cinderella Story, starring Hilary Duff and Chad Michael Murray. Helberg played the minor role of Simon in George Clooney 's 2005 film Good Night, and Good Luck, where he had one line. In 2005, he had a bit part on Arrested Development as Jeff, an employee of the film studio where Maeby worked. From 2006 -- 07, he had a minor supporting role as Alex Dwyer in the drama Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip. In 2006, he appeared in a series of comical TV commercials for Richard Branson 's UK financial services company Virgin Money. He played a small role in the 2007 film Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story as a Jewish record producer.
In 2007, Helberg was cast as Howard Wolowitz, in the CBS comedy series The Big Bang Theory.
He appeared as the character Moist in Dr. Horrible 's Sing - Along Blog, and had a small role in the pilot episode of the Judd Apatow - produced sitcom Undeclared. In the 2009 Coen brothers film A Serious Man, he played junior Rabbi Scott Ginsler. He had a minor role in the season 4 finale of The Guild as one of the Game Masters.
In 2016, Helberg starred alongside Meryl Streep and Hugh Grant in Florence Foster Jenkins, directed by Stephen Frears; he played pianist Cosmé McMoon and his performance was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor -- Motion Picture.
Helberg married actress Jocelyn Towne on July 15, 2007. Towne 's uncle is screenwriter Robert Towne. Helberg and Towne 's first child, daughter Adeline, was born on May 8, 2012. A son, Wilder Towne Helberg, was born on April 23, 2014.
On May 14, 2013, Helberg revealed on Norm Macdonald Live that he has a black belt in karate.
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how many rivers are there in uttar pradesh | Category: Rivers of Uttar Pradesh - wikipedia Help
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who is known as the greatest ruler of mughal era | Mughal emperors - Wikipedia
The Mughal emperors, from the early 16th century to the early 18th century, built and ruled the Mughal Empire on the Indian subcontinent, mainly corresponding to the modern countries of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh. The Mughals were a branch of the Timurid dynasty of Turco - Mongol origin from Central Asia. Their power rapidly dwindled during the 18th century and the last of the emperors was deposed in 1857, with the establishment of the British Raj. Mughal emperors were of direct descent from Timur (generally known in the West as Tamerlane the Great), and also affiliated with Genghis Khan, because of Tamerlane 's marriage with a Genghizid princess.
The Mughals also had significant Indian Rajput and Persian ancestry through marriage alliances, as emperors were born to Rajput and Persian princesses. Only the first two Mughal emperors, Babur and Humayun, were fully Central Asian (Turkic people, whereas Akbar was half - Persian (his mother was of Persian origin), Jahangir was half - Rajput and quarter - Persian, and Shah Jahan was three - quarters Rajput. Nevertheless, all Mughals were of Turkic seeds.
At their Empire 's greatest extent in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Mughals controlled much of the Indian subcontinent, extending from Bengal in the east to Kabul and Sindh in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south. Its population at the time has been estimated as between 110 and 150 million (a quarter of the world 's population), over a territory of more than 3.2 million square kilometres (1.2 million square miles).
The Mughal Empire (also referred to as Baburid Empire, Baburid Dynasty) was founded by Zahiriddin Muhammad Babur, a Timurid prince and ruler from Turan or Turkistan, i.e. Central Asia. Babur was a direct descendant to the Turkic Emperor Tamerlane on his father 's side and also had links to Chagatai, the second son of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan, on his mother 's side. Ousted from his ancestral domains in Turkistan by Sheybani Khan, the 14 - year old Prince Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass. Babur 's forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India. The instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayun 's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing West Asian cultural influence in the Mughal court. The restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayun 's triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayun 's son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India.
Through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions, and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari river. He created a new class of nobility loyal to him from the military aristocracy of India 's social groups, implemented a modern government and supported cultural developments. At the same time Akbar intensified trade with European trading companies. The Indian historian Abraham Eraly wrote that foreigners were often impressed by the fabulous wealth of the Mughal court, but the glittering court hid darker realities, namely that about a quarter of the empire 's gross national product was owned by 655 families while the bulk of India 's 120 million people lived in appalling poverty. After suffering what appears to have been an epileptic seizure in 1578 while hunting tigers, which he regarded as a religious experience, Akbar grew disenchanted with Islam, and came to embrace a syncretistic mixture of Hinduism and Islam. Akbar allowed free expression of religion and attempted to resolve socio - political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing a new religion, Din - i - Ilahi, with strong characteristics of a ruler cult. He left his successors an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge. Akbar 's son, Jahangir, ruled the empire at its peak, but he was addicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques. During the reign of Jahangir 's son, Shah Jahan, the culture and splendour of the luxurious Mughal court reached its zenith as exemplified by the Taj Mahal. The maintenance of the court, at this time, began to cost more than the revenue.
Shah Jahan 's eldest son, the liberal Dara Shikoh, became regent in 1658, as a result of his father 's illness. However, a younger son, Aurangzeb, allied with the Islamic orthodoxy against his brother, who championed a syncretistic Hindu - Muslim religion and culture, and ascended to the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed. Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and had him imprisoned. During Aurangzeb 's reign, the empire gained political strength once more, but his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society. Aurangzeb expanded the empire to include almost the whole of South Asia, but at his death in 1707, many parts of the empire were in open revolt. Aurangzeb 's attempts to reconquer his family 's ancestral lands in Central Asia - Turan were not successful while his successful conquest of the Deccan region proved to be a Pyrrhic victory that cost the empire heavily in both blood and treasure. A further problem for Aurangzeb was the army had always been based upon the land - owning aristocracy of northern India who provided the cavalry for the campaigns, and the empire had nothing equivalent to the Janissary corps of the Ottoman Empire. The long and costly conquest of the Deccan had badly dented the "aura of success '' that surrounded Aurangzeb, and from the late 17th century onwards, the aristocracy become increasing unwilling to provide forces for the empire 's wars as the prospect of being rewarded with land as a result of a successful war was seen as less and less likely. Furthermore, the fact that at the conclusion of the conquest of the Deccan, Aurangzeb had very selectively rewarded some of the noble families with confiscated land in the Deccan had left those aristocrats who received no confiscated land as reward and for whom the conquest of the Deccan had cost dearly, feeling strongly disgruntled and unwilling to participate in further campaigns. Aurangzeb 's son, Shah Alam, repealed the religious policies of his father, and attempted to reform the administration. However, after his death in 1712, the Mughal dynasty sank into chaos and violent feuds. In the year 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne.
During the reign of Muhammad Shah, the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to Maratha hands. Mughal warfare had always been based upon heavy artillery for sieges, heavy cavalry for offensive operations and light cavalry for skirmishing and raids. To control a region, the Mughals had always sought to occupy a strategic fortress in some region, which would serve as a nodal point from which the Mughal army would emerge to take on any enemy that challenged the empire. This system was not only expensive, but also made the army somewhat inflexible as the assumption was always the enemy would retreat into a fortress to be besieged or would engage in a set - piece decisive battle of annihilation on open ground. The militantly Hindu Marathas were expert horsemen who refused to engage in set - piece battles, but rather engaged in campaigns of guerrilla warfare, a war of raids, ambushes and attacks upon the Mughal supply lines. The Marathas were unable to take the Mughal fortresses via storm or formal siege as they lacked the artillery, but by constantly intercepting supply columns, they were able to starve Mughal fortresses into submission. Successive Mughal commanders refused to adjust their tactics and develop an appropriate counter-insurgency strategy, which led to the Mughals losing more and more ground to the Maratha. The Indian campaign of Nader Shah of Persia culminated with the Sack of Delhi and shattered the remnants of Mughal power and prestige, as well as drastically accelerating its decline and alarming other far - off invaders, including the later British. Many of the empire 's elites now sought to control their own affairs, and broke away to form independent kingdoms. The Mughal Emperor, however, continued to be the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor as the sovereign of India.
In the next decades, the Afghans, Sikhs, and Marathas battled against each other and the Mughals, only to prove the fragmented state of the empire. The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline, and ultimately had to seek the protection of outside powers. In 1784, the Marathas under Mahadji Scindia won acknowledgement as the protectors of the emperor in Delhi, a state of affairs that continued until after the Second Anglo - Maratha War. Thereafter, the British East India Company became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi. After a crushed rebellion which he nominally led in 1857 - 58, the last Mughal, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was deposed by the British government, who then assumed formal control of a large part of the former empire, marking the start of the British Raj.
4 years 8 months 25 days or 56 months 25 days or 247 weeks 1 days or 1730 days
9 years 4 months 21 days or 112 months 21 days or 490 weeks 0 days or 3430 days and 11 months 5 days or 11 months 5 days or 48 weeks 3 days or 339 days Total 3,769 days
22 February 1555 - 27 January 1556
49 years 9 months 0 days or 597 months 0 days or 2595 weeks 6 days or 18171 days
21 years 11 months 23 days or 263 months 23 days or 1146 weeks 6 days or 8028 days
30 years 8 months 25 days or 368 months 25 days or 1603 weeks 4 days or 11225 days
48 years 7 months 0 days or 583 months 0 days or 2535 weeks 1 days or 17746 days
(3 years, 253 days)
(0 years, 350 days)
(6 years, 48 days)
(0 years, 98 days)
(0 years, 105 days)
(28 years, 212 days)
(5 years, 180 days)
Note: The Mughal Emperors practised polygamy. Besides their wives, they also had a number of concubines in their harem, who produced children. This makes it difficult to identify all the offspring of each emperor.
Family tree of the first seven Mughal emperors:
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the mother of dragons in game of thrones | Daenerys Targaryen - wikipedia
Daenerys Targaryen is a fictional character in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels, as well as the television adaptation, Game of Thrones, where she is portrayed by Emilia Clarke. In the novels, she is a prominent point of view character. She is one of the most popular characters in the series, and The New York Times cites her as one of the author 's finest creations.
Introduced in 1996 's A Game of Thrones, Daenerys is one of the last two surviving members (along with her older brother, Viserys) of House Targaryen, who, until fourteen years before the events of the first novel, had ruled Westeros from the Iron Throne for nearly three hundred years. She subsequently appeared in A Clash of Kings (1998) and A Storm of Swords (2000). Daenerys was one of a few prominent characters not included in 2005 's A Feast for Crows, but returned in the next novel A Dance with Dragons (2011). Overall, she has the fouth highest number of point - of - view chapters in the currently published books of the series.
In the story, Daenerys is a young woman in her early teens living in Essos across the Narrow Sea. Knowing no other life than one of exile, she remains dependent on her abusive older brother, Viserys. The timid and meek girl finds herself married to Dothraki horselord Khal Drogo, in exchange for an army for Viserys which is to return to Westeros and recapture the Iron Throne. Despite this, her brother loses the ability to control her as Daenerys finds herself adapting to life with the khalasar and emerges as a strong, confident and courageous woman. She becomes the heir of the Targaryen dynasty after her brother 's death and plans to reclaim the Iron Throne herself, seeing it as her birthright. A pregnant Daenerys loses her husband and child, but soon helps hatch three dragons from their eggs, which regard her as their mother, providing her with a tactical advantage and prestige. Over time, she struggles to maintain control of her dragons, which grow dangerous. She also acquires an army with which she conquers the cities of Yunkai, Astapor and Meereen, determined to end slavery and injustice there. Despite her strong moral compass, she is capable of dealing ruthlessly with her enemies, particularly the slave masters. After establishing herself as a powerful and relentless ruler, she sails for her homeland of Westeros, bent on reclaiming the Seven Kingdoms.
Well received by critics and fans alike, Clarke received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her performance as Daenerys in the HBO series in 2013, 2015, and 2016. She has also earned numerous other nominations and accolades for her portrayal.
Daenerys Targaryen is the daughter of King Aerys II Targaryen (also referred to as "The Mad King '') and his sister - wife Queen Rhaella, and is one of the last survivors of House Targaryen. She serves as the third - person narrator of thirty - one chapters throughout A Game of Thrones, A Clash of Kings, A Storm of Swords, and A Dance with Dragons. She is the only monarch or claimant to a throne given point of view chapters in the novels. Thirteen years before the events of the series (sixteen in the television series), after her father and eldest brother Rhaegar were killed during Robert 's Rebellion, Daenerys was born in the midst of a great storm, earning her the nickname "Stormborn ''. Rhaella died in childbirth and Daenerys was whisked away to Braavos with her older brother Viserys by the Master of Arms of the Red Keep, Ser Willem Darry. Darry died when Daenerys was five and she and Viserys spent the following years wandering the Free Cities. By the beginning of A Game of Thrones, Daenerys has been a guest of Illyrio Mopatis in Pentos for half a year. Game of Thrones creators D.B. Weiss and David Benioff described Daenerys as a combination of Joan of Arc, Lawrence of Arabia, and Napoleon.
In A Game of Thrones (1996), Daenerys is sold off by her brother Viserys and Illyrio Mopatis to marry Khal Drogo, a Dothraki warlord, in exchange for an army for Viserys. At that time, Daenerys befriends Jorah Mormont, an exiled Westerosi knight, and is given three petrified dragon eggs as a wedding gift. Though initially terrified of Drogo, the marriage turns out to be a happy one, and Daenerys grew to love him and began to take to Dothraki customs, finding strength and determination for the first time. This leads her to stand up to Viserys 's attempts to bully her into coercing Drogo. After Drogo kills Viserys by pouring molten gold atop his head for threatening his wife, Daenerys sees herself as the heir to the Targaryen dynasty, and responsible for reclaiming the throne for her family. Shortly thereafter, Drogo is wounded in a fight, and the cut festers. With Drogo ill, his warriors mutiny and abandon him. In desperation, Daenerys recruits an enslaved Lhazareen priestess, Mirri Maz Duur, to save Drogo with blood magic. However, despite being saved by Daenerys from being raped by the tribe 's warriors, the priestess betrays her trust, and the magic ritual leads to the stillbirth of Daenerys 's unborn child and leaves Drogo in a catatonic state. Daenerys does not want her husband to suffer any longer, and euthanizes him with a pillow. She burns the priestess in Drogo 's funeral pyre and climbs into the flame with her three dragon eggs. When the pyre dies out the following morning, Daenerys emerges alive and unburnt from the ashes with three hatched dragons.
Leading the remnants of Drogo 's khalasar through the Red Waste, Daenerys arrives in the city of Qarth. There she begins appealing to the rulers of the city for aid in reclaiming the Iron Throne, and meets little success. She eventually accepts an invitation from a group of warlocks to discover her future. At the warlocks temple, the House of the Undying, Daenerys drinks a magical potion, and enters the temple. Inside, she sees several visions and manages to resist the temptations. When she enters the final hall and meets the really Undyings, she is told prophecies about her destiny as the "child of three '' who will experience "three fires must you light '', "three mounts must you ride '' and "three treasons will you know '', as well as being the "daughter of death '', the "slayer of lies '' and the "bride of fire ''. When the Undyings attack her and intend to hold her prisoner, her dragon Drogon kills the Undying Ones and burns down the whole temple, allowing Daenerys to escape. Before departing Qarth, Daenerys is nearly assassinated with a venomous manticore but is saved by Arstan Whitebeard, who is sent by Illyrio Morpatis along with the eunuch ex-gladiator called Strong Belwas and three ships as a gift to take Daenerys back to Pentos.
Seeking an army, Daenerys sails to Astapor in Slaver 's Bay to purchase an army of ' Unsullied ' slave soldiers, in exchange for a dragon; but she betrays the slavers and uses the Unsullied to sack the city. She later conquers the city of Yunkai and gains the service of Daario Naharis, who commands a large mercenary company. As she marches on Meereen, she learns that one of her companions is actually Barristan Selmy, a knight of Robert the Usurper 's Kingsguard, and that Jorah had spied on her earlier. Disgusted, she sends the pair on a suicide mission to capture Meereen. When the mission is successful, Barristan asks to be forgiven for his deception; but Jorah refuses to ask forgiveness, so Daenerys banishes him. Unwilling to abandon the slaves she freed, fearing they would return to bondage, Dany decides to stay in Meereen.
Throughout A Dance with Dragons (2011), Daenerys struggles to maintain order in the city in the face of growing unrest as well as the chaos she left behind in the other cities she conquered. Furthermore, Yunkai has rebelled and is gathering forces to besiege Meereen. When Drogon kills a child, Daenerys feels compelled to chain her dragons Rhaegal and Viserion, but Drogon escapes. Her advisers suggest she marry Hizdahr zo Loraq to bring peace and she agrees, but also takes Daario as a lover. Hizdahr successfully negotiates an end to the violence, so she marries him. At her wedding feast, the blood and noise of the fighting pits attract Drogon, who is immediately attacked; Daenerys 's attempt to control her dragon fails initially but she eventually flies off with him. After several days in Drogon 's lair, she falls ill after eating some berries and begins to hallucinate. She is later found by Khal Jhaqo, formerly a captain of her Khalasar who betrayed her late husband.
Martin said that the character was aged in the television series because of child pornography regulations. Tamzin Merchant played Daenerys in the original pilot, but the first episode was re-shot with Emilia Clarke in the role. Weiss and Benioff said, "Emilia was the only person we saw -- and we saw hundreds -- who could carry the full range that Daenerys required ''. Clarke, in reflection of the character 's evolution in the television series, stated: "Throughout the season she 's had an insane transformation from someone who barely even spoke and timidly did everything her brother said into a mother of dragons and a queen of armies and a killer of slave masters. She 's a very Joan of Arc - style character. '' Clarke said she accepts acting nude if "a nude scene forwards a story or is shot in a way that adds insight into characters ''. She added that "sometimes explicit scenes are required and make sense for the characters / story, as they do in Westeros '' and that she can discuss with a director how to make a gratuitously nude scene more subtle. Clarke, however, has used a body double in past cameo appearances, particularly Rosie Mac in season 5.
In October 2014, Clarke and several other key cast members, all contracted for six seasons of the series, renegotiated their deals to include a potential seventh season and salary increases for seasons five, six, and seven. The Hollywood Reporter called the raises "huge '', noting that the deal would make the performers "among the highest - paid actors on cable TV ''. Deadline Hollywood put the number for season five at "close to $300,000 an episode '' for each actor, and The Hollywood Reporter wrote in June 2016 that the performers would each be paid "upward of $500,000 per episode '' for seasons seven and the potential eight. In 2017, Clarke became one of the highest paid actors on television and earned £ 2 million per episode for the show.
Daenerys Targaryen is introduced as the exiled princess of the Targaryen dynasty. Also called "Stormborn '', she and her brother Viserys were smuggled to Essos during the end of Robert 's Rebellion. For most of her life, she has been under the care of Viserys, whom she fears, as he is abusive to her whenever she displeases him.
Viserys marries Daenerys to the powerful Dothraki warlord Khal Drogo in exchange for his military support in an invasion of Westeros, making Daenerys a Khaleesi, a queen of the Dothraki. During the wedding, exiled knight Ser Jorah Mormont pledges his loyalty to Daenerys, and her benefactor Ilyrio Mopatis gifts her three petrified dragon eggs. Daenerys is at first afraid of her new husband, but after learning the Dothraki language, she begins to understand him and genuinely falls in love with him after learning Drogo is a smart leader and a kind man. After embracing the Dothraki culture, she becomes stronger and rebels against her brother. She later becomes pregnant with Drogo 's son, who is prophesied by the Dothraki to be the "Stallion Who Mounts the World ''. Viserys grows jealous of Daenerys 's popularity and becomes infuriated with Drogo 's lack of urgency in launching an invasion, prompting him to threaten to cut Daenerys 's unborn son from her womb. Drogo responds by killing Viserys with molten gold, to which Daenerys declares that he was no dragon, because fire can not kill a dragon.
After an unsuccessful assassination attempt on behalf of Robert Baratheon, Drogo vows to Daenerys that he will conquer the Seven Kingdoms for her and their unborn son. However, during their journey Drogo becomes comatose due to an infected wound incurred during a fight with one of his men. Daenerys is forced to seek the help of healer Mirri Maz Duur to save his life using blood magic. Mirri tricks Daenerys by using her unborn son 's life as a sacrifice to heal Drogo but leave him in a permanent catatonic state, forcing Daenerys to end her husband 's life. Daenerys punishes Mirri by having her tied to Drogo 's funeral pyre. She also lays the three dragon eggs onto Drogo 's body and steps into the fire herself. At daybreak, after the fire is burned down, Daenerys emerges with three baby dragons, whom she names Drogon, Rhaegal, and Viserion.
Daenerys and the remnants of Drogo 's khalasar wander the Red Waste before being accepted into the city of Qarth. She is hosted by merchant Xaro Xhoan Daxos, a member of Qarth 's ruling council the Thirteen. Daenerys tries to appeal to the Thirteen to support her invasion of Westeros, without success. She returns to Xaro 's manse to find half of her men and servants killed and her dragons gone. Meeting with the Thirteen again to ask for their help in retrieving her dragons, the warlock Pyat Pree claims responsibility and declares that her dragons are being kept in his temple, the House of the Undying. Daenerys travels to the temple, but Pree 's magic separates her from Jorah and leaves her chained with her dragon. Daenerys orders her dragons to immolate Pree. Daenerys then confronts Xaro, who had conspired with Pree and Daenerys 's servant Doreah to seize control of Qarth. Daenerys has Xaro and Doreah sealed in Xaro 's vault, and has her remaining loyalists raid his manse, using the funds to buy a ship.
Daenerys travels to Astapor, a city in Slaver 's Bay. As she arrives, the warlocks of Qarth attempt to assassinate her, but are thwarted by Ser Barristan Selmy, who was Kingsguard to Aerys Targaryen; Daenerys accepts him into her service. Daenerys negotiates with Astapori slaver Kraznys mo Nakloz to purchase an army of Unsullied, elite eunuch soldiers, in exchange for Drogon, also obtaining the services of Kraznys 's translator Missandei. Upon the completion of the transaction, she has Drogon burn Kraznys alive and orders the Unsullied to sack the city, kill Astapor 's masters and free its slaves. Daenerys and her army then march on the neighbouring slave city of Yunkai, who hire the sellsword company the Second Sons to defend the city. The commanders of the Second Sons order their lieutenant, Daario Naharis, to kill Daenerys; however, he is smitten by her beauty and instead brings her the heads of his superiors, pledging the Second Sons ' allegiance. Daario, Jorah, and the Unsullied commander Grey Worm infiltrate Yunkai, opening the gates for the Targaryen army to conquer the city. Daenerys is received by Yunkai 's freed slaves, who hail her as their "mhysa '' (mother).
Daenerys marches on the last city in Slaver 's Bay, Meereen, and seizes control of the city by instigating a slave revolt. She decides to execute 163 Meereenese masters as "justice '' for 163 slave children crucified on the road to Meereen. After becoming aware that her council in Astapor has been overthrown and that Yunkai has reverted to slavery, Daenerys decides to stay in Meereen to practice ruling. She also begins a sexual relationship with Daario. After discovering that Jorah was previously spying on her on House Baratheon 's behalf, she is enraged and orders him exiled from the city. Daenerys is later horrified to discover that Drogon has killed a farmer 's child; although Drogon is unable to be captured, she has Rhaegal and Viserion locked up in Meereen 's catacombs.
Daenerys faces a new threat to her rule in the form of the Sons of the Harpy, a resistance movement made of agitated former masters. Her popularity with the freedmen also begins to wane after she publicly executes one of her councillors, Mossador, for killing a captive Son. After the Sons kill Ser Barristan, Daenerys decides that she will attempt to restore peace by reopening Meereen 's fighting pits and taking the Meereenese noble Hizdhar zo Loraq as her husband. While attending a gladiator demonstration, she is confronted by Jorah, who has brought her the fugitive Tyrion Lannister to appease her. Daenerys accepts Tyrion onto her council, but orders Jorah exiled again.
At the reopening of the fighting pits, Jorah saves Daenerys 's life by killing a Son of the Harpy trying to assassinate her. The Sons then launch a massive attack, killing Hizdhar and many other Meereenese noblemen and freedmen. As the Sons corner Daenerys and her councillors, Drogon appears and kills or scares off most of the Sons. As the Unsullied begin to overwhelm the Sons, some begin throwing spears at Drogon, prompting Daenerys to climb onto his back and order him to fly away. Drogon eventually leaves her in the Dothraki Sea, where she is captured by a khalasar.
Daenerys is taken to Khal Moro, the leader of the Dothraki horde. Learning that she is the widow of Khal Drogo, Moro tells her she must live out her days among the widows of the Dosh Khaleen in Vaes Dothrak. Once there, Daenerys is told that she is to be judged by the khals for defying tradition and going out into the world following Drogo 's death. During the meeting with the khals, Daenerys declares that only she has enough ambition to lead the Dothraki; when the outraged khals threaten to gang - rape her, Daenerys sets fire to the temple, killing everyone inside but emerging unscathed. Awed, the Dothraki accept her as their Khaleesi. After discovering that Jorah, who had followed her to Vaes Dothrak with Daario, is infected with the terminal disease greyscale, Daenerys orders him to find a cure and return to her services, before marching on Meereen with Drogon, Daario and the Dothraki.
Daenerys returns to Meereen to find it under siege by the joint fleets of Yunkai, Astapor, and Volantis, who have reneged on an agreement with Tyrion to free their slaves and are trying to reclaim the city. Daenerys deploys all three of her dragons, burning most of the slaver fleet and seizing the ships that survive. The slavers agree to surrender. Soon after, Theon and Yara Greyjoy arrive to offer the Iron Fleet in exchange for Daenerys giving the Iron Islands their independence and installing Yara as queen of the Iron Islands over their uncle Euron, who had been planning to marry Daenerys. Daenerys agrees to Theon and Yara 's alliance. Varys, meanwhile, secures the support of Ellaria Sand and Olenna Tyrell, who have lost family members to the Lannisters and want vengeance. Daenerys leaves Daario and the Second Sons in Meereen to keep the peace, and sets sail for Westeros at last.
Daenerys arrives at the island fortress of Dragonstone, the ancient Targaryen stronghold once held by the late Stannis Baratheon, and finds it abandoned. She sends the Unsullied to take Casterly Rock, and her Greyjoy fleet, along with ships from Dorne, to blockade King 's Landing. The Lannister forces, however, have left Casterly Rock and seized Highgarden and its wealth, and Euron Greyjoy overcomes Yara Greyjoy 's ships. In an effort to gain allies, Daenerys summons the newly named King in the North, Jon Snow, to pledge his fealty to her. Jon refuses, insisting that the White Walkers and their wight army present a more immediate threat than the Lannisters. Receiving word of Highgarden 's fall, Daenerys leads Drogon and the Dothraki to decimate the Lannister caravan. Drogon is injured by a ballista designed specifically to wound dragons, but Daenerys is victorious. The remaining forces submit to her after she commands the dragon to roast a resistant Randyll and Dickon Tarly alive.
Jon and a cured Jorah lead an expedition beyond the Wall to capture a wight, which they will use to convince Cersei Lannister, the self - declared Queen of Westeros, that the threat is real. They are saved from the army of the dead by Daenerys and her dragons, but the Night King kills Viserion with an ice spear. A distraught Daenerys vows to Jon that she will help fight the White Walkers, and Jon accepts her as his queen. The pair and their retainers bring a wight to King 's Landing to convince Cersei of the threat beyond the Wall. Cersei ultimately agrees to a truce, and to aid in the fight against the undead army, while secretly plotting to betray them. Jon and Daenerys finally succumb to their growing attraction and fall into bed together, neither aware that Jon is her nephew, a fact recently uncovered by Jon 's friend Sam and brother Bran. Neither of them are aware that the Night King has revived Viserion as wight, and breaches the Wall with dragonfire.
Daenerys is one of the most popular characters of the book series. The New York Times called Daenerys, together with Tyrion Lannister and Jon Snow, one of Martin 's "finest creations ''. Rolling Stone ranked Daenerys Targaryen at No. 1 on a list of "Top 40 Game of Thrones Characters '', calling her story a "non-stop confrontation with complex ideas about sex, war, gender, race, politics and morality ''. Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe called her scenes "mesmerizing ''. Salon 's Andrew Leonard, in his review of A Dance with Dragons, called Daenerys one of the series ' three strongest characters, and bemoaned her lack of inclusion in A Feast for Crows. The website Mashable recognized her as one of the five most popular characters on the series, while The Daily Beast referred to her as the "closest thing the series has to a protagonist ''.
Emilia Clarke 's acting performance, as she closed Daenerys 's arc in the first episode from a frightened girl to an empowered woman, was praised. Gilbert said that "Clarke does n't have a lot of emotional variety to work with as Daenerys, aside from fierce determination, and yet she is riveting. '' In his review for "A Golden Crown, '' Todd VanDerWerff for The A.V. Club commented on the difficulty of adapting such an evolution from page to screen, but concluded that "Clarke (...) more than seal (s) the deal here. IGN 's Matt Fowler also praised Clarke and noted that Daenerys 's choice to watch Viserys die was "powerful '' and an important shift in her character. Time 's reviewer James Poniewozik complimented Daenerys 's storyline, while other reviewers complimented Clarke 's acting. Clarke 's performance, and the character 's final scene, in "Baelor '' was praised, and the final scene of the season received widespread acclaim.
Kate Arthur of the website BuzzFeed criticized the character 's story line in the television show 's second season, stating that she was too "weak - seeming ''. However, Arthur praised the character 's "purpose coupled with humanity and even some humor '' during the third season, opining that Clarke was "eating the screen alive as a result ''. Nate Hopper of Esquire magazine, when speaking of the television series, argued that the character did not face enough conflict, characterizing her conquering of cities as "cut and dry '', stating that "She needs to be emancipated from her own easy, comfortable, mundane victory. ''
From the beginning, Clarke 's performance has been praised by critics. She received an EWwy Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama in 2011, as well as a Scream Award for Breakout Performance by a Female. She also earned a Gracie Allen Award for Outstanding Female Rising Star in a Drama Series or Special in 2012, and a SFX Award for Best Actress in 2013.
Clarke received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2013, 2015, and 2016. She was also nominated for a Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for the role in 2013 and 2016. Other nominations include the Golden Nymph Award for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series in 2012, the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries or Television Film in 2013, the People 's Choice Award for Favorite Sci - Fi / Fantasy TV Actress in 2014, 2016 and 2017, the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television in 2015, the Gold Derby TV Award for Best Drama Supporting Actress in 2013 and 2014, and the MTV Movie & TV Award for Best Actor In A Show in 2017. IGN also nominated Clarke for Best TV Actress in 2011.
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which behavior is not due to the risk taking so common in emerging adulthood quizlet | Personal fable - wikipedia
According to Alberts, Elkind, and Ginsberg the personal fable "is the corollary to the imaginary audience. Thinking of himself or herself as the center of attention, the adolescent comes to believe that it is because he or she is special and unique ''. It is found during the formal operational stage in Piagetian theory, along with the imaginary audience. Feelings of invulnerability are also common. The term "personal fable '' was first coined by the psychologist David Elkind in his 1967 work Egocentrism in Adolescence.
Feelings of uniqueness may stem from fascination with one 's own thoughts to the point where an adolescent believes that his thoughts or experiences are completely novel and unique when compared to the thoughts or experiences of others. This belief stems from the adolescent 's inability to differentiate between the concern (s) of his thoughts from the thoughts of others, while simultaneously over-differentiating his feelings. Thus, an adolescent is likely to think that everyone else (the imaginary audience) is just as concerned with him as he himself is; while at the same time, this adolescent might believe that he is the only person who can possibly experience whatever feelings he might be experiencing at that particular time and that these experiences are unique to him. According to David Elkind (1967), an adolescent 's intense focus on himself or herself as the center of attention is what ultimately gives rise to the belief that one is completely unique, and in turn, this may give rise to feelings of invulnerability. Ultimately, the two marked characteristics of personal fable are feelings of uniqueness and invulnerability. Or as David Elkind states, "this complex of beliefs in the uniqueness of (the adolescent 's) feelings and of his immortality might be called a "personal fable '', a story which he tells himself and which is not true. ''
Elkind 's work with the personal fable stemmed from Piaget 's theory of cognitive development, which describes egocentrism as a lack of differentiation in a given area of subject - object interaction. According to Elkind, in conjunction with Piaget 's theory, adolescent egocentrism is to be understood in the context of ontogeny (referring to the development of an organism across its lifespan). These ontogenetic changes in egocentrism are thought to drive the development of logical and formal operational thinking. Elkind described an operation as a "mental tool whose products, series, class hierarchies, conservations, etc., are not directly derived from experience. '' However, a child in the concrete operational stage is not able to differentiate between these mental constructs and reality (their experiences). For instance, a child in the concrete operational stage may understand that a dog is an animal, but not all animals are dogs; however, the child is not able to grasp a hypothetical concept such as "suppose that dogs were humans ''. The child is likely to respond "but dogs are n't humans, they are animals. ''
According to Elkind, the onset of adolescent egocentrism is brought on by the emergence of the formal operational stage, which allows the adolescent to mentally construct hypotheses that are contrary to reality. It is at the onset of adolescence that the individual is "freed '' from the confines of concrete thought, and begins to be able to grasp abstract or hypothetical concepts (thus the formal operational way of thinking arises). Here, the individual is now able to imagine the hypothetical situation involving dogs as humans and not animals. Thus, the individual is also able to imagine, and even come to believe, hypothetical situations in which everyone is as concerned with him or herself, and in which he or she is unique and invulnerable when compared to others. Such contrary - to - fact propositions are what characterize the personal fable.
Elkind introduced the idea of an adolescent egocentrism, which according to him emerges in the midst of the transition to Piaget 's formal operational stage of cognition (the final stage in which the individual is capable of abstract thinking: hypothetical and deductive reasoning). Although the construct itself remains widely used in research today, there has been no supporting evidence to suggest that adolescent egocentrism follows any age related pattern (as would be suggested by the assumption that it disappears when adolescents enter the formal operational stage, which in fact some individuals never reach).
The onset of adolescent egocentrism tends to occur at about age 11 -- 13 which is considered early adolescence. Since an adolescent is thought to develop the formal operational stage of thinking during this time, the personal fable phenomenon is thought to develop as well. There are studies that support this hypothesis, showing that it is during early adolescence that the personal fable is most prominent (this includes both the uniqueness and invulnerability aspects of personal fable). It has also been shown that both feelings of uniqueness and invulnerability increase significantly from age 11 to age 13.
Middle adolescence is generally considered to be around the age range of 14 -- 16. Past research has demonstrated that personal fable peaks at about age 13 during early adolescence It has also been speculated that the personal fable phenomenon ought to decline as one moves into middle and then late adolescence.
Late adolescence is considered to range from the age of 17 to about 23. Although Elkind (1967) speculated that the personal fable tends to decrease in late adolescence, there had been evidence of a possible re-emergence of the personal fable (or at least adolescent egocentrism) during late adolescence. It is hypothesized that this re-occurrence of adolescent egocentrism may act as a coping mechanism during the transition to new educational and social contexts (moving away to college, for example). Perhaps further research into the prevalence of the personal fable in late adolescence is required. An additional study was done to analyze whether or not personal fable (and imaginary audience) decreased, increased, or remained stable across an age range from sixth grade to college. The results showed that there was no significant difference between age groups with regards to the personal fable phenomenon, although it did seem to decline slightly. Also, the results showed that the imaginary audience phenomenon seems to decrease as one ages, more so than personal fable. Furthermore, there was a study conducted to analyze the gender differences with regards to the chronicity (the pattern of the behavior across time) of the personal fable phenomenon across early, middle, and late adolescence. The results showed that the personal fable phenomenon, including invulnerability and uniqueness, tends to decrease as an individual moves into middle and late adolescence more so for females than for males.
There has been conflicting evidence of a slight difference between genders in the uniqueness aspect of personal fable. Specifically, females seem to have a higher sense of uniqueness than male adolescents. However, there has also been conflicting evidence suggesting that adolescent boys tend to feel unique more often than adolescent girls. The study which found this conflicting evidence also found that male adolescents also felt more omnipotent (where the adolescent may feel that he is in complete control, all - powerful, and knows everything) when compared to girls. There is presently no knowledge of replication of this finding. Another study found that there was no significant difference between male and female adolescents with regards to the personal fable in general. In regards to the invulnerability aspect of the personal fable, it appears that boys tend to have higher instances of feelings pertaining to invulnerability and risk - taking than girls do. With feelings of invulnerability, it can be said that an adolescent is more likely to participate in risk behavior. A study was done to analyze the role gender plays in sexual risk - taking. The results indicated that females had a higher instance of sexual risk taking (which involved sexual intercourse at a younger age and not using contraception. This finding is somewhat incongruent with the finding that boys tend to have higher feelings of invulnerability (and thus risk - taking behavior) than girls.
Adolescence was once believed to be a time of stress and turmoil. Although this is sometimes the case, research has shown that most adolescents rate their experiences as enjoyable and that the storm and stress of adolescence actually occurs at a fairly low rate and discontinuously. Nonetheless, adolescence is still a time of significant change and development on all levels (psychological, social and biological). Along with all these changes adolescents are faced with situations in which they must make important choices and decisions. Namely, decisions made regarding risky behaviours become more prevalent at this time. Adolescents are faced with decisions on whether to make an effort to have safe sex and how to react to peer pressure regarding substance abuse for example. So how does the personal fable, a form of egocentrism usually considered to be characteristic of adolescence, relate to adolescents ' risk - taking behaviours?
Research suggests that when faced with a decision, adolescents perceive risks but they do not incorporate these into their decision making process. It has been suggested that egocentrism plays a significant role in this lack of risk evaluation. The widespread effect of the correlation between the personal fable and risk - taking behaviours is evident when we consider it has been identified in other cultures, such as the Japanese culture. A study done among Japanese college students found a direct path from egocentrism to health - endangering behaviours. Thus, even though universality can in no way be assumed, it is noteworthy that the correlation has been identified in other parts of the world.
Support for the hypothesis that egocentrism, and the personality fable more specifically, predict risk - taking behaviours is considerable in North America. In fact, the personal fable is commonly associated with risk - taking in research It has been established that speciality and invulnerability are significant predictors of risk. Research has found that egocentrism increased significantly with age and that the personal fable was positively correlated with risk - taking. Male students revealed significantly higher rates of invulnerability. The correlation between the personal fable and risk taking is considered to be of utmost importance. A valid and reliable measure of the personal fable would be an invaluable aid to assessing adolescent risk - taking potential and preventive intervention.
Research has come to distinguish three main subtypes of the personal fable. Omnipotence relates to the adolescent believing he has great authority or power (i.e. he is capable of what most others are not). Invulnerability is just that: the adolescent believes he can not be harmed or affected in the ways others can. And finally, uniqueness is the adolescent 's belief that he and his experiences are novel and unique to him (i.e. no one else could possibly relate). Distinguishing between the personal fable 's three subtypes has merit. Research has shown that omnipotence does not seem to be related to delinquent behaviour such as substance use, nor to depression or suicidal ideation. In fact, omnipotence is suggested to act as a protective factor, allowing for superior adjustment, high coping skills and self - worth. Contrary to omnipotence, invulnerability relates to risk behaviour and delinquency, and uniqueness, which is more prevalent in girls, is related to depression and suicidal ideation (and is found to increase with age). Research has focused significantly more on the personal fable 's negative effects and it is important to consider pursuing omnipotence to capitalize on its positive results.
Looking at each subtype of the personal fable -- invulnerability, omnipotence and uniqueness -- revealed that invulnerability was highly correlated with externalizing behaviours, namely risk - taking (i.e. delinquency and substance use). Personal fable as a whole was found to be a multidimensional construct, contrary to the belief of it being invariably negative. Omnipotence was not correlated with any negative outcomes and in fact was correlated with superior adjustment and feelings of self - worth. Uniqueness (more prevalent in females) was highly correlated with depression and suicidal ideation. Therefore, although a certain subset of the personal fable was once again found to significantly predict involvement in risky behaviour, further examination into the multidimensionality of the personal fable is recommended. Particularly, examining whether omnipotence may in fact aid in healthy development and appropriate risk taking would be of utmost importance
An Australian research brought into play the transtheoretical model (a model used to determine an individual 's level of readiness and commitment to changing their behaviours to healthier alternatives) in conjunction with the personal fable to examine smoking and implications for smoking cessation. The researchers found that the personal fable is consistently associated with unhealthy and high risk behaviours. Findings from their study provide mixed results however. Although pre-contemplative smokers (individuals believing they do not exhibit any problem behaviour) revealed high levels of omnipotence, ex-smokers did as well. These results suggest personal fable actually plays an important role in smoking cessation and researchers should consider re-evaluating the constructs to determine whether omnipotence could become stronger after smoking cessation (omnipotence in this particular case being the individual 's belief that he can stop smoking whenever he wants). In the end, it is suggested the personal fable might be better conceptualised as encompassing both adaptive and maladaptive beliefs
Studies examining egocentrism 's effect on risk awareness / health promotion messages ' effectiveness revealed that egocentrism may inhibit deep cognitive processing of these messages. It is contended that explicit messages may not work best for adolescent audiences, despite this being the chosen form. The adolescent needs to be involved in the decision - making process by being presented with a message encouraging discussion and deep elaboration of behaviours and their outcomes. In other words, the message should implicitly encourage non-egocentric thought. In fact, open - ended messages, as opposed to messages scaring, teaching or providing answers, resulted in greater retention of the intended message and in general a reduced intention of risk taking behaviour. However this effect was somewhat reduced among male participants.
As mentioned, the personal fable is an important process that every adolescent experiences and it plays an important role in the adolescent 's self - perception in all life stages. Research has shown the personal fable to affect identity development specifically. When it comes to identity, adolescent egocentrism is considered an important construct, especially given its relation to self - compassion. Adolescents gradually develop cognitive skills which allow them to understand or speculate what others are thinking. In other words, adolescents develop theory of mind.
Specifically, theory of mind is an individual 's ability to understand another 's actions, thoughts, desires, and to hypothesize on their intentions. This construct has been found to emerge once a child reaching three to four years of age and continues to develop until adolescence. Müge Artar conducted a study comparing adolescents identified as having higher levels of egocentrism with adolescents exhibiting more emotional inference and looked into their relationships with their parents. An adolescent 's ability to infer a family member 's thoughts is considered an important developmental stage. Social - emotional questions were based on the adolescents ' understanding of their mother and father 's beliefs. Participants were asked questions such as "When you have problems with your mother / father, what does your mother / father feel? What do you feel? Does your mother / father think what you feel? '' Most of the adolescents perceived their relationship with parents relevantly and also accurately perceived images about family network.
It can be inferred then that theory of mind acts as a counter to egocentrism. Where egocentrism revolves around the individual and everything in relation to one 's own perspective, theory of mind allows for the inclusion of the fact that other people have differing viewpoints.
Elkind 's work on egocentrism was in a sense an expansion and further development of Piagetian theories on the subject. Egocentrism as Piaget describes it "generally refers to a lack of differentiation in some area of subject - object interaction ''. Both Piaget and Elkind recognize that egocentrism applies to all developmental stages from infancy to childhood, to adolescence to adulthood and beyond. However at each developmental stage, egocentrism manifests its characteristics in different ways, depending on the end goals of that particular stage.
During adolescence, formal operations are developing and become more intact and present in thinking processes. According to Piaget, these formal operations allow for "the young person to construct all the possibilities in a system and construct contrary - to - fact propositions ''. Elkind adds that "they also enable (the adolescent) to conceptualize his own thought, to take his mental constructions as objects and reason about them ''. These new thinking processes are believed to begin in early adolescences around ages 11 -- 12. Another characteristic of formal operations that directly applies to adolescence egocentrism is the matter that during this stage, as discussed above, adolescents are conceptualizing the thoughts of those around them, in a sense, putting themselves into someone else 's shoes in order to possibly understand their views. However, since adolescence is a stage in which the youth is primarily concerned with themselves and their own personal views and feelings, these shortfalls of formal operations result in the adolescent "fail (ing) to differentiate between what others are thinking about and his own mental preoccupations, he assumes that other people are as obsessed with his behavior and appearance as he is himself ''. As mentioned earlier, these sentiments are the basis of another feature of adolescent egocentrism: the imaginary audience.
"Self - compassion is an adaptive way of relating to the self when considering personal inadequacies or difficult life circumstances. '' Self - compassion refers to the ability to hold one 's feelings of suffering with a sense of warmth, connection, and concern. Neff, K.D. (2003b) has proposed three major components of self - compassion. The first is self - kindness, which refers to the ability to treat oneself with care and understanding rather than harsh self - judgment. The second involves a sense of common humanity, recognizing that imperfection is a shared aspect of the human experience rather than feeling isolated by one 's failures. The third component of self - compassion is mindfulness, which involves holding one 's present - moment experience in balanced perspective rather than exaggerating the dramatic story - line of one 's suffering. At the same time personal fable could lead to lack of self - compassion if one 's difficulties and failings are not faced and given meaning to be human. Self - compassion might also be able to meditate personal well being which can help explain the relationship between personal fable and poor mental health. There are 235 participants from age 14 to 17 and also 287 participants from age 19 -- 24. They are all from different high schools and colleges in the same city. There is no compensation for participation. The socioeconomic backgrounds are largely middle class (Neff & McGehee 's). Self - compassion explained significant additional variance in well - being over the above maternal support. It could meditate the link between the predictors of maternal support, such as personal fable. It was also attached to well - being. Base on the two experiments, we can see that most of the experiments that are related to personal fable have to be in question form. Interviewers were trained and were to ask question about how participants feel. In both experiments, participants are expected to answer the questions about their own personal feelings. Participants had to trust the interviewer in order to do make it work. In contrast, the first experiment focuses more on asking participants what they feel about others (parents). On the other hand, the second experiment focuses on the feeling of self, how participant actually feel about themselves (Neff & McGehee 's).
Adolescent egocentrism and personal fable immensely affect the development of self - esteem and self - compassion during adolescence. During this particular stage, self - esteem and self - compassion of an adolescent are developing and changing constantly and many factors influence their development. According to Kristin Neff, self - esteem can be defined as judgments and comparisons stemming from evaluations of self - worth, while also evaluating personal performances in comparison to set standards, and perceiving how others evaluate them to determine how much one likes the self. She goes on to further explain that self - compassion has three main components: "(a) self - kindness -- being kind and understanding toward oneself in instances of pain or failure rather than being harshly self - critical, (b) common humanity -- perceiving one 's experiences as part of the larger human experience rather than seeing them as separating and isolating, (c) mindfulness -- holding painful thoughts and feelings in balanced awareness rather than over-identifying with them. Self - compassion is an emotionally positive self - attitude that is assumed to protect against the negative consequences of self - judgment, isolation, and rumination (such as depression). With a basic understanding of these two concepts, self - esteem and self - compassion, it becomes evident that adolescent egocentrism and personal fable have important consequences and affect many aspects of adolescent development.
Neff argues that although there are similarities in self - esteem and self - compassion, the latter contains fewer pitfalls than the former. She asserts that self - compassion is "not based on the performance evaluations of self and others or the congruence with ideal standard... it takes the entire self - evaluation process out of the picture, focusing on feelings of compassion toward oneself and the recognition of one 's common humanity rather than making self - judgments ''. Furthermore, high self - compassion seems to counteract certain negative concerns of extremely high self - esteem such as narcissism and self - centeredness. Neff 's studies also contend that those with high self - compassion have greater psychological health than those with lower levels of self - compassion, "because the inevitable pain and sense of failure that is experienced by all individuals is not amplified and perpetuated through harsh self - condemnation... this supportive attitude toward oneself should be associated with a variety of beneficial psychological outcomes, such as less depression, less anxiety, less neurotic perfectionism, and greater life satisfaction ''.
With these understandings of self - esteem and self - compassion during adolescence, we can see how personal fable and egocentrism plays a role in the development of these self concepts can greatly impact the way an adolescent views themselves and who they believe they are. If one is using personal fable to an extent that they constantly believe that nobody understands them, they are the only one who is going through "this '' or they just feel alone all the time, this can very negatively affect their personal growth, self - esteem and self - compassion during adolescence. On the other had, if they feel that they have a good support system in their family, friends, school, etc., development of self - esteem and self - compassion will likely take a much more positive route and the adolescent will likely have a well rounded sense of themselves. As Neff states, "individuals with high levels of self - compassion should have higher ' true self - esteem ' ''. Thus the development that occurs ongoing during adolescence can most accurately be described as the interactions of multiple systems, functions, and abstract processes that occur together, separately or at any other combination.
A study by Ronald L. Mullis and Paula Chapman examined gender differences pertaining to the development of self - esteem in adolescents. The results of their study shows "the problem - solving skills of adolescents change and improve with age as a function of cognitive development and social experience ''. They found that the male adolescents used more wishful thinking in their coping strategies than did female adolescents, who tended to rely more on social supports as a coping strategy ". Furthermore they found that youths with lower levels of self - esteem relied more on emotional - based coping methods. The study gives "ventilation of feelings '' as an example, while those with high levels of self - esteem more readily utilized skills associated with problem solving and higher levels of formal operations as coping strategies.
Arnett (2000) suggested that in adolescents ' identity exploration, it is more transient and tentative. (Arnett, 2000). Adolescent dating is recreational in nature, involving group activities. They are still exploring their identity before asking the question "Given the kind of person I am, What kind of person do I wish to have a partner through life? '' (Arnett, 2000, p. 473). With increasing opportunities to pursue higher education and greater delays in marriage and childbirth (Arnett, 2007), there is now more time, beyond adolescence, for activities and reflections surrounding self - definition and identity development. (Kose, Papouchis& Fireman). When adolescents start to develop the cognitive skill to understand others feeling and what they are thinking, also known as theory of mind. This helps adolescents to develop their own sense of self and their own way of perceive the world. It is normal for adolescents to feel personal fable. It is what drives them to develop their own sets of skills to understand others thoughts and feelings. And this also triggers their ability to seek out their own identity. Arnett (2000) argues that as the age of adulthood had been moved back and the age of becoming an adult is getting older than the past. There is more time for the adolescents to explore themselves more. He thought that his period of exploration seems that perspective - taking skills are being sharpened most dramatically. Personal fable also helps adolescents transition from exploring one self to seeking extended experimentation, particularly in relationships, during the transition of young adulthood. Elkind though thought that the extension period for identity exploration and less pressure to take on typical adult roles teens are special and invulnerable, but are not feeling on center stage as often felt by the adolescents. (Elkind et al., Lapsley et al., 1989). As an example, some young adults might still have the feeling that they are special inside and invulnerable, but they are less likely to engage in risky behaviors. Some current findings suggest that increases in personal fable ideation are associated with increases in identity and cognitive formal operations, particularly among this young adult age group. Increase in personal fable ideation, feelings of invulnerability, among emerging adults may explain the heightened level of maladaptive behaviors among this group. For example, studies might explore how faulty thinking, particularly personal fable ideation, is related to risk behavior and how interventions can be tailored to address the type of thinking if leading to harmful out comes for the young adults (18 -- 25 years old). Apparently inconsistent findings might be resolved by improvements in ways of measuring individual differences in the personal fable. Young adults have to be able to cope with identity crisis at the same time knowing that personal fable is driving them to risky behaviors. If young adults do not cope with the inner conflicts, they will be likely to involve in risk - behaviors. Current research indicates that the age of emerging adulthood may extend later than previously thought, and the personal fable also appears to persist into emerging adulthood. The persistence of the personal fable could contribute to continued risk - taking behavior even though that age group physically appears to be adult.
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who led the battle against yellow fever in the spanish american war | Yellow fever - Wikipedia
Yellow fever is a viral disease of typically short duration. In most cases, symptoms include fever, chills, loss of appetite, nausea, muscle pains particularly in the back, and headaches. Symptoms typically improve within five days. In about 15 % of people within a day of improving, the fever comes back, abdominal pain occurs, and liver damage begins causing yellow skin. If this occurs, the risk of bleeding and kidney problems is also increased.
The disease is caused by the yellow fever virus and is spread by the bite of an infected female mosquito. It infects only humans, other primates, and several species of mosquitoes. In cities, it is spread primarily by Aedes aegypti, a type of mosquito found throughout the tropics and subtropics. The virus is an RNA virus of the genus Flavivirus. The disease may be difficult to tell apart from other illnesses, especially in the early stages. To confirm a suspected case, blood sample testing with polymerase chain reaction is required.
A safe and effective vaccine against yellow fever exists, and some countries require vaccinations for travelers. Other efforts to prevent infection include reducing the population of the transmitting mosquito. In areas where yellow fever is common and vaccination is uncommon, early diagnosis of cases and immunization of large parts of the population is important to prevent outbreaks. Once infected, management is symptomatic with no specific measures effective against the virus. Death occurs in up to half of those who get severe disease.
In 2013, yellow fever resulted in about 127,000 severe infections and 45,000 deaths, with nearly 90 % of these occurring in African nations. Nearly a billion people live in an area of the world where the disease is common. It is common in tropical areas of the continents of South America and Africa, but not in Asia. Since the 1980s, the number of cases of yellow fever has been increasing. This is believed to be due to fewer people being immune, more people living in cities, people moving frequently, and changing climate increasing the habitat for mosquitoes. The disease originated in Africa, from where it spread to South America through the slave trade in the 17th century. Since the 17th century, several major outbreaks of the disease have occurred in the Americas, Africa, and Europe. In the 18th and 19th centuries, yellow fever was seen as one of the most dangerous infectious diseases. In 1927 yellow fever virus became the first human virus to be isolated.
Yellow fever begins after an incubation period of three to six days. Most cases only cause a mild infection with fever, headache, chills, back pain, fatigue, loss of appetite, muscle pain, nausea, and vomiting. In these cases, the infection lasts only three to four days.
In 15 % of cases, however, people enter a second, toxic phase of the disease with recurring fever, this time accompanied by jaundice due to liver damage, as well as abdominal pain. Bleeding in the mouth, the eyes, and the gastrointestinal tract cause vomit containing blood, hence the Spanish name for yellow fever, vómito negro ("black vomit ''). There may also be kidney failure, hiccups, and delirium.
The toxic phase is fatal in about 20 to 50 % of cases, making the overall fatality rate for the disease about 3.0 to 7.5 %. However, the fatality rate of those with the toxic phase of the disease may exceed 50 %.
Surviving the infection provides lifelong immunity, and normally no permanent organ damage results.
Yellow fever is caused by the yellow fever virus, a 40 -- to 50 - nm - wide enveloped RNA virus, the type species and namesake of the family Flaviviridae. It was the first illness shown to be transmissible by filtered human serum and transmitted by mosquitoes, by Walter Reed around 1900. The positive - sense, single - stranded RNA is around 11,000 nucleotides long and has a single open reading frame encoding a polyprotein. Host proteases cut this polyprotein into three structural (C, prM, E) and seven nonstructural proteins (NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5); the enumeration corresponds to the arrangement of the protein coding genes in the genome. Minimal yellow fever virus (YFV) 3'UTR region is required for stalling of the host 5 ' - 3 ' exonuclease XRN1. The UTR contains PKS3 pseudoknot structure which serves as a molecular signal to stall the exonuclease and is the only viral requirement for subgenomic flavivirus RNA (sfRNA) production. The sfRNAs are a result of incomplete degradation of the viral genome by the exonuclease and are important for viral pathogenicity. Yellow fever belongs to the group of hemorrhagic fevers.
The viruses infect, amongst others, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. They attach to the cell surface via specific receptors and are taken up by an endosomal vesicle. Inside the endosome, the decreased pH induces the fusion of the endosomal membrane with the virus envelope. The capsid enters the cytosol, decays, and releases the genome. Receptor binding, as well as membrane fusion, are catalyzed by the protein E, which changes its conformation at low pH, causing a rearrangement of the 90 homo dimers to 60 homo trimers.
After entering the host cell, the viral genome is replicated in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and in the so - called vesicle packets. At first, an immature form of the virus particle is produced inside the ER, whose M - protein is not yet cleaved to its mature form and is therefore denoted as prM (precursor M) and forms a complex with protein E. The immature particles are processed in the Golgi apparatus by the host protein furin, which cleaves prM to M. This releases E from the complex which can now take its place in the mature, infectious virion.
Yellow fever virus is mainly transmitted through the bite of the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti, but other mostly Aedes mosquitoes such as the tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) can also serve as a vector for this virus. Like other arboviruses which are transmitted by mosquitoes, the yellow fever virus is taken up by a female mosquito when it ingests the blood of an infected human or another primate. Viruses reach the stomach of the mosquito, and if the virus concentration is high enough, the virions can infect epithelial cells and replicate there. From there, they reach the haemocoel (the blood system of mosquitoes) and from there the salivary glands. When the mosquito next sucks blood, it injects its saliva into the wound, and the virus reaches the bloodstream of the bitten person. Transovarial and transstadial transmission of the yellow fever virus within A. aegypti, that is, the transmission from a female mosquito to her eggs and then larvae, are indicated. This infection of vectors without a previous blood meal seems to play a role in single, sudden breakouts of the disease.
Three epidemiologically different infectious cycles occur, in which the virus is transmitted from mosquitoes to humans or other primates. In the "urban cycle '', only the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti is involved. It is well adapted to urban areas and can also transmit other diseases, including Zika fever, dengue fever, and chikungunya. The urban cycle is responsible for the major outbreaks of yellow fever that occur in Africa. Except in an outbreak in 1999 in Bolivia, this urban cycle no longer exists in South America.
Besides the urban cycle, both in Africa and South America, a sylvatic cycle (forest or jungle cycle) is present, where Aedes africanus (in Africa) or mosquitoes of the genus Haemagogus and Sabethes (in South America) serve as vectors. In the jungle, the mosquitoes infect mainly non-human primates; the disease is mostly asymptomatic in African primates. In South America, the sylvatic cycle is currently the only way humans can become infected, which explains the low incidence of yellow fever cases on the continent. People who become infected in the jungle can carry the virus to urban areas, where A. aegypti acts as a vector. Because of this sylvatic cycle, yellow fever can not be eradicated.
In Africa, a third infectious cycle known as "savannah cycle '' or intermediate cycle, occurs between the jungle and urban cycles. Different mosquitoes of the genus Aedes are involved. In recent years, this has been the most common form of transmission of yellow fever in Africa.
Concern exists about yellow fever spreading to southeast Asia, where its vector A. aegypti already occurs.
After transmission from a mosquito, the viruses replicate in the lymph nodes and infect dendritic cells in particular. From there, they reach the liver and infect hepatocytes (probably indirectly via Kupffer cells), which leads to eosinophilic degradation of these cells and to the release of cytokines. Apoptotic masses known as Councilman bodies appear in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes.
Fatality may occur when cytokine storm, shock, and multiple organ failure follow.
Yellow fever is most frequently a clinical diagnosis, made on the basis of symptoms and the infected person 's whereabouts prior to becoming ill. Mild courses of the disease can only be confirmed virologically. Since mild courses of yellow fever can also contribute significantly to regional outbreaks, every suspected case of yellow fever (involving symptoms of fever, pain, nausea and vomiting six to 10 days after leaving the affected area) is treated seriously.
If yellow fever is suspected, the virus can not be confirmed until six to 10 days after the illness. A direct confirmation can be obtained by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction where the genome of the virus is amplified. Another direct approach is the isolation of the virus and its growth in cell culture using blood plasma; this can take one to four weeks.
Serologically, an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay during the acute phase of the disease using specific IgM against yellow fever or an increase in specific IgG - titer (compared to an earlier sample) can confirm yellow fever. Together with clinical symptoms, the detection of IgM or a fourfold increase in IgG - titer is considered sufficient indication for yellow fever. Since these tests can cross-react with other flaviviruses, like dengue virus, these indirect methods can not conclusively prove yellow fever infection.
Liver biopsy can verify inflammation and necrosis of hepatocytes and detect viral antigens. Because of the bleeding tendency of yellow fever patients, a biopsy is only advisable post mortem to confirm the cause of death.
In a differential diagnosis, infections with yellow fever must be distinguished from other feverish illnesses like malaria. Other viral hemorrhagic fevers, such as Ebola virus, Lassa virus, Marburg virus, and Junin virus, must be excluded as the cause.
Personal prevention of yellow fever includes vaccination and avoidance of mosquito bites in areas where yellow fever is endemic. Institutional measures for prevention of yellow fever include vaccination programmes and measures of controlling mosquitoes. Programmes for distribution of mosquito nets for use in homes are providing reductions in cases of both malaria and yellow fever. Use of EPA - registered insect repellent is recommended when outdoors. Exposure for even a short time is enough for a potential mosquito bite. Long - sleeved clothing, long pants, and socks are useful for prevention. The awareness of peak mosquito exposure is from dusk to dawn. The application of larvicides to water - storage containers can help eliminate potential mosquito breeding sites. Adult mosquitos can be killed through insecticide spray usage, which decreases the transmission of yellow fever.
Vaccination is recommended for those traveling to affected areas, because non-native people tend to develop more severe illness when infected. Protection begins by the 10th day after vaccine administration in 95 % of people, and had been reported to last for at least 10 years. WHO now states that a single dose of vaccination is sufficient to confer lifelong immunity against yellow fever disease. '' The attenuated live vaccine stem 17D was developed in 1937 by Max Theiler. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends routine vaccinations for people living in affected areas between the 9th and 12th month after birth.
Up to one in four people experience fever, aches, and local soreness and redness at the site of injection. In rare cases (less than one in 200,000 to 300,000), the vaccination can cause yellow fever vaccine - associated viscerotropic disease, which is fatal in 60 % of cases. It is probably due to the genetic morphology of the immune system. Another possible side effect is an infection of the nervous system, which occurs in one in 200,000 to 300,000 cases, causing yellow fever vaccine - associated neurotropic disease, which can lead to meningoencephalitis and is fatal in less than 5 % of cases.
The Yellow Fever Initiative, launched by WHO in 2006, vaccinated more than 105 million people in 14 countries in West Africa. No outbreaks were reported during 2015. The campaign was supported by the GAVI Alliance, and governmental organizations in Europe and Africa. According to the WHO, mass vaccination can not eliminate yellow fever because of the vast number of infected mosquitoes in urban areas of the target countries, but it will significantly reduce the number of people infected.
In March 2017, WHO launched a vaccination campaign in Brazil with 3.5 million doses from an emergency stockpile. In March 2017 the WHO recommended vaccination for travellers to certain parts of Brazil. In March 2018, Brazil shifted its policy and announced it planned to vaccinate all 77.5 million currently - unvaccinated citizens by April 2019.
Some countries in Asia are theoretically in danger of yellow fever epidemics (mosquitoes with the capability to transmit yellow fever and susceptible monkeys are present), although the disease does not yet occur there. To prevent introduction of the virus, some countries demand previous vaccination of foreign visitors if they have passed through yellow fever areas. Vaccination has to be proved by the production of a vaccination certificate which is valid 10 days after the vaccination and lasts for 10 years. Although the WHO on 17 May 2013 advised that subsequent booster vaccinations are unnecessary, an older (than 10 years) certificate may not be acceptable at all border posts in all affected countries. A list of the countries that require yellow fever vaccination is published by the WHO. If the vaccination can not be conducted for some reasons, dispensation may be possible. In this case, an exemption certificate issued by a WHO - approved vaccination center is required. Although 32 of 44 countries where yellow fever occurs endemically do have vaccination programmes, in many of these countries, less than 50 % of their population is vaccinated.
Control of the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti is of major importance, especially because the same mosquito can also transmit dengue fever and chikungunya disease. A. aegypti breeds preferentially in water, for example in installations by inhabitants of areas with precarious drinking water supply, or in domestic waste, especially tires, cans, and plastic bottles. These conditions are common in urban areas in developing countries.
Two main strategies are employed to reduce mosquito populations. One approach is to kill the developing larvae. Measures are taken to reduce the water accumulations in which the larva develops. Larvicides are used, as well as larvae - eating fish and copepods, which reduce the number of larvae. For many years, copepods of the genus Mesocyclops have been used in Vietnam for preventing dengue fever. It eradicated the mosquito vector in several areas. Similar efforts may be effective against yellow fever. Pyriproxyfen is recommended as a chemical larvicide, mainly because it is safe for humans and effective even in small doses.
The second strategy is to reduce populations of the adult yellow fever mosquito. Lethal ovitraps can reduce Aedes populations, but with a decreased amount of pesticide because it targets the mosquitoes directly. Curtains and lids of water tanks can be sprayed with insecticides, but application inside houses is not recommended by the WHO. Insecticide - treated mosquito nets are effective, just as they are against the Anopheles mosquito that carries malaria.
As for other flavivirus infections, no cure is known for yellow fever. Hospitalization is advisable and intensive care may be necessary because of rapid deterioration in some cases. Different methods for acute treatment of the disease have been shown not to be very successful; passive immunization after the emergence of symptoms is probably without effect. Ribavirin and other antiviral drugs, as well as treatment with interferons, do not have a positive effect in patients. Asymptomatic treatment includes rehydration and pain relief with drugs such as paracetamol (acetaminophen in the United States). Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) should not be given because of its anticoagulant effect, which can be devastating in the case of internal bleeding that can occur with yellow fever.
Yellow fever is common in tropical and subtropical areas of South America and Africa. Worldwide, about 600 million people live in endemic areas. The WHO estimates 200,000 cases of disease and 30,000 deaths a year occur; the number of officially reported cases is far lower.
An estimated 90 % of the infections occur on the African continent. In 2008, the largest number of recorded cases was in Togo. In 2016, a large outbreak originated in Angola and spread to neighboring countries before being contained by a massive vaccination campaign. In March and April, 11 cases were reported in China, the first appearance of the disease in Asia in recorded history.
Phylogenetic analysis has identified seven genotypes of yellow fever viruses, and they are assumed to be differently adapted to humans and to the vector A. aegypti. Five genotypes (Angola, Central / East Africa, East Africa, West Africa I, and West Africa II) occur only in Africa. West Africa genotype I is found in Nigeria and the surrounding areas. This appears to be especially virulent or infectious, as this type is often associated with major outbreaks. The three genotypes in East and Central Africa occur in areas where outbreaks are rare. Two recent outbreaks in Kenya (1992 -- 1993) and Sudan (2003 and 2005) involved the East African genotype, which had remained unknown until these outbreaks occurred.
In South America, two genotypes have been identified (South American genotypes I and II). Based on phylogenetic analysis these two genotypes appear to have originated in West Africa and were first introduced into Brazil. The date of introduction into South America appears to be 1822 (95 % confidence interval 1701 to 1911). The historical record shows an outbreak of yellow fever occurred in Recife, Brazil, between 1685 and 1690. The disease seems to have disappeared, with the next outbreak occurring in 1849. It was likely introduced with the importation of slaves through the slave trade from Africa. Genotype I has been divided into five subclades, A through E.
In late 2016, a large outbreak began in Minas Gerais state of Brazil that was characterized as a sylvan or jungle epizootic. It began as an outbreak in brown howler monkeys, which serve as a sentinel species for yellow fever, that then spread to men working in the jungle. No cases had been transmitted between humans by the Aedes aegypti mosquito, which can sustain urban outbreaks that can spread rapidly. In April 2017, the sylvan outbreak continued moving toward the Brazilian coast where most people were unvaccinated. By the end of May the outbreak appeared to be declining after more than 3,000 suspected cases, 758 confirmed and 264 deaths confirmed to be yellow fever. The Health Ministry launched a vaccination campaign and was concerned about spread during the Carnival season in February and March. The CDC issued a Level 2 alert (practice enhanced precautions.)
A Bayesian analysis of genotypes I and II has shown that genotype I accounts for virtually all the current infections in Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago while genotype II accounted for all cases in Peru. Genotype I originated in the Northern Brazilian region around 1908 (95 % HPD: 1870 -- 1936). Genotype II originated in Peru in 1920 (95 % HPD: 1867 -- 1958). The estimated rate of mutation for both genotypes was ~ 5 × 10 substitutions / site / year, similar to that of other RNA viruses.
Though the main vector (A. aegypti) also occurs in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, the Pacific, and Australia, yellow fever has never occurred in these parts of the globe until the introduction of 11 cases by jet travel from an outbreak in Africa in 2016. Proposed explanations include the idea that the strains of the mosquito in the east are less able to transmit the yellow fever virus, that immunity is present in the populations because of other diseases caused by related viruses (for example, dengue), and that the disease was never introduced because the shipping trade was insufficient, but none is considered satisfactory. Another proposal is the absence of a slave trade to Asia on the scale of that to the Americas. The trans - Atlantic slave trade was probably the means of introduction into the Western Hemisphere from Africa.
The evolutionary origins of yellow fever most likely lie in Africa, with transmission of the disease from nonhuman primates to humans. The virus is thought to have originated in East or Central Africa and spread from there to West Africa. As it was endemic in Africa, the natives had developed some immunity to it. When an outbreak of yellow fever would occur in an African village where colonists resided, most Europeans died, while the native population usually suffered nonlethal symptoms resembling influenza. This phenomenon, in which certain populations develop immunity to yellow fever due to prolonged exposure in their childhood, is known as acquired immunity. The virus, as well as the vector A. aegypti, were probably transferred to North and South America with the importation of slaves from Africa, part of the Columbian Exchange following European exploration and colonization.
The first definitive outbreak of yellow fever in the New World was in 1647 on the island of Barbados. An outbreak was recorded by Spanish colonists in 1648 in the Yucatán Peninsula, where the indigenous Mayan people called the illness xekik ("blood vomit ''). In 1685, Brazil suffered its first epidemic, in Recife. The first mention of the disease by the name "yellow fever '' occurred in 1744. McNeill argues that the environmental and ecological disruption caused by the introduction of sugar plantations created the conditions for mosquito and viral reproduction, and subsequent outbreaks of yellow fever. Deforestation reduced populations of insectivorous birds and other creatures that fed on mosquitoes and their eggs.
Although yellow fever is most prevalent in tropical - like climates, the northern United States were not exempted from the fever. The first outbreak in English - speaking North America occurred in New York City in 1668, and a serious one afflicted Philadelphia in 1793. English colonists in Philadelphia and the French in the Mississippi River Valley recorded major outbreaks in 1669, as well as those occurring later in the 18th and 19th centuries.
The southern city of New Orleans was plagued with major epidemics during the 19th century, most notably in 1833 and 1853. Its residents called the disease "yellow jack ''. At least 25 major outbreaks took place in the Americas during the 18th and 19th centuries, including particularly serious ones in Cartagena in 1741, Cuba in 1762 and 1900, Santo Domingo in 1803, and Memphis in 1878. Considerable debate existed over whether the number of deaths caused by disease in the Haitian Revolution of the 1780s was exaggerated.
Major outbreaks have also occurred in southern Europe. Gibraltar lost many to outbreaks in 1804, 1814, and 1828. Barcelona suffered the loss of several thousand citizens during an outbreak in 1821. Urban epidemics continued in the United States until 1905, with the last outbreak affecting New Orleans.
In Colonial times and during the Napoleonic Wars, the West Indies were known as a particularly dangerous posting for soldiers due to yellow fever being endemic in the area. The mortality rate in British garrisons in Jamaica was seven times that of garrisons in Canada, mostly because of yellow fever and other tropical diseases such as malaria. Both English and French forces posted there were seriously affected by the "yellow jack ''. Wanting to regain control of the lucrative sugar trade in Saint - Domingue (Hispaniola), and with an eye on regaining France 's New World empire, Napoleon sent an army under the command of his brother - in - law General Charles Leclerc to Saint - Domingue to seize control after a slave revolt. The historian J.R. McNeill asserts that yellow fever accounted for about 35,000 to 45,000 casualties of these forces during the fighting. Only one - third of the French troops survived for withdrawal and return to France. Napoleon gave up on the island and his plans for North America, selling the Louisiana Purchase to the US in 1803. In 1804, Haiti proclaimed its independence as the second republic in the Western Hemisphere.
The yellow fever epidemic of 1793 in Philadelphia, which was then the capital of the United States, resulted in the deaths of several thousand people, more than 9 % of the population. The national government fled the city, including President George Washington. Additional yellow fever epidemics struck Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New York City in the 18th and 19th centuries, and traveled along steamboat routes from New Orleans. They caused some 100,000 -- 150,000 deaths in total.
In 1853, Cloutierville, Louisiana, had a late - summer outbreak of yellow fever that quickly killed 68 of the 91 inhabitants. A local doctor concluded that some unspecified infectious agent had arrived in a package from New Orleans. 650 residents of Savannah, Georgia died from yellow fever in 1854. In 1858, St. Matthew 's German Evangelical Lutheran Church in Charleston, South Carolina, suffered 308 yellow fever deaths, reducing the congregation by half. A ship carrying persons infected with the virus arrived in Hampton Roads in southeastern Virginia in June 1855. The disease spread quickly through the community, eventually killing over 3,000 people, mostly residents of Norfolk and Portsmouth. In 1873, Shreveport, Louisiana, lost almost a quarter of its population to yellow fever. In 1878, about 20,000 people died in a widespread epidemic in the Mississippi River Valley. That year, Memphis had an unusually large amount of rain, which led to an increase in the mosquito population. The result was a huge epidemic of yellow fever. The steamship John D. Porter took people fleeing Memphis northward in hopes of escaping the disease, but passengers were not allowed to disembark due to concerns of spreading yellow fever. The ship roamed the Mississippi River for the next two months before unloading her passengers. The last major U.S. outbreak was in 1905 in New Orleans.
Ezekiel Stone Wiggins, known as the Ottawa Prophet, proposed that the cause of a yellow fever epidemic in Jacksonville, Florida, in 1888, was astronomical.
The planets were in the same line as the sun and earth and this produced, besides Cyclones, Earthquakes, etc., a denser atmosphere holding more carbon and creating microbes. Mars had an uncommonly dense atmosphere, but its inhabitants were probably protected from the fever by their newly discovered canals, which were perhaps made to absorb carbon and prevent the disease.
In 1848, Josiah C. Nott suggested that yellow fever was spread by insects such as moths or mosquitoes, basing his ideas on the pattern of transmission of the disease. Carlos Finlay, a Cuban doctor and scientist, proposed in 1881 that yellow fever might be transmitted by mosquitoes rather than direct human contact. Since the losses from yellow fever in the Spanish -- American War in the 1890s were extremely high, Army doctors began research experiments with a team led by Walter Reed, and composed of doctors James Carroll, Aristides Agramonte, and Jesse William Lazear. They successfully proved Finlay 's '' mosquito hypothesis ''. Yellow fever was the first virus shown to be transmitted by mosquitoes. The physician William Gorgas applied these insights and eradicated yellow fever from Havana. He also campaigned against yellow fever during the construction of the Panama Canal. A previous effort of canal building by the French had failed (in part due to mortality from the high incidence of yellow fever and malaria, which killed many workers).
Although Dr. Walter Reed has received much of the credit in United States history books for "beating '' yellow fever, he had fully credited Dr. Finlay with the discovery of the yellow fever vector, and how it might be controlled. Reed often cited Finlay 's papers in his own articles, and also credited him for the discovery in his personal correspondence. The acceptance of Finlay 's work was one of the most important and far - reaching effects of the Walter Reed Commission of 1900. Applying methods first suggested by Finlay, the United States government and Army eradicated yellow fever in Cuba and later in Panama, allowing completion of the Panama Canal. While Reed built on the research of Finlay, historian François Delaporte notes that yellow fever research was a contentious issue. Scientists, including Finlay and Reed, became successful by building on the work of less prominent scientists, without always giving them the credit they were due. Reed 's research was essential in the fight against yellow fever. He is also credited for using the first type of medical consent form during his experiments in Cuba, an attempt to ensure that participants knew they were taking a risk by being part of testing.
Like Cuba and Panama, Brazil also led a highly successful sanitation campaign against mosquitoes and yellow fever. Beginning in 1903, the campaign led by Oswaldo Cruz, then director general of public health, not only resulted in eradicating the disease but reshaped the physical landscape of Brazilian cities, like Rio de Janeiro, as well. During rainy seasons Rio de Janeiro had regularly suffered floods, as water from the bay surrounding the city overflowed into Rio 's narrow streets. Coupled with the poor drainage systems found throughout Rio, this created swampy conditions in the city 's neighborhoods. Pools of stagnant water stood year long in city streets and proved to be a fertile ground for disease - carrying mosquitoes. Thus, under Cruz 's direction, public health units known as "mosquito inspectors '' fiercely worked to combat yellow fever throughout Rio by spraying, exterminating rats, improving drainage and destroying unsanitary housing. Ultimately, the city 's sanitation and renovation campaigns reshaped Rio de Janeiro 's neighborhoods. Its poor residents were pushed from city centers to Rio 's suburbs, or to towns found in the outskirts of the city. In later years, Rio 's most impoverished inhabitants would come to reside in favelas.
During 1920 -- 23, the Rockefeller Foundation 's International Health Board undertook an expensive and successful yellow fever eradication campaign in Mexico. The IHB gained the respect of Mexico 's federal government because of the success. The eradication of yellow fever strengthened the relationship between the US and Mexico, which had not been very good in the past. The eradication of yellow fever was also a major step toward better global health.
In 1927, scientists isolated the yellow fever virus in West Africa. Following this, two vaccines were developed in the 1930s. The vaccine 17D was developed by the South African microbiologist Max Theiler at the Rockefeller Institute in New York City. This vaccine was widely used by the U.S. Army during World War II. Following the work of Ernest Goodpasture, Theiler used chicken eggs to culture the virus and won a Nobel Prize in 1951 for this achievement. A French team developed the French neurotropic vaccine (FNV), which was extracted from mouse brain tissue. Since this vaccine was associated with a higher incidence of encephalitis, FNV was not recommended after 1961. Vaccine 17D is still in use, and more than 400 million doses have been distributed. Little research has been done to develop new vaccines. Some researchers worry that the 60 - year - old technology for vaccine production may be too slow to stop a major new yellow - fever epidemic. Newer vaccines, based on vero cells, are in development and should replace 17D at some point.
Using vector control and strict vaccination programs, the urban cycle of yellow fever was nearly eradicated from South America. Since 1943, only a single urban outbreak in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, has occurred. Since the 1980s, though, the number of yellow fever cases has been increasing again, and A. aegypti has returned to the urban centers of South America. This is partly due to limitations on available insecticides, as well as habitat dislocations caused by climate change. It is also because the vector control program was abandoned. Although no new urban cycle has yet been established, scientists believe this could happen again at any point. An outbreak in Paraguay in 2008 was thought to be urban in nature, but this ultimately proved not to be the case.
In Africa, virus eradication programs have mostly relied upon vaccination. These programs have largely been unsuccessful because they were unable to break the sylvatic cycle involving wild primates. With few countries establishing regular vaccination programs, measures to fight yellow fever have been neglected, making the future spread of the virus more likely.
In the hamster model of yellow fever, early administration of the antiviral ribavirin is an effective early treatment of many pathological features of the disease. Ribavirin treatment during the first five days after virus infection improved survival rates, reduced tissue damage in the liver and spleen, prevented hepatocellular steatosis, and normalised levels of alanine aminotransferase, a liver damage marker. The mechanism of action of ribavirin in reducing liver pathology in yellow fever virus infection may be similar to its activity in treatment of hepatitis C, a related virus. Because ribavirin had failed to improve survival in a virulent rhesus model of yellow fever infection, it had been previously discounted as a possible therapy. Infection was reduced in mosquitoes with the wMel strain of Wolbachia.
Yellow fever has been researched by several countries as a potential biological weapon.
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what is the relationship between south africa and china | China -- South Africa relations - wikipedia
People 's Republic of China -- South Africa relations refer to the current and historical relationship between the People 's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of South Africa.
In 2010, China was South Africa 's largest trading partner. Since 2007 Sino - South African relations have become increasingly close with increasing trade, policy and political ties. In the 2010 Beijing Declaration, South Africa was upgraded to the diplomatic status of Strategic Comprehensive Partner by the Chinese government.
Prior to the fall of apartheid in South Africa relations between the two countries were officially non-existent and unofficially antagonistic.
In the Korean War, the South African Air Force fought on the side of the United Nations against the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army, while Pretoria later enjoyed a strong relationship with the Republic of China (ROC) in Taiwan.
The PRC supported and was closely allied with the anti-apartheid group the Pan African Congress (PAC) while the African National Congress (ANC) was supported by the PRC 's communist rival, the Soviet Union.
On October, 1st 1996, the National Day of the People 's Republic of China, Nelson Mandela sent a congratulation message to Jiang Zemin, President of the PRC. November 27, he said that it supported a Greater China, including PRC and ROC.
Official relations between the PRC and South Africa were established in January 1998. The dismantling of the apartheid regime in South Africa and the fall of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s opened up the possibility of official relations being established between the PRC and South Africa. Before the 1990s South Africa had a close official relationship with the government in Taiwan for strategic and economic reasons.
Prior to the establishment of full diplomatic relations, South Africa and the People 's Republic of China established "cultural centres '' in Beijing and Pretoria, known as the South African Centre for Chinese Studies and the Chinese Centre for South African Studies respectively. Although the Centres, each headed by a Director, did not use diplomatic titles, national flags, or coats of arms, their staff used diplomatic passports and were issued with diplomatic identity documents, while their vehicles had diplomatic number plates. They also performed visa and consular services.
The handover of Hong Kong to the PRC in 1997 was a factor in the switch in official recognition, as South Africa had strong trade links with the territory, then under British administration. Pretoria was concerned that after the handover, Beijing might downgrade its consulate and the country would no longer be allowed to use Hong Kong as a transit route for air traffic and trade. In addition, key South African politicians and government officials in the post-apartheid government, most notably the Communist Party of South Africa, lobbied strongly in support of shifting recognition to the PRC.
However, Taiwan lobbied hard for continued South African recognition and initiated an expensive public relations drive to convince members of the anti-apartheid government. Then President Nelson Mandela argued in favour of a ' Two Chinas ' policy that was incompatible with the Beijing 's One China policy.
After many years of strong lobbying and engagement with Mandela in November 1996 the South African government announced that it would switch recognition from Taiwan to the PRC in January 1998. A visit by Taipei 's Foreign Minister John Chiang to meet with Alfred Nzo and attempt to salvage the situation produced no results, and so Taipei 's ambassador to Pretoria Gene Loh was recalled on 6 December 1996.
In 1992, trade between China and South Africa amounted to US $ 14 million, but by the time the two countries had established relations in 1998, this had swelled to US $1.4 billion. By 2010 trade between the two countries had increased to US $25.6 billion with imports from South Africa reaching US $14.8 billion. Cross country investment had grown to US $7 billion in the same year. Most South African exports to China in 2010 were primary products. Two - way trade between China and South Africa reached US $60.3 billion by 2014.
In December 2010, South Africa was invited to join China in BRICS group of emerging economies. With the invitation, it was expected that South Africa would expand its trade relations with other BRIC countries, including China. Some see the BRICS relationship as potentially competing with South Africa 's relations with the IBSA Dialogue Forum. In July 2010, the South African publication Business Day reported that 45 % of SABMiller 's growth would come from its China operations by 2014. The anomalous growth of South African media company Naspers in 2009 was largely owed to its stake in the Chinese company Tencent.
In December 2015 the two countries signed twenty - five agreements worth a combined value of US $16.5 billion at an event at the Forum on China - Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) Business Forum held in South Africa and attended by about 400 business people from both countries. At the same event, the two countries discussed economic priority such as the "alignment of industries to accelerate South Africa 's industrialisation process; enhancement of cooperation in Special Economic Zones (SEZs); marine cooperation; infrastructure development, human resources cooperation; and financial cooperation. ''
As of 2015 / 16 there were over 140 medium - sized or large Chinese companies in South Africa with a combined investment of US $13 billion, employing around 30,000 South Africans. Significant investments by Chinese firms in South Africa include the China First Automotive assembly plant in Coega Industrial Park, a Hisense Group white goods factory, and a Hebei Jidong Development Group cement plant.
Increasingly the South African government, inspired by China 's success in reducing poverty and promoting economic growth, is looking to China for policy ideas and inspiration in its efforts at promoting growth.
From 2000 to 2011, there are approximately 37 Chinese official development finance projects identified in South Africa through various media reports. These projects range from a financial cooperation agreement worth of $2.5 US billion between the Development Bank of South Africa and the China Development Bank, to an investment of $877 million by China 's state - owned miner Jinchuan and China Development Bank in South Africa 's platinum industry, and an investment of $250 million USD by China 's Huaqiang Holdings in a theme park in Johannesburg.
In the early nineties, before South Africa officially recognised the PRC, Chinese Foreign Minister and politburo member Qian Qichen (钱 其 琛) paid an unofficial and very quiet visit to South Africa to meet senior government ministers and inspect possible future embassy sites. Then South African Minister for Foreign Relations, Pik Botha, interrupted his participation in the CODESA talks to have the first high - level meeting between South Africa and the PRC. In October 1991 a South African delegation including Pik Botha went to Beijing to meet Qian Qichen.
In September 2007 then South African Deputy President Phumzile Mlambo - Ngcuka visited Beijing and met with Chinese President Hu Jintao (胡锦涛). After which she gave a speech at Tsinghua University on building Sino - South African relations.
Sino - South African relations expanded significantly in 2010 following a number of high - level official visits and exchanges by officials from both countries. In late March 2010 CPPCC Chairman Jia Qinglin (贾庆林) visited South Africa and met with South Africa 's President Jacob Zuma and signed contracts worth more than US $300 million.
In August 2010 President Jacob Zuma led a South African delegation of 17 cabinet members and 300 businesspeople to China where they signed the Beijing Declaration on the Establishment of a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership Between the People 's Republic of China and the Republic of South Africa. This was followed by a visit to China by speaker of the National Assembly of South Africa Max Sisulu in October 2010. In November 2010 Chinese Vice President Xi Jinping (习近平) travelled to South Africa to meet with South African Vice President Motlanthe and signed bilateral cooperation agreements in energy, trade statistics, banking regulation and other areas. His visit was followed by an official goodwill visit to South Africa by China 's top legislator Wu Bangguo (吴邦国) in May 2011 as part of his Africa - Asia tour which included Namibia and Angola.
In late September 2011 South African Vice President Motlanthe lead a trade delegation to Beijing at the invitation of Chinese Vice President Xi. During the visit the China Development Bank and the Development Bank of South Africa signed a US $2.5 billion agreement. The two countries also signed a Memorandum of Understanding on geological exploration and mineral resources.
On the 17 July 2012 President Zuma led a South African delegation that included International Relations Minister Maite Nkoana - Mashabane, Minister in the Presidency Collins Chabane and Trade and Industry Minister Rob Davies to attend the fifth Forum on China - Africa Co-operation (FOCAC) in Beijing.
In December 2014 President Zuma led another delegation of South African government ministers and a 100 representatives of South African business to China representing a further consolidation of warm South African - Sino relations. From the South African side trade imbalances, China 's impact on South African industry, and concerns over China 's influence over South Africa 's domestic and international affairs remain issues of concern for bilateral relations. In July 2015 South Africa 's deputy president, Cyril Ramaphosa, led a trade and economic delegation to China.
In September 2015 President Zuma attended the Chinese 70th anniversary celebrations since the end of World War 2. This was closely followed by a visit from, now President, Xi Jinping to Pretoria, South Africa on the 2nd December 2015 where agreements to finalise the China - South Africa 5 - 10 Year Framework on Cooperation were signed.
Since 2007 Political relations between the South African government and the Chinese government has been growing closer.
It has been alleged that South Africa 's ruling political party, the African National Congress, has received funding for election campaigns from foreign countries particularity for the 2009 national elections. Amongst the foreign countries accused of giving money to the ANC is the Communist Party of China. Other countries and the ruling political parties and figures accused of giving money to the ANC include the Congress Party of India, the Gaddafi regime in Libya and Equatorial Guinea.
In 2014 it was announced that the Chinese Communist Party will support and construct a political training school for South Africa 's ruling political party the ANC in Venterskroon. An increasing number of South African government functionaries are being sent to Chinese government schools in Beijing. South Africa plans to send increasing numbers of executives from South African Parastatals to study China 's relationship with its State Owned Enterprises. A number of annalists such as Patrick Heller, have argued that South Africa 's ruling ANC sees the Chinese Communist Party as a model for maintaining control over the country as a de facto One - party state and / or as an aspect of anti-Western feeling by South African government elites.
The Dalai Lama visited South Africa in 1996, (meeting then president Nelson Mandela). In March 2009 the Dalai Lama was refused entry to South Africa, officially to keep Tibetan politics from overshadowing the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The refusal to allow the Dalai Lama to visit South Africa sparked a political debate within South Africa about the country 's political and business interests with China, with some accusing the government of "selling out '' sovereignty, and others pointing out the negative consequences to Sino - French business relations after French president Nicolas Sarkozy met with the Dalai Lama.
In 2011 the Dalai Lama was invited to attend and give a lecture at the 80th birthday of Desmond Tutu in October. The Dalai Lama 's staff accused the South African government of delaying consideration of his visa application because of Chinese pressure, but the government denied such pressure and counteraccused the Dalai Lama of not submitting any visa applications. Three days before Tutu 's birthday the Dalai Lama announced that he would not attend the event as he did not expect to be granted a visa. Tutu responded by calling the ANC government "worse than the apartheid government '' and suggested that the government should be toppled in the style of the Arab Spring. The Dalai Lama joined Tutu on his birthday by videoconferencing, calling China a country "built on lies '' and "run by hypocrites '', and implored Tutu to continue inviting him to South Africa to "test (South Africa 's) government ''. Opposition and COSATU politicians again accused the ANC government of "betraying South Africa 's sovereignty and Constitution. '' Others in South Africa argued that the Dalai Lama 's physical nonattendance was ultimately in South Africa 's interests, reasoning that "it 's easier to Skype in the Dalai Lama than (to find) billions in alternative investments. ''
Dalai Lama was again unable to enter South Africa when he was invited to attend the Nobel Peace Laureates world summit in October 2014. It is alleged by the mayor of Cape Town that he was asked by national government to withdraw his application for a visa to visit SA for reasons "in the national interest '' so as to avoid embarrassment by his visa being officially rejected.
Chinese South Africans are an ethnic group of Chinese diaspora in South Africa. They and their ancestors immigrated to South Africa beginning during the Dutch colonial era in the Cape Colony. Since 2000 an estimated 350,000 Chinese immigrations, most of whom came from mainland China, have settled in South Africa.
In May 2016 a The South African Department of Fisheries stated that a total of nine Chinese owned vessels were spotted in South African waters allegedly engaged in illegal fishing. The vessels initially agreed to be escorted into port for inspection but on the way broke up and evaded the escorting South African patrol vessel. The nine vessels were part of a fleet of 28 Chinese trawlers that were accused by local anglers of illegal fishing within 3 kilometers of South African waters allegedly fishing the annual sardine run.
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what is the significance of the barbershop pole | Barber 's pole - wikipedia
A barber 's pole is a type of sign used by barbers to signify the place or shop where they perform their craft. The trade sign is, by a tradition dating back to the Middle Ages, a staff or pole with a helix of colored stripes (often red and white in many countries, but usually red, blue, and white in the United States). The pole may be stationary or may revolve, often with the aid of an electric motor.
A "barber 's pole '' with a helical stripe is a familiar sight, and is used as a secondary metaphor to describe objects in many other contexts. For example, if the shaft or tower of a lighthouse has been painted with a helical stripe as a daymark, the lighthouse could be described as having been painted in "barber 's pole '' colors. Likewise, borders may be marked and warnings highlighted.
During medieval times, barbers performed surgery on customers, as well as tooth extractions. The original pole had a brass wash basin at the top (representing the vessel in which leeches were kept) and bottom (representing the basin that received the blood). The pole itself represents the staff that the patient gripped during the procedure to encourage blood flow.
At the Council of Tours in 1163, the clergy was banned from the practice of surgery. From then, physicians were clearly separated from the surgeons and barbers. Later, the role of the barbers was defined by the College de Saint - Côme et Saint - Damien, established by Jean Pitard in Paris circa 1210, as academic surgeons of the long robe and barber surgeons of the short robe.
After the formation of the United Barber Surgeon 's Company in England, a statute required the barber to use a blue and white pole and the surgeon to use a red pole. In France, surgeons used a red pole with a basin attached to identify their offices. Blue often appears on poles in the United States, possibly as a homage to its national colors. Another, more fanciful interpretation of these barber pole colors is that red represents arterial blood, blue is symbolic of venous blood, and white depicts the bandage.
Prior to 1950, there were four manufacturers of barber poles in the United States. In 1950, William Marvy of St. Paul, Minnesota, started manufacturing barber poles. Marvy made his 50,000 th barber pole in 1967, and, by 2010, over 82,000 had been produced. The William Marvy Company is now the sole manufacturer of barber poles in North America, and sells only 500 per year (compared to 5,100 in the 1960s). In recent years, the sale of spinning barber poles has dropped considerably, since few barber shops are opening, and many jurisdictions prohibit moving signs. Koken of St. Louis, Missouri, manufactured barber equipment such as chairs and assorted poles in the 19th century.
As early as 1905, use of the poles was reported to be "diminishing '' in the United States.
In Forest Grove, Oregon, the "World 's Tallest Barber Shop Pole '' measures 72 feet (22 m).
The consistent use of this symbol for advertising was analogous to an apothecary 's show globe, a tobacconist 's cigar store Indian and a pawn broker 's three gold balls.
The red and white pole outside barber shops references a time when barbers were expected to perform bloodletting and other medical procedures to heal the sick; red may have represented blood and white may have been bandages. Possibly as early as the later Roman Empire, and certainly continuing through the Renaissance into Industrialization (maybe even until the 1700s in some places) a "barber - surgeon '' also performed tooth extraction, cupping, leeching, bloodletting, enemas, amputations, etc. However, today 's barber poles represent little more than being a barber shop that cuts hair and does shaves. Barber poles have actually become a topic of controversy in the hairstyling business. In some states, such as Michigan in March 2012, legislation has emerged proposing that barber poles should only be permitted outside barbershops, but not traditional beauty salons. Barbers and cosmetologists have engaged in several legal battles claiming the right to use the barber pole symbol to indicate to potential customers that the business offers haircutting services. Barbers claim that they are entitled to exclusive rights to use the barber pole because of the tradition tied to the craft, whereas cosmetologists think that they are equally capable of cutting men 's hair (though many cosmetologists are not permitted to use razors, depending on their state 's laws).
In South Korea, barber 's poles are used both for actual barbershops and for brothels. Brothels disguised as barbershops, referred to as 이발소 (ibalso) or 미용실 (miyongsil), are more likely to use two poles next to each other, often spinning in opposite directions, though the use of a single pole for the same reason is also quite common. Actual barbershops, or 미용실 (miyongsil), are more likely to be hair salons; to avoid confusion, they will usually use a pole that shows a picture of a woman with flowing hair on it with the words hair salon written on the pole.
A spinning barber pole creates a visual illusion, in which the stripes appear to be traveling up or down the length of the pole, rather than around it.
Haemonchus contortus, or "barber 's pole worm '', is the parasitic nematode responsible for anemia, bottle jaw, and death of infected sheep and goats, mainly during summer months in warm, humid climates. Humans may become infected by the worms.
Stenopus hispidus is a shrimp - like popcorn kernel decapod crustacean sometimes called the "barber pole shrimp. '' See also Stenopodidea.
In the bug world, there is the barber pole grasshopper, Dactylotum bicolor. It is also known as the "painted grasshopper '' and is said to be the "most beautiful '' grasshopper.
Because of its bright bands and colors, the redbanded rockfish Sebastes babcocki is referred to as "barber pole ''. Other pseudonyms include bandit, convict, canary, Hollywood, and Spanish flag.
The old - fashioned American stick candy is sometimes also referred to as "barber pole candy '' due to its colorful, swirled appearance. See also, Candy cane. "Candy stripe '' is a generic description of the candy cane color scheme. Among many other names, the candy has been called Polkagris.
In UI design, a barber pole - like pattern is used in progress bars when the wait time is indefinite. It is intended to be used like a throbber to tell the user that processing is continuing, although it is not known when the processing will complete.
Barber pole is also sometimes used to describe a text pattern where a line of text is rolled left or right one character on the line below. The CHARGEN service generates a form of this pattern. It is used to test RAM, hard disks and printers. A similar pattern is also used in secure erasure of media.
The strength and direction of magnetic fields and electric currents can be measured using a "magnetoresistive barber - pole sensor '' (also called a "hermetic proximity sensor ''), and its performance can be depicted using a mathematical formula. Such a sensor interleaves a series of permanent magnet strips with a series of magnetoresistive strips. The "conductive barberpole strips are canted across the sensor and connect one magnetoresistive strip, over a permanent magnet strip, to another magnetoresistive strip. '' This is said to provide a "uniform magnetic field throughout the sensor '' thereby enhancing its resistance to external magnetic fields. The technology is used in wireless sensor networks which "have gathered a lot of attention as an important research domain '' and were "deployed in many applications, e.g., navigation, military, ambient intelligence, medical, and industrial tasks. Context - based processing and services, in particular location - context, are of key interest... '' (See Music (acoustic illusion), infra.)
The term on the barber pole is pilot jargon that refers to flying an aircraft at the maximum safe velocity. The airspeed Indicator on aircraft capable of flying at altitude features a red / white striped needle resembling a barber pole. This needle displays the V (Maximum Operating Velocity) or -- at altitude -- the M (Mach Limit Maximum Operating Speed) of the aircraft. This needle also indicates the maximum operating Mach number above the VMO / MMO changeover level. As the aircraft increases in altitude and the air decreases in density and temperature, the speed of sound also decreases. Close to the speed of sound, an aircraft becomes susceptible to buffeting caused by shock waves produced by flying at transonic speeds. Thus, as the speed of sound decreases, so the maximum safe operating speed of the aircraft is reduced. The "barber pole '' needle moves to indicate this speed. Flying "on the barber pole '' therefore means to be flying the aircraft as fast as is safe to do so in the current conditions.
Barberpole is a phrase used to describe the striped output of indicators used during the Apollo and Shuttle programs. Typically the indicator would show all grey or a grey and white striped pattern, known as barberpole, to allow the astronauts a quick visual reference of the status of the spacecraft systems. Various indicators in the Apollo Command Modules indicated barberpole when the corresponding system was inactive. Astronaut Jim Lovell can also be found describing system indications as "barber poled '' in the transcript of radio transmissions during the Apollo 13 accident.
The phrase barberpole continues to be found in many subsystem descriptions in the Space Shuttle News Reference Manual, as well as the NASA / KSC Acronym List.
During World War I and World War II, the pattern has also been used as an insignia for aircraft identification. Spad XIIIs of the 94th Aero Squadron USAS in early 1919 used variations on barber pole patterns including: ' Barber Pole ' of Lt Dudley ' Red ' Outcault; S. 16546 ' Flag Bus ' of Captain Reed Chambers; and ' Rising Sun ' of Lt John Jeffers.
Used in flyfishing, Au Sable River guide Earl Madsen 's "Madsen 's Barber pole '' is a traditional Michigan fly in the form of a "Stonefly '' imitation "with grizzly hackle tip wings tied in a downwing fashion. '' Photo of Madsen 's Barber Pole Fly, parachute form.
The phrase barber pole is derisive jargon in craps, and refers to the commingling of "gaming cheques of different denominations. '' Wagers that combine different denominations are "supposed to be stacked with the highest denomination at the bottom. ''
Red or rubric posts were sometimes used by booksellers in England prior to 1800. William Roberts reports in The Book Hunter in London that certain 18th - century bookshops in the Little Britain district of London sported such poles:
A few years before Nichols published (in 1816) his Literary Anecdotes, two booksellers used to sport their rubric posts close to each other here in Little Britain, and these rubric posts were once as much the type of a bookseller 's shop as the pole is of a barber 's... Sewell, Cornhill, and Kecket and De Hondt, Strand, were among the last to use these curious trade signs.
The famous Barber Pole Group was originally a group of 120 Flower - class corvettes built in Canada during World War II, and charged primarily with protecting freighter convoys. The original group was Escort Group C - 3. This group of ships, with its red and white barber pole stripes painted on the funnel, is still represented in the current Royal Canadian Navy: all Atlantic fleet ships wear this insignia. HMCS Sackville is the last remaining Flower - class corvette.
The "Barberpole Cat '' group, a / k / a "Polecats '' -- perhaps a portmanteau of "barber 's pole '' and "catalogue '' -- is an essential repertoire of 12 songs that every barber shop quartet should know. The Barberpole Cat Program was created many years ago and features popular Barbershop songs arranged and voiced so all singers can learn and participate. For decades these have been the standard arrangements where singers can meet at conventions and sing together having never met before.
The songs in this collection are:
The Polecats have had a version 2.0 with additional songs added.
See also, Buchla 200 series Electric Music Box and Buchla 200e.
Barbasol cans use a barber pole motif. See Barbasol Can image. The can 's motif is a registered trademark of Barbasol.
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where did the english term bloody come from | Bloody - wikipedia
Bloody is a commonly used expletive attributive (intensifier) in British English. It was used as an intensive since at least the 1670s. Considered "respectable '' until about 1750, it was heavily tabooed during c. 1750 -- 1920, considered equivalent to heavily obscene or profane speech. Public use continued to be seen as controversial until the 1960s, but since the later 20th century, the word has become a comparatively mild expletive or intensifier.
The word is also used in the same way in Australian English, New Zealand English and in other parts of the Commonwealth or in ex-Commonwealth countries. In American English, the word is uncommon and is seen by American audiences as a stereotypical marker of British English, without any significant obscene or profane connotation.
Use of the adjective bloody as a profane intensifier predates the 18th century. Its ultimate origin is unclear, and several hypotheses have been suggested.
It may be a direct loan of Dutch bloote, used "in the adverbial sense of entire, complete, pure, naked '', which was suggested by Ker (1837) to have been "transformed into bloody, in the consequently absurd phrases of bloody good, bloody bad, bloody thief, bloody angry, etc., where it simply implies completely, entirely, purely, very, truly, and has no relation to either blood or murder, except by corruption of the word. ''
The word "blood '' in Dutch and German is used as part of minced oaths, in abbreviation of expressions referring to "God 's blood '', i.e. the Passion or the Eucharist. Ernest Weekley (1921) relates English usage to imitation of purely intensive use of Dutch bloed and German Blut in the early modern period.
A popularly reported theory suggested euphemistic derivation from the phrase by Our Lady. This possibility was discussed disapprovingly by Eric Partridge (1933). The contracted form by'r Lady is common in Shakespeare 's plays around the turn of the 17th century, and Jonathan Swift about 100 years later writes both "it grows by'r Lady cold '' and "it was bloody hot walking to - day '' suggesting that bloody and by'r Lady had become exchangeable generic intensifiers. However, Partridge describes the supposed derivation of bloody as a further contraction of by'r lady as "phonetically implausible ''. According to Rawson 's dictionary of Euphemisms (1995), attempts to derive bloody from minced oaths for "by our lady '' or "God 's blood '' are based on the attempt to explain the word 's extraordinary shock power in the 18th to 19th centuries, but they disregard that the earliest records of the word as an intensifier in the 17th to early 18th century do not reflect any taboo or profanity. It seems more likely, according to Rawson, that the taboo against the word arose secondarily, perhaps because of an association with menstruation.
The Oxford English Dictionary prefers the theory that it arose from aristocratic rowdies known as "bloods '', hence "bloody drunk '' means "drunk as a blood ''.
Until at least the early 18th century, the word was used innocuously. It is used as an intensifier without apparent implication of profanity by 18th - century authors such as Henry Fielding and Jonathan Swift ("It was bloody hot walking today '' in 1713) and Samuel Richardson ("He is bloody passionate. '' in 1742).
After about 1750 the word assumed more profane connotations. Johnson (1755) already calls it "very vulgar '', and the original Oxford English Dictionary article of 1888 comments the word is "now constantly in the mouths of the lowest classes, but by respectable people considered ' a horrid word ', on par with obscene or profane language. ''
On the opening night of George Bernard Shaw 's comedy Pygmalion in 1914, Mrs Patrick Campbell, in the role of Eliza Doolittle, created a sensation with the line "Walk! Not bloody likely! '' and this led to a fad for using "Pygmalion '' itself as a pseudo-oath, as in "Not Pygmalion likely '', and bloody was referred to as "the Shavian adjective '' in polite society.
The character Geoffrey Fisher in Keith Waterhouse 's play Billy Liar (1959) is notable for his continual use of the word ' bloody '. Waterhouse 's stage directions make it clear that if this is considered offensive the word should be omitted entirely and not bowdlerised to ruddy or some other word.
The use of ' bloody ' in adult UK broadcasting aroused controversy in the 1960s and 1970s, but it has since become unremarkable and is used freely.
Bloody has always been a very common part of Australian speech and has not been considered profane there for some time. The word was dubbed "the Australian adjective '' by The Bulletin on 18 August 1894. One Australian performer, Kevin Bloody Wilson, has even made it his middle name. Also in Australia, the word bloody is frequently used as a verbal hyphen, or infix, correctly called tmesis as in "fanbloodytastic ''. In the 1940s an Australian divorce court judge held that "the word bloody is so common in modern parlance that it is not regarded as swearing ''. Meanwhile, Neville Chamberlain 's government was fining Britons for using the word in public.
The word as an expletive is seldom used in the United States of America. In the US the term is usually used when the intention is to mimic an Englishman. Because it is not perceived as profane in American English, "bloody '' is generally not censored when used in American television and film, for example in the 1961 film The Guns of Navarone the actor Richard Harris at one point says: "You ca n't even see the bloody cave, let alone the bloody guns. And anyway, we have n't got a bloody bomb big enough to smash that bloody rock... '' - but bloody was replaced with ruddy for British audiences of the time.
The term is used somewhat frequently in Canada, especially in the provinces of Ontario and Newfoundland. Younger Canadians generally do not consider the term to be offensive; however, older Canadians of British origin might.
In Singapore, the word bloody is commonly used as a mild expletive in Singapore 's colloquial English. The roots of this expletive derives from the influence and informal language British officers used during the dealing and training of soldiers in the Singapore Volunteer Corps and the early days of the Singapore Armed Forces. When more Singaporeans were promoted officers within the Armed Forces, most new local officers applied similar training methods their former British officers had when they were cadets or trainees themselves. This includes some aspects of British Army lingo, like "bloody (something) ''. When the newly elected Singapore government implemented compulsory conscription, all 18 year old able bodied Singapore males had to undergo training within the Armed Forces. When National servicemen completed their service term, some brought the many expletives they picked up during their service into the civilian world and thus became a part of the common culture in the city state. The word ' bloody ' also managed to spread to the north in neighbouring Malaysia, to where the influence of Singapore English has spread. The use of ' bloody ' as a substitute for more explicit language increased with the popularity of British and Australian films and television shows aired on local television programmes. The term bloody in Singapore may not be considered explicit, but its usage is frowned upon in formal settings.
The term is frequently used among South Africans in their colloquial English and it is an intensifier. It is used in both explicit and non-explicit ways. It also spread to Afrikaans as "bloedige '' and is popular amongst all citizens in the country. It is also used by minors and is not considered to be offensive.
Many substitutions were devised to convey the essence of the oath, but with less offence; these included bleeding, bleaking, cruddy, smuddy, blinking, blooming, bally, woundy, flaming and ruddy.
Publications such as newspapers, police reports, and so on may print b__y instead of the full profanity. A spoken language equivalent is blankety or, less frequently, blanked or blanky; the spoken words are all variations of blank, which, as a verbal representation of a dash, is used as a euphemism for a variety of "bad '' words.
Use of bloody as an adverbial or generic intensifier is to be distinguished from its fixed use in the expressions "bloody murder '' and "bloody hell ''.
In "bloody murder '', it has the original sense of an adjective used literally. The King James Version of the Bible frequently uses bloody as an adjective in reference to bloodshed or violent crime, as in "bloody crimes '' (Ezekiel 22: 2), "Woe to the bloody city '' (Ezekiel 24: 6, Nahum 3: 1). "bloody men '' (26: 9, Psalms 59: 2, 139: 19), etc. The expression of "bloody murder '' goes back to at least Elizabethan English, as in Shakespeare 's Titus Andronicus (c. 1591), "bloody murder or detested rape ''. The expression "scream bloody murder '' (in the figurative or desemanticised sense of "to loudly object to something '' attested since c. 1860) is now considered American English, while in British English, the euphemistic "blue murder '' had replaced "bloody murder '' during the period of "bloody '' being considered taboo.
The expression "bloody hell '' is now used as a (slightly rude) general expression of surprise or as a general intensifier; e.g. "bloody hell '' being used repeatedly in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (2001, PG Rating).
In March 2006 Australia 's national tourism commission launched an advertising campaign targeted at potential visitors in several English - speaking countries. The ad sparked controversy because of its ending (in which a cheerful, bikini - clad spokeswoman delivers the ad 's call - to - action by saying "... so where the bloody hell are you? ''). In the UK the BACC required that a modified version of the ad be shown in the United Kingdom, without the word "bloody '', but in May 2006, the ASA ruled that the word bloody was not an inappropriate marketing tool and the original version of the ad was permitted to air.
The longer "bloody hell - hounds '' appears to have been at least printable in early 19th century Britain. "Bloody hell 's flames '' as well as "bloody hell '' is reported as a profanity supposedly used by Catholics against Protestants in 1845.
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where is the patagonian desert located on a map | Patagonian desert - wikipedia
The Patagonian Desert, also known as the Patagonia Desert, Patagonian Steppe, or Magellanic Steppe, is the largest desert in Argentina and is the 8th largest desert in the world by area, occupying 673,000 square kilometers (260,000 mi). It is located primarily in Argentina with small parts in Chile and is bounded by the Andes, to its west, and the Atlantic Ocean to its east, in the region of Patagonia, southern Argentina. To the north the desert grades into the Cuyo Region and the Pampas. The central parts of the steppe are dominated by shrubby and herbaceous plant species albeit to the west, where precipitation is higher, bushes are replaced by grasses. Topographically the deserts consist of alternating tablelands and massifs dissected by river valleys and canyons. The more western parts of the steppe host lakes of glacial origin and grades into barren mountains or cold temperate forests along valleys.
Inhabited by hunter - gatherers since Pre-Hispanic times, the desert faced migration in the 19th century of Mapuches, Chileans, Argentines, Welsh, and other European peoples, transforming it from a conflictive borderland zone to an integral part of Argentina, with cattle, sheep and horse husbandry being the primary land uses.
The Patagonian Desert is the largest of the 40 ° parallel and is a large cold winter desert, where the temperature rarely exceeds 12 ° C and averages just 3 ° C. The region experiences about seven months of winter and five months of summer. Frost is not uncommon in the desert but, due to the very dry condition year round, snow is rare. The Andes, to the desert 's west, are the primary reason for the Patagonian desert status as they inhibit the westerly flow of moisture from the southern Pacific from reaching inland. This creates a rain shadow that accounts for the formation of the desert and is why, despite approximately half of the desert being only about 200 miles from the ocean, such a large desert is found in the region. The cold Falkland Current off the Atlantic coast of South America also contributes to the area 's aridity.
Different climates can be distinguished: the coast north of the 45th parallel is much milder because of the warm currents from Brazil, and the entire northern half of the region is significantly warmer in the summer, when sunny weather predominates. Daily temperatures in the summer reach 31 ° C in the Rio Colorado region, a general 26 ° C to 29 ° C in the northern coast, and 24 ° C to 28 ° C in the northern plain, with nights around 12 ° C to 15 ° C in the coast and between 7 ° C and 10 ° C in the steppe. In the south, summer temperatures decrease from 22 ° C to only 16 ° C along the coast, and from 24 ° C to 17 ° C along the steppes, while nights go from 8 ° C to 11 ° C on the coast, and from 6 ° C to 10 ° C in the steppe.
During the winter, the proximity to the coast and the altitude are the main factors: while northern coastal areas have mild winters, from 2 ° C at night to about 11 ° C during the day, southern Santa Cruz ranges from - 2 ° C to 5 ° C, and Tierra del Fuego, from - 3 ° C to 3 ° C, for a mean of 0 ° C. Inland, the northern areas range from 0 ° C to 10 ° C in low areas, and from - 5 ° C to 5 ° C on the plateaus (again, mean around 0 ° C), while in the south, low areas range from - 3 ° C to 4 ° C, and higher areas are clearly below 0 ° C. The coldest spots usually register temperatures between - 20 ° C and - 25 ° C during cold waves, and the official record is - 33.9 ° C in Chubut province. However, some towns claim to have had records of around - 35 ° C.
Summer frost is common everywhere except for the northern coast, and even sleet and light snow can fall during the warm season. Winds are constant and very strong, from the west in most cases.
Before the Andes were formed, the region was likely covered by temperate forests. However, after the formation of the Andes, ash from nearby volcanoes covered the forests and mineral - saturated waters seeped into the logs, thus fossilizing the trees and creating one of the world 's best preserved petrified forests in the desert 's center. The Patagonian is mainly composed of gravel plains and plateaus with sandstone canyons and clay shapes dotting the landscape, sculpted by the desert wind. The region encompassing the desert, however, has many diverse features. Ephemeral rivers, lakes, and drainage deposits from the Andes ' spring melt form annually, hosting a variety of waterfowl and aquatic grasses. A variety of glacial, fluvial, and volcanic deposits are also found in the region and have significantly affected the desert 's climate over time, especially contributing to the gravel sediments covering parts of the Patagonian.
The desert is quite windy as well, a result of the rain shadow effect and descending cool mountain air. This wind helps make the Patagonian one of the largest, if not the largest, sources of dust over the South Atlantic Ocean.
On the west the Patagonian grasslands portion of the Patagonian Desert are bounded by nothofagus forests of the Magellanic subpolar forests.
Volcanic rocks covers more than 120,000 km of the Patagonian Desert, mainly in the Somun Cura Massif (i.e. North Patagonian Massif) and the Deseado Massif. Some other volcanic areas include the Pali - Aike Volcanic Field near the Strait of Magellan. The volcanic rocks are the result of back - arc volcanism distributed mainly in two episodes: one in the Eocene and Miocene and the other from Late Miocene to Pleistocene.
Despite the harsh desert environment, a number of animals venture into and live in the Patagonian. Some only live on the more habitable and geographically - varied outskirts of the desert, where food is more abundant and the environment less hostile, but all are found within the region encompassing the Patagonian. The burrowing owl, lesser rhea, guanaco, tuco - tuco, mara, pygmy armadillo, Patagonian weasel, puma, Patagonian gray fox, desert iguana, western ribbon snake, and various species of eagle and hawk are a few of the variety of animals living in the region.
The flora of the region is quite common for its climate and includes several species of desert shrubs like Acantholippia and Benthamiella and tuft grasses like Stipa and Poa. Aquatic grasses and larger flora exist on the outskirts of the desert and around the ephemeral lakes that form from the Andes ' runoff.
The desert has hosted various indigenous peoples in its past, as evidenced by cave paintings in the area. The earliest inhabitants of the desert known by name are those of the Tehuelche complex. Tehuelches lived as hunter - gatherers and did not practise agriculture in lush valleys found in the desert. In the 18th and 19th centuries the northern part of the desert came under Mapuche influence during a process of Araucanization. Mapuches came to practise horse husbandry in the northern part of the Patagonian steppe. Mapuche tribes came to control trade across the desert and traded with the cities of southern Chile as well as Buenos Aires and the Cuyo Region.
From the mid-19th century onwards several Argentine and European settlements, some of them sporadic, appeared at the edges of the desert. The most important was established at Chubut River 's outflow by Welsh immigrants in 1860. Perito Moreno explored the desert in the 1870s. In the 1870s the Argentine army undertook the Conquest of the Desert campaign, massively defeating Mapuche warlords. The Conquest of the Desert was followed by a sharp decline in the indigenous population of the desert; some were chased into Chile and peripheral areas in the Andes. It is estimated that the Conquest of the Desert caused the death of about 1,000 Native Americans. Additionally 10,000 Native Americans were taken prisoner of whom 3,000 ended up in Buenos Aires separated by sexes to avoid their procreation. The boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina bought most of the desert under definitive Argentine sovereignty; previously Chile had claimed varying now Argentine areas under claims of inherited colonial titles.
In the few decades before and after 1900 the less dry parts of the Patagonian steppe experienced a sheep farming boom, transforming the region into one of the world 's greatest exporters of ovine products.
The area is sparsely populated today and those that do live here survive mainly by the raising of livestock such as sheep and goats. Resource mining, especially of oil, gas, and coal in parts of the region, is another way humans interact with and influence the desert environment.
Coordinates: 41 ° 19 ′ S 69 ° 19 ′ W / 41.32 ° S 69.32 ° W / - 41.32; - 69.32
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who pushed for tax funded public schools in america | Education in the United States - wikipedia
Education in the United States is provided by public, private and home schools.
State governments set overall educational standards, often mandate standardized tests for K -- 12 public school systems and supervise, usually through a board of regents, state colleges and universities. Funding comes from the state, local, and federal government. Private schools are generally free to determine their own curriculum and staffing policies, with voluntary accreditation available through independent regional accreditation authorities, although some state regulation can apply.
In 2013, about 87 % of school - age children (those below higher education) attended state funded public schools, about 10 % attended tuition - and foundation - funded private schools and roughly 3 % were home - schooled.
By state law, education is compulsory over an age range starting between five and eight and ending somewhere between ages sixteen and eighteen, depending on the state. This requirement can be satisfied in public schools, state - certified private schools, or an approved home school program. In most schools, compulsory education is divided into three levels: elementary school, middle or junior high school, and high school. Children are usually divided by age groups into grades, ranging from kindergarten (5 -- 6 year olds) and first grade for the youngest children, up to twelfth grade (17 -- 18 years olds) as the final year of high school.
There are also a large number and wide variety of publicly and privately administered institutions of higher education throughout the country. Post-secondary education, divided into college, as the first tertiary degree, and graduate school, is described in a separate section below.
The United States spends more per student on education than any other country. In 2014, the Pearson / Economist Intelligence Unit rated US education as 14th best in the world, just behind Russia. In 2015, the Programme for International Student Assessment rated U.S. high school students No. 40 globally in Math and No. 24 in Science and Reading. The President of the National Center on Education and the Economy said of the results "the United States can not long operate a world - class economy if our workers are, as the OECD statistics show, among the worst - educated in the world ''. Former U.S. Education Secretary John B. King, Jr. acknowledged the results in conceding U.S. students were well behind their peers. According to a report published by the U.S. News & World Report, of the top ten colleges and universities in the world, eight are American (the other two are Oxford and Cambridge, in the United Kingdom).
Government - supported and free public schools for all began to be established after the American Revolution. Between 1750 and 1870 parochial schools appeared as "ad hoc '' efforts by parishes. Historically, many parochial elementary schools were developed which were open to all children in the parish, mainly Catholics, but also Lutherans, Calvinists and Orthodox Jews. Nonsectarian common schools designed by Horace Mann were opened, which taught the three Rs (of reading, writing, and arithmetic) and also history and geography.
While America saw Europe, with its established private and public school systems and institutions, as a model for educational provision, the American push for public education had deep roots, too, in the fight for Universal Human Rights for former slaves. As Ada Gay Griffin details, the demand for a public educational system arose from the fight for universal literacy and educational rights for former slaves and an African American population that lacked an adequately educated and literate body.
In 1823, the Reverend Samuel Read Hall founded the first normal school, the Columbian School in Concord, Vermont, aimed at improving the quality of the burgeoning common school system by producing more qualified teachers.
States passed laws to make schooling compulsory between 1852 (Massachusetts) and 1917 (Mississippi). They also used federal funding designated by the Morrill Land - Grant Colleges Acts of 1862 and 1890 to set up land grant colleges specializing in agriculture and engineering. By 1870, every state had free elementary schools, albeit only in urban centers.
From about 1876, thirty - nine states passed a constitutional amendment to their state constitutions, called Blaine Amendments after James G. Blaine, one of their chief promoters, forbidding the use of public tax money to fund local parochial schools.
Following the American Civil War, the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute was founded in 1881, in Tuskegee, Alabama, to train "Colored Teachers, '' led by Booker T. Washington, (1856 -- 1915), who was himself a freed slave. His movement spread, leading many other Southern states to establish small colleges for "Colored or Negro '' students entitled "A. & M., '' ("Agricultural and Mechanical '') or "A. & T., '' ("Agricultural and Technical ''), some of which later developed into state universities.
Responding to the many competing academic philosophies being promoted at the time, an influential working group of educators, known as the Committee of Ten and established in 1892 by the National Education Association, recommended that children should receive twelve years of instruction, consisting of eight years of elementary education (in what were also known as "grammar schools '') followed by four years in high school ("freshmen, '' "sophomores, '' "juniors, '' and "seniors '').
Gradually by the late 1890s, regional associations of high schools, colleges and universities were being organized to coordinate proper accrediting standards, examinations, and regular surveys of various institutions in order to assure equal treatment in graduation and admissions requirements, as well as course completion and transfer procedures.
By 1910, 72 percent of children were attending school. Private schools spread during this time, as well as colleges and -- in the rural centers -- land grant colleges also. Between 1910 and 1940 the high school movement resulted in rapidly increasing public high school enrollment and graduations. By 1930, 100 percent of children were attending school (excluding children with significant disabilities or medical concerns).
During World War II, enrollment in high schools and colleges plummeted as many high school and college students dropped out to take war jobs.
The 1946 National School Lunch Act, which is still in operation, provided low - cost or free school lunch meals to qualified low - income students through subsidies to schools, based on the idea that a "full stomach '' during the day supported class attention and studying. The 1954 Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas made racial desegregation of public elementary and high schools mandatory, although private schools expanded to accommodate white families attempting to avoid desegregation by sending their children to private secular or religious schools.
In 1965, the far - reaching Elementary and Secondary Education Act (' ESEA '), passed as a part of President Lyndon B. Johnson 's War on Poverty, provided funds for primary and secondary education (' Title I funding '). Title VI explicitly forbade the establishment of a national curriculum. Title IV of the Higher Education Act of 1965 created the Pell Grant program which provides financial support to students from low - income families to access higher education.
In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act established funding for special education in schools.
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 made standardized testing a requirement. The Higher Education Amendments of 1972 made changes to the Pell Grants. The 1975 Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) required all public schools accepting federal funds to provide equal access to education and one free meal a day for children with physical and mental disabilities. The 1983 National Commission on Excellence in Education report, famously titled A Nation at Risk, touched off a wave of local, state, and federal reform efforts, but by 1990 the country still spent only 2 per cent of its budget on education, compared with 30 per cent on support for the elderly. In 1990, the EHA was replaced with the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which placed more focus on students as individuals, and also provided for more post-high school transition services.
The 2002 No Child Left Behind Act, passed by a bipartisan coalition in Congress provided federal aid to the states in exchange for measures to penalize schools that were not meeting the goals as measured by standardized state exams in mathematics and language skills. In the same year, the U.S. Supreme Court diluted some of the century - old "Blaine '' laws upheld an Ohio law allowing aid to parochial schools under specific circumstances. The 2006 Commission on the Future of Higher Education evaluated higher education.
In December 2015, President Barack Obama signed legislation replacing No Child Left Behind with the Every Student Succeeds Act.
In 2000, 76.6 million students had enrolled in schools from kindergarten through graduate schools. Of these, 72 percent aged 12 to 17 were considered academically "on track '' for their age, i.e. enrolled in at or above grade level. Of those enrolled elementary and secondary schools, 5.2 million (10.4 percent) were attending private schools.
Over 85 percent of the adult population have completed high school and 27 percent have received a bachelor 's degree or higher. The average salary for college or university graduates is greater than $51,000, exceeding the national average of those without a high school diploma by more than $23,000, according to a 2005 study by the U.S. Census Bureau. The 2010 unemployment rate for high school graduates was 10.8 %; the rate for college graduates was 4.9 %.
The country has a reading literacy rate of 99 % of the population over age 15, while ranking below average in science and mathematics understanding compared to other developed countries. In 2014, a record high of 82 % of high school seniors graduated, although one of the reasons for that success might be a decline in academic standards.
The poor performance has pushed public and private efforts such as the No Child Left Behind Act. In addition, the ratio of college - educated adults entering the workforce to general population (33 %) is slightly below the mean of other developed countries (35 %) and rate of participation of the labor force in continuing education is high. A 2000s (decade) study by Jon Miller of Michigan State University concluded that "A slightly higher proportion of American adults qualify as scientifically literate than European or Japanese adults ''.
In 2006, there were roughly 600,000 homeless students in the United States, but after the Great Recession this number more than doubled to approximately 1.36 million.
Formal education in the U.S. is divided into a number of distinct educational stages. Most children enter the public education system around ages five or six. Children are assigned into year groups known as grades.
The American school year traditionally begins at the end of August or early in September, after a traditional summer recess. Children customarily advance together from one grade to the next as a single cohort or "class '' upon reaching the end of each school year in late May or early June.
Depending upon their circumstances, they may begin school in pre-kindergarten, kindergarten or first grade. They normally attend 12 grades of study over 12 calendar years of primary / elementary and secondary education before graduating and earning a diploma that makes them eligible for admission to higher education. Education is mandatory until age 16 (18 in some states).
In the U.S., ordinal numbers (e.g., first grade) are used for identifying grades. Typical ages and grade groupings in contemporary, public and private schools may be found through the U.S. Department of Education. Generally there are three stages: elementary school (K -- 5th / 6th grade), middle school (6th / 7th -- 8th grades) and high school (9th -- 12th grades).
There is considerable variability in the exact arrangement of grades, as the following table indicates.
Students completing high school may choose to attend a college or university, which offer undergraduate degrees such as Associate 's degrees or Bachelor 's degrees (baccalaureate).
Community college or junior college typically offer two - year associate degrees, although some community colleges offer a limited number of bachelor 's degrees. Some community college students choose to transfer to a four - year institution to pursue a bachelor 's degree. Community colleges are generally publicly funded (usually by local cities or counties) and offer career certifications and part - time programs.
Four - year institutions may be public or private colleges or universities.
Some counties and cities have established and funded four - year institutions. Some of these institutions, such as the City University of New York, are still operated by local governments. Others such as the University of Louisville and Wichita State University are now operated as state universities.
Private institutions are privately funded and there is a wide variety in size, focus, and operation. Some private institutions are large research universities, while others are small liberal arts colleges that concentrate on undergraduate education. Some private universities are nonsectarian and secular, while others are religiously - affiliated. While most private institutions are non-profit, a growing number in the past decade have been established as for - profit.
Curriculum varies widely depending on the institution. Typically, an undergraduate student will be able to select an academic "major '' or concentration, which comprises the main or special subjects, and students may change their major one or more times.
Some students, typically those with a bachelor 's degree, may choose to continue on to graduate or professional school, sometimes attached to a university. Graduate degrees may be either master 's degrees (e.g., M.A., M.S., M.B.A., M.S.W.) or doctorate degrees (e.g., Ph. D., J.D., ("Doctor of Law ''), M.D., D.O.). Programs range from full - time, evening and executive which allows for flexibility with students ' schedules. Academia - focused graduate school typically includes some combination of coursework and research (often requiring a thesis or dissertation to be written), while professional graduate - level schools grants a first professional degree. These include medical, law, business, education, divinity, art, journalism, social work, architecture, and engineering schools.
In K -- 12 education, sometimes students who receive failing grades are held back a year and repeat coursework in the hope of earning satisfactory scores on the second try.
High school graduates sometimes take a gap year before the first year of college, for travel, work, public service, or independent learning.
Many undergraduate college programs now commonly are five year programs. This is especially common in technical fields, such as engineering. The five - year period often includes one or more periods of internship with an employer in the chosen field.
Of students who were freshmen in 2005 seeking bachelor 's degrees at public institutions, 32 % took four years, 12 % took five years, 6 % took six years, and 43 % did not graduate within six years. The numbers for private non-profit institutions were 52 % in four, 10 % in five, 4 % in six, and 35 % failing to graduate.
Some undergraduate institutions offer an accelerated three - year bachelor 's degree, or a combined five - year bachelor 's and master 's degrees.
Many graduate students do not start professional schools immediately after finishing undergraduate studies, but work for a time while saving up money or deciding on a career direction.
The National Center for Education Statistics found that in 1999 -- 2000, 73 % of people attending institutions of higher education were non-traditional students.
Schooling is compulsory for all children in the United States, but the age range for which school attendance is required varies from state to state. Some states allow students to leave school between 14 -- 17 with parental permission, before finishing high school; other states require students to stay in school until age 18. Public (free) education is typically from kindergarten to grade 12 (frequently abbreviated K -- 12).
Most parents send their children to either a public or private institution. According to government data, one - tenth of students are enrolled in private schools. Approximately 85 % of students enter the public schools, largely because they are tax - subsidized (tax burdens by school districts vary from area to area). School districts are usually separate from other local jurisdictions, with independent officials and budgets.
There are more than 14,000 school districts in the country, and more than $500 billion is spent each year on public primary and secondary education. Most states require that their school districts within the state teach for 180 days a year. In 2010, there were 3,823,142 teachers in public, charter, private, and Catholic elementary and secondary schools. They taught a total of 55,203,000 students, who attended one of 132,656 schools.
Most children begin elementary education with kindergarten (usually five to six years old) and finish secondary education with twelfth grade (usually 17 -- 18 years old). In some cases, pupils may be promoted beyond the next regular grade. Parents may also choose to educate their own children at home; 1.7 % of children are educated in this manner.
Around 3 million students between the ages of 16 and 24 drop out of high school each year, a rate of 6.6 percent as of 2012. In the United States, 75 percent of crimes are committed by high school dropouts. Around 60 percent of black dropouts end up spending time incarcerated. The incarceration rate for African - American male high school dropouts was about 50 times the national average as of 2010.
States do not require reporting from their school districts to allow analysis of efficiency of return on investment. The Center for American Progress commends Florida and Texas as the only two states that provide annual school - level productivity evaluations which report to the public how well school funds are being spent at the local level. This allows for comparison of school districts within a state. In 2010, American students rank 17th in the world. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development says that this is due to focusing on the low end of performers. All of the recent gains have been made, deliberately, at the low end of the socioeconomic scale and among the lowest achievers. The country has been outrun, the study says, by other nations because the US has not done enough to encourage the highest achievers.
About half of the states encourage schools to recite the Pledge of Allegiance to the flag.
Teachers worked from about 35 to 46 hours a week, in a survey taken in 1993. In 2011, American teachers worked 1,097 hours in the classroom, the most for any industrialized nation measured by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. They spend 1,913 hours a year on their work, just below the national average of 1,932 hours for all workers. In 2011, the average annual salary of a preK -- 12 teacher was $55,040.
Transporting students to and from school is a major concern for most school districts. School buses provide the largest mass transit program in the country, 8.8 billion trips per year. Non-school transit buses give 5.2 billion trips annually. 440,000 yellow school buses carry over 24 million students to and from schools. In 1971, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that forced busing of students may be ordered to achieve racial desegregation. This ruling resulted in a white flight from the inner cities which largely diluted the intent of the order. This flight had other, non-educational ramifications as well. Integration took place in most schools though de facto segregation often determined the composition of the student body. By the 1990s, most areas of the country have been released from mandatory busing.
School start times are computed with busing in mind. There are often three start times: for elementary, for middle / junior high school, and for high school. One school district computed its cost per bus (without the driver) at $20,575 annually. It assumed a model where the average driver drove 80 miles per day. A driver was presumed to cost $. 62 per mile (1.6 km). Elementary schools started at 7: 30, middle schools / junior high school started at 8: 30, and high schools at 8: 15. While elementary school started earlier, they also finish earlier, at 2: 30, middle schools at 3: 30 and high schools at 3: 20. All school districts establish their own times and means of transportation within guidelines set by their own state.
Preschool refers to non-compulsory classroom - based early - childhood education. Pre-kindergarten (also called Pre-K or PK) is the preschool year immediately before Kindergarten. Preschool education may be delivered through a preschool or as a reception year in elementary school. Head Start program, the federally funded pre-kindergarten program founded in 1965 prepares children, especially those of a disadvantaged population, to better succeed in school. However, limited seats are available to students aspiring to take part in the Head Start program. Many community - based programs, commercial enterprises, non-profit organizations, faith communities, and independent childcare providers offer preschool education. Preschool may be general or may have a particular focus, such as arts education, religious education, sports training, or foreign language learning, along with providing general education.
Historically, in the United States, local public control (and private alternatives) have allowed for some variation in the organization of schools. Elementary school includes kindergarten through sixth grade (or sometimes, to fourth grade, fifth grade or eighth grade). Basic subjects are taught in elementary school, and students often remain in one classroom throughout the school day, except for specialized programs, such as physical education, library, music, and art classes. There are (as of 2001) about 3.6 million children in each grade in the United States.
Typically, the curriculum in public elementary education is determined by individual school districts or county school system. The school district selects curriculum guides and textbooks that reflect a state 's learning standards and benchmarks for a given grade level. The most recent curriculum that has been adopted by most states is Common Core. Learning Standards are the goals by which states and school districts must meet adequate yearly progress (AYP) as mandated by No Child Left Behind (NCLB). This description of school governance is simplistic at best, however, and school systems vary widely not only in the way curricular decisions are made but also in how teaching and learning take place. Some states or school districts impose more top - down mandates than others. In others, teachers play a significant role in curriculum design and there are few top - down mandates. Curricular decisions within private schools are often made differently from in public schools, and in most cases without consideration of NCLB.
Public elementary school teachers typically instruct between twenty and thirty students of diverse learning needs. A typical classroom will include children with a range of learning needs or abilities, from those identified as having special needs of the kinds listed in the Individuals with Disabilities Act IDEA to those that are cognitively, athletically or artistically gifted. At times, an individual school district identifies areas of need within the curriculum. Teachers and advisory administrators form committees to develop supplemental materials to support learning for diverse learners and to identify enrichment for textbooks. There are special education teachers working with the identified students. Many school districts post information about the curriculum and supplemental materials on websites for public access.
In general, a student learns basic arithmetic and sometimes rudimentary algebra in mathematics, English proficiency (such as basic grammar, spelling, and vocabulary), and fundamentals of other subjects. Learning standards are identified for all areas of a curriculum by individual States, including those for mathematics, social studies, science, physical development, the fine arts, and reading. While the concept of State Learning standards has been around for some time, No Child Left Behind has mandated that standards exist at the State level.
Secondary education is often divided into two phases, middle / junior high school and high school. Students are usually given more independence, moving to different classrooms for different subjects, and being allowed to choose some of their class subjects (electives).
"Middle school '' (or "junior high school '') has a variable range between districts. It usually includes seventh and eighth grades and occasionally also includes one or more of the sixth, ninth, and very occasionally fifth grades as well. High school (occasionally senior high school) includes grades 9 through 12. Students in these grades are commonly referred to as freshmen (grade 9), sophomores (grade 10), juniors (grade 11) and seniors (grade 12). At the high school level, students generally take a broad variety of classes without specializing in any particular subject, with the exception of vocational schools. Students are generally required to take a broad range of mandatory subjects, but may choose additional subjects ("electives '') to fill out their required hours of learning. High school grades normally are included in a student 's official transcript, e.g. for college admission.
Each state sets minimum requirements for how many years of various mandatory subjects are required; these requirements vary widely, but generally include 2 -- 4 years of each of: Science, Mathematics, English, Social sciences, Physical education; some years of a foreign language and some form of art education are often also required, as is a health curriculum in which students learn about anatomy, nutrition, first aid, sexuality, drug awareness, and birth control. In many cases, however, options are provided for students to "test out '' of this requirement or complete independent study to meet it.
Many high schools provide Honors, Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) courses. These are special forms of honors classes where the curriculum is more challenging and lessons more aggressively paced than standard courses. Honors, AP or IB courses are usually taken during the 11th or 12th grade of high school, but may be taken as early as 9th grade. Some international schools offer international school leaving qualifications, to be studied for and awarded instead of or alongside of the high school diploma, Honors, Advanced Placement, or International Baccalaureate. Regular honors courses are more intense and faster paced than typical college preparatory courses. AP and IB on the other hand, are college - level classes.
In schools in the United States children are assessed throughout the school year by their teachers, and report cards are issued to parents at varying intervals. Generally the scores for individual assignments and tests are recorded for each student in a grade book, along with the maximum number of points for each assignment. End - of - term or - year evaluations are most frequently given in the form of a letter grade on an A-F scale, whereby A is the best possible grade and F is a failing grade (most schools do not include the letter E in the assessment scale), or a numeric percentage. The Waldorf schools, most democratic schools, and some other private schools, give (often extensive) verbal characterizations of student progress rather than letter or number grades. Some school districts allow flexibility in grading scales at the Student information system level, allowing custom letters or symbols to be used (though transcripts must use traditional A-F letters)
Under the No Child Left Behind Act and Every Student Succeeds Acts, all American states must test students in public schools statewide to ensure that they are achieving the desired level of minimum education, such as on the New York Regents Examinations, the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT) or the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS); students being educated at home or in private schools are not included. The act also required that students and schools show adequate yearly progress. This means they must show some improvement each year. When a student fails to make adequate yearly progress, NCLB mandated that remediation through summer school or tutoring be made available to a student in need of extra help. On December 10, 2015 President Barack Obama signed legislation replacing NCLB with the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). However, the enactment of ESSA did not eliminate provisions relating to the periodic standardized tests given to students.
Academic performance impacts the perception of a school 's educational program. Rural schools fare better than their urban counterparts in two key areas: test scores and drop - out rate. First, students in small schools performed equal to or better than their larger school counterparts. In addition, on the 2005 National Assessment of Education Progress, 4th and 8th grade students scored as well or better in reading, science, and mathematics.
During high school, students (usually in 11th grade) may take one or more standardized tests depending on their post-secondary education preferences and their local graduation requirements. In theory, these tests evaluate the overall level of knowledge and learning aptitude of the students. The SAT and ACT are the most common standardized tests that students take when applying to college. A student may take the SAT, ACT, or both depending upon the post-secondary institutions the student plans to apply to for admission. Most competitive schools also require two or three SAT Subject Tests (formerly known as SAT IIs), which are shorter exams that focus strictly on a particular subject matter. However, all these tests serve little to no purpose for students who do not move on to post-secondary education, so they can usually be skipped without affecting one 's ability to graduate.
Standardized testing has become increasingly controversial in recent years. Creativity and the need for applicable knowledge are becoming rapidly more valuable than simple memorization. Opponents of standardized education have stated that it is the system of standardized education itself that is to blame for employment issues and concerns over the questionable abilities of recent graduates. Others consider standardized tests to be a valuable objective check on grade inflation. In recent years, grade point averages (particularly in suburban schools) have been rising while SAT scores have been falling.
Suggestions for improving standardized testing include evaluating a student 's overall growth, possibly including non-cognitive qualities such as social and emotional behaviors, not just achievement; introducing 21st century skills and values; and making the tests open - ended, authentic, and engaging.
A major characteristic of American schools is the high priority given to sports, clubs and activities by the community, the parents, the schools and the students themselves. Extracurricular activities are educational activities not falling within the scope of the regular curriculum but under the supervision of the school. These activities can extend to large amounts of time outside the normal school day; home - schooled students, however, are not normally allowed to participate. Student participation in sports programs, drill teams, bands, and spirit groups can amount to hours of practices and performances. Most states have organizations that develop rules for competition between groups. These organizations are usually forced to implement time limits on hours practiced as a prerequisite for participation. Many schools also have non-varsity sports teams; however, these are usually afforded fewer resources and less attention.
Sports programs and their related games, especially football and basketball, are major events for American students and for larger schools can be a major source of funds for school districts.
High school athletic competitions often generate intense interest in the community.
In addition to sports, numerous non-athletic extracurricular activities are available in American schools, both public and private. Activities include Quizbowl, musical groups, marching bands, student government, school newspapers, science fairs, debate teams, and clubs focused on an academic area (such as the Spanish Club) or community service interests (such as Key Club).
In 2014, approximately 1.5 million children were homeschooled, up 84 % from 1999 when the U.S. Department of Education first started keeping statistics. This was 2.9 % of all children.
Many select moral or religious reasons for homeschooling their children. The second main category is unschooling, those who prefer a non-standard approach to education.
Opposition to homeschooling comes from varied sources, including teachers ' organizations and school districts. The National Education Association, the largest labor union in the United States, has been particularly vocal in the past. Opponents ' stated concerns fall into several broad categories, including fears of poor academic quality, and lack of socialization with others. At this time, over half of states have oversight into monitoring or measuring the academic progress of home schooled students, with all but ten requiring some form of notification to the state.
Commonly known as special classes, are taught by teachers with training in adapting curricula to meet the needs of students with special needs.
According to the National Association of School Nurses, 5 % of students in 2009 have a seizure disorder, another 5 % have ADHD and 10 % have mental or emotional disorders.
On January 25, 2013, the Office for Civil Rights of the US Department of Education issued guidance, clarifying school districts ' existing legal obligations to give disabled students an equal chance to compete in extracurricular sports alongside their able - bodied classmates.
The federal law, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires states to ensure that all government - run schools provide services to meet the individual needs of students with special needs, as defined by the law. All students with special needs are entitled to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE).
Schools meet with the parents or guardians to develop an Individualized Education Program that determines best placement for the child. Students must be placed in the least restrictive environment (LRE) that is appropriate for the student 's needs. Public schools that fail to provide an appropriate placement for students with special needs can be taken to due process wherein parents may formally submit their grievances and demand appropriate services for the child.
Nationwide, 62 % of students with disabilities attending public schools graduate high school.
At - risk students (those with educational needs that are not associated with a disability) are often placed in classes with students with minor emotional and social disabilities. Critics assert that placing at - risk students in the same classes as these disabled students may impede the educational progress of both the at - risk and the disabled students. Some research has refuted this assertion, and has suggested this approach increases the academic and behavioral skills of the entire student population.
In the United States, state and local government have primary responsibility for education. The Federal Department of Education plays a role in standards setting and education finance, and some primary and secondary schools, for the children of military employees, are run by the Department of Defense.
K -- 12 students in most areas have a choice between free tax - funded public schools, or privately funded private schools.
Public school systems are supported by a combination of local, state, and federal government funding. Because a large portion of school revenues come from local property taxes, public schools vary widely in the resources they have available per student. Class size also varies from one district to another. Curriculum decisions in public schools are made largely at the local and state levels; the federal government has limited influence. In most districts, a locally elected school board runs schools. The school board appoints an official called the superintendent of schools to manage the schools in the district.
Local property taxes for public school funding may have disadvantages depending on how wealthy or poor these cities may be. Some of the disadvantages may be not having the proper electives of students interest or advanced placement courses to further the knowledge and education of these students. Cases such as these limit students and causes inequality in education because there is no easy way to gain access to those courses since the education system might not view them as necessary. The public education system does provide the classes needed to obtain a GED (General Education Development) and obtain a job or pursue higher education.
The largest public school system in the United States is in New York City, where more than one million students are taught in 1,200 separate public schools. Because of its immense size -- there are more students in the system than residents in the eight smallest US states -- the New York City public school system is nationally influential in determining standards and materials, such as textbooks.
Admission to individual public schools is usually based on residency. To compensate for differences in school quality based on geography, school systems serving large cities and portions of large cities often have magnet schools that provide enrollment to a specified number of non-resident students in addition to serving all resident students. This special enrollment is usually decided by lottery with equal numbers of males and females chosen. Some magnet schools cater to gifted students or to students with special interests, such as the sciences or performing arts.
Private schools in the United States include parochial schools (affiliated with religious denominations), non-profit independent schools, and for - profit private schools. Private schools charge varying rates depending on geographic location, the school 's expenses, and the availability of funding from sources, other than tuition. For example, some churches partially subsidize private schools for their members. Some people have argued that when their child attends a private school, they should be able to take the funds that the public school no longer needs and apply that money towards private school tuition in the form of vouchers. This is the basis of the school choice movement.
5,072,451 students attended 33,740 private elementary and secondary schools in 2007. 74.5 % of these were Caucasian, non-Hispanic, 9.8 % were African American, 9.6 % were Hispanic. 5.4 % were Asian or Pacific Islander, and. 6 % were American Indian. Average school size was 150.3 students. There were 456,266 teachers. The number of students per teacher was about 11. 65 % of seniors in private schools in 2006 - -- 7 went on to attend a 4 - year college.
Private schools have various missions: some cater to college - bound students seeking a competitive edge in the college admissions process; others are for gifted students, students with learning disabilities or other special needs, or students with specific religious affiliations. Some cater to families seeking a small school, with a nurturing, supportive environment. Unlike public school systems, private schools have no legal obligation to accept any interested student. Admission to some private schools is often highly selective. Private schools also have the ability to permanently expel persistently unruly students, a disciplinary option not legally available to public school systems.
Private schools offer the advantages of smaller classes, under twenty students in a typical elementary classroom, for example; a higher teacher / student ratio across the school day, greater individualized attention and in the more competitive schools, expert college placement services. Unless specifically designed to do so, private schools usually can not offer the services required by students with serious or multiple learning, emotional, or behavioral issues. Although reputed to pay lower salaries than public school systems, private schools often attract teachers by offering high - quality professional development opportunities, including tuition grants for advanced degrees. According to elite private schools themselves, this investment in faculty development helps maintain the high quality program that they offer.
An August 17, 2000 article by the Chicago Sun - Times refers to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago Office of Catholic Schools as the largest private school system in the United States.
According to a 2005 report from the OECD, the United States is tied for first place with Switzerland when it comes to annual spending per student on its public schools, with each of those two countries spending more than $11,000. However, the United States is ranked 37th in the world in education spending as a percentage of gross domestic product. All but seven of the leading countries are developing countries; ranked high because of a low GDP.
Figures exist for education spending in the United States, both total and per student, and by state and school district. They show a very wide range in spending, but due to the varying spending policies and circumstances among school districts, a cost - effectiveness analysis is very difficult to perform.
Changes in funding appear to have little effect on a school system 's performance. Between 1970 and 2012, the full amount spent by all levels of government on the K -- 12 education of an individual public school student graduating in any given year, adjusted for inflation, increased by 185 %. The average funding by state governments increased by 120 % per student. However, scores in mathematics, science and language arts over that same period remained almost unchanged. Multi-year periods in which a state 's funding per student declined substantially also appear to have had little effect.
Property taxes as a primary source of funding for public education have become highly controversial, for a number of reasons. First, if a state 's population and land values escalate rapidly, many longtime residents may find themselves paying property taxes much higher than anticipated. In response to this phenomenon, California 's citizens passed Proposition 13 in 1978, which severely restricted the ability of the Legislature to expand the state 's educational system to keep up with growth. Some states, such as Michigan, have investigated or implemented alternate schemes for funding education that may sidestep the problems of funding based mainly on property taxes by providing funding based on sales or income tax. These schemes also have failings, negatively impacting funding in a slow economy.
One of the biggest debates in funding public schools is funding by local taxes or state taxes. The federal government supplies around 8.5 % of the public school system funds, according to a 2005 report by the National Center for Education Statistics. "Revenues and Expenditures for Public Elementary and Secondary Education, Table 1 ''. National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved June 4, 2014. The remaining split between state and local governments averages 48.7 percent from states and 42.8 percent from local sources.
Rural schools struggle with funding concerns. State funding sources often favor wealthier districts. The state establishes a minimum flat amount deemed "adequate '' to educate a child based on equalized assessed value of property taxes. This favors wealthier districts with a much larger tax base. This, combined with the history of slow payment in the state, leaves rural districts searching for funds. Lack of funding leads to limited resources for teachers. Resources that directly relate to funding include access to high - speed internet, online learning programs and advanced course offerings. These resources can enhance a student 's learning opportunities, but may not be available to everyone if a district can not afford to offer specific programs. One study found that school districts spend less efficiently in areas in which they face little or no competition from other public schools, in large districts, and in areas in which residents are poor or less educated.
The reliance on local funding sources has led to a long history of court challenges about how states fund their schools. These challenges have relied on interpretations of state constitutions after a U.S. Supreme Court ruling that school funding was not a matter of the U.S. Constitution (San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1 (1973)). The state court cases, beginning with the California case of Serrano v. Priest, 5 Cal. 3d 584 (1971), were initially concerned with equity in funding, which was defined in terms of variations in spending across local school districts. More recently, state court cases have begun to consider what has been called ' adequacy. ' These cases have questioned whether the total amount of spending was sufficient to meet state constitutional requirements. Perhaps the most famous adequacy case is Abbott v. Burke, 100 N.J. 269, 495 A. 2d 376 (1985), which has involved state court supervision over several decades and has led to some of the highest spending of any U.S. districts in the so - called Abbott districts. The background and results of these cases are analyzed in a book by Eric Hanushek and Alfred Lindseth. That analysis concludes that funding differences are not closely related to student outcomes and thus that the outcomes of the court cases have not led to improved policies.
In McCleary v. Washington State (2012), Supreme Court decision that found the state had failed to "amply '' fund public education for Washington 's 1 million school children. Washington state had budgeted $18.2 billion for education spending in the two - year fiscal period ending in July 2015. The state Supreme Court decided that this budget must be boosted by $3.3 billion in total by July 2019. On September 11, 2014, the state Supreme Court found the legislature in contempt for failing to uphold a court order to come up with a plan to boost its education budget by billions of dollars over the next five years. The state had argued that it had adequately funded education and said diverting tax revenue could lead to shortfalls in other public services.
While the hiring of teachers for public schools is done at the local school district level, the pension funds for teachers are usually managed at the state level. Some states have significant deficits when future requirements for teacher pensions are examined. In 2014, these were projected deficits for various states: Illinois - $187 billion, Connecticut - $57 billion, Kentucky - $41 billion, Hawaii - $16.5 billion, and Louisiana - $45.6 billion. These deficits range from 184 % to 318 % of these states annual total budget.
The test scores of students attending U.S. public schools are lower than student scores in schools of other developed countries, in the areas of reading, math, and science.
Out of 21 industrialized countries, U.S. 12th graders ranked 19th in math, 16th in science, and last in advanced physics.
Higher education in the United States is an optional final stage of formal learning following secondary education, often at one of the 4,495 colleges or universities and junior colleges in the country. In 2008, 36 % of enrolled students graduated from college in four years. 57 % completed their undergraduate requirements in six years, at the same college they first enrolled in. The U.S. ranks 10th among industrial countries for percentage of adults with college degrees. Over the past 40 years the gap in graduation rates for wealthy students and low income students has widened significantly. 77 % of the wealthiest quartile of students obtained undergraduate degrees by age 24 in 2013, up from 40 % in 1970. 9 % of the least affluent quartile obtained degrees by the same age in 2013, up from 6 % in 1970.
Like high school, the four undergraduate grades are commonly called freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years (alternatively called first year, second year, etc.). Students traditionally apply for admission into colleges. Schools differ in their competitiveness and reputation. Admissions criteria involve the rigor and grades earned in high school courses taken, the students ' GPA, class ranking, and standardized test scores (Such as the SAT or the ACT tests). Most colleges also consider more subjective factors such as a commitment to extracurricular activities, a personal essay, and an interview. While colleges will rarely list that they require a certain standardized test score, class ranking, or GPA for admission, each college usually has a rough threshold below which admission is unlikely.
Once admitted, students engage in undergraduate study, which consists of satisfying university and class requirements to achieve a bachelor 's degree in a field of concentration known as a major. (Some students enroll in double majors or "minor '' in another field of study.) The most common method consists of four years of study leading to a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), a Bachelor of Science (B.S.), or sometimes another bachelor 's degree such as Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.), Bachelor of Social Work (B.S.W.), Bachelor of Engineering (B. Eng.,) or Bachelor of Philosophy (B. Phil.) Five - Year Professional Architecture programs offer the Bachelor of Architecture Degree (B. Arch.)
Professional degrees such as law, medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry, are offered as graduate study after earning at least three years of undergraduate schooling or after earning a bachelor 's degree depending on the program. These professional fields do not require a specific undergraduate major, though medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry have set prerequisite courses that must be taken before enrollment.
Some students choose to attend a community college for two years prior to further study at another college or university. In most states, community colleges are operated either by a division of the state university or by local special districts subject to guidance from a state agency. Community colleges may award Associate of Arts (AA) or Associate of Science (AS) degree after two years. Those seeking to continue their education may transfer to a four - year college or university (after applying through a similar admissions process as those applying directly to the four - year institution, see articulation). Some community colleges have automatic enrollment agreements with a local four - year college, where the community college provides the first two years of study and the university provides the remaining years of study, sometimes all on one campus. The community college awards the associate degree, and the university awards the bachelor 's and master 's degrees.
Graduate study, conducted after obtaining an initial degree and sometimes after several years of professional work, leads to a more advanced degree such as a master 's degree, which could be a Master of Arts (MA), Master of Science (MS), Master of Business Administration (MBA), or other less common master 's degrees such as Master of Education (MEd), and Master of Fine Arts (MFA). Some students pursue a graduate degree that is in between a master 's degree and a doctoral degree called a Specialist in Education (Ed. S.).
After additional years of study and sometimes in conjunction with the completion of a master 's degree or Ed. S. degree, students may earn a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.), a first professional degree, or other doctoral degree, such as Doctor of Arts, Doctor of Education, Doctor of Theology, Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Pharmacy, Doctor of Physical Therapy, Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine, Doctor of Podiatry Medicine, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, Doctor of Dentistry Doctor of Psychology, or Juris Doctor. Some programs, such as medicine and psychology, have formal apprenticeship procedures post-graduation, such as residencies and internships, which must be completed after graduation and before one is considered fully trained. Other professional programs like law and business have no formal apprenticeship requirements after graduation (although law school graduates must take the bar exam to legally practice law in nearly all states).
Entrance into graduate programs usually depends upon a student 's undergraduate academic performance or professional experience as well as their score on a standardized entrance exam like the Graduate Record Examination (GRE - graduate schools in general), the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), or the Law School Admission Test (LSAT). Many graduate and law schools do not require experience after earning a bachelor 's degree to enter their programs; however, business school candidates are usually required to gain a few years of professional work experience before applying. 8.9 percent of students receive postgraduate degrees. Most, after obtaining their bachelor 's degree, proceed directly into the workforce.
A few charity institutions cover all of the students ' tuition, although scholarships (both merit - based and need - based) are widely available. Generally, private universities charge much higher tuition than their public counterparts, which rely on state funds to make up the difference. Because each state supports its own university system with state taxes, most public universities charge much higher rates for out - of - state students.
Annual undergraduate tuition varies widely from state to state, and many additional fees apply. In 2009, average annual tuition at a public university (for residents of the state) was $7,020. Tuition for public school students from outside the state is generally comparable to private school prices, although students can often qualify for state residency after their first year. Private schools are typically much higher, although prices vary widely from "no - frills '' private schools to highly specialized technical institutes. Depending upon the type of school and program, annual graduate program tuition can vary from $15,000 to as high as $50,000. Note that these prices do not include living expenses (rent, room / board, etc.) or additional fees that schools add on such as "activities fees '' or health insurance. These fees, especially room and board, can range from $6,000 to $12,000 per academic year (assuming a single student without children).
The mean annual total cost (including all costs associated with a full - time post-secondary schooling, such as tuition and fees, books and supplies, room and board), as reported by collegeboard.com for 2010:
Total, four - year schooling:
College costs are rising at the same time that state appropriations for aid are shrinking. This has led to debate over funding at both the state and local levels. From 2002 to 2004 alone, tuition rates at public schools increased over 14 percent, largely due to dwindling state funding. An increase of 6 percent occurred over the same period for private schools. Between 1982 and 2007, college tuition and fees rose three times as fast as median family income, in constant dollars.
From the US Census Bureau, the median salary of an individual who has only a high school diploma is $27,967; The median salary of an individual who has a bachelor 's degree is $47,345. Certain degrees, such as in engineering, typically result in salaries far exceeding high school graduates, whereas degrees in teaching and social work fall below.
The debt of the average college graduate for student loans in 2010 was $23,200.
A 2010 study indicates that the return on investment for graduating from the top 1000 colleges exceeds 4 % over a high school degree.
According to Uni in the USA, "One of the reasons American universities have thrived is due to their remarkable management of financial resources. '' To combat costs colleges have hired adjunct professors to teach. In 2008 these teachers cost about $1,800 per 3 - credit class as opposed to $8,000 per class for a tenured professor. Two - thirds of college instructors were adjuncts. There are differences of opinion whether these adjuncts teach better or worse than regular professors. There is a suspicion that student evaluation of adjuncts, along with their subsequent continued employment, can lead to grade inflation.
American college and university faculty, staff, alumni, students, and applicants monitor rankings produced by magazines such as U.S. News and World Report, Washington Monthly, Academic Ranking of World Universities, test preparation services such as The Princeton Review or another university itself such as the Top American Research Universities by the University of Florida 's The Center. These rankings are based on factors like brand recognition, selectivity in admissions, generosity of alumni donors, and volume of faculty research. In the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, 27 of the top 50 universities, and 72 institutions of the top 200, are located within the United States. The US has thereby more than twice as many universities represented in the top 200 as does the country with the next highest number, the United Kingdom, which has 29. A small percentage of students who apply to these schools gain admission.
Included among the top 20 institutions identified by ARWU in 2009 are six of the eight schools in the Ivy League; 4 of the 10 schools in the University of California system (Berkeley, Los Angeles, San Diego and San Francisco); the private Universities of Stanford, Chicago, and Johns Hopkins; the public Universities of Washington and Wisconsin; and the Massachusetts and California Institutes of Technology.
Also renowned within the United States are the so - called Little Ivies and a number of prestigious liberal arts colleges. Certain public universities (sometimes referred to as Public Ivies) are also recognized for their outstanding record in scholarship. Some of these institutions currently place among the elite in certain measurements of graduate education and research, especially among engineering and medical schools.
Each state in the United States maintains its own public university system, which is always non-profit. The State University of New York and the California State University are the largest public higher education systems in the United States; SUNY is the largest system that includes community colleges, while CSU is the largest without. Most areas also have private institutions, which may be for - profit or non-profit. Unlike many other nations, there are no public universities at the national level outside of the military service academies.
Prospective students applying to attend four of the five military academies require, with limited exceptions, nomination by a member of Congress. Like acceptance to "top tier '' universities, competition for these limited nominations is intense and must be accompanied by superior scholastic achievement and evidence of "leadership potential. ''
Aside from these aforementioned schools, academic reputations vary widely among the ' middle - tier ' of American schools, (and even among academic departments within each of these schools.) Most public and private institutions fall into this ' middle ' range. Some institutions feature honors colleges or other rigorous programs that challenge academically exceptional students, who might otherwise attend a ' top - tier ' college. Aware of the status attached to the perception of the college that they attend, students often apply to a range of schools. Some apply to a relatively prestigious school with a low acceptance rate, gambling on the chance of acceptance but, as a backup, also apply to a safety school.
Lower status institutions include community colleges. These are primarily two - year public institutions, which individual states usually require to accept all local residents who seek admission, and offer associate 's degrees or vocational certificate programs. Many community colleges have relationships with four - year state universities and colleges or even private universities that enable their students to transfer to these universities for a four - year degree after completing a two - year program at the community college.
Regardless of perceived prestige, many institutions feature at least one distinguished academic department, and most post-secondary American students attend one of the 2,400 four - year colleges and universities or 1,700 two - year colleges not included among the twenty - five or so ' top - tier ' institutions.
Economics professor Alan Zagier blames credential inflation for the admission of so many unqualified students into college. He reports that the number of new jobs requiring college degrees is less than the number of college graduates. He states that the more money that a state spends on higher education, the slower the economy grows, the opposite of long held notions. Other studies have shown that the level of cognitive achievement attained by students in a country (as measured by academic testing) is closely correlated with the country 's economic growth, but that "increasing the average number of years of schooling attained by the labor force boosts the economy only when increased levels of school attainment also boost cognitive skills. In other words, it is not enough simply to spend more time in school; something has to be learned there. ''
At the college and university level student loan funding is split in half; half is managed by the Department of Education directly, called the Federal Direct Student Loan Program (FDSLP). The other half is managed by commercial entities such as banks, credit unions, and financial services firms such as Sallie Mae, under the Federal Family Education Loan Program (FFELP). Some schools accept only FFELP loans; others accept only FDSLP. Still others accept both, and a few schools will not accept either, in which case students must seek out private alternatives for student loans.
Grant funding is provided by the federal Pell Grant program.
Major issues include assessment of proficiency versus growth, funding and legal protection of special education, and excessive student loan debt.
It has been alleged, since the 1950s and especially in recent years, that American schooling is undergoing a crisis in which academic performance is behind other countries, such as Russia, Japan, or China, in core subjects. Congress passed the National Defense Education Act in 1958 in an attempt to rectify these problems, and a series of other legislative acts in later decades such as No Child Left Behind. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, however, American students of 2012 ranked 25th in math, 17th in science, and 14th in reading compared with students in 27 other countries. In 2013, Amanda Ripley published The Smartest Kids in the World (And How They Got That Way), a comparative study of how the American education system differs from top - performing countries such as Finland and South Korea.
Recent allegations take the perspective of employers who demand more vocational training. Voters in both major parties have been critical of the Common Core initiative.
In 2003 a Supreme Court decision concerning affirmative action in universities allowed educational institutions to consider race as a factor in admitting students, but ruled that strict point systems are unconstitutional. Opponents of racial affirmative action argue that the program actually benefits middle - and upper - class non-Asian people of color at the expense of lower class European Americans and Asian Americans.
Prominent African American academics Henry Louis Gates and Lani Guinier, while favoring affirmative action, have argued that in practice, it has led to recent black immigrants and their children being greatly overrepresented at elite institutions, at the expense of the historic African American community made up of descendants of slaves. In 2006, Jian Li, a Chinese undergraduate at Yale University, filed a civil rights complaint with the Office for Civil Rights against Princeton University, stating that his race played a role in their decision to reject his application for admission.
The rise of the high school movement in the beginning of the 20th century was unique in the United States, such that, high schools were implemented with property - tax funded tuition, openness, non-exclusivity, and were decentralized.
The academic curriculum was designed to provide the students with a terminal degree. The students obtained general knowledge (such as mathematics, chemistry, English composition, etc.) applicable to the high geographic and social mobility in the United States. The provision of the high schools accelerated with the rise of the second industrial revolution. The increase in white collar and skilled blue - collar work in manufacturing was reflected in the demand for high school education.
In the 21st century, the educational attainment of the US population is similar to that of many other industrialized countries with the vast majority of the population having completed secondary education and a rising number of college graduates that outnumber high school dropouts. As a whole, the population of the United States is becoming increasingly more educated.
Post-secondary education is valued very highly by American society and is one of the main determinants of class and status. As with income, however, there are significant discrepancies in terms of race, age, household configuration and geography.
Since the 1980s the number of educated Americans has continued to grow, but at a slower rate. Some have attributed this to an increase in the foreign born portion of the workforce. However, the decreasing growth of the educational workforce has instead been primarily due to slowing down in educational attainment of people schooled in the United States.
High schools and colleges sharply disagree about the college readiness of high school graduates, in that 90 % of high school teachers believe graduating students are well - prepared, while 44 % of college faculty believe that first - year students are not ready for writing at the college level. Although the high school graduation rate is about 91 % nationwide, the proficiency rates of twelfth - grade students are only 37 % in English and 25 % in mathematics. Despite having a high school diploma that includes a college - preparatory curriculum, along with appropriate high school exit examination scores, 60 % of first - year college students must take noncredit remedial courses in order to bring their literary and mathematical skills up to an adequate level. Even then, only 58 % of students in four - year programs at public colleges will have graduated after six years. The cause can not be excessively demanding college courses, since grade inflation has made those courses increasingly easy in recent decades.
According to research from within the past 20 years, girls generally outperform boys in the classroom on measures of grades across all subjects and graduation rates. This is a turnaround from the early 20th century when boys usually outperformed girls. Boys have still been found to score higher on standardized tests than girls and go on to be better represented in the more prestigious, high - paying STEM fields. There is an ongoing debate over which gender is the most short - changed in the classroom. Parents and educators are concerned about how to motivate males to become better students.
The racial achievement gap in the US refers to the educational disparities between Black and Hispanic students compared with Asian and Caucasian students. This disparity manifests itself in a variety of ways: African - American and Hispanic students are more likely to receive lower grades, score lower on standardized tests, drop out of high school, and are less likely to enter and complete college.
Several reasons have been suggested for these disparities.
One explanation is the disparity in income that exists between African Americans and Whites. This school of thought argues that the origin of this "wealth gap '' is the slavery and racism that made it extremely difficult for African - Americans to accumulate wealth for almost 100 years after slavery was abolished. A comparable history of discrimination created a similar gap between Hispanics and Whites. This results in many minority children being born into low socioeconomic backgrounds, which in turn affects educational opportunities.
Another explanation has to do with family structure. Professor Lino Graglia has suggested that Blacks and Hispanics are falling behind in education because they are increasingly raised in single - parent families.
A third explanation which has been suggested, by, for example University of California, Berkeley Professor Arthur Jensen, in a controversial paper published in 1969, is that there is an innate difference in intelligence between blacks and whites. Other publications are critical of Jensen 's methods and disagree with his conclusions. The idea that the difference in achievement is primarily genetic is controversial, and few members of the academic community accept these findings as fact.
Other explanations offered for the racial achievement gap include: social class, institutional racism, lower quality of schools and teachers in minority communities, and civil injustice. Most authors mention several such factors as influential on outcomes, both in the United States and worldwide.
In the OECD 's Programme for International Student Assessment 2003, which emphasizes problem solving, American 15 - year - olds ranked 24th of 38 in mathematics, 19th of 38 in science, 12th of 38 in reading, and 26th of 38 in problem solving. In the 2006 assessment, the U.S. ranked 35th out of 57 in mathematics and 29th out of 57 in science. Reading scores could not be reported due to printing errors in the instructions of the U.S. test booklets. U.S. scores were behind those of most other developed nations.
However, the picture changes when low achievers, Blacks and Hispanics, in the U.S. are broken out by race. White and Asian students in the United States are generally among the best - performing pupils in the world; black and Hispanic students in the U.S. are among the lowest - achieving pupils. Black and Hispanic students in the US do out perform their counterparts in all African and Hispanic countries.
US fourth and eighth graders tested above average on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study tests, which emphasizes traditional learning.
The United States is one of three OECD countries where the government spends more on schools in rich neighborhoods than in poor neighborhoods, with the others being Turkey and Israel.
Poor education also carries on as students age. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development 's (OECD) administer another survey called the Survey of Adult Skills, which is a part of its Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). In the most recent survey done in 2013, 33 nations took part with adults ages 16 to 65 in numeracy, literacy and problem - solving. The Educational Testing Service (ETS) found that millennials -- age from teens to early 30s -- scored low. Millennials in Spain and Italy scored lower than those in the U.S., while in numeracy, the three countries tied for last. U.S. millennials came in last among all 33 nations for problem - solving skills.
Current education trends in the United States represent multiple achievement gaps across ethnicities, income levels, and geography. In an economic analysis, consulting firm McKinsey & Company reports that closing the educational achievement gap between the United States and nations such as Finland and Korea would have increased US GDP by 9 - to - 16 % in 2008.
Narrowing the gap between white students and black and Hispanic students would have added another 2 -- 4 % GDP, while closing the gap between poor and other students would have yielded a 3 - to - 5 % increase in GDP, and that of under - performing states and the rest of the nation another 3 - to - 5 % GDP. In sum, McKinsey 's report suggests, "These educational gaps impose on the United States the economic equivalent of a permanent national recession. ''
Overall the households and demographics featuring the highest educational attainment in the United States are also among those with the highest household income and wealth. Thus, while the population of the US is becoming increasingly educated on all levels, a direct link between income and educational attainment remains.
ACT Inc. reports that 25 % of US graduating high school seniors meet college - readiness benchmarks in English, reading, mathematics, and science. Including the 22 % of students who do not graduate on time, fewer than 20 % of the American youth, who should graduate high school each year, do so prepared for college. The United States has fallen behind the rest of the developed world in education, creating a global achievement gap that alone costs the nation 9 - to - 16 % of potential GDP each year.
In 2007, Americans stood second only to Canada in the percentage of 35 - to 64 - year - olds holding at least two - year degrees. Among 25 - to 34 - year - olds, the country stands tenth. The nation stands 15 out of 29 rated nations for college completion rates, slightly above Mexico and Turkey.
A five - year, $14 million study of U.S. adult literacy involving lengthy interviews of U.S. adults, the most comprehensive study of literacy ever commissioned by the U.S. government, was released in September 1993. It involved lengthy interviews of over 26,700 adults statistically balanced for age, gender, ethnicity, education level, and location (urban, suburban, or rural) in 12 states across the U.S. and was designed to represent the U.S. population as a whole. This government study showed that 21 % to 23 % of adult Americans were not "able to locate information in text '', could not "make low - level inferences using printed materials '', and were unable to "integrate easily identifiable pieces of information. ''
The U.S. Department of Education 's 2003 statistics indicated that 14 % of the population -- or 32 million adults -- had very low literacy skills. Statistics were similar in 2013.
A 2011 study found that students who were expelled were three times as likely to become involved with the juvenile justice system the following school year.
The United States is one of the very few developed countries where corporal punishment is officially permitted and practiced in its public schools, although the practice has been banned in an increasing number of states beginning in the 1970s. The punishment virtually always consists of spanking the buttocks of a student with a paddle in a punishment known as "paddling. '' Students can be physically punished from kindergarten to the end of high school, meaning that even adults who have reached the age of majority are sometimes spanked by school officials. Although uncommon relative to the overall U.S. student population, more than 167,000 students were paddled in the 2011 -- 2012 school year in American public schools. Virtually all paddling in public schools occurs in the Southern United States, however, with 70 % of paddled students living in just five states: Mississippi, Texas, Alabama, Arkansas, and Georgia. The practice has been on a steady decline in American schools.
For some schools, a police officer, titled a school resource officer, is on site to screen students for firearms and to help avoid disruptions.
In 2006, one survey found that 50 % to 95 % of American students admitted to having cheated in high school or college at one time or another, results that cast some doubt on measured academic attainment tests.
The charter school movement began in 1990 and have spread rapidly in the United States, members, parents, teachers, and students to allow for the "expression of diverse teaching philosophies and cultural and social life styles. ''
Curricula in the United States can vary widely from district to district. Different schools offer classes centering on different topics, and vary in quality. Some private schools even include religious classes as mandatory for attendance. This raises the question of government funding vouchers in states with anti-Catholic Blaine Amendments in their constitution. This in turn has produced camps of argument over the standardization of curricula and to what degree it should exist. These same groups often are advocates of standardized testing, which is mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act.
There is debate over which subjects should receive the most focus, with astronomy and geography among those cited as not being taught enough in schools.
Schools in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands, teach primarily in English, with the exception of specialized language immersion programs.
In 2015, 584,000 students in Puerto Rico were taught in Spanish, their native language.
The Native American Cherokee Nation instigated a 10 - year language preservation plan that involved growing new fluent speakers of the Cherokee language from childhood on up through school immersion programs as well as a collaborative community effort to continue to use the language at home. In 2010, 84 children were being educated in this manner.
Some 9.7 million children aged 5 to 17 primarily speak a language other than English at home. Of those, about 1.3 million children do not speak English well or at all.
In 1999 the School Board of the state of Kansas caused controversy when it decided to eliminate teaching of evolution in its state assessment tests. Scientists from around the country objected. Many religious and family values groups, on the other hand, stated that evolution is "simply a theory '' in the colloquial sense (not the academic sense, which means specific and well supported reasoning), and as such creationist ideas should therefore be taught alongside it as an alternative viewpoint. A majority of the board supported teaching intelligent design or creationism in public schools. The new standards, including Intelligent Design, were enacted on November 8, 2005. On February 13, 2007, the board rejected these amended science standards enacted in 2005, overturning the mandate to teach Intelligent Design.
Almost all students in the U.S. receive some form of sex education at least once between grades 7 and 12; many schools begin addressing some topics as early as grades 4 or 5. However, what students learn varies widely, because curriculum decisions are so decentralized. Many states have laws governing what is taught in sex education classes or allowing parents to opt out. Some state laws leave curriculum decisions to individual school districts.
For example, a 1999 study by the Guttmacher Institute found that most U.S. sex education courses in grades 7 through 12 cover puberty, HIV, STDs, abstinence, implications of teenage pregnancy, and how to resist peer pressure. Other studied topics, such as methods of birth control and infection prevention, sexual orientation, sexual abuse, and factual and ethical information about abortion, varied more widely.
However, according to a 2004 survey, a majority of the 1001 parent groups polled wants complete sex education in the schools. The American people are heavily divided over the issue. Over 80 % of polled parents agreed with the statement "Sex education in school makes it easier for me to talk to my child about sexual issues, '' while under 17 % agreed with the statement that their children were being exposed to "subjects I do n't think my child should be discussing. '' 10 percent believed that their children 's sexual education class forced them to discuss sexual issues "too early. '' On the other hand, 49 percent of the respondents (the largest group) were "somewhat confident '' that the values taught in their children 's sex ed classes were similar to those taught at home, and 23 percent were less confident still. (The margin of error was plus or minus 4.7 percent.)
According to The 74, an American education news website, the United States uses two methods to teach sex education. Comprehensive sex education focuses on sexual risk reduction. This method focuses on the benefits of contraception and safe sex. The abstinence - emphasized curriculum focuses on sexual risk avoidance, discouraging activity that could become a "gateway '' to sexual activities.
In some states, textbooks are selected for all students at the state level, and decisions made by larger states, such as California and Texas, that represent a considerable market for textbook publishers and can exert influence over the content of textbooks generally, thereby influencing the curriculum taught in public schools,
In 2010, the Texas Board of Education passed more than 100 amendments to the curriculum standards, affecting history, sociology and economics courses to ' add balance ' given that academia was ' skewed too far to the left '. One specific result of these amendments is to increase education on Moses ' influences on the founding of the United States, going as far as calling him a "founding father ''.
This effect is however reduced with modern publishing techniques which allow books to be tailored to individual states.
As of January 2009, the four largest college textbook publishers in the United States were: Pearson Education (including such imprints as Addison - Wesley and Prentice Hall), Cengage Learning (formerly Thomson Learning), McGraw - Hill Education, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Other US textbook publishers include: John Wiley & Sons, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, F.A. Davis Company, W.W. Norton & Company, SAGE Publications, and Flat World Knowledge.
Culturally - responsive curriculum is a framework for teaching that acknowledges and the various cultural backgrounds of all students in the classroom to make learning more accessible, especially for students of color. It is the outgrowth of research evidence that suggests that attitudes towards others, especially with regard to race, are socially constructed (or learned) at a young age. Therefore, the values that we attach to various groups of people are a reflection of the behavior we have observed around us, especially in the classroom. Culturally - responsive curriculum responds to the importance of teachers connecting with students in increasingly diverse classrooms in the US by incorporating sociocultural elements into curriculum. The goal of culturally - responsive curriculum is to ensure equitable access to education for students from all cultures.
Culturally - responsive curriculum draws directly on the idea of a "hidden curriculum '' or system of values that teachers impart on students in the classroom. Culturally - responsive curriculum attempts to break down the dominant cultural bias that often pervades curriculum and instruction. Similar to the anti-bias approach, culturally - responsive curriculum is intended to help students and teachers "recognize the connections between ethnicity, gender, religion, and social class, and power, privilege, prestige, and opportunity. '' Culturally - responsive curriculum specifically responds to the cultural needs of students as learners in the classroom.
A study by Howard in 2001, documents student 's responses to culturally - responsive curriculum and teaching strategies. The study found that these methods had a positive effect on student engagement and effort in the classroom. These findings are consistent with the theoretical claims of culturally - responsive curriculum.
Teachers can gain in - depth understandings of their students ' individual needs by engaging with parents, learning about culturally - specific ways of communicating and learning, and allowing students to direct their learning and to collaborate on assignments that are both culturally and socially relevant to them.
Culturally - responsive curriculum is also implemented at the level of preservice teacher education. One study by Evans - Winters and Hoff found that preservice teachers do not necessarily recognize or acknowledge the intersections of race and other social factors in understanding and characterizing systems of oppression. A shift in preservice training has been made toward a more self - reflective model that encourages teachers to be reflective of the types of cultural and social attitudes they are promoting in their teaching practices. This kind of preservice education can help teachers anticipate social - identity related tensions that might occur in the classroom and think critically about how to approach them.
Reality pedagogy is one model of culturally - responsive pedagogy that uses individual student backgrounds to adapt curriculum and instruction. It was introduced by Columbia Teachers ' College professor, Christopher Emdin, and elaborated in his book For White Folks who Teach in the Hood... and the Rest of Y'all Too: Reality Pedagogy and Urban Education. Emdin promotes the use of cultural code - switching in the classroom to connect vernacular concepts with academic concepts. Reality pedagogy is a form of culturally - responsive pedagogy that attempts to bridge community - based knowledge with classroom learning experiences.
The notion of gender - sensitive curriculum acknowledges the current reality of our bi-gender world and attempts to break down socialized learning outcomes that reinforce the notion that girls and boys are good at different things. Research has shown that while girls do struggle more in the areas of math and science and boys in the area of language arts, this is a socialization phenomenon, rather than a physiological one. One key to creating a gender - friendly classroom is "differentiation '' which essentially means when teachers plan and deliver their instruction with an awareness of gender and other student differences. Teachers can strategically group students for learning activities by a variety of characteristics so as to maximize individual strengths and contributions. Research has also shown that teacher 's differ in how they treat girls and boys in the classroom. Gender - sensitive practices necessitate equitable and appropriate attention to all learners. Teacher attention to content is also extremely important. For example, when trying to hold boy 's attention teachers will often use examples that reference classically male roles, perpetuating a gender bias in content.
In addition to curriculum that recognizes that gender impacts all students and their learning, other gender - sensitive curriculum directly engages gender - diversity issues and topics. Some curricular approaches include integrating gender through story problems, writing prompts, readings, art assignments, research projects and guest lectures that foster spaces for students to articulate their own understandings and beliefs about gender.
LGBTQ - inclusive curriculum is curriculum that includes positive representations of LGBTQ people, history, and events. LGBTQ curriculum also attempts to integrate these narratives without biasing the LGBTQ experience as a separate and fragmented from overarching social narratives and not as intersecting with ethnic, racial, and other forms of diversity that exist among LGBTQ individuals.
The purpose of LGBTQ - inclusive curriculum is to ensure that LGBTQ students feel properly represented in curriculum narratives and therefore safer coming to school and more comfortable discussing LGBTQ - related topics. A study by GLSEN examined the impact of LGBTQ - inclusive practices on LGBTQ student 's perceptions of safety. They study found that LGBT students in inclusive school - settings were much less likely to feel unsafe because of their identities and more likely to perceive their peers as accepting and supportive.
Implementation of LGBTQ - inclusive curriculum involves both curriculum decisions and harnessing teachable moments in the classroom. One study by Snapp et al. showed that teachers often failed to intervene in LGBTQ - bullying.
Other research has suggested that education for healthcare professionals on how to better support LGBTQ patients has benefits for LGBTQ - healthcare service. Education in how to be empathic and conscientious of the needs of LGBTQ patients fits within the larger conversation about culturally - responsive healthcare.
Ability - inclusive curriculum is another curriculum model that adapts to the social, physical, and cultural needs of the students. Inclusion in the US education system refers to the approach to educating students with special needs in a mainstream classroom. This model involves cultivating a strong relationship between teacher and student, and between non-special needs students and special needs students. Like the other models of culturally - inclusive curriculum, ability - inclusive curriculum often involves collaboration, parental - involvement, the creation of a safe and welcoming environment, returning agency to the students over their learning, and fostering open discussion about individual differences and strengths.
Research generally demonstrates neutral or positive effects of inclusive education. A study by Kreimeyer et al. showed that a group of deaf / hard - of - hearing students in an inclusive classroom scored better than the national averages on reading comprehension, vocabulary, and mathematical problem solving measures. Another study showed that inclusive practices increased literacy rates for autistic students. Many theorists champion the potential socio - emotional benefits of inclusion. However research on the social dynamics of inclusive classrooms suggest that special needs students might occupy a lower social standing that non-special needs students.
Currently, the state and national governments share power over public education, with the states exercising most of the control. Except for Hawaii, states delegate power to county, city or township - level school boards that exercise control over a school district. Some school districts may further delegate significant authority to principals, such as those who have adopted the Portfolio strategy.
The U.S. federal government exercises its control through the U.S. Department of Education. Education is not mentioned in the constitution of the United States, but the federal government uses the threat of decreased funding to enforce laws pertaining to education. Under recent administrations, initiatives such as the No Child Left Behind Act and Race to the Top have attempted to assert more central control in a heavily decentralized system.
Nonprofit private schools are widespread, are largely independent of the government, and include secular as well as parochial schools. Educational accreditation decisions for private schools are made by voluntary regional associations.
Tracking is the practice of dividing students at the primary or secondary school level into classes on the basis of ability or achievement. One common use is to offer different curricula for students preparing for college and for those preparing for direct entry into technical schools or the workplace.
Libraries have been considered important to educational goals. Library books are more readily available to Americans than to people in Germany, Britain, France, the Netherlands, Austria and all the Mediterranean nations. The average American borrowed more library books in 2001 than his or her peers in Germany, Austria, Norway, Ireland, Luxembourg, France and throughout the Mediterranean. Americans buy more books than people in Europe.
Teachers have been frustrated with lack of parent involvement in the learning process, particularly in the earlier grades. Children spend about 26 % of their time in school, sleep 40 %, leaving about 34 % of their time left - over. Teachers believe that parents are not supervising their children 's free time to encourage the learning process, such as basic literacy, which is crucial not only to later success in life, but also to keeping them out of prison.
for more detailed bibliography see History of Education in the United States: Bibliography
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who will be the judges of nach baliye 8 | Nach Baliye - Wikipedia
Wizcraft Balaji Telefilms Frames Production Company BBC Worldwide Productions
Nach Baliye (' Nach ' means Dance and ' Baliye ' means partner or mate) is a dance, reality - television series on the Indian channel Star Plus. The show is a popular couples dancing contest. The first and second season aired on Star One and then shifted to Star Plus.
The show is a competition wherein 10 television celebrity couples compete against each other. Contestants dance to a different tune, different theme and different styles every week and scores are given by the judges. Each week one couple is eliminated based on public voting and their scores.
The judges were Saroj Khan, Malaika Arora Khan and Farhan Akhtar with Sangeeta Ghosh and Shabbir Ahluwalia serving as the hosts. The series is produced by SOL Productions.
The Contestants for Season 1 were:
Nach Bailye 2 started on 25 September 2006, and ended on 18 December 2006, with Tina and Hussain Kuwajerwala as winners. Saroj Khan, Malaika Arora Khan and Kunal Kohli were the judges. Sangeeta Ghosh and Shabbir Ahluwalia hosted the season. SOL Productions is producing the second season and airs on STAR One.
The following were the Contestants of Season 2:
The judges were Vaibhavi Merchant, Isha Koppikar, David Dhawan. The winners for the second season, Hussain Kuwajerwala and Tina Kuwajerwala hosted the show. The show is produced by Diamond Pictures and will move from STAR One to STAR Plus.
The following were the Contestants of Season 3:
Nach Bailye 4 started on 17 October 2008 in India and the United States. The broadcast of the series began on 3 January 2009 in the United Kingdom. It finished on 1 February 2009 in India, with Shaleen and Daljit as winners.
The hosts were initially Sanjeeda Sheikh and Aamir Ali, for Season 3 winners. Celebrity hosts Sara Khan and Ali Merchant hosted on week 5. Hiten Tejwani and Gauri Pradhan Tejwani became the hosts on Week 8.
Farah Khan, Karisma Kapoor, and Arjun Rampal served as the judges.
The Contestants for Season 4 were,
Created by Anil Jha Star Plus
Nach Baliye 5 started in 2012 and ended in March 2013 on StarPlus, and Nach Baliye 5 will air on Glow TV (DStv 167 and OVHD 108).
Karan Wahi and Gautam Rode hosted the program. For season 5, the judges were Shilpa Shetty, Sajid Khan and Terrence Lewis.
The following were the Contestants for Season 5:
Shilpa cancelled her shoot as her nine - month - old son was hospitalized.
Nach Baliye Shriman v / s Shrimati is an extension of the Nach Baliye series, and ran in April 2013. In Shriman vs Shrimati, the celebrity couples did not dance together but instead competed against each other. The series ended in a tie.
Gurmeet Choudhary was declared the Best Performer Of The Series.
The sixth season of Nach Baliye premiered on 9 November 2013 on Star Plus channel, airing on Saturday and Sunday evenings. Eleven celebrity couples competed in the series. Shilpa Shetty, Sajid Khan and Terrence Lewis are the Judges and Gautam Rode and Karan Wahi hosts the season, once again.
TV Actors Rithvik Dhanjani and Asha Negi were declared the Winning Couple of Nach Baliye Season 6 on 1 February 2014. Gurmeet Choudhary and Debina Bonnerjee were declared the runners up. Sara Khan done Cameo Dance Performance in wild card special episode along with Paras Chhabra.
Writing for Rediff.com, Paloma Sharma gave the show 2.5 stars out of 5 in its first week, stating "perhaps the hosts and the judges could keep their clothes on and refrain from excessive flirting since Nach Baliye does happen to be a ' family show '. ''
Celebrity Jodi contestants were:
The seventh season premiered on 26 April 2015 on Star Plus. the series is produced by Ekta Kapoor and Shobha Kapoor under their banner Balaji Telefilms. The series airs from Monday to Saturday nights and on Sunday evenings. The show ended on 19 July 2015.
The show was hosted by Rithvik Dhanjani And Karan Patel. Marzi Pestonji, Preity Zinta and Chetan Bhagat were the judges.
Kunwar Amar, Karanvir Bohra, Mukti Mohan, Sargun Mehta and Salman Yusuf Khan also appeared for special episode.
The list of Contestants for Season 7 is as follows:
Nach Baliye 8 premiered on 2 April 2017 on STAR Plus. The show is produced by BBC Worldwide. Sonakshi Sinha, Terence Lewis and Mohit Suri are judging the show. Karan Tacker and Upasana Singh are the hosts for the show. Ten Jodis have been finalized to take part in Nach Baliye. Divyanka Tripathi and Vivek Dahiya were declared the Winning Couple of Nach Baliye 8.
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plants and animals in the colorado plateau region | Colorado Plateau - wikipedia
The Colorado Plateau, also known as the Colorado Plateau Province, is a physiographic and desert region of the Intermontane Plateaus, roughly centered on the Four Corners region of the southwestern United States. This province covers an area of 337,000 km (130,000 mi) within western Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, southern and eastern Utah, and northern Arizona. About 90 % of the area is drained by the Colorado River and its main tributaries: the Green, San Juan, and Little Colorado. Most of the remainder of the plateau is drained by the Rio Grande and its tributaries.
The Colorado Plateau is largely made up of high desert, with scattered areas of forests. In the southwest corner of the Colorado Plateau lies the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River. Much of the Plateau 's landscape is related, in both appearance and geologic history, to the Grand Canyon. The nickname "Red Rock Country '' suggests the brightly colored rock left bare to the view by dryness and erosion. Domes, hoodoos, fins, reefs, river narrows, natural bridges, and slot canyons are only some of the additional features typical of the Plateau.
The Colorado Plateau has the greatest concentration of U.S. National Park Service (NPS) units in the country outside the Washington, DC metropolitan area. Among its ten National Parks are Grand Canyon, Glen Canyon, Zion, Bryce Canyon, Capitol Reef, Canyonlands, Arches, Mesa Verde, and Petrified Forest. Among its 18 National Monuments are Bears Ears, Rainbow Bridge, Dinosaur, Hovenweep, Wupatki, Sunset Crater Volcano, Grand Staircase - Escalante, Natural Bridges, Canyons of the Ancients, Chaco Culture National Historical Park and the Colorado National Monument.
The province is bounded by the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, and by the Uinta Mountains and Wasatch Mountains branches of the Rockies in northern and central Utah. It is also bounded by the Rio Grande Rift, Mogollon Rim and the Basin and Range Province. Isolated ranges of the Southern Rocky Mountains such as the San Juan Mountains in Colorado and the La Sal Mountains in Utah intermix into the central and southern parts of the Colorado Plateau. It is composed of six sections:
As the name implies, the High Plateaus Section is, on average, the highest section. North - south trending normal faults that include the Hurricane, Sevier, Grand Wash, and Paunsaugunt separate the section 's component plateaus. This fault pattern is caused by the tensional forces pulling apart the adjacent Basin and Range province to the west, making this section transitional.
Occupying the southeast corner of the Colorado Plateau is the Datil Section. Thick sequences of mid-Tertiary to late - Cenozoic - aged lava covers this section.
Development of the province has in large part been influenced by structural features in its oldest rocks. Part of the Wasatch Line and its various faults form the western edge of the province. Faults that run parallel to the Wasatch Fault that lies along the Wasatch Range form the boundaries between the plateaus in the High Plateaus Section. The Uinta Basin, Uncompahgre Uplift, and the Paradox Basin were also created by movement along structural weaknesses in the region 's oldest rock.
In Utah, the province includes several higher fault - separated plateaus:
Some sources also include the Tushar Mountain Plateau as part of the Colorado Plateau, but others do not. The mostly flat - lying sedimentary rock units that make up these plateaus are found in component plateaus that are between 1,500 to 3,350 metres (4,900 to 11,000 ft) above sea level. A supersequence of these rocks is exposed in the various cliffs and canyons (including the Grand Canyon) that make up the Grand Staircase. Increasingly younger east - west trending escarpments of the Grand Staircase extend north of the Grand Canyon and are named for their color:
Within these rocks are abundant mineral resources that include uranium, coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Study of the area 's unusually clear geologic history (which is laid bare due to the arid and semiarid conditions) has greatly advanced that science.
A rain shadow from the Sierra Nevada far to the west and the many ranges of the Basin and Range means that the Colorado Plateau receives 15 to 40 centimetres (6 to 16 in) of annual precipitation. Higher areas receive more precipitation and are covered in forests of pine, fir, and spruce.
Though it can be said that the Plateau roughly centers on the Four Corners, Black Mesa in northern Arizona is much closer to the east - west, north - south midpoint of the Plateau Province. Lying southeast of Glen Canyon and southwest of Monument Valley at the north end of the Hopi Reservation, this remote coal - laden highland has about half of the Colorado Plateau 's acreage north of it, half south of it, half west of it, and half east of it.
The Ancestral Puebloan People lived in the region from around 2000 to 700 years ago.
A party from Santa Fe led by Fathers Dominguez and Escalante, unsuccessfully seeking an overland route to California, made a five - month out - and - back trip through much of the Plateau in 1776 - 1777.
Despite having lost one arm in the American Civil War, U.S. Army Major and geologist John Wesley Powell explored the area in 1869 and 1872. Using wooden oak boats and small groups of men the Powell Geographic Expedition charted this largely unknown region of the United States for the federal government.
Construction of the Hoover Dam in the 1930s and the Glen Canyon Dam in the 1960s changed the character of the Colorado River. Dramatically reduced sediment load changed its color from reddish brown (Colorado is Spanish for "red '') to mostly clear. The apparent green color is from algae on the riverbed 's rocks, not from any significant amount of suspended material. The lack of sediment has also starved sand bars and beaches but an experimental 12 - day - long controlled flood from Glen Canyon Dam in 1996 showed substantial restoration. Similar floods are planned for every 5 to 10 years.
One of the most geologically intriguing features of the Colorado Plateau is its remarkable stability. Relatively little rock deformation such as faulting and folding has affected this high, thick crustal block within the last 600 million years or so. In contrast, provinces that have suffered severe deformation surround the plateau. Mountain building thrust up the Rocky Mountains to the north and east and tremendous, earth - stretching tension created the Basin and Range province to the west and south. Sub ranges of the Southern Rocky Mountains are scattered throughout the Colorado Plateau.
The Precambrian and Paleozoic history of the Colorado Plateau is best revealed near its southern end where the Grand Canyon has exposed rocks with ages that span almost 2 billion years. The oldest rocks at river level are igneous and metamorphic and have been lumped together as "Vishnu Basement Rocks ''; the oldest ages recorded by these rocks fall in the range 1950 to 1680 million years. An erosion surface on the "Vishnu Basement Rocks '' is covered by sedimentary rocks and basalt flows, and these rocks formed in the interval from about 1250 to 750 million years ago: in turn, they were uplifted and split into a range of fault - block mountains. Erosion greatly reduced this mountain range prior to the encroachment of a seaway along the passive western edge of the continent in the early Paleozoic. At the canyon rim is the Kaibab Formation, limestone deposited in the late Paleozoic (Permian) about 270 million years ago.
A 12,000 - to - 15,000 - foot high (3,700 to 4,600 m) extension of the Ancestral Rocky Mountains called the Uncompahgre Mountains were uplifted and the adjacent Paradox Basin subsided. Almost 4 mi. (6.4 km) of sediment from the mountains and evaporites from the sea were deposited (see geology of the Canyonlands area for detail). Most of the formations were deposited in warm shallow seas and near - shore environments (such as beaches and swamps) as the seashore repeatedly advanced and retreated over the edge of a proto - North America (for detail, see geology of the Grand Canyon area). The province was probably on a continental margin throughout the late Precambrian and most of the Paleozoic era. Igneous rocks injected millions of years later form a marbled network through parts of the Colorado Plateau 's darker metamorphic basement. By 600 million years ago North America had been leveled off to a remarkably smooth surface.
Throughout the Paleozoic Era, tropical seas periodically inundated the Colorado Plateau region. Thick layers of limestone, sandstone, siltstone, and shale were laid down in the shallow marine waters. During times when the seas retreated, stream deposits and dune sands were deposited or older layers were removed by erosion. Over 300 million years passed as layer upon layer of sediment accumulated.
It was not until the upheavals that coincided with the formation of the supercontinent Pangea began about 250 million years ago that deposits of marine sediment waned and terrestrial deposits dominate. In late Paleozoic and much of the Mesozoic era the region was affected by a series of orogenies (mountain - building events) that deformed western North America and caused a great deal of uplift. Eruptions from volcanic mountain ranges to the west buried vast regions beneath ashy debris. Short - lived rivers, lakes, and inland seas left sedimentary records of their passage. Streams, ponds and lakes created formations such as the Chinle, Moenave, and Kayenta in the Mesozoic era. Later a vast desert formed the Navajo and Temple Cap formations and dry near - shore environment formed the Carmel (see geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area for details).
The area was again covered by a warm shallow sea when the Cretaceous Seaway opened in late Mesozoic time. The Dakota Sandstone and the Tropic Shale were deposited in the warm shallow waters of this advancing and retreating seaway. Several other formations were also created but were mostly eroded following two major periods of uplift.
The Laramide orogeny closed the seaway and uplifted a large belt of crust from Montana to Mexico, with the Colorado Plateau region being the largest block. Thrust faults in Colorado are thought to have formed from a slight clockwise movement of the region, which acted as a rigid crustal block. The Colorado Plateau Province was uplifted largely as a single block, possibly due to its relative thickness. This relative thickness may be why compressional forces from the orogeny were mostly transmitted through the province instead of deforming it. Pre-existing weaknesses in Precambrian rocks were exploited and reactivated by the compression. It was along these ancient faults and other deeply buried structures that much of the province 's relatively small and gently inclined flexures (such as anticlines, synclines, and monoclines) formed. Some of the prominent isolated mountain ranges of the Plateau, such as Ute Mountain and the Carrizo Mountains, both near the Four Corners, are cored by igneous rocks that were emplaced about 70 million years ago.
Minor uplift events continued through the start of the Cenozoic era and were accompanied by some basaltic lava eruptions and mild deformation. The colorful Claron Formation that forms the delicate hoodoos of Bryce Amphitheater and Cedar Breaks was then laid down as sediments in cool streams and lakes (see geology of the Bryce Canyon area for details). The flat - lying Chuska Sandstone was deposited about 34 million years ago; the sandstone is predominantly of eolian origin and locally more than 500 meters thick. The Chuska Sandstone caps the Chuska mountains, and it lies unconformably on Mesozoic rocks deformed during the Laramide orogeny.
Younger igneous rocks form spectacular topographic features. The Henry Mountains, La Sal Range, and Abajo Mountains, ranges that dominate many views in southeastern Utah, are formed about igneous rocks that were intruded in the interval from 20 to 31 million years: some igneous intrusions in these mountains form laccoliths, a form of intrusion recognized by Grove Karl Gilbert during his studies of the Henry Mountains. Ship Rock (also called Shiprock), in northwestern New Mexico, and Church Rock and Agathla, near Monument Valley, are erosional remnants of potassium - rich igneous rocks and associated breccias of the Navajo Volcanic Field, produced about 25 million years ago. The Hopi Buttes in northeastern Arizona are held up by resistant sheets of sodic volcanic rocks, extruded about 7 million years ago. More recent igneous rocks are concentrated nearer the margins of the Colorado Plateau. The San Francisco Peaks near Flagstaff, south of the Grand Canyon, are volcanic landforms produced by igneous activity that began in that area about 6 million years ago and continued until 1064 C.E., when basalt erupted in Sunset Crater National Monument. Mount Taylor, near Grants, New Mexico, is a volcanic structure with a history similar to that of the San Francisco Peaks: a basalt flow closer to Grants was extruded only about 3000 years ago (see El Malpais National Monument). These young igneous rocks may record processes in the Earth 's mantle that are eating away at deep margins of the relatively stable block of the Plateau.
Tectonic activity resumed in Mid Cenozoic time and started to unevenly uplift and slightly tilt the Colorado Plateau region and the region to the west some 20 million years ago (as much as 3 kilometers of uplift occurred). Streams had their gradient increased and they responded by downcutting faster. Headward erosion and mass wasting helped to erode cliffs back into their fault - bounded plateaus, widening the basins in - between. Some plateaus have been so severely reduced in size this way that they become mesas or even buttes. Monoclines form as a result of uplift bending the rock units. Eroded monoclines leave steeply tilted resistant rock called a hogback and the less steep version is a cuesta.
Great tension developed in the crust, probably related to changing plate motions far to the west. As the crust stretched, the Basin and Range province broke up into a multitude of down - dropped valleys and elongate mountains. Major faults, such as the Hurricane Fault, developed that separate the two regions. The dry climate was in large part a rainshadow effect resulting from the rise of the Sierra Nevada further west. Yet for some reason not fully understood, the neighboring Colorado Plateau was able to preserve its structural integrity and remained a single tectonic block.
A second mystery was that while the lower layers of the Plateau appeared to be sinking, overall the Plateau was rising. The reason for this was discovered upon analyzing data from the USARRAY project. It was found that the asthenosphere had invaded the overlying lithosphere, as a result of an area of mantle upwelling stemming from either the disintegration of the descending Farallon Plate, or the survival of the subducted spreading center connected to the East Pacific Rise and Gorda Ridge beneath western North America, or possibly both. The asthenosphere erodes the lower levels of the Plateau. At the same time, as it cools, it expands and lifts the upper layers of the Plateau. Eventually, the great block of Colorado Plateau crust rose a kilometer higher than the Basin and Range. As the land rose, the streams responded by cutting ever deeper stream channels. The most well - known of these streams, the Colorado River, began to carve the Grand Canyon less than 6 million years ago.
The Pleistocene epoch brought periodic ice ages and a cooler, wetter climate. This increased erosion at higher elevations with the introduction of alpine glaciers while mid-elevations were attacked by frost wedging and lower areas by more vigorous stream scouring. Pluvial lakes also formed during this time. Glaciers and pluvial lakes disappeared and the climate warmed and became drier with the start of Holocene epoch.
Electrical power generation is one of the major industries that takes place in the Colorado Plateau region. Most electrical generation comes from coal fired power plants.
The rocks of the Colorado Plateau are a source of oil and a major source of natural gas. Major petroleum deposits are present in the San Juan Basin of New Mexico and Colorado, the Uinta Basin of Utah, the Piceance Basin of Colorado, and the Paradox Basin of Utah, Colorado, and Arizona.
The Colorado Plateau holds major uranium deposits, and there was a uranium boom in the 1950s. The Atlas Uranium Mill near Moab has left a problematic tailings pile for cleanup, which is soon to happen.
Major coal deposits are being mined in the Colorado Plateau in Utah, Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico, though large coal mining projects, such as on the Kaiparowits Plateau, have been proposed and defeated politically. The ITT Power Project, eventually located in Lynndyl, Utah, near Delta, was originally suggested for Salt Wash near Capitol Reef National Park. After a firestorm of opposition, it was moved to a less beloved site. In Utah the largest deposits are in aptly named Carbon County. In Arizona the biggest operation is on Black Mesa, supplying coal to Navajo Power Plant.
Perhaps the only one of its kind, a gilsonite plant near Bonanza, southeast of Vernal, Utah, mines this unique, lustrous, brittle form of asphalt, for use in "varnishes, paints,... ink, waterproofing compounds, electrical insulation,... roofing materials. ''
The scenic appeal of this unique landscape had become, well before the end of the twentieth century, its greatest financial natural resource. The amount of commercial benefit to the four states of the Colorado Plateau from tourism exceeded that of any other natural resource.
This relatively high semi-arid province produces many distinctive erosional features such as arches, arroyos, canyons, cliffs, fins, natural bridges, pinnacles, hoodoos, and monoliths that, in various places and extents, have been protected. Also protected are areas of historic or cultural significance, such as the pueblos of the Anasazi culture. There are nine U.S. National Parks, a National Historical Park, sixteen U.S. National Monuments and dozens of wilderness areas in the province along with millions of acres in U.S. National Forests, many state parks, and other protected lands. In fact, this region has the highest concentration of parklands in North America. Lake Powell, in foreground, is not a natural lake but a reservoir impounded by Glen Canyon Dam.
National parks (from south to north to south clockwise):
National Monuments (alphabetical):
Wilderness areas:
Other notable protected areas include: Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Dead Horse Point State Park, Goosenecks State Park, the San Rafael Swell, the Grand Gulch Primitive Area, Kodachrome Basin State Park, Goblin Valley State Park, Monument Valley, and Barringer Crater.
Sedona, Arizona and Oak Creek Canyon lie on the south - central border of the Plateau. Many but not all of the Sedona area 's cliff formations are protected as wilderness. The area has the visual appeal of a national park, but with a small, rapidly growing town in the center.
Coordinates: 37 ° N 110 ° W / 37 ° N 110 ° W / 37; - 110
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how many episodes are in fear the walking dead season 2 | List of Fear the Walking Dead episodes - wikipedia
Fear the Walking Dead is an American horror drama television series created by Robert Kirkman and Dave Erickson. It is a companion series to The Walking Dead, which is based on the comic book series of the same name by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore, and Charlie Adlard. It premiered on the cable network AMC on August 23, 2015. It was renewed for a 15 - episode second season which premiered on April 10, 2016.
On April 15, 2016, AMC announced the series had been renewed for a 16 - episode third season, which premiered on June 4, 2017. In April 2017, AMC renewed the series for a fourth season. As of September 10, 2017, 31 episodes of Fear the Walking Dead have aired.
A 16 - part web series, Fear the Walking Dead: Flight 462, premiered on October 4, 2015, on AMC.com; it also aired as promos during The Walking Dead season 6. The web series depicts the outbreak 's effect on a commercial airplane flight. Two of its characters, Alex (originally called Charlie in the web series), and Jake are introduced in Fear the Walking Dead season 2, episode 3 "Ouroboros ''.
A second 16 - part web series, debuted on October 17, 2016, and episodes were made available online weekly and aired as promos during the seventh season of The Walking Dead. The web series follows Sierra, a capable survivor, who helps an injured woman named Gabi, as they try to find sanctuary. The series was written by Lauren Signorino and Mike Zunic and directed by Andrew Bernstein.
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where does new york new jersey and pennsylvania meet | Tri-state area - wikipedia
Tri-state area is an informal term in the eastern contiguous United States for any of several regions associated with a particular town or metropolis that, with adjacent suburbs, lies across three states. Some of these involve a state boundary tripoint. Other tri-state areas have a more diffuse population that shares a connected economy and geography -- especially with respect to geology, botany, or climate -- such as the tri-state area of New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut. The term "tri-state area '' often occurs in movies and radio and television commercials.
The Quincy, Evansville, and Huntington -- Ashland areas are noteworthy for the states included all being separated by rivers.
Of the 62 points in the United States where three and only three states meet (each of which may be associated with its own tri-state area), 34 are on dry land and 28 are in water.
The following tri-state areas are also notable, but have no tripoint:
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when does the great christmas light fight 2017 start | The Great Christmas Light Fight - wikipedia
The Great Christmas Light Fight (originally titled Lights, Camera, Christmas! in development) is an American reality television competition show that premiered on December 9, 2013 on ABC and began its fifth season on December 4, 2017. New episodes air every Monday at 8 pm EST with another new episode airing immediately following for the first three weeks of December.. At the end of the fifth season it was announced that that the show will be renewed for a sixth season in 2018.
Each episode of The Great Christmas Light Fight features a series of families or groups that create elaborate Christmas light displays. The contestants are chosen in advance by producers. The displays are judged on three categories: use of lights, overall design, and Christmas spirit. Each display is first individually featured, then the judge or judges review the display and its specific details. Once all contestants have been reviewed, a winner is chosen, and the judges return to the winner to congratulate them. The winner of each week 's episode wins $50,000 and a holiday - themed trophy.
The second season of the series had a Halloween - themed special episode entitled The Great Halloween Fright Fight which aired October 28, 2014.
Judges: Michael Moloney and Sabrina Soto "Hollywood Haunter '' (Glendale, CA) a two - story facade of a haunted house with motion - sensor devices and animatronics; "Haunted Overlord '' (Lee, NH) a farm using organic elements and over-sized props with horror actors; "Terror at Tee Lake '' (Lewison, MI) a cabin resort converted into a kid - friendly drive - through haunted attraction with different themes; "The Pirate Ship '' (Celebration, FL) a pirate - themed attraction built of recycled materials with a facade of a pirate ship and actors; "Mitchell 's Spider Invasion '' (Pensacola, FL) giant spiders and webs are featured invading various animatronics; "Haunt for the Hungry '' (Wharton, NJ) a gory, blood - and - guts haunted attraction with proceeds going towards charity. WINNER: Haunted Overlord
Judge: Michael Moloney "Daigle Family '' (Paincourtville, LA) a 2.5 acre display has lighted trains, ferris wheels, and searchlights that require FAA approval; "Apruzzi Family '' (Old Bridge, NJ) separate displays in the front and back yards with over 130,000 lights on over 200 wire frames; "Horrocks / Conway Families '' (Coventry, RI) two families combine an old - fashioned display of blow molds with new technology and a castle from Frozen; "Loya Family '' (El Paso, TX) an immigrant family creates a display with over 400,000 lights set to music and a Santa 's Village area. WINNER: Loya Family
Judge: Carter Oosterhouse "Lights on Jeater Bend '' (Celebration, FL) 11 homes have a synchronized light show with water, fire, lights, and projections with Disney influences including Mickey Mouse hats that are synched with the lights; "Christmas on Comstock '' (Gilbert, AZ) 13 homes synchronize their light show with artificial snow machines and a children 's flash mob; "Weikele Christmas Lights '' (Waipahu, HI) 14 homes have over 75,000 lights synchronized that use solar power to power the show with a unique Hawaiian culture and influence. WINNER: Christmas on Comstock
Judge: Taniya Nayak "Delaney Family '' (Hillsboro, TN) 12 Christmas trees are part of a synchronized display of nearly 80,000 lights designed by an engineer; "Widmer Family '' (Pleasanton, CA) a 35 - year - old synchronized display with separate front and back yard displays has walk - through and interactive features; "Olsen Family '' (St. George, UT) a traditional static light display has a North Pole and a Santa 's workshop displays and a tree that appears to extend through the roof; "Hales Family '' (Duluth, MN) a grandmother and her grandson create a traditional static walk - through display of handmade elements that uses Lake Superior as a backdrop. WINNER: Olsen Family
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song lyrics heaven let your light shine down | Shine (Collective Soul song) - Wikipedia
"Shine '' is the debut single by the American rock band Collective Soul. It served as the lead single from their 1994 debut album Hints Allegations and Things Left Unsaid. It was released a week before the album was released. "Shine '' would remain the band 's most well known song and a hallmark of 1990s alternative rock. It became the # 1 Album Rock Song of 1994, and won a Billboard award for Top Rock Track. The song also reached the top of the Album Rock Tracks for eight weeks. The song then went on to peak at # 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 for one week. VH1 would later rank "Shine '' at # 42 on their list of the "100 Greatest Songs of the ' 90s. ''
Due to the song 's lyrical themes, particularly the mention of "heaven '', Collective Soul was often early on regarded as a Christian band. Frontman Ed Roland elaborated, "I remember around the time ('' Shine '' came out) getting into an argument with a writer who said, ' You 're a Christian band. ' I said, ' No, we 're not. ' ' Well, you have the word heaven in your song. ' And I said, ' Well, so does Led Zeppelin. I do n't remember anyone saying they were a Christian band. ' '' He went on to stress that such classification would unite the bandmates ' beliefs and that a particular doctrine can not speak for all its members. Roland did note, however, his religious background and the fact that his father is a Southern Baptist minister, but that this does not justify a Christian label.
Collective Soul rhythm guitarist Dean Roland has called the song 's chorus "basically a prayer '' and noted that the uplifting single was released during an odd time amidst heavy grunge. He noted that, despite the song 's unique feel, this circumstance wrongfully pigeonholed the band as being grunge.
"Shine '' features guitar with a slight distortion and mellow atmosphere throughout the verses. Its chorus pounds with staccato riffs before brightening up with the lyrics "Heaven let your light shine down. '' Later, the song 's bridge modulates into double - time behind a hard rock guitar solo before returning to its previous state of calmness.
"Shine '' has remained a symbol of 1990s alternative rock. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic regarded the song "a tremendous guilty pleasure, built on a guitar riff so indelible you swear it 's stolen, blessed by a sighing melody that makes this a fine album - rock single that would have sounded as good in ' 74 as it did in ' 94. ''
Due to its popularity among 1990s music, "Shine '' has been included on various era - themed compilation albums including VH1: I Love the ' 90s, Whatever: The ' 90s Pop and Culture Box, Big Shiny ' 90s, and The Buzz. Live versions have been included on the Woodstock ' 94 and Much at Edgefest 1999 compilations.
Phish poked fun at the song with their short version of "Shine '' in the middle of "Fly Famous Mockingbird '' at Madison Square Garden on New Year 's Eve 1995 with songwriter Tom Marshall on vocals. This version can be found on the live album Phish: New Year 's Eve 1995 - Live at Madison Square Garden.
Dolly Parton recorded a cover of "Shine '' for her 2001 album Little Sparrow with members of the alt / bluegrass band Nickel Creek. Parton 's recording of the song earned her a Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance.
The Holmes Brothers recorded a cover of "Shine '' for their 2004 album Simple Truths.
Pillar recorded a cover of "Shine '' for their 2009 album Confessions.
The Smashing Pumpkins played parts of "Shine '' during their 2010 tour. Billy Corgan has expressed his hatred of the song and noted its similarities to the Smashing Pumpkins ' song Drown. Corgan lost a lawsuit in the mid-1990s to Ed Roland after Roland was able to produce a demo tape featuring "Shine '' that preceded the Smashing Pumpkins ' release.
A video uploaded by Girl Talk 's Gregg Gillis titled "Collective Soul Cat '' became popular in 2012 which featured the cat singing the famous "Yeah! '' in the song 's exact key.
All songs written by Ed Roland.
The song 's video, was written and directed by William Levin, which achieved popularity on MTV, features various footage, largely black - and - white. Youths are seen carrying seemingly random items across a rural area and railroad tracks before arriving at an old shed and watching the band perform. "Shine '' was included on the era - themed compilation Essential Music Videos: ' 90s Rock.
In the aftermath of the Virginia Tech massacre in April 2007, it was revealed by two roommates that gunman Cho Seung - Hui played "Shine '' over and over and even wrote some of the lyrics of the song ("Teach me how to speak / Teach me how to share / Teach me where to go '') on his wall. In response to this news, the band issued a statement saying that "It is an enormous tragedy and we deeply regret the loss of life. The issue is not about the song. It is about the innocent lives that were lost that we regret deeply, as do all Americans. ''
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who led the zapatistas in the mexican civil war | Mexican Revolution - Wikipedia
Revolutionary victory
Counter-revolutionary forces:
Revolutionary forces:
1914 - 1919: Carrancistas
1920: Forces led by Álvaro Obregón Remaining Zapatista forces
1920: Carrancistas
The Mexican Revolution (Spanish: Revolución Mexicana) also known as the Mexican Civil War (Spanish: Guerra civil mexicana) was a major armed struggle, lasting roughly from 1910 to 1920, that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution, it was a "genuinely national revolution ''. Its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35 - year - long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a political crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Wealthy landowner Francisco I. Madero challenged Díaz in the 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, revolted under the Plan of San Luis Potosí. Armed conflict ousted Díaz from power; a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency.
The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election becoming the catalyst for the outbreak of political rebellion. The revolution was begun by elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero and Pancho Villa; it expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free and fair election. Opposition to his regime then grew from both the conservatives, who saw him as too weak and too liberal, and from former revolutionary fighters and the dispossessed, who saw him as too conservative.
Madero and his vice president Pino Suárez were forced to resign in February 1913, and were assassinated. The counter-revolutionary regime of General Victoriano Huerta came to power, backed by the United States, business interests, and other supporters of the old order. Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. When the revolutionaries ' attempt to reach political agreement failed, Mexico plunged into a civil war (1914 -- 1915). The Constitutionalist faction under wealthy landowner Venustiano Carranza emerged as the victor in 1915, defeating the revolutionary forces of former Constitutionalist Pancho Villa and forcing revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata back to guerrilla warfare. Zapata was assassinated in 1919 by agents of President Carranza.
The armed conflict lasted for the better part of a decade, until around 1920, and had several distinct phases. Over time the Revolution changed from a revolt against the established order under Díaz to a multi-sided civil war in particular regions, with frequently shifting power struggles among factions in the Mexican Revolution. One major result of the revolution was the dissolution of the Federal Army in 1914, which Francisco Madero had kept intact when he was elected in 1911 and General Huerta used to oust Madero. Revolutionary forces unified against Huerta 's reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces. Although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexico 's power struggles. The United States played an especially significant role. Out of Mexico 's population of 15 million, the losses were high, but numerical estimates vary a great deal. Perhaps 1.5 million people died; nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States.
Many scholars consider the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 as the end point of the armed conflict. "Economic and social conditions improved in accordance with revolutionary policies, so that the new society took shape within a framework of official revolutionary institutions '', with the constitution providing that framework. The period 1920 -- 1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, as government power was consolidated, the Catholic clergy and institutions were attacked in the 1920s, and the revolutionary constitution of 1917 was implemented.
This armed conflict is often characterized as the most important sociopolitical event in Mexico and one of the greatest upheavals of the 20th century; it resulted in an important program of experimentation and reform in social organization. The revolution committed the resulting political regime with "social justice '', until Mexico underwent a neoliberal reform process that started in the 1980s.
The Porfiriato is the period in late nineteenth - century Mexican history dominated by General Porfirio Díaz, who became president of Mexico in 1876 and ruled almost continuously (with the exception of 1880 -- 1884) until his forced resignation in 1911. After the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González (1880 -- 1884), Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally served in office until 1911. Under his administration, the constitution had been amended to allow unlimited presidential re-election. Díaz 's had originally challenged Benito Juárez on the platform of "no re-election. '' During the Porfiriato, there were regular elections, marked by contentious irregularities. Although Díaz had publicly announced in an interview with journalist James Creelman that he would not run in the 1910 election, setting off a flurry of political activity, he changed his mind and decided to run again at age 80.
The contested 1910 election was a key political event that contributed to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of presidential succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of vice president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Científico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian, and opposition to it had increased in many sectors of Mexican society.
In the 19th century, he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862 ("Cinco de Mayo ''). Díaz entered politics following the expulsion of the French in 1867. When Benito Juárez was elected in 1871, Díaz alleged fraud. Juárez died in office in 1872, and Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada succeeded him. Díaz unsuccessfully rebelled against Lerdo under the Plan de La Noria but later accepted the amnesty offered to him. However, when Lerdo ran for the presidency in 1876, Díaz successfully rebelled under the Plan de Tuxtepec.
In his early years in the presidency, Díaz was a master politician, playing factions off one another while retaining and consolidating his own power. He used the rurales, an armed police force directly under his control, as a paramilitary force to keep order in the countryside. He rigged elections, arguing that only he knew what was best for his country, and he enforced his belief with a strong hand. "Order and Progress '' were the watchwords of his rule. Although Díaz came to power in 1876 under the banner of "no re-election, '' with the exception of the presidency of Manuel González from 1880 -- 1884, Díaz remained in power continuously from 1884 until 1911, with rigged elections held at regular intervals to give the appearance of democracy.
Díaz 's presidency was characterized by promotion of industry and development of infrastructure by opening the country to foreign investment. He believed opposition needed to be suppressed and order maintained to reassure foreign entrepreneurs that their investments were safe. The modernization and progress in cities came at the expense of the rising working class and the peasantry.
Farmers and peasants both complained of oppression and exploitation. The economy took a great leap during the Porfiriato, as he encouraged the construction of factories and industries, and infrastructure such as roads and dams, as well as improving agriculture. Industrialization resulted in the rise of an urban proletariat and attracted an influx of foreign capital from the United States and Great Britain.
Wealth, political power, and access to education were concentrated among a handful of elite landholding families, overwhelmingly of European and mixed descent. Known as hacendados, they controlled vast swaths of the country by virtue of their huge estates (for example, the Terrazas had one estate in Sonora that alone comprised more than a million acres). Most people in Mexico were landless peasants laboring on these vast estates or industrial workers toiling for little more than slave wages. Foreign companies, mostly from the United Kingdom, France, and the U.S., also exercised influence in Mexico.
Díaz created a formidable political machine, first working with regional strongmen and bringing them into his regime, then replacing them with jefes políticos (political bosses) who were loyal to him. He skillfully managed political conflict and reined in tendencies toward autonomy. He appointed a number of military officers to state governorships, including General Bernardo Reyes, who became governor of the northern state of Nuevo León, but over the years military men were largely replaced by civilians loyal to Díaz.
As a military man himself, and one who had intervened directly in politics to seize the presidency in 1876, Díaz was acutely aware that the Federal Army could oppose him. He augmented the rurales, a police force created by Juárez, making them his personal armed force. The rurales were only 2,500 in number, as opposed to the 30,000 in the Federal Army and another 30,000 in the Federal Auxiliaries, Irregulars, and National Guard. Despite their small numbers, the rurales were highly effective in bringing control to the countryside, especially along the 12,000 miles of railway lines. They were a mobile force, often put on trains with their horses to put down rebellions in relatively remote areas of Mexico.
The construction of railways had been transformative in Mexico (as well as elsewhere in Latin America), accelerating economic activity and increasing the power of the Mexican state. The isolation from the central government that many remote areas had enjoyed or suffered was ending. Telegraph lines constructed next to railroad tracks meant instant communication between distant states and the capital.
The political acumen and flexibility that Díaz had exhibited in the early years of the Porfiriato began to decline. He brought the state governors under his control, replacing them at will. The Federal Army, while large, was increasingly an ineffective force with aging leadership and troops dragooned into service. Díaz attempted the same kind of manipulation he executed with the Mexican political system with business interests, showing favoritism to European interests against those of the U.S.
Rival interests, particularly those of the Americans and the British, further complicated an already complex system of favoritism. As economic activity increased and industries thrived, industrial workers began organizing for better conditions. With the expansion of Mexican agriculture, landless peasants were forced to work for low wages or move to the cities. Peasant agriculture was under pressure as haciendas expanded, such as in the state of Morelos, just south of Mexico City, with its burgeoning sugar plantations. There was what one scholar has called "agrarian compression, '' in which "population growth intersected with land loss, declining wages, and insecure tenancies to produce widespread economic deterioration, '' but the regions under the greatest stress were n't the ones that rebelled.
A number of Mexicans began to organize in opposition to Díaz policies that had welcomed foreign capital and capitalists, suppressed nascent labor unions, and consistently moved against peasants as agriculture flourished. In 1905, the group of Mexican intellectuals and agitators who had created the Mexican Liberal Party (Partido Liberal de México) drew up a radical program of reform, specifically addressing what they considered to be the worst aspects of the Díaz regime. Most prominent in the PLM were Ricardo Flores Magón and his two brothers, Enrique and Jesús. They, along with Luis Cabrera Lobato and Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama, were connected to the anti-Díaz publication El Hijo de Ahuizote. Political cartoons by José Guadalupe Posada lampooned politicians and cultural elites with mordant humor, portraying them as skeletons. The Liberal Party of Mexico founded the anti-Díaz anarchist newspaper Regeneración, which appeared in both Spanish and English. In exile in the United States, Práxedis Guerrero began publishing an anti-Díaz newspaper, Alba Roja (Red Dawn), in San Francisco. Although leftist groups were small in numbers, they became highly influential through their publications which helped articulate opposition to the Díaz regime. Francisco Bulnes described these men as the "true authors '' of the Mexican Revolution for agitating the masses. As the 1910 election approached, Francisco I. Madero, an idealistic political novice and member of one of Mexico 's richest families, funded the newspaper Anti-Reelectionista, in opposition to the continuous re-election of Díaz.
Organized labor conducted strikes for better wages and more just treatment. Demands for better labor conditions were central to the Liberal Party Program, drawn up in 1905. Mexican copper miners in the northern state of Sonora took action in the 1906 Cananea strike. Among other grievances, they were paid less than U.S. nationals working in the mines. In the state of Veracruz, textile workers rioted in January 1907 at the huge Río Blanco factory, the world 's largest, protesting against unfair labor practices. They were paid in credit that could be used only at the company store, binding them to the company.
These strikes were ruthlessly suppressed, with factory owners receiving support from government forces. In the Cananea strike, mine owner William Cornell Greene received support from Díaz 's rurales in Sonora as well as Arizona Rangers called in from across the U.S. border. In the state of Veracruz, the Mexican army gunned down Rio Blanco textile workers and put the bodies on train cars that transported them to Veracruz, "where the bodies were dumped in the harbor as food for sharks ''. Government suppression of strikes was not unique to Mexico, with parallel occurrences both in the United States and Western Europe.
The repressive nature of the Díaz regime attracted the attention of a number of U.S. nationals who joined in international solidarity with Mexicans to oppose Díaz, particularly outraged by U.S. businesses ' direct responsibility for the most horrific Mexican labor practices. Most notably, the leftist journalist John Kenneth Turner posed as a rich businessman exploring investments in Mexico to gain access to some of the most repressive and lucrative enterprises. His series of investigative exposés of Mexico under Díaz was first published in American magazines, then, in 1910, republished as a collection in Barbarous Mexico.
Since the press was suppressed in Mexico under Díaz, little was published that was critical of the regime. Newspapers barely reported on the Rio Blanco textile strike, the Cananea strike, or harsh labor practices on plantations in Oaxaca and Yucatán. Leftist Mexican opponents of the Díaz regime, such as Ricardo Flores Magón and Práxedis Guerrero, went into exile in the relative safety of the United States, but cooperation between the U.S. government and Díaz 's agents resulted in the arrest of some.
Díaz had ruled continuously since 1884. The question of presidential succession was an issue as early as 1900, when Díaz turned 70. It was his "undeclared intention to step down from the presidency in 1904. '' Díaz seems to have considered his finance minister José Yves Limantour as his successor. Limantour was a key member of the Científicos, the circle of technocratic advisers steeped in positivist political science.
Another potential successor was General Bernardo Reyes, Diaz 's Minister of War, who also served as governor of Nuevo León. Reyes, an opponent of the Científicos, was a moderate reformer with a considerable base of support. Díaz became concerned about him as a rival, and forced his resignation from his cabinet. He attempted to marginalize Reyes by sending him on a "military mission '' to Europe, distancing him from Mexico and potential political supporters.
Díaz re-established the office of vice president in 1906, choosing Ramón Corral. Rather than managing political succession, Díaz marginalized Corral, keeping him away from any decision - making.
In a 1908 interview with U.S. journalist James Creelman, Díaz said that Mexico was ready for democracy and that he would step down to allow other candidates to compete for the presidency. If Díaz had kept to this, the presidency and vice presidency would have been open in 1910. Díaz 's later reversal on retiring from the presidency set off tremendous activity among opposition groups.
In 1909, Díaz and U.S. President William Howard Taft conducted a historic summit, held in both El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Mexico; it was the first meeting between a U.S. and Mexican president, and the first time a sitting U.S. president crossed the border into Mexico. Díaz requested the meeting to show that he had American support for his planned eighth run as president. Taft agreed to support Diaz in order to protect the several billion dollars of American capital then invested in Mexico. After nearly 30 years with Díaz in power, U.S. businesses controlled "nearly 90 percent of Mexico 's mineral resources, its national railroad, its oil industry and, increasingly, its land. '' At the meeting, Díaz explained his decision to stay in office, "Since I am responsible for bringing several billion dollars in foreign investments into my country, I think I should continue in my position until a competent successor is found. ''
On 16 October, the day of the summit, Frederick Russell Burnham and Private C.R. Moore, a Texas Ranger, discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route. Burnham and Moore captured and disarmed the assassin within a few feet of Díaz and Taft.
"The potential challenge from Reyes would remain one of Díaz 's political obsessions through the rest of the decade, which ultimately blinded him to the danger of the challenge of Francisco Madero 's anti-reelectionist campaign. ''
In 1910, Francisco I. Madero, a young man from a wealthy land - owning family in the northern state of Coahuila, announced his intent to challenge Díaz for the presidency in the next election, under the banner of the Anti-Reelectionist Party. Madero chose as his running mate Francisco Vázquez Gómez, a physician who had opposed Díaz. Although similar overall to Díaz in his ideology, Madero hoped for other elites to rule alongside the president. Díaz thought he could control this election, as he had the previous seven; however, Madero campaigned vigorously and effectively. To ensure Madero did not win, Díaz had him jailed before the election. Madero escaped and fled for a short period to San Antonio, Texas. Díaz was announced the winner of the election by a "landslide ''. When it became obvious that the election had been fixed, Madero supporter Toribio Ortega took up arms with a group of followers at Cuchillo Parado, Chihuahua on 10 November 1910.
On 5 October 1910, Madero issued a "letter from jail, '' known as the Plan de San Luis Potosí, with its main slogan Sufragio Efectivo, No Re-elección ("free suffrage and no re-election ''). It declared the Díaz presidency illegal and called for revolt against Díaz, starting on 20 November 1910. Madero 's political plan did not outline major socioeconomic revolution, but it offered the hope of change for many disadvantaged Mexicans.
Madero 's plan was aimed at fomenting a popular uprising against Díaz, but he also understood that the support of the United States and U.S. financiers would be of crucial importance in undermining the regime. The rich and powerful Madero family drew on its resources to make regime change possible, with Madero 's brother Gustavo A. Madero hiring, in October 1910, the firm of Washington lawyer Sherburne Hopkins, the "world 's best rigger of Latin American revolutions '', to encourage support in the U.S. A strategy to discredit Díaz with U.S. business and the U.S. government achieved some success, with Standard Oil representatives engaging in talks with Gustavo Madero. More importantly, the U.S. government "bent neutrality laws for the revolutionaries. ''
In late 1910 revolutionary movements broke out in response to Madero 's Plan de San Luis Potosí. Madero 's vague promises of land reform in Mexico attracted many peasants throughout Mexico. Spontaneous rebellions arose in which ordinary farm laborers, miners, and other working - class Mexicans, along with much of the country 's population of indigenous natives, fought Díaz 's forces, with some success. Madero attracted the forces of rebel leaders such as Pascual Orozco, Pancho Villa, Ricardo Flores Magón, Emiliano Zapata, and Venustiano Carranza. A young and able revolutionary, Orozco, along with governor Abraham González, formed a powerful military union in the north, and, although they were not especially committed to Madero, took Mexicali and Chihuahua City. These victories encouraged alliances with other revolutionary leaders, including Pancho Villa. Against Madero 's wishes, Orozco and Villa fought for and won Ciudad Juárez, bordering El Paso, Texas, on the south side of the Rio Grande. Madero 's call to action had some unanticipated results, such as the Magonista rebellion of 1911 in Baja, California.
With the Federal Army defeated in a string of battles, Diaz 's government began negotiations with the revolutionaries. One of Madero 's representatives in the negotiations was his running mate in the 1910 elections, Francisco Vázquez Gómez. The talks culminated in the 21 May 1911 Treaty of Ciudad Juárez. The signed treaty stated that Díaz would abdicate the presidency along with his vice president Ramón Corral by the end of May 1911, to be replaced by an interim president, Francisco León de la Barra, until elections were held.
Some supporters criticized Madero for displaying weakness in not simply seizing the presidency from Diaz, and for failing to pass immediate reforms; however, by following the electoral process, Madero established a liberal democracy and received support from the United States and popular leaders such as Orozco, Villa, and Zapata. Francisco León de la Barra became interim president of Mexico, pending an election to be held in October 1911. Madero won the election decisively and was inaugurated as president in November 1911.
When Díaz left for exile in Paris, he was reported as saying, "Madero has unleashed a tiger; let us see if he can control it. ''
Madero was an inexperienced politician who had never held office before, but his election as president in October 1911, following the exile of Porfirio Díaz in May 1911 and the interim presidency of Francisco León de la Barra, raised high expectations for positive change. However, the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez guaranteed that the essential structure of the Díaz regime, including the Federal Army, was kept in place. Madero fervently held to his position that Mexico needed real democracy, which included regime change by valid election, a free press, and the right of labor to organize and strike.
The rebels who brought him to power were demobilized and Madero called on these men of action to return to civilian life. According to a story told by Pancho Villa, (one of those who had defeated Díaz 's army and forced his resignation and exile), he told Madero at a banquet in Ciudad Juárez in 1911, "You (Madero), sir, have destroyed the revolution... It 's simple: this bunch of dandies have made a fool of you, and this will eventually cost us our necks, yours included. '' Ignoring the warning, Madero increasingly relied on the Federal Army as armed rebellions broke out in Mexico in 1911 -- 1912, with particularly threatening insurrections led by Emiliano Zapata in Morelos and Pascual Orozco in the north.
The press embraced their new - found freedom and Madero became a target of their criticism. Organized labor, which had been suppressed under Díaz, could and did stage strikes, which foreign entrepreneurs saw as threatening their interests. Although there had been labor unrest under Díaz, labor 's new freedom to organize also came with anti-American currents. The anarcho - syndicalist Casa del Obrero Mundial (House of the World Worker) was founded in September 1912 by Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama, Manuel Sarabia, and Lázaro Gutiérrez de Lara and served as a center of agitation and propaganda, but it was not a formal labor union.
Political parties proliferated, one of the most important being the National Catholic Party, which in a number of regions of Mexico was particularly strong. Several Catholic newspapers were in circulation during the Madero era, including El País and La Nación, only to be later suppressed under the Victoriano Huerta regime (1913 -- 1914).
Madero did not have the experience or the ideological inclination to reward men who had helped bring him to power. Some revolutionary leaders expected personal rewards, such as the young and militarily gifted Pascual Orozco of Chihuahua. Others wanted major reforms, most especially Emiliano Zapata and Andrés Molina Enríquez, who had long worked for land reform in Mexico. Madero met personally with Zapata, telling the guerrilla leader that the agrarian question needed careful study. His meaning was clear: Madero, a member of a rich northern hacendado family, was not about to implement comprehensive agrarian reform for aggrieved peasants.
In response to this lack of action, Zapata promulgated the Plan de Ayala in November 1911, declaring himself in rebellion against Madero. He renewed guerrilla warfare in the state of Morelos. Madero sent the Federal Army to deal with Zapata, unsuccessfully. Zapata remained true to the demands of the Plan de Ayala and in rebellion against every central government up until his assassination by an agent of President Venustiano Carranza in 1919.
The brilliant northern revolutionary general Pascual Orozco, who had helped take Ciudad Juárez for the revolutionaries, had expected to become governor of Chihuahua, a powerful position. In 1911, although Orozco was "the man of the hour, '' Madero gave the governorship instead to Abraham González, a respectable revolutionary, with the explanation that Orozco had not reached the legal age to serve as governor, a tactic that was "a useful constitutional alibi for thwarting the ambitions of young, popular, revolutionary leaders. ''
Madero had put Orozco in charge of the large force of rurales in Chihuahua, but to a gifted revolutionary fighter who had helped bring about Díaz 's fall, Madero 's reward was insulting. After Madero refused to agree to social reforms calling for better working hours, pay, and conditions, Orozco organized his own army, the "Orozquistas '', also called the Colorados ("Red Flaggers ''). In early 1912 they rebelled against Madero, causing considerable dismay among U.S. businessmen and other foreign investors in the northern region. It was a signal to many that Madero 's government could not maintain the order that was the underpinning of modernization in the era of Porfirio Díaz.
In April 1912, Madero dispatched Gen. Victoriano Huerta of the Federal Army to put down Orozco 's revolt. As president, Madero had kept the Federal Army intact as an institution, using it to put down domestic rebellions against his regime. Huerta was a professional soldier and continued to serve in the Federal Army under the new commander - in - chief, but Huerta 's loyalty lay with General Bernardo Reyes rather than with the civilian Madero. In 1912, under pressure from his cabinet, Madero had called on Huerta to suppress Orozco 's rebellion. With Huerta 's success against Orozco, he emerged as a powerful figure for conservative forces opposing the Madero regime.
During the Orozco revolt, the governor of Chihuahua mobilized the state militia to support the Federal Army, and Pancho Villa, a colonel in the militia, was called up at this time. In mid-April, at the head of 400 irregular troops, he joined the forces commanded by Huerta. Huerta, however, viewed Villa as an ambitious competitor. During a visit to Huerta 's headquarters in June 1912, after an incident in which he refused to return a number of stolen horses, Villa was imprisoned on charges of insubordination and robbery and sentenced to death. Raúl Madero, the President 's brother, intervened to save Villa 's life. Jailed in Mexico City, Villa fled to the United States, later to return and play a major role in the civil wars of 1913 -- 1915.
There were other rebellions, one led by Bernardo Reyes and the other by Félix Díaz, nephew of the former president, that were quickly put down and the generals jailed. They were both in a Mexico City prison, and fomented yet another rebellion in February 1913. This period came to be known as the Ten Tragic Days (la decena trágica), which ended with Madero 's resignation and assassination and Huerta assuming the presidency. Madero placed Huerta in charge of suppressing the Mexico City revolt as interim commander. Madero did not know that Huerta had been invited to join the conspiracy but had held back. During the fighting that took place in the capital, the civilian population was subjected to artillery exchanges, street fighting, and economic disruption.
The Madero presidency was unraveling, to no one 's surprise except perhaps Madero 's, whose support continued to deteriorate, even among his political allies. Madero 's supporters in congress before the coup, the so - called Renovadores ("the renewers '') criticized Madero, saying, "The revolution is heading toward collapse and is pulling the government to which it gave rise down with it, for the simple reason that is not governing with revolutionaries. Compromises and concessions to the supporters of the old (Díaz) regime are the main causes of the unsettling situation in which the government that emerged from the revolution finds itself... The regime appears relentlessly bent on suicide. ''
Huerta allowed the rebels to hold the armory in Mexico City, the Ciudadela, while Huerta consolidated his political power. Huerta changed allegiance from Madero to the rebels under Félix Díaz (Bernardo Reyes having been killed early in the conflict). U.S. Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson, who had done all he could to undermine U.S. confidence in Madero 's presidency, brokered the Pact of the Embassy, which formalized the alliance between Félix Díaz and Huerta, with the backing of the United States. Huerta was to become provisional president of Mexico following the resignations of Madero and his vice president, José María Pino Suárez. Rather than being sent into exile with their families, the two were murdered while being transported to prison, a shocking event, but one that did not prevent the Huerta regime 's recognition by most world governments.
Madero had created no political organization that could survive his death and he had alienated and demobilized the revolutionary fighters who had helped bring him to power. In the aftermath of his assassination and Huerta 's seizure of power via military coup, former revolutionaries had no formal organization through which to raise opposition to Huerta.
Huerta 's presidency is usually characterized as a dictatorship. From the point of view of revolutionaries at the time and the construction of historical memory of the Revolution, it is without any positive aspects. "Despite recent attempts to portray Victoriano Huerta as a reformer, there is little question that he was a self - serving dictator. '' There are few biographies of Huerta, but one of these strongly asserts that Huerta should not be labeled simply as a counter-revolutionary, arguing that his regime consisted of two distinct periods: from the coup in February 1913 up to October 1913, during which time he attempted to legitimize his regime and demonstrate its legality by pursuing reformist policies; and after October 1913, when he dropped all attempts to rule within a legal framework and began murdering political opponents while battling revolutionary forces that had united in opposition to his regime.
Supporting the Huerta regime initially were business interests in Mexico, both foreign and domestic; landed elites; the Roman Catholic Church; as well as the German and British governments. Huerta 's first cabinet comprised men who had supported the February 1913 Pact of the (U.S.) Embassy, among them some who had supported Madero, such as Jesús Flores Magón; supporters of Bernardo Reyes; supporters of Félix Díaz; and Catholic former interim president Francisco León de la Barra. Initially, Huerta was even able to muster the support of Andrés Molina Enríquez, author of The Great National Problems (Los grandes problemas nacionales), a key work urging land reform in Mexico. Huerta was deeply concerned with the issue of land reform since it was a persistent spur of peasant unrest. Specifically, he moved to restore "ejido lands to the Yaquis and Mayos of Sonora and (advanced) proposals for distribution of government lands to small - scale farmers. '' When Huerta refused to move faster on land reform, Molina Enríquez disavowed the regime in June 1913, later going on to advise the 1917 constitutional convention on land reform.
Within a month of the coup, rebellion began to spread throughout Mexico, most prominently led by the governor of the state of Coahuila, Venustiano Carranza, along with Pablo González and old revolutionaries demobilized by Madero, such as Pancho Villa. Upon taking power, Huerta had moved swiftly to consolidate his hold in the North. Carranza might have counted on governor of Chihuahua Abraham González, but Huerta had him arrested and murdered for fear he would foment rebellion.
The Northern revolutionaries fought under the name of the Constitutionalist Army, with Carranza as the "First Chief '' (primer jefe). When northern general Pancho Villa became governor of Chihuahua in 1914, following the ousting of Huerta, he located González 's bones and had them reburied with full honors.
In Morelos, Emiliano Zapata continued his rebellion under the Plan of Ayala (while expunging the name of counter-revolutionary Pascual Orozco from it), calling for the expropriation of land and redistribution to peasants. Huerta offered peace to Zapata, who rejected it.
Lame duck U.S. President Taft, whose term ended 4 March 1913, left the decision of whether to recognize the new government up to the incoming president, Woodrow Wilson. Despite the urging of the U.S. ambassador, Henry Lane Wilson, who had played a key role in the coup d'état, President Wilson not only declined to recognize Huerta 's government, but first supplanted the ambassador by sending his "personal representative '' John Lind, a Swedish - American progressive who sympathized with the Mexican revolutionaries, and then, in the summer of 1913, recalled Wilson. Further, under Wilson, the United States lifted the arms embargo imposed by Taft in order to supply weapons to the landlocked rebels, since while under the complete embargo Huerta had still been able to receive shipments from the British. While urging other European powers to likewise not recognize Huerta 's government, Wilson also attempted to persuade Huerta to call prompt elections "and not present himself as a candidate. '' The United States offered Mexico a loan on the condition that Huerta accept the proposal. He refused. The envoy Lind "clearly threatened a military intervention in case the demands were not met. ''
In the summer of 1913, Mexican conservatives who had supported Huerta sought an elected civilian alternative to Huerta, brought together in body called National Unifying Junta. Political parties proliferated in this period, so that by the time of the October congressional elections there were 26. From Huerta 's point of view, the fragmentation of the conservative political landscape strengthened his own position. For the country 's conservative elite, "there was a growing disillusionment with Huerta, and disgust at his strong - arm methods. '' Huerta dispensed with the legislature on 26 October 1913, having the army surround its building and arresting congressmen perceived to be hostile to his regime. Congressional elections went ahead, but given that congress was dissolved and some members were in jail, the fervor of opposition candidates disappeared. The sham election "brought home to (Woodrow) Wilson 's administration the fatuity of relying on elections to demonstrate genuine democracy. '' The October 1913 elections were the end of any pretension to constitutional rule in Mexico, with civilian political activity banned. Prominent Catholics were arrested and Catholic newspapers were suppressed.
Huerta militarized Mexico to a greater extent than it already was. In 1913 when Huerta seized power, the army had approximately 50,000 men, but Huerta mandated the number rise to 150,000, then 200,000, and, finally in spring 1914, 250,000. Raising that number of men in so short a time would not occur with volunteers, and the army resorted to the leva, forced conscription. The revolutionary forces had no problem with voluntary recruitment. Most Mexican men avoided government conscription at all cost and the ones dragooned into the forces were sent to areas far away from home and were reluctant to fight. Conscripts deserted, mutinied, and attacked and murdered their officers.
In April 1914, American opposition to Huerta culminated in the seizure and occupation of the port of Veracruz by U.S. marines and sailors. Initially intended, in part, to prevent a German merchant vessel from delivering a shipment of arms to the Huerta regime, the muddled operation evolved into a seven - month stalemate resulting in the death of 193 Mexican soldiers, 19 American servicemen, and an unknown number of civilians. The German ship landed its cargo - largely American - made rifles, in a deal brokered by American businessmen - at a different port. U.S. forces eventually left Veracruz in the hands of the Carrancistas, but with lasting damage to U.S. - Mexican relations.
Huerta 's position continued to deteriorate. In mid-July 1914, after his army suffered several defeats, he stepped down and fled to Puerto México. Seeking to get himself and his family out of Mexico, he turned to the German government, which had generally supported his presidency; the Germans were not eager to allow him to be transported into exile on one of their ships, but relented. Huerta carried "roughly half a million marks in gold with him '' as well as paper currency and checks. In exile, Huerta sought to return to Mexico via the United States and made an alliance with his former adversary, Pascual Orozco. U.S. authorities arrested him and he was imprisoned in Fort Bliss, Texas. He died in January 1916, six months after going into exile.
His resignation marked the end of an era since the Federal Army, a spectacularly ineffective fighting force against the revolutionaries, ceased to exist. The revolutionary factions that had united in opposition to Huerta 's regime now faced a new political landscape with the counter-revolutionaries decisively defeated. The revolutionary armies now contended for power and a new era of civil war began.
With the departure of Huerta in July 1914, the revolutionary factions agreed to meet and make "a last ditch effort to avert more intense warfare than that which unseated Huerta. '' Called to meet in Mexico City in October 1914, revolutionaries opposed to Carranza 's influence successfully moved the venue to Aguascalientes. The Convention of Aguascalientes did not, in fact, reconcile the various victorious factions in the Mexican Revolution, but was a brief pause in revolutionary violence. The break between Carranza and Villa became definitive during the Convention.
Carranza had expected to be confirmed in his position as First Chief of revolutionary forces, but his supporters "lost control of the proceedings. '' Opposition to Carranza was strongest in areas where there were popular and fierce demands for reform, particularly in Chihuahua, where Villa was powerful, and Morelos, where Zapata held sway. The Convention of Aguascalientes brought that opposition out in an open forum.
The revolutionary generals of the Convention called on Carranza to resign executive power. Although Carranza agreed to do so, he laid out conditions for it. He would resign if both Pancho Villa and Emililano Zapata, his main rivals for power, would resign and go into exile, and that there should be a preconstitutionalist government "that would take charge of carrying out the social and political reforms the country needs before a fully constitutional government is reestablished. ''
Rather than First Chief Carranza being named president of Mexico at the convention, General Eulalio Gutiérrez was chosen for a term of 20 days. The convention declared Carranza in rebellion against it. Civil war resumed, this time between revolutionary armies that had fought in a united cause to oust Huerta in 1913 -- 1914. Although during the Convention Constitutionalist general Alvaro Obregón had attempted to be a moderate force and had been the one to convey the Convention 's call for Carranza to resign, when the convention forces declared Carranza in rebellion against it, Obregón supported Carranza rather than Villa and Zapata.
Northern general Pancho Villa went into alliance with southern leader Emiliano Zapata to form the Army of the Convention. Their forces moved separately on the capital and took Mexico City, which Carranza 's forces had abandoned, in December 1914. The famous picture of Zapata and Villa, with Villa sitting in the presidential chair in the National Palace, is a classic image of the Revolution. Villa is reported to have said to Zapata that the presidential "chair is too big for us. ''
In practice, the alliance between Villa and Zapata as the Army of the Convention did not function beyond this initial victory against the Constitutionalists. Villa and Zapata left the capital, with Zapata returning to his southern stronghold in Morelos, where he continued to engage in warfare under the Plan of Ayala. Lacking a firm center of power and leadership, the Convention government was plagued by instability. Villa was the real power emerging from the Convention, and he prepared to strengthen his position by winning a decisive victory against the Constitutionalist Army.
Villa had a well - earned reputation as a fierce and successful general, and the combination of forces arrayed against Carranza by Villa, other northern generals, and Zapata was larger than the Constitutionalist Army, so it was not at all clear that Carranza would prevail. Carranza had the advantage of the loyalty of Alvaro Obregón. Despite Obregón 's moderating actions at the Convention of Aguascalientes, even trying to persuade Carranza to resign his position, he ultimately sided with Carranza.
Another advantage of Carranza 's position was the Constitutionalists ' control of Veracruz, even though the United States still occupied it. The United States had concluded that both Villa and Zapata were too radical and hostile to U.S. interests and sided with the moderate Carranza in the factional fighting. The U.S. timed its exit from Veracruz, brokered at the Niagara Falls peace conference, to benefit Carranza, and allowed munitions to flow to the Constitutionalists. The U.S. granted Carranza 's government diplomatic recognition in 1915.
The rival armies of Villa and Obregón met on 6 -- 15 April 1915 in the Battle of Celaya. The frontal cavalry charges of Villa 's forces were met by the shrewd, modern military tactics of Obregón. The victory of the Constitutionalists was complete, and Carranza emerged as the political leader of Mexico, with a victorious army to keep him in that position. Villa retreated north. Carranza and the Constitutionalists consolidated their position as the winning faction, with Zapata remaining a threat until his assassination in 1919. Villa also remained a threat to the Constitutionalists, complicating their relationship with the United States when he raided Columbus, New Mexico in March 1916, prompting the U.S. to send a Punitive Expedition to capture him.
Venustiano Carranza had proclaimed the Plan of Guadalupe a month after Victoriano Huerta seized power in February 1913, uniting northern factions into a movement to oust Huerta, especially under generals Alvaro Obregón and Pancho Villa. Huerta went into exile in July 1914 and the revolutionary factions sought to decide Mexico 's political future in the Convention of Aguascalientes. Villa broke with Carranza and went into alliance with Emiliano Zapata. General Obregón remained loyal to Carranza and led the Constitutionalist Army to victory over Villa in the Battle of Celaya in April 1915.
Carranza had gained recognition from the United States, which enabled arms sales to his forces. Villa had previously been friendly toward the U.S., but its recognition of Carranza, as well as Villa 's decisive defeat at Celaya, finished him as a major force in Mexico. In 1916, Villa attacked Columbus, New Mexico. Under heavy pressure from public opinion to punish the attackers (stoked mainly by the papers of ultra-conservative publisher William Randolph Hearst, who owned a large estate in Mexico), U.S. President Wilson sent Gen. John J. Pershing and around 5000 troops into Mexico in an attempt to capture Villa. The American intervention, known as the Punitive Expedition, was limited to the western sierras of Chihuahua, and was notable as the U.S. Army 's first use of airplanes in military operations. Villa knew the inhospitable terrain intimately and had little trouble evading his pursuers. After nearly a year the hunt was called off, and Pershing 's force returned to the U.S. Carranza asserted Mexican sovereignty and forced the U.S. to withdraw in 1917.
With the outbreak of World War I in Europe in 1914, foreign powers with significant economic and strategic interests in Mexico -- particularly the U.S., Great Britain, and Germany -- made efforts to sway Mexico to their side, but Mexico maintained a policy of neutrality. In the Zimmermann Telegram, a coded cable from the German government to Carranza 's government, Germany attempted to draw Mexico into war with the United States, which was itself neutral at the time. Carranza did not pursue this policy, but the leaking of the telegram pushed the U.S. into war against Germany in 1917.
The 1913 Plan of Guadalupe was narrowly political, but Carranza sought to consolidate his position with support of the masses by policies of social and agrarian reform. As revolutionary violence subsided in 1916, leaders met to draw up a new constitution, thus making principles for which many of the revolutionaries had fought into law. The Mexican Constitution of 1917 was strongly nationalist, giving the Mexican government the power to expropriate foreign ownership of resources and enabling land reform (Article 27). It also had a strong code protecting organized labor (Article 123), and extended state power over the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico in its role in education (Article 3).
Although villistas and zapatistas were excluded from the Constituent Congress, their political challenge pushed the delegates to radicalize the Constitution, which in turn was far more radical than Carranza himself. While he was elected constitutional president in 1917, he did not implement its most radical elements. He was not in a position to do so in any case, since there were still threats to his regime regionally, despite the relative subsidence of violence nationally.
The Constitutionalist Army was renamed the "Mexican National Army '' and Carranza sent some of its most able generals to eliminate threats. In Morelos, Carranza sent General Pablo González Garza to fight Zapata 's Liberating Army of the South. Although the peasants of Morelos under Emiliano Zapata had not expanded beyond their local region of Morelos and parts of the state of Puebla, Carranza sought to eliminate Zapata. Morelos was very close to Mexico City and not having it under Carranza 's control constituted a vulnerability for his government. Agents of the Carranza regime assassinated Zapata in 1919. Carranza sent Generals Francisco Murguía and Manuel M. Diéguez to track down and eliminate Villa. They were unsuccessful, but did capture and execute one of Villa 's top men, Felipe Angeles.
Carranza pushed for the rights of women and gained women 's support. During his presidency, Carranza relied on his personal secretary and close aide, Hermila Galindo de Topete, to rally and secure support for him. Through her efforts he was able to gain the support of women, workers and peasants. Carranza rewarded her efforts by lobbying for women 's equality. He helped change and reform the legal status of women in Mexico.
After all the bloodshed of the revolution concerning the principle of no - re-election, it was politically impossible for Carranza to run again. Carranza chose to back Ignacio Bonillas, a civilian and political unknown. For Northern generals Alvaro Obregón, Plutarco Elías Calles, and Adolfo de la Huerta, who had fought successfully for the revolution, the candidacy of a civilian and potential Carranza puppet was untenable. They led a revolt against Carranza under the Plan of Agua Prieta. Carranza attempted to flee the country and died on the way to the Gulf Coast.
Carranza 's attempt to impose his civilian candidate for the 1920 election and the opposition of the generals who had ousted him meant that Carranza was not honored as a revolutionary hero in the 1920s and 30s, and Carrancismo was seen as a "deviation '', "the tragic interim of the Carrancista period during which the values of la Revolución were transmuted and for a time defeated. '' His remains were not placed in the Monument to the Revolution until 1942, when Manuel Ávila Camacho was president.
Emiliano Zapata was one of the leading figures in the Mexican Revolution and is now considered one of the national heroes of Mexico: towns, streets and housing developments named "Emiliano Zapata '' are common across the country. His image has been used on Mexican banknotes and there is a Zapata Metro station in Mexico City. Opposed to the Porfirio Díaz regime because of the loss of peasant lands to large haciendas in Morelos, Zapata initially supported Francisco I. Madero, whose Plan de San Luis Potosí promised the return of such lands. When Madero did not implement his promise after becoming president of Mexico, Zapata rebelled against him under the Plan de Ayala.
Many peasants and indigenous Mexicans admired Zapata as a practical revolutionary whose populist battle cry, "Tierra y Libertad '' (Land and Liberty), was spelled out in the Plan de Ayala for land reform. He fought for political and economic emancipation of the peasants in southern and central Mexico. Zapata was killed in 1919, by Gen. Pablo González and his aide, Col. Jesús Guajardo, in an elaborate ambush. Guajardo set up the meeting under the pretext of wanting to defect to Zapata 's side. At the meeting, González 's men assassinated Zapata.
"Zapatista '' originally referred to a member of the revolutionary guerrilla movement founded about 1910 by Zapata. His Liberation Army of the South (Ejército Libertador del Sur) fought during the Mexican Revolution for the redistribution of agricultural land. Zapata and his army and allies, including Pancho Villa, fought for agrarian reform in Mexico. Specifically, they wanted to establish communal land rights for Mexico 's peasants, who had lost their land to the wealthy elite.
The majority of Zapata 's supporters were indigenous peasants from Morelos and surrounding areas, but intellectuals from urban areas later joined the Zapatistas and played a significant part in their movement, specifically the structure and communication of the Zapatista ambitions. Zapata himself had received a limited education in Morelos, only going to school for a few years. Educated supporters helped express his political aims. The urban intellectuals were known as "city boys '' and were predominantly young males. They joined the Zapatistas for many reasons, including curiosity, sympathy, and ambition.
Zapata agreed that intellectuals could work on political strategy, but he had the chief role in proclaiming Zapatista ideology. The supporters from the cities also provided medical care, helped promote and instruct supporters in Zapatista ideology, created a plan for agrarian reform, aided in rebuilding villages destroyed by government forces, wrote manifestos and sent messages from Zapata to other revolutionary leaders.
Zapata 's compadre Otilio Montaño was one of the most prominent intellectuals. Before the Revolution Montaño was a professor. During the Revolution he taught Zapatismo, recruited citizens and wrote the Plan de Ayala for land reform. Other well - known intellectuals were Abraham Martínez, Manuel Palafox, Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama, Pablo Torres Burgos, Gildardo Magaña, Dolores Jiménez y Muro, Enrique Villa and Genaro Amezcua.
Since Zapata 's political ambitions and campaign were usually local, women were able to aid the Zapatista soldiers from their homes. There were also female Zapatista soldiers who served from the beginning of the revolution. When Zapata met with President Madero on 12 July 1911, he was accompanied by his troops. Among them were female soldiers, including officers. Women joined the Zapatistas as soldiers for various reasons, including revenge for dead family members or to perform raids.
Perhaps the most popular Zapatista female soldier was Margarita Neri, who was a commander. Some of the Zapatista women soldiers were killed in battle, and long after the revolution ended many continued to wear men 's clothing and carry pistols. Col. María de la Luz Espinosa Barrera was one of the few whose service was formally recognized with a pension as a veteran of the Mexican Revolution.
Under the Porfiriato, rural peasants suffered the most. The regime confiscated large sections of land, which caused major losses to the agrarian work force. In 1883 the government passed a land law giving ownership of more than 27.5 million hectares of land to foreign companies. By 1894 one out of every five acres of Mexican land was owned by a foreign interest. Many wealthy Mexican families already owned huge estates, resulting in landless rural peasants working on the property as virtual slaves. In 1910 at the beginning of the revolution, about half of the rural population lived and worked on such plantations. The rapid and brutal uprooting of the peasantry contributed greatly to the violent furies unleashed in the Mexican Revolution and its subsequent course, giving it the character of a gigantic peasant war for land that attacked the structure of the Mexican state.
Salvador Alvarado, after taking control of Yucatán in 1915, organized a large Socialist Party and carried out extensive land reform. He confiscated the large landed estates and redistributed the land in smaller plots to the liberated peasants.
Maximo Castillo, a revolutionary brigadier general from Chihuahua was annoyed by the slow pace of land reform under the Madero presidency. He ordered the subdivision of six haciendas belonging to Luis Terrazas, which were given to sharecroppers and tenants.
The first time the United States intervened in the revolution was in 1914, during the Ypiranga incident. When United States intelligence agents received word that the Ypiranga, a German merchant ship, contained illegal firepower for Huerta, President Wilson ordered American troops to the port of Veracruz to stop the ship from docking. Wilson never actually declared war on Mexico. The United States skirmished with Huerta 's troops in Veracruz. The Ypiranga successfully docked at another port and unloaded the arms, which greatly angered Wilson. The ABC Powers arbitrated and U.S. troops left Mexican soil, but the incident added to already tense Mexican - American relations.
In 1916, in retaliation for Pancho Villa 's plunder on Columbus, New Mexico, and the death of 16 United States citizens who were killed when a group of Villistas attacked a train on the Mexico North Western Railway, near Santa Isabel, Chihuahua, President Wilson sent forces commanded by Brig. Gen. John J. Pershing into Mexico to capture Villa. Villa was deeply entrenched in the mountains of northern Mexico, and knew the terrain too well to be captured. Pershing could not continue with his mission and was forced to turn back. This event not only damaged the fragile United States - Mexico relationship, but also gave way to a rise in anti-American sentiment among the Mexicans.
From 1876 -- 1911, relations between the Roman Catholic Church and the Mexican government were stable, with the anticlerical laws of the Mexican Constitution of 1857 remaining in place, but not enforced, so conflict was muted.
During Francisco I. Madero 's presidency (1911 -- 1913), Church - state conflict was channeled peacefully. The National Catholic Party became an important political opposition force during the Madero presidency. In June 1912 congressional elections, "militarily quiescent states... the Catholic Party (PCN) did conspicuously well. '' During that period, the Catholic Association of Mexican Youth (ACJM) was founded. Although the National Catholic Party was an opposition party to the Madero regime, "Madero clearly welcomed the emergence of a kind of two party system (Catholic and liberal); he encouraged Catholic political involvement, echoing the exhortations of the episcopate. '' What was emerging during the Madero regime was "Díaz 's old policy of Church - state detente was being continued, perhaps more rapidly and on surer foundations. '' The Catholic Church was working within the new democratic system promoted by Madero, but it had its own interests to promote, some of which were the forces of the old conservative Church, while the new, progressive Church supporting social Catholicism of the 1891 papal encyclical Rerum Novarum was also a current. When Madero was overthrown in February 1913 by counter-revolutionaries, the conservative wing of the Church supported the coup.
During the counter-revolutionary regime of Huerta (1913 -- 1914), the Catholic Church initially supported him. "The Church represented a force for reaction, especially in the countryside. '' However, when Huerta cracked down on political parties and conservative opposition to Huerta. Huerta had "Gabriel Somellera, president of the (National) Catholic Party arrested; La Nación, which, like other Catholic papers, had protested Congress 's dissolution and the rigged elections (of October 1913), locked horns with the official press and was finally closed down. El País, the main Catholic newspaper, survived for a time. ''
In 1916, the revolution was drawing to a close. Carranza was gaining support from peasants with the promise of a new constitution. This caused Emiliano Zapata 's forces to lose some support, pushing their forces further south. Later that year, Carranza also sent General Gonzales after Zapata, causing further troubles for his Liberation Army of the South. In 1917, the situation was growing worse for Zapata.
Zapata was low on supplies and his lines were moving further south. However, a colonel named Jesús Guajardo from the Federal Army approached him, offering to join with Zapata 's forces. Zapata had misgivings, as previous defectors and former Federal Army generals had betrayed him before. To test Guajardo 's loyalty, Zapata had him attack one of Carranza 's strongholds, which he carried out successfully.
As the war went on in 1919, Zapata began to run out of essential supplies, such as ammunition, and decided to acquire them from Guajardo. Zapata went to Guajardo 's camp to negotiate with the colonel, whom he had not met before. However, Zapata had walked into a trap. Guajardo 's soldiers attacked Zapata, killing him and routing his forces. Venustiano Carranza rewarded Guajardo with a promotion to general and a cash prize of 100,000 pesos for having "successfully completed the difficult commission that was conferred to him. ''
Later that year, Carranza assembled the constitutional convention drafting the new constitution. With this, Carranza also gained support of the communists and anarchists, who were formed into Red Battalions to confront the forces of Villa and those remaining of Zapata 's. This further turned the tide, causing Villa to surrender in 1920. He negotiated a peace deal with Carranza, ending all hostilities and granting him a small estate, thus ending the war.
Later that year, Carranza held elections for the presidency. Alvaro Obregón, Carranza 's best general and a reformist who pushed for the new constitution, was to oppose him for the seat. Carranza orchestrated a sham election, allowing Ignacio Bonillas to win. Carranza then fled to Guerrero where he staged a short coup to bring him into the presidency but was killed on horseback while fleeing from Mexico City to Veracruz.
One of the major issues that faced Alvaro Obregón 's early post-revolution government was stabilizing Mexico. Regional caciques (chiefs) were still fighting each other in small skirmishes. The populace was demanding reforms, promised by the 1917 constitution. Many issues faced the working poor, such as debt peonage and company stores that kept the populace poor. The military had generals who wanted to overthrow the regime and take power for themselves. There were also foreign governments, primarily the United States, who feared Mexico would take a communist turn such as Russia was to do in 1918. Obregón was in a difficult position; he had to appeal to both the left and the right to ensure Mexico would not fall back into civil war.
With regard to the masses, Obregón, who was conservative but still a reformer, started listening to demands to appease the populace. Obregón 's first focus, in 1920, was land reform. He had governors in various states push forward the reforms promised in the 1917 constitution. These were, however, quite limited. Former Zapatistas still had strong influence in the post-revolutionary government, so most of the reforms began in Morelos, the birthplace of the Zapatista movement.
Despite pressures from the U.S., Obregón flirted with the newly formed USSR. To appeal to intellectuals and left - leaning peasants, official Mexican propaganda began having a very Marxist spin. Murals with Lenin and Trotsky began to appear in government buildings. Despite the sympathy towards socialism, the government began to ferment nationalism amongst the peasantry. This was accomplished by memorializing revolutionary figures and creating anti-western murals. Among the artists employed was Diego Rivera, who had a Mexican nationalist and Marxist tinge to his government murals. Despite these moves towards an anti-western and pro-socialist regime, Obregón did not separate the Mexican economy from foreign capitalists, allowing free trade with some restrictions.
Regarding the military, one of his first moves was to incorporate the irregulars who fought in the revolution. He tried to weaken the powers of the ultra-conservative officer corps, who were not friendly to his regime. Some of his reforms began to anger the officer corps, leading to an attempted coup in 1924 that Obregón was able to crush with relative ease.
Shortly after the failed coup, Obregón 's term ended and Sonoran revolutionary Plutarco Elías Calles took power. In an attempt to buffer his regime against further coups, Calles began arming peasants and factory workers with surplus weapons. He continued other reforms pushed by his predecessor, such as land reform and anti-clerical laws to prevent the Catholic Church from influencing the state.
One such move, in regard to land reform, was to nationalize most farmland and give it to the peasants across Mexico. He also put into effect a national school system that was largely secular to combat church influence in late 1924. After two years the church protested the movement by refusing to give the blessed sacrament to the populace. Some peasants also joined in the protests, adding greater land reforms to the list of demands by the rebelling priests. The rebellion was openly supported by the Catholic Church and received funding, beginning the Cristero War.
Meanwhile, in 1927, another military coup was attempted, this time receiving support from land owners. Calles quickly crushed the rebellion with help from the newly mobilized peasant battalions, who later on were used to fight against the Church. In the midst of the mobilized worker 's militias, land reform, and anti-church actions, the American government began to openly declare Mexico a Bolshevik regime. To recover from the backlash, Calles began to tone down the radical rhetoric and slowed land reform policies in 1928. A year later, Calles defeated the church ending the rebellion.
After the war ended in 1929, supporters of Calles and Obregón began to form a united political party called the National Revolutionary Party or PNR. This was to unite the various revolutionary factions of the civil war to prevent further Cristero revolts and build stability.
After a series of interim presidents controlled by the party, Lázaro Cárdenas took power in 1934. Cárdenas was a socialist and began to base government policy on class struggle and empowering the masses. However, not all of his reforms were completely socialist, making him somewhat more centrist than purely socialist. Regardless, his rule was the most radical phase of the post revolution, social revolution.
His first acts of reform in 1935, were aimed towards peasants. Former strongmen within the land owning community were losing political power, so he began to side with the peasants more and more. He also tried to further centralize the government 's power by removing regional caciques, allowing him to push reforms easier. To fill the political vacuum, Cárdenas helped the formation of PNR sponsored peasant leagues, empowering both peasants and the government.
Other reforms included nationalization of key industries such as petroleum, land, and the railroads. To appease workers, Cárdenas furthered provisions to end debt peonage and company stores, which were largely eliminated under his rule, except in the most backwater areas of Mexico. To prevent conservative factions in the military from plotting and to put idle soldiers to work, Cárdenas mobilized the military to build public works projects. That same year another Cristero revolt occurred. This was partially caused by Cárdenas ' mandate for secular education early in his presidency in 1934. The revolt was quickly put down due to lack of official support from the Catholic Church, who told rebels to surrender themselves to the government.
The next year, 1936, to further stabilize his rule, Cárdenas further armed the peasants and workers and begins to organize them into formal militias. This proved to be useful later in his presidency as the militias came to his aid in the final military coup in revolutionary Mexico in 1938.
Seeing no opposition from the bourgeoisie, generals, or conservative landlords, in 1936 Cárdenas began building collective farms called ejidos to help the peasantry, mostly in southern Mexico. These appeased the peasants, creating long - lasting stability; however, they were not very good at feeding large populations, causing an urban food crisis. To alleviate this, Cárdenas co-opted the support of capitalists to build large commercial farms to feed the urban population. This put the final nail in the coffin of the feudal hacienda system, making Mexico a mixed economy, combining agrarian socialism and industrial capitalism by 1940. Cárdenas left office in 1940, marking the end of the social revolution and ushering in half a century of relative stability.
Mexico continues to consider the meaning of the Revolution. The construction of historical memory is manifested in the built landscape, such as the Monument to the Revolution in Mexico City, names of Mexico City Metro stations, and names of towns and neighborhoods of major cities. Mexican banknotes also commemorate Mexican revolutionaries, most prominently Plutarco Elías Calles, revolutionary general, president of Mexico, and founder of the political party that has dominated Mexico almost continuously from 1919. Lázaro Cárdenas, revolutionary general and president of Mexico, who is often credited with revitalizing the Revolution, is commemorated on a banknote. In 1996, low denomination Mexican peso notes were printed with the image of peasant revolutionary Emiliano Zapata. The banknotes were withdrawn in 1997. The obverse of the withdrawn banknote depicted the Zapata statue erected in Cuautla in 1932 by Oliverio Martínez showing Zapata in full charro attire seated on a fine horse, placing his hand on the shoulder of a peasant with a machete.
The Monument to the Revolution was created from the partially built Palacio Legislativo, a major project of Díaz 's government. The construction was abandoned with the outbreak of the Revolution in 1910. In 1933 during the Maximato of Plutarco Elías Calles the shell was re-purposed to commemorate the Revolution. Buried in the four pillars are the remains of Francisco I. Madero, Venustiano Carranza, Plutarco Elías Calles, Lázaro Cárdenas, and Francisco (Pancho) Villa. In life, Villa fought Carranza and Calles, but his remains were transferred to the monument in 1979 during the administration of President José López Portillo.
Emiliano Zapata is buried in Cuautla, Morelos, near where he was assassinated in 1919. Since 1920 yearly ceremonies commemorate his assassination at his grave. In 1923, as president of Mexico, Álvaro Obregón sent an envoy to the ceremony in Cuautla and paid the expenses of other officials from the capital to attend.
Another revolutionary monument is to General Álvaro Obregón, who defeated Villa in the 1915 Battle of Celaya; the monument is on the site of the restaurant La Bombilla, where he was assassinated in 1928. Obregón 's preserved arm was entombed there, in "the world 's tallest mausoleum '', a "huge Stalinist chimney commissioned by Aarón Sáenz, '' located off Insurgentes Sur in Mexico City. The Monument to Álvaro Obregón was completed in 1935, during the presidential term of fellow revolutionary general Lázaro Cárdenas and contained Obregón 's arm, preserved in formaldehyde container. In 1989, the government announced the arm would be cremated.
The Mexico City Metro has stations commemorating aspects of the Revolution and the revolutionary era. When it opened in 1969, with line 1 (the "Pink Line ''), two stations alluded to the Revolution. Most directly referencing the Revolution was Metro Pino Suárez, named after Francisco I. Madero 's vice president, who was murdered with him in February 1913. The other was Metro Balderas, whose icon is a cannon, alluding to the Ciudadela armory where the coup against Madero was launched. In 1970, Metro Revolución opened, with the station at the Monument to the Revolution. As the Metro expanded, further stations with names from the revolutionary era opened. In 1980, two popular heroes of the Revolution were honored, with Metro Zapata explicitly commemorating the peasant revolutionary from Morelos. A sideways commemoration was Metro División del Norte, named after the Army that Pancho Villa commanded until its demise in the Battle of Celaya in 1915. The year 1997 saw the opening of the Metro Lázaro Cárdenas station. In 1988, Metro Aquiles Serdán honors the first martyr of the Revolution Aquiles Serdán. In 1994, Metro Constitución de 1917 opened, as did Metro Garibaldi, named after the grandson of Italian fighter for independence, Giuseppi Garibaldi. The grandson had been a participant in the Mexican Revolution. In 1999, the radical anarchist Ricardo Flores Magón was honored with the Metro Ricardo Flores Magón station. Also opening in 1999 was Metro Romero Rubio, named after the leader of Porfirio Díaz 's Científicos, whose daughter Carmen Romero Rubio became Díaz 's second wife. In 2012, a new Metro line opened with a Metro Hospital 20 de Noviembre stop, a hospital named after the date that Francisco I. Madero in his 1910 Plan de San Luis Potosí, called for rebellion against Díaz. There is no Metro stop named for Madero, or for Carranza, Obregón, or Calles, and only an oblique reference to Villa in Metro División del Norte.
In Mexico City, there are colonias (boroughs) named for Alvaro Obregón, Venustiano Carranza, and Gustavo A. Madero, brother of murdered president Francisco I. Madero. There is a portion of the old colonial street Calle de los Plateros leading to the main square zócalo of the capital named Francisco I. Madero.
The popular heroes of the Mexican Revolution are the two radicals who lost: Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. Dynamic equestrian statues of popular revolutionaries Zapata and Villa were erected in their respective strongholds. Zapata 's name was appropriated by the rebels of Chiapas, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) while those who took and held power have a far more muted historical remembrance. Venustiano Carranza led the victorious Constitutionalist faction, but his attempt to impose a civilian presidential successor unacceptable to northern revolutionary generals prompted Carranza 's flight from Mexico City in 1920 and then murder. Carranza is now buried in the Monument to the Revolution and there is a museum in his honor. In that museum, "are the bullets taken from the body of Francisco I. Madero after his murder. Carranza had kept them in his home, perhaps because they were a symbol of a fate and a passive denouement he had always hoped to avoid. '' Revolutionary general Plutarco Elías Calles founded the single-most political party in Mexico 's twentieth century, but his attempt to continue his control to the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas resulted in Cárdenas expelling him from Mexico. Neither Carranza nor Calles has much of note named for them in Mexico, although both are significant figures in the country 's history.
The role of women in the Mexican Revolution has been an important aspect of historical memory. In the Historical Museum of the Mexican Revolution, there is a recreation of Adelita, the idealized female revolutionary combatant or soldadera. The typical image of a soldadera is of a woman with braids, wearing female attire, with ammunition belts across her chest. There were a few revolutionary women, known as coronelas who commanded troops, some of whom dressed and identified as male, who do not fit the image stereotypical soldadera and are not celebrated in historical memory at present.
An important element the Revolution 's legacy is the 1917 Constitution. It was pushed forward by populist generals within Carranza 's government to undermine the popular support that Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata held. It was not written by liberal elites or the military itself, but rather young radicalized professionals, giving the document some authenticity for the peasantry. The document brought numerous reforms demanded by populist factions of the revolution, with article 27 empowering the state to expropriate resources deemed vital to the nation. These included expropriation of hacienda lands and redistribution to peasants. Article 27 also empowered the government to expropriate holdings of foreign companies, most prominently seen in the 1938 expropriation of oil. In Article 123 the constitution codified major labor reforms, including an 8 - hour work day, a right to strike, equal pay laws for women, and an end to exploitative practices such as child labor and company stores. The constitution strengthened restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico. In the early 1990s, the government introduced reforms to the constitution that rolled back the government 's power to expropriate property and its restrictions on religious institutions. Just as the government of Carlos Salinas de Gortari was amending significant provisions of the constitution, Metro Constitución de 1917 station was opened.
The PRI, or Institutional Revolutionary Party is one of the major lasting legacies of the Mexican Revolution; its first iteration was the Partido Nacional Revolucionario founded in 1929 under Northern revolutionary general and president of Mexico (1924 -- 1928) Plutarco Elías Calles, following the assassination of president - elect (and former president) Álvaro Obregón in 1928. The establishment of the party created an enduring structure that managed not only presidential succession but also groups with competing interests. Initially, Calles remained the power behind the presidency during a period known as the Maximato, but his hand - picked presidential candidate, Lázaro Cárdenas, won a power struggle with Calles, expelling him from the country. Cárdenas reorganized the party that Calles founded, creating formal sectors for interest groups, including one for the Mexican military. The reorganized party was named Party of the Mexican Revolution. In 1946, the party again changed its name to the Institutional Revolutionary Party. The party under its various names held the presidency from 1929 to 2000 and since 2012, is the party again in power.
The PRI was built as a big tent corporatist party, to bring many political factions and interest groups (peasantry, labor, urban professionals) together, while excluding conservatives and Catholics, who eventually formed the opposition National Action Party in 1939.
To funnel the populace into the party, Calles and his supporters built various delegations composed of popular, agrarian, labor, and military groupings (the military was dropped from the party when it reorganized as the PRI in 1946), which channeled both political patronage and limited political options of those sectors. This structure strengthened the power of the PRI and the government. Union and peasant leaders themselves gained power of patronage, and the discontent of the membership was channeled through them. If organizational leaders could not resolve a situation or gain benefits for their members, it was they who were blamed for being ineffective brokers. There was the appearance of union and peasant leagues ' power, but the effective power was in the hands of the PRI. Under PRI leadership before the 2000 elections which saw the conservative National Action Party elected most power came from a Central Executive Committee, which budgeted all government projects. This effectively turned the legislature into a rubber stamp for the PRI 's leadership.
The Party 's name expresses the Mexican state 's incorporation of the idea of revolution, and especially a continuous, nationalist, anti-imperialist, Mexican revolution, into political discourse, and its legitimization as a popular, revolutionary party. The Revolution was a powerful memory and its slogans and promises were utilized to bolster the party 's power. Latterly, some historians have written of the "myth '' of the revolution, namely the memory of the revolution was exploited by the party to legitimatize its rule with one historian Macario Schettino writing: "the twentieth century is for Mexico, the century of the Mexican revolution. But this is a concept, not a fact. The Revolution which marks the twentieth century... never happened. The Mexican Revolution, on which was founded the political regime which ruled from 1928 and for nearly seventy years is a cultural construction ''. In 1975, the political scientist Rafael Segovia wrote that "the mythification of the Mexican Revolution is an omnipresent and indisputable fact '' of Mexican life with the memory of the revolution becoming in the words of the British historian Alan Knight a sort of "secular religion '' that justified the Party 's rule. In particular, the memory of the revolution was used as justification for the party 's policies with regard to economic nationalism, educational policies, labour policies, indigenismo and land reform.
The Party has been very authoritarian and hierarchical, leaving little room for opposition. However, it was not interested in oppression for its own sake. Its main goal was to keep order, preferring pragmatism over ideology. Throughout its rule in post-revolutionary Mexico, it avoided empowering one faction too much, preferring to build its own ruling caste rather than side with another. It tended to play off both sides of the political spectrum, both the populists and the emerging middle class.
The tradition of strong - man rule was not completely thrown away, presidentialism (presidencialismo), the political arrangement of a powerful executive branch centered in the presidency, became the favored style of post-revolutionary politics.
In 1988, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of president Lázaro Cárdenas, broke with the PRI, forming an independent leftist party, the Party of the Democratic Revolution, or PRD. It is not by chance that the party used the word "Revolution '' in its name, challenging the Institutional Revolutionary Party 's appropriation of the Mexican Revolution. Earlier, there was a leftist party the Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution, which never functioned as a full political party fielding presidential candidates, but asserted its legitimacy as the party of Revolution in Mexico until its demise.
In this the Mexican Revolution was not revolutionary, only making the mechanisms of power less autocratic and more efficient in the attainment of its interests. Octavio Paz wrote that the revolution strengthened the Mexican state more than ever, making Mexico a very state - centered and patrimonialist society. In such a development they betrayed their acknowledged liberal predecessors of the Restored Republic of 1867 -- 1876 which saw the most significant break from authoritarian politics in Mexico 's history.
A more modern legacy is that of another insurgency from the 1990s, taking its name from Emiliano Zapata, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (Ejécito Zapatista de Liberación Nacional). The neo-Zapatista revolt began in Chiapas, which was very reliant and supportive of the revolutionary reforms, especially the ejido system, which it had pioneered before Cárdenas took power. Most revolutionary gains were reversed in the early 1990s by President Salinas, who began moving away from the agrarian socialist policies of the late post revolution period in favor of modern finance capitalism. This culminated in the removal of the ejido system in Chiapas. The destruction of what little the poor starving peasants had caused them to revolt. Calling to Mexico 's revolutionary heritage, the EZLN draws heavily from early revolutionary rhetoric. It is inspired by many of Zapata 's policies, including a call for decentralized local rule.
The Mexican Revolution brought about various social changes. First, the leaders of the Porfiriato lost their political power (but kept their economic power), and the middle class started to enter the public administration. "At this moment the bureaucrat, the government officer, the leader were born (...) ''. The army opened the sociopolitical system and became the main institution of the Revolution. Its importance can be observed in the percentage of government positions occupied by the military: while during Madero 's administration it was 0 %, during Calles ' government it was from 50 % to 60 %. The new ruling class increased its economic power through the possession of real estate and businesses. Nonetheless, they did not become a long - investment type of bourgeoisie, but rather one that amassed a significant number of real estate and spent their money on luxuries and pleasure.
On the other hand, although the proportion between rural and urban population, and the number of workers and the middle class remained practically the same, the Mexican Revolution brought substantial qualitative changes to the cities. Big rural landlords moved to the city escaping from chaos in the rural areas. Some poor farmers also migrated to the cities and they settled on neighborhoods where the Porfiriato elite used to live. The standard of living in the cities grew: it went from contributing to 42 % of the national GDP to 60 % by 1940. However, social inequality remained.
The greatest change occurred among the rural population. The agrarian reform allowed the revolutionary fighters to own lands, thus creating a new social class known as "ejidatarios ''. However, the structure of land ownership did not help rural development and impoverished even more the rural population. "From 1934 to 1940 wages fell 25 % on rural areas, while for city workers wages increased by 20 % ''. "There was a lack of food, there was not much to sell and even less to buy. (...) the habit of sleeping in the floor remains, (...) diet is limited to beans, tortilla, and chili pepper; clothing is poor ''. Peasants temporarily migrated to other regions to work in the production of certain crops where they were frequently exploited, abused, and suffered from various diseases. Others decided to migrate to the United States.
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the area between the tigris and euphrates rivers is referred to as what | Tigris -- Euphrates river system - wikipedia
The Tigris and Euphrates, with their tributaries, form a major river system in Western Asia. From sources originating in the Armenian Highlands of eastern Turkey they flow by / through Syria through Iraq into the Persian Gulf. The system is part of the Palearctic Tigris -- Euphrates ecoregion, which includes Iraq and parts of Turkey, Syria, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Jordan.
From their sources and upper courses in the mountains of eastern Anatolia, the rivers descend through valleys and gorges to the uplands of Syria and northern Iraq and then to the alluvial plain of central Iraq. The rivers flow in a south - easterly direction through the central plain and combine at Al - Qurnah to form the Shatt al - Arab and discharge into the Persian Gulf.
The region has historical importance as part of the Fertile Crescent region, in which civilization is believed to have first emerged.
The ecoregion is characterized by two large rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates. The rivers have several small tributaries which feed into the system from shallow freshwater lakes, swamps, and marshes, all surrounded by desert. The hydrology of these vast marshes is extremely important to the ecology of the entire upper Persian Gulf. Historically, the area is known as Mesopotamia. As part of the larger Fertile Crescent, it saw the earliest emergence of literate urban civilization in the Uruk period, for which reason it is often described as a "Cradle of Civilization ''.
In the 1980s, this ecoregion was put in grave danger as the Iran -- Iraq War raged within its boundaries. The wetlands of Iraq, which were inhabited by the Marsh Arabs, were almost completely dried out, and have only recently shown signs of recovery.
The Tigris -- Euphrates Basin is shared by Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran and Kuwait. Many Tigris tributaries originate in Iran and a Tigris -- Euphrates confluence forms part of the Kuwait -- Iraq border. Since the 1960s and in the 1970s, when Turkey began the GAP project in earnest, water disputes have regularly occurred in addition to the associated dam 's effects on the environment. In addition, Syrian and Iranian dam construction has also contributed to political tension within the basin, particularly during drought.
The general climate of the region is subtropical, hot and arid. At the northern end of the Persian Gulf is the vast floodplain of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Karun Rivers, featuring huge permanent lakes, marshes, and forest. The aquatic vegetation includes reeds, rushes, and papyrus, which support numerous species. Areas around the Tigris and the Euphrates are very fertile. Marshy land is home to water birds, some stopping here while migrating, and some spending the winter in these marshes living off the lizards, snakes, frogs, and fish. Other animals found in these marshes are water buffalo, two endemic rodent species, antelopes and gazelles and small animals such as the jerboa and several other mammals.
Iraq suffers from desertification and soil salination due in large part to thousands of years of agricultural activity. Water and plant life are sparse. Saddam Hussein 's government water - control projects drained the inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah by drying up or diverting streams and rivers. Shi'a Muslims were displaced under the Ba'athist regime. The destruction of the natural habitat poses serious threats to the area 's wildlife populations. There are also inadequate supplies of potable water.
The marshlands were an extensive natural wetlands ecosystem which developed over thousands of years in the Tigris -- Euphrates basin and once covered 15 -- 20,000 square kilometers. According to the United Nations Environmental Program and the AMAR Charitable Foundation, between 84 % and 90 % of the marshes have been destroyed since the 1970s. In 1994, 60 percent of the wetlands were destroyed by Hussein 's regime -- drained to permit military access and greater political control of the native Marsh Arabs. Canals, dykes and dams were built routing the water of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers around the marshes, instead of allowing water to move slowly through the marshland. After part of the Euphrates was dried up due to re-routing its water to the sea, a dam was built so water could not back up from the Tigris and sustain the former marshland. Some marshlands were burned and pipes buried underground helped to carry away water for quicker drying.
The drying of the marshes led to the disappearance of the salt - tolerant vegetation; the plankton rich waters that fertilized surrounding soils; 52 native fish species; the wild boar, red fox, buffalo and water birds of the marsh habitat.
The issue of water rights became a point of contention for Iraq, Turkey and Syria beginning in the 1960s when Turkey implemented a public - works project (the GAP project) aimed at harvesting the water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers through the construction of 22 dams, for irrigation and hydroelectric energy purposes. Although the water dispute between Turkey and Syria was more problematic, the GAP project was also perceived as a threat by Iraq. The tension between Turkey and Iraq about the issue was increased by the effect of Syria and Turkey 's participation in the UN embargo against Iraq following the Gulf War. However, the issue had never become as significant as the water dispute between Turkey and Syria.
The 2008 drought in Iraq sparked new negotiations between Iraq and Turkey over trans - boundary river flows. Although the drought affected Turkey, Syria and Iran as well, Iraq complained regularly about reduced water flows. Iraq particularly complained about the Euphrates River because of the large amount of dams on the river. Turkey agreed to increase the flow several times, beyond its means in order to supply Iraq with extra water. Iraq has seen significant declines in water storage and crop yields because of the drought. To make matters worse, Iraq 's water infrastructure has suffered from years of conflict and neglect.
In 2008, Turkey, Iraq and Syria agreed to restart the Joint Trilateral Committee on water for the three nations for better water resources management. Turkey, Iraq and Syria signed a memorandum of understanding on September 3, 2009, in order to strengthen communication within the Tigris -- Euphrates Basin and to develop joint water - flow - monitoring stations. On September 19, 2009, Turkey formally agreed to increase the flow of the Euphrates River to 450 to 500 m3 / s, but only until October 20, 2009. In exchange, Iraq agreed to trade petroleum with Turkey and help curb Kurdish militant activity in their border region. One of Turkey 's last large GAP dams on the Tigris -- the Ilisu Dam -- is strongly opposed by Iraq and is the source of political strife.
The Mesopotamian Marshes in southern Iraq were historically the largest wetland ecosystem of Western Eurasia. Their drainage began in the 1950s, to reclaim land for agriculture and oil exploration. Saddam Hussein extended this work in the late 1980s and early 1990s, as part of ecological warfare against the Marsh Arabs, a rebellious group of people in Baathist Iraq. However, with the breaching of the dikes by local communities after the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the ending of a four - year drought that same year, the process has been reversed and the marshes have experienced a substantial rate of recovery. The permanent wetlands now cover more than 50 % of pre-1970s levels, with a remarkable regrowth of the Hammar and Hawizeh Marshes and some recovery of the Central Marshes.
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what is the main duty of the u.s. congress | Powers of the United States Congress - wikipedia
Powers of the United States Congress are implemented by the United States Constitution, defined by rulings of the Supreme Court, and by its own efforts and by other factors such as history and custom. It is the chief legislative body of the United States. Some powers are explicitly defined by the Constitution and are called enumerated powers; others have been assumed to exist and are called implied powers.
Article I of the Constitution sets forth most of the powers of Congress, which include numerous explicit powers enumerated in Section 8. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution.
Congress has authority over financial and budgetary matters, through the enumerated power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States. The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, extended power of taxation to include income taxes. The Constitution also grants Congress exclusively the power to appropriate funds. This power of the purse is one of Congress ' primary checks on the executive branch. Other powers granted to Congress include the authority to borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally both Senate and House have equal legislative authority although only the House may originate revenue bills and, by tradition, appropriation bills.
The Constitution also gives Congress an important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress 's Constitutionally - defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812, the Mexican -- American War, the Spanish -- American War, World War I, and World War II, although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get Congressional assent. Presidents have initiated war without Congressional war declarations; Truman called the Korean War a "police action '' and the Vietnam War lasted over a decade without a declaration of war. In 1970, Time magazine noted: "All told, it has been calculated, U.S. presidents have ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times '' before 1970. In 1993, one writer noted "Congress 's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution, '' and that the "real erosion (of Congressional authority to declare war) began after World War II. '' President George H.W. Bush claimed he could begin Operation Desert Storm and launch a "deliberate, unhurried, post -- Cold War decision to start a war '' without Congressional approval. Critics charge that President George W. Bush largely initiated the Iraq War with little debate in Congress or consultation with Congress, despite a Congressional vote on military force authorization. Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation 's history.
Congress also has the power to establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. '' Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union.
One of the foremost non-legislative functions of the Congress is the power to investigate and to oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress ' subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Valerie Plame Wilson episode sometimes known as the Plame affair, some critics, including Representative Henry A. Waxman, charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. Other critics charge Congress was lax in its oversight duties regarding presidential actions such as warrantless wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of decisions by President George W. Bush involving such matters.
Congress also has the exclusive impeachment power, allowing impeachment, trial, and removal of the President, federal judges and other federal officers.
Among the powers specifically given to Congress in Article I Section 8, are the following:
1.To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;
2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;
3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Native American tribes;
4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;
5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;
6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States;
7. To establish post offices and post roads;
8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;
9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;
10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations;
11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;
12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;
13. To provide and maintain a navy;
14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;
15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions;
16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;
17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles (16 km) square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings.
Other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of all citizens regardless of race, including voting rights, due process, and equal protection under the law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress.
Congress also has implied powers, which derive from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution and permit Congress "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. '' Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause, the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland, have effectively widened the scope of Congress ' legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section 8.
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which of the following is not true about the united states courts of appeal | United States courts of appeals - wikipedia
The United States courts of appeals or circuit courts are the intermediate appellate courts of the United States federal court system. A court of appeals decides appeals from the district courts within its federal judicial circuit, and in some instances from other designated federal courts and administrative agencies.
The United States courts of appeals are considered among the most powerful and influential courts in the United States. Because of their ability to set legal precedent in regions that cover millions of Americans, the United States courts of appeals have strong policy influence on U.S. law. Moreover, because the U.S. Supreme Court chooses to review fewer than 2 % of the more than 7,000 to 8,000 cases filed with it annually, the U.S. courts of appeals serve as the final arbiter on most federal cases. The Ninth Circuit in particular is very influential, covering 20 % of the American population.
There are currently 179 judgeships on the U.S. courts of appeals authorized by Congress in 28 U.S.C. § 43 pursuant to Article III of the U.S. Constitution. These judges are nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate. They have lifetime tenure, earning (as of 2016) an annual salary of $215,400.
There are thirteen U.S. courts of appeals, although there are other tribunals that have "Court of Appeals '' in their titles, such as the Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, which hears appeals in court - martial cases, and the United States Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims, which reviews final decisions by the Board of Veterans ' Appeals in the Department of Veterans Affairs. The eleven numbered circuits and the D.C. Circuit are geographically defined. The thirteenth court of appeals is the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has nationwide jurisdiction over certain appeals based on their subject matter. All of the courts of appeals also hear appeals from some administrative agency decisions and rulemaking, with by far the largest share of these cases heard by the D.C. Circuit. The Federal Circuit hears appeals from specialized trial courts, primarily the United States Court of International Trade and the United States Court of Federal Claims, as well as appeals from the district courts in patent cases and certain other specialized matters.
Decisions of the U.S. courts of appeals have been published by the private company West Publishing in the Federal Reporter series since the courts were established. Only decisions that the courts designate for publication are included. The "unpublished '' opinions (of all but the Fifth and Eleventh Circuits) are published separately in West 's Federal Appendix, and they are also available in on - line databases like LexisNexis or Westlaw. More recently, court decisions have also been made available electronically on official court websites. However, there are also a few federal court decisions that are classified for national security reasons.
The circuit with the smallest number of appellate judges is the First Circuit, and the one with the largest number of appellate judges is the geographically large and populous Ninth Circuit in the Far West. The number of judges that the U.S. Congress has authorized for each circuit is set forth by law in 28 U.S.C. § 44, while the places where those judges must regularly sit to hear appeals are prescribed in 28 U.S.C. § 48.
Although the courts of appeals are frequently called "circuit courts '', they should not be confused with the former United States circuit courts, which were active from 1789 to 1911, during the time when long - distance transportation was much less available, and which were primarily first - level federal trial courts that moved periodically from place to place in "circuits '' in order to serve the dispersed population in towns and the smaller cities that existed then. The current "courts of appeals '' system was established in the Judiciary Act of 1891, also known as the Evarts Act.
Because the courts of appeals possess only appellate jurisdiction, they do not hold trials. Only courts with original jurisdiction hold trials and thus determine punishments (in criminal cases) and remedies (in civil cases). Instead, appeals courts review decisions of trial courts for errors of law. Accordingly, an appeals court considers only the record (that is, the papers the parties filed and the transcripts and any exhibits from any trial) from the trial court, and the legal arguments of the parties. These arguments, which are presented in written form and can range in length from dozens to hundreds of pages, are known as briefs. Sometimes lawyers are permitted to add to their written briefs with oral arguments before the appeals judges. At such hearings, only the parties ' lawyers speak to the court.
The rules that govern the procedure in the courts of appeals are the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure. In a court of appeals, an appeal is almost always heard by a "panel '' of three judges who are randomly selected from the available judges (including senior judges and judges temporarily assigned to the circuit). Some cases, however, receive an en banc hearing. Except in the Ninth Circuit Courts, the en banc court consists of all of the circuit judges who are on active status, but it does not include the senior or assigned judges (except that under some circumstances, a senior judge may participate in an en banc hearing when he or she participated at an earlier stage of the same case).
Many decades ago, certain classes of federal court cases held the right of an automatic appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States. That is, one of the parties in the case could appeal a decision of a court of appeals to the Supreme Court, and it had to accept the case. The right of automatic appeal for most types of decisions of a court of appeals was ended by an Act of Congress, the Judiciary Act of 1925. This law was urged by Chief Justice William Howard Taft, and it also reorganized many other things in the federal court system.
The current procedure is that a party in a case may apply to the Supreme Court to review a ruling of the circuit court. This is called petitioning for a writ of certiorari, and the Supreme Court may choose, in its sole discretion, to review any lower court ruling. In extremely rare cases, the Supreme Court may grant the writ of certiorari before the judgment is rendered by the court of appeals, thereby reviewing the lower court 's ruling directly. Certiorari before judgment was granted in the Watergate scandal - related case, United States v. Nixon, and in the 2005 decision involving the Federal Sentencing Guidelines, United States v. Booker.
A court of appeals may also pose questions to the Supreme Court for a ruling in the midst of reviewing a case. This procedure was formerly used somewhat commonly, but now it is quite rare. The Second Circuit, sitting en banc, attempted to use this procedure in the case United States v. Penaranda, as a result of the Supreme Court 's decision in Blakely v. Washington, but the Supreme Court dismissed the question after resolving the same issue in another case, which had come before the Court through the standard procedure. The last instance of the Supreme Court accepting a set of questions and answering them was in a case in 1982.
A court of appeals may convene a Bankruptcy Appellate Panel to hear appeals in bankruptcy cases directly from the bankruptcy court of its circuit. As of 2008, only the First, Sixth, Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Circuits have established a Bankruptcy Appellate Panel. Those circuits that do not have a Bankruptcy Appellate Panel have their bankruptcy appeals heard by the District Court.
Courts of appeals decisions, unlike those of the lower federal courts, establish binding precedents. Other federal courts in that circuit must, from that point forward, follow the appeals court 's guidance in similar cases, regardless of whether the trial judge thinks that the case should be decided differently.
Federal and state laws can and do change from time to time, depending on the actions of Congress and the state legislatures. Therefore, the law that exists at the time of the appeal might be different from the law that existed at the time of the events that are in controversy under civil or criminal law in the case at hand. A court of appeals applies the law as it exists at the time of the appeal; otherwise, it would be handing down decisions that would be instantly obsolete, and this would be a waste of time and resources, since such decisions could not be cited as precedent. "(A) court is to apply the law in effect at the time it renders its decision, unless doing so would result in manifest injustice, or there is statutory direction or some legislative history to the contrary. ''
However, the above rule can not apply in criminal cases if the effect of applying the newer law would be to create an ex post facto law to the detriment of the defendant.
In order to serve as counsel in a case appealed to a circuit court the attorney must be admitted to the bar of that circuit. Admission to the bar of a circuit court is granted as a matter of course to any attorney who is admitted to practice law in any state of the United States. The attorney submits an application, pays a fee, and takes the oath of admission. Local practice varies as to whether the oath is given in writing or in open court before a judge of the circuit, and most courts of appeals allow the applicant attorney to choose which method he or she prefers.
When the courts of appeals were created in 1891, one was created for each of the nine circuits then existing, and each court was named the "United States Circuit Court of Appeals for the _____ Circuit ''. When a court of appeals was created for the District of Columbia in 1893, it was named the "Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia '', and it was renamed to the "United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia '' in 1934. In 1948, Congress renamed all of the courts of appeals then existing to their current formal names: the court of appeals for each numbered circuit was named the "United States Court of Appeals for the _____ Circuit '', and the "United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia '' became the "United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ''. The Tenth Circuit was created in 1929 by subdividing the existing Eighth Circuit, and the Eleventh Circuit was created in 1981 by subdividing the existing Fifth Circuit. The Federal Circuit was created in 1982 by the merger of the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals and the appellate division of the United States Court of Claims.
Judicial councils are panels in each circuit that are charged with making "necessary and appropriate orders for the effective and expeditious administration of justice '' within their circuits. Among their responsibilities is judicial discipline, the formulation of circuit policy, the implementation of policy directives received from the Judicial Conference of the United States, and the annual submission of a report to the Administrative Office of the United States Courts on the number and nature of orders entered during the year that relate to judicial misconduct. Judicial councils consist of the chief judge of the circuit and an equal number of circuit judges and district judges of the circuit.
District of Columbia Circuit (Washington)
First Circuit (Boston)
Second Circuit (New York City)
Third Circuit (Philadelphia)
Fourth Circuit (Richmond)
Fifth Circuit (New Orleans)
Sixth Circuit (Cincinnati)
Seventh Circuit (Chicago)
Eighth Circuit (St. Louis)
Ninth Circuit (San Francisco)
Tenth Circuit (Denver)
Eleventh Circuit (Atlanta)
Federal Circuit (Washington)
Based on 2010 United States Census figures, the population residing in each circuit is as follows.
The Judiciary Act of 1789 established three circuits, which were groups of judicial districts in which United States circuit courts were established. Each circuit court consisted of two Supreme Court justices and the local district judge; the three circuits existed solely for the purpose of assigning the justices to a group of circuit courts. Some districts (generally the ones most difficult for an itinerant justice to reach) did not have a circuit court; in these districts the district court exercised the original jurisdiction of a circuit court. As new states were admitted to the Union, Congress often did not create circuit courts for them for a number of years.
The Midnight Judges Act reorganized the districts into six circuits, and created circuit judgeships so that Supreme Court justices would no longer have to ride circuit. This Act, however, was repealed in March 1802, and Congress provided that the former circuit courts would be revived as of July 1 of that year. But it then passed the new Judiciary Act of 1802 in April, so that the revival of the old courts never took effect. The 1802 Act restored circuit riding, but with only one justice to a circuit; it therefore created six new circuits, but with slightly different compositions than the 1801 Act. These six circuits later were augmented by others. Until 1866, each new circuit (except the short - lived California Circuit) was accompanied by a newly created Supreme Court seat.
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spherical coordinates in terms of x y z | Spherical coordinate system - wikipedia
In mathematics, a spherical coordinate system is a coordinate system for three - dimensional space where the position of a point is specified by three numbers: the radial distance of that point from a fixed origin, its polar angle measured from a fixed zenith direction, and the azimuth angle of its orthogonal projection on a reference plane that passes through the origin and is orthogonal to the zenith, measured from a fixed reference direction on that plane. It can be seen as the three - dimensional version of the polar coordinate system.
The radial distance is also called the radius or radial coordinate. The polar angle may be called colatitude, zenith angle, normal angle, or inclination angle.
The use of symbols and the order of the coordinates differs between sources. In one system frequently encountered in physics (r, θ, φ) gives the radial distance, polar angle, and azimuthal angle, whereas in another system used in many mathematics books (r, θ, φ) gives the radial distance, azimuthal angle, and polar angle. In both systems ρ is often used instead of r. Other conventions are also used, so great care needs to be taken to check which one is being used.
A number of different spherical coordinate systems following other conventions are used outside mathematics. In a geographical coordinate system positions are measured in latitude, longitude and height or altitude. There are a number of different celestial coordinate systems based on different fundamental planes and with different terms for the various coordinates. The spherical coordinate systems used in mathematics normally use radians rather than degrees and measure the azimuthal angle counterclockwise from the x-axis to the y - axis rather than clockwise from north (0 °) to east (+ 90 °) like the horizontal coordinate system. The polar angle is often replaced by the elevation angle measured from the reference plane. Elevation angle of zero is at the horizon.
The spherical coordinate system generalizes the two - dimensional polar coordinate system. It can also be extended to higher - dimensional spaces and is then referred to as a hyperspherical coordinate system.
To define a spherical coordinate system, one must choose two orthogonal directions, the zenith and the azimuth reference, and an origin point in space. These choices determine a reference plane that contains the origin and is perpendicular to the zenith. The spherical coordinates of a point P are then defined as follows:
The sign of the azimuth is determined by choosing what is a positive sense of turning about the zenith. This choice is arbitrary, and is part of the coordinate system 's definition.
The elevation angle is 90 degrees (π / 2 radians) minus the inclination angle.
If the inclination is zero or 180 degrees (π radians), the azimuth is arbitrary. If the radius is zero, both azimuth and inclination are arbitrary.
In linear algebra, the vector from the origin O to the point P is often called the position vector of P.
Several different conventions exist for representing the three coordinates, and for the order in which they should be written. The use of (r, θ, φ) to denote radial distance, inclination (or elevation), and azimuth, respectively, is common practice in physics, and is specified by ISO standard 80000 - 2: 2009, and earlier in ISO 31 - 11 (1992).
However, some authors (including mathematicians) use φ for inclination (or elevation) and θ for azimuth, which "provides a logical extension of the usual polar coordinates notation ''. Some authors may also list the azimuth before the inclination (or elevation), and / or use ρ (rho) instead of r for radial distance. Some combinations of these choices result in a left - handed coordinate system. The standard convention (r, θ, φ) conflicts with the usual notation for the two - dimensional polar coordinates, where θ is often used for the azimuth. It may also conflict with the notation used for three - dimensional cylindrical coordinates.
The angles are typically measured in degrees (°) or radians (rad), where 360 ° = 2π rad. Degrees are most common in geography, astronomy, and engineering, whereas radians are commonly used in mathematics and theoretical physics. The unit for radial distance is usually determined by the context.
When the system is used for physical three - space, it is customary to use positive sign for azimuth angles that are measured in the counter-clockwise sense from the reference direction on the reference plane, as seen from the zenith side of the plane. This convention is used, in particular, for geographical coordinates, where the "zenith '' direction is north and positive azimuth (longitude) angles are measured eastwards from some prime meridian.
Any spherical coordinate triplet (r, θ, φ) specifies a single point of three - dimensional space. On the other hand, every point has infinitely many equivalent spherical coordinates. One can add or subtract any number of full turns to either angular measure without changing the angles themselves, and therefore without changing the point. It is also convenient, in many contexts, to allow negative radial distances, with the convention that (− r, θ, φ) is equivalent to (r, θ + 180 °, φ) for any r, θ, and φ. Moreover, (r, − θ, φ) is equivalent to (r, θ, φ + 180 °).
If it is necessary to define a unique set of spherical coordinates for each point, one must restrict their ranges. A common choice is:
However, the azimuth φ is often restricted to the interval (− 180 °, + 180 °), or (− π, + π) in radians, instead of (0, 360 °). This is the standard convention for geographic longitude.
The range (0 °, 180 °) for inclination is equivalent to (− 90 °, + 90 °) for elevation (latitude).
Even with these restrictions, if θ is 0 ° or 180 ° (elevation is 90 ° or − 90 °) then the azimuth angle is arbitrary; and if r is zero, both azimuth and inclination / elevation are arbitrary. To make the coordinates unique, one can use the convention that in these cases the arbitrary coordinates are zero.
To plot a dot from its spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ), where θ is inclination, move r units from the origin in the zenith direction, rotate by θ about the origin towards the azimuth reference direction, and rotate by φ about the zenith in the proper direction.
The geographic coordinate system uses the azimuth and elevation of the spherical coordinate system to express locations on Earth, calling them respectively longitude and latitude. Just as the two - dimensional Cartesian coordinate system is useful on the plane, a two - dimensional spherical coordinate system is useful on the surface of a sphere. In this system, the sphere is taken as a unit sphere, so the radius is unity and can generally be ignored. This simplification can also be very useful when dealing with objects such as rotational matrices.
Spherical coordinates are useful in analyzing systems that have some degree of symmetry about a point, such as volume integrals inside a sphere, the potential energy field surrounding a concentrated mass or charge, or global weather simulation in a planet 's atmosphere. A sphere that has the Cartesian equation x + y + z = c has the simple equation r = c in spherical coordinates.
Two important partial differential equations that arise in many physical problems, Laplace 's equation and the Helmholtz equation, allow a separation of variables in spherical coordinates. The angular portions of the solutions to such equations take the form of spherical harmonics.
Another application is ergonomic design, where r is the arm length of a stationary person and the angles describe the direction of the arm as it reaches out.
Three dimensional modeling of loudspeaker output patterns can be used to predict their performance. A number of polar plots are required, taken at a wide selection of frequencies, as the pattern changes greatly with frequency. Polar plots help to show that many loudspeakers tend toward omnidirectionality at lower frequencies.
The spherical coordinate system is also commonly used in 3D game development to rotate the camera around the player 's position.
To a first approximation, the geographic coordinate system uses elevation angle (latitude) in degrees north of the equator plane, in the range − 90 ° ≤ φ ≤ 90 °, instead of inclination. Latitude is either geocentric latitude, measured at the Earth 's center and designated variously by ψ, q, φ ′, φ, φ or geodetic latitude, measured by the observer 's local vertical, and commonly designated φ. The azimuth angle (longitude), commonly denoted by λ, is measured in degrees east or west from some conventional reference meridian (most commonly the IERS Reference Meridian), so its domain is − 180 ° ≤ λ ≤ 180 °. For positions on the Earth or other solid celestial body, the reference plane is usually taken to be the plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
The polar angle, which is 90 ° minus the latitude and ranges from 0 to 180 °, is called colatitude in geography.
Instead of the radial distance, geographers commonly use altitude above or below some reference surface, which may be the sea level or "mean '' surface level for planets without liquid oceans. The radial distance r can be computed from the altitude by adding the mean radius of the planet 's reference surface, which is approximately 6,360 ± 11 km (3,952 ± 7 miles) for Earth.
However, modern geographical coordinate systems are quite complex, and the positions implied by these simple formulae may be wrong by several kilometers. The precise standard meanings of latitude, longitude and altitude are currently defined by the World Geodetic System (WGS), and take into account the flattening of the Earth at the poles (about 21 km or 13 miles) and many other details.
In astronomy there are a series of spherical coordinate systems that measure the elevation angle from different fundamental planes. These reference planes are the observer 's horizon, the celestial equator (defined by Earth 's rotation), the plane of the ecliptic (defined by Earth 's orbit around the Sun), the plane of the earth terminator (normal to the instantaneous direction to the Sun), and the galactic equator (defined by the rotation of the Milky Way).
As the spherical coordinate system is only one of many three - dimensional coordinate systems, there exist equations for converting coordinates between the spherical coordinate system and others.
The spherical coordinates of a point in the ISO convention (i.e. for physics: radius r, inclination θ, azimuth φ) can be obtained from its Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) by the formulae
The inverse tangent denoted in φ = arctan y / x must be suitably defined, taking into account the correct quadrant of (x, y). See the article on atan2.
Alternatively, the conversion can be considered as two sequential rectangular to polar conversions: the first in the Cartesian xy - plane from (x, y) to (R, φ), where R is the projection of r onto the xy - plane, and the second in the Cartesian zR - plane from (z, R) to (r, θ). The correct quadrants for φ and θ are implied by the correctness of the planar rectangular to polar conversions.
These formulae assume that the two systems have the same origin, that the spherical reference plane is the Cartesian xy - plane, that θ is inclination from the z direction, and that the azimuth angles are measured from the Cartesian x-axis (so that the y - axis has φ = + 90 °). If θ measures elevation from the reference plane instead of inclination from the zenith the arccos above becomes an arcsin, and the cos θ and sin θ below become switched.
Conversely, the Cartesian coordinates may be retrieved from the spherical coordinates (radius r, inclination θ, azimuth φ), where r ∈ (0, ∞), θ ∈ (0, π), φ ∈ (0, 2π), by:
Cylindrical coordinates (radius ρ, azimuth φ, elevation z) may be converted into spherical coordinates (radius r, inclination θ, azimuth φ), by the formulas
Conversely, the spherical coordinates may be converted into cylindrical coordinates by the formulae
These formulae assume that the two systems have the same origin and same reference plane, measure the azimuth angle φ in the same sense from the same axis, and that the spherical angle θ is inclination from the cylindrical z - axis.
The following equations assume that θ is inclination from the z (polar) axis (ambiguous since x, y, and z are mutually normal):
The line element for an infinitesimal displacement from (r, θ, φ) to (r + dr, θ + dθ, φ + dφ) is
where
are the local orthogonal unit vectors in the directions of increasing r, θ, and φ, respectively, and x̂, ŷ, and ẑ are the unit vectors in Cartesian coordinates.
The general form of the formula to prove the differential line element, is
d r = ∑ i ∂ r ∂ x i d x i = ∑ i ∂ r ∂ x i ∂ r ∂ x i ∂ r ∂ x i d x i = ∑ i ∂ r ∂ x i d x i x ^ i (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (d) \ mathbf (r) = \ sum _ (i) (\ frac (\ partial \ mathbf (r)) (\ partial x_ (i))) \ mathrm (dx_ (i)) = \ sum _ (i) \ left (\ frac (\ partial \ mathbf (r)) (\ partial x_ (i))) \ right (\ frac (\ frac (\ partial \ mathbf (r)) (\ partial x_ (i))) (\ left (\ frac (\ partial \ mathbf (r)) (\ partial x_ (i))) \ right)) \ mathrm (dx_ (i)) = \ sum _ (i) \ left (\ frac (\ partial \ mathbf (r)) (\ partial x_ (i))) \ right \ mathrm (dx_ (i)) (\ hat (\ boldsymbol (x))) _ (i))
that is, the change in r (\ displaystyle (\ mathbf (r))) is decomposed into individual changes corresponding to changes in the individual coordinates. To apply this to the present case, you need to calculate how r (\ displaystyle (\ mathbf (r))) changes with each of the coordinates. With the conventions being used, we have
r = (r sin θ cos φ r sin θ sin φ r cos θ) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (r) = (\ begin (bmatrix) r \ sin \ theta \ cos \ phi \ \ r \ sin \ theta \ sin \ phi \ \ r \ cos \ theta \ end (bmatrix)))
Thus
∂ r ∂ r = (sin θ cos φ sin θ sin φ cos θ), ∂ r ∂ θ = (r cos θ cos φ r cos θ sin φ − r sin θ), ∂ r ∂ φ = (− r sin θ sin φ r sin θ cos φ 0) (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ partial \ mathbf (r)) (\ partial r)) = (\ begin (bmatrix) \ sin \ theta \ cos \ phi \ \ \ sin \ theta \ sin \ phi \ \ \ cos \ theta \ end (bmatrix)) \,, (\ frac (\ partial \ mathbf (r)) (\ partial \ theta)) = (\ begin (bmatrix) r \ cos \ theta \ cos \ phi \ \ r \ cos \ theta \ sin \ phi \ \ - r \ sin \ theta \ end (bmatrix)) \,, (\ frac (\ partial \ mathbf (r)) (\ partial \ phi)) = (\ begin (bmatrix) - r \ sin \ theta \ sin \ phi \ \ r \ sin \ theta \ cos \ phi \ \ 0 \ end (bmatrix)) \,)
Then the desired coefficients are the magnitudes of these vectors:
∂ r ∂ r = 1 ∂ r ∂ θ = r ∂ r ∂ φ = r sin θ (\ displaystyle (\ begin (aligned) \ left (\ frac (\ partial \ mathbf (r)) (\ partial r)) \ right = 1 \ \ \ left (\ frac (\ partial \ mathbf (r)) (\ partial \ theta)) \ right = r \ \ \ left (\ frac (\ partial \ mathbf (r)) (\ partial \ phi)) \ right = r \ sin \ theta \ \ \ end (aligned)))
The surface element spanning from θ to θ + dθ and φ to φ + dφ on a spherical surface at (constant) radius r is
Thus the differential solid angle is
The surface element in a surface of polar angle θ constant (a cone with vertex the origin) is
The surface element in a surface of azimuth φ constant (a vertical half - plane) is
The volume element spanning from r to r + dr, θ to θ + dθ, and φ to φ + dφ is (determinant of the Jacobian matrix of partial derivatives):
Thus, for example, a function f (r, θ, φ) can be integrated over every point in R by the triple integral
The del operator in this system leads to the following expressions for gradient, divergence, curl and Laplacian:
In spherical coordinates the position of a point is written
Its velocity is then
and its acceleration is
In the case of a constant φ or θ = π / 2, this reduces to vector calculus in polar coordinates.
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development in information technology in india in hindi | Information technology in India - Wikipedia
Information technology in India is an industry consisting of two major components: IT services and business process outsourcing (BPO). The sector has increased its contribution to India 's GDP from 1.2 % in 1998 to 7.5 % in 2012. According to NASSCOM, the sector aggregated revenues of US $ 160 billion in 2017, with export revenue standing at US $ 99 billion and domestic revenue at US $ 48 billion, growing by over 13 %. USA accounts for more than 60 per cent of Indian IT exports.
India 's IT Services industry was born in Mumbai in 1967 with the establishment of the Tata Group in partnership with Burroughs. The first software export zone, SEEPZ -- the precursor to the modern - day IT park -- was established in Mumbai in 1973. More than 80 percent of the country 's software exports were from SEEPZ in the 1980s.
The Indian economy underwent major economic reforms in 1991, leading to a new era of globalization and international economic integration, and annual economic growth of over 6 % from 1993 -- 2002. The new administration under Atal Bihari Vajpayee (who was Prime Minister from 1998 -- 2004) placed the development of Information Technology among its top five priorities and formed the Indian National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development.
Wolcott & Goodman (2003) report on the role of the Indian National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development:
Within 90 days of its establishment, the Task Force produced an extensive background report on the state of technology in India and an IT Action Plan with 108 recommendations. The Task Force could act quickly because it built upon the experience and frustrations of state governments, central government agencies, universities, and the software industry. Much of what it proposed was also consistent with the thinking and recommendanotions of international bodies like the World Trade Organization (WTO), International Telecommunications Union (ITU), and World Bank. In addition, the Task Force incorporated the experiences of Singapore and other nations, which implemented similar programs. It was less a task of invention than of sparking action on a consensus that had already evolved within the networking community and government.
Regulated VSAT links became visible in 1994. Desai (2006) describes the steps taken to relax regulations on linking in 1991:
In 1991 the Department of Electronics broke this impasse, creating a corporation called Software Technology Parks of India (STPI) that, being owned by the government, could provide VSAT communications without breaching its monopoly. STPI set up software technology parks in different cities, each of which provided satellite links to be used by firms; the local link was a wireless radio link. In 1993 the government began to allow individual companies their own dedicated links, which allowed work done in India to be transmitted abroad directly. Indian firms soon convinced their American customers that a satellite link was as reliable as a team of programmers working in the clients ' office.
Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited (VSNL) introduced Gateway Electronic Mail Service in 1991, the 64 kbit / s leased line service in 1992, and commercial Internet access on a visible scale in 1992. Election results were displayed via National Informatics Centre 's NICNET.
"The New Telecommunications Policy, 1999 '' (NTP 1999) helped further liberalise India 's telecommunications sector. The Information Technology Act, 2000 created legal procedures for electronic transactions and e-commerce.
A joint EU - India group of scholars was formed on 23 November 2001 to further promote joint research and development. On 25 June 2002, India and the European Union agreed to bilateral cooperation in the field of science and technology. India holds observer status at CERN, while a joint India - EU Software Education and Development Center will be located in Bangalore.
In the contemporary world economy India is the second - largest exporter of IT. Exports dominate the Indian IT industry and constitute about 77 % of the industry 's total revenue. However, the domestic market is also significant, with robust revenue growth. The industry 's share of total Indian exports (merchandise plus services) increased from less than 4 % in FY1998 to about 25 % in FY2012. The technologically - inclined services sector in India accounts for 40 % of the country 's GDP and 30 % of export earnings as of 2006, while employing only 25 % of its workforce, according to Sharma (2006). According to Gartner, the "Top Five Indian IT Services Providers '' are Tata Consultancy Services, Infosys, Cognizant, Wipro, and HCL Technologies.
The Indian IT market currently focuses on providing low - cost solutions in the services business of global IT. The presence of Indian companies in the product development business of global IT is very meager, however, this number is slowly on the rise. The other prominent trend is that IT jobs, once confined to Bangalore, are slowly starting to experience a geographical diffusion into other cities like Chennai, Hyderabad and Pune. According to Google estimates, the Indian community of developers will be the largest in the world by 2018.
Research in the industry was earlier concentrated in Programming languages like Java, but in the recent times the research focus has changed towards technologies like Mobile computing, Cloud computing and Software as a Service. This shift is attributed to the preference of clients for ubiquitous computing over standalone computing.
Sharma (2006) states: "Today, Bangalore is known as the Silicon Platuea of India and contributes 38 % of Indian IT Exports. India 's second and third largest software companies are headquartered in Bangalore, as are many of the global Companies. Cities like Hyderabad, Chennai, Pune and Gurgaon are also emerging as technology hubs, with many global IT companies establishing headquarters there. Numerous IT companies are also based in Mumbai.
Gujarat which includes Ahmedabad and Vadodara,
Tamil Nadu which includes Coimbatore and Madurai.
Kerala where 55 % of the exports come from its capital city Trivandrum and the majority of the rest from Kochi. Calicut is also another contributor from the state. Trivandrum houses technology giants like Oracle Corporation, TCS, Infosys, UST Global, Ernst & Young etc. Kochi also houses TCS, Cognizant, Wipro, KPMG, Ernst & Young, EXL, Etisalat, UST Global, Xerox etc.
Andhra Pradesh which includes Vijayawada, Kakinada, Visakhapatnam, and Tirupati.
Kolkata and Durgapur of West Bengal
The IT sector has also led to massive employment generation in India. The industry continues to be a net employment generator -- expected to add 230,000 jobs in fiscal year 2012, thus directly employing about 2.8 million people and indirectly employing 8.9 million, making it a dominant player in the global outsourcing sector. However, it continues to face challenges of competitiveness in the globalised and modern world, particularly from countries like China and Philippines.
India 's growing stature in the Information Age enabled it to form close ties with both the United States and the European Union. However, the recent global financial crises have deeply impacted Indian IT companies as well as global companies. As a result, hiring has dropped sharply, and employees are looking at different sectors like financial services, telecommunications, and manufacturing, which have been growing phenomenally over the last few years.
With fundamental structural changes visible everywhere in the IT services due to Cloud computing, proliferation of Social media, Big data, Analytics all leading to digital services and digital economy, many of the leading companies in India 's IT sector reported lower headcounts in their financial results.
20. http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Hans/2017-01-04/IT-hub-taking-shape-in-Khammam-125-cr-tower-being-planned/271982 thehansindia.com.
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who voices android 21 in dragon ball fighterz | Dragon Ball FighterZ - Wikipedia
Dragon Ball FighterZ is a 2.5 D fighting game developed by Arc System Works and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment. Based on the Dragon Ball franchise, it was released for the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows in most regions in January 2018, and in Japan the following month.
The gameplay is inspired by concepts from several other fighting games, namely the control scheme and team mechanics. Players each select three characters to form a team, from an initial roster of 24. One character is controlled and can be switched with one of the other characters at any time. Players can also call one of their other characters to perform an "Assist '' move, allowing simultaneous attacks and combos with the entire team. All three of the opponent 's characters must be defeated to win the game.
In addition to the unique moves of each character, players have several universal moves available. With the "Vanish Attack '', the player can expend Ki to instantly teleport behind an opponent 's character and strike them in the back. This has multiple uses, from bypassing enemy projectiles to moving quickly around the stage, or extending a combo. The "Dragon Rush '' move can break through an opponent 's guard and if successful, offers a choice between an aerial combo or forcing the opponent to switch to a different character. The "Super Dash '' flying attack will home in on the opponent 's lead character and is able to pass through weaker projectiles. Players can also "Ki Charge '' to manually increase their Ki gauge, similar to previous Dragon Ball fighting games.
The game also includes other features, such as "Come on Shenron! '', that allows players to gather the Dragon Balls one by one as the fight progresses by special moves and combos. Once all seven are assembled by a player, Shenron appears to grant a wish and allows players to choose one among the following benefits: increasing their fighter 's strength, revive a fallen ally, recover a fighter 's health or increase resistance to damage. Another feature is the "Dramatic Finish '' mode, in which if some characters win the fight against specific enemies, special cutscenes are triggered related to events from the Dragon Ball series.
Dragon Ball FighterZ features a ranking system in both its arcade mode as well as in online multiplayer, where players increase their rank with subsequent wins.
The base roster includes 24 playable characters consisting of characters of the franchise, with further characters planned as paid downloadable content (DLC).
^ DLC: Available as downloadable content.
The game takes place sometime between the "Future Trunks '' and "Universe Survival '' arcs of Dragon Ball Super. The game 's main antagonist, Android 21, was a normal human who eventually became an Android created by the Red Ribbon Army after her son became the model for Android 16 who also Dr. Gero 's son. Once she awakens, she repairs 16 and uses the Namekian Dragon Balls to resurrect Frieza, Cell, Nappa, and the Ginyu Force. Due to having Majin Buu and Cell 's DNA within her, she develops an uncontrollable hunger that will continue powering her up the more she devours strong warriors. She uses a wave machine to seal the powers and souls of all of Earth 's strongest warriors while making multiple clones of them to eat as well. Wanting to control the hungry monster within her, she and 16 develop a linking system originally created by Dr. Gero in which a human soul (the player) can possess the warriors individually and have them regain their strength over time through multiple battles. 16 transfers the human soul into Goku, Frieza, or Android 18 depending on what path the player chooses.
The player possesses Goku and awakens next to Bulma, who wakes him up to deal with the Earth 's current crisis. Clones of the other fighters and villains have been showing up and the other Z Warriors are nowhere to be seen. After confronting the resurrected 16, Beerus and Whis arrive to explain the soul 's link to Goku. Goku and Bulma leave to try and find 16 and the other Z warriors to find out more about what 's going on. After Goku rescues Krillin, they battle Cell who appears to have knocked out 18 and endangered an unknown woman. The woman claims to be a Red Ribbon scientist and informs them that they need to find the base emitting the power - suppressing waves to restore their abilities.
The reunited Z Fighters eventually confront 16, where he explains that the Red Ribbon Army 's current leader, Android 21, is behind everything. The scientist Goku and Krillin saved from Cell earlier arrives and reveals herself to be Android 21. She destroys 16 for his betrayal and knocks out Goku when he tries to follow her. The player then possesses Cell 's body and battles 21 before returning to Goku 's body again. After devouring the resurrected villains, 21 decides to wait for Goku and his friends to get stronger as she believes they 'll taste better if they 're more powerful. When she 's ready to fight them, Goku brings her and the other Z Fighters to the Sacred World of the Kai since Earth would be in danger from the fight. With their combined power, Goku and the Z Fighters obliterate 21. Whis (who came to spectate the fight with Beerus) expresses his disappointment of the unanswered questions with Android 21 and encourages the player to try seeking the answers elsewhere.
16 implants the player 's soul within the recently revived Frieza, much to the tyrant 's ire. On Earth, Frieza recruits the resurrected Nappa, Ginyu Force, and Cell to battle the clones and eventually confront the true culprit: Android 21. After 21 forces the villains to battle and defeat Android 18, Goku and Krillin arrive while she acts as an innocent bystander to pit the heroes and villains against each other. The player prevents Frieza from killing Goku and the villains explain the situation to the heroes. Goku suggests that the two sides team up to stop 21 and the villains reluctantly agree primarily so they could sever their link with the player and regain their original power.
Over time, the villains aid Goku in rescuing the Z Fighters to get more help in combating 21, who destroys 16 after discovering his betrayal. Frieza suggests to the group that they strengthen their link with the player to gain back more of their power and defeat more clones as they 're the source of 21 's strength. After killing the final clone, they defeat Android 21 and use Bulma 's machine to help Goku, Frieza, and Cell obliterate her for good. Following her destruction, everyone has their powers restored and Frieza expels the player from his body before the heroes and villains start fighting each other anew.
16 kidnaps Android 18 and implants the player 's soul within her. He and 21 request her and the player 's help in combating the clones created by the Red Ribbon Army. Android 17 (who was also in the building after getting kidnapped by 16 for a failed link test) joins them to fight the clones. Over time, 21 becomes increasingly unstable after each battle, with 16 refusing to explain her condition to 17 and 18. When Krillin finds the androids, 21 forces 18 to fight Krillin and nearly kills him before the player links with 21 and discovers two beings within the android 's body. 16 takes 17 and 18 to a lab and explains to them that the cells that created Android 21 may be going berserk and that his restoration and the use of the link system were done to stop her from going mad.
The androids are eventually confronted by Cell, who 's regained most of his original power as he 's been able to suppress the artificial soul inside of him. 21 transforms into her true self to protect the androids, but succumbs to the hunger again. She kills 16 in her rage, causing her good and evil personas to split into two separate beings. Evil 21 devours Cell and the control to the power suppressor to drastically increase her strength while ensuring the other warriors still have their powers lowered. Goku and Krillin (having observed the events from Kami 's lookout) rescue the androids and recruit them to combat Evil 21. After becoming stronger, the Z - Fighters battle Evil 21 for the last time on the Sacred World of the Kai. Once the fighters discover Evil 21 's extraordinary regenerative capabilities, Goku attacks her with a Spirit Bomb. When Evil 21 starts resisting the attack, Good 21 pushes her into it, sacrificing the both of them in the process. Goku plans to request 21 's reincarnation to King Yemma and to help the player get back into their original body.
On June 9, 2017, a Japanese press release dated for June 12 prematurely revealed information about the game and two screenshots before its official announcement. The press release was eventually removed from Bandai Namco 's website.
On June 11, 2017, the game was revealed at Microsoft 's E3 press conference. A closed beta for the Xbox One and PlayStation 4 versions were also confirmed. Bandai Namco said there is a possibility the game could come to the Nintendo Switch if enough fans request it. Dragon Ball creator Akira Toriyama designed a new female character named Android 21 for the game. The game uses Unreal Engine 4.
Players who preordered Dragon Ball FighterZ on console received early access to the game 's open beta test period, as well as early unlocks for the SSGSS Goku and SSGSS Vegeta characters and an additional in - game stamp pack. Two digital bundles have been announced: The "FighterZ Edition '' includes the game and the FighterZ Pass, which includes eight additional downloadable characters. The "Ultimate Edition '' includes all content from the FighterZ Edition, as well as a Commentator Voice Pack and additional music from the anime series which can be played during battle. A physical collector 's edition for the game is also available, which includes a steelbook case, three art boards, and a 7 '' statue of Goku. As of between January 18 -- 19 2018, the beta was announced as free access for those players who did n't get to pre-order the game earlier.
After its announcement, Dragon Ball FighterZ was met with great enthusiasm from fans of fighting games and the source material alike, with many saying it has the potential to be the next big competitive fighting game. The game gained praise regarding its art design and animation being faithful to the source material, as well as its fighting mechanics. A playable demo was available at the Evolution Championship Series 2017, where pros were able to get their hands on the title for a small tournament; many of the pros praised the game highly, regarding its versatility when it comes to play styles as well as being enjoyable.
The game received generally favorable reviews from critics, who cited the art style, combat system, cast of playable characters, and story mode as positives. Several called it the best Dragon Ball game, and one of the best fighting games in years.
The online connectivity is one of the aspects that has been criticized about the game.
Renowned developer Killer92 called it "a true fighting masterpiece '' in an interview by famitsu.
The game shipped over two million copies a week after release, becoming the fastest selling Dragon Ball title ever. It also set a Steam record for the highest number of concurrent users for a fighting game.
It reached # 2 in the sales charts in the UK, Australia, New Zealand and the USA, behind Monster Hunter: World in all cases. It also debuted at # 2 behind Monster Hunter World in Japan with 68.731 sales in the first week at retail.
The Goku and Vegeta DLC sold well, entering the top 10 in Europe.
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which was not part of the treaty ending the mexican american war in 1848 | Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo - wikipedia
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo in Spanish), officially titled the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, Limits and Settlement between the United States of America and the Mexican Republic, is the peace treaty signed on February 2, 1848, in the Villa de Guadalupe Hidalgo (now a neighborhood of Mexico City) between the United States and Mexico that ended the Mexican -- American War (1846 -- 1848). The treaty came into force on July 4, 1848.
With the defeat of its army and the fall of its capital, Mexico entered into negotiations to end the war. The treaty called for the U.S. to pay US $ 15 million to Mexico and to pay off the claims of American citizens against Mexico up to US $3.25 million. It gave the United States the Rio Grande as a boundary for Texas, and gave the U.S. ownership of California and a large area comprising roughly half of New Mexico, most of Arizona, Nevada, and Utah, and parts of Wyoming and Colorado. Mexicans in those annexed areas had the choice of relocating to within Mexico 's new boundaries or receiving American citizenship with full civil rights.
The U.S. Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty by a vote of 38 -- 14. The opponents of this treaty were led by the Whigs, who had opposed the war and rejected Manifest destiny in general, and rejected this expansion in particular. The amount of land gained by the United States from Mexico was increased as a result of the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, which ceded parts of present - day southern Arizona and New Mexico to the United States.
The peace talks were negotiated by Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the US State Department, who had accompanied General Winfield Scott as a diplomat and President Polk 's representative. Trist and General Scott, after two previous unsuccessful attempts to negotiate a treaty with General José Joaquín de Herrera, determined that the only way to deal with Mexico was as a conquered enemy. Nicholas Trist negotiated with a special commission representing the collapsed government led by Don José Bernardo Couto, Don Miguel de Atristain, and Don Luis Gonzaga Cuevas of Mexico.
Although Mexico ceded Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México, the text of the treaty did not list territories to be ceded, and avoided the disputed issues that were causes of war: the validity of the 1836 secession of the Republic of Texas, Texas 's unenforced boundary claims as far as the Rio Grande, and the 1845 annexation of Texas by the United States.
Instead, Article V of the treaty simply described the new U.S. -- Mexico border. From east to west, the border consisted of the Rio Grande northwest from its mouth to the point Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico (roughly 32 degrees north), as shown in the Disturnell map, then due west from this point to the 110th meridian west, then north along the 110th Meridian to the Gila River and down the river to its mouth. Unlike the New Mexico segment of the boundary, which depended partly on unknown geography, "in order to preclude all difficulty in tracing upon the ground the limit separating Upper from Lower California '', a straight line was drawn from the mouth of the Gila to one marine league south of the southernmost point of the port of San Diego, slightly north of the previous Mexican provincial boundary at Playas de Rosarito.
Comparing the boundary in the Adams -- Onís Treaty to the Guadalupe Hidalgo boundary, Mexico conceded about 55 % of its pre-war, pre-Texas territorial claims and now has an area of 1,972,550 km2 (761,606 sq mi).
In the United States, the 1.36 million km2 (525,000 square miles) of the area between the Adams - Onis and Guadalupe Hidalgo boundaries outside the 1,007,935 km (389,166 sq mi) claimed by the Republic of Texas is known as the Mexican Cession. That is to say, the Mexican Cession is construed not to include any territory east of the Rio Grande, while the territorial claims of the Republic of Texas included no territory west of the Rio Grande. The Mexican Cession included essentially the entirety of the former Mexican territory of Alta California, but only the western portion of Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico, and includes all of present - day California, Nevada and Utah, most of Arizona, and western portions of New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.
Articles VIII and IX ensured safety of existing property rights of Mexican citizens living in the transferred territories. Despite assurances to the contrary, the property rights of Mexican citizens were often not honored by the U.S. in accordance with modifications to and interpretations of the Treaty. The U.S. also agreed to assume $3.25 million (equivalent to $91.9 million today) in debts that Mexico owed to United States citizens.
The residents had one year to choose whether they wanted American or Mexican citizenship; Over 90 % chose American citizenship. The others returned to Mexico (where they received land), or in some cases in New Mexico were allowed to remain in place as Mexican citizens.
Article XII engaged the United States to pay, "In consideration of the extension acquired '', 15 million dollars (equivalent to $420 million today), in annual installments of 3 million dollars.
Article XI of the treaty was important to Mexico. It provided that the United States would prevent and punish raids by Indians into Mexico, prohibited Americans from acquiring property, including livestock, taken by the Indians in those raids, and stated that the U.S. would return captives of the Indians to Mexico. Mexicans believed that the United States had encouraged and assisted the Comanche and Apache raids that had devastated northern Mexico in the years before the war. This article promised relief to them.
Article XI, however, proved unenforceable. Destructive Indian raids continued despite a heavy U.S. presence near the Mexican border. Mexico filed 366 claims with the U.S. government for damages done by Comanche and Apache raids between 1848 and 1853. In 1853, in the Treaty of Mesilla concluding the Gadsden Purchase, Article XI was annulled.
The land that the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought into the United States became, between 1845 and 1912, all or part of ten states: California (1850), Nevada (1864), Utah (1896), and Arizona (1912), as well as the whole of, depending upon interpretation, the entire state of Texas (1845), which then included part of Kansas (1861); Colorado (1876); Wyoming (1890); Oklahoma (1907); and New Mexico (1912). The remainder (the southern parts) of New Mexico and Arizona were peacefully purchased under the Gadsden Purchase, which was carried out in 1853. In this purchase the United States paid an additional $10 million (equivalent to $290 million today), for land intended to accommodate a transcontinental railroad. However, the American Civil War delayed construction of such a route, and it was not until 1881 that the Southern Pacific Railroad finally was completed, fulfilling the purpose of the acquisition.
Mexico had claimed the area in question since winning its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence. The Spanish Empire had conquered part of the area from the American Indian tribes over the preceding three centuries, but there remained rather powerful and independent indigenous nations within that northern region of Mexico. Most of that land was too dry (low rainfall) and too mountainous or hilly to support very much population until the advent of new technology following about 1880: means for damming and distributing water from the few rivers to irrigated farmland; the telegraph; the railroad; the telephone; and electrical power.
About 80,000 Mexicans lived in the areas of California, New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas during the period of 1845 to 1850, and far fewer in Nevada, in southern and western Colorado, and in Utah.
On 1 March 1845, U.S. President John Tyler signed legislation to authorize the United States to annex the Republic of Texas, effective on 29 December 1845. The Mexican government, which had never recognized the Republic of Texas as an independent country, had warned that annexation would be viewed as an act of war. The United Kingdom and France, both of which recognized the independence of the Republic of Texas, repeatedly tried to dissuade Mexico from declaring war against its northern neighbor. British efforts to mediate the quandary proved fruitless -- in part because additional political disputes (particularly the Oregon boundary dispute) arose between Great Britain (as the sovereign of Canada) and the United States.
Before the outbreak of hostilities, President James K. Polk sent his envoy, John Slidell, on 10 November 1845 to Mexico with instructions to offer Mexico around $5 million for the territory of Nuevo México and up to $40 million for Alta California. The Mexican government dismissed Slidell, refusing to even meet with him. Earlier in that year, Mexico had broken off diplomatic relations with the United States, based partly on its interpretation of the Adams -- Onís Treaty of 1819 (under which newly independent Mexico claimed it had inherited rights). In that agreement, the United States had supposedly "renounced forever '' all claims to Spanish territory.
Neither side took any further action to avoid a war. Meanwhile, Polk settled a major territorial dispute with Britain with the Oregon Treaty, signed on 15 June 1846; this avoided a conflict with Great Britain, and hence gave the U.S. a free hand. After the Thornton Affair of 25 -- 26 April, when Mexican forces attacked an American unit in the disputed area with 11 Americans killed, 5 wounded and 49 captured, Congress passed and Polk signed a declaration of war into effect on 13 May 1846. The Mexican Congress responded with its war declaration on 7 July 1846.
California and New Mexico were quickly occupied by American forces in the summer of 1846, and fighting there ended on 13 January 1847 with the signing of the "Capitulation Agreement '' at "Campo de Cahuenga '' and end of the Taos Revolt. By the middle of September 1847, U.S. forces had successfully invaded central Mexico and occupied Mexico City.
Some Eastern Democrats called for complete annexation of Mexico and claimed that some Mexican liberals would welcome this, but President Polk 's State of the Union address in December 1847 upheld Mexican independence and argued at length that occupation and any further military operations in Mexico were aimed at securing a treaty ceding California and New Mexico up to approximately the 32nd parallel north and possibly Baja California and transit rights across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
Despite its lengthy string of military defeats, the Mexican government was reluctant to agree to the loss of California and New Mexico. Even with its capital under enemy occupation, the Mexican government was inclined to consider factors such as the unwillingness of the U.S. administration to annex Mexico outright and what appeared to be deep divisions in domestic U.S. opinion regarding the war and its aims, which gave it reason to conclude that it was actually in a far better negotiating position than the military situation might have suggested. A further consideration was the Mexican government 's opposition to slavery and its awareness of the well - known and growing sectional divide in the U.S. over the issue of slavery. It therefore made sense for Mexico to negotiate with a goal of pandering to Northern U.S. interests at the expense of Southern U.S. interests.
The Mexicans proposed peace terms that offered only sale of Alta California north of the 37th parallel north -- north of Santa Cruz, California and Madera, California and the southern boundaries of today 's Utah and Colorado. This territory was already dominated by Anglo - American settlers, but perhaps more importantly from the Mexican point of view, it represented the bulk of pre-war Mexican territory north of the Missouri Compromise line of parallel 36 ° 30 ′ north -- lands that, if annexed by the U.S., would have been presumed by Northerners to be forever free of slavery. The Mexicans also offered to recognize the U.S. annexation of Texas, but held to its demand of the Nueces River as a boundary.
While the Mexican government could not reasonably have expected the Polk Administration to accept such terms, it would have had reason to hope that a rejection of peace terms so favorable to Northern interests might have the potential to provoke sectional conflict in the United States, or perhaps even a civil war that would fatally undermine the U.S. military position in Mexico. Instead, these terms combined with other Mexican demands (in particular, for various indemnities) only provoked widespread indignation throughout the U.S. without causing the sectional conflict the Mexicans were hoping for.
Jefferson Davis advised Polk that if Mexico appointed commissioners to come to the U.S., the government that appointed them would probably be overthrown before they completed their mission, and they would likely be shot as traitors on their return; so that the only hope of peace was to have a U.S representative in Mexico. Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the State Department under President Polk, finally negotiated a treaty with the Mexican delegation after ignoring his recall by President Polk in frustration with failure to secure a treaty. Notwithstanding that the treaty had been negotiated against his instructions, given its achievement of the major American aim, President Polk passed it on to the Senate.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed by Nicholas Trist (on behalf of the U.S.) and Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto and Miguel Atristain as plenipotentiary representatives of Mexico on 2 February 1848, at the main altar of the old Basilica of Guadalupe at Villa Hidalgo (within the present city limits) as U.S. troops under the command of Gen. Winfield Scott were occupying Mexico City.
The version of the treaty ratified by the United States Senate eliminated Article X, which stated that the U.S. government would honor and guarantee all land grants awarded in lands ceded to the U.S. to citizens of Spain and Mexico by those respective governments. Article VIII guaranteed that Mexicans who remained more than one year in the ceded lands would automatically become full - fledged United States citizens (or they could declare their intention of remaining Mexican citizens); however, the Senate modified Article IX, changing the first paragraph and excluding the last two. Among the changes was that Mexican citizens would "be admitted at the proper time (to be judged of by the Congress of the United States) '' instead of "admitted as soon as possible '', as negotiated between Trist and the Mexican delegation.
An amendment by Jefferson Davis giving the U.S. most of Tamaulipas and Nuevo León, all of Coahuila and a large part of Chihuahua was supported by both senators from Texas (Sam Houston and Thomas Jefferson Rusk), Daniel S. Dickinson of New York, Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, Edward A. Hannegan of Indiana, and one each from Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri and Tennessee. Most of the leaders of the Democratic party, Thomas Hart Benton, John C. Calhoun, Herschel V. Johnson, Lewis Cass, James Murray Mason of Virginia and Ambrose Hundley Sevier were opposed and the amendment was defeated 44 -- 11.
An amendment by Whig Sen. George Edmund Badger of North Carolina to exclude New Mexico and California lost 35 -- 15, with three Southern Whigs voting with the Democrats. Daniel Webster was bitter that four New England senators made deciding votes for acquiring the new territories.
A motion to insert into the treaty the Wilmot Proviso (banning slavery from the acquired territories) failed 15 -- 38 on sectional lines.
The treaty was subsequently ratified by the U.S. Senate by a vote of 38 to 14 on 10 March 1848 and by Mexico through a legislative vote of 51 to 34 and a Senate vote of 33 to 4, on 19 May 1848. News that New Mexico 's legislative assembly had just passed an act for organization of a U.S. territorial government helped ease Mexican concern about abandoning the people of New Mexico. The treaty was formally proclaimed on 4 July 1848.
On 30 May 1848, when the two countries exchanged ratifications of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, they further negotiated a three - article protocol to explain the amendments. The first article stated that the original Article IX of the treaty, although replaced by Article III of the Treaty of Louisiana, would still confer the rights delineated in Article IX. The second article confirmed the legitimacy of land grants pursuant to Mexican law.
The protocol further noted that said explanations had been accepted by the Mexican Minister of Foreign Affairs on behalf of the Mexican Government, and was signed in Santiago de Querétaro by A.H. Sevier, Nathan Clifford and Luis de la Rosa.
The U.S. would later go on to ignore the protocol on the grounds that the U.S. representatives had over-reached their authority in agreeing to it.
The Treaty of Mesilla, which concluded the Gadsden purchase of 1854, had significant implications for the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Article II of the treaty annulled article XI of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, and article IV further annulled articles VI and VII of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Article V however reaffirmed the property guarantees of Guadalupe Hidalgo, specifically those contained within articles VIII and IX.
In addition to the sale of land, the treaty also provided for the recognition of the Rio Grande as the boundary between the state of Texas and Mexico. The land boundaries were established by a survey team of appointed Mexican and American representatives, and published in three volumes as The United States and Mexican Boundary Survey. On 30 December 1853, the countries by agreement altered the border from the initial one by increasing the number of border markers from 6 to 53. Most of these markers were simply piles of stones. Two later conventions, in 1882 and 1889, further clarified the boundaries, as some of the markers had been moved or destroyed. Photographers were brought in to document the location of the markers. These photographs are in Record Group 77, Records of the Office of the Chief Engineers, in the National Archives.
The southern border of California was designated as a line from the junction of the Colorado and Gila rivers westward to the Pacific Ocean, so that it passes one Spanish league south of the southernmost portion of San Diego Bay. This was done to ensure that the United States received San Diego and its excellent natural harbor, without relying on potentially inaccurate designations by latitude.
The treaty extended the choice of U.S. citizenship to Mexicans in the newly purchased territories, before many African Americans, Asians and Native Americans were eligible. If they chose to, they had to declare to the U.S. government within a year the Treaty was signed; otherwise, they could remain Mexican citizens, but they would have to relocate. Between 1850 and 1920, the U.S. Census counted most Mexicans as racially "white ''. Nonetheless, racially tinged tensions persisted in the era following annexation, reflected in such things as the Greaser Act in California, as tens of thousands of Mexican nationals suddenly found themselves living within the borders of the United States. Mexican communities remained segregated de facto from and also within other U.S. communities, continuing through the Mexican migration right up to the end of the 20th century throughout the Southwest.
Community property rights in California are a legacy of the Mexican era. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided that the property rights of Mexican subjects would be kept inviolate. The early Californians felt compelled to continue the community property system regarding the earnings and accumulation of property during a marriage, and it became incorporated into the California constitution.
Border disputes continued. The U.S. 's desire to expand its territory continued unabated and Mexico 's economic problems persisted, leading to the controversial Gadsden Purchase in 1854 and William Walker 's Republic of Lower California filibustering incident in that same year. The Channel Islands of California and Farallon Islands are not mentioned in the Treaty.
The border was routinely crossed by the armed forces of both countries. Mexican and Confederate troops often clashed during the American Civil War, and the U.S. crossed the border during the war of French intervention in Mexico. In March 1916 Pancho Villa led a raid on the U.S. border town of Columbus, New Mexico, which was followed by the Pershing expedition. The shifting of the Rio Grande would much later cause a dispute over the boundary between purchase lands and those of the state of Texas, called the Country Club Dispute. Controversy over community land grant claims in New Mexico persists to this day.
Disputes about whether to make all this new territory into free states or slave - holding states contributed heavily to the rise in North - South tensions that led to the American Civil War just over a decade later. The treaty was leaked to John Nugent before the U.S. Senate could approve it. Nugent published his article in the New York Herald and, afterward, was questioned by Senators. Nugent did not reveal his source.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo led to the establishment in 1889 of the International Boundary and Water Commission to maintain the border, and pursuant to newer treaties to allocate river waters between the two nations, and to provide for flood control and water sanitation. Once viewed as a model of international cooperation, in recent decades the IBWC has been heavily criticized as an institutional anachronism, by - passed by modern social, environmental and political issues.
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orange is the new black recap season 3 | Orange is the New Black (season 3) - Wikipedia
The third season of the American comedy - drama television series Orange Is the New Black premiered on Netflix on June 11, 2015, at 12: 00 am PST in multiple countries. It consists of thirteen episodes, each between 53 -- 60 minutes, with a 90 - minute finale. The series is based on Piper Kerman 's memoir, Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women 's Prison (2010), about her experiences at FCI Danbury, a minimum - security federal prison. The series is created and adapted for television by Jenji Kohan.
The season received critical acclaim, again winning the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series for Uzo Aduba, and numerous other awards.
The prison hosts a special visit to celebrate Mother 's Day, as part of Caputo 's attempt to "soften '' his regime in light of recent controversies. Piper finds out that Alex has returned to Litchfield and the two reconcile. Poussey misses her mother. Bennett struggles to deal with Daya 's family while keeping under wraps that he is the father of her child. Daya and Aleida clash on motherhood. Pennsatucky holds a memorial for the abortions she has had. Healy feels threatened by Caputo 's recent staff change decision. Red fills the hole in the greenhouse with cement, and is later visited by her family, from whom she finds out Piper lied regarding the store 's success.
Litchfield prison combats a bed bug infestation. This forces the prisoners to wear underwear or disposable paper suits and causing some of them to become paranoid about the cause of the bugs. Red confronts Piper about the lies she told regarding Red 's family 's store, causing Red to cut off both Piper and her husband for dishonesty before Healy gives her a dressing down. Mendez 's mother visits the prison and offers to adopt Daya 's baby, causing tension among Bennett, Daya and Aleida. Alex struggles to deal with being back in prison. Piper reveals she ratted Alex out to her parole officer, causing the two to square off. Bennett proposes to Daya but has qualms about her extended family, especially the angry Cesar. Nicky and Big Boo find that they have been robbed of the heroin they were hiding. Caputo learns that the prison is to close due to budget constraints. Piper and Alex 's feud comes to a head in the closed library, where they hook up. Bennett gets a crib from Cesar, but also witnesses Cesar pointing a gun at one of his children. He abandons the crib on the side of the road and drives away.
Luschek finds a buyer for Nicky 's heroin, but is furious when Nicky says it has been stolen. Alex and Piper continue to have a contentious relationship. Caputo denies rumors from the staff that the prison is shutting down, but the staff is suspicious. Bennett disappears, worrying Daya. New staff member Rogers starts a theater class, where Alex and Piper reconcile during a performance. It is revealed Nicky was keeping the heroin for herself, but it was discovered by the meth heads. Luschek takes the heroin from them, but it is found by Caputo, causing Luschek to rat out Nicky. Healy recruits Red to help him talk to his wife. Caputo blackmails Figueroa into helping him keep the prison open, and she points him to a private company that was interested in acquiring it in the past. Nicky says goodbye as she is sent to maximum security prison. She laments that even after kicking her drug addiction, she may never lose her self - destructive tendencies.
The inmates deal with the loss of Nicky. Caputo takes the private company, MCC, on a tour of the prison. Crazy Eyes continues to deal with the death of Vee. Daya worries that Bennett has run off on her. It is Piper 's birthday and she has a tense visit with her family. She and Alex begin to grow close again. Pennsatucky reveals she is still getting money from the anti-abortion group that considers her a martyr. Big Boo gets a makeover hoping to convince the religious group to give her funding, but she flies into a rage at the man instead. Red and Healy develop a friendship with romantic undertones. MCC agrees to take over operations of the prison, saving it from closure.
MCC invests in new mattresses and improvements in the prison, but cuts the guards ' hours to part time. A new work detail that pays ten times the wage of other prison jobs is introduced, prompting the inmates to jockey for the new positions. They take a test and several, including Piper and Flaca, are selected. It is revealed they will be working in a shop making women 's underwear. Daya tries to figure out her next steps without Bennett. Alex is paranoid that her former boss is trying to kill her. Poussey tries to stop animals from stealing her fermented alcohol.
Caputo interviews more part - time applicants, to the consternation of the other COs. A new prisoner reveals that a more appetizing kosher meal may be requested from the kitchen. Celebrity chef Judy King (Blair Brown) is arraigned on tax - evasion charges. As the prisoners begin making Whispers underwear, Piper flirts with a new prisoner, Stella Carlin. Morello is visited by a series of civilian pen pals looking for romance, and takes a shine to a Jiu Jitsu enthusiast. Healy cons Caputo into getting Red back into the kitchen. Dreaming of love, a lonely Poussey makes and drinks hooch. Chang secretly prepares specialty foods for herself and watches Chinese movies on a cell phone stashed in a garden shack.
Suzanne displays a talent for writing bizarre, erotically charged fantasy stories. Stella agrees to contribute soiled Whispers underwear for Piper 's planned dirty - panties business. Piper recruits Cal to assist in the operation. Daya wrestles with who should raise her baby. Commuting to the prison together, Mendoza 's son teaches Sophia 's son rude behavior, causing the two mothers to clash. The controversy, paired with Ramos nearly slicing her finger off, leads to Red running the kitchen again -- just as the new regime introduces "boil in the bag '' meals. MCC 's failure to properly train the COs leads to a botched pepper - spraying incident. Norma 's reputation as a miracle - performing mystic grows.
Suzanne 's sci - fi story gains a cult following in the prison, but its latest chapter aggravates Poussey 's alcoholic depression. The prisoners despise the new cafeteria food, and are angry at the rising prices of commissary items. Piper conscripts her fellow prisoners to wear panties stolen from the factory, and sells them online for a profit. Counselor Rogers objects when Healy prescribes antidepressants to Soso, causing him to angrily pass Soso 's case on to her. Pennsatucky bonds with Coates, a new CO and part - time doughnut - store employee. At a meeting in Utica, executives at MCC are shown to be totally devoid of compassion and solely concerned with cost - cutting and profits. Caputo grows to despise Pearson, who proves unsuccessful in pushing through his suggestions about upgrades. Sophia and Mendoza commiserate about not being around to raise their respective sons. When Daya learns from Mendez 's mother that Aleida arranged a financial deal to raise the baby, Daya confesses to her that Mendez is not the child 's father. Alex suspects that a new prisoner, Lolly, may have been sent by Kubra to kill her. Lolly is later seen keeping detailed notebook records of Alex 's every move.
With the help of Cal and CO Bayley, Piper 's used - panties business is a rousing success. Prisoners continue to obsess over Suzanne 's comically pornographic serial novel. Red is humiliated having to serve slop from a bag instead of real food. A rabbi quizzes prisoners about their alleged devotion to committed Jewish beliefs, resulting in a short list of approved kosher meals. A nude Stella chats with a visibly impressed Piper in the bathroom; they later share a kiss. Mendoza and Sophia clash again when Sophia 's son is arrested on battery charges. Sophia learns that Mendoza 's son fled the scene. Celebrity chef Judy King once again appears on the TV news. Outside of the prison, CO Coates kisses Pennsatucky. After Lolly breaks a window in a shed, Alex notices that a large shard of glass has vanished from the debris. Leanne bullies Soso and acts as self - appointed vocal leader of Norma 's spiritual group. Unsuccessfully, Norma tries to teach kindness and tolerance to Leanne. To her horror, Alex discovers that Lolly has been secretly monitoring her moves.
A young inmate begins pursuing Suzanne romantically. Suzanne tells Morello that in spite of her erotically charged novels, she is still a virgin and confused about sex. Judy King is found guilty, but it seems that her ultimate destination will not be Litchfield. After observing Stella making moves on Piper, Alex confronts the pair in Piper 's bunk. Visited in jail by his mother, a shaken and traumatized Mendez is told that he is not the father of Daya 's child, which he refuses to believe. Mendez 's mother informs Daya she still wishes to raise the baby, and after painful deliberation, Daya agrees. Morello uses Vince, her pen pal, to exact revenge on Christopher. Leanne and Soso continue to antagonize each other, with uncertain Norma caught in the middle. Using veggies grown in the garden, Red prepares a small pan of ratatouille for her kitchen staffers. Enraged that Sophia has cut off her son 's ride to the prison, Mendoza picks a fight with her in the bathroom. Alex attacks Lolly, but comes to realize that she is just highly paranoid and delusional, not an assassin. CO Coates is reprimanded for being late after spending time with Pennsatucky. In a rage, he rapes her in the prison van.
Caputo agrees to help the guards unite against their heartless corporate overlords, while he sleeps with Figueroa. Due to a computer error, Leanne 's sidekick Angie is mistakenly released. Caputo later recaptures her at the bus station. Big Boo learns of Coates ' abuse of Pennsatucky and vows to help her get revenge. After injuring Mendoza, Sophia becomes a pariah and her salon empties. Suzanne 's manuscript lands on the staff 's radar, leading to its confiscation, and counselor Rogers is unfairly put on leave over the scandal. Suzanne appears relieved to be done with the project and apologizes to Poussey for attacking her under Vee 's tenure. After Soso confronts Norma for letting her group bully her, Leanne cuts off Soso 's hair while she sleeps. Flaca encourages Piper 's girls to stop wearing the panties until they get paid real money. Piper agrees to set up a payment plan using cash cards, but then fires Flaca for instigating the uprising. Repulsed by seeing this side of Piper, Alex quits both the business and their relationship.
Daya goes into labor, and will not let her mother Aleida help as Aleida was trying to solicit money from Mendez 's mother. Red runs an open lottery to determine who will attend her fancy dinner party. Following counselor Rogers ' suspension, Soso returns to Healy for counseling. He continues to recommend medication. Boo cajoles Pennsatucky into exacting revenge on Coates, but they back out before doing so. Sophia gets attacked, and beaten by two other inmates. Gerber refuses to carry the panties out of the prison, so Piper comes close to following through on her promise of sexual favors, but Stella intervenes and convinces Gerber to continue. Daya 's labor does not go according to plan. An encounter with Frieda causes Taystee to realize that she is the new "mother '' in the group. Poussey finds Soso unconscious in the library from overdosing on pills that she stole from the Doctor 's office after being given a prescription from Healy. Piper reaches out to take Stella 's hand while they watch a movie, but Stella reveals she is getting out soon.
Poussey, Taystee and Suzanne save Soso from her overdose. Piper confronts Flaca about stealing the proceeds from her panty business, but soon comes to realize that Stella is the culprit, as she will have no money to live on when she gets released. Piper exacts revenge by framing Stella for possession of dangerous contraband, resulting in Stella being dragged off to maximum security prison. Healy investigates the possibility of a romantic life with Red, but Red quashes the opportunity. Morello marries Vince, while Black Cindy shows a newfound sincerity in her attempts to become Jewish. She is however frustrated because converting fully requires a Jewish baptism (called a tevilah), which in turn requires a natural body of water that she does not have access to inside a prison. Complications arise concerning Daya 's baby after Cesar is arrested. For the first time Norma faces losing her followers after Poussey angrily confronts her for her role in Soso 's attempted suicide. Tensions between Flaca and Gloria come to a head, as do those between Leanne and Norma. Caputo, after promising to head up the staff union, accepts a promotion from MCC, causing the staff to walk out. A construction mishap allows all the prisoners to escape to a nearby beach and play in the lake, Soso is taken in by the African - American group, while Suzanne bonds with Maureen. Black Cindy, with unexpected access to the required natural body of water, performs her ritual immersion and officially becomes Jewish. Alex is cornered in the greenhouse by a new guard sent by Kubra, and her fate is left uncertain. As the prisoners frolic in the lake, construction crews convert the prison 's beds into two - tiered bunkbeds, doubling the prison 's capacity, and several busloads of new prisoners arrive at Litchfield.
On May 5, 2014, the series was renewed for a third season. For the third season, several actors were promoted to series regulars, including Selenis Leyva, Adrienne C. Moore, Dascha Polanco, Nick Sandow, Yael Stone, and Samira Wiley. Both Jason Biggs and Pablo Schreiber were confirmed as not returning for the third season, but Schreiber appeared in the 10th episode of the third season.
The third season received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, it has a score of 83 out of 100 based on 24 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 96 % rating with an average score of 8.2 out of 10 based on 53 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Thanks to its blend of potent comedy and rich character work, Orange is the New Black remains a bittersweet pleasure in its third season. ''
For its third season, Orange Is the New Black won Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series (Aduba). It received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy. The series has also received, among other accolades, six Writers Guild of America Award nominations, five Satellite Awards, four Critics ' Choice Television Awards, a GLAAD Media Award, an American Cinema Editors Award, a Producers Guild of America Award, and a Peabody Award.
In Australia, the third season began airing on Showcase on June 11, 2015.
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who plays dr russell on grey's anatomy | Dominic Hoffman - wikipedia
Dominic Hoffman is an actor. He is perhaps best known for his recurring roles on A Different World as Whitley 's boyfriend, Julian Day, and Grey 's Anatomy as Dr. Jeff Russell. Most recently as costar in the movie "Phil Spector '' and recurring roles on television shows: The Shield (2004 - 5), Hawaii 5 - 0 (2015), CSI (2015), The Mentalist (2009) and Castle (2013). His successful film career includes two David Mamet movies "Phil Spector '' and "Red Belt. '' By the early 2000s, Hoffman had a number of different projects under his belt, including "The Dead One '' (2007) starring Wilmer Valderrama, "Redbelt '' with Chiwetel Ejiofor (2008) and "The Answer Man '' (2009) starring Jeff Daniels. His credits have expanded to the Will Ferrell and Brad Pitt box office smash "Megamind '' (2010) and voice - over for the Ben Stiller blockbuster animated sequel "Madagascar 3: Europe 's Most Wanted '' (2012).
He is also an accomplished theater actor and playwright, earning Ovation awards in 2000 for his one - man show "Uncle Jacques ' Symphony, '' a play that celebrates humanity as a musical metaphor. Its participants are a group of singular characters, all performed by Hoffman, with minimal alteration, played to maximum effect. Men and women, young and old, of different cultures and beliefs vividly come together on stage for ninety minutes. Their personal rhythms, unique harmonies, and the familiar melody of their stories combine to form a symphony of life. Ovation awards for best actor in a play, writing, and best world premiere.
Voice: Dominic is a four - time winner of the Audiophile Earphones Award for his readings of "The Port Chicago 50 '' (2014 National Book Award Finalist), "An Ordinary Man, '' "The Last Days of Ptolemy Gray, '' and "In Search of Our Roots. '' His reading of "The Door of No Return '' was selected by the School Library Journal as an Audio Hot Pick.
Dominic wrote three episodes of A Different World: The Power of the Pen, War and Peace and Liza Who - Little. Hoffman was also a recurring actor on the hit show Grey 's Anatomy.
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first man to walk on the moon and when | Apollo 11 - Wikipedia
Apollo 11 was the spaceflight that landed the first two humans on the Moon. Mission commander Neil Armstrong and pilot Buzz Aldrin, both American, landed the lunar module Eagle on July 20, 1969, at 20: 18 UTC. Armstrong became the first to step onto the lunar surface six hours after landing on July 21 at 02: 56: 15 UTC; Aldrin joined him about 20 minutes later. They spent about two and a quarter hours together outside the spacecraft, and collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar material to bring back to Earth. Michael Collins piloted the command module Columbia alone in lunar orbit while they were on the Moon 's surface. Armstrong and Aldrin spent just under a day on the lunar surface before rejoining Columbia in lunar orbit.
Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center in Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 9: 32 am EDT (13: 32 UTC) and was the fifth manned mission of NASA 's Apollo program. The Apollo spacecraft had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that landed back on Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages -- a lower stage for landing on the Moon, and an upper stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.
After being sent toward the Moon by the Saturn V 's upper stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered into lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into the lunar module Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility. They stayed a total of about 21.5 hours on the lunar surface. The astronauts used Eagle 's upper stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that blasted them out of lunar orbit on a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and landed in the Pacific Ocean on July 24.
The landing was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience. Armstrong stepped onto the lunar surface and described the event as "one small step for (a) man, one giant leap for mankind. '' Apollo 11 effectively ended the Space Race and fulfilled a national goal proposed in 1961 by U.S. President John F. Kennedy: "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. ''
Apollo 11 was the second all - veteran multi-person crew (the first being Apollo 10) in human spaceflight history. A previous solo veteran flight had been made on Soyuz 1 in 1967 by Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov.
Collins was originally slated to be the Command Module Pilot (CMP) on Apollo 8 but was removed when he required surgery on his back and was replaced by Jim Lovell, his backup for that flight. After Collins was medically cleared, he took what would have been Lovell 's spot on Apollo 11; as a veteran of Apollo 8, Lovell was transferred to Apollo 11 's backup crew and promoted to backup commander.
In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with the National Space Council effective August 1969 and announced that he would retire as an astronaut on that date. At that point Ken Mattingly was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup Command Module Pilot in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch (at which point Anders would be unavailable if needed) and would later join Lovell 's crew and ultimately be assigned as the original Apollo 13 CMP.
After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraft Charlie Brown and Snoopy, assistant manager for public affairs Julian Scheer wrote to Manned Spacecraft Center director George M. Low to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. During early mission planning, the names Snowcone and Haystack were used and put in the news release, but the crew later decided to change them.
The Command Module was named Columbia after the Columbiad, the giant cannon shell "spacecraft '' fired by a giant cannon (also from Florida) in Jules Verne 's 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon. The Lunar Module was named Eagle for the national bird of the United States, the bald eagle, which is featured prominently on the mission insignia.
The Apollo 11 mission insignia was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for "peaceful lunar landing by the United States ''. He chose an eagle as the symbol, put an olive branch in its beak, and drew a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. NASA officials said the talons of the eagle looked too "warlike '' and after some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the claws. The crew decided the Roman numeral XI would not be understood in some nations and went with "Apollo 11 ''; they decided not to put their names on the patch, so it would "be representative of everyone who had worked toward a lunar landing ''. All colors are natural, with blue and gold borders around the patch.
When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side. The design was also used for the smaller Susan B. Anthony dollar unveiled in 1979, ten years after the Apollo 11 mission.
Neil Armstrong 's personal preference kit carried a piece of wood from the Wright brothers ' 1903 airplane 's left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing, along with a diamond - studded astronaut pin originally given to Deke Slayton by the widows of the Apollo 1 crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on Apollo 1 and given to Slayton after the mission but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton and Armstrong took it on Apollo 11.
In addition to many people crowding highways and beaches near the launch site, millions watched the event on television, with NASA Chief of Public Information Jack King providing commentary. President Richard M. Nixon viewed the proceedings from the Oval Office of the White House.
A Saturn V launched Apollo 11 from Launch Pad 39A, part of the Launch Complex 39 site at the Kennedy Space Center on July 16, 1969, at 13: 32: 00 UTC (9: 32: 00 a.m. EDT local time). It entered Earth orbit, at an altitude of 100.4 nautical miles (185.9 km) by 98.9 nautical miles (183.2 km), twelve minutes later. After one and a half orbits, the S - IVB third - stage engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with the trans - lunar injection (TLI) burn at 16: 22: 13 UTC. About 30 minutes later, the transposition, docking, and extraction maneuver was performed: this involved separating the Apollo Command / Service Module (CSM) from the spent rocket stage, turning around, and docking with the Lunar Module still attached to the stage. After the Lunar Module was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the Moon and into orbit around the Sun.
On July 19 at 17: 21: 50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter lunar orbit. In the thirty orbits that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis) about 12 miles (19 km) southwest of the crater Sabine D (0.67408 N, 23.47297 E). The landing site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5 landers along with the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft and unlikely to present major landing or extravehicular activity (EVA) challenges.
On July 20, 1969, the Lunar Module Eagle separated from the Command Module Columbia. Collins, alone aboard Columbia, inspected Eagle as it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged.
As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found that they were passing landmarks on the surface four seconds early and reported that they were "long ''; they would land miles west of their target point.
Five minutes into the descent burn, and 6,000 feet (1,800 m) above the surface of the Moon, the LM navigation and guidance computer distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected "1202 '' and "1201 '' program alarms. Inside Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, computer engineer Jack Garman told guidance officer Steve Bales it was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated "executive overflows '', meaning the guidance computer could not complete all of its tasks in real time and had to postpone some of them.
Due to an error in the checklist manual, the rendezvous radar switch was placed in the wrong position. This caused it to send erroneous signals to the computer. The result was that the computer was being asked to perform all of its normal functions for landing while receiving an extra load of spurious data which used up 15 % of its time. The computer (or rather the software in it) was smart enough to recognize that it was being asked to perform more tasks than it should be performing. It then sent out an alarm, which meant to the astronaut, I 'm overloaded with more tasks than I should be doing at this time and I 'm going to keep only the more important tasks; i.e., the ones needed for landing... Actually, the computer was programmed to do more than recognize error conditions. A complete set of recovery programs was incorporated into the software. The software 's action, in this case, was to eliminate lower priority tasks and re-establish the more important ones... If the computer had n't recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful moon landing it was.
When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer 's landing target was in a boulder - strewn area just north and east of a 300 - meter (980 ft) diameter crater (later determined to be West crater, named for its location in the western part of the originally planned landing ellipse). Armstrong took semi-automatic control and, with Aldrin calling out altitude and velocity data, landed at 20: 17: 40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with about 25 seconds of fuel left.
Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than other missions, and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning. This was later found to be the result of greater propellant ' slosh ' than expected, uncovering a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions, extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this.
Throughout the descent, Aldrin had called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy piloting the LM. A few moments before the landing, a light informed Aldrin that at least one of the 67 - inch (170 cm) probes hanging from Eagle 's footpads had touched the surface, and he said: "Contact light! '' Three seconds later, Eagle landed and Armstrong said "Shutdown. '' Aldrin immediately said "Okay, engine stop. ACA -- out of detent. '' Armstrong acknowledged "Out of detent. Auto '' and Aldrin continued "Mode control -- both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm -- off. 413 is in. ''
Charles Duke, CAPCOM during the landing phase, acknowledged their landing by saying "We copy you down, Eagle. ''
Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin 's completion of the post landing checklist with "Engine arm is off '', before responding to Duke with the words, "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed. '' Armstrong 's unrehearsed change of call sign from "Eagle '' to "Tranquility Base '' emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful. Duke mispronounced his reply as he expressed the relief at Mission Control: "Roger, Twan -- Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We 're breathing again. Thanks a lot. ''
Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin radioed to Earth:
This is the LM pilot. I 'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way.
He then took communion privately. At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheist Madalyn Murray O'Hair (who had objected to the Apollo 8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. As such, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon. Aldrin was an elder at the Webster Presbyterian Church, and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, the Rev. Dean Woodruff. Aldrin described communion on the Moon and the involvement of his church and pastor in the October 1970 edition of Guideposts magazine and in his book Return to Earth. Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20.
The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five - hour sleep period as they had been awake since early morning. However, they elected to forgo the sleep period and begin the preparations for the EVA early, thinking that they would be unable to sleep.
The astronauts planned placement of the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package (EASEP) and the U.S. flag by studying their landing site through Eagle 's twin triangular windows, which gave them a 60 ° field of view. Preparation required longer than the two hours scheduled. Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his Portable Life Support System (PLSS). According to veteran Moon - walker John Young, a redesign of the LM to incorporate a smaller hatch had not been followed by a redesign of the PLSS backpack, so some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress.
Several books indicate early mission timelines had Buzz Aldrin rather than Neil Armstrong as the first man on the Moon.
At 02: 39 UTC on Monday July 21, 1969, Armstrong opened the hatch, and at 02: 51 UTC began his descent to the lunar surface. The Remote Control Unit controls on his chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine - rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D - ring to deploy the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA) folded against Eagle 's side and activate the TV camera, and at 02: 56: 15 UTC he set his left foot on the surface. The first landing used slow - scan television incompatible with commercial TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor, significantly reducing the quality of the picture. The signal was received at Goldstone in the United States but with better fidelity by Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station in Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitive Parkes radio telescope in Australia. Despite some technical and weather difficulties, ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth. Although copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, recordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surface were accidentally destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA.
While still on the ladder, Armstrong uncovered a plaque mounted on the LM Descent Stage bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon. The inscription read:
Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon, July 1969 A.D. We came in peace for all mankind.
After describing the surface dust as "very fine - grained '' and "almost like a powder, '' six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong stepped off Eagle 's footpad and declared, "That 's one small step for (a) man, one giant leap for mankind. ''
Armstrong intended to say "That 's one small step for a man '', but the word "a '' is not audible in the transmission, and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast. When later asked about his quote, Armstrong said he believed he said "for a man '', and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the "a '' in square brackets. One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words "for a '' together; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth, partly because of storms near Parkes Observatory. More recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the "a '' may have been spoken but obscured by static.
About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon 's surface, Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM.
Twelve minutes after the contingency sample was collected, Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface, and described the view with the simple phrase, "Magnificent desolation. ''
In addition to fulfilling President Kennedy 's mandate to land a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s, Apollo 11 was an engineering test of the Apollo system; therefore, Armstrong snapped photos of the LM so engineers would be able to judge its post-landing condition. He removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep, then mounted it on a tripod 68 feet (21 m) from the LM. The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA.
Armstrong said that moving in the lunar gravity, one - sixth of Earth 's, was "even perhaps easier than the simulations... It 's absolutely no trouble to walk around. '' Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two - footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backwards, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into Eagle 's shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, though the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow.
The astronauts planted a specially designed U.S. flag on the lunar surface, in clear view of the TV camera. Some time later, President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone - radio transmission which Nixon called "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House. '' Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call, but Frank Borman, who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon to keep his words brief, to respect the lunar landing as Kennedy 's legacy. Armstrong thanked the President, and gave a brief reflection on the significance of the moment:
Nixon: Hello, Neil and Buzz. I 'm talking to you by telephone from the Oval Room at the White House. And this certainly has to be the most historic telephone call ever made. I just ca n't tell you how proud we all are of what you 've done. For every American, this has to be the proudest day of our lives. And for people all over the world, I am sure they too join with Americans in recognizing what an immense feat this is. Because of what you have done, the heavens have become a part of man 's world. And as you talk to us from the Sea of Tranquility, it inspires us to redouble our efforts to bring peace and tranquility to Earth. For one priceless moment in the whole history of man, all the people on this Earth are truly one: one in their pride in what you have done, and one in our prayers that you will return safely to Earth.
Armstrong: Thank you, Mr. President. It 's a great honor and privilege for us to be here, representing not only the United States, but men of peace of all nations, and with interest and curiosity, and men with a vision for the future. It 's an honor for us to be able to participate here today.
The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits, the integrated thermal meteoroid garment.
They deployed the EASEP, which included a passive seismograph and a Lunar Ranging Retroreflector (LRRR). Then Armstrong walked 196 feet (60 m) from the LM to snap photos at the rim of Little West Crater while Aldrin collected two core tubes. He used the geological hammer to pound in the tubes -- the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes.
Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts: armalcolite, tranquillityite, and pyroxferroite. Armalcolite was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins.
During this period, Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong that his metabolic rates were high and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. However, as metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15 - minute extension. In a 2010 interview, Armstrong, who had walked a maximum of 196 feet (60 m) from the LM, explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk 's time and distance because there was no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts ' PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon.
Aldrin entered Eagle first. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing 21.55 kilograms (47.5 lb) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor. Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his suit pocket sleeve, and Aldrin tossed the bag down; Armstrong then jumped to the ladder 's third rung and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LM life support, the explorers lightened the ascent stage for return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, one Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. They then pressurized the LM and settled down to sleep.
President Nixon 's speech writer William Safire had prepared In Event of Moon Disaster for the President to read on television in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon. The contingency plan originated in a memo from Safire to Nixon 's White House Chief of Staff H.R. Haldeman, in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster. According to the plan, Mission Control would "close down communications '' with the LM, and a clergyman would "commend their souls to the deepest of the deep '' in a public ritual likened to burial at sea. The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion to Rupert Brooke 's First World War poem, "The Soldier ''. The plan included presidential telephone calls to the astronauts ' wives.
While moving within the cabin, Aldrin accidentally damaged the circuit breaker that would arm the main engine for lift off from the Moon. There was concern this would prevent firing the engine, stranding them on the Moon. Fortunately, a felt - tip pen was sufficient to activate the switch. Had this not worked, the Lunar Module circuitry could have been reconfigured to allow firing the ascent engine.
After about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the return flight. Two and a half hours later, at 17: 54 UTC, they lifted off in Eagle 's ascent stage to rejoin Collins aboard Columbia in lunar orbit.
After more than 211⁄2 total hours on the lunar surface, they had left behind scientific instruments that included a retroreflector array used for the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment and a Passive Seismic Experiment Package used to measure moonquakes. They also left an Apollo 1 mission patch, and a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace and a silicon message disk. The disk carries the goodwill statements by Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon and messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world. The disc also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation, and the names of NASA 's past and present top management. (In his 1989 book, Men from Earth, Aldrin says that the items included Soviet medals commemorating Cosmonauts Vladimir Komarov and Yuri Gagarin.) Also, according to Deke Slayton 's book Moonshot, Armstrong carried with him a special diamond - studded astronaut pin from Slayton.
Film taken from the LM Ascent Stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some 25 feet (8 m) from the descent stage, whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple: "The ascent stage of the LM separated... I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying the attitude indicator, but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over. '' Subsequent Apollo missions usually planted the American flags at least 100 feet (30 m) from the LM to prevent them being blown over by the ascent engine exhaust.
After rendezvous with Columbia, Eagle 's ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit on July 21, 1969, at 23: 41 UTC. Just before the Apollo 12 flight, it was noted that Eagle was still likely to be orbiting the Moon. Later NASA reports mentioned that Eagle 's orbit had decayed, resulting in it impacting in an "uncertain location '' on the lunar surface. The location is uncertain because the Eagle ascent stage was not tracked after it was jettisoned, and the lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make the orbit of the spacecraft unpredictable after a short time. NASA estimated that the orbit had decayed within months and would have impacted on the Moon.
On July 23, the last night before splashdown, the three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented:
... The Saturn V rocket which put us in orbit is an incredibly complicated piece of machinery, every piece of which worked flawlessly... We have always had confidence that this equipment will work properly. All this is possible only through the blood, sweat, and tears of a number of a people... All you see is the three of us, but beneath the surface are thousands and thousands of others, and to all of those, I would like to say, "Thank you very much. ''
Aldrin added:
This has been far more than three men on a mission to the Moon; more, still, than the efforts of a government and industry team; more, even, than the efforts of one nation. We feel that this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown... Personally, in reflecting on the events of the past several days, a verse from Psalms comes to mind. "When I consider the heavens, the work of Thy fingers, the Moon and the stars, which Thou hast ordained; What is man that Thou art mindful of him? ''
Armstrong concluded:
The responsibility for this flight lies first with history and with the giants of science who have preceded this effort; next with the American people, who have, through their will, indicated their desire; next with four administrations and their Congresses, for implementing that will; and then, with the agency and industry teams that built our spacecraft, the Saturn, the Columbia, the Eagle, and the little EMU, the spacesuit and backpack that was our small spacecraft out on the lunar surface. We would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the spacecraft; who did the construction, design, the tests, and put their hearts and all their abilities into those craft. To those people tonight, we give a special thank you, and to all the other people that are listening and watching tonight, God bless you. Good night from Apollo 11.
On the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed, potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his ten - year - old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease. Greg later was thanked by Armstrong.
On July 24, the astronauts returned home aboard the Command Module Columbia just before dawn local time (16: 51 UTC) at 13 ° 19 ′ N 169 ° 9 ′ W / 13.317 ° N 169.150 ° W / 13.317; - 169.150 (Apollo 11 splashdown), in the Pacific Ocean 2,660 km (1,440 nmi) east of Wake Island, 380 km (210 nmi) south of Johnston Atoll, and 24 km (13 nmi) from the recovery ship, USS Hornet. This is near the village of Vatia in American Samoa. A copy of the American Samoa - flag, which was brought to the moon by Apollo 11, is on display at the Jean P. Haydon Museum in Pago Pago, the territorial capital of American Samoa.
At 16: 44 UTC the drogue parachutes had been deployed and seven minutes later the Command Module struck the water forcefully. During splashdown, the Command Module landed upside down but was righted within 10 minutes by flotation bags triggered by the astronauts. "Everything 's okay. Our checklist is complete. Awaiting swimmers '', was Armstrong 's last official transmission from Columbia. A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached a sea anchor to the Command Module to prevent it from drifting. Additional divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and position rafts for astronaut extraction. Though the chance of bringing back pathogens from the lunar surface was considered remote, it was considered a possibility and NASA took great precautions at the recovery site. Divers provided the astronauts with Biological Isolation Garments (BIGs) which were worn until they reached isolation facilities on board the Hornet. Additionally, astronauts were rubbed down with a sodium hypochlorite solution and the Command Module wiped with Betadine to remove any lunar dust that might be present. The raft containing decontamination materials was then intentionally sunk.
A second Sea King helicopter - "Helicopter 66 '' - hoisted the astronauts aboard one by one, where a NASA flight surgeon gave each a brief physical check during the 0.5 nautical miles (930 m) trip back to the Hornet.
After touchdown on the Hornet, the astronauts exited the helicopter, leaving the flight surgeon and three crewmen. The helicopter was then lowered into hangar bay # 2 where the astronauts walked the 30 feet (9.1 m) to the Mobile Quarantine Facility (MQF) where they would begin the earth - based portion of their 21 days of quarantine. This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 and Apollo 14, before the Moon was proven to be barren of life and the quarantine process dropped.
President Richard Nixon was aboard Hornet to personally welcome the astronauts back to Earth. He told the astronauts, "As a result of what you 've done, the world has never been closer together before. '' After Nixon departed, the Hornet was brought alongside the five - ton Command Module where it was placed aboard by the ship 's crane, placed on a dolly and moved next to the MQF. The Hornet sailed for Pearl Harbor where Columbia and the MQF were airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft Center.
In accordance with the Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law, a set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its quarantine protocol, the astronauts continued in quarantine out of concern that the Moon might contain undiscovered pathogens and that the astronauts might have been exposed to them during their Moon walks. However, after three weeks in confinement (first in the Apollo spacecraft, then in their trailer on the Hornet, and finally in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at the Manned Spacecraft Center), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health. On August 10, 1969, the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and lifted the quarantine on the astronauts, on those who had joined them in quarantine (NASA physician William Carpentier and MQF project engineer John Hirasaki), and on Columbia itself. Loose equipment from the spacecraft would remain in isolation until the lunar samples were released for study.
On August 13, they rode in parades in their honor in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles. On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an official State Dinner to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors, the Chief Justice of the United States, and ambassadors from 83 nations at the Century Plaza Hotel. President Richard Nixon and Vice President Spiro T. Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of the Presidential Medal of Freedom. This celebration was the beginning of a 45 - day "Giant Leap '' tour that brought the astronauts to 25 foreign countries and included visits with prominent leaders such as Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. Many nations honored the first manned Moon landing with special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins.
On September 16, 1969, the three astronauts spoke before a joint session of Congress on Capitol Hill. They presented two US flags, one to the House of Representatives and the other to the Senate, that had been carried to the surface of the Moon with them.
The Soviet Union had been competing with the US in landing a man on the Moon but had been hampered by repeated failures in development of a launcher comparable to the Saturn V. Meanwhile, they tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means of unmanned probes. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11 's launch, they launched Luna 15, which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash in Mare Crisium about two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the Moon 's surface to begin their voyage home. The Jodrell Bank Observatory radio telescope in England was later discovered to have recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and this was published in July 2009 on the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11.
The Command Module Columbia was displayed at the National Air and Space Museum (NASM), Washington, D.C. It was in the central Milestones of Flight exhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, sharing the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as the Wright Flyer, the Spirit of St. Louis, the Bell X-1, the North American X-15, Mercury spacecraft Friendship 7, and Gemini 4. Armstrong 's and Aldrin 's space suits are displayed in the museum 's Apollo to the Moon exhibit. The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar, and the righting spheres are displayed at the Smithsonian 's Steven F. Udvar - Hazy Center annex near Washington Dulles International Airport in Chantilly, Virginia.
In 2009, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon, for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules, scientific instruments, and foot trails made by the astronauts.
In March 2012 a team of specialists financed by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos located the F - 1 engines that launched Apollo 11 into space. The engines were found below the Atlantic Ocean 's surface through the use of advanced sonar scanning. His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface. In July 2013, a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on one of the engines raised from the Atlantic, which NASA confirmed was from the Apollo 11 launch.
Columbia was moved in 2017 to the NASM Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar at the Steven F. Udvar - Hazy Center in Chantilly, VA, to be readied for a four - city tour titled Destination Moon: The Apollo 11 Mission. This will include Space Center Houston (October 14, 2017, to March 18, 2018), the Saint Louis Science Center (April 14 to September 3, 2018), the Senator John Heinz History Center in Pittsburgh (September 29, 2018, to February 18, 2019), and the Seattle Museum of Flight (March 16 to September 2, 2019).
On July 15, 2009, Life.com released a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken by Life photographer Ralph Morse prior to the Apollo 11 launch.
From July 16 -- 24, 2009, NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred. In addition, it is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key moments.
On July 20, 2009, the crew of Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins met with U.S. President Barack Obama at the White House. "We expect that there is, as we speak, another generation of kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the next Armstrong, Collins and Aldrin '', Obama said. "We want to make sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their journey. ''
The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum set up a Flash website that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon.
A group of British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing:
It was carried out in a technically brilliant way with risks taken... that would be inconceivable in the risk - averse world of today... The Apollo programme is arguably the greatest technical achievement of mankind to date... nothing since Apollo has come close (to) the excitement that was generated by those astronauts -- Armstrong, Aldrin and the 10 others who followed them.
On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts a Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award in the United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida Sen. Bill Nelson and Florida Rep. Alan Grayson.
In July 2010, air - to - ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re-synchronised and released for the first time.
Spectators camp out to watch the launch
Seating credential issued to viewers of the Apollo 11 launch
Launch Control Center before liftoff
Collins, Aldrin and Armstrong consult with pad leader Guenter Wendt after Countdown Demonstration Test
Roll - out of Saturn V AS - 505 from the Vehicle Assembly Building to the launch pad
The Earth as seen from Apollo 11 on the third day out
Neil Armstrong describes the Moon 's surface before setting foot on it
President Nixon speaks to Armstrong and Aldrin from the Oval Office
The Washington Post on Monday, July 21, 1969: "' The Eagle Has Landed ' -- Two Men Walk on the Moon ''
Neil Armstrong 's certification: "I certify that this World Scout Badge was carried to the surface of the Moon on man 's first lunar landing, Apollo XI, July 20, 1969. ''
First Man on the Moon Commemorative Issue of 1969
Apollo 11 crew at the White House in 2004
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
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which of the following was an example of the progressive modern big band sound | Big band - wikipedia
A big band is a type of musical ensemble that usually consists of ten or more musicians with four sections: saxophones, trumpets, trombones, and a rhythm section. Big bands originated during the early 1910s and dominated jazz in the early 1940s when swing was most popular. The term "big band '' is also used to describe a genre of music. One problem with this usage is that it overlooks the variety of music played by these bands.
Big bands started as accompaniment for dancing. In contrast with the emphasis on improvisation, big bands relied on written compositions and arrangements. They gave a greater role to bandleaders, arrangers, and sections of instruments rather than soloists.
Big bands have four sections: trumpets, trombones, saxophones, and a rhythm section of guitar, piano, double bass, and drums. The division in early big bands was likely to be two or three trumpets, one or two trombones, three saxophones, and a rhythm section. In 1930, big bands usually consisted of three trumpets, three trombones, three saxophones, and a rhythm section of four instruments. Guitar replaced the banjo, and double bass replaced the tuba. In the 1940s, Stan Kenton 's band and Woody Herman 's band used up to five trumpets, four trombones (three tenor, one bass trombone), five saxophones (two alto saxophones, two tenor saxophones, one baritone saxophone), and a rhythm section. An exception is Duke Ellington, who at one time used six trumpets. Boyd Raeburn drew from symphony orchestras by adding to his band flute, French horn, violin, and timpani.
Typical big band arrangements are written in strophic form with the same phrase and chord structure repeated several times. Each iteration, or chorus, commonly follows twelve bar blues form or thirty - two - bar (AABA) song form. The first chorus of an arrangement introduces the melody and is followed by choruses of development. This development may take the form of improvised solos, written soli sections, and "shout choruses ''.
An arrangement 's first chorus is sometimes preceded by an introduction, which may be as short as a few measures or may extend to chorus of its own. Many arrangements contain an interlude, often similar in content to the introduction, inserted between some or all choruses. Other methods of embellishing the form include modulations and cadential extensions.
Some big ensembles, like King Oliver 's, played music that was half - arranged, half - improvised, often relying on head arrangements. A head arrangement is a piece of music that is formed by band members during rehearsal. They experiment, then memorize the way they are going to perform the piece, without writing it on sheet music. During the 1930s, Count Basie 's band often used head arrangements, as Basie said, "we just sort of start it off and the others fall in. ''
Before 1914, social dance in America was dominated by steps such as the waltz and polka. As jazz migrated from its New Orleans origin to Chicago and New York City, energetic, suggestive dances traveled with it. During the next decades, ballrooms filled with people doing the jitterbug and Lindy Hop. The dance duo Vernon and Irene Castle popularized the foxtrot while accompanied by the orchestra of James Reese Europe.
One of the first bands to accompany the new rhythms was led by a drummer, Art Hickman, in San Francisco in 1916. Hickman 's arranger, Ferde Grofé, wrote arrangements in which he divided the jazz orchestra into sections that combined in various ways. This intermingling of sections became a defining characteristic of big bands. In 1919, Paul Whiteman hired Grofé to use similar techniques for his band. Whiteman was educated in classical music, and he called his new band 's music symphonic jazz. The methods of dance bands marked a step away from New Orleans jazz. With the exception of Jelly Roll Morton, who continued playing in the New Orleans style, bandleaders paid attention to the demand for dance music and created their own big bands. They incorporated elements of Broadway, Tin Pan Alley, ragtime, and vaudeville.
Duke Ellington led his band at the Cotton Club in Harlem. Fletcher Henderson 's career started when he was persuaded to audition for a job at Club Alabam in New York City, which eventually turned into a job as bandleader at the Roseland Ballroom. At these venues, which themselves gained notoriety, bandleaders and arrangers played a greater role than they had before. Hickman relied on Ferde Grofé, Whiteman on Bill Challis. Henderson and arranger Don Redman followed the template of King Oliver, but as the 1920s progressed they moved away from the New Orleans format and transformed jazz. They were assisted by a band full of talent: Coleman Hawkins on tenor saxophone, Louis Armstrong on cornet, and multi-instrumentalist Benny Carter, whose career lasted into the 1990s.
Swing music began appearing in the early 1930s and was distinguished by a more supple feel than the more literal 4 / 4 of early jazz. Walter Page is often credited with developing the walking bass, though earlier examples exist, such as Wellman Braud on Ellington 's Washington Wabble from 1927.
This type of music flourished through the early 1930s, although there was little mass audience for it until around 1936. Up until that time, it was viewed with ridicule and looked upon as a curiosity. After 1935, big bands rose to prominence playing swing music and held a major role in defining swing as a distinctive style. Western swing musicians also formed popular big bands during the same period.
There was a considerable range of styles among the hundreds of popular bands. Many of the better known bands reflected the individuality of the bandleader, the lead arranger, and the personnel. Count Basie played a relaxed, propulsive swing, Bob Crosby more of a dixieland style, Benny Goodman a hard driving swing, and Duke Ellington 's compositions were varied and sophisticated. Many bands featured strong instrumentalists whose sounds dominated, such as the clarinets of Benny Goodman and Artie Shaw, the trombone of Jack Teagarden, the trumpet of Harry James, the drums of Gene Krupa, and the vibes of Lionel Hampton. The popularity of many of the major bands was amplified by star vocalists, such as Frank Sinatra with Tommy Dorsey, Helen O'Connell and Bob Eberly with Jimmy Dorsey, Ella Fitzgerald with Chick Webb, Billie Holiday and Jimmy Rushing with Count Basie, Dick Haymes and Helen Forrest with Harry James, Doris Day with Les Brown, and Peggy Lee with Benny Goodman. Some bands were "society bands '' which relied on strong ensembles but little on soloists or vocalists, such as the bands of Guy Lombardo and Paul Whiteman.
By this time the Big Band was such a dominant force in jazz that the older generation found they either had to adapt to it or simply retire. With no market for small - group recordings (made worse by a Depression - era industry reluctant to take risks), musicians such as Louis Armstrong and Earl Hines led their own bands, while others, like Jelly Roll Morton and King Oliver, lapsed into obscurity.
The major "black '' bands of the 1930s included, apart from Ellington 's, Hines 's and Calloway 's, those of Jimmie Lunceford, Chick Webb, and Count Basie. The "white '' bands of Benny Goodman, Artie Shaw, Tommy Dorsey, Shep Fields and, later, Glenn Miller were more popular than their "black '' counterparts from the middle of the decade. Bridging the gap to white audiences in the mid-1930s was the Casa Loma Orchestra and Benny Goodman 's early band.
White teenagers and young adults were the principal fans of the Big Bands in the late 1930s and early 1940s. They danced to recordings and the radio and attended live concerts. They were knowledgeable and often biased toward their favorite bands and songs, and sometimes worshipful of famous soloists and vocalists. Many bands toured the country in grueling one - night stands. Traveling conditions and lodging were difficult, in part due to segregation in most parts of the United States, and the personnel often had to perform having had little sleep and food. Apart from the star soloists, many musicians received low wages and would abandon the tour if bookings disappeared. Personal problems and band discord affected the group. Drinking and addiction were common. Turnover was frequent, and top soloists were lured by more lucrative contracts. Sometimes bandstands were too small, public address systems inadequate, pianos out of tune. Bandleaders dealt with these obstacles through rigid discipline (Glenn Miller) and canny psychology (Duke Ellington).
Big Bands uplifted morale during World War II. Many musicians served in the military and toured with USO troupes at the front, with Glenn Miller losing his life while traveling between shows. Many bands suffered from the loss of personnel and quality declined at home during the war years. The 1942 -- 44 musicians ' strike worsened the situation. Vocalists began to strike out on their own. By the end of the war, swing was giving way to less danceable music, such as bebop. Many of the great swing bands broke up, as the times and tastes changed.
Although big bands are identified with the swing era, they continued to exist after those decades, though the music they played was often different from swing. Bandleader Charlie Barnet 's recording of "Cherokee '' in 1942 and "The Moose '' in 1943 have been called the beginning of the bop era. Woody Herman 's first band, nicknamed the First Herd, borrowed from progressive jazz, while the Second Herd emphasized the saxophone section of three tenors and one baritone. In the 1950s, Stan Kenton referred to his band 's music as "progressive jazz '', "modern '', and "new music ''. He created his band as a vehicle for his compositions. Kenton pushed the boundaries of big bands by combining clashing elements and by hiring arrangers whose ideas about music conflicted. This expansive eclecticism characterized much of jazz after World War II. During the 1960s and ' 70s, Sun Ra and his Arketstra took big bands further out. Ra 's eclectic music was played by a roster of musicians from ten to thirty and was presented as theater, with costumes, dancers, and special effects.
As jazz was expanded during the 1950s through the 1970s, the Basie and Ellington bands were still around, as were bands led by Buddy Rich, Gene Krupa, Lionel Hampton, Earl Hines, Les Brown, Clark Terry, and Doc Severinsen. Progressive bands were led by Dizzy Gillespie, Gil Evans, Carla Bley, Toshiko Akiyoshi and Lew Tabackin, Don Ellis, and Anthony Braxton.
Other bandleaders used Brazilian and Afro - Cuban music with big band instrumentation, and big bands led by arranger Gil Evans, saxophonist John Coltrane (on the album Ascension from 1965) and bass guitarist Jaco Pastorius introduced cool jazz, free jazz and jazz fusion, respectively, to the big band domain. Modern big bands can be found playing all styles of jazz music. Some large contemporary European jazz ensembles play mostly avant - garde jazz using the instrumentation of the big bands. Examples include the Vienna Art Orchestra, founded in 1977, and the Italian Instabile Orchestra, active in the 1990s.
In the late 1990s, there was a swing revival in the U.S. The Lindy Hop became popular again and young people took an interest in big band styles again.
Big bands maintained a presence on American television, particularly through the late - night talk show, which has historically used big bands as house accompaniment. Typically the most prominent shows with the earliest time slots and largest audiences have bigger bands with horn sections while those in later time slots go with smaller, leaner ensembles.
During the 1930s, Earl Hines and his band broadcast from the Grand Terrace in Chicago every night across America. In Kansas City and across the Southwest, an earthier, bluesier style was developed by such bandleaders as Bennie Moten and, later, by Jay McShann and Jesse Stone. Big band remotes on the major radio networks spread the music from ballrooms and clubs across the country during the 1930s and 1940s, with remote broadcasts from jazz clubs continuing into the 1950s on NBC 's Monitor. Radio increased the fame of Benny Goodman, the "Pied Piper of Swing ''. Others challenged him, and battle of the bands became a regular feature of theater performances.
Gloria Parker had a radio program on which she conducted the largest all - girl orchestra led by a female. She led her Swingphony while playing marimba. Phil Spitalny, a native of Ukraine, led a 22 - piece female orchestra known as Phil Spitalny and His Hour of Charm Orchestra, named for his radio show, Hour of Charm, during the 1930s and 1940s. Other female bands were led by trumpeter B.A. Rolfe, Anna Mae Winburn, and Ina Ray Hutton.
Big Bands began to appear in movies in the 1930s through the 1960s, though cameos by bandleaders were often stiff and incidental to the plot. Fictionalized biographical films of Glenn Miller, Gene Krupa, and Benny Goodman were made in the 1950s.
The bands led by Helen Lewis, Ben Bernie, and Roger Wolfe Kahn 's band were filmed by Lee de Forest in his Phonofilm sound - on - film process in 1925, in three short films which are in the Library of Congress film collection.
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what made the initial us system of government a confederacy | Confederate States of America - Wikipedia
The Confederate States of America (CSA or C.S.), commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was an unrecognized country in North America that existed from 1861 to 1865. The Confederacy was originally formed by seven secessionist slave - holding states -- South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas -- in the Lower South region of the United States whose regional economy was mostly dependent upon agriculture, particularly cotton, and a plantation system that relied upon the labor of African - American slaves.
Each state declared its secession from the United States following the November 1860 election of Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln to the U.S. presidency on a platform which opposed the expansion of slavery into the western territories. Before Lincoln took office in March, a new Confederate government was established in February 1861, which was considered illegal by the government of the United States. After the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South -- Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina -- also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The Confederacy later accepted Missouri and Kentucky as members, although neither officially declared secession nor were they ever largely controlled by Confederate forces; Confederate shadow governments attempted to control the two states but were later exiled from them.
The government of the United States (the Union) rejected the claims of secession and considered the Confederacy illegitimate. The American Civil War began with the Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. No foreign government officially recognized the Confederacy as an independent country, although the United Kingdom and France granted it belligerent status, which allowed Confederate agents to contract with private concerns for arms and other supplies. In early 1865, after four years of heavy fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered and the Confederacy was dissolved. The war lacked a formal end; nearly all Confederate forces had been forced into surrender or deliberately disbanded by the end of 1865, by which point the dwindling manpower and resources of the Confederacy were facing overwhelming odds. By 1865, Jefferson Davis lamented that the Confederacy had "disappeared ''.
On March 11, 1861, the Confederate Constitution of seven state signatories -- South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas -- replaced the February 7 Provisional Confederate States Constitution with one stating in its preamble a desire for a "permanent federal government ''. Four additional slave - holding states -- Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina -- declared their secession and joined the Confederacy following a call by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln for troops from each state to recapture Sumter and other seized federal properties in the South. Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the "Five Civilized Tribes '' -- the Chocktaw and the Chickasaw -- located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of martial law; Delaware, though of divided loyalty, did not attempt it. A Unionist government in western parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia, which was admitted to the Union during the war on June 20, 1863.
Confederate control over its claimed territory and population in congressional districts steadily shrank from 73 % to 34 % during the course of the Civil War due to the Union 's successful overland campaigns, its control of the inland waterways into the South, and its blockade of the southern coast. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal (in addition to reunion). As Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers. The most notable advance was Sherman 's "March to the Sea '' in late 1864. Much of the Confederacy 's infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads and bridges. Plantations in the path of Sherman 's forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and limiting army mobility.
These losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Davis 's administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, and allegations of autocratic government. After four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, effectively signalling the collapse of the Confederacy. President Davis was captured on May 10, 1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held.
The U.S. government began a decade - long process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. The priorities were: to guarantee that Confederate nationalism and slavery were ended, to ratify and enforce the Thirteenth Amendment which outlawed slavery; the Fourteenth which guaranteed dual U.S. and state citizenship to all native - born residents, regardless of race; and the Fifteenth, which guaranteed the right of freedmen to vote.
By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states. Federal troops were withdrawn from the South, where conservative white Southern Democrats had already regained political control of state governments, often through extreme violence and fraud to suppress black voting. Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many rich areas; the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure, and exhausted resources. Continuing to be dependent on an agricultural economy and resisting investment in infrastructure, the region remained dominated by the planter elite into the 20th century. After a brief period in which a Republican - Populist coalition took power in several southern states in the late 19th century, the Democratic - dominated legislatures worked to secure their control by passing new constitutions and amendments at the turn of the 20th century that disenfranchised most blacks and many poor whites. This exclusion of blacks from the political system, and great weakening of the Republican Party, was generally maintained until after passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The Solid South of the early 20th century was built on white Democratic control of politics. The region did not achieve national levels of prosperity until long after World War II.
The Confederacy was established in the Montgomery Convention in February 1861 (before Lincoln 's inauguration in March) and was disintegrated in April and May 1865. It was formed by delegations from seven Southern slave states that had proclaimed their secession from the Union. After the fighting began in April, four additional slave states seceded and were admitted. Later, two states (Missouri and Kentucky) and two territories were given seats in the Confederate Congress. Southern California, although having some pro-Confederate sentiment, was never organized as a territory.
Many southern whites had considered themselves more Southern than American and were prepared to fight for their state and their region to be independent of the larger nation. That regionalism became a Southern nationalism, or the "Cause ''. For the duration of its existence, the Confederacy underwent trial by war. The "Southern Cause '' transcended the ideology of states ' rights, tariff policy, or internal improvements. This "Cause '' supported, or descended from, cultural and financial dependence on the South 's slavery - based economy. The convergence of race and slavery, politics, and economics raised almost all South - related policy questions to the status of moral questions over way of life, commingling love of things Southern and hatred of things Yankee (the North). Not only did national political parties split, but national churches and interstate families as well divided along sectional lines as the war approached. According to historian John M. Coski, "The statesmen who led the secession movement were unashamed to explicitly cite the defense of slavery as their prime motive... Acknowledging the centrality of slavery to the Confederacy is essential for understanding the Confederate. ''
Southern Democrats chose John Breckinridge as their candidate during the presidential election of 1860, but in no Southern state (other than South Carolina, where the legislature chose the electors) was support for him unanimous; all of the other states recorded at least some popular votes for one or more of the other three candidates (Abraham Lincoln, Stephen A. Douglas and John Bell). Support for these candidates, collectively, ranged from significant to an outright majority, with extremes running from 25 % in Texas to 81 % in Missouri. There were minority views everywhere, especially in the upland and plateau areas of the South, with western Virginia and eastern Tennessee of particular concentration.
Following South Carolina 's unanimous 1860 secession vote, no other Southern states considered the question until 1861, and when they did none had a unanimous vote. All had residents who cast significant numbers of Unionist votes in either the legislature, conventions, popular referendums, or in all three. Voting to remain in the Union did not necessarily mean that individuals were northern sympathizers. Once hostilities began, many of these who voted to remain in the Union, particularly in the Deep South, accepted the majority decision, and supported the Confederacy.
The American Civil War became an American tragedy, what some scholars termed the "Brothers ' War '', pitting "brother against brother, father against son, kith against kin of every degree ''.
According to historian Avery O. Craven in 1950, the Confederate States of America was created by secessionists in Southern slave states who believed that the federal government was making them second - class citizens and refused to honor their belief that slavery was beneficial to the Negro. They judged the agent of change to be abolitionists and anti-slavery elements in the Republican Party, whom they believed used repeated insult and injury to subject them to intolerable "humiliation and degradation ''. The "Black Republicans '' (as the Southerners called them) and their allies soon dominated the U.S. House, Senate, and Presidency. On the U.S. Supreme Court, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney (a presumed supporter of slavery) was 83 years old, and ailing.
During the campaign for president in 1860, some secessionists threatened disunion should Lincoln (who opposed the expansion of slavery into the territories) be elected, most notably William L. Yancey. Yancey toured the North calling for secession as Stephen A. Douglas toured the South calling for union in the event of Lincoln 's election. To the Secessionists the Republican intent was clear: to contain slavery within its present bounds, and, eventually, to eliminate it entirely. A Lincoln victory presented them with a momentous choice (as they saw it), even before his inauguration -- "the Union without slavery, or slavery without the Union ''.
The immediate catalyst for secession was the victory of the Republican Party and the election of Abraham Lincoln as president in the 1860 elections. American Civil War historian James M. McPherson suggested that, for the Southerners, the most ominous feature of the Republican victories in the Congressional and Presidential elections of 1860 was the magnitude of those victories. Republicans captured over 60 percent of the Northern vote, and won three - fourths of its Congressional delegations. The Southern press said that such Republicans represented the anti-slavery portion of the North, "a party founded on the single sentiment... of hatred of African slavery '', and now the controlling power in national affairs. The "Black Republican party '' could overwhelm conservative Yankees. The New Orleans Delta said of the Republicans, "It is in fact, essentially, a revolutionary party '' to overthrow slavery.
By 1860, sectional disagreements between North and South relate primarily to the maintenance or expansion of slavery in the United States. Historian Drew Gilpin Faust observed that "leaders of the secession movement across the South cited slavery as the most compelling reason for southern independence ''. Although most white Southerners did not own slaves, the majority supported the institution of slavery and benefited in indirect ways from the slave society. For struggling yeomen and subsistence farmers, the slave society provided a large class of people ranked lower in the social scale than they. Secondary differences related to issues of free speech, runaway slaves, expansion into Cuba, and states ' rights.
Historian Emory Thomas assessed the Confederacy 's self - image by studying the correspondence sent by the Confederate government in 1861 -- 62 to foreign governments. He found that Confederate diplomacy projected multiple contradictory self - images:
The Southern nation was by turns a guileless people attacked by a voracious neighbor, an ' established ' nation in some temporary difficulty, a collection of bucolic aristocrats making a romantic stand against the banalities of industrial democracy, a cabal of commercial farmers seeking to make a pawn of King Cotton, an apotheosis of nineteenth - century nationalism and revolutionary liberalism, or the ultimate statement of social and economic reaction.
In what later became known as the Cornerstone Speech, C.S. Vice President Alexander H. Stephens declared that the "cornerstone '' of the new government "rest (ed) upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery -- subordination to the superior race -- is his natural and normal condition. This, our new government, is the first, in the history of the world, based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth ''. After the war Stephens made efforts to qualify his remarks, claiming they were extemporaneous, metaphorical, and intended to refer to public sentiment rather than "the principles of the new Government on this subject ''.
Four of the seceding states, the Deep South states of South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas, issued formal declarations of causes, each of which identified the threat to slaveholders ' rights as the cause of, or a major cause of, secession. Georgia also claimed a general Federal policy of favoring Northern over Southern economic interests. Texas mentioned slavery 21 times, but also listed the failure of the federal government to live up to its obligations, in the original annexation agreement, to protect settlers along the exposed western frontier. Texas resolutions further stated that governments of the states and the nation were established "exclusively by the white race, for themselves and their posterity ''. They also stated that although equal civil and political rights applied to all white men, they did not apply to those of the "African race '', further opining that the end of racial enslavement would "bring inevitable calamities upon both (races) and desolation upon the fifteen slave - holding states ''.
Alabama did not provide a separate declaration of causes. Instead the Alabama ordinance stated "the election of Abraham Lincoln... by a sectional party, avowedly hostile to the domestic institutions and to the peace and security of the people of the State of Alabama, preceded by many and dangerous infractions of the Constitution of the United States by many of the States and people of the northern section, is a political wrong of so insulting and menacing a character as to justify the people of the State of Alabama in the adoption of prompt and decided measures for their future peace and security. '' The ordinance invited "the slaveholding States of the South, who may approve such purpose, in order to frame a provisional as well as a permanent Government upon the principles of the Constitution of the United States '' to participate in a February 4, 1861 convention in Montgomery, Alabama.
The secession ordinances of the remaining two states, Florida and Louisiana, simply declared their severing of ties with the federal Union, without stating any causes. Afterward, the Florida secession convention formed a committee to draft a declaration of causes, but the committee was discharged before completion of the task. Only an undated, untitled draft remains.
Four of the Upper South states initially rejected secession until after the clash at Ft. Sumter (Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina). Virginia 's ordinance stated a kinship with the slave - holding states of the Lower South, but did not name the institution itself as a primary reason for its course
Arkansas 's secession ordinance primarily revolved around strong objection to the use of military force to maintain the Union as its motivating factor. Prior to the outbreak of war, the Arkansas Convention had on March 20 given as their first resolution: "The people of the Northern States have organized a political party, purely sectional in its character, the central and controlling idea of which is hostility to the institution of African slavery, as it exists in the Southern States; and that party has elected a President... pledged to administer the Government upon principles inconsistent with the rights and subversive of the interests of the Southern States. ''
North Carolina and Tennessee limited their ordinances to simply withdrawing, although Tennessee went so far as to make clear they wished to make no comment at all on the "abstract doctrine of secession ''.
In a message to the Confederate Congress on April 29, 1861 Jefferson Davis cited both the tariff and slavery for the South 's secession.
The Fire - Eaters, calling for immediate secession, were opposed by two factions. "Cooperationists '' in the Deep South would delay secession until several states went together, maybe in a Southern Convention. Under the influence of men such as Texas Governor Sam Houston, delay would have had the effect of sustaining the Union. "Unionists '', especially in the Border South, often former Whigs, appealed to sentimental attachment to the United States. Southern Unionists ' favorite presidential candidate was John Bell of Tennessee, sometimes running under an "Opposition Party '' banner.
William L. Yancey, Alabama Fire - Eater, "The Orator of Secession ''.
William Henry Gist, Governor of South Carolina, called the Secessionist Convention.
Many secessionists were active politically. Governor William Henry Gist of South Carolina corresponded secretly with other Deep South governors, and most southern governors exchanged clandestine commissioners. Charleston 's secessionist "1860 Association '' published over 200,000 pamphlets to persuade the youth of the South. The most influential were: "The Doom of Slavery '' and "The South Alone Should Govern the South '', both by John Townsend of South Carolina; and James D.B. De Bow 's "The Interest of Slavery of the Southern Non-slaveholder ''.
Developments in South Carolina started a chain of events. The foreman of a jury refused the legitimacy of federal courts, so Federal Judge Andrew Magrath ruled that U.S. judicial authority in South Carolina was vacated. A mass meeting in Charleston celebrating the Charleston and Savannah railroad and state cooperation led to the South Carolina legislature to call for a Secession Convention. U.S. Senator James Chesnut, Jr. resigned, as did Senator James Henry Hammond.
Elections for Secessionist conventions were heated to "an almost raving pitch, no one dared dissent '', said Freehling. Even once -- respected voices, including the Chief Justice of South Carolina, John Belton O'Neall, lost election to the Secession Convention on a Cooperationist ticket. Across the South mobs expelled Yankees and (in Texas) killed Germans suspected of loyalty to the United States. Generally, seceding conventions which followed did not call for a referendum to ratify, although Texas, Arkansas, and Tennessee did, as well as Virginia 's second convention. Missouri and Kentucky declared neutrality.
In the antebellum months, the Corwin Amendment, was an unsuccessful attempt by the Congress to bring back the seceding states to the Union and to prevent the border slave states to remain. It was a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution by Ohio Congressman Thomas Corwin that would shield "domestic institutions '' of the states (which in 1861 included slavery) from the constitutional amendment process and from abolition or interference by Congress.
It was passed by the 36th Congress on March 2, 1861. The House approved it by a vote of 133 to 65 & the United States Senate adopted it, with no changes, on a vote of 24 to 12. It was then submitted to the state legislatures for ratification.
The text was as follows:
No amendment shall be made to the Constitution which will authorize or give to Congress the power to abolish or interfere, within any State, with the domestic institutions thereof, including that of persons held to labor or service by the laws of said State.
Had it been ratified by the required number of states prior to 1865, it would have made institutionalized slavery immune to the constitutional amendment procedures and to interference by Congress.
The first secession state conventions from the Deep South sent representatives to meet at the Montgomery Convention in Montgomery, Alabama, on February 4, 1861. There the fundamental documents of government were promulgated, a provisional government was established, and a representative Congress met for the Confederate States of America.
The new ' provisional ' Confederate President Jefferson Davis issued a call for 100,000 men from the various states ' militias to defend the newly formed Confederacy. All Federal property was seized, along with gold bullion and coining dies at the U.S. mints in Charlotte, North Carolina; Dahlonega, Georgia; and New Orleans. The Confederate capital was moved from Montgomery to Richmond, Virginia, in May 1861. On February 22, 1862, Davis was inaugurated as president with a term of six years.
The newly inaugurated Confederate administration pursued a policy of national territorial integrity, continuing earlier state efforts in 1860 and early 1861 to remove U.S. government presence from within their boundaries. These efforts included taking possession of U.S. courts, custom houses, post offices, and most notably, arsenals and forts. But after the Confederate attack and capture of Fort Sumter in April 1861, Lincoln called up 75,000 of the states ' militia to muster under his command. The stated purpose was to re-occupy U.S. properties throughout the South, as the U.S. Congress had not authorized their abandonment. The resistance at Fort Sumter signaled his change of policy from that of the Buchanan Administration. Lincoln 's response ignited a firestorm of emotion. The people of both North and South demanded war, and young men rushed to their colors in the hundreds of thousands. Four more states (Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas) refused Lincoln 's call for troops and declared secession, while Kentucky maintained an uneasy "neutrality ''.
Secessionists argued that the United States Constitution was a contract among sovereign states that could be abandoned at any time without consultation and that each state had a right to secede. After intense debates and statewide votes, seven Deep South cotton states passed secession ordinances by February 1861 (before Abraham Lincoln took office as president), while secession efforts failed in the other eight slave states. Delegates from those seven formed the CSA in February 1861, selecting Jefferson Davis as the provisional president. Unionist talk of reunion failed and Davis began raising a 100,000 man army.
Initially, some secessionists may have hoped for a peaceful departure. Moderates in the Confederate Constitutional Convention included a provision against importation of slaves from Africa to appeal to the Upper South. Non-slave states might join, but the radicals secured a two - thirds hurdle for them.
Seven states declared their secession from the United States before Lincoln took office on March 4, 1861. After the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter April 12, 1861, and Lincoln 's subsequent call for troops on April 15, four more states declared their secession:
Kentucky declared neutrality but after Confederate troops moved in, the state government asked for Union troops to drive them out. The splinter Confederate state government relocated to accompany western Confederate armies and never controlled the state population. By the end of the war, 90,000 Kentuckians had fought on the side of the Union, compared to 35,000 for the Confederate States.
In Missouri, a constitutional convention was approved and delegates elected by voters. The convention rejected secession 89 -- 1 on March 19, 1861. The governor maneuvered to take control of the St. Louis Arsenal and restrict Federal movements. This led to confrontation, and in June Federal forces drove him and the General Assembly from Jefferson City. The executive committee of the constitutional convention called the members together in July. The convention declared the state offices vacant, and appointed a Unionist interim state government. The exiled governor called a rump session of the former General Assembly together in Neosho and, on October 31, 1861, passed an ordinance of secession. It is still a matter of debate as to whether a quorum existed for this vote. The Confederate state government was unable to control very much Missouri territory. It had its capital first at Neosho, then at Cassville, before being driven out of the state. For the remainder of the war, it operated as a government in exile at Marshall, Texas.
Neither Kentucky nor Missouri was declared in rebellion in Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation. The Confederacy recognized the pro-Confederate claimants in both Kentucky and Missouri and laid claim to those states, granting them Congressional representation and adding two stars to the Confederate flag. Voting for the representatives was mostly done by Confederate soldiers from Kentucky and Missouri.
The order of secession resolutions and dates are:
Ft. Sumter (April 12) and Lincoln 's call up (April 15)
In Virginia, the populous counties along the Ohio and Pennsylvania borders rejected the Confederacy. Unionists held a Convention in Wheeling in June 1861, establishing a "restored government '' with a rump legislature, but sentiment in the region remained deeply divided. In the 50 counties that would make up the state of West Virginia, voters from 24 counties had voted for disunion in Virginia 's May 23 referendum on the ordinance of secession. In the 1860 Presidential election "Constitutional Democrat '' Breckenridge had outpolled "Constitutional Unionist '' Bell in the 50 counties by 1,900 votes, 44 % to 42 %. Regardless of scholarly disputes over election procedures and results county by county, altogether they simultaneously supplied over 20,000 soldiers to each side of the conflict. Representatives for most of the counties were seated in both state legislatures at Wheeling and at Richmond for the duration of the war.
Attempts to secede from the Confederacy by some counties in East Tennessee were checked by martial law. Although slave - holding Delaware and Maryland did not secede, citizens from those states exhibited divided loyalties. Regiments of Marylanders fought in Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia. But overall, 24,000 men from Maryland joined the Confederate armed forces, compared to 63,000 who joined Union forces.
Delaware never produced a full regiment for the Confederacy, but neither did it emancipate slaves as did Missouri and West Virginia. District of Columbia citizens made no attempts to secede and through the war years, referendums sponsored by President Lincoln approved systems of compensated emancipation and slave confiscation from "disloyal citizens ''.
Citizens at Mesilla and Tucson in the southern part of New Mexico Territory formed a secession convention, which voted to join the Confederacy on March 16, 1861, and appointed Lewis Owings as the new territorial governor. They won the Battle of Mesilla and established a territorial government with Mesilla serving as its capital. The Confederacy proclaimed the Confederate Arizona Territory on February 14, 1862, north to the 34th parallel. Marcus H. MacWillie served in both Confederate Congresses as Arizona 's delegate. In 1862 the Confederate New Mexico Campaign to take the northern half of the U.S. territory failed and the Confederate territorial government in exile relocated to San Antonio, Texas.
Confederate supporters in the trans - Mississippi west also claimed portions of United States Indian Territory after the United States evacuated the federal forts and installations. Over half of the American Indian troops participating in the Civil War from the Indian Territory supported the Confederacy; troops and one general were enlisted from each tribe. On July 12, 1861, the Confederate government signed a treaty with both the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indian nations. After several battles Northern armies moved back into the territory.
Indian Territory was never formally ceded into the Confederacy by American Indian councils, but like Missouri and Kentucky, the Five Civilized Nations received representation in the Confederate Congress and their citizens were integrated into regular Confederate Army units. After 1863 the tribal governments sent representatives to the Confederate Congress: Elias Cornelius Boudinot representing the Cherokee and Samuel Benton Callahan representing the Seminole and Creek people. The Cherokee Nation, aligning with the Confederacy, alleged northern violations of the Constitution, waging war against slavery commercial and political interests, abolishing slavery in the Indian Territory, and that the North intended to seize additional Indian lands.
Montgomery, Alabama served as the capital of the Confederate States of America from February 4 until May 29, 1861, in the Alabama State Capitol. Six states created the Confederate States of America there on February 8, 1861. The Texas delegation was seated at the time, so it is counted in the "original seven '' states of the Confederacy; it had no roll call vote until after its referendum made secession "operative ''. Two sessions of the Provisional Congress were held in Montgomery, adjourning May 21. The Permanent Constitution was adopted there on March 12, 1861.
The permanent capital provided for in the Confederate Constitution called for a state cession of a ten - miles square (100 square mile) district to the central government. Atlanta, which had not yet supplanted Milledgeville, Georgia as its state capital, put in a bid noting its central location and rail connections, as did Opelika, Alabama, noting its strategically interior situation, rail connections and nearby deposits of coal and iron.
Richmond, Virginia was chosen for the interim capital at the Virginia State Capitol. The move was used by Vice President Stephens and others to encourage other border states to follow Virginia into the Confederacy. In the political moment it was a show of "defiance and strength ''. The war for southern independence was surely to be fought in Virginia, but it also had the largest Southern military - aged white population, with infrastructure, resources and supplies required to sustain a war. The Davis Administration 's policy was that, "It must be held at all hazards. ''
The naming of Richmond as the new capital took place on May 30, 1861, and the last two sessions of the Provisional Congress were held in the new capital. The Permanent Confederate Congress and President were elected in the states and army camps on November 6, 1861. The First Congress met in four sessions in Richmond from February 18, 1862, to February 17, 1864. The Second Congress met there in two sessions, from May 2, 1864, to March 18, 1865.
As war dragged on, Richmond became crowded with training and transfers, logistics and hospitals. Prices rose dramatically despite government efforts at price regulation. A movement in Congress led by Henry S. Foote of Tennessee argued for moving the capital from Richmond. At the approach of Federal armies in mid-1862, the government 's archives were readied for removal. As the Wilderness Campaign progressed, Congress authorized Davis to remove the executive department and call Congress to session elsewhere in 1864 and again in 1865. Shortly before the end of the war, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond, planning to relocate farther south. Little came of these plans before Lee 's surrender at Appomattox Court House, Virginia on April 9, 1865. Davis and most of his cabinet fled to Danville, Virginia, which served as their headquarters for about a week.
Unionism was widespread in the Confederacy, especially in the mountain regions of Appalachia and the Ozarks. Unionists, led by Parson Brownlow and Senator Andrew Johnson, took control of eastern Tennessee in 1863. Unionists also attempted control over western Virginia but never effectively held more than half the counties that formed the new state of West Virginia.
Union forces captured parts of coastal North Carolina, and at first were welcomed by local unionists. That changed as the occupiers became perceived as oppressive, callous, radical and favorable to the Freedmen. Occupiers engaged in pillaging, freeing of slaves, and eviction of those refusing to take or reneging on the loyalty oaths, as ex-Unionists began to support the Confederate cause.
Support for the Confederacy was perhaps weakest in Texas; Claude Elliott estimates that only a third of the population actively supported the Confederacy. Many unionists supported the Confederacy after the war began, but many others clung to their unionism throughout the war, especially in the northern counties, the German districts, and the Mexican areas. According to Ernest Wallace: "This account of a dissatisfied Unionist minority, although historically essential, must be kept in its proper perspective, for throughout the war the overwhelming majority of the people zealously supported the Confederacy... '' Randolph B. Campbell states "In spite of terrible losses and hardships, most Texans continued throughout the war to support the Confederacy as they had supported secession ''. Dale Baum in his analysis of Texas politics in the era counters: "This idea of a Confederate Texas united politically against northern adversaries was shaped more by nostalgic fantasies than by wartime realities. '' He characterizes Texas Civil War history as "a morose story of intragovernmental rivalries coupled with wide - ranging disaffection that prevented effective implementation of state wartime policies. ''
In Texas local officials harassed unionists and engaged in large - scale massacres against unionists and Germans. In Cooke County 150 suspected unionists were arrested; 25 were lynched without trial and 40 more were hanged after a summary trial. Draft resistance was widespread especially among Texans of German or Mexican descent; many of the latter went to Mexico. Potential draftees went into hiding, Confederate officials hunted them down, and many were shot.
Civil liberties were of small concern in North and South. Lincoln and Davis both took a hard line against dissent. Neely explores how the Confederacy became a virtual police state with guards and patrols all about, and a domestic passport system whereby everyone needed official permission each time they wanted to travel. Over 4,000 suspected unionists were imprisoned without trial.
During the four years of its existence under trial by war, the Confederate States of America asserted its independence and appointed dozens of diplomatic agents abroad. None were ever officially recognized by a foreign government. The United States government regarded the southern states in rebellion and so refused any formal recognition of their status.
Even before Fort Sumter, U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward issued formal instructions to the American minister to Britain, Charles Francis Adams:
Seward instructed Adams that if the British government seemed inclined to recognize the Confederacy, or even waver in that regard, it was to receive a sharp warning, with a strong hint of war:
The United States government never declared war on those "kindred and countrymen '' in the Confederacy, but conducted its military efforts beginning with a presidential proclamation issued April 15, 1861. It called for troops to recapture forts and suppress what Lincoln later called an "insurrection and rebellion ''.
Mid-war parlays between the two sides occurred without formal political recognition, though the laws of war predominantly governed military relationships on both sides of uniformed conflict.
On the part of the Confederacy, immediately following Fort Sumter the Confederate Congress proclaimed "... war exists between the Confederate States and the Government of the United States, and the States and Territories thereof... '' A state of war was not to formally exist between the Confederacy and those states and territories in the United States allowing slavery, although Confederate Rangers were compensated for destruction they could effect there throughout the war.
Concerning the international status and nationhood of the Confederate States of America, in 1869 the United States Supreme Court in Texas v. White ruled Texas ' declaration of secession was legally null and void. Jefferson Davis, former President of the Confederacy, and Alexander H. Stephens, its former Vice-President, both wrote postwar arguments in favor of secession 's legality and the international legitimacy of the Government of the Confederate States of America, most notably Davis ' The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government.
Once the war with the United States began, the Confederacy pinned its hopes for survival on military intervention by Great Britain and France. The Confederates who had believed that "cotton is king '' -- that is, Britain had to support the Confederacy to obtain cotton -- proved mistaken. The British had stocks to last over a year and had been developing alternative sources of cotton, most notably India and Egypt. They were not about to go to war with the U.S. to acquire more cotton at the risk of losing the large quantities of food imported from the North. The Confederate government sent repeated delegations to Europe but historians give them low marks for their poor diplomacy. James M. Mason went to London and John Slidell traveled to Paris. They were unofficially interviewed, but neither secured official recognition for the Confederacy.
In late 1861 the seizure of a British ship by the U.S. navy outraged Britain and led to a war scare in the Trent Affair. Recognition of the Confederacy seemed at hand, but Lincoln released the two detained Confederate diplomats, tensions cooled, and the Confederacy gained no advantage.
Throughout the early years of the war, British foreign secretary Lord John Russell, Emperor Napoleon III of France, and, to a lesser extent, British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, showed interest in recognition of the Confederacy or at least mediation of the war. William Ewart Gladstone, the British finance minister whose family wealth was based on slavery, was the key advocate calling for intervention to help the Confederacy achieve independence. He failed to convince prime minister Palmerston. By September 1862 the Union victory at the Battle of Antietam, Lincoln 's preliminary Emancipation Proclamation and abolitionist opposition in Britain put an end to these possibilities. The cost to Britain of a war with the U.S. would have been high: the immediate loss of American grain shipments, the end of exports to the U.S., and the seizure of billions of pounds invested in American securities. War would have meant higher taxes, another invasion of Canada, and full - scale worldwide attacks on the British merchant fleet. Outright recognition would have meant certain war with the United States; in mid-1862 fears of race war as had transpired in Haiti led to the British considering intervention for humanitarian reasons. Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation did not lead to interracial violence let alone a bloodbath, but it did give the friends of the Union strong talking points in the arguments that raged across Britain.
John Slidell, emissary to France, did succeed in negotiating a loan of $15,000,000 from Erlanger and other French capitalists. The money was used to buy ironclad warships, as well as military supplies that came in by blockade runners. The British government did allow blockade runners to be built in Britain; they were owned and operated by British financiers and sailors; a few were owned and operated by the Confederacy. The British investors ' goal was to get highly profitable cotton.
Several European nations maintained diplomats in place who had been appointed to the U.S., but no country appointed any diplomat to the Confederacy. Those nations recognized the Union and Confederate sides as belligerents. In 1863, the Confederacy expelled the European diplomatic missions for advising their resident subjects to refuse to serve in the Confederate army. Both Confederate and Union agents were allowed to work openly in British territories. Some state governments in northern Mexico negotiated local agreements to cover trade on the Texas border. Pope Pius IX wrote a letter to Jefferson Davis in which he addressed Davis as the "Honorable President of the Confederate States of America ''. The Confederacy appointed Ambrose Dudley Mann as special agent to the Holy See on September 24, 1863. But the Holy See never released a formal statement supporting or recognizing the Confederacy.
Nevertheless, the Confederacy was seen internationally as a serious attempt at nationhood, and European governments sent military observers, both official and unofficial, to assess whether there had been a de facto establishment of independence. These included Arthur Lyon Fremantle of the British Coldstream Guards, Fitzgerald Ross of the Austrian Hussars and Justus Scheibert of the Prussian Army. European travelers visited and wrote accounts for publication. Importantly in 1862, the Frenchman Charles Girard 's Seven months in the rebel states during the North American War testified "this government... is no longer a trial government... but really a normal government, the expression of popular will ''. Fremantle went on to write in his book "Three Months in the Southern States '' that he had "not attempted to conceal any of the peculiarities or defects of the Southern people. Many persons will doubtless highly disapprove of some of their customs and habits in the wilder portion of the country; but I think no generous man, whatever may be his political opinions, can do otherwise than admire the courage, energy, and patriotism of the whole population, and the skill of its leaders, in this struggle against great odds. And I am also of opinion that many will agree with me in thinking that a people in which all ranks and both sexes display a unanimity and a heroism which can never have been surpassed in the history of the world, is destined, sooner or later, to become a great and independent nation. '' French Emperor Napoleon III assured Confederate diplomat John Slidell that he would make "direct proposition '' to Britain for joint recognition. The Emperor made the same assurance to Members of Parliament John A. Roebuck and John A. Lindsay. Roebuck in turn publicly prepared a bill to submit to Parliament June 30 supporting joint Anglo - French recognition of the Confederacy. "Southerners had a right to be optimistic, or at least hopeful, that their revolution would prevail, or at least endure ''. The result was a defeat at Gettysburg and Lee barely escaped to Virginia, withdrawing into an interior defensive position. Following the dual reverses at Vicksburg and Gettysburg, the Confederates "suffered a severe loss of confidence in themselves ''. There would be no help from the Europeans.
By December 1864, Davis considered sacrificing slavery in order to enlist recognition and aid from Paris and London; he secretly sent Duncan F. Kenner to Europe with a message that the war was fought solely for "the vindication of our rights to self - government and independence '' and that "no sacrifice is too great, save that of honor. '' The message stated that if the French or British governments made their recognition conditional on anything at all, the Confederacy would consent to such terms. Davis 's message could not explicitly acknowledge that slavery was on the bargaining table due to still - strong domestic support for slavery among the wealthy and politically influential. Europe and its military advisors could see that the Confederacy was on the verge of total defeat; a military collapse which, following years of brutal warfare, would be unrecoverable.
The great majority of young white men voluntarily joined Confederate national or state military units. Perman (2010) says historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:
Civil War historian E. Merton Coulter noted that for those who would secure its independence, "The Confederacy was unfortunate in its failure to work out a general strategy for the whole war ''. Aggressive strategy called for offensive force concentration. Defensive strategy sought dispersal to meet demands of locally minded governors. The controlling philosophy evolved into a combination "dispersal with a defensive concentration around Richmond ''. The Davis administration considered the war purely defensive, a "simple demand that the people of the United States would cease to war upon us ''. Historian James M. McPherson is a critic of Lee 's Offensive Strategy: "Lee pursued a faulty military strategy that ensured Confederate defeat ''.
As the Confederate government lost control of territory in campaign after campaign, it was said that "the vast size of the Confederacy would make its conquest impossible ''. The enemy would be struck down by the same elements which so often debilitated or destroyed visitors and transplants in the South. Heat exhaustion, sunstroke, endemic diseases such as malaria and typhoid would match the destructive effectiveness of the Moscow winter on the invading armies of Napoleon.
Early in the war both sides believed that one great battle would decide the conflict; the Confederate won a great victory at the First Battle of Bull Run, also known as First Manassas (the name used by Confederate forces). It drove the Confederate people "insane with joy ''; the public demanded a forward movement to capture Washington relocate the Confederate capital there, and admit Maryland to the Confederacy. A council of war by the victorious Confederate generals decided not to advance against larger numbers of fresh Federal troops in defensive positions. Davis did not countermand it. Following the Confederate incursion halted at the Battle of Antietam in October 1862, generals proposed concentrating forces from state commands to re-invade the north. Nothing came of it. Again in early 1863 at his incursion into Pennsylvania, Lee requested of Davis that Beauregard simultaneously attack Washington with troops taken from the Carolinas. But the troops there remained in place during the Gettysburg Campaign.
The eleven states of the Confederacy were outnumbered by the North about four to one in white men of military age. It was overmatched far more in military equipment, industrial facilities, railroads for transport, and wagons supplying the front.
Confederate military policy innovated to slow the invaders, but at heavy cost to the Southern infrastructure. The Confederates burned bridges, laid land mines in the roads, and made harbors inlets and inland waterways unusable with sunken mines (called "torpedos '' at the time). Coulter reports:
The Confederacy relied on external sources for war materials. The first came from trade with the enemy. "Vast amounts of war supplies '' came through Kentucky, and thereafter, western armies were "to a very considerable extent '' provisioned with illicit trade via Federal agents and northern private traders. But that trade was interrupted in the first year of war by Admiral Porter 's river gunboats as they gained dominance along navigable rivers north -- south and east -- west. Overseas blockade running then came to be of "outstanding importance ''. On April 17, President Davis called on privateer raiders, the "militia of the sea '', to make war on U.S. seaborne commerce. Despite noteworthy effort, over the course of the war the Confederacy was found unable to match the Union in ships and seamanship, materials and marine construction.
Perhaps the greatest obstacle to success in the 19th century warfare of mass armies was the Confederacy 's lack of manpower, and sufficient numbers of disciplined, equipped troops in the field at the point of contact with the enemy. During the winter of 1862 -- 63, Lee observed that none of his famous victories had resulted in the destruction of the opposing army. He lacked reserve troops to exploit an advantage on the battlefield as Napoleon had done. Lee explained, "More than once have most promising opportunities been lost for want of men to take advantage of them, and victory itself had been made to put on the appearance of defeat, because our diminished and exhausted troops have been unable to renew a successful struggle against fresh numbers of the enemy. ''
The military armed forces of the Confederacy comprised three branches: Army, Navy and Marine Corps.
The Confederate military leadership included many veterans from the United States Army and United States Navy who had resigned their Federal commissions and had won appointment to senior positions in the Confederate armed forces. Many had served in the Mexican -- American War (including Robert E. Lee and Jefferson Davis), but some such as Leonidas Polk (who graduated from West Point but did not serve in the Army) had little or no experience.
Navy Jack -- light blue cross also square canton, white fly
Battle Flag -- square also without center star
The Confederate officer corps consisted of men from both slave - owning and non-slave - owning families. The Confederacy appointed junior and field grade officers by election from the enlisted ranks. Although no Army service academy was established for the Confederacy, some colleges (such as The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute) maintained cadet corps that trained Confederate military leadership. A naval academy was established at Drewry 's Bluff, Virginia in 1863, but no midshipmen graduated before the Confederacy 's end.
The soldiers of the Confederate armed forces consisted mainly of white males aged between 16 and 28. The median year of birth was 1838, so half the soldiers were 23 or older by 1861. In early 1862, the Confederate Army was allowed to disintegrate for two months following expiration of short - term enlistments. A majority of those in uniform would not re-enlist following their one - year commitment, so on April 16, 1862, the Confederate Congress enacted the first mass conscription on the North American continent. (The U.S. Congress followed a year later on March 3, 1863, with the Enrollment Act.) Rather than a universal draft, the initial program was a selective service with physical, religious, professional and industrial exemptions. These were narrowed as the war progressed. Initially substitutes were permitted, but by December 1863 these were disallowed. In September 1862 the age limit was increased from 35 to 45 and by February 1864, all men under 18 and over 45 were conscripted to form a reserve for state defense inside state borders. By March 1864, the Superintendent of Conscription reported that all across the Confederacy, every officer in constituted authority, man and woman, "engaged in opposing the enrolling officer in the execution of his duties ''. Although challenged in the state courts, the Confederate State Supreme Courts routinely rejected legal challenges to conscription.
Many thousands of slaves served as laborers, cooks, and pioneers. Some freed blacks and men of color served in local state militia units of the Confederacy, primarily in Louisiana and South Carolina, but their officers deployed them for "local defense, not combat ''. Depleted by casualties and desertions, the military suffered chronic manpower shortages. In early 1865, the Confederate Congress, influenced by the public support by General Lee, approved the recruitment of black infantry units. Contrary to Lee 's and Davis 's recommendations, the Congress refused "to guarantee the freedom of black volunteers ''. No more than two hundred black combat troops were ever raised.
The immediate onset of war meant that it was fought by the "Provisional '' or "Volunteer Army ''. State governors resisted concentrating a national effort. Several wanted a strong state army for self - defense. Others feared large "Provisional '' armies answering only to Davis. When filling the Confederate government 's call for 100,000 men, another 200,000 were turned away by accepting only those enlisted "for the duration '' or twelve - month volunteers who brought their own arms or horses.
It was important to raise troops; it was just as important to provide capable officers to command them. With few exceptions the Confederacy secured excellent general officers. Efficiency in the lower officers was "greater than could have been reasonably expected ''. As with the Federals, political appointees could be indifferent. Otherwise, the officer corps was governor - appointed or elected by unit enlisted. Promotion to fill vacancies was made internally regardless of merit, even if better officers were immediately available.
Anticipating the need for more "duration '' men, in January 1862 Congress provided for company level recruiters to return home for two months, but their efforts met little success on the heels of Confederate battlefield defeats in February. Congress allowed for Davis to require numbers of recruits from each governor to supply the volunteer shortfall. States responded by passing their own draft laws.
The veteran Confederate army of early 1862 was mostly twelve - month volunteers with terms about to expire. Enlisted reorganization elections disintegrated the army for two months. Officers pleaded with the ranks to re-enlist, but a majority did not. Those remaining elected majors and colonels whose performance led to officer review boards in October. The boards caused a "rapid and widespread '' thinning out of 1700 incompetent officers. Troops thereafter would elect only second lieutenants.
In early 1862, the popular press suggested the Confederacy required a million men under arms. But veteran soldiers were not re-enlisting, and earlier secessionist volunteers did not reappear to serve in war. One Macon, Georgia, newspaper asked how two million brave fighting men of the South were about to be overcome by four million northerners who were said to be cowards.
The Confederacy passed the first American law of national conscription on April 16, 1862. The white males of the Confederate States from 18 to 35 were declared members of the Confederate army for three years, and all men then enlisted were extended to a three - year term. They would serve only in units and under officers of their state. Those under 18 and over 35 could substitute for conscripts, in September those from 35 to 45 became conscripts. The cry of "rich man 's war and a poor man 's fight '' led Congress to abolish the substitute system altogether in December 1863. All principals benefiting earlier were made eligible for service. By February 1864, the age bracket was made 17 to 50, those under eighteen and over forty - five to be limited to in - state duty.
Confederate conscription was not universal; it was a selective service. The First Conscription Act of April 1862 exempted occupations related to transportation, communication, industry, ministers, teaching and physical fitness. The Second Conscription Act of October 1862 expanded exemptions in industry, agriculture and conscientious objection. Exemption fraud proliferated in medical examinations, army furloughs, churches, schools, apothecaries and newspapers.
Rich men 's sons were appointed to the socially outcast "overseer '' occupation, but the measure was received in the country with "universal odium ''. The legislative vehicle was the controversial Twenty Negro Law that specifically exempted one white overseer or owner for every plantation with at least 20 slaves. Backpedalling six months later, Congress provided overseers under 45 could be exempted only if they held the occupation before the first Conscription Act. The number of officials under state exemptions appointed by state Governor patronage expanded significantly. By law, substitutes could not be subject to conscription, but instead of adding to Confederate manpower, unit officers in the field reported that over-50 and under - 17 - year - old substitutes made up to 90 % of the desertions.
Gen. Gabriel J. Rains Conscription Bureau chief April 1862 -- May 1863
Gen. Gideon J. Pillow military recruiter under Bragg, then J.E. Johnston
The Conscription Act of February 1864 "radically changed the whole system '' of selection. It abolished industrial exemptions, placing detail authority in President Davis. As the shame of conscription was greater than a felony conviction, the system brought in "about as many volunteers as it did conscripts. '' Many men in otherwise "bombproof '' positions were enlisted in one way or another, nearly 160,000 additional volunteers and conscripts in uniform. Still there was shirking. To administer the draft, a Bureau of Conscription was set up to use state officers, as state Governors would allow. It had a checkered career of "contention, opposition and futility. '' Armies appointed alternative military "recruiters '' to bring in the out - of - uniform 17 -- 50 - year - old conscripts and deserters. Nearly 3000 officers were tasked with the job. By late 1864, Lee was calling for more troops. "Our ranks are constantly diminishing by battle and disease, and few recruits are received; the consequences are inevitable. '' By March 1865 conscription was to be administered by generals of the state reserves calling out men over 45 and under 18 years old. All exemptions were abolished. These regiments were assigned to recruit conscripts ages 17 -- 50, recover deserters, and repel enemy cavalry raids. The service retained men who had lost but one arm or a leg in home guards. April 1865 Lee surrendered an army of 50,000. Conscription had been a failure.
The survival of the Confederacy depended on a strong base of civilians and soldiers devoted to victory. The soldiers performed well, though increasing numbers deserted in the last year of fighting, and the Confederacy never succeeded in replacing casualties as the Union could. The civilians, although enthusiastic in 1861 -- 62, seem to have lost faith in the future of the Confederacy by 1864, and instead looked to protect their homes and communities. As Rable explains, "This contraction of civic vision was more than a crabbed libertarianism; it represented an increasingly widespread disillusionment with the Confederate experiment. ''
The American Civil War broke out in April 1861 with a Confederate victory at the Battle of Fort Sumter in Charleston.
In January, President James Buchanan had attempted to resupply the garrison with the steamship, Star of the West, but Confederate artillery drove it away. In March, President Lincoln notified South Carolina Governor Pickens that without Confederate resistance to the resupply there would be no military reinforcement without further notice, but Lincoln prepared to force resupply if it were not allowed. Confederate President Davis, in cabinet, decided to seize Fort Sumter before the relief fleet arrived, and on April 12, 1861, General Beauregard forced its surrender.
Following Sumter, Lincoln directed states to provide 75,000 troops for three months to recapture the Charleston Harbor forts and all other federal property. This emboldened secessionists in Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina to secede rather than provide troops to march into neighboring Southern states. In May, Federal troops crossed into Confederate territory along the entire border from the Chesapeake Bay to New Mexico. The first battles were Confederate victories at Big Bethel (Bethel Church, Virginia), First Bull Run (First Manassas) in Virginia July and in August, Wilson 's Creek (Oak Hills) in Missouri. At all three, Confederate forces could not follow up their victory due to inadequate supply and shortages of fresh troops to exploit their successes. Following each battle, Federals maintained a military presence and occupied Washington, DC; Fort Monroe, VA; and Springfield, MO. Both North and South began training up armies for major fighting the next year. Union General George B. McClellan 's forces gained possession of much of northwestern Virginia in mid-1861, concentrating on towns and roads; the interior was too large to control and became the center of guerrilla activity. General Robert E. Lee was defeated at Cheat Mountain in September and no serious Confederate advance in western Virginia occurred until the next year.
Meanwhile, the Union Navy seized control of much of the Confederate coastline from Virginia to South Carolina. It took over plantations and the abandoned slaves. Federals there began a war - long policy of burning grain supplies up rivers into the interior wherever they could not occupy. The Union Navy began a blockade of the major southern ports and prepared an invasion of Louisiana to capture New Orleans in early 1862.
The victories of 1861 were followed by a series of defeats east and west in early 1862. To restore the Union by military force, the Federal strategy was to (1) secure the Mississippi River, (2) seize or close Confederate ports, and (3) march on Richmond. To secure independence, the Confederate intent was to (1) repel the invader on all fronts, costing him blood and treasure, and (2) carry the war into the North by two offensives in time to affect the mid-term elections.
Much of northwestern Virginia was under Federal control. In February and March, most of Missouri and Kentucky were Union "occupied, consolidated, and used as staging areas for advances further South ''. Following the repulse of Confederate counter-attack at the Battle of Shiloh, Tennessee, permanent Federal occupation expanded west, south and east. Confederate forces repositioned south along the Mississippi River to Memphis, where at the naval Battle of Memphis, its River Defense Fleet was sunk. Confederates withdrew from northern Mississippi and northern Alabama. New Orleans was captured April 29 by a combined Army - Navy force under U.S. Admiral David Farragut, and the Confederacy lost control of the mouth of the Mississippi River. It had to concede extensive agricultural resources that had supported the Union 's sea - supplied logistics base.
Although Confederates had suffered major reverses everywhere, as of the end of April the Confederacy still controlled territory holding 72 % of its population. Federal forces disrupted Missouri and Arkansas; they had broken through in western Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Louisiana. Along the Confederacy 's shores, Union forces had closed ports and made garrisoned lodgments on every coastal Confederate state except Alabama and Texas. Although scholars sometimes assess the Union blockade as ineffectual under international law until the last few months of the war, from the first months it disrupted Confederate privateers, making it "almost impossible to bring their prizes into Confederate ports ''. British firms developed small fleets of blockade running companies, such as John Fraser and Company, and the Ordnance Department secured its own blockade runners for dedicated munitions cargoes.
During the Civil War fleets of armored warships were deployed for the first time in sustained blockades at sea. After some success against the Union blockade, in March the ironclad CSS Virginia was forced into port and burned by Confederates at their retreat. Despite several attempts mounted from their port cities, CSA naval forces were unable to break the Union blockade. Attempts were made by Commodore Josiah Tattnall 's ironclads from Savannah in 1862 with the CSS Atlanta. Secretary of the Navy Stephen Mallory placed his hopes in a European - built ironclad fleet, but they were never realized. On the other hand, four new English - built commerce raiders served the Confederacy, and several fast blockade runners were sold in Confederate ports. They were converted into commerce - raiding cruisers, and manned by their British crews.
In the east, Union forces could not close on Richmond. General McClellan landed his army on the Lower Peninsula of Virginia. Lee subsequently ended that threat from the east, then Union General John Pope attacked overland from the north only to be repulsed at Second Bull Run (Second Manassas). Lee 's strike north was turned back at Antietam MD, then Union Major General Ambrose Burnside 's offensive was disastrously ended at Fredericksburg VA in December. Both armies then turned to winter quarters to recruit and train for the coming spring.
In an attempt to seize the initiative, reprovision, protect farms in mid-growing season and influence U.S. Congressional elections, two major Confederate incursions into Union territory had been launched in August and September 1862. Both Braxton Bragg 's invasion of Kentucky and Lee 's invasion of Maryland were decisively repulsed, leaving Confederates in control of but 63 % of its population. Civil War scholar Allan Nevins argues that 1862 was the strategic high - water mark of the Confederacy. The failures of the two invasions were attributed to the same irrecoverable shortcomings: lack of manpower at the front, lack of supplies including serviceable shoes, and exhaustion after long marches without adequate food. Also in September Confederate Gen. William W. Loring pushed Federal forces from Charleston, Virginia, and the Kanawha Valley in western Virginia, but lacking re-inforcements Loring abandoned his position and by November the region was back in Federal control.
The failed Middle Tennessee campaign was ended January 2, 1863, at the inconclusive Battle of Stones River, (Murfreesboro), both sides losing the largest percentage of casualties suffered during the war. It was followed by another strategic withdrawal by Confederate forces. The Confederacy won a significant victory April 1863, repulsing the Federal advance on Richmond at Chancellorsville, but the Union consolidated positions along the Virginia coast and the Chesapeake Bay.
Without an effective answer to Federal gunboats, river transport and supply, the Confederacy lost the Mississippi River following the capture of Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Port Hudson in July, ending Southern access to the trans - Mississippi West. July brought short - lived counters, Morgan 's Raid into Ohio and the New York City draft riots. Robert E. Lee 's strike into Pennsylvania was repulsed at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania despite Pickett 's famous charge and other acts of valor. Southern newspapers assessed the campaign as "The Confederates did not gain a victory, neither did the enemy. ''
September and November left Confederates yielding Chattanooga, Tennessee, the gateway to the lower south. For the remainder of the war fighting was restricted inside the South, resulting in a slow but continuous loss of territory. In early 1864, the Confederacy still controlled 53 % of its population, but it withdrew further to reestablish defensive positions. Union offensives continued with Sherman 's March to the Sea to take Savannah and Grant 's Wilderness Campaign to encircle Richmond and besiege Lee 's army at Petersburg.
In April 1863, the C.S. Congress authorized a uniformed Volunteer Navy, many of whom were British. Wilmington and Charleston had more shipping while "blockaded '' than before the beginning of hostilities. The Confederacy had altogether eighteen commerce destroying cruisers, which seriously disrupted Federal commerce at sea and increased shipping insurance rates 900 percent. Commodore Tattnall unsuccessfully attempted to break the Union blockade on the Savannah River in Georgia with an ironclad again in 1863. Beginning in April 1864 the ironclad CSS Albemarle engaged Union gunboats and sank or cleared them for six months on the Roanoke River North Carolina. The Federals closed Mobile Bay by sea - based amphibious assault in August, ending Gulf coast trade east of the Mississippi River. In December, the Battle of Nashville ended Confederate operations in the western theater.
Large numbers of families relocated to safer places, usually remote rural areas, bringing along household slaves if they had any. Mary Massey argues these elite exiles introduced an element of defeatism into the southern outlook.
The first three months of 1865 saw the Federal Carolinas Campaign, devastating a wide swath of the remaining Confederate heartland. The "breadbasket of the Confederacy '' in the Great Valley of Virginia was occupied by Philip Sheridan. The Union Blockade captured Fort Fisher NC, and Sherman finally took Charleston SC by land attack.
The Confederacy controlled no ports, harbors or navigable rivers. Railroads were captured or had ceased operating. Its major food producing regions had been war - ravaged or occupied. Its administration survived in only three pockets of territory holding one - third its population. Its armies were defeated or disbanding. At the February 1865 Hampton Roads Conference with Lincoln, senior Confederate officials rejected his invitation to restore the Union with compensation for emancipated slaves. The three pockets of unoccupied Confederacy were southern Virginia - North Carolina, central Alabama - Florida, and Texas, the latter two areas less from any notion of resistance than from the disinterest of Federal forces to occupy them. The Davis policy was independence or nothing, while Lee 's army was wracked by disease and desertion, barely holding the trenches defending Jefferson Davis ' capital.
The Confederacy 's last remaining blockade - running port, Wilmington, North Carolina, was lost. When the Union broke through Lee 's lines at Petersburg, Richmond fell immediately. Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9, 1865. "The Surrender '' marked the end of the Confederacy. The CSS Stonewall sailed from Europe to break the Union blockade in March; on making Havana, Cuba it surrendered. Some high officials escaped to Europe, but President Davis was captured May 10; all remaining Confederate land forces surrendered by June 1865. The U.S. Army took control of the Confederate areas without post-surrender insurgency or guerrilla warfare against them, but peace was subsequently marred by a great deal of local violence, feuding and revenge killings.
Historian Gary Gallagher concluded that the Confederacy capitulated in early 1865 because northern armies crushed "organized southern military resistance. '' The Confederacy 's population, soldier and civilian, had suffered material hardship and social disruption. They had expended and extracted a profusion of blood and treasure until collapse; "the end had come ''. Jefferson Davis ' assessment in 1890 determined, "With the capture of the capital, the dispersion of the civil authorities, the surrender of the armies in the field, and the arrest of the President, the Confederate States of America disappeared... their history henceforth became a part of the history of the United States. ''
When the war ended over 14,000 Confederates petitioned President Johnson for a pardon; he was generous in giving them out. He issued a general amnesty to all Confederate participants in the "late Civil War '' in 1868. Congress passed additional Amnesty Acts in May 1866 with restrictions on office holding, and the Amnesty Act in May 1872 lifting those restrictions. There was a great deal of discussion in 1865 about bringing treason trials, especially against Jefferson Davis. There was no consensus in President Johnson 's cabinet and there were no treason trials against anyone. In the case of Davis there was a strong possibility of acquittal which would have been humiliating for the government.
Davis was indicted for treason but never tried; he was released from prison on bail in May 1867. The amnesty of December 25, 1868, by President Johnson eliminated any possibility of Jefferson Davis (or anyone else associated with the Confederacy) standing trial for treason.
Henry Wirz, the commandant of a notorious prisoner - of - war camp near Andersonville, Georgia was tried and convicted by a military court, and executed on November 10, 1865. The charges against him involved conspiracy and cruelty, not treason.
In Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled -- by a 5 -- 3 majority -- that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States of America. In this case, the court held that the Constitution did not permit a state to unilaterally secede from the United States. Further, that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were "absolutely null '', under the Constitution. This case settled the law that applied to all questions regarding state legislation during the war. Furthermore, it decided one of the "central constitutional questions '' of the Civil War: The Union is perpetual and indestructible, as a matter of constitutional law. In declaring that no state could leave the Union, "except through revolution or through consent of the States '', it was "explicitly repudiating the position of the Confederate states that the United States was a voluntary compact between sovereign states ''.
Historian Frank Lawrence Owsley argued that the Confederacy "died of states ' rights. '' The central government was denied requisitioned soldiers and money by governors and state legislatures because they feared that Richmond would encroach on the rights of the states. Georgia 's governor Joseph Brown warned of a secret conspiracy by Jefferson Davis to destroy states ' rights and individual liberty. The first conscription act in North America authorizing Davis to draft soldiers was said to be the "essence of military despotism. ''
Joseph E. Brown Georgia Governor
Pendleton Murrah Texas Governor
Vice President Alexander H. Stephens feared losing the very form of republican government. Allowing President Davis to threaten "arbitrary arrests '' to draft hundreds of governor - appointed "bomb - proof '' bureaucrats conferred "more power than the English Parliament had ever bestowed on the king. History proved the dangers of such unchecked authority. '' The abolishment of draft exemptions for newspaper editors was interpreted as an attempt by the Confederate government to muzzle presses, such as the Raleigh NC Standard, to control elections and to suppress the peace meetings there. As Rable concludes, "For Stephens, the essence of patriotism, the heart of the Confederate cause, rested on an unyielding commitment to traditional rights '' without considerations of military necessity, pragmatism or compromise.
In 1863 governor Pendleton Murrah of Texas determined that state troops were required for defense against Plains Indians and Union forces that might attack from Kansas. He refused to send his soldiers to the East. Governor Zebulon Vance of North Carolina showed intense opposition to conscription, limiting recruitment success. Vance 's faith in states ' rights drove him into repeated, stubborn opposition to the Davis administration.
Despite political differences within the Confederacy, no national political parties were formed because they were seen as illegitimate. "Anti-partyism became an article of political faith. '' Without a two - party system building alternative sets of national leaders, electoral protests tended to be narrowly state - based, "negative, carping and petty. '' The 1863 mid-term elections became mere expressions of futile and frustrated dissatisfaction. According to historian David M. Potter, this lack of a functioning two - party system caused "real and direct damage '' to the Confederate war effort since it prevented the formulation of any effective alternatives to the conduct of the war by the Davis administration.
The enemies of President Davis proposed that the Confederacy "died of Davis. '' He was unfavorably compared to George Washington by critics such as Edward Alfred Pollard, editor of the most influential newspaper the Richmond Examiner. Coulter summarizes, "The American Revolution had its Washington; the Southern Revolution had its Davis... one succeeded and the other failed. '' Beyond the early honeymoon period, Davis was never popular. He unwittingly caused much internal dissension from early on. His ill health and temporary bouts of blindness disabled him for days at a time.
Coulter says Davis was heroic and his will was indomitable. But his "tenacity, determination, and will power '' stirred up lasting opposition of enemies Davis could not shake. He failed to overcome "petty leaders of the states '' who made the term "Confederacy '' into a label for tyranny and oppression, denying the "Stars and Bars '' from becoming a symbol of larger patriotic service and sacrifice. Instead of campaigning to develop nationalism and gain support for his administration, he rarely courted public opinion, assuming an aloofness, "almost like an Adams. ''
Escott argues that Davis was unable to mobilize Confederate nationalism in support of his government effectively, and especially failed to appeal to the small farmers who comprised the bulk of the population. In addition to the problems caused by states rights, Escott also emphasizes that the widespread opposition to any strong central government combined with the vast difference in wealth between the slave - owning class and the small farmers created insolvable dilemmas when the Confederate survival presupposed a strong central government backed by a united populace. The prewar claim that white solidarity was necessary to provide a unified Southern voice in Washington no longer held. Davis failed to build a network of supporters who would speak up when he came under criticism, and he repeatedly alienated governors and other state - based leaders by demanding centralized control of the war effort.
Davis was not an efficient administrator. He attended to too many details. He protected his friends after their failures were obvious. He spent too much time on military affairs versus his civic responsibilities. Coulter concludes he was not the ideal leader for the Southern Revolution, but he showed "fewer weaknesses than any other '' contemporary character available for the role. Robert E. Lee 's assessment of Davis as President was, "I knew of none that could have done as well. ''
The Southern leaders met in Montgomery, Alabama, to write their constitution. Much of the Confederate States Constitution replicated the United States Constitution verbatim, but it contained several explicit protections of the institution of slavery including provisions for the recognition and protection of slavery in any territory of the Confederacy. It maintained the existing ban on international slave - trading while protecting the existing internal trade of slaves among slaveholding states.
In certain areas, the Confederate Constitution gave greater powers to the states (or curtailed the powers of the central government more) than the U.S. Constitution of the time did, but in other areas, the states lost rights they had under the U.S. Constitution. Although the Confederate Constitution, like the U.S. Constitution, contained a commerce clause, the Confederate version prohibited the central government from using revenues collected in one state for funding internal improvements in another state. The Confederate Constitution 's equivalent to the U.S. Constitution 's general welfare clause prohibited protective tariffs (but allowed tariffs for providing domestic revenue), and spoke of "carry (ing) on the Government of the Confederate States '' rather than providing for the "general welfare ''. State legislatures had the power to impeach officials of the Confederate government in some cases. On the other hand, the Confederate Constitution contained a Necessary and Proper Clause and a Supremacy Clause that essentially duplicated the respective clauses of the U.S. Constitution. The Confederate Constitution also incorporated each of the 12 amendments to the U.S. Constitution that had been ratified up to that point.
The Confederate Constitution did not specifically include a provision allowing states to secede; the Preamble spoke of each state "acting in its sovereign and independent character '' but also of the formation of a "permanent federal government ''. During the debates on drafting the Confederate Constitution, one proposal would have allowed states to secede from the Confederacy. The proposal was tabled with only the South Carolina delegates voting in favor of considering the motion. The Confederate Constitution also explicitly denied States the power to bar slaveholders from other parts of the Confederacy from bringing their slaves into any state of the Confederacy or to interfere with the property rights of slave owners traveling between different parts of the Confederacy. In contrast with the language of the United States Constitution, the Confederate Constitution overtly asked God 's blessing ("... invoking the favor and guidance of Almighty God... '').
The Montgomery Convention to establish the Confederacy and its executive met on February 4, 1861. Each state as a sovereignty had one vote, with the same delegation size as it held in the U.S. Congress, and generally 41 to 50 members attended. Offices were "provisional '', limited to a term not to exceed one year. One name was placed in nomination for president, one for vice president. Both were elected unanimously, 6 -- 0.
Jefferson Davis was elected provisional president. His U.S. Senate resignation speech greatly impressed with its clear rationale for secession and his pleading for a peaceful departure from the Union to independence. Although he had made it known that he wanted to be commander - in - chief of the Confederate armies, when elected, he assumed the office of Provisional President. Three candidates for provisional Vice President were under consideration the night before the February 9 election. All were from Georgia, and the various delegations meeting in different places determined two would not do, so Alexander H. Stephens was elected unanimously provisional Vice President, though with some privately held reservations. Stephens was inaugurated February 11, Davis February 18.
Davis and Stephens were elected President and Vice President, unopposed on November 6, 1861. They were inaugurated on February 22, 1862.
Historian E.M. Coulter observed, "No president of the U.S. ever had a more difficult task. '' Washington was inaugurated in peacetime. Lincoln inherited an established government of long standing. The creation of the Confederacy was accomplished by men who saw themselves as fundamentally conservative. Although they referred to their "Revolution '', it was in their eyes more a counter-revolution against changes away from their understanding of U.S. founding documents. In Davis ' inauguration speech, he explained the Confederacy was not a French - like revolution, but a transfer of rule. The Montgomery Convention had assumed all the laws of the United States until superseded by the Confederate Congress.
The Permanent Constitution provided for a President of the Confederate States of America, elected to serve a six - year term but without the possibility of re-election. Unlike the United States Constitution, the Confederate Constitution gave the president the ability to subject a bill to a line item veto, a power also held by some state governors.
The Confederate Congress could overturn either the general or the line item vetoes with the same two - thirds votes required in the U.S. Congress. In addition, appropriations not specifically requested by the executive branch required passage by a two - thirds vote in both houses of Congress. The only person to serve as president was Jefferson Davis, due to the Confederacy being defeated before the completion of his term.
The only two "formal, national, functioning, civilian administrative bodies '' in the Civil War South were the Jefferson Davis administration and the Confederate Congresses. The Confederacy was begun by the Provisional Congress in Convention at Montgomery, Alabama on February 28, 1861. It had one vote per state in a unicameral assembly.
The Permanent Confederate Congress was elected and began its first session February 18, 1862. The Permanent Congress for the Confederacy followed the United States forms with a bicameral legislature. The Senate had two per state, twenty - six Senators. The House numbered 106 representatives apportioned by free and slave populations within each state. Two Congresses sat in six sessions until March 18, 1865.
The political influences of the civilian, soldier vote and appointed representatives reflected divisions of political geography of a diverse South. These in turn changed over time relative to Union occupation and disruption, the war impact on local economy, and the course of the war. Without political parties, key candidate identification related to adopting secession before or after Lincoln 's call for volunteers to retake Federal property. Previous party affiliation played a part in voter selection, predominantly secessionist Democrat or unionist Whig.
The absence of political parties made individual roll call voting all the more important, as the Confederate "freedom of roll - call voting (was) unprecedented in American legislative history. Key issues throughout the life of the Confederacy related to (1) suspension of habeas corpus, (2) military concerns such as control of state militia, conscription and exemption, (3) economic and fiscal policy including impressment of slaves, goods and scorched earth, and (4) support of the Jefferson Davis administration in its foreign affairs and negotiating peace.
For the first year, the unicameral Provisional Confederate Congress functioned as the Confederacy 's legislative branch.
Jesse J. Finley Florida District
Henry R. Jackson Georgia District
Asa Biggs North Carolina District
Andrew Magrath South Carolina District
The Confederate Constitution outlined a judicial branch of the government, but the ongoing war and resistance from states - rights advocates, particularly on the question of whether it would have appellate jurisdiction over the state courts, prevented the creation or seating of the "Supreme Court of the Confederate States; '' the state courts generally continued to operate as they had done, simply recognizing the Confederate States as the national government.
Confederate district courts were authorized by Article III, Section 1, of the Confederate Constitution, and President Davis appointed judges within the individual states of the Confederate States of America. In many cases, the same US Federal District Judges were appointed as Confederate States District Judges. Confederate district courts began reopening in early 1861, handling many of the same type cases as had been done before. Prize cases, in which Union ships were captured by the Confederate Navy or raiders and sold through court proceedings, were heard until the blockade of southern ports made this impossible. After a Sequestration Act was passed by the Confederate Congress, the Confederate district courts heard many cases in which enemy aliens (typically Northern absentee landlords owning property in the South) had their property sequestered (seized) by Confederate Receivers.
When the matter came before the Confederate court, the property owner could not appear because he was unable to travel across the front lines between Union and Confederate forces. Thus, the District Attorney won the case by default, the property was typically sold, and the money used to further the Southern war effort. Eventually, because there was no Confederate Supreme Court, sharp attorneys like South Carolina 's Edward McCrady began filing appeals. This prevented their clients ' property from being sold until a supreme court could be constituted to hear the appeal, which never occurred. Where Federal troops gained control over parts of the Confederacy and re-established civilian government, US district courts sometimes resumed jurisdiction.
Supreme Court -- not established.
District Courts -- judges
John H. Reagan Postmaster General
Jefferson Davis, 5 cent The 1st stamp, 1861
Andrew Jackson 2 cent, 1862
George Washington 20 cent, 1863
When the Confederacy was formed and its seceding states broke from the Union, it was at once confronted with the arduous task of providing its citizens with a mail delivery system, and, in the midst of the American Civil War, the newly formed Confederacy created and established the Confederate Post Office. One of the first undertakings in establishing the Post Office was the appointment of John H. Reagan to the position of Postmaster General, by Jefferson Davis in 1861, making him the first Postmaster General of the Confederate Post Office as well as a member of Davis ' presidential cabinet. Through Reagan 's resourcefulness and remarkable industry, he had his department assembled, organized and in operation before the other Presidential cabinet members had their departments fully operational.
When the war began, the US Post Office still delivered mail from the secessionist states for a brief period of time. Mail that was postmarked after the date of a state 's admission into the Confederacy through May 31, 1861, and bearing US postage was still delivered. After this time, private express companies still managed to carry some of the mail across enemy lines. Later, mail that crossed lines had to be sent by ' Flag of Truce ' and was allowed to pass at only two specific points. Mail sent from the South to the North states was received, opened and inspected at Fortress Monroe on the Virginia coast before being passed on into the U.S. mail stream. Mail sent from the North to the South passed at City Point, also in Virginia, where it was also inspected before being sent on.
With the chaos of the war, a working postal system was more important than ever for the Confederacy. The Civil War had divided family members and friends and consequently letter writing increased dramatically across the entire divided nation, especially to and from the men who were away serving in an army. Mail delivery was also important for the Confederacy for a myriad of business and military reasons. Because of the Union blockade, basic supplies were always in demand and so getting mailed correspondence out of the country to suppliers was imperative to the successful operation of the Confederacy. Volumes of material have been written about the Blockade runners who evaded Union ships on blockade patrol, usually at night, and who moved cargo and mail in and out of the Confederate States throughout the course of the war. Of particular interest to students and historians of the American Civil War is Prisoner of War mail and Blockade mail as these items were often involved with a variety of military and other war time activities. The postal history of the Confederacy along with surviving Confederate mail has helped historians document the various people, places and events that were involved in the American Civil War as it unfolded.
The Confederacy actively used the army to arrest people suspected of loyalty to the United States. Historian Mark Neely found 4,108 names of men arrested and estimated a much larger total. The Confederacy arrested pro-Union civilians in the South at about the same rate as the Union arrested pro-Confederate civilians in the North. Neely argues:
The Confederate citizen was not any freer than the Union citizen -- and perhaps no less likely to be arrested by military authorities. In fact, the Confederate citizen may have been in some ways less free than his Northern counterpart. For example, freedom to travel within the Confederate states was severely limited by a domestic passport system.
Across the South, widespread rumors alarmed the whites by predicting the slaves were planning some sort of insurrection. Patrols were stepped up. The slaves did become increasingly independent, and resistant to punishment, but historians agree there were no insurrections. In the invaded areas, insubordination was more the norm than loyalty to the old master; Bell Wiley says, "It was not disloyalty, but the lure of freedom. '' Many slaves became spies for the North, and large numbers ran away to federal lines.
Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation, an executive order of the U.S. government on January 1, 1863, changed the legal status of 3 million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave '' to "free ''. The long - term effect was that the Confederacy could not preserve the institution of slavery, and lost the use of the core element of its plantation labor force. Slaves were legally freed by the Proclamation, and became free by escaping to federal lines, or by advances of federal troops. Many freed slaves served as volunteers in the federal army as teamsters, cooks, laundresses and laborers, and eventually as soldiers. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their slaves as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By "Juneteenth '' (June 19, 1865, in Texas), the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and had liberated all its slaves. Their owners never received compensation.
Most whites were subsistence farmers who traded their surpluses locally. The plantations of the South, with white ownership and an enslaved labor force, produced substantial wealth from cash crops. It supplied two - thirds of the world 's cotton, which was in high demand for textiles, along with tobacco, sugar, and naval stores (such as turpentine). These raw materials were exported to factories in Europe and the Northeast. Planters reinvested their profits in more slaves and fresh land, for cotton and tobacco depleted the soil. There was little manufacturing or mining; shipping was controlled by outsiders.
The plantations that enslaved over three million black people were the principal source of wealth. Most were concentrated in "black belt '' plantation areas (because few white families in the poor regions owned slaves.) For decades there had been widespread fear of slave revolts. During the war extra men were assigned to "home guard '' patrol duty and governors sought to keep militia units at home for protection. Historian William Barney reports, "no major slave revolts erupted during the Civil War. '' Nevertheless, slaves took the opportunity to enlarge their sphere of independence, and when union forces were nearby, many ran off to join them.
Slave labor was applied in industry in a limited way in the Upper South and in a few port cities. One reason for the regional lag in industrial development was top - heavy income distribution. Mass production requires mass markets, and slaves living in small cabins, using self - made tools and outfitted with one suit of work clothes each year of inferior fabric, did not generate consumer demand to sustain local manufactures of any description in the same way a mechanized family farm of free labor did in the North. The Southern economy was "pre-capitalist '' in that slaves were put to work in the largest revenue - producing enterprises, not free labor market. That labor system as practiced in the American South encompassed paternalism, whether abusive or indulgent, and that meant labor management considerations apart from productivity.
Approximately 85 % of both North and South white populations lived on family farms, both regions were predominantly agricultural, and mid-century industry in both was mostly domestic. But the Southern economy was pre-capitalist in its overwhelming reliance on the agriculture of cash crops to produce wealth, while the great majority of farmers fed themselves and supplied a small local market. Southern cities and industries grew faster than ever before, but the thrust of the rest of the country 's exponential growth elsewhere was toward urban industrial development along transportation systems of canals and railroads. The South was following the dominant currents of the American economic mainstream, but at a "great distance '' as it lagged in the all - weather modes of transportation that brought cheaper, speedier freight shipment and forged new, expanding inter-regional markets.
A third count of southern pre-capitalist economy relates to the cultural setting. The South and southerners did not adopt a work ethic, nor the habits of thrift that marked the rest of the country. It had access to the tools of capitalism, but it did not adopt its culture. The Southern Cause as a national economy in the Confederacy was grounded in "slavery and race, planters and patricians, plain folk and folk culture, cotton and plantations ''.
The Confederacy started its existence as an agrarian economy with exports, to a world market, of cotton, and, to a lesser extent, tobacco and sugarcane. Local food production included grains, hogs, cattle, and gardens. The cash came from exports but the Southern people spontaneously stopped exports in early 1861 to hasten the impact of "King Cotton ''. When the blockade was announced, commercial shipping practically ended (the ships could not get insurance), and only a trickle of supplies came via blockade runners. The cutoff of exports was an economic disaster for the South, rendering useless its most valuable properties, its plantations and their enslaved workers. Many planters kept growing cotton, which piled up everywhere, but most turned to food production. All across the region, the lack of repair and maintenance wasted away the physical assets.
The eleven states had produced $155 million in manufactured goods in 1860, chiefly from local grist - mills, and lumber, processed tobacco, cotton goods and naval stores such as turpentine. The main industrial areas were border cities such as Baltimore, Wheeling, Louisville and St. Louis, that were never under Confederate control. The government did set up munitions factories in the Deep South. Combined with captured munitions and those coming via blockade runners, the armies were kept minimally supplied with weapons. The soldiers suffered from reduced rations, lack of medicines, and the growing shortages of uniforms, shoes and boots. Shortages were much worse for civilians, and the prices of necessities steadily rose.
The Confederacy adopted a tariff or tax on imports of 15 per cent, and imposed it on all imports from other countries, including the United States. The tariff mattered little; the Union blockade minimized commercial traffic through the Confederacy 's ports, and very few people paid taxes on goods smuggled from the North. The Confederate government in its entire history collected only $3.5 million in tariff revenue. The lack of adequate financial resources led the Confederacy to finance the war through printing money, which led to high inflation. The Confederacy underwent an economic revolution by centralization and standardization, but it was too little too late as its economy was systematically strangled by blockade and raids.
In peacetime, the South 's extensive and connected systems of navigable rivers and coastal access allowed for cheap and easy transportation of agricultural products. The railroad system in the South had developed as a supplement to the navigable rivers to enhance the all - weather shipment of cash crops to market. Railroads tied plantation areas to the nearest river or seaport and so made supply more dependable, lowered costs and increased profits. In the event of invasion, the vast geography of the Confederacy made logistics difficult for the Union. Wherever Union armies invaded, they assigned many of their soldiers to garrison captured areas and to protect rail lines.
At the onset of the Civil War the South had a rail network disjointed and plagued by changes in track gauge as well as lack of interchange. Locomotives and freight cars had fixed axles and could not use tracks of different gauges (widths). Railroads of different gauges leading to the same city required all freight to be off - loaded onto wagons for transport to the connecting railroad station, where it had to await freight cars and a locomotive before proceeding. Centers requiring off - loading included Vicksburg, New Orleans, Montgomery, Wilmington and Richmond. In addition, most rail lines led from coastal or river ports to inland cities, with few lateral railroads. Due to this design limitation, the relatively primitive railroads of the Confederacy were unable to overcome the Union naval blockade of the South 's crucial intra-coastal and river routes.
The Confederacy had no plan to expand, protect or encourage its railroads. Southerners ' refusal to export the cotton crop in 1861 left railroads bereft of their main source of income. Many lines had to lay off employees; many critical skilled technicians and engineers were permanently lost to military service. In the early years of the war the Confederate government had a hands - off approach to the railroads. Only in mid-1863 did the Confederate government initiate a national policy, and it was confined solely to aiding the war effort. Railroads came under the de facto control of the military. In contrast, the U.S. Congress had authorized military administration of Union - controlled railroad and telegraph systems in January 1862, imposed a standard gauge, and built railroads into the South using that gauge. Confederate armies successfully reoccupying territory could not be resupplied directly by rail as they advanced. The C.S. Congress formally authorized military administration of railroads in February 1865.
In the last year before the end of the war, the Confederate railroad system stood permanently on the verge of collapse. There was no new equipment and raids on both sides systematically destroyed key bridges, as well as locomotives and freight cars. Spare parts were cannibalized; feeder lines were torn up to get replacement rails for trunk lines, and rolling stock wore out through heavy use.
The Confederate army experienced a persistent shortage of horses and mules, and requisitioned them with dubious promissory notes given to local farmers and breeders. Union forces paid in real money and found ready sellers in the South. Both armies needed horses for cavalry and for artillery. Mules pulled the wagons. The supply was undermined by an unprecedented epidemic of glanders, a fatal disease that baffled veterinarians. After 1863 the invading Union forces had a policy of shooting all the local horses and mules they did not need - in order to keep them out of Confederate hands. The Confederate armies and farmers experienced a growing shortage of horses and mules, which hurt the Southern economy and the war effort. The South lost half of its 2.5 million horses and mules; many farmers ended the war with none left. Army horses were used up by hard work, malnourishment, disease and battle wounds; they had a life expectancy of about seven months.
Both the individual Confederate states and later the Confederate government printed Confederate States of America dollars as paper currency in various denominations, with a total face value of $1.5 billion. Much of it was signed by Treasurer Edward C. Elmore. Inflation became rampant as the paper money depreciated and eventually became worthless. The state governments and some localities printed their own paper money, adding to the runaway inflation. Many bills still exist, although in recent years counterfeit copies have proliferated.
The Confederate government initially wanted to finance its war mostly through tariffs on imports, export taxes, and voluntary donations of gold. After the spontaneous imposition of an embargo on cotton sales to Europe in 1861, these sources of revenue dried up and the Confederacy increasingly turned to issuing debt and printing money to pay for war expenses. The Confederate States politicians were worried about angering the general population with hard taxes. A tax increase might disillusion many Southerners, so the Confederacy resorted to printing more money. As a result, inflation increased and remained a problem for the southern states throughout the rest of the war. By April 1863, for example, the cost of flour in Richmond had risen to $100 a barrel and housewives were rioting.
The Confederate government took over the three national mints: the Charlotte Mint in North Carolina, the Dahlonega Mint in Georgia, and the New Orleans Mint in Louisiana. During 1861, the first two produced small amounts of gold coinage, the latter half dollars. Since the mints used the current dies on hand, these issues remain indistinguishable from those minted by the Union. In New Orleans the Confederacy used its own reverse design to strike four half dollars. US coinage was hoarded and did not have any general circulation. U.S. coinage was admitted as legal tender up to $10, as were British sovereigns, French Napoleons and Spanish and Mexican doubloons at a fixed rate of exchange. Confederate money was paper and postage stamps.
By mid-1861, the Union naval blockade virtually shut down the export of cotton and the import of manufactured goods. Food that formerly came overland was cut off.
Women had charge of making do. They cut back on purchases, brought out old spinning wheels and enlarged their gardens with flax and peas to provide clothing and food. They used ersatz substitutes when possible, but there was no real coffee and it was hard to develop a taste for the okra or chicory substitutes used. The households were severely hurt by inflation in the cost of everyday items like flour and the shortages of food, fodder for the animals, and medical supplies for the wounded.
State governments pleaded with planters to grow less cotton and more food. Most refused. When cotton prices soared in Europe, expectations were that Europe would soon intervene to break the blockade and make them rich. The myth of omnipotent "King Cotton '' died hard. The Georgia legislature imposed cotton quotas, making it a crime to grow an excess. But food shortages only worsened, especially in the towns.
The overall decline in food supplies, made worse by the inadequate transportation system, led to serious shortages and high prices in urban areas. When bacon reached a dollar a pound in 1863, the poor women of Richmond, Atlanta and many other cities began to riot; they broke into shops and warehouses to seize food. The women expressed their anger at ineffective state relief efforts, speculators, and merchants. As wives and widows of soldiers they were hurt by the inadequate welfare system.
By the end of the war deterioration of the Southern infrastructure was widespread. The number of civilian deaths is unknown. Every Confederate state was affected, but most of the war was fought in Virginia and Tennessee, while Texas and Florida saw the least military action. Much of the damage was caused by direct military action, but most was caused by lack of repairs and upkeep, and by deliberately using up resources. Historians have recently estimated how much of the devastation was caused by military action. Paul Paskoff calculates that Union military operations were conducted in 56 % of 645 counties in nine Confederate states (excluding Texas and Florida). These counties contained 63 % of the 1860 white population and 64 % of the slaves. By the time the fighting took place, undoubtedly some people had fled to safer areas, so the exact population exposed to war is unknown.
Potters House, Atlanta Ga
Downtown Charleston SC
Navy Yard, Norfolk Va
Rail bridge, Petersburg Va
The eleven Confederate States in the 1860 United States Census had 297 towns and cities with 835,000 people; of these 162 with 681,000 people were at one point occupied by Union forces. Eleven were destroyed or severely damaged by war action, including Atlanta (with an 1860 population of 9,600), Charleston, Columbia, and Richmond (with prewar populations of 40,500, 8,100, and 37,900, respectively); the eleven contained 115,900 people in the 1860 census, or 14 % of the urban South. Historians have not estimated what their actual population was when Union forces arrived. The number of people (as of 1860) who lived in the destroyed towns represented just over 1 % of the Confederacy 's 1860 population. In addition, 45 court houses were burned (out of 830). The South 's agriculture was not highly mechanized. The value of farm implements and machinery in the 1860 Census was $81 million; by 1870, there was 40 % less, worth just $48 million. Many old tools had broken through heavy use; new tools were rarely available; even repairs were difficult.
The economic losses affected everyone. Banks and insurance companies were mostly bankrupt. Confederate currency and bonds were worthless. The billions of dollars invested in slaves vanished. Most debts were also left behind. Most farms were intact but most had lost their horses, mules and cattle; fences and barns were in disrepair. Paskoff shows the loss of farm infrastructure was about the same whether or not fighting took place nearby. The loss of infrastructure and productive capacity meant that rural widows throughout the region faced not only the absence of able - bodied men, but a depleted stock of material resources that they could manage and operate themselves. During four years of warfare, disruption, and blockades, the South used up about half its capital stock. The North, by contrast, absorbed its material losses so effortlessly that it appeared richer at the end of the war than at the beginning.
The rebuilding took years and was hindered by the low price of cotton after the war. Outside investment was essential, especially in railroads. One historian has summarized the collapse of the transportation infrastructure needed for economic recovery:
About 250,000 men never came home, some 30 percent of all white men aged 18 to 40, in 1860. Widows who were overwhelmed often abandoned the farm and merged into the households of relatives, or even became refugees living in camps with high rates of disease and death. In the Old South, being an "old maid '' was something of an embarrassment to the woman and her family. Now it became almost a norm. Some women welcomed the freedom of not having to marry. Divorce, while never fully accepted, became more common. The concept of the "New Woman '' emerged -- she was self - sufficient and independent, and stood in sharp contrast to the "Southern Belle '' of antebellum lore.
1st National Flag (7 -, 9, 11 -, 13 - stars) "Stars and Bars ''
2nd National Flag (Richmond Capitol) "Stainless Banner ''
3rd National Flag (never flown) "Blood Stained Banner ''
CSA Naval Jack 1861 -- 63
CSA Naval Jack 1863 -- 65
Battle Flag "Southern Cross ''
Bonnie Blue Flag Unofficial Southern Flag
The first official flag of the Confederate States of America -- called the "Stars and Bars '' -- originally had seven stars, representing the first seven states that initially formed the Confederacy. As more states joined, more stars were added, until the total was 13 (two stars were added for the divided states of Kentucky and Missouri). During the First Battle of Bull Run, (First Manassas) it sometimes proved difficult to distinguish the Stars and Bars from the Union flag. To rectify the situation, a separate "Battle Flag '' was designed for use by troops in the field. Also known as the "Southern Cross '', many variations sprang from the original square configuration. Although it was never officially adopted by the Confederate government, the popularity of the Southern Cross among both soldiers and the civilian population was a primary reason why it was made the main color feature when a new national flag was adopted in 1863. This new standard -- known as the "Stainless Banner '' -- consisted of a lengthened white field area with a Battle Flag canton. This flag too had its problems when used in military operations as, on a windless day, it could easily be mistaken for a flag of truce or surrender. Thus, in 1865, a modified version of the Stainless Banner was adopted. This final national flag of the Confederacy kept the Battle Flag canton, but shortened the white field and added a vertical red bar to the fly end.
Because of its depiction in the 20th - century and popular media, many people consider the rectangular battle flag with the dark blue bars as being synonymous with "the Confederate Flag '', but this flag was never adopted as a Confederate national flag. The "Confederate Flag '' has a color scheme similar to the official Battle Flag, but is rectangular, not square. (Its design and shape matches the Naval Jack, but the blue bars are darker.) The "Confederate Flag '' is a highly recognizable symbol of the South in the United States today, and continues to be a controversial icon.
The Confederate States of America claimed a total of 2,919 miles (4,698 km) of coastline, thus a large part of its territory lay on the seacoast with level and often sandy or marshy ground. Most of the interior portion consisted of arable farmland, though much was also hilly and mountainous, and the far western territories were deserts. The lower reaches of the Mississippi River bisected the country, with the western half often referred to as the Trans - Mississippi. The highest point (excluding Arizona and New Mexico) was Guadalupe Peak in Texas at 8,750 feet (2,670 m).
Climate
Much of the area claimed by the Confederate States of America had a humid subtropical climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. The climate and terrain varied from vast swamps (such as those in Florida and Louisiana) to semi-arid steppes and arid deserts west of longitude 100 degrees west. The subtropical climate made winters mild but allowed infectious diseases to flourish. Consequently, on both sides more soldiers died from disease than were killed in combat, a fact hardly atypical of pre -- World War I conflicts.
The United States Census of 1860 gives a picture of the overall 1860 population of the areas that joined the Confederacy. Note that population - numbers exclude non-assimilated Indian tribes.
(Figures for Virginia include the future West Virginia.)
(Rows may not total to 100 % due to rounding)
In 1860 the areas that later formed the eleven Confederate States (and including the future West Virginia) had 132,760 (1.46 %) free blacks. Males made up 49.2 % of the total population and females 50.8 % (whites: 48.60 % male, 51.40 % female; slaves: 50.15 % male, 49.85 % female; free blacks: 47.43 % male, 52.57 % female).
The CSA was overwhelmingly rural land. Few towns had populations of more than 1,000 -- the typical county seat had a population of fewer than 500 people. Cities were rare. Of the twenty largest U.S. cities in the 1860 census, only New Orleans lay in Confederate territory -- and the Union captured New Orleans in 1862. Only 13 Confederate - controlled cities ranked among the top 100 U.S. cities in 1860, most of them ports whose economic activities vanished or suffered severely in the Union blockade. The population of Richmond swelled after it became the Confederate capital, reaching an estimated 128,000 in 1864. Other Southern cities in the Border slave - holding states such as Baltimore MD, Washington DC, Wheeling VA / WV and Alexandria VA, Louisville KY, and St. Louis MO, never came under the control of the Confederate government.
The cities of the Confederacy included most prominently in order of size of population:
(See also Atlanta in the Civil War, Charleston, South Carolina, in the Civil War, Nashville in the Civil War, New Orleans in the Civil War, Wilmington, North Carolina, in the American Civil War, and Richmond in the Civil War).
The CSA was overwhelmingly Protestant Christian. Both free and enslaved populations identified with evangelical Protestantism. Freedom of religion and separation of church and state were fully ensured by Confederate laws. Church attendance was very high and chaplains played a major role in the Army.
Multiple denominations experienced a split from 1861 until 1865 due to the ongoing political climate but also slavery. Often to distinguish these denominations the word Southern was used. Hence, for denomination that remained in the North the word Northern was used. Examples include Southern Presbyterians and Northern Presbyterians, Southern Baptists and Northern Baptists, Southern Episcopalians and Northern Episcopalians, and so on and so forth. Such splits entailed no theological conflicts or doctrine changes, and adjectives Southern / Northern were only used to describe one 's base in the Confederacy / the Union, territorial scope, political allegiance / preferences or stance on slavery.
In the wake of the Second Great Awakening, Baptists and Methodists together formed majorities of both the white and the slave population (see Black church). Both broke off from their Northern coreligionists over the slavery issue. Elites in the southeast favored the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Confederate States of America, which reluctantly split off the Episcopal Church (USA) in 1861. Other elites were Presbyterians belonging to the Presbyterian Church in the United States, which was founded in 1861. Joseph Ruggles Wilson (father of President Woodrow Wilson) was a prominent leader. Being Mainline Protestant was far more common among elites than ordinary people. Catholics were a small population that included an Irish working class element in port cities and an old French element in southern Louisiana. Other religious populations including Lutherans, the Holiness movement, other Reformed, other Christian fundamentalists, the Stone - Campbell Restoration Movement, the Churches of Christ, the Latter - day Saints movement, Adventists, Muslims, Jews, Native American animists, deists and also irreligious people were all very small.
Military leaders of the Confederacy (with their state or country of birth and highest rank) included:
As the telegraph chattered reports of the attack on Sumter April 12 and its surrender next day, huge crowds poured into the streets of Richmond, Raleigh, Nashville, and other upper South cities to celebrate this victory over the Yankees. These crowds waved Confederate flags and cheered the glorious cause of southern independence. They demanded that their own states join the cause. Scores of demonstrations took place from April 12 to 14, before Lincoln issued his call for troops. Many conditional unionists were swept along by this powerful tide of southern nationalism; others were cowed into silence.
Historian Daniel W. Crofts disagrees with McPherson. Crofts wrote:
The bombardment of Fort Sumter, by itself, did not destroy Unionist majorities in the upper South. Because only three days elapsed before Lincoln issued the proclamation, the two events viewed retrospectively, appear almost simultaneous. Nevertheless, close examination of contemporary evidence... shows that the proclamation had a far more decisive impact.
Many concluded... that Lincoln had deliberately chosen ' to drive off all the Slave states, in order to make war on them and annihilate slavery. '
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when do the main characters die in grey's anatomy | Grey 's Anatomy (season 14) - wikipedia
The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special two - hour premiere. The season consists of 24 episodes, with the season 's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Krista Vernoff and William Harper.
The fourteenth season is the first not to feature Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards since her introduction in the ninth season, following her departure at the conclusion of the previous season. The season marks the last appearance of Martin Henderson, Jason George, Jessica Capshaw, and Sarah Drew as series regulars, as well as the first appearance of Jaina Lee Ortiz as Andy Herrera, the lead character of Grey 's Anatomy 's second spin - off series, Station 19.
On April 20, 2018, ABC officially renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a network primetime drama record - setting fifteenth season.
The season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington.
After the explosion at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, Chief Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) finds it the perfect time to give the place a much needed upgrade in look and functionality. During the construction, Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) struggles with the shocking reunion with his sister, Megan (Abigail Spencer), who was recently found in a hostage camp overseas. The discovery also welcomes back Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), the former chief cardiothoracic surgery and Owen 's best friend, which leads to awkward moments with Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone). Of course, Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson), who was once in love with Megan, is torn between his love for her and his most recent interest in Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) learns what "ghosting '' is after Eliza Minnick (Marika Dominczyk) vanishes without a trace, but she quickly finds company in an Italian girl she met at the bar, Carina DeLuca (Stefania Spampinato), sister to Andrew DeLuca (Giacomo Gianniotti). Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) struggles to patch her relationship with Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), but when her attempts fail, she finds herself sleeping with one of the new interns.
When Carina finds that Amelia has a brain tumor, she brings her former mentor / professor Dr Tom Koracek (Greg Germann) to create a treatment plan. But when he points out how the tumor has affected her judgment, she fears that it might have ruined her patient 's lives or put them in more danger -- specifically Dr Nicole Herman (Geena Davis), who despite saving her life, was left blind. After the tumor is removed, Amelia and Owen reflect on their marriage and decide that everything up to that point has been misguided; the tumor made Amelia someone she was not, and they ultimately decide to get a divorce. With all the changes happening at Grey Sloan, Harper Avery (Chelcie Ross) shows up to discuss everything with Bailey and then ends up firing her. Shortly after, he immediately dies from cardiac arrest. Before they have to find another chief, Catherine (Debbie Allen) and Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) reinstate Bailey to her position. At a family dinner hosted by Catherine and Richard Weber (James Pickens Jr.), Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) and Jackson learn that he 'll be receiving his grandfather 's inheritance, a quarter billion dollars, which he 'll eventually use to fund a medical research contest.
Now that Megan is healthy again, Meredith and Nathan work together to bring her son over to the United States. Upon arrival, Nathan, Megan, and Farouk all move to California to start a life together, which officially ends Nathan 's relationship with Meredith. Despite the breakup, Meredith has more exciting news on the horizon when she learns at the intern mixer that a ground breaking surgery has earned her a nomination for the highly - esteemed Harper Avery Foundation Award, which she goes on to win. While the joyous news spreads around the hospital, Bailey learns that Ben Warren (Jason George) wants to leave surgery to join the Seattle Fire Department. With Jo and Alex now living together again, she realizes how much control her estranged husband, Dr Paul Stadler (Matthew Morrison), has over her. Now in the running for chief resident, Jo decides to file for divorce. With her mind on her secret relationship with Paul, she 's surprised to find him in the hospital. Jo attempts to steer clear of him, but at the same time also believes she has a duty to inform Paul 's fiancé of what type of man he really is. As Paul keeps trying to find Jo, Meredith pretends to call security to have him removed, but he leaves before they can get there. However, he winds up back in the ER as a victim of a hit and run accident. With everyone running around the ER, April Kepner (Sarah Drew) sees a familiar face in Matthew (Justin Bruening), the paramedic she left at the altar for Jackson. He 's there with his wife who is now pregnant. After Jo talks to Jenny (Bethany Joy Lenz), Paul 's fiancé, they venture to Paul 's room to tell him they 're taking him to court. Upon receiving the news, he tries to attack them in a bout of rage; however, he falls out of bed and hits his head knocking him unconscious, rendering him brain dead. Still legally his wife, Jo decides to have them remove all life - sustaining support. April struggles with the idea that the man she left to pursue her own happiness is now married and expecting a child, while she 's alone and a single mother. As she begins to question her faith, she acts out and sleeps with an intern.
With all the stress and work that comes with being Chief of Surgery, Bailey begins to show signs of a heart attack. She winds up at Seattle Presbyterian Hospital, where the doctors take her concerns less than seriously. They see in her chart a history of OCD and believe that is the underlying issue, since the tests they are running are coming back negative. Bailey calls on Maggie to save her, and after she does, Bailey decides to support Ben 's decision to become a firefighter, as she realizes life is too short to do anything than what makes you happy.
With the medical research contest, funded by Jackson 's money, getting underway, the doctors begin to team up and brainstorm ideas that will help them win the top prize of a grant that will fund their research even further. Meredith learns that for her project, she 'll need to acquire a patent that is owned by Marie Cerone... a former friend of her mother 's. When Marie denies access to the patent, Meredith is forced to investigate further into the reason why. According to Richard, there was a falling out of some sort, but he never knew what happened between the two women. At a dinner party hosted by Amelia, Maggie brings her new boyfriend around to meet her friends. However, it 's soon revealed that her boyfriend is a married man. Quick to call it off, Jackson sees his opportunity to invest in his love interest with Maggie. In Meredith 's search for answers, she learns that Ellis Grey left Marie 's name off the surgical method they created together. If she is to acquire the patent, she must publicly announce a change the method 's name to the Grey - Cerone Method. Meredith denies the ultimatum. While Maggie and Jackson try to get past the quirks of their relationship and the fact that their step - siblings, Jo shockingly asks Alex to marry him. He quickly accepts.
With the research projects humming along, Owen and Amelia continue to take advantage of their "friends with benefits '' relationship, that is until Amelia learns how close Owen is with Teddy. She advises him to go after her if she 's the love of his life. The advice sends him to Germany where he surprises Teddy. The two talk all night and make plans to stay together, but when she learns that Amelia had just told him the night before to pursue her, she refuses to be his backup plan and kicks him out.
Bailey is surprised to learn that one of her interns, Sam Bello (Jeanine Mason), is a "Dreamer '' protected by (DACA). Meredith designs a plan to keep from being deported. Despite pleas from Andrew (Sam 's boyfriend), Meredith sends to work under Dr Cristina Yang in Switzerland. While the research contest reaches the next milestone, presentation day, Catherine confronts Jackson about a major secret concerning his grandfather. The man had 13 cases of sexual harassment filed against him, and she herself paid the women major settlements to keep it all covered up. Meredith learns of this truth and also that Marie Cerone was one of the 13. Disgusted with the whole situation, Meredith decides to return her and her mother 's Harper Avery awards and Bailey shuts down the research contest. In the meantime, Catherine tries with all her might to save the face of the foundation since the news has spread. While in surgery, Jackson and Meredith come up with their own plan, which is to rename the foundation in honor of Catherine (née Fox) to the Catherine Fox Foundation.
When Alex learns that his mom has n't been cashing the checks he 's been sending, he and Jo take off to Iowa to check on her. He surprisingly finds that she is doing well and even works her old job at the library. The two extend an invitation to the wedding, but she declines stating it would be too much for her. While Owen and Amelia struggle with adjusting to being foster parents -- Owen to a baby and Amelia to the baby 's teenaged mother on drugs, Arizona continues to battle with Sofia who wants to move back to New York to be with her other mom, Callie. After calling Callie to tell her they 're moving to the east coast to be closer to her, Arizona announced her impeding departure to Bailey. However, an unexpected visit from Nicole Herman changes those plans just slightly. Nicole has been following Arizona 's work and she would like to partner with her in creating the Robbins - Herman Center for Women 's Health. Knowing that she 's headed to New York, Arizona asks that it be there, and Nicole obliges.
Matthew winds up in the ER again, but this time for himself, after he rolled his car. Trying to get information from him about what happened, he mentions April 's name, which sends the doctors into a frenzy trying to make sure she 's safe. Owen finds her unconscious at the site of the accident, down in a ravine nearby. After he rushes her back to the hospital, the team rallies to save her, and after extreme measures have been taken to bring her back to life, she wakes up, fully functional. Alex and Jo 's wedding day has arrived, and though most details have come together, April (who has been planning the wedding) panics when multiple guests go to the wrong ceremony. While trying to escape, the mother of the bride faints, keeping Ben and Bailey behind. Once at the hospital, Bailey struggles to find an available cardio surgeon until Teddy unexpectedly arrives looking for a job. Jo learns she 's been accepted into Mass Gen 's fellowship program, but fearful of losing Alex, Meredith offers Jo the general surgery attending position. The wedding is delayed when the wedding planner goes into anaphylactic shock and an emergency tracheotomy is performed to save her. After the guests leave thinking there 'll be no wedding, the pastor finally arrives in time to marry April and Matthew after a surprise re-engagement. On a ferry back to the main land, Maggie has the idea to have Meredith ordained online to officiate the wedding right there on the ferry. Bailey, wanting to take a break from being chief to focus on her passions, offers Teddy the chance to be interim chief. Watching the wedding happening at the hospital on a tablet, in the ICU with the bride 's mother, Teddy reveals she 's pregnant. Arizona says her sad goodbyes before heading to New York, but is giddy to be closer to Callie who is recently single.
Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the 9th season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball 's new HBO drama series Here and Now. Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast, but ABC passed on the project. Renewing her contract for another three seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw returned for the 14th season. On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver would reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest arc. In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season. After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. On September 13, 2017, another guest star was announced in Greg Germann (Ally McBeal), and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick, Amelia 's neurosurgery mentor.
On October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode "Ai n't That a Kick in the Head '' was announced to include Jeanine Mason (So You Think You Can Dance) as Sam, Alex Blue Davis as Casey, Rushi Kota as Vik, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn, Sophia Ali as Dahlia, and Jake Borelli as Levi. On October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson 's appearance in the fifth episode titled "Danger Zone '' would be his last.
On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground breaking surgery. On March 8, 2018, it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season.
It was released on April 4, 2018 that a familiar character would be returning to the set later on in the season as Sarah Utterback 's Nurse Olivia Harper would be revisiting Grey Sloan, not as a nurse but as mom of a patient. Details of her storyline or duration of arc have yet to be released. On April 20, 2018, it was released that Geena Davis would return for the episode "Cold as Ice '' as Dr. Herman to present a new opportunity for Arizona.
Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017. It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a two - hour premiere. Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season. On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season. On January 11, 2018, ABC released a six - episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series regular Sarah Drew.
The number in the "No. overall '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
While the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon, Jo tries to steer clear of him. Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce. Drenched in blood, Jackson and Maggie save their patient 's life and then bond in the locker room after showers; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions, very similar to when they were overseas. Bailey works with an exceptionally computer - savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital; this intern later outs himself as "a proud trans man ''. After Paul 's fiancée, Jenny, tells him about her secret exchange with Jo, Meredith pretends to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital. However, he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit - and - run.
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who caught dan marino's one last pass | Dan Marino - wikipedia
Daniel Constantine Marino Jr. (born September 15, 1961) is a former American football quarterback who played seventeen seasons for the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League (NFL). The last quarterback of the quarterback class of 1983 to be taken in the first round, Marino held or currently holds dozens of NFL records associated with the quarterback position. Despite never being on a Super Bowl - winning team, he is recognized as one of the greatest quarterbacks in American football history.
Best remembered for his quick release and powerful arm, Marino helped the Dolphins become consistent postseason contenders, leading them to the playoffs ten times and one Super Bowl appearance in XIX, although a title victory ultimately eluded him during his career. Marino is considered by many to be one of the greatest players to never win a Super Bowl and has the most career victories of quarterbacks to not win a title at 155. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2005.
Marino was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, of Italian and Polish ancestry. He is the eldest child of Daniel and Veronica (Kolczynski) Marino, and has two younger sisters, Cindi and Debbie. His father delivered newspapers for the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Marino grew up on Parkview Avenue in the South Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh, and attended St. Regis Catholic Elementary School. He attended Central Catholic High School in Pittsburgh, where he started in baseball, and won Parade All - American honors in football. He was drafted in the 4th round by the Kansas City Royals in the 1979 amateur draft, but decided to play college football instead.
Marino attended the University of Pittsburgh, and played for the university 's Pittsburgh Panthers football team from 1979 to 1982. As a freshman in 1979, Marino led the Panthers in a 24 -- 17 triumph over West Virginia in the Backyard Brawl and a 29 − 14 win over longtime rival Penn State. Pitt 's 1980 Marino - led team finished No. 2 in the season ending rankings (The New York Times computer poll rated Pitt as No. 1). Following the 1981 regular season, Marino led the Panthers, who had been ranked No. 1 most of the season, to a last - minute triumph over the No. 7 Georgia Bulldogs in the 1982 Sugar Bowl by throwing a game - winning pass to tight end John Brown with less than a minute remaining in the game. Marino later cited this as the most memorable pass he 'd thrown in his college career. Overall, during the three seasons from 1979 thru 1981, Pitt garnered 33 wins with only 3 losses (three straight 11 -- 1 seasons) and was constantly ranked in the Top 5 of both major media polls. The Pitt football team 's fortunes and Marinos 's statistics dipped during his senior year, which saw the team transition from head coach Jackie Sherrill to new coach Foge Fazio, culminating in a 7 -- 3 loss in the 1983 Cotton Bowl Classic to Southern Methodist University and their "Pony Express '' of Eric Dickerson and Craig James. Marino finished ninth in voting for the Heisman Trophy in 1982, after finishing fourth the previous year. Marino finished his four college seasons with 7,905 passing yards and 74 touchdowns, with 64 interceptions.
Marino 's selection status in the 1983 NFL Draft plummeted after his weaker senior season at Pitt, and rumors of recreational drug use. Five other quarterbacks -- Ken O'Brien, Tony Eason, Todd Blackledge, and Hall of Famers Jim Kelly and John Elway -- were drafted ahead of him in the first round. Bill Hillgrove, who was with the Marino family on draft day, later recalled that when the New York Jets selected O'Brien, Marino "became visibly ill ''. (O'Brien, who played for Division II Cal - Davis, was so obscure that Marino later asked his agent Marvin Demoff "Who is Ken O'Brien? '') The Miami Dolphins chose Marino as the 27th pick in the first round. Opinion was divided on the wisdom of the team 's decision; Chris Berman said that the Dolphins ' head coach Don Shula was "the best '', but Paul Zimmerman was skeptical of the coaching staff 's ability to help Marino "overcome the problems he 's had ''. Shula later said that being passed up by so many teams "motivated (Marino) to show everybody else what a mistake that they had made. ''
Marino was the first draft pick in the history of the United States Football League, selected by the Los Angeles Express. He did not sign with the team, choosing instead to sign with the Dolphins. After starting the season as a backup to incumbent starter David Woodley, Marino was given his first NFL start in Week 6 versus the Buffalo Bills. Marino and Miami lost that game 38 -- 35 in overtime. As a rookie, Marino set several records: he posted a 96.0 passer rating, he was selected to the Pro Bowl as a rookie, he had the lowest percentage of passes intercepted with 2.03, he was the only rookie quarterback to lead a conference in passing, and he had the highest passing completion percentage with 58.45. The Dolphins finished the season with a 12 - 4 record and advanced to the AFC divisional playoffs, where Marino threw two touchdown passes in his playoff debut. However, he also threw two interceptions as the team lost to the 9 - 7 Seattle Seahawks, 27 - 20.
In his second season, Marino broke six NFL full - season passing records, including the records for most touchdown passes (48, surpassed by Peyton Manning in 2004) and most passing yards (5,084, surpassed by Drew Brees in 2011), and was selected as the NFL 's Most Valuable Player. The Dolphins finished with a 14 -- 2 regular season record, clinching home - field advantage for the playoffs. In the Divisional round, the Dolphins avenged their playoff loss of the previous season to Seattle Seahawks 31 -- 10 behind Marino 's 262 passing yards and 3 touchdowns. The next week the Dolphins defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers in the AFC Championship Game 45 -- 28. In that game, Marino set AFC Championship Game records with 421 passing yards and 4 touchdowns. Both records still stand as of 2018.
In Super Bowl XIX, Marino and the Dolphins faced off against San Francisco 49ers and Joe Montana in Palo Alto, California. The Dolphins, who had 74 rushing attempts in the previous two weeks, ran the ball only eight times in this game. Marino finished with 29 completions out of 50 attempts for 318 yards, throwing one touchdown pass and two interceptions. The Dolphins lost 38 -- 16 in what was Marino 's only Super Bowl appearance.
In 1985, Marino threw for 4,137 yards and 30 touchdowns while leading the Dolphins to the AFC Championship game. On September 29, Marino threw for 390 yards and 3 touchdowns in the Dolphins ' 30 -- 26 victory over the Denver Broncos, in the first matchup between Marino and Broncos quarterback John Elway. Then on December 2, Marino threw for 270 yards and 3 touchdowns against the vaunted Chicago Bears defense in a 38 -- 24 victory. The loss was the only one that the Bears experienced that season. Marino led the league in yards and touchdown passes and was named first team All - Pro in 1985.
On September 7, 1986, 8 days shy of his 25th birthday, Marino threw his 100th touchdown pass in a 50 -- 28 loss at San Diego. Marino accomplished that feat in just 44 games - the fastest in NFL history. In that 1986 season Marino threw for 4,746 yards and 44 touchdowns. Marino became the first QB in NFL history to record three consecutive seasons of 30 or more touchdown passes; 48 in 1984, 30 in 1985 and 44 in 1986. Marino again led the league in yards and touchdown passes and was named 1986 first team All - Pro.
In 1988, Marino threw for 4,434 yards and 28 touchdowns. As a result of his 4,434 yards passing, Marino became the first QB in NFL history to throw for 4,000 or more yards in four different seasons. Marino had been tied with Dan Fouts for the most 4,000 yard passing seasons with three.
In 1992, Marino again led the Dolphins to the AFC Championship game while passing for 4,116 and 24 touchdowns. His 4,116 passing yards led the entire NFL and marked the fifth time in his NFL career that he led the league in passing yards.
In 1993, Miami was strongly favored at the start of the year to make it back to the AFC championship game and possibly the Super Bowl. However, after throwing a swing pass at a game in Cleveland, Marino, who was untouched on the play, crumpled to the ground in pain with a torn Achilles tendon and was out for the season. Marino later said, "I felt like I got kicked ''. Backup quarterback Scott Mitchell had an impressive series of starts before suffering an injury of his own. Steve DeBerg started the last 4 games of the season. Mitchell signed a free - agent contract with the Detroit Lions, and Miami signed veteran quarterback Bernie Kosar from the Dallas Cowboys as a backup. Wearing a special shoe on one foot, and having a right calf that was visibly atrophied, Marino was the starting quarterback at the opening of the 1994 season.
In the 1994 season opener, a home game versus the New England Patriots and quarterback Drew Bledsoe, the two quarterbacks put up a combined 894 yards (Marino, 473 yards; Bledsoe, 421 yards) and nine passing touchdowns (Marino, 5; Bledsoe, 4), with Miami winning 39 -- 35. Later in the season, Marino led a comeback win on the road against the New York Jets (28 -- 24), a game famous for Marino 's execution of a fake spike for the winning touchdown pass, a play known as "The Clock Play ''. The Dolphins finished 10 -- 6 that year, and Marino passed for 4,453 yards and was named the NFL 's Comeback Player of the Year by the Pro Football Writers Association. After missing the post-season in 1993, Miami came back to the playoffs in 1994. Placing third overall in the AFC, Miami was pitted against the Kansas City Chiefs in what became the final NFL game played by Montana. Marino threw 257 yards and two touchdown passes, contributing to Miami 's 27 -- 17 win. The Dolphins reached the AFC Divisional Playoff round, where they competed with the San Diego Chargers. Three touchdown passes by Marino in the first half allowed the Dolphins to lead 21 -- 6, before the Chargers staged a comeback and took the lead toward the end of the fourth quarter. In the final moments of the game, Marino tried to set up a good position for a field goal, but with little time left at the Chargers ' 30 - yard line, Pete Stoyanovich was forced to attempt a 48 - yard field goal. Stoyanovich missed, ending the game with a 22 -- 21 loss for Miami.
Marino started in 14 out of 16 games in the 1995 season. He suffered a hip injury in week 6 against the Indianapolis Colts and was replaced by Bernie Kosar in the following two games. Throughout the regular season, Marino threw 3,668 yards, which included 24 touchdowns. Despite falling to 9 -- 7 and to third place in the AFC East, the Dolphins again advanced to the playoffs because they placed sixth in the AFC. In the wildcard round against the Buffalo Bills, Miami dominated in passing -- with Marino passing 432 yards -- while Buffalo was far ahead of Miami for rushing yards (341 yards). In terms of scoring, Buffalo held a wide lead throughout the game. The Dolphins remained scoreless until the fourth quarter, when they scored 22 points, which included two touchdown passes from Marino. However, Miami fell well short of a comeback and lost 37 -- 22.
Marino 's final win was his first playoff road win and his 36th comeback win, as the Dolphins defeated the Seattle Seahawks 20 -- 17 on January 9, 2000 in the final football game ever in the Seattle Kingdome. In the next round (January 16), also on the road, Marino and the Dolphins lost 62 -- 7 to the Jacksonville Jaguars. The Dolphins ' 55 point margin of loss was the worst in AFC Playoff history. Marino was replaced by backup Damon Huard after playing one series in the second half. However, he did end the first half on a high note, leading the Dolphins on an 80 - yard scoring drive and throwing a 20 - yard touchdown pass to receiver Oronde Gadsden with 20 seconds remaining. The Jacksonville game marked the end of Jimmy Johnson 's coaching career; Johnson announced his retirement the next day.
Before the 2000 season, Marino decided to retire, after declining offers from Minnesota, Tampa Bay and his hometown of Pittsburgh when the Dolphins declined his option on his contract. Marino later admitted that he seriously considered the offer from the Vikings, but that he turned it down not because of his arm, but because he was n't sure that his legs could take another season. He also appreciated the fact that unlike many of his contemporaries, he got to play his entire career with one team.
During Marino 's career, the Dolphins were perennial playoff contenders, reaching the post-season in 10 of his 17 seasons. He was selected to play in nine Pro Bowls (1983 -- 87, 1991 -- 92, 1994 -- 95), seven times as a starter, but due to injuries he only played in two of the games (1984, 1992). He was named first - or second - team All - Pro eight times and earned All - AFC honors six times. Marino has won all three major individual awards: NFL MVP (1984); NFL Comeback Player of the Year (1994); and NFL Man of the Year (1998), which recognizes charitable work off the field.
In 1999, Marino was ranked 27th on The Sporting News list of the 100 greatest football players, making him the highest - ranking Dolphins player. In 2010, he was ranked number 25 on the NFL 's Top 100 Greatest Players list. Marino was known for his quick release, and despite the fact that he was not skilled at scrambling, Marino possessed an uncanny awareness in the pocket, often sliding a step or two to avoid the pass rush. Marino is currently fifth, behind Tom Brady, Peyton Manning, Brett Favre and John Elway on the list of most wins by a starting quarterback, with 155, the most of a quarterback not to win a Super Bowl.
On Sunday, September 17, 2000, at halftime of the Dolphins - Baltimore Ravens game at Pro Player Stadium, Dan Marino 's jersey number of 13 was retired. The only other Dolphins jersey number retired at the time was Bob Griese 's # 12. Since then # 39, Larry Csonka, has been retired as well. Marino joined the Dolphins Honor Roll the same day. In a year of accolades from the franchise he led for many years, the Dolphins also installed a life - size bronze statue of Marino at Pro Player Stadium (now Hard Rock Stadium) and renamed Stadium Street to Dan Marino Boulevard.
In 2003, Marino was honored for his outstanding NCAA career at Pitt with an induction into the College Football Hall of Fame. In early 2004, Marino briefly returned to the Miami Dolphins as Senior Vice President of Football Operations, but resigned from the newly created position only three weeks later, saying that the role was not in the best interest of either his family or the Dolphin organization. Marino was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2005, one of only four Dolphins to be elected in their first year of eligibility (Jim Langer, Paul Warfield, Jason Taylor). He was inducted into the Hall of Fame on August 7, 2005 and was introduced by his oldest son, Daniel. During his induction speech, Dan threw "one last pass '' to former teammate Mark Clayton, who was sitting in the audience.
Marino was an analyst for CBS 's Sunday pregame show The NFL Today, from 2002 -- 2013. On February 18, 2014, it was announced that Marino, along with Shannon Sharpe were being relieved of their duties as on - air commentators on The NFL Today and were being replaced by Tony Gonzalez and Bart Scott. He was formerly a studio analyst on HBO 's Inside the NFL, from 2002 -- 2007. On August 24, 2014, Marino announced he would return to the Dolphins as a special adviser.
In 1997, Marino became involved in a marketing role with Team Cheever of the Indy Racing League through FirstPlus Mortgage, the sponsor of the car. In 1998, Marino co-owned a NASCAR Winston Cup Series racing team with driver Bill Elliott, creating Elliott - Marino Motorsports. The team 's car number was # 13, Marino 's uniform number, and had primary sponsorship from FirstPlus Mortgage, whose company colors, coincidentally, were turquoise, orange, and white -- similar to aqua and coral, the team colors of the Miami Dolphins. The team chose rookie driver Jerry Nadeau to pilot the car at the start of the season; he was later released and the team went through a rotation of drivers. The team failed to qualify for several races, but did post a top - 5 finish at Phoenix International Raceway late in the season with Ted Musgrave driving. The team only lasted the 1998 season and closed afterward.
The Dan Marino Foundation was established in 1992 by Marino and his wife, Claire, after their son, Michael, was diagnosed with autism. The foundation has distributed over $22 million to research, services, and treatment programs serving children with neurodevelopment disabilities. The Dan Marino Center, which opened in 1995 along with the Miami Children 's Hospital, is an integrated neurodevelopmental center specializing in the diagnosis and treatment of children at risk for developmental and psychological problems. The center saw more than 48,000 children last year alone. Marino has teamed with other celebrities to raise awareness about autism spectrum disorders, including fellow NFL quarterback Doug Flutie, whose son also has an autism diagnosis.
On November 7, 2005, the National Basketball Association 's Miami Heat honored Marino 's charitable works and recognized his service to South Florida with a halftime tribute, as well as a large donation to the Marino Foundation. Though a Heat jersey with his name and # 13 was unveiled, this did not constitute retirement of his number by the Heat, and was worn by Heat guard / forward Mike Miller as recently as the 2012 / 2013 NBA season.
On March 23, 2010, The Dan Marino Foundation held its first "Walk about Autism ''. Over 6000 walkers participated, as well as 420 volunteers provided by the Miami Dolphins Special Teams.
The money raised benefited several funds including the Autism Societies of Miami - Dade and Broward; the University of Miami - Nova Southeastern University Center for Autism and Related Disabilities; the Florida Atlantic University Center for Autism and Related Disabilities; and the Dan Marino Foundation.
Marino acted in the 1994 comedy Ace Ventura: Pet Detective alongside Jim Carrey and Courteney Cox (he played himself) and made a cameo appearance in the Adam Sandler film Little Nicky wherein he asked Satan for a Super Bowl ring. In 1999, he voiced himself in a guest - starring role in The Simpsons Season ten episode "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday ''. Marino also had cameo roles in Holy Man and Bad Boys II. He worked as a project consultant on Oliver Stone 's Any Given Sunday, and some observers noticed a resemblance between him and Dennis Quaid 's character, Jack Rooney. Marino 's actual house was used as the fictional quarterback 's house in the film
In 1995, Hootie and the Blowfish featured Marino in their music video for their single "Only Wanna Be with You. ''
Marino is currently featured in advertisement campaigns for Hooters, NutriSystem weight loss programs, Maroone, Papa John 's, Nutrasource.com and Empi Select (a TENS device). Previously, Marino endorsed Isotoner gloves and FirstPlus Mortgage against whom he later filed suit due to contracts related to his racing team.
In April 2012, Marino became the AARP 's "Men 's Life Ambassador '', through which he planned to share his point of view and expertise on a variety of men 's interests, including health, fitness, sports, lifestyle, entrepreneurship, aging and community service, primarily through the website.
In 1985, Marino married Claire D. Veazey (born c. 1962) of Mount Lebanon, Pennsylvania at St. Regis Roman Catholic Church, across the street from the home of Marino 's parents.
Marino was awarded an honorary doctorate degree in broadcast journalism by his alma mater, the University of Pittsburgh, in 2005. He delivered the commencement speech at the university 's 2008 graduation ceremony.
In January 2013, Marino admitted to fathering a child with CBS employee Donna Savattere in 2005, a fact that he had previously only shared with his wife. He had previously paid Savattere several million dollars to keep the news of their daughter, Chloe, from the public.
This list documents records set by Marino, some of which have since been tied or broken.
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what is the duration of long term capital gain tax in india | Capital gains tax - Wikipedia
A capital gains tax (CGT) is a tax on capital gains, the profit realized on the sale of a non-inventory asset that was greater than the amount realized on the sale. The most common capital gains are realized from the sale of stocks, bonds, precious metals and property. Not all countries implement a capital gains tax and most have different rates of taxation for individuals and corporations.
For equities, an example of a popular and liquid asset, national and state legislation often has a large array of fiscal obligations that must be respected regarding capital gains. Taxes are charged by the state over the transactions, dividends and capital gains on the stock market. However, these fiscal obligations may vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.
There is no specific capital gains tax in Argentina; however, there is a 9 % to 35 % tax for fiscal residents on their world revenues, including capital gains.
Australia collects capital gains tax only upon realized capital gains, except for certain provisions relating to deferred - interest debt such as zero - coupon bonds. The tax is not separate in its own right, but forms part of the income - tax system. The proceeds of an asset sold less its "cost base '' (the original cost plus addition for cost price increases over time) are the capital gain. Discounts and other concessions apply to certain taxpayers in varying circumstances. From 21 September 1999, after a report by Alan Reynolds, the 50 % capital gains tax discount has been in place for individuals and for some trusts that acquired the asset after that time and that have held the asset for more than 12 months, however the tax is levied without any adjustment to the cost base for inflation. The amount left after applying the discount is added to the assessable income of the taxpayer for that financial year.
For individuals, the most significant exemption is the family home. The sale of personal residential property is normally exempt from capital gains tax, except for gains realized during any period in which the property was not being used as an individual 's personal residence (for example, while leased to other tenants) or portions attributable to business use. Capital gains or losses as a general rule can be disregarded for CGT purposes when assets were acquired before 20 September 1985 (pre-CGT).
Austria taxes capital gains at 25 % (on checking account and "Sparbuch '' interest) or 27.5 % (all other types of capital gains). There is an exception for capital gains from the sale of shares of foreign entities (with opaque taxation) if the participation exceeds 10 % and shares are held for over one year (so - called "Schachtelprivileg '').
There is no capital gains tax charged in Barbados.
Under the participation exemption, capital gains realised by a Belgian resident company on shares in a Belgian or foreign company are fully exempt from corporate income tax, provided that the dividends on the shares qualify for the participation exemption. For purposes of the participation exemption for capital gains the minimum participation test is not required. Unrealised capital gains on shares that are recognised in the financial statements (which recognition is not mandatory) are taxable. But a roll - over relief is granted if, and as long as, the gain is booked in a separate reserve account on the balance sheet and is not used for distribution or allocation of any kind.
As a counterpart to the new exemption of realised capital gains, capital losses on shares, both realised and unrealised, are no longer tax deductible. However, the loss incurred in connection with the liquidation of a subsidiary company remains deductible up to the amount of the paid - up share capital.
Other capital gains are taxed at the ordinary rate. If the total amount of sales is used for the purchase of depreciable fixed assets within 3 years, the taxation of the capital gains will be spread over the depreciable period of these assets.
There are no capital gains taxes for residents or non-residents in Belize.
Capital gain taxes are only paid on realized gains. At the current stage, taxes are 15 % for transactions longer than one day old and 20 % for day trading, both transactions are due payable at the following month after selling or closing the position. Dividends are tax free, since the issuer company has already paid to RECEITA FEDERAL (the Brazilian IRS). Derivatives (futures and options) follow the same rules for tax purposes as company stocks. When selling less than R $20.000 (Brazilian Reais) within a month (and not operating in day trading), the financial operation is considered tax - free. Also, non-residents have no tax on capital gains.
The Corporate tax rate is 10 %. The personal tax rate is flat at 10 %. There is no capital gains tax on equity instruments traded on the BSE.
Currently, only 50 % of realized capital gains are taxable in Canada at an individual 's tax rate. Some exceptions apply, such as selling one 's primary residence which may be exempt from taxation. Capital gains made by investments in a Tax - Free Savings Account (TFSA) are not taxed.
For example, if your capital gains (profit) is $100, you are taxed on $50 at your marginal tax rate. That is, if you were in the top tax bracket and your profit was $100, you would be taxed on $50 at approximately 43 %, in Ontario. A formula for this example using the top tax bracket would be as follows:
(Capital gain x 50.00 %) x marginal tax rate = capital gain tax
($100 x 50.00 %) x 43 % = $50 x 43 % = $21.50
In this example your capital gains tax on $100 is $21.50, leaving you with $78.50.
As of the 2013 budget, interest can no longer be claimed a capital gain. The formula is the same for capital losses and these can be carried forward indefinitely to offset future years ' capital gains; capital losses not used in the current year can also be carried back to the previous three tax years to offset capital gains tax paid in those years.
If one 's income is primarily derived from capital gains then it may not qualify for the 50 % multiplier and will instead be taxed at the full income tax rate. CRA has a number of criteria to determine whether this will be the case.
For corporations as for individuals, 50 % of realized capital gains are taxable. The net taxable capital gains (which can be calculated as 50 % of total capital gains minus 50 % of total capital losses) are subject to income tax at normal corporate tax rates. If more than 50 % of a small business 's income is derived from specified investment business activities (which include income from capital gains) they are not permitted to claim the small business deduction.
Capital gains earned on income in a Registered Retirement Savings Plan are not taxed at the time the gain is realized (i.e. when the holder sells a stock that has appreciated inside of their RRSP) but they are taxed when the funds are withdrawn from the registered plan (usually after converting to a registered income fund.) These gains are then taxed at the individual 's full marginal rate.
Capital gains earned on income in a TFSA are not taxed at the time the gain is realized. Any money withdrawn from a TFSA, including capital gains, are also not taxed.
Unrealized capital gains are not taxed.
There are no capital gains taxes charged on any transaction in the Cayman Islands. However, a Cayman Islands entity may be subject to taxation on capital gains made in other jurisdictions.
The applicable tax rate for capital gains in China depends upon the nature of the taxpayer (i.e. whether the taxpayer is a person or company) and whether the taxpayer is resident or non-resident for tax purposes. It should however be noted that, unlike common law tax systems, Chinese income tax legislation does not provide a distinction between income and capital. What commonly referred by taxpayers and practitioners as capital gain tax is actually within the income tax framework, rather than a separate regime.
Tax - resident enterprises will be taxed at 25 % in accordance with the Enterprise Income Tax Law. Non-resident enterprises will be taxed at 10 % on capital gains in accordance with the Implementing Regulations to the Enterprise Income Tax Law. In practice, where a resident of a treaty partner alienates assets situated in China as part of its ordinary course of business the gains so derived will likely be assessed as if it is a capital gain, rather than business profit. This is somewhat contradictory with the basic principles of double taxation treaty.
The only tax circular specifically addressing the PRC income tax treatment of income derived by QFIIs from the holding and trading of Chinese securities is Guo Shui Han (2009) No. 47 ("Circular 47 '') issued by the State Administration of Taxation ("SAT '') on 23 January 2009. The circular addresses the withholding tax treatment of dividends and interest received by QFIIs from PRC resident companies, however, circular 47 is silent on the treatment of capital gains derived by QFIIs on the trading of A-shares. It is generally accepted that Circular 47 is intentionally silent on capital gains and possible indication that SAT is considering but still undecided on whether to grant tax exemption or other concessionary treatment to capital gains derived by QFIIs. Nevertheless, it is noted that there have been cases where QFIIs withdraw capital from China after paying 10 % withholding tax on gains derived through share trading over years on a transaction - by - transaction basis. This uncertainty has caused significant problems for those investment managers investing in A-Shares. Guo Shui Han (2009) No. 698 ("Circular 698 '') was issued on 10 December 2009 addressing the PRC corporate income tax treatment on the transfer of PRC equity interest by non-PRC tax resident enterprises directly or indirectly, however has not resolved the uncertain tax position with regards A-Shares. With respect to Circular 698 itself, there are views that it is not consistent with the Enterprise Income Tax Law as well as double taxation treaties signed by the Chinese government. The validity of the Circular is controversial, especially in light of recent developments in the international arena, such as the TPG case in Australia and Vodafone case in India.
The capital gains tax in Croatia equals 12 %. It was introduced in 2015.
As determined by the Cyprus Capital Gains Tax Law, Capital gains tax in Cyprus arising from the sale or disposition of immovable property in Cyprus or the disposal of shares of companies which own immovable property in Cyprus and not listed in a recognised stock exchange. These gains are not added to other income but are taxed separately. Payment of immovable property tax is paid by both individuals and companies on property owned in Cyprus.
Capital gains tax does not apply to profits from the sale of overseas real estate by non-residents, offshore entities, or residents who were not resident when they purchased the asset. Gains accruing from disposal of immovable property held outside Cyprus and shares in companies, the property whereof consists of immovable property held outside Cyprus, will be exempted from capital gains tax. Individuals may, subject to certain conditions, may claim certain deductions from the applicable taxable gain.
Capital gains in the Czech Republic are taxed as income for companies and individuals. The Czech income tax rate for an individual 's income in 2010 is a flat 15 % rate. Corporate tax in 2010 is 19 %. Capital gains from the sale of shares by a company owning 10 % or more is entitled to participation exemption under certain terms. For an individual, gain from the sale of a primary private dwelling, held for at least 2 years, is tax exempt. Or, when not used as a main residence, if held for more than 5 years.
Share dividends and realized capital gains on shares are charged 27 % to individuals of gains up to DKK 48,300 (2013 - level, adjusted annually), and at 42 % of gains above that. Carryforward of realized losses on shares is allowed.
Individuals ' interest income from bank deposits and bonds, realized gains on property and other capital gains are taxed up to 59 %, however, several exemptions occur, such as on selling one 's principal private residence or on gains on selling bonds. Interest paid on loans is deductible, although in case the net capital income is negative, only approx. 33 % tax credit applies.
Companies are taxed at 25 %. Share dividends are taxed at 28 %.
Corporate taxation:
Residence for tax purposes is based on the place of incorporation.
Resident entities are taxed on worldwide income. Nonresidents are subject to tax only on Ecuador - source income.
Capital gains are treated as ordinary income and taxed at the normal corporate rate.
The standard rate is 22 %, with a reduced rate of 15 % applying where corporate profits are reinvested for the purchase of machinery or equipment and / or the acquisition of new technology. Companies engaged in the exploration or exploitation of hydrocarbon also are subject to the standard corporate tax rate.
Personal taxation:
Resident individuals are taxed on their worldwide income; nonresidents are taxed only on Ecuadorian - source income.
An individual is deemed to be resident if he / she is in Ecuador for more than 6 months in a year.
Capital gains are treated as ordinary income and taxed at the normal rate.
Rates are progressive from 0 % to 35 %.
There was no capital gains tax. After the Egyptian Revolution there is a proposal for a 10 % capital gains tax. This proposal came to life on 29 May 2014. Egypt exempt bonus shares from a new 10 percent capital gains tax on profits made on the stock market as the country 's Finance Minister Hany Dimian said on 30 May 2014, and distributions of bonus shares will be exempt from the taxes, and the new tax will not be retroactive.
There is no separate capital gains tax in Estonia. For residents of Estonia all capital gains are taxed the same as regular income, the rate of which currently stands at 20 %. Resident natural persons that have investment account can realise capital gains on some classes of assets tax free until withdrawal of funds from the investment account. For resident legal persons (includes partnerships) no tax is payable for realising capital gain (or receiving any other type of income), but only on payment of dividends, payments from capital (exceeding contributions to capital) and payments not related to business. The income tax rate for resident legal persons is 20 % (payment of 80 units of dividends triggers 20 units of tax due).
The capital gains tax in Finland is 30 % on realized capital income and 34 % if the realized capital income is over 30,000 euros. The capital gains tax in 2011 was 28 % on realized capital income. Carryforward of realized losses is allowed for five years. However, capital gains from the sale of residential homes is tax - free after two years of residence, with certain limitations.
For residents, capital gains on the sale of financial instruments (shares, bonds, etc...) are taxed at the marginal tax rate (up to 45 %), plus 15.5 % of social contributions (i.e.: up to 60.5 %). A deduction of 20 to 40 % on the gross capital gain can be applied if the instrument has been held for at least 2 years.
If shares are held in a special account (called a PEA), the gain is subject only to social security taxes provided that the PEA is held for at least five years. The maximum amount that can be deposited in the PEA is € 152,000.
The gain realized on the sale of a principal residence is not taxable. A gain realized on the sale of other real estate held at least 30 years, however, is not taxable, although this will become subject to 15.5 % social security taxes as of 2012. (There is a sliding scale for non principal residence property owned for between 22 and 30 years.)
Non-residents are generally taxable on capital gains realized on French real estate and on some French financial instruments, subject to any applicable double tax treaty. Social security taxes, however, are not usually payable by non-residents. A French tax representative will be mandatory if you are non-resident and you sell a property for an amount over 150.000 euros or you own the real estate for more than 15 years.
In January 2009, Germany introduced a very strict capital gains tax (called Abgeltungsteuer in German) for shares, funds, certificates, bank interest rates etc. Capital gains tax only applies to financial instruments (shares, bonds etc.) that have been bought after 31 December 2008. Instruments bought before this date are exempt from capital gains tax (assuming that they have been held for at least 12 months), even if they are sold in 2009 or later, barring a change of law. Certificates are treated specially, and only qualify for tax exemption if they have been bought before 15 March 2007.
Real estate continues to be exempt from capital gains tax if it has been held for more than ten years. The German capital gains tax is 25 % plus Solidarity surcharge (add - on tax initially introduced to finance the 5 eastern states of Germany -- Mecklenburg - Western Pomerania, Saxony, Saxony - Anhalt, Thuringia and Brandenburg -- and the cost of the reunification, but later kept in order to finance all kinds of public funded projects in all Germany), plus Kirchensteuer (church tax, voluntarily), resulting in an effective tax rate of about 28 - 29 %. Deductions of expenses such as custodian fees, travel to annual shareholder meetings, legal and tax advice, interest paid on loans to buy shares, etc., are no longer permitted starting in 2009.
There is an allowance (Freistellungsauftrag) on capital gains income in Germany of € 801 per person per year of which you do not have to be taxed, if appropriate forms are completed.
In general Hong Kong has no capital gains tax. However, employees who receive shares or options as part of their remuneration are taxed at the normal Hong Kong income tax rate on the value of the shares or options at the end of any vesting period less any amount that the individual paid for the grant.
If part of the vesting period is spent outside Hong Kong then the tax payable in Hong Kong is pro-rated based on the proportion of time spent working in Hong Kong. Hong Kong has very few double tax agreements and hence there is little relief available for double taxation. Therefore, it is possible (depending on the country of origin) for employees moving to Hong Kong to pay full income tax on vested shares in both their country of origin and in Hong Kong. Similarly, an employee leaving Hong Kong can incur double taxation on the unrealized capital gains of their vested shares.
The Hong Kong taxation of capital gains on employee shares or options that are subject to a vesting period, is at odds with the treatment of unrestricted shares or options which are free of capital gains tax.
For those who do trading professionally (buying and selling securities frequently to obtain an income for living) as "traders '', this will be considered income subject to personal income tax rates.
Since 1 January 2016 there is one flat tax rate (15 %) on capital income. This includes: selling stocks, bonds, mutual funds shares and also interests from bank deposits. Since January 2010, Hungarian citizens can open special "long - term '' accounts. The tax rate on capital gains from securities held in such an account is 10 % after a 3 - year holding period, and 0 % after the account 's maximum 5 years period is expired.
From 1 January 2011 the capital gains tax in Iceland is 20 %. It was 18 % prior to that (for a full year, in 2010), which in turn was a result of a progressive raises in the preceding couple years.
As of 2018, equities listed on recognised stock exchange are considered long term capital if the holding period is one year or more. Until 31st January 2017, all Long term capital gains from equities were exempt as per section 10 (38) if shares are sold through recognized stock exchange and Securities Transaction Tax (STT) is paid on the sale. STT in India is currently between 0.017 % and 0.1 % of total amount received on sale of securities through a recognized Indian stock exchange like the NSE or BSE. Now, from F.Y 18 - 19, exemption u / s 10 (38) has been withdrawn and section 112A has been introduced. The long term capital gain shall be taxable on equities @ 10 % if the gain exceeds Rs. 1, 00,000 as per the new section.
However, if equities are held for less than one year and is sold through recognised stock exchange then short term capital gain is taxable at a flat rate of 15 % u / s 111A and other surcharges, educational cess are imposed. (w.e.f. 1 April 2009.)
In respect of Immovable property, the holding period has been reduced to 2 years to be eligible to Long term capital gain. Whereas, many other capital investments like Jewellery etc. are considered long term if the holding period is 3 or more years and are taxed @ 20 % u / s 112.
In equity mutual funds or stocks which is held more than 12 months are considered a long - term capital asset and the profit arises on a sale of these assets are called as long - term capital gain. Govt. introduced in BUDGET 2018 LTCG TAX of 10 % if the gain exceeds Rs 100,000 without allowing the benefit of indexation.
However, all gains until 31st January 2018 will be grandfathered and short - term capital gains remain unchanged at 15 percent.
For example, If the equity share / mutual fund is purchased 6 months before 31st Jan 2018 (i.e. 31st July 2017) at Rs 10,000 and the highest price quoted on 31st Jan 2018 is Rs 12000. There will be no tax on the sale if the stock or fund sold after 1 year.
However, any gains in excess of Rs 2000 earned after 31st Jan 2018 will be taxed at 10 % if this share / Mutual fund (equity) is sold after 31st July 2018.
Capital Gains Tax Rates for Fiscal Year 2017 - 18 (Assessment Year 2018 - 19)
Since 5 December 2012, there is a 33 % tax on capital gains, with several exclusions and deductions (e.g. agricultural land, primary residence, transfers between spouses). Gains made where the asset was originally purchased before 2003 attract indexation relief (the cost of the asset can be multiplied by a published factor to reflect inflation). Costs of purchase and sale are deductible, and every person has an exempt band of € 1,270 per year.
The tax rate is 23 % on certain investment policies, and rises to 40 % on certain offshore gains when they are not declared in time.
Tax on capital gains arising in the first eleven months of the year must be paid by 15 December, and tax on capital gains arising in the last month of the year must be paid by the following 31 January.
There is no capital gains tax.
Capital gains tax in Israel is set to 25 % on the real gains made in non inflation indexed bonds, (Or 20 % for a substantial shareholder) 25 % on any other capital gains. (Or 30 % for a substantial shareholder)
Capital gains tax of corporate income tax 27.5 % (IRES) on gains derived from disposals of participations and extraordinary capital gains. For individuals (IRPEF), capital gains shall incur a 26 % tax.
There are capital gains taxes in Jamaica.
In Japan, there were two options for paying tax on capital gains from the sale of listed stocks. The first, Withholding Tax (源泉 課税), taxed all proceeds (regardless of profit or loss) at 1.05 %. The second method, declaring proceeds as "taxable income '' (申告 所得), required individuals to declare 26 % of proceeds on their income tax statement. Many traders in Japan used both systems, declaring profits on the Withholding Tax system and losses as taxable income, minimizing the amount of income tax paid.
In 2003, Japan scrapped the system above in favor of a flat 20 % tax on gains, though the rate was temporarily halved at 10 % and after being postponed a few times the return to the normal rate of 20 % is now set for 2014. Losses can be carried forward for 3 years. Starting in 2009, losses can alternatively be deducted from dividend income declared as "Separate Income '' since the tax rate on both categories is equal (i.e., 20 % temporarily halved to 10 %). Aggregating profits and dividends to reach a single figure taxed at the same rate is fairly innovative.
Capital gains taxes were abolished in Kenya in 1985 in order to spur growth in the securities and property market. The Kenyan Parliament passed a motion in August 2014 to reintroduce capital gains tax in January 2015 and "is expected to increase the cost of land transaction as investors pass on the cost to buyers. The tax will also affect those investing in shares and debt in the capital markets. '' The capital gains tax came into effect on 1 January 2015 with 5 % as the general applicable tax rate.
As of 1 January 2013, the capital gains made on the disposal of shares are exempt from the corporate income tax. If loss is incurred upon sale, it will not be deductible. To apply exemption, there are no restrictions on minimal holding period or shareholding. The exemption, however, does not apply on gain from sale of shares in entities located in the black - listed tax haven countries. The latter gains are subject to regular corporate income tax rate at 15 %.
Similarly, gains on disposal of securities quoted on the regulated markets of the EU or EEA countries and investment certificates in EU and EEA open - end investment funds are exempt from taxation in Latvia.
Gains on the disposal of other investments (like real estate properties) are taxed at regular corporate income tax rate of 15 %.
The inbound dividends are not taxed in the hands of Latvian company (except, the dividends received from the low - tax jurisdiction). The outbound dividends are no subject to any taxes, except the dividends payable to the low - tax jurisdiction (15 %).
In the hands of individuals the capital gains are taxed at 15 %, the dividends -- 10 %.
Capital gains tax from the disposal of securities and from sale of real estate is 15 %. Gains from the disposal of securities are exempt if they are acquired more than 366 days before their sale and the individual owns not more than 10 % of securities for three years preceding the tax year during which the securities are sold. Gains from sale of real estate are exempt if the property is owned for more than 3 years before sale. These tax exemptions will cease to be valid on 1 January 2014 for annual gains of over 10,000 LTL.
There is no capital gains tax for equities in Malaysia. Malaysia used to have a capital gains tax on real estate but the tax was repealed in April 2007. However, a real property gains tax (RPGT) introduced in 2010 now applies to property sold less than six years from its purchase. Property disposed off less than three years after purchase will incur RGPT of 30 % while those sold in its four and fifth year after will incur 20 % and 15 % RPGT, respectively. As for non-citizens, RPGT is imposed at 30 % on the gains from properties disposed within the holding period of up to sixth year. And for disposal made in sixth and subsequent years, 5 % RPGT is imposed for non-citizens, while companies and foreign property buyers are taxed at 5 %.
Malaysia has imposed capital gain tax on share options and share purchase plan received by employee starting year 2007.
For who does trading professionally (buying and selling securities frequently to obtain an income for living) as "traders '', this will be considered income subject to personal income tax rates.
There is no current Capital Gains Tax for profits in the stock market, it will be introduced in 2014 at 10 % rate in Mexico.
Under the Moldovan Tax Code a capital gain is defined as the difference between the acquisition and the disposition price of the capital asset. Only this difference (i.e. the gain) is taxable. The applicable rate is half (1 / 2) of the income tax rate, which for individuals is 18 % and for companies was 15 % (but in 2008 is 0 %). Therefore, in 2008 the capital gain tax rate is 9 % for individuals and 0 % for companies.
Not all types of assets are "capital assets ''. Capital assets include: real estate; shares; stakes in limited liability companies etc.
Capital gains generally are exempt from tax. However, exceptions apply to the following assets: Capital gains realised on the disposal of business assets (including real estate) and on the disposal of other assets that qualify as income from independently performed activities Capital gains on liquidation of a company Capital gains derived from the sale of a substantial interest in a company (that is, 5 % of the issued share capital)
Taxable income under Box 2 category includes dividends and capital gains from a substantial shareholding. (inkomsten uit aanmerkelijk belang) (i.e. a shareholding of at least 5 %) Income that falls into the Box 2 category is taxed at a flat rate of 25 %.
Box 3: taxable income from savings and investments (viz. real estate) However a "theoretical capital yield '' of 4 % is taxed at a rate of 30 % (so 1.2 %) but only if the savings plus stocks of a person exceed a threshold of 25.000 euros. This will be raised to a threshold of 30.000 euros in 2018, together with other changes so that people with less wealth, pay lower taxes.
In general an individual will not have to pay tax on capital gains. So if the main residence is sold or shares are sold the profit is not taxable. This is different if the transaction (s) exceed (s) normal asset management. In that case the capital gain is treated as income from other activities or even business income.
Relevant are: the number of transactions - > the more transactions the sooner it is assumed that activities exceed normal asset management specific knowledge of the individual - > if the individual is a professional trader, the personal transactions will be seen as taxable income sooner than if the individual does n't have specific knowledge or experience. work which is invested in the asset - > if maintenance of a property is taken care of by an external party the activitities may be seen as normal asset management, if the owner does all the maintenance himself and even the renovations the tax authorities will argue that this is no longer normal asset management.
So it depends on the actual facts and circumstances how the capital gain is treated. Even judges do not always decide the same.
New Zealand has no capital gains tax, however income tax may be charged on profits from the sale of personal property and land that was acquired for the purposes of resale. This tax is widely avoided and not usually enforced, perhaps due to the difficulty in proving intent at the time of purchase. However, there have been a few cases of the IRD enforcing the law; in 2004 the government gathered $106.6 million checking on property sales from Queenstown, Wanaka and some areas of Auckland.
Generally profits from frequent stock trading (aka day trading) will be deemed taxable income. New Zealand capital gains tax applies to foreign debt and equity investments.
In a speech delivered on 3 June 2009, then New Zealand Treasury Secretary John Whitehead called for a capital gains tax to be included in reforms to New Zealand 's taxation system. The introduction of a capital gains tax was proposed by the Labour Party as an election campaign strategy in the 2011 and 2014 general elections.
On 17 May 2015, the governing National Party announced it would tighten rules for taxing profits on the sale of property. From 1 October 2015, any person selling a residential property within two years of purchase would be taxed on the profits at their marginal income tax rate. The seller 's main home would be exempt, as well as properties inherited from deceased estates or transferred as part of a relationship settlement. To help enforcement, all buyers would need to supply their IRD number at settlement.
The individual capital gains tax in Norway is 27 %. In most cases, there is no capital gains tax on profits from sale of your principal home. This tax was introduced in 2006 through a reform that eliminated the "RISK - system '', which intended to avoid the double taxation of capital. The new shareholder model, introduced in 2006, aims to reduce the difference in taxation of capital and labor by taxing dividends beyond a certain level as ordinary income. This means that focus was moved from capital to individuals and their level of income. This system also introduced a deductible allowance equal to the share 's acquisition value times the average rate for Treasury bills with a 3 - month period adjusted for tax. Shielding interest shall secure financial neutrality in that it returns the taxpayer what he or she alternatively would have achieved in a safe, passive capital placement exempt from additional taxation. The main purpose of the allowance is to prevent adverse shifts in investment and corporate financing structure as a result of the dividend tax. According to the papers explaining the new policy, a dividend tax without such shielding could push up the pressures on the rate of return on equity investments and lead Norwegian investors from equities to bonds, property etc.
There is a 6 % Capital Gains Tax and a 1.5 % Documentary Stamps on the disposal of real estate in the Philippines. While the Capital Gain Tax is imposed on the gains presumed to have been realized by the seller from the sale, exchange, or other disposition of capital assets located in the Philippines, including other forms of conditional sale, the Documentary Stamp Tax is imposed on documents, instruments, loan agreements and papers evidencing the acceptance, assignment, sale or transfer of an obligation, rights, or property incident thereto. These two taxes are imposed on the actual price the property has been sold, or on its current Market Value, or on its Zonal Value whichever is higher. Zonal valuation in the Philippines is set by its tax collecting agency, the Bureau of Internal Revenue. Most often, real estate transactions in the Philippines are being sealed higher than their corresponding Market and Zonal values. As a standard process, the Capital Gain Tax is paid for by the seller, while the Documentary Stamp is paid for by the buyer. However, either of the two parties may pay both taxes depending on the agreement they entered into.
Tax Rates: For real property
For Shares of Stocks Not Traded in the Stock Exchange
Since 2004 there is one flat tax rate (19 %) on capital income. It includes: selling stocks, bonds, mutual funds shares and also interests from bank deposits.
There is a capital gains tax on sale of home and property. Any capital gain (mais - valia) arising is taxable as income. For residents this is on a sliding scale from 12 to 40 %. However, for residents the taxable gain is reduced by 50 %. Proven costs that have increased the value during the last five years can be deducted. For non-residents, the capital gain is taxed at a uniform rate of 25 %. The capital gain which arises on the sale of own homes or residences, which are the elected main residence of the taxpayer or his family, is tax free if the total profit on sale is reinvested in the acquisition of another home, own residence or building plot in Portugal.
In 1986 and 1987 Portuguese corporations changed their capital structure by increasing the weight of equity capital. This was particularly notorious on quoted companies. In these two years, the government set up a large number of tax incentives to promote equity capital and to encourage the quotation on the Lisbon Stock Exchange. Until 2010, for stock held for more than twelve months the capital gain was exempt. The capital gain of stock held for shorter periods of time was taxable on 10 %.
From 2010 onwards, for residents, all capital gain of stock above € 500 is taxable on 20 %. Investment funds, banks and corporations are exempted of capital gain tax over stock.
As of 2013, it is 28 %.
In Romania there is a 16 % flat tax plus 5.5 % health insurance from capital gains. Next year the health insurance will increase to 8.9 %. It also applies for real estate transactions but only if the property is sold less than three years from the date it was acquired.
There is no separate tax on capital gains; rather, gains or gross receipt from sale of assets are absorbed into income tax base. Taxation of individual and corporate taxpayers is distinctly different:
Capital gains are subject to a 15 % tax for residents and 20 % for nonresidents (based on the tax assessment).
There is no capital gains tax in Sierra Leone.
There is no capital gains tax in Singapore. For professional traders and who trade frequently, the profit is considered a sourced income in Singapore and subject to tax.
Individuals pay 19 % or 25 % capital gains tax. In addition, as a world rarity, they are also required to pay 14 % health insurance from capital gains.
For legal persons in South Africa, 80 % of their net profit will attract CGT and for natural persons 40 %. This portion of the net gain will be taxed at their marginal tax rate. As an effective tax rate this means a maximum effective rate of 18 % (45 % maximum marginal tax rate) for individuals is payable, and for corporate taxpayers a maximum of 22.4 %. The annual individual and special trust exemption is R40 000.
For individuals holding less than 3 % of listed company, there is only 0.3 % trade tax for sales of shares. Exchange traded funds are exempt from any trade tax. For larger than 3 % shareholders of listed companies or for sales of shares in any unlisted company, capital gains tax in South Korea is 11 % for tax residents for sales of shares in small - and medium - sized companies. Rates of 22 % and 33 % apply in certain other situations. Those who have been resident in Korea for less than five years are exempt from capital gains tax on foreign assets.
Spain 's capital gains tax from 1 January 2016 Individuals: All capital gains taxed at maximum 23 % Companies: Capital gains taxed like any other income gain, at maximum 25 %
Currently there is no capital gains tax in Sri Lanka.
The capital gains tax in Sweden is up to 30 % on realized capital income, depending on the depot type. Traditionally, the capital gains tax in Sweden has been 30 %.
There is no capital gains tax in Switzerland for natural persons on trades of securities.
An exception are persons considered to be "professional traders '', which are treated as self - employed persons for tax purposes: capital gains are taxed as company income, taxed at corporate rates, and additionally social contributions (AHV, currently at 10.25 % rate) must be paid on the income. However such a status is rather infrequent, the decision is made on a case by case basis by the tax authorities. A set of safe heaven criteria were formulated in 2012 which guarantee a negative status:
For companies, capital gains are taxed as ordinary income at corporate rates.
Capitals gains tax is levied on the sale of real estate property in all cantons. Taxation rules vary significantly by canton.
For natural persons, the tax generally follows a separate progression from income taxes, diminishes with number of years held, and often can be postponed in cases like inheritance or for buying a replacement home. The tax is levied by canton or municipality only, there is no tax at the federal level. However, natural persons involved in real estate trading in a professional manner, may get treated as self - employed and taxed at higher rates similarly to a company and, additionally, social contributions would then need to be paid.
For companies, capital gains are taxed as ordinary income at the federal level, and at the cantonal and municipal level, depending on the canton, either as ordinary income or at a special lower tax progression, like for natural persons.
No tax is collected from individual investors whose annual transactions are below T $1 billion ($33 million). Transactions above T $1 billion will be charged with a 0.1 percent tax.
There is no separate capital gains tax in Thailand. If capital gains arise outside of Thailand it is not taxable. All earned income in Thailand from capital gains is taxed the same as regular income. However, if individual earns capital gain from security in the Stock Exchange of Thailand, it is exempted from personal income tax.
Capital gains tax rate on share certificates for residents is 0 % as of 2013 for two years of holding period.
Channon observes that one of the primary drivers to the introduction of CGT in the UK was the rapid growth in property values post World War II. This led to property developers deliberately leaving office blocks empty so that a rental income could not be established and greater capital gains made. The capital gains tax system was therefore introduced by chancellor James Callaghan in 1965
Individuals who are residents or ordinarily residents in the United Kingdom (and trustees of various trusts) are subject to an 18 % capital gains tax.
For people paying more than the basic rate of income tax, this increased to 28 % from 23 June 2010.
There are exceptions such as for principal private residences, holdings in ISAs or gilts. Certain other gains are allowed to be rolled over upon re-investment. Investments in some start up enterprises are also exempt from CGT. Entrepreneurs ' relief allows a lower rate of CGT (10 %) to be paid by people who have been involved for a year with a trading company and have a 5 % or more shareholding.
Shares in companies with trading properties are eligible for entrepreneurs ' relief, but not investment properties.
Every individual has an annual capital gains tax allowance: gains below the allowance are exempt from tax, and capital losses can be set against capital gains in other holdings before taxation. All individuals are exempt from tax up to a specified amount of capital gains per year. For the 2015 / 16 tax year this "annual exemption '' is £ 11,100.
Companies are subject to corporation tax on their "chargeable gains '' (the amounts of which are calculated along the lines of capital gains tax in the United Kingdom). Companies can not claim taper relief, but can claim an indexation allowance to offset the effect of inflation. A corporate substantial shareholdings exemption was introduced on 1 April 2002 for holdings of 10 % or more of the shares in another company (30 % or more for shares held by a life assurance company 's long - term insurance fund). This is effectively a form of UK participation exemption. Almost all of the corporation tax raised on chargeable gains is paid by life assurance companies taxed on the I minus E basis.
The rules governing the taxation of capital gains in the United Kingdom for individuals and companies are contained in the Taxation of Chargeable Gains Act 1992.
In the Chancellor 's October 2007 Autumn Statement, draft proposals were announced that would change the applicable rates of CGT as of 6 April 2008. Under these proposals, an individual 's annual exemption will continue but taper relief will cease and a single rate of capital gains tax at 18 % will be applied to chargeable gains. This new single rate would replace the individual 's marginal (Income Tax) rate of tax for CGT purposes. The changes were introduced, at least in part, because the UK government felt that private equity firms were making excessive profits by benefiting from overly generous taper relief on business assets.
The changes were criticised by a number of groups including the Federation of Small Businesses, who claimed that the new rules would increase the CGT liability of small businesses and discourage entrepreneurship in the UK. At the time of the proposals there was concern that the changes would lead to a bulk selling of assets just before the start of the 2008 -- 09 tax year to benefit from existing taper relief. Capital Gains Tax rose to 28 % on 23 June 2010 at 00: 00.
Individuals paid capital gains tax at their highest marginal rate of income tax (0 %, 10 %, 20 % or 40 % in the tax year 2007 / 8) but from 6 April 1998 were able to claim a taper relief which reduces the amount of a gain that is subject to capital gains tax (reducing the effective rate of tax), depending on whether the asset is a "business asset '' or a "non-business asset '' and the length of the period of ownership. Taper relief provided up to a 75 % reduction (leaving 25 % taxable) in taxable gains for business assets, and 40 % (leaving 60 % taxable), for non-business assets, for an individual. Taper relief replaces indexation allowance for individuals, which can still be claimed for assets held prior to 6 April 1998 from the date of purchase until that date, but was itself abolished on 5 April 2008.
In the United States, with certain exceptions, individuals and corporations pay income tax on the net total of all their capital gains. Short - term capital gains are taxed at a higher rate: the ordinary income tax rate. The tax rate for individuals on "long - term capital gains '', which are gains on assets that have been held for over one year before being sold, is lower than the ordinary income tax rate, and in some tax brackets there is no tax due on such gains.
The tax rate on long - term gains was reduced in 1997 via the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 from 28 % to 20 % and again in 2003, via the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003, from 20 % to 15 % for individuals whose highest tax bracket is 15 % or more, or from 10 % to 5 % for individuals in the lowest two income tax brackets (whose highest tax bracket is less than 15 %). (See progressive tax.) The reduced 15 % tax rate on eligible dividends and capital gains, previously scheduled to expire in 2008, was extended through 2010 as a result of the Tax Increase Prevention and Reconciliation Act signed into law by President Bush on 17 May 2006, which also reduced the 5 % rate to 0 %. Toward the end of 2010, President Obama signed a law extending the reduced rate on eligible dividends until the end of 2012.
The law allows for individuals to defer capital gains taxes with tax planning strategies such as the structured sale (ensured installment sale), charitable trust (CRT), installment sale, private annuity trust, and a 1031 exchange. The United States, unlike almost all other countries, taxes its citizens (with some exceptions) on their worldwide income no matter where in the world they reside. U.S. citizens therefore find it difficult to take advantage of personal tax havens. Although there are some offshore bank accounts that advertise as tax havens, U.S. law requires reporting of income from those accounts, and willful failure to do so constitutes tax evasion.
Taxpayers may defer capital gains taxes by simply deferring the sale of the asset. In addition, depending on the specifics of national tax law, taxpayers may be able to defer, reduce, or avoid capital gains taxes using the following strategies:
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where does the energy emitted by agn and quasars come from | Quasar - wikipedia
A quasar (/ ˈkweɪzɑːr /) (also known as a QSO or quasi-stellar object) is an active galactic nucleus (AGN) of very high luminosity. Most large galaxies contain a supermassive central black hole with mass ranging from millions to billions of Solar masses. In quasars and other types of AGN, the black hole is surrounded by a gaseous accretion disk. As gas in the accretion disk falls toward the black hole, huge amounts of energy can be released across the electromagnetic spectrum which can be observed at radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, and X-ray wavelengths. The most powerful quasars have luminosities exceeding 10 W, thousands of times greater than an ordinary large galaxy such as the Milky Way.
The term "quasar '' originated as a contraction of quasi-stellar (star - like) radio source, because quasars were first identified during the 1950s as sources of radio - wave emission of unknown physical origin, and when identified in photographic images at visible wavelengths they resembled faint star - like points of light. High - resolution images of quasars, particularly from the Hubble Space Telescope, have demonstrated that quasars occur in the centers of galaxies, and that some quasar host galaxies are strongly interacting or merging galaxies. As with other categories of AGN, the observed properties of a quasar depend on many factors including the mass of the black hole, the rate of gas accretion, the orientation of the accretion disk relative to the observer, the presence or absence of a jet, and the degree of obscuration by gas and dust within the host galaxy.
Quasars are found over a very broad range of distances (corresponding to redshifts ranging from z < 0.1 for the nearest quasars to z > 7 for the most distant known quasars), and quasar discovery surveys have demonstrated that quasar activity was more common in the distant past. The peak epoch of quasar activity in the Universe corresponds to redshifts around 2, or approximately 10 billion years ago. As of 2017, the most distant known quasar is ULAS J1342 + 0928 at redshift z = 7.54; light observed from this quasar was emitted when the Universe was only 690 million years old. The supermassive black hole in this quasar is the most distant black hole identified to date, and is estimated to have a mass that is 800 million times the mass of our Sun.
The term "quasar '' was coined by Chinese - born U.S. astrophysicist Hong - Yee Chiu in May 1964, in Physics Today, to describe certain astronomically - puzzling objects:
So far, the clumsily long name ' quasi-stellar radio sources ' is used to describe these objects. Because the nature of these objects is entirely unknown, it is hard to prepare a short, appropriate nomenclature for them so that their essential properties are obvious from their name. For convenience, the abbreviated form ' quasar ' will be used throughout this paper.
Between 1917 and 1922, it became clear from work by Heber Curtis, Ernst Öpik and others, that some objects ("nebulae '') seen by astronomers were in fact distant galaxies like our own. But when radio astronomy commenced in the 1950s, astronomers detected, among the galaxies, a small number of anomalous objects with properties that defied explanation.
The objects emitted large amounts of radiation of many frequencies, but no source could be located optically, or in some cases only a faint and point - like object somewhat like a distant star. The spectral lines of these objects, which identify the chemical elements of which the object is composed, were also extremely strange and defied explanation. Some of them changed their luminosity very rapidly in the optical range and even more rapidly in the X-ray range, suggesting an upper limit on their size, perhaps no larger than our own Solar System. This implies an extremely high power density. Considerable discussion took place over what these objects might be. They were described as "quasi-stellar (meaning: star - like) radio sources '', or "quasi-stellar objects '', a name which reflected their controversial and unclear nature, and gradually this became shortened to "quasar ''. In 1966, Halton "Chip '' Arp published his Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies, which included many quasars and other anomalous objects, fueling debate over their nature and how they should be classified.
The universe was also not as well understood in the 1950s and 1960s as it is now, and this led to a wide range of guesses about quasars. For example, it was known that more distant objects were moving away from us faster ("Hubble 's Law ''), but not yet confirmed that this was a result of space itself expanding. It was known that light from objects has distinct spectra but not fully appreciated how extreme the redshifting effect could be on an object 's detected spectrum. Many astronomical objects now known to exist and studied in detail, were also not very well defined, or were considered theoretical or exotic ideas at the time. However it was understood that as a consequence of Special Relativity, light from a rapidly moving or receding source would be redshifted, meaning, its radiation would appear at lower frequencies than otherwise expected. It was also known that light from a very massive object would be redshifted due to the mass involved, as a result of general relativity.
The first quasars (3C 48 and 3C 273) were discovered in the late 1950s, as radio sources in all - sky radio surveys. They were first noted as radio sources with no corresponding visible object. Using small telescopes and the Lovell Telescope as an interferometer, they were shown to have a very small angular size. Hundreds of these objects were recorded by 1960 and published in the Third Cambridge Catalogue as astronomers scanned the skies for their optical counterparts. In 1963, a definite identification of the radio source 3C 48 with an optical object was published by Allan Sandage and Thomas A. Matthews. Astronomers had detected what appeared to be a faint blue star at the location of the radio source and obtained its spectrum, which contained many unknown broad emission lines. The anomalous spectrum defied interpretation.
British - Australian astronomer John Bolton made many early observations of quasars, including a breakthrough in 1962. Another radio source, 3C 273, was predicted to undergo five occultations by the Moon. Measurements taken by Cyril Hazard and John Bolton during one of the occultations using the Parkes Radio Telescope allowed Maarten Schmidt to optically identify the object and obtain an optical spectrum using the 200 - inch Hale Telescope on Mount Palomar. This spectrum revealed the same strange emission lines. Schmidt concluded that these were actually spectral lines of hydrogen redshifted at the rate of 15.8 percent. If this was correct, then 3C 273 was receding at an emormous velocity, around 47,000 km / s. This discovery revolutionized quasar observation and other astronomers found similar redshifts in the emission lines from other quasars. 3C 48 itself was found to have a redshift of 37 % of the speed of light. But the interpretation of these observations was heavily debated, and Bolton 's suggestion that the radiation detected from quasars were ordinary spectral lines from highly redshifted sources was not widely accepted at the time.
One great topic of debate during the 1960s was how to interpret the redshifted light and comparatively small sizes seen with quasars.
In 1963 Maarten Schmidt found a visible companion to the quasar 3C 273. Using the Hale telescope, Schmidt found the same odd spectra, but was able to demonstrate that it could be explained as the spectrum of hydrogen, shifted by a very large 15.8 % If this was due to the physical motion of the "star '', it would represent a speed of 47,000 km / s, far beyond the speed of any known star and defying an obvious explanation. Nor would this explain the huge radio emissions that had led to its original detection. Based on this discovery, the strange spectrum of 3C 48 was quickly identified by Schmidt, Greenstein and Oke as hydrogen and magnesium redshifted by 37 %. Two more quasar spectra in 1964, and five more in 1965, were confirmed to be ordinary light that had been redshifted to an extreme degree.
An extreme redshift could imply great distance and velocity, but could also be due to extreme mass, or perhaps some other unknown laws of nature. Extreme velocity and distance would also imply immense power output, which lacked explanation, and conflicted with the traditional and predominant Steady State theory of the universe. The small sizes were confirmed by interferometry and by observing the speed with which the quasar as a whole varied in output, and by their inability to be seen in even the most powerful visible light telescopes as anything more than faint starlike points of light. But if they were small, the power output became harder to explain. If quasars were very small and nearer to our galaxy, it would be easy to explain the apparent power output, but less easy to explain their redshifts and lack of detectable movement against the background of the universe.
Various explanations were proposed over time. It was suggested, for example, that the redshift of quasars was not due to the expansion of space but rather to light escaping a deep gravitational well. However a star of sufficient mass to form such a well would be unstable and in excess of the Hayashi limit. Quasars also show forbidden spectral emission lines which were previously only seen in hot gaseous nebulae of low density, which would be too diffuse to both generate the observed power and fit within a deep gravitational well. There were also serious concerns regarding the idea of cosmologically distant quasars. One strong argument against them was that they implied energies that were far in excess of known energy conversion processes, including nuclear fusion. At this time, there were some suggestions that quasars were made of some hitherto unknown form of stable antimatter and that this might account for their brightness. Others speculated that quasars were a white hole end of a wormhole, or a chain reaction of numerous supernovae.
Schmidt noted that redshift is also associated with the expansion of the universe, as codified in Hubble 's law. If the measured redshift was due to expansion, then the object in question would have to be very far away. In that case, it would have to have an extraordinarily high luminosity, equally beyond any object seen to date. This extreme luminosity would also explain the large radio signal. Schmidt concluded quasars are very distant, very luminous objects.
Schmidt 's explanation for the high redshift was not widely accepted at the time. Another explanation that was offered was that it was gravitational redshift that was being measured; this would require a massive object that would also explain the high luminosities. A star large enough to produce the measured redshift would be well beyond the Hayashi limit. Several other mechanisms were proposed as well, each with their own problems.
In 1967, Arp noted that one group of objects in his Atlas, numbers 1 through 101, were in many ways conventional galaxies that appeared to have small companion objects of unknown origin. He also observed that several of these objects appeared on the list of quasars. In some photographs a quasar is in the foreground of known galaxies, and in others there appeared to be matter bridging the two objects, implying they are very close in space. If they are, and the redshifts were due to Hubble expansion, then both objects should have similar redshifts. The galaxies had much smaller redshifts than the quasars. He also noted that quasars were not evenly spread over the sky, but tended to be more commonly found in positions of small angular separation from certain galaxies. This being the case, they might be in some way related to the galaxies.
Arp believed that the Big Bang theory -- then in its infancy and not yet confirmed correct -- was wrong, citing his research into these quasi-stellar objects. Instead, Arp supported a redshift quantization theory as an explanation of the redshifts of galaxies. He argued that the redshift of these objects was not due to Hubble expansion or physical movement of the objects, but must have a non-cosmological or "intrinsic '' origin. Instead, his hypothesis was that quasars were local objects ejected from the core of active galactic nuclei (AGN). Nearby galaxies with both strong radio emission and peculiar morphologies, particularly M87 and Centaurus A, appeared to support Arp 's hypothesis.
A major concern was the enormous amount of energy these objects would have to be radiating, if they were distant. No commonly - accepted mechanism could account for this. The correct explanation, that it was due to matter in an accretion disc falling into an supermassive black hole, was only suggested in 1964 by Salpeter and Yakov Zel'Dovich, and even then it was rejected by many astronomers, because the existence of black holes was still widely seen as theoretical and too exotic in the 1960s, and because it was not yet confirmed that many galaxies (including our own) have supermassive black holes at their center. The strange spectral lines in their radiation, and the speed of change seen in some quasars, also suggested to many astronomers and cosmologists that the objects were comparatively small and therefore perhaps bright, massive and not far away; accordingly that their redshifts were not due to distance or velocity, and must be due to some other reason or an unknown process, meaning that the quasars were not really powerful objects nor at extreme distances, as their redshifted light implied. A common alternative explanation was that the redshifts were caused by extreme mass (gravitational redshifting explained by general relativity) and not by extreme velocity (explained by special relativity). Other explanations were also suggested. This "redshift controversy '' lasted for many years. As late as 1984, it was stated that "one of the few statements (about Active Galactic Nuclei) to command general agreement has been that the power supply is primarily gravitational ''.
Eventually, starting from about the 1970s, many lines of evidence (including the first X-Ray space observatories, knowledge of black holes and modern models of cosmology) gradually demonstrated that the quasar redshifts are genuine, and due to the expansion of space, that quasars are in fact as powerful and as distant as Schmidt and some other astronomers had suggested, and that their energy source is matter from an accretion disc falling onto a supermassive black hole. This included crucial evidence from optical and X-Ray viewing of quasar host galaxies, finding of ' intervening ' absorption lines which explained various spectral anomalies, observations from gravitational lensing, Peterson and Gunn 's 1971 finding that galaxies containing quasars showed the same redshift as the quasars, and Kristian 's 1973 finding that the "fuzzy '' surrounding of many quasars was consistent with a less luminous host galaxy.
This model also fits well with other observations that suggest many or even most galaxies have a massive central black hole. It would also explain why quasars are more common in the early universe: as a quasar draws matter from their accretion disc, there will come a point where there is less matter nearby, and energy production falls off or ceases as the quasar becomes a more ordinary type of galaxy.
The accretion disc energy - production mechanism was finally modeled in the 1970s, and black holes were also directly detected (including evidence showing that supermassive black holes could be found at the centers of our own and many other galaxies), which resolved the concern that quasars were too luminous to be a result of very distant objects or that a suitable mechanism could not be confirmed to exist in nature. Today the cosmological distance and energy output of quasars is accepted by almost all researchers.
Later it was found that not all quasars have strong radio emission; in fact only about 10 % are "radio - loud ''. Hence the name ' QSO ' (quasi-stellar object) is used (in addition to "quasar '') to refer to these objects, including the ' radio - loud ' and the ' radio - quiet ' classes. The discovery of the quasar had large implications for the field of astronomy in the 1960s, including drawing physics and astronomy closer together.
In 1979 the gravitational lens effect predicted by Einstein 's General Theory of Relativity was confirmed observationally for the first time with images of the double quasar 0957 + 561.
It is now known that quasars are distant but extremely luminous objects, so any light which reaches the Earth is redshifted due to the metric expansion of space. Quasars inhabit the center of active galaxies, and are among the most luminous, powerful, and energetic objects known in the universe, emitting up to a thousand times the energy output of the Milky Way, which contains 200 -- 400 billion stars. This radiation is emitted across the electromagnetic spectrum, almost uniformly, from X-rays to the far - infrared with a peak in the ultraviolet - optical bands, with some quasars also being strong sources of radio emission and of gamma - rays.
With high - resolution imaging from ground - based telescopes and the Hubble Space Telescope, the "host galaxies '' surrounding the quasars have been detected in some cases. These galaxies are normally too dim to be seen against the glare of the quasar, except with special techniques. Most quasars, with the exception of 3C 273 whose average apparent magnitude is 12.9, can not be seen with small telescopes.
Quasars are believed to be powered by accretion of material into supermassive black holes in the nuclei of distant galaxies, making these luminous versions of the general class of objects known as active galaxies. Since light can not escape the black holes, the escaping energy is actually generated outside the event horizon by gravitational stresses and immense friction on the incoming material. Central masses of 10 to 10 solar masses have been measured in quasars by using reverberation mapping. Several dozen nearby large galaxies, with no sign of a quasar nucleus, have been shown to contain a similar central black hole in their nuclei, so it is thought that all large galaxies have one, but only a small fraction are active (with enough accretion to power radiation), and it is the activity of these black holes that are seen as quasars. The matter accreting onto the black hole is unlikely to fall directly in, but will have some angular momentum around the black hole that will cause the matter to collect into an accretion disc. Quasars may also be ignited or re-ignited when normal galaxies merge and the black hole is infused with a fresh source of matter. In fact, it has been suggested that a quasar could form when the Andromeda Galaxy collides with our own Milky Way galaxy in approximately 3 -- 5 billion years.
The mechanism of brightness changes probably involves relativistic beaming of astrophysical jets pointed nearly directly toward Earth. The highest redshift quasar known (as of June 2011) is ULAS J1120 + 0641, with a redshift of 7.085, which corresponds to a comoving distance of approximately 29 billion light - years from Earth (these distances are much larger than the distance light could travel in the universe 's 13.8 billion year history because space itself has also been expanding).
In the 1980s, unified models were developed in which quasars were classified as a particular kind of active galaxy, and a consensus emerged that in many cases it is simply the viewing angle that distinguishes them from other classes, such as blazars and radio galaxies. The huge luminosity of quasars results from the accretion discs of central supermassive black holes, which can convert on the order of 10 % of the mass of an object into energy as compared to 0.7 % for the p-p chain nuclear fusion process that dominates the energy production in Sun - like stars.
This mechanism also explains why quasars were more common in the early universe, as this energy production ends when the supermassive black hole consumes all of the gas and dust near it. This means that it is possible that most galaxies, including the Milky Way, have gone through an active stage, appearing as a quasar or some other class of active galaxy that depended on the black hole mass and the accretion rate, and are now quiescent because they lack a supply of matter to feed into their central black holes to generate radiation.
More than 200,000 quasars are known, most from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. All observed quasar spectra have redshifts between 0.056 and 7.085. Applying Hubble 's law to these redshifts, it can be shown that they are between 600 million and 28.85 billion light - years away (in terms of comoving distance). Because of the great distances to the farthest quasars and the finite velocity of light, they and their surrounding space appear as they existed in the very early universe.
The power of quasars originates from supermassive black holes that are believed to exist at the core of most galaxies. The Doppler shifts of stars near the cores of galaxies indicate that they are rotating around tremendous masses with very steep gravity gradients, suggesting black holes.
Although quasars appear faint when viewed from Earth, they are visible from extreme distances, being the most luminous objects in the known universe. The brightest quasar in the sky is 3C 273 in the constellation of Virgo. It has an average apparent magnitude of 12.8 (bright enough to be seen through a medium - size amateur telescope), but it has an absolute magnitude of − 26.7. From a distance of about 33 light - years, this object would shine in the sky about as brightly as our sun. This quasar 's luminosity is, therefore, about 4 trillion (4 × 10) times that of the Sun, or about 100 times that of the total light of giant galaxies like the Milky Way. This assumes the quasar is radiating energy in all directions, but the active galactic nucleus is believed to be radiating preferentially in the direction of its jet. In a universe containing hundreds of billions of galaxies, most of which had active nuclei billions of years ago but only seen today, it is statistically certain that thousands of energy jets should be pointed toward the Earth, some more directly than others. In many cases it is likely that the brighter the quasar, the more directly its jet is aimed at the Earth.
The hyperluminous quasar APM 08279 + 5255 was, when discovered in 1998, given an absolute magnitude of − 32.2. High resolution imaging with the Hubble Space Telescope and the 10 m Keck Telescope revealed that this system is gravitationally lensed. A study of the gravitational lensing of this system suggests that the light emitted has been magnified by a factor of ~ 10. It is still substantially more luminous than nearby quasars such as 3C 273.
Quasars were much more common in the early universe than they are today. This discovery by Maarten Schmidt in 1967 was early strong evidence against the Steady State cosmology of Fred Hoyle, and in favor of the Big Bang cosmology. Quasars show the locations where massive black holes are growing rapidly (via accretion). These black holes grow in step with the mass of stars in their host galaxy in a way not understood at present. One idea is that jets, radiation and winds created by the quasars, shut down the formation of new stars in the host galaxy, a process called ' feedback '. The jets that produce strong radio emission in some quasars at the centers of clusters of galaxies are known to have enough power to prevent the hot gas in those clusters from cooling and falling onto the central galaxy.
Quasars ' luminosities are variable, with time scales that range from months to hours. This means that quasars generate and emit their energy from a very small region, since each part of the quasar would have to be in contact with other parts on such a time scale as to allow the coordination of the luminosity variations. This would mean that a quasar varying on a time scale of a few weeks can not be larger than a few light - weeks across. The emission of large amounts of power from a small region requires a power source far more efficient than the nuclear fusion that powers stars. The conversion of gravitational potential energy to radiation by infalling to a black hole converts between 6 % and 32 % of the mass to energy, compared to 0.7 % for the conversion of mass to energy in a star like our sun. It is the only process known that can produce such high power over a very long term. (Stellar explosions such as supernovas and gamma - ray bursts, and direct matter - antimatter annihilation, can also produce very high power output, but supernovae only last for days, and the universe does not appear to have had large amounts of antimatter at the relevant times).
Quasars have all the properties of other active galaxies such as Seyfert galaxies, but are more powerful: their radiation is partially ' nonthermal ' (i.e., not due to black body radiation), and approximately 10 percent are observed to also have jets and lobes like those of radio galaxies that also carry significant (but poorly understood) amounts of energy in the form of particles moving at relativistic speeds. Extremely high energies might be explained by several mechanisms (see Fermi acceleration and Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration). Quasars can be detected over the entire observable electromagnetic spectrum including radio, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-ray and even gamma rays. Most quasars are brightest in their rest - frame near - ultraviolet wavelength of 121.6 nm Lyman - alpha emission line of hydrogen, but due to the tremendous redshifts of these sources, that peak luminosity has been observed as far to the red as 900.0 nm, in the near infrared. A minority of quasars show strong radio emission, which is generated by jets of matter moving close to the speed of light. When viewed downward, these appear as blazars and often have regions that seem to move away from the center faster than the speed of light (superluminal expansion). This is an optical illusion due to the properties of special relativity.
Quasar redshifts are measured from the strong spectral lines that dominate their visible and ultraviolet emission spectra. These lines are brighter than the continuous spectrum. They exhibit Doppler broadening corresponding to mean speed of several percent of the speed of light. Fast motions strongly indicate a large mass. Emission lines of hydrogen (mainly of the Lyman series and Balmer series), helium, carbon, magnesium, iron and oxygen are the brightest lines. The atoms emitting these lines range from neutral to highly ionized, leaving it highly charged. This wide range of ionization shows that the gas is highly irradiated by the quasar, not merely hot, and not by stars, which can not produce such a wide range of ionization.
Iron quasars show strong emission lines resulting from low ionization iron (FeII), such as IRAS 18508 - 7815.
Since quasars exhibit properties common to all active galaxies, the emission from quasars can be readily compared to those of smaller active galaxies powered by smaller supermassive black holes. To create a luminosity of 10 watts (the typical brightness of a quasar), a super-massive black hole would have to consume the material equivalent of 10 stars per year. The brightest known quasars devour 1000 solar masses of material every year. The largest known is estimated to consume matter equivalent to 600 Earths per minute. Quasar luminosities can vary considerably over time, depending on their surroundings. Since it is difficult to fuel quasars for many billions of years, after a quasar finishes accreting the surrounding gas and dust, it becomes an ordinary galaxy.
Quasars also provide some clues as to the end of the Big Bang 's reionization. The oldest known quasars (redshift = 6) display a Gunn - Peterson trough and have absorption regions in front of them indicating that the intergalactic medium at that time was neutral gas. More recent quasars show no absorption region but rather their spectra contain a spiky area known as the Lyman - alpha forest; this indicates that the intergalactic medium has undergone reionization into plasma, and that neutral gas exists only in small clouds.
Quasars show evidence of elements heavier than helium, indicating that galaxies underwent a massive phase of star formation, creating population III stars between the time of the Big Bang and the first observed quasars. Light from these stars may have been observed in 2005 using NASA 's Spitzer Space Telescope, although this observation remains to be confirmed.
Like all (unobscured) active galaxies, quasars can be strong X-ray sources. Radio - loud quasars can also produce X-rays and gamma rays by inverse Compton scattering of lower - energy photons by the radio - emitting electrons in the jet.
Because quasars are extremely distant, bright, and small in apparent size, they are useful reference points in establishing a measurement grid on the sky. The International Celestial Reference System (ICRS) is based on hundreds of extra-galactic radio sources, mostly quasars, distributed around the entire sky. Because they are so distant, they are apparently stationary to our current technology, yet their positions can be measured with the utmost accuracy by very - long - baseline interferometry (VLBI). The positions of most are known to 0.001 arcsecond or better, which is orders of magnitude more precise than the best optical measurements.
A multiple - image quasar is a quasar whose light undergoes gravitational lensing, resulting in double, triple or quadruple images of the same quasar. The first such gravitational lens to be discovered was the double - imaged quasar Q0957 + 561 (or Twin Quasar) in 1979. A grouping of two or more quasars can result from a chance alignment, physical proximity, actual close physical interaction, or effects of gravity bending the light of a single quasar into two or more images.
As quasars are rare objects, the probability of three or more separate quasars being found near the same location is very low. The first true triple quasar was found in 2007 by observations at the W.M. Keck Observatory Mauna Kea, Hawaii. LBQS 1429 - 008 (or QQQ J1432 - 0106) was first observed in 1989 and was found to be a double quasar; itself a rare occurrence. When astronomers discovered the third member, they confirmed that the sources were separate and not the result of gravitational lensing. This triple quasar has a red shift of z = 2.076, which is equivalent to 10.5 billion light years. The components are separated by an estimated 30 -- 50 kpc, which is typical of interacting galaxies. An example of a triple quasar that is formed by lensing is PG1115 + 08.
In 2013, the second true triplet quasars QQQ J1519 + 0627 was found with redshift z = 1.51 (approx 9 billion light years) by an international team of astronomers led by Farina of the University of Insubria, the whole system is well accommodated within 25 (i.e., 200 kpc in projected distance). The team accessed data from observations collected at the La Silla Observatory with the New Technology Telescope (NTT) of the European Southern Observatory (ESO) and at the Calar Alto Observatory with the 3.5 m telescope of the Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán (CAHA).
The first quadruple quasar was discovered in 2015.
When two quasars are so nearly in the same direction as seen from Earth that they appear to be a single quasar but may be separated by the use of telescopes, they are referred to as a "double quasar '', such as the Twin Quasar. These are two different quasars, and not the same quasar that is gravitationally lensed. This configuration is similar to the optical double star. Two quasars, a "quasar pair '', may be closely related in time and space, and be gravitationally bound to one another. These may take the form of two quasars in the same galaxy cluster. This configuration is similar to two prominent stars in a star cluster. A "binary quasar '', may be closely linked gravitationally and form a pair of interacting galaxies. This configuration is similar to that of a binary star system.
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where do we get drinking water in uae | Water supply and sanitation in Abu Dhabi - wikipedia
The three cities of Abu Dhabi Emirate within the United Arab Emirates -- the coastal city Abu Dhabi itself (more than one million inhabitants) as well as the inland oases Al Ain (0, 4 million inhabitants) and Liwa (about 0, 1 million inhabitants) -- receive their drinking water supply entirely from desalinated seawater. Their wastewater is being treated and reused for the irrigation of green spaces.
There are two main sources of water in Abu Dhabi Emirate: Desalinated seawater and groundwater. While groundwater is used for agriculture in Al Ain and Liwa, drinking water is provided almost entirely from desalinated seawater across the Emirate. In 2008, groundwater contributed 71 % to total water demand for all purposes, desalinated water 24 % and treated wastewater 5 %.
In 2010, there were eight seawater desalination plants in Abu Dhabi owned and operated by eight joint ventures: Tawilah A, Tawilah B, the five Umm al Nar plants and the Al Mirfa plant. These joint ventures between the government and foreign companies, which are allowed to own up to 40 % of the shares, are called Independent Water & Power Producers (IWPPs). They operate under Build - Own - Operate (BOO) contracts with the government and their energy is supplied by fossil fuels. In the model green city called Masdar City, four smaller pilot desalination plants that will use solar power are nearing completion as of early 2015.
90 % of groundwater in Abu Dhabi Emirate is saline, in some cases up to eight times as much as seawater. There are only two freshwater aquifers. Natural groundwater recharge is estimated at about 300 million cubic meters per year. Brackish groundwater is mostly used for the irrigation of date palms which are relatively salt - tolerant. Recharge dams have been built on wadis in order to prevent flood water to flow into the sea, recharging it instead to aquifers. Unplanned and uncontrolled groundwater withdrawals, especially for agriculture and forestry, total over 2,000 million cubic meters per year and have resulted in declining groundwater levels and quality.
Artificial groundwater recharge with desalinated water has been piloted in 2003 near the Liwa Oasis and construction of large - scale recharge facilities has begun in 2008. The objective is to create a 90 - day reserve instead of the current 48 - hour reserve for drinking water supply, in order to protect the emirate against the risk of terrorist attacks or oil spills that would shut down the entire water supply. Recharge will occur during summer when the desalination plants generate surplus freshwater. Desalination plants in Abu Dhabi use the multi-stage flash distillation technology which uses steam from thermal power plants as an energy source. Their water production thus is proportional to electricity production and reaches a peak during the summer when electricity production is highest to power air conditioning. The recharge scheme is currently under construction and is due to be completed by 2013.
Approximately 550,000 cubic metres of wastewater is generated in Abu Dhabi every day and treated in 20 wastewater treatment plants. Almost all of the wastewater is being reused to irrigate green spaces. While most wastewater treatment plants are publicly owned and operated, four large new plants have been built by joint ventures under build - own operate transfer (BOOT) arrangements. One such contract for two plants was awarded in 2008, one in Abu Dhabi itself with a capacity of 300,000 cubic meter per day and one in Al Ain with a capacity of 130,000 cubic meter per day. Contracts for two other plants were awarded to Biwater under a similar structure. A Strategic Tunnel Enhancement Programme (STEP) is to be implemented between 2008 and 2014 to establish a tunnel that will comprise 40 kilometres of deep sewerage tunnel and two new large pumping stations to relieve Abu Dhabi Island.
In Masdar City green spaces and agriculture near the city are to be irrigated with grey water and reclaimed water.
About half of the annual water production from all sources is used for irrigation of green spaces, as well as in agriculture. The other half is used for domestic uses. Freshwater use per capita is about 650 liters per day, including water supplied for the irrigation of green spaces.
As of 2009, in Al Ain "due to constraints on both the transmission and distribution networks, up to 45 percent of customers (were) on a restricted (intermittent) supply ''.
Abu Dhabi has witnessed an explosion of wealth and population since its independence in 1971 and the oil boom of 1973. Before, groundwater was the only source of water supply. It was very scarce, since there is little recharge and most of the aquifers are highly saline. It was only through seawater desalination that the growth of Abu Dhabi became possible. Seawater desalination used thermal technologies that couple desalination with power production. Water was provided free of charge. The plants were initially owned and operated by the government through the Water and Electricity Department, and financing was provided by the state from oil revenues.
In the mid-1990s, the government decided to reorganize the water and electricity sector. The reform was inspired by the pro-private sector and pro-competition climate reigning during the 1990s, and it was implemented through foreign advisors. The reform of both sectors was based on the principle of unbundling production, transmission and distribution:
The sector was to be regulated by a public agency with a certain degree of autonomy from the government. The new structure was formally adopted through law No (2) concerning the regulation of the water and electricity sector passed in 1998. The holding company ADWEA and the regulator, the Regulation and Supervision Bureau (RSB), were functionally established shortly afterwards. In 2000 the government signed the first contract for a private power and desalination plant. The sanitation sector was initially left out of the reform and remained a responsibility of the municipality, despite heavy investments that were required for wastewater treatment and reuse. Only in 2005 a separate sanitation operator, Abu Dhabi Sewerage Services Company, was established.
In the first decade of the 21st century, the protection of the environment gradually became more important in Abu Dhabi. In 2005 the Emirate created the Environment Department, which established a Strategic Water Master Plan published in 2009. When presenting the Master Plan, the chairman of the Environment Agency said that the future would be very challenging unless action was taken to reduce water consumption, which is among the highest per capita in the world. The Plan describes the current status and the environmental and technical issues related to projections of demand and supply, groundwater abstraction, desalination, water supply and sanitation, irrigation, wastewater treatment and Emirati governance and institutions. The government has run a media campaign to encourage people to save water. It has also distributed water - saving toilets and showerheads free of charge. The emirate also is in the process of expanding the use of reclaimed water.
Policy. Abu Dhabi is ruled by a Sheikh. Below him is an Executive Council taking care of day - to - day policy - making. The Council is chaired by the Crown Prince. The Chairmen of four Departments and a number of Authorities are members of the Executive Council. The government structure is not comparable to the Western structure of Ministries and separate technical authorities under those Ministries. Authorities in Abu Dhabi are rather comparable to Ministries. Water supply and sanitation in Abu Dhabi is the responsibility of the Abu Dhabi Water & Electricity Authority (ADWEA). As mentioned above, the Chairman of ADWEA is a member of the Executive Council and holds the rank of a Minister.
The sector is governed by two laws:
Eight private Independent Water and Power Production (IWPP) companies operate on the Build - Own - Operate (BOO) formula, producing and selling desalinated water to the Abu Dhabi Water & Electricity Company (ADWEC). ADWEC is owned by the government through ADWEA and is the single buyer of desalinated water and the single supplier of water for the distribution companies. The Abu Dhabi Transmission and Dispatch Company (TRANSCO), a public company, transports water from the desalination plants to the networks of the distribution companies. The Abu Dhabi distribution company (ADDC) sells water and electricity to approximately 216,000 customers in Abu Dhabi and its suburbs. The Al Ain distribution company does the same in Al Ain. The Abu Dhabi Sewerage Services Company is a public company in charge of sanitation.
The Regulation and Supervision Bureau (RSB) for the Water and Electricity Sector in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi enforces relevant laws through licensing. It is in charge both of technical regulation and price regulation.
As of January 1, 2015, UAE citizens pay 1.7 Dirham (0.46 USD) per cubic meter of water for a very generous first block of consumption, which is set at 700 liters per day for apartments and 7,000 liters per day for villas. Above these amounts, the tariff increases slightly to 1.89 Dirham (0.51 UD) per cubic meter. Previously, water was free of charge for UAE citizens. Foreign residents and commercial users were always charged for water, starting at 5.95 Dirham (USD 1.61) per cubic meter in the lowest consumption block. The introduction of water tariffs for residents aims at reducing subsidies, encourage the efficient use of water and raise awareness of the importance of reducing consumption. It was combined with a large public relations campaign, as well as advice for customers who want to save water. Even before the change in tariff, bills highlighted water usage beyond a certain level in red and showed the subsidy paid by the state.
The two public distribution companies receive a government subsidy. In turn, they pay a bulk supply tariff reflecting the full economic cost to ADWEC, which in turn pays for the water received from the private IWPPs under Water and Power Purchase Agreements. Bulk supply tariffs are adjusted by the RSB every four years based on maximum allowable revenues.
Investment in desalination plants is financed by the private sector through BOO contracts. Investment in water distribution and sewerage infrastructure is financed by the government through subsidies to the respective public companies. Investment in both power and water production and distribution was more than US $36 billion from 1999 to 2008. Since power and water are produced and distributed by the same companies, separate figures for investment in water infrastructure are not available.
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where did the term pip squeak come from | Pip - squeak - wikipedia
Pip - squeak was a simple radio navigation system used by the British Royal Air Force during the early part of World War II. Pip - squeak used an aircraft 's voice radio set to periodically send out a 1 kHz tone which was picked up by ground - based high - frequency direction finding (HFDF, "huff - duff '') receivers. Using three HFDF measurements, observers could determine the location of friendly aircraft using triangulation.
Pip - squeak was used by fighter aircraft during the Battle of Britain as part of the Dowding system, where it provided the primary means of locating friendly forces, and indirectly providing identification friend or foe (IFF). At the time, radar systems were sited on the shore and did not provide coverage over the inland areas, so IFF systems that produced unique radar images were not always useful for directing interceptions. Pip - squeak was added to provide coverage in these areas. As more radar stations were added and over-land areas became widely covered, pip - squeak was replaced by IFF systems of increasing sophistication.
Pip - squeak gets its name from a contemporary comic strip, Pip, Squeak and Wilfred. It was first implemented in the TR. 9D radio. The system was also used by the USAAF, where the equipment was known as RC - 96A.
By the middle of 1930, the Air Defence of Great Britain (ADGB) command of the Royal Air Force was planning its response to the threat of air attack. This involved the construction of a large number of acoustic mirrors to provide early warning, along with a network of observer stations that would soon be arranged into the Royal Observer Corps (ROC). The system would provide defence around the London area only, starting on the coast from Suffolk to Sussex with a thin belt of anti-aircraft artillery, a fighter operating area inland, and a second group of guns in or near the city. The system was basically unchanged in operation from its World War I counterpart, but greatly expanded the area allotted to the fighters.
In tests carried out primarily from Biggin Hill during the mid-1930s, the expanded fighter operating area demonstrated a serious problem keeping track of friendly forces. Especially as altitudes increased or the weather grew more cloudy, observers could no longer keep track or identify fighters. This made it impossible for the centralized control and tracking centres to properly direct the fighters to their targets. Radio location was noted as a solution to this problem early on.
Shortly after taking over command of the ADGB system and combining it into the main Fighter Command network, Hugh Dowding made the installation of high - frequency direction finding, or "huff - duff '', sets a priority. In the summer of 1937 he requested that every sector be equipped with three huff - duff sets in order to allow rapid triangulation of the location of fighters. Coincident with this was the deployment of the latest version of the widely used TR. 9 radio set, the TR. 9B.
The Air Staff was slow to respond to Dowding 's request due to a shortage of cathode ray tubes (CRTs), and by the end of 1937 only five sectors were equipped. However, during tests in March 1938, the value of DF as part of the reporting system became very clear to all involved, and on 14 April 1938 the Air Ministry ordered a further 29 sets to equip all sectors. These were initially delivered without a CRT and required longer to reliably determine direction using a manual radiogoniometer, but they could be upgraded as CRTs arrived.
Throughout 1938 the Royal Aircraft Establishment worked on a new version of the TR. 9 set, the "D '' model, which was designed specifically to aid DF operators. This model included a single transmission amplifier, but two radio frequency oscillators, allowing the set to be quickly switched between two broadcast frequencies. Using one for voice and the other for DF, aircraft could broadcast a DF signal on the separate channel without disrupting other aircraft 's communications on the voice channel.
Key to the system was the addition of a tone - generating oscillator that produced a 1 kHz tone, the "squeak ''. When keyed into the TR. 9D 's transmitter, it produced a distinctive tone that was easy to locate on the huff - duff sets. To further improve operation, an automatic switch was installed that switched the radio to the DF broadcast frequency and turned on the oscillator, then turned it back off again after a set period. To indicate that the system was active, the same 1 kHz tone was also played into the pilot 's headphones, at a muted level.
Pip - squeak 's airborne unit consisted of two primary parts, an oscillator to produce a whistle at 1 kHz, and a mechanical clock with electrical contacts to periodically switch the oscillator and DF broadcast channel on and off. Using the TR. 9D, the most common radio during the early stages of the war, there were two available channels, and the frequencies were selected before the mission using swappable crystal oscillators. Both the section leader and one other aircraft in the section normally had pip - squeak aboard.
Shortly after forming up after a scramble, the squadron leaders would be asked to ready their pip - squeak clocks. In the original system this required them to turn the "wind '' knob that moved the single second - hand counter-clockwise around the face of the clock. There were up to four sections of aircraft in each squadron, although most squadrons had two or three sections at any given time. Each section had its own position for the hand; red section had the 12 o'clock location, yellow was at 9 o'clock, blue at 6 o'clock and green at 3 o'clock.
Once the clocks were properly positioned, the sector controller would initiate a countdown, Synchronize time, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, mark. At mark, the pilots would turn on the clock, which would start the second hand moving clockwise. When the hand reached the 12 o'clock position the oscillator was turned on, and it turned off again just before the 3 o'clock position, broadcasting for 14 seconds per minute. The system automatically switched the radio from voice to pip - squeak channel at the 12 o'clock location; if the pilot was talking he would be cut off.
Red section, having started in the 12 o'clock position, started broadcasting immediately when the system was activated. When it stopped 14 seconds later, yellow section 's clock was now reaching the 12 o'clock position and began to broadcast, and so forth. Over a one - minute period, all four sections (if present) squeaked and could be located.
A separate radio control switch stopped the radio signal from broadcasting while the clock continued to move. This allowed the pilot to set up the system early in the flight, and then turn it off when better communications were needed, like in combat. The system could then be turned on again at any time, with the clock still in the proper position. Sector Commanders could ask pilots to turn it on by asking "Is your Cockerel crowing? ''.
There were two common versions of pip - squeak, one with the clock located in the cockpit, and a second that used a remote clock system. The later placed the "Master Contactor '' in a box in the equipment bay near the radio, and it was pre-set to the correct second - hand location for each section, prior to the mission. The "Remote Contactor '' display was located in the cockpit, driven by electrical signals from the Master Contactor, whose once - per - second signals powered a stepper motor driving the second hand. This version had only a single control to turn the clock on and off to start it up at "mark '', a separate switch on the radio console allowed the signal to be stopped and started while leaving the clock running.
Each sector was equipped with three huff - duff sets for determining the location of the pip - squeak radios. Although in theory only two were needed, adding a third offered redundancy as well as helping reduce the chance of errors in the plotting. The stations were positioned approximately 30 miles (48 km) apart in as close to a triangular layout as possible. The Sector Control center was the apex of the triangle, with the two remote stations communicating with the Control over telephone lines.
At the Sector Control, a simple system was used to rapidly take a "fix ''. This consisted of a circular plotting board with a map on the top surface marked with the Ordnance Survey National Grid, and a series of compass angles around the outer edge. The location of the three stations was represented by small holes drilled into the map. Weighed strings passed through the holes, and could be pulled up and across the map by the plotters. When a report was received from a huff - duff operator, the plotter would pull their string so it lay on the indicated angle; the weight (or elastic cord) on the other end kept the string taut.
With the three reports plotted, the strings would normally intersect at a small triangle or star somewhere on the map. This location was read against the Grid. The operators could identify which section they were tracking simply by looking at a sector clock painted with section colours, as the sections had manually synchronized their clocks with this one. A fourth operator observing the plots would then call in the position to the main operations room. The system required fast operations by all involved, as they had only 14 seconds to make a plot before the next section reported in.
When the grid location was passed to the operations room, a marker for that section could be updated on the sector 's plotting table. Pip - squeak did not directly produce identification friend or foe (IFF) information, but served that purpose in practice by allowing the operators to determine which plots were friendly. This might be used, for instance, when reports from radar or ROC observers were tracking friendly forces without knowing it. As all radar plots flowed through Fighter Command 's "filter room '' at RAF Bentley Priory, the pip - squeak plots could be matched up with those from the radars.
Although pip - squeak worked well in practice and could be used with any aircraft with a radio, it presented several practical problems that led to its eventual replacement.
The first was that the system used up a radio channel. As the TR. 9D set had only two channels, using one for pip - squeak left only a single voice channel. All of the aircraft in the squadron shared the same frequencies for voice and pip - squeak, selected before the mission. This meant that squadrons could talk amongst themselves and to their Sector Operator, but could not coordinate with other squadrons or Sectors. Pilots were also constantly being interrupted. Things improved with the introduction of the TR. 1388 sets, which had several voice channels and much longer range, but pip - squeak still interrupted the pilot when it broadcast.
Further, the pip - squeak system required an entirely separate reporting chain, along with the associated equipment, buildings, manpower and telephone systems. This information was primarily consumed by the Sector Controls, who had the responsibility for vectoring fighters onto targets, and thus required up - to - date information on the locations of their fighters. This meant that information about the location of friendly forces had to be sent back up the chain to Group and Fighter Command Headquarters, increasing the amount of traffic flowing through the system.
Pip - squeak was supplanted, and then replaced, by the IFF system. This was a self - contained transponder that was triggered by the signal of a radar being received by the aircraft. The IFF unit sent out a short radio pulse of its own when the radar signal was received. This signal was filtered out and sent to a separate amplifier on ground. The output was then mixed with the main signal and caused an upside - down blip to be displayed slightly after the main signal. This "secondary '' return now gives its name to secondary radar, which forms the basis of most civilian radar systems.
IFF had been produced as early as 1939, but not widely used because the early Chain Home radar stations were placed along the shoreline, providing no coverage inland where much of the action took place. By 1942 the radar network had been extensively updated, especially with the introduction of the ground - controlled interception units, and the plotting of interceptions moved from the Sector Controls to the radar sets themselves. IFF was universal by this point.
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describe electricity as a flow of electrons in a wire | Electric current - wikipedia
An electric current is a flow of electric charge. In electric circuits this charge is often carried by moving electrons in a wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons such as in an ionised gas (plasma).
The SI unit for measuring an electric current is the ampere, which is the flow of electric charge across a surface at the rate of one coulomb per second. Electric current is measured using a device called an ammeter.
Electric currents cause Joule heating, which creates light in incandescent light bulbs. They also create magnetic fields, which are used in motors, inductors and generators.
The moving charged particles in an electric current are called charge carriers. In metals, one or more electrons from each atom are loosely bound to the atom, and can move freely about within the metal. These conduction electrons are the charge carriers in metal conductors.
The conventional symbol for current is I, which originates from the French phrase intensité de courant, (current intensity). Current intensity is often referred to simply as current. The I symbol was used by André - Marie Ampère, after whom the unit of electric current is named, in formulating Ampère 's force law (1820). The notation travelled from France to Great Britain, where it became standard, although at least one journal did not change from using C to I until 1896.
In a conductive material, the moving charged particles that constitute the electric current are called charge carriers. In metals, which make up the wires and other conductors in most electrical circuits, the positively charged atomic nuclei are held in a fixed position, and the negatively charged electrons are free to move, carrying their charge from one place to another. In other materials, notably the semiconductors, the charge carriers can be positive or negative, depending on the dopant used. Positive and negative charge carriers may even be present at the same time, as happens in an electrolyte in an electrochemical cell.
A flow of positive charges gives the same electric current, and has the same effect in a circuit, as an equal flow of negative charges in the opposite direction. Since current can be the flow of either positive or negative charges, or both, a convention is needed for the direction of current that is independent of the type of charge carriers. The direction of conventional current is arbitrarily defined as the same direction as positive charges flow.
Since electrons, the charge carriers in metal wires and most other parts of electric circuits, have a negative charge, as a consequence, they flow in the opposite direction of conventional current flow in an electrical circuit.
Since the current in a wire or component can flow in either direction, when a variable I is defined to represent that current, the direction representing positive current must be specified, usually by an arrow on the circuit schematic diagram. This is called the reference direction of current I. If the current flows in the opposite direction, the variable I has a negative value.
When analyzing electrical circuits, the actual direction of current through a specific circuit element is usually unknown. Consequently, the reference directions of currents are often assigned arbitrarily. When the circuit is solved, a negative value for the variable means that the actual direction of current through that circuit element is opposite that of the chosen reference direction. In electronic circuits, the reference current directions are often chosen so that all currents are toward ground. This often corresponds to the actual current direction, because in many circuits the power supply voltage is positive with respect to ground.
Ohm 's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship:
where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm 's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.
In alternating current (AC) systems, the movement of electric charge periodically reverses direction. AC is the form of electric power most commonly delivered to businesses and residences. The usual waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave. Certain applications use different waveforms, such as triangular or square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of alternating current. An important goal in these applications is recovery of information encoded (or modulated) onto the AC signal.
In contrast, direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge, or a system in which the movement of electric charge is in one direction only. Direct current is produced by sources such as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and commutator - type electric machines of the dynamo type. Direct current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. An old name for direct current was galvanic current.
Natural observable examples of electrical current include lightning, static electric discharge, and the solar wind, the source of the polar auroras.
Man - made occurrences of electric current include the flow of conduction electrons in metal wires such as the overhead power lines that deliver electrical energy across long distances and the smaller wires within electrical and electronic equipment. Eddy currents are electric currents that occur in conductors exposed to changing magnetic fields. Similarly, electric currents occur, particularly in the surface, of conductors exposed to electromagnetic waves. When oscillating electric currents flow at the correct voltages within radio antennas, radio waves are generated.
In electronics, other forms of electric current include the flow of electrons through resistors or through the vacuum in a vacuum tube, the flow of ions inside a battery or a neuron, and the flow of holes within a semiconductor.
Current can be measured using an ammeter.
At the circuit level, various techniques are used to measure current:
Joule heating, also known as ohmic heating and resistive heating, is the process by which the passage of an electric current through a conductor produces heat. It was first studied by James Prescott Joule in 1841. Joule immersed a length of wire in a fixed mass of water and measured the temperature rise due to a known current through the wire for a 30 minute period. By varying the current and the length of the wire he deduced that the heat produced was proportional to the square of the current multiplied by the electrical resistance of the wire.
This relationship is known as Joule 's First Law. The SI unit of energy was subsequently named the joule and given the symbol J. The commonly known unit of power, the watt, is equivalent to one joule per second.
In an electromagnet a coil, of a large number of circular turns of insulated wire, wrapped on a cylindrical core, behaves like a magnet when an electric current flows through it. When the current is switched off, the coil loses its magnetism immediately.
Electric current produces a magnetic field. The magnetic field can be visualized as a pattern of circular field lines surrounding the wire that persists as long as there is current.
Magnetism can also produce electric currents. When a changing magnetic field is applied to a conductor, an Electromotive force (EMF) is produced, and when there is a suitable path, this causes current.
Electric current can be directly measured with a galvanometer, but this method involves breaking the electrical circuit, which is sometimes inconvenient. Current can also be measured without breaking the circuit by detecting the magnetic field associated with the current. Devices used for this include Hall effect sensors, current clamps, current transformers, and Rogowski coils.
When an electric current flows in a suitably shaped conductor at radio frequencies radio waves can be generated. These travel at the speed of light and can cause electric currents in distant conductors.
In metallic solids, electric charge flows by means of electrons, from lower to higher electrical potential. In other media, any stream of charged objects (ions, for example) may constitute an electric current. To provide a definition of current independent of the type of charge carriers, conventional current is defined as moving in the same direction as the positive charge flow. So, in metals where the charge carriers (electrons) are negative, conventional current is in the opposite direction as the electrons. In conductors where the charge carriers are positive, conventional current is in the same direction as the charge carriers.
In a vacuum, a beam of ions or electrons may be formed. In other conductive materials, the electric current is due to the flow of both positively and negatively charged particles at the same time. In still others, the current is entirely due to positive charge flow. For example, the electric currents in electrolytes are flows of positively and negatively charged ions. In a common lead - acid electrochemical cell, electric currents are composed of positive hydrogen ions (protons) flowing in one direction, and negative sulfate ions flowing in the other. Electric currents in sparks or plasma are flows of electrons as well as positive and negative ions. In ice and in certain solid electrolytes, the electric current is entirely composed of flowing ions.
In a metal, some of the outer electrons in each atom are not bound to the individual atom as they are in insulating materials, but are free to move within the metal lattice. These conduction electrons can serve as charge carriers, carrying a current. Metals are particularly conductive because there are a large number of these free electrons, typically one per atom in the lattice. With no external electric field applied, these electrons move about randomly due to thermal energy but, on average, there is zero net current within the metal. At room temperature, the average speed of these random motions is 10 metres per second. Given a surface through which a metal wire passes, electrons move in both directions across the surface at an equal rate. As George Gamow wrote in his popular science book, One, Two, Three... Infinity (1947), "The metallic substances differ from all other materials by the fact that the outer shells of their atoms are bound rather loosely, and often let one of their electrons go free. Thus the interior of a metal is filled up with a large number of unattached electrons that travel aimlessly around like a crowd of displaced persons. When a metal wire is subjected to electric force applied on its opposite ends, these free electrons rush in the direction of the force, thus forming what we call an electric current. ''
When a metal wire is connected across the two terminals of a DC voltage source such as a battery, the source places an electric field across the conductor. The moment contact is made, the free electrons of the conductor are forced to drift toward the positive terminal under the influence of this field. The free electrons are therefore the charge carrier in a typical solid conductor.
For a steady flow of charge through a surface, the current I (in amperes) can be calculated with the following equation:
where Q is the electric charge transferred through the surface over a time t. If Q and t are measured in coulombs and seconds respectively, I is in amperes.
More generally, electric current can be represented as the rate at which charge flows through a given surface as:
Electric currents in electrolytes are flows of electrically charged particles (ions). For example, if an electric field is placed across a solution of Na and Cl (and conditions are right) the sodium ions move towards the negative electrode (cathode), while the chloride ions move towards the positive electrode (anode). Reactions take place at both electrode surfaces, absorbing each ion.
Water - ice and certain solid electrolytes called proton conductors contain positive hydrogen ions ("protons '') that are mobile. In these materials, electric currents are composed of moving protons, as opposed to the moving electrons in metals.
In certain electrolyte mixtures, brightly coloured ions are the moving electric charges. The slow progress of the colour makes the current visible.
In air and other ordinary gases below the breakdown field, the dominant source of electrical conduction is via relatively few mobile ions produced by radioactive gases, ultraviolet light, or cosmic rays. Since the electrical conductivity is low, gases are dielectrics or insulators. However, once the applied electric field approaches the breakdown value, free electrons become sufficiently accelerated by the electric field to create additional free electrons by colliding, and ionizing, neutral gas atoms or molecules in a process called avalanche breakdown. The breakdown process forms a plasma that contains enough mobile electrons and positive ions to make it an electrical conductor. In the process, it forms a light emitting conductive path, such as a spark, arc or lightning.
Plasma is the state of matter where some of the electrons in a gas are stripped or "ionized '' from their molecules or atoms. A plasma can be formed by high temperature, or by application of a high electric or alternating magnetic field as noted above. Due to their lower mass, the electrons in a plasma accelerate more quickly in response to an electric field than the heavier positive ions, and hence carry the bulk of the current. The free ions recombine to create new chemical compounds (for example, breaking atmospheric oxygen into single oxygen (O → 2O), which then recombine creating ozone (O)).
Since a "perfect vacuum '' contains no charged particles, it normally behaves as a perfect insulator. However, metal electrode surfaces can cause a region of the vacuum to become conductive by injecting free electrons or ions through either field electron emission or thermionic emission. Thermionic emission occurs when the thermal energy exceeds the metal 's work function, while field electron emission occurs when the electric field at the surface of the metal is high enough to cause tunneling, which results in the ejection of free electrons from the metal into the vacuum. Externally heated electrodes are often used to generate an electron cloud as in the filament or indirectly heated cathode of vacuum tubes. Cold electrodes can also spontaneously produce electron clouds via thermionic emission when small incandescent regions (called cathode spots or anode spots) are formed. These are incandescent regions of the electrode surface that are created by a localized high current. These regions may be initiated by field electron emission, but are then sustained by localized thermionic emission once a vacuum arc forms. These small electron - emitting regions can form quite rapidly, even explosively, on a metal surface subjected to a high electrical field. Vacuum tubes and sprytrons are some of the electronic switching and amplifying devices based on vacuum conductivity.
Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fields occurring in certain materials when cooled below a characteristic critical temperature. It was discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8, 1911 in Leiden. Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines, superconductivity is a quantum mechanical phenomenon. It is characterized by the Meissner effect, the complete ejection of magnetic field lines from the interior of the superconductor as it transitions into the superconducting state. The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity can not be understood simply as the idealization of perfect conductivity in classical physics.
In a semiconductor it is sometimes useful to think of the current as due to the flow of positive "holes '' (the mobile positive charge carriers that are places where the semiconductor crystal is missing a valence electron). This is the case in a p - type semiconductor. A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that of a conductor and an insulator. This means a conductivity roughly in the range of 10 to 10 siemens per centimeter (S ⋅ cm).
In the classic crystalline semiconductors, electrons can have energies only within certain bands (i.e. ranges of levels of energy). Energetically, these bands are located between the energy of the ground state, the state in which electrons are tightly bound to the atomic nuclei of the material, and the free electron energy, the latter describing the energy required for an electron to escape entirely from the material. The energy bands each correspond to a large number of discrete quantum states of the electrons, and most of the states with low energy (closer to the nucleus) are occupied, up to a particular band called the valence band. Semiconductors and insulators are distinguished from metals because the valence band in any given metal is nearly filled with electrons under usual operating conditions, while very few (semiconductor) or virtually none (insulator) of them are available in the conduction band, the band immediately above the valence band.
The ease of exciting electrons in the semiconductor from the valence band to the conduction band depends on the band gap between the bands. The size of this energy band gap serves as an arbitrary dividing line (roughly 4 eV) between semiconductors and insulators.
With covalent bonds, an electron moves by hopping to a neighboring bond. The Pauli exclusion principle requires that the electron be lifted into the higher anti-bonding state of that bond. For delocalized states, for example in one dimension -- that is in a nanowire, for every energy there is a state with electrons flowing in one direction and another state with the electrons flowing in the other. For a net current to flow, more states for one direction than for the other direction must be occupied. For this to occur, energy is required, as in the semiconductor the next higher states lie above the band gap. Often this is stated as: full bands do not contribute to the electrical conductivity. However, as a semiconductor 's temperature rises above absolute zero, there is more energy in the semiconductor to spend on lattice vibration and on exciting electrons into the conduction band. The current - carrying electrons in the conduction band are known as free electrons, though they are often simply called electrons if that is clear in context.
Current density is a measure of the density of an electric current. It is defined as a vector whose magnitude is the electric current per cross-sectional area. In SI units, the current density is measured in amperes per square metre.
where I (\ displaystyle I) is current in the conductor, J → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (J))) is the current density, and d A → (\ displaystyle d (\ vec (A))) is the differential cross-sectional area vector.
The current density (current per unit area) J → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (J))) in materials with finite resistance is directly proportional to the electric field E → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (E))) in the medium. The proportionality constant is called the conductivity σ (\ displaystyle \ sigma) of the material, whose value depends on the material concerned and, in general, is dependent on the temperature of the material:
The reciprocal of the conductivity σ (\ displaystyle \ sigma) of the material is called the resistivity ρ (\ displaystyle \ rho) of the material and the above equation, when written in terms of resistivity becomes:
Conduction in semiconductor devices may occur by a combination of drift and diffusion, which is proportional to diffusion constant D (\ displaystyle D) and charge density α q (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (q)). The current density is then:
with q (\ displaystyle q) being the elementary charge and n (\ displaystyle n) the electron density. The carriers move in the direction of decreasing concentration, so for electrons a positive current results for a positive density gradient. If the carriers are holes, replace electron density n (\ displaystyle n) by the negative of the hole density p (\ displaystyle p).
In linear anisotropic materials, σ, ρ and D are tensors.
In linear materials such as metals, and under low frequencies, the current density across the conductor surface is uniform. In such conditions, Ohm 's law states that the current is directly proportional to the potential difference between two ends (across) of that metal (ideal) resistor (or other ohmic device):
where I (\ displaystyle I) is the current, measured in amperes; V (\ displaystyle V) is the potential difference, measured in volts; and R (\ displaystyle R) is the resistance, measured in ohms. For alternating currents, especially at higher frequencies, skin effect causes the current to spread unevenly across the conductor cross-section, with higher density near the surface, thus increasing the apparent resistance.
The mobile charged particles within a conductor move constantly in random directions, like the particles of a gas. (More accurately, a Fermi gas.) To create a net flow of charge, the particles must also move together with an average drift rate. Electrons are the charge carriers in most metals and they follow an erratic path, bouncing from atom to atom, but generally drifting in the opposite direction of the electric field. The speed they drift at can be calculated from the equation:
where
Typically, electric charges in solids flow slowly. For example, in a copper wire of cross-section 0.5 mm, carrying a current of 5 A, the drift velocity of the electrons is on the order of a millimetre per second. To take a different example, in the near - vacuum inside a cathode ray tube, the electrons travel in near - straight lines at about a tenth of the speed of light.
Any accelerating electric charge, and therefore any changing electric current, gives rise to an electromagnetic wave that propagates at very high speed outside the surface of the conductor. This speed is usually a significant fraction of the speed of light, as can be deduced from Maxwell 's Equations, and is therefore many times faster than the drift velocity of the electrons. For example, in AC power lines, the waves of electromagnetic energy propagate through the space between the wires, moving from a source to a distant load, even though the electrons in the wires only move back and forth over a tiny distance.
The ratio of the speed of the electromagnetic wave to the speed of light in free space is called the velocity factor, and depends on the electromagnetic properties of the conductor and the insulating materials surrounding it, and on their shape and size.
The magnitudes (not the natures) of these three velocities can be illustrated by an analogy with the three similar velocities associated with gases. (See also hydraulic analogy.)
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states in the union during the civil war | Union (American Civil war) - wikipedia
During the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865), the Union referred to the United States of America and specifically to the national government of President Abraham Lincoln and the 20 free states, 4 border, and slave states (some with split governments and troops sent both north and south) that supported it. The Union was opposed by 11 southern slave states (or 13, according to the Southern view and one western territory) that formed the Confederate States of America, or also known as "the Confederacy. ''
All of the Union 's states provided soldiers for the United States Army (also known as the Union Army), though the border areas also sent tens of thousands of soldiers south into the Confederacy. The Border states were essential as a supply base for the Union invasion of the Confederacy, and Lincoln realized he could not win the war without control of them, especially Maryland, which lay north of the national capital of Washington, D.C.. The Northeast and upper Midwest provided the industrial resources for a mechanized war producing large quantities of munitions and supplies, as well as financing for the war. The Midwest provided soldiers, food, horses, financial support, and training camps. Army hospitals were set up across the Union. Most states had Republican Party governors who energetically supported the war effort and suppressed anti-war subversion in 1863 -- 64. The Democratic Party strongly supported the war at the beginning in 1861 but by 1862, was split between the War Democrats and the anti-war element led by the "Copperheads. '' The Democrats made major electoral gains in 1862 in state elections, most notably in New York. They lost ground in 1863, especially in Ohio. In 1864, the Republicans campaigned under the National Union Party banner, which attracted many War Democrats and soldiers and scored a landslide victory for Lincoln and his entire ticket against opposition candidate George B. McClellan, former General - in - Chief of the Union Army and its eastern Army of the Potomac.
The war years were quite prosperous except where serious fighting and guerrilla warfare took place along the southern border. Prosperity was stimulated by heavy government spending and the creation of an entirely new national banking system. The Union states invested a great deal of money and effort in organizing psychological and social support for soldiers ' wives, widows, and orphans, and for the soldiers themselves. Most soldiers were volunteers, although after 1862 many volunteered to escape the draft and to take advantage of generous cash bounties on offer from states and localities. Draft resistance was notable in some larger cities, especially New York City with its massive anti-draft riots of July 1863 and in some remote districts such as the coal mining areas of Pennsylvania.
In the context of the American Civil War, the Union is sometimes referred to as "the North, '' both then and now, as opposed to the Confederacy, which was "the South. '' The Union never recognized the legitimacy of the Confederacy 's secession and maintained at all times that it remained entirely a part of the United States of America. In foreign affairs the Union was the only side recognized by all other nations, none of which officially recognized the Confederate government. The term "Union '' occurs in the first governing document of the United States, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. The subsequent Constitution of 1787 was issued and ratified in the name not of the states, but of "We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union... ''. Union, for the United States of America, is then repeated in such clauses as the Admission to the Union clause in Article IV, Section 3.
Even before the war started, the phrase "preserve the Union '' was commonplace, and a "union of states '' had been used to refer to the entire United States of America. Using the term "Union '' to apply to the non-secessionist side carried a connotation of legitimacy as the continuation of the pre-existing political entity.
Confederates generally saw the Union states as being opposed to slavery, occasionally referring to them as abolitionists, as in reference to the U.S. Navy as the "Abolition fleet '' and the U.S. Army as the "Abolition forces ''.
Unlike the Confederacy, the Union had a large industrialized and urbanized area (the Northeast), and more advanced commercial, transportation and financial systems than the rural South. Additionally, the Union states had a manpower advantage of 5 to 2 at the start of the war.
Year by year, the Confederacy shrank and lost control of increasing quantities of resources and population. Meanwhile, the Union turned its growing potential advantage into a much stronger military force. However, much of the Union strength had to be used to garrison conquered areas, and to protect railroads and other vital points. The Union 's great advantages in population and industry would prove to be vital long - term factors in its victory over the Confederacy, but it took the Union a long while to fully mobilize these resources.
The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism. Historian, Allan Nevins, says:
The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment... Anger swept the land. From every side came news of mass meetings, speeches, resolutions, tenders of business support, the muster of companies and regiments, the determined action of governors and legislatures.
McClintock states:
At the time, Northerners were right to wonder at the near unanimity that so quickly followed long months of bitterness and discord. It would not last throughout the protracted war to come -- or even through the year -- but in that moment of unity was laid bare the common Northern nationalism usually hidden by the fierce battles more typical of the political arena. ''
Historian Michael Smith, argues that, as the war ground on year after year, the spirit of American republicanism grew stronger and generated fears of corruption in high places. Voters became afraid of power being centralized in Washington, extravagant spending, and war profiteering. Democratic candidates emphasized these fears. The candidates added that rapid modernization was putting too much political power in the hands of Eastern financiers and industrialists. They warned that the abolition of slavery would bring a flood of freed blacks into the labor market of the North.
Republicans responded with claims of defeatism. They indicted Copperheads for criminal conspiracies to free Confederate prisoners of war, and played on the spirit of nationalism and the growing hatred of the slaveowners, as the guilty party in the war.
Historians have overwhelmingly praised the "political genius '' of Abraham Lincoln 's performance as President. His first priority was military victory. This required that he master entirely new skills as a strategist and diplomat. He oversaw supplies, finances, manpower, the selection of generals, and the course of overall strategy. Working closely with state and local politicians, he rallied public opinion and (at Gettysburg) articulated a national mission that has defined America ever since. Lincoln 's charm and willingness to cooperate with political and personal enemies made Washington work much more smoothly than Richmond, the Confederate capital, and his wit smoothed many rough edges. Lincoln 's cabinet proved much stronger and more efficient than Davis 's, as Lincoln channeled personal rivalries into a competition for excellence rather than mutual destruction. With William Seward at State, Salmon P. Chase at the Treasury, and (from 1862) Edwin Stanton at the War Department, Lincoln had a powerful cabinet of determined men. Except for monitoring major appointments and decisions, Lincoln gave them free rein to end the Confederate rebellion. Cabinet (government)
The Republican Congress passed many major laws that reshaped the nation 's economy, financial system, tax system, land system, and higher education system. These included: the Morrill tariff, the Homestead Act, the Pacific Railroad Act, and the National Banking Act. Lincoln paid relatively little attention to this legislation as he focused on war issues but he worked smoothly with powerful Congressional leaders such as Thaddeus Stevens (on taxation and spending), Charles Sumner (on foreign affairs), Lyman Trumbull (on legal issues), Justin Smith Morrill (on land grants and tariffs) and William Pitt Fessenden (on finances).
Military and reconstruction issues were another matter. Lincoln, as the leader of the moderate and conservative factions of the Republican Party, often crossed swords with the Radical Republicans, led by Stevens and Sumner. Author, Bruce Tap, shows that Congress challenged Lincoln 's role as commander - in - chief through the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War. It was a joint committee of both houses that was dominated by the Radical Republicans, who took a hard line against the Confederacy. During the 37th and 38th Congresses, the committee investigated every aspect of Union military operations, with special attention to finding commanders culpable for military defeats. It assumed an inevitable Union victory. Failure was perceived to indicate evil motivations or personal failures. The committee distrusted graduates of the US Military Academy at West Point, since many of the academy 's alumni were leaders of the enemy army. Members of the committee much preferred political generals with a satisfactory political record. Some of the committee suggested that West - Pointers who engaged in strategic maneuver were cowardly or even disloyal. It ended up endorsing incompetent but politically correct generals.
The opposition came from Copperhead Democrats, who were strongest in the Midwest and wanted to allow Confederate secession. In the East, opposition to the war was strongest among Irish Catholics, but also included business interests connected to the South typified by August Belmont. The Democratic Party was deeply split. In 1861 most Democrats supported the war. However, the party increasingly split down the middle between the moderates who supported the war effort, and the peace element, including Copperheads, who did not. It scored major gains in the 1862 elections, and elected the moderate Horatio Seymour as governor of New York. They gained 28 seats in the House of Representatives but Republicans retained control of both the House and the Senate.
The 1862 election for the Indiana legislature was especially hard - fought. Though the Democrats gained control of the legislature, they were unable to impede the war effort. Republican Governor Oliver P. Morton was able to maintain control of the state 's contribution to the war effort despite the Democrat majority. Washington was especially helpful in 1864 in arranging furloughs to allow Hoosier soldiers to return home so they could vote in elections. Across the North in 1864, the great majority of soldiers voted Republican. Men who had been Democrats before the war often abstained or voted Republican.
As the federal draft laws tightened, there was serious unrest among Copperhead strongholds, such as the Irish in the Pennsylvania coal mining districts. The government needed the coal more than the draftees, so it ignored the largely non-violent draft dodging there. The violent New York City draft riots of 1863 were suppressed by the U.S. Army firing grape shot down cobblestone city streets.
The Democrats nominated George McClellan, a War Democrat for the 1864 presidential election but gave him an anti-war platform. In terms of Congress the opposition against the war was nearly powerless -- as was the case in most states. In Indiana and Illinois pro-war governors circumvented anti-war legislatures elected in 1862. For 30 years after the war the Democrats carried the burden of having opposed the martyred Lincoln, who was viewed by many as the salvation of the Union and the destroyer of slavery.
The Copperheads were a large faction of northern Democrats who opposed the war, demanding an immediate peace settlement. They said they wanted to restore "the Union as it was '' (that is, with the South and with slavery) but they realized that the Confederacy would never voluntarily rejoin the U.S. The most prominent Copperhead was Ohio 's Clement L. Vallandigham, a Congressman and leader of the Democratic Party in Ohio. He was defeated in an intense election for governor in 1863. Republican prosecutors in the Midwest accused some Copperhead activists of treason in a series of trials in 1864.
Copperheadism was a grassroots movement, strongest in the area just north of the Ohio River, as well as some urban ethnic wards. Some historians have argued that it represented a traditionalistic element alarmed at the rapid modernization of society sponsored by the Republican Party. It looked back to Jacksonian Democracy for inspiration -- with ideals that promoted an agrarian rather than industrialized concept of society. Weber (2006) argues that the Copperheads damaged the Union war effort by fighting the draft, encouraging desertion and forming conspiracies. However, other historians say the Copperheads were a legitimate opposition force unfairly treated by the government, adding that the draft was in disrepute and that the Republicans greatly exaggerated the conspiracies for partisan reasons. Copperheadism was a major issue in the 1864 presidential election -- its strength waxed when Union armies were doing poorly and waned when they won great victories. After the fall of Atlanta in September 1864, military success seemed assured and Copperheadism collapsed.
Enthusiastic young men clamored to join the Union army in 1861. They came with family support for reasons of patriotism and excitement. Washington decided to keep the small regular army intact; it only had 16,000 men and was needed to guard the frontier. Its officers could, however, join the temporary new volunteer army that was formed, with expectations that their experience would lead to rapid promotions. The problem with volunteering, however, was its serious lack of planning, leadership, and organization at the highest levels. Washington called on the states for troops, and every northern governor set about raising and equipping regiments, and sent the bills to the War Department. The men could elect the junior officers, while the governor appointed the senior officers, and Lincoln appointed the generals. Typically, politicians used their local organizations to raise troops and were in line (if healthy enough) to become colonel. The problem was that the War Department, under the disorganized leadership of Simon Cameron, also authorized local and private groups to raise regiments. The result was widespread confusion and delay.
Pennsylvania, for example, had acute problems. When Washington called for 10 more regiments, enough men volunteered to form 30. However, they were scattered among 70 different new units, none of them a complete regiment. Not until Washington approved gubernatorial control of all new units was the problem resolved. Allan Nevins is particularly scathing of this in his analysis: "A President more exact, systematic and vigilant than Lincoln, a Secretary more alert and clearheaded than Cameron, would have prevented these difficulties. ''
By the end of 1861, 700,000 soldiers were drilling in Union camps. The first wave in spring was called up for only 90 days, then the soldiers went home or reenlisted. Later waves enlisted for three years.
The new recruits spent their time drilling in company and regiment formations. The combat in the first year, though strategically important, involved relatively small forces and few casualties. Sickness was a much more serious cause of hospitalization or death.
In the first few months, men wore low quality uniforms made of "shoddy '' material, but by fall, sturdy wool uniforms -- in blue -- were standard. The nation 's factories were converted to produce the rifles, cannons, wagons, tents, telegraph sets, and the myriad of other special items the army needed.
While business had been slow or depressed in spring 1861, because of war fears and Southern boycotts, by fall business was hiring again, offering young men jobs that were an alternative way to help win the war. Nonpartisanship was the rule in the first year, but by summer 1862, many Democrats had stopped supporting the war effort, and volunteering fell off sharply in their strongholds.
The calls for more and more soldiers continued, so states and localities responded by offering cash bonuses. By 1863, a draft law was in effect, but few men actually were drafted and served, since the law was designed to get them to volunteer or hire a substitute. Others hid away or left the country. With the Emancipation Proclamation taking effect in January 1863, localities could meet their draft quota by sponsoring regiments of ex-slaves organized in the South.
Michigan was especially eager to send thousands of volunteers. A study of the cities of Grand Rapids and Niles shows an overwhelming surge of nationalism in 1861, whipping up enthusiasm for the war in all segments of society, and all political, religious, ethnic, and occupational groups. However, by 1862 the casualties were mounting, and the war was increasingly focused on freeing the slaves in addition to preserving the Union. Copperhead Democrats called the war a failure, and it became an increasingly partisan Republican effort. Michigan voters remained evenly split between the parties in the presidential election of 1864.
Perman (2010) says historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer, and die over four years:
Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one 's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that, no matter what he thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes affected his reasons for continuing to fight.
On the whole, the national, state, and local governments handled the avalanche of paperwork effectively. Skills developed in insurance and financial companies formed the basis of systematic forms, copies, summaries, and filing systems used to make sense of masses of human data. The leader in this effort, John Shaw Billings, later developed a system of mechanically storing, sorting, and counting numerical information using punch cards. Nevertheless, old - fashioned methodology had to be recognized and overcome. An illustrative case study came in New Hampshire, where the critical post of state adjutant general was held in 1861 -- 64 by elderly politician Anthony C. Colby (1792 -- 1873) and his son Daniel E. Colby (1816 -- 1891). They were patriotic, but were overwhelmed with the complexity of their duties. The state lost track of men who enlisted after 1861; it had no personnel records or information on volunteers, substitutes, or draftees, and there was no inventory of weaponry and supplies. Nathaniel Head (1828 -- 1883) took over in 1864, obtained an adequate budget and office staff, and reconstructed the missing paperwork. As result, widows, orphans, and disabled veterans received the postwar payments they had earned.
More soldiers died of disease than from battle injuries, and even larger numbers were temporarily incapacitated by wounds, disease, and accidents. The Union responded by building army hospitals in every state.
The hygiene of the camps was poor, especially at the beginning of the war when men who had seldom been far from home were brought together for training with thousands of strangers. First came epidemics of the childhood diseases of chicken pox, mumps, whooping cough, and especially, measles. Operations in the South meant a dangerous and new disease environment, bringing diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever, and malaria. There were no antibiotics, so the surgeons prescribed coffee, whiskey, and quinine. Harsh weather, bad water, inadequate shelter in winter quarters, poor policing of camps, and dirty camp hospitals took their toll. This was a common scenario in wars from time immemorial, and conditions faced by the Confederate army were even worse. What was different in the Union was the emergence of skilled, well - funded medical organizers who took proactive action, especially in the much enlarged United States Army Medical Department, and the United States Sanitary Commission, a new private agency. Numerous other new agencies also targeted the medical and morale needs of soldiers, including the United States Christian Commission, as well as smaller private agencies, such as the Women 's Central Association of Relief for Sick and Wounded in the Army (WCAR), founded in 1861 by Henry Whitney Bellows, a Unitarian minister, and the social reformer Dorothea Dix. Systematic funding appeals raised public consciousness as well as millions of dollars. Many thousands of volunteers worked in the hospitals and rest homes, most famously poet Walt Whitman. Frederick Law Olmsted, a famous landscape architect, was the highly efficient executive director of the Sanitary Commission.
States could use their own tax money to support their troops, as Ohio did. Under the energetic leadership of Governor David Tod, a War Democrat who won office on a coalition "Union Party '' ticket with Republicans, Ohio acted vigorously. Following the unexpected carnage at the battle of Shiloh in April 1862, Ohio sent three steamboats to the scene as floating hospitals equipped with doctors, nurses, and medical supplies. The state fleet expanded to 11 hospital ships, and the state set up 12 local offices in main transportation nodes, to help Ohio soldiers moving back and forth.
The Christian Commission comprised 6,000 volunteers who aided chaplains in many ways. For example, its agents distributed Bibles, delivered sermons, helped with sending letters home, taught men to read and write, and set up camp libraries.
The Army learned many lessons and modernized its procedures, and medical science -- especially surgery -- made many advances. In the long run, the wartime experiences of the numerous Union commissions modernized public welfare, and set the stage for large -- scale community philanthropy in America based on fund raising campaigns and private donations.
Additionally, women gained new public roles. For example, Mary Livermore (1820 -- 1905), the manager of the Chicago branch of the US Sanitary Commission, used her newfound organizational skills to mobilize support for women 's suffrage after the war. She argued that women needed more education and job opportunities to help them fulfill their role of serving others.
The Sanitary Commission collected enormous amounts of statistical data, and opened up the problems of storing information for fast access and mechanically searching for data patterns. The pioneer was John Shaw Billings (1838 -- 1913). A senior surgeon in the war, Billings built two of the world 's most important libraries, Library of the Surgeon General 's Office (now the National Library of Medicine) and the New York Public Library; he also figured out how to mechanically analyze data by turning it into numbers and punching onto the computer punch card as developed by his student Herman Hollerith. Hollerith 's company became International Business Machines (IBM) in 1911.
Both sides operated prison camps; they handled about 400,000 captives, but many other prisoners were quickly released and never sent to camps. The Record and Pension Office in 1901 counted 211,000 Northerners who were captured. In 1861 -- 63 most were immediately paroled; after the parole exchange system broke down in 1863, about 195,000 went to Confederate prison camps. Some tried to escape but few succeeded. By contrast 464,000 Confederates were captured (many in the final days) and 215,000 imprisoned. Over 30,000 Union and nearly 26,000 Confederate prisoners died in captivity. Just over 12 % of the captives in Northern prisons died, compared to 15.5 % for Southern prisons.
Discontent with the 1863 draft law led to riots in several cities and in rural areas as well. By far the most important were the New York City draft riots of July 13 to July 16, 1863. Irish Catholic and other workers fought police, militia and regular army units until the Army used artillery to sweep the streets. Initially focused on the draft, the protests quickly expanded into violent attacks on blacks in New York City, with many killed on the streets.
Small - scale riots broke out in ethnic German and Irish districts, and in areas along the Ohio River with many Copperheads. Holmes County, Ohio was an isolated parochial area dominated by Pennsylvania Dutch and some recent German immigrants. It was a Democratic stronghold and few men dared speak out in favor of conscription. Local politicians denounced Lincoln and Congress as despotic, seeing the draft law as a violation of their local autonomy. In June 1863, small - scale disturbances broke out; they ended when the Army sent in armed units.
The Union economy grew and prospered during the war while fielding a very large army and navy. The Republicans in Washington had a Whiggish vision of an industrial nation, with great cities, efficient factories, productive farms, all national banks, all knit together by a modern railroad system, to be mobilized by the United States Military Railroad. The South had resisted policies such as tariffs to promote industry and homestead laws to promote farming because slavery would not benefit. With the South gone and Northern Democrats weak, the Republicans enacted their legislation. At the same time they passed new taxes to pay for part of the war and issued large amounts of bonds to pay for most of the rest. Economic historians attribute the remainder of the cost of the war to inflation. Congress wrote an elaborate program of economic modernization that had the dual purpose of winning the war and permanently transforming the economy.
In 1860 the Treasury was a small operation that funded the small - scale operations of the government through land sales and customs based on a low tariff. Peacetime revenues were trivial in comparison with the cost of a full - scale war but the Treasury Department under Secretary Salmon P. Chase showed unusual ingenuity in financing the war without crippling the economy. Many new taxes were imposed and always with a patriotic theme comparing the financial sacrifice to the sacrifices of life and limb. The government paid for supplies in real money, which encouraged people to sell to the government regardless of their politics. By contrast the Confederacy gave paper promissory notes when it seized property, so that even loyal Confederates would hide their horses and mules rather than sell them for dubious paper. Overall the Northern financial system was highly successful in raising money and turning patriotism into profit, while the Confederate system impoverished its patriots.
The United States needed $3.1 billion to pay for the immense armies and fleets raised to fight the Civil War -- over $400 million just in 1862 alone. Apart from tariffs, the largest revenue by far came from new excise taxes -- a sort of value added tax -- that was imposed on every sort of manufactured item. Second came much higher tariffs, through several Morrill tariff laws. Third came the nation 's first income tax; only the wealthy paid and it was repealed at war 's end.
Apart from taxes, the second major source of income was government bonds. For the first time bonds in small denominations were sold directly to the people, with publicity and patriotism as key factors, as designed by banker Jay Cooke. State banks lost their power to issue banknotes. Only national banks could do that and Chase made it easy to become a national bank; it involved buying and holding federal bonds and financiers rushed to open these banks. Chase numbered them, so that the first one in each city was the "First National Bank. '' Third, the government printed paper money called "greenbacks ''. They led to endless controversy because they caused inflation.
The North 's most important war measure was perhaps the creation of a system of national banks that provided a sound currency for the industrial expansion. Even more important, the hundreds of new banks that were allowed to open were required to purchase government bonds. Thereby the nation monetized the potential wealth represented by farms, urban buildings, factories, and businesses, and immediately turned that money over to the Treasury for war needs.
Secretary Chase, though a long - time free - trader, worked with Morrill to pass a second tariff bill in summer 1861, raising rates another 10 points in order to generate more revenues. These subsequent bills were primarily revenue driven to meet the war 's needs, though they enjoyed the support of protectionists such as Carey, who again assisted Morrill in the bill 's drafting. The Morrill Tariff of 1861 was designed to raise revenue. The tariff act of 1862 served not only to raise revenue but also to encourage the establishment of factories free from British competition by taxing British imports. Furthermore, it protected American factory workers from low paid European workers, and as a major bonus attracted tens of thousands of those Europeans to immigrate to America for high wage factory and craftsman jobs.
Customs revenue from tariffs totaled $345 million from 1861 through 1865 or 43 % of all federal tax revenue.
The U.S. government owned vast amounts of good land (mostly from the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 and the Oregon Treaty with Britain in 1846). The challenge was to make the land useful to people and to provide the economic basis for the wealth that would pay off the war debt. Land grants went to railroad construction companies to open up the western plains and link up to California. Together with the free lands provided farmers by the Homestead Law the low - cost farm lands provided by the land grants sped up the expansion of commercial agriculture in the West.
The 1862 Homestead Act opened up the public domain lands for free. Land grants to the railroads meant they could sell tracts for family farms (80 to 200 acres) at low prices with extended credit. In addition the government sponsored fresh information, scientific methods and the latest techniques through the newly established Department of Agriculture and the Morrill Land Grant College Act.
Agriculture was the largest single industry and it prospered during the war. Prices were high, pulled up by a strong demand from the army and from Britain (which depended on American wheat for a fourth of its food imports). The war acted as a catalyst that encouraged the rapid adoption of horse - drawn machinery and other implements. The rapid spread of recent inventions such as the reaper and mower made the work force efficient, even as hundreds of thousands of farmers were in the army. Many wives took their place and often consulted by mail on what to do; increasingly they relied on community and extended kin for advice and help.
The Union used hundreds of thousands of animals. The Army had plenty of cash to purchase them from farmers and breeders but especially in the early months the quality was mixed. Horses were needed for cavalry and artillery. Mules pulled the wagons. The supply held up, despite an unprecedented epidemic of glanders, a fatal disease that baffled veterinarians. In the South, the Union army shot all the horses it did not need to keep them out of Confederate hands.
The Treasury started buying cotton during the war, for shipment to Europe and northern mills. The sellers were Southern planters who needed the cash, regardless of their patriotism. The Northern buyers could make heavy profits, which annoyed soldiers like Ulysses Grant. He blamed Jewish traders and expelled them from his lines in 1862 but Lincoln quickly overruled this show of anti-semitism. Critics said the cotton trade helped the South, prolonged the war and fostered corruption. Lincoln decided to continue the trade for fear that Britain might intervene if its textile manufacturers were denied raw material. Another goal was to foster latent Unionism in Southern border states. Northern textile manufacturers needed cotton to remain in business and to make uniforms, while cotton exports to Europe provided an important source of gold to finance the war.
The Protestant religion was quite strong in the North in the 1860s. The United States Christian Commission sent agents into the Army camps to provide psychological support as well as books, newspapers, food and clothing. Through prayer, sermons and welfare operations, the agents ministered to soldiers ' spiritual as well as temporal needs as they sought to bring the men to a Christian way of life. Most churches made an effort to support their soldiers in the field and especially their families back home. Much of the political rhetoric of the era had a distinct religious tone.
The Protestant clergy in America took a variety of positions. In general, the pietistic denominations such as the Methodists, Northern Baptists and Congregationalists strongly supported the war effort. Catholics, Episcopalians, Lutherans and conservative Presbyterians generally avoided any discussion of the war, so it would not bitterly divide their membership. The Quakers, while giving strong support to the abolitionist movement on a personal level, refused to take a denominational position. Some clergymen who supported the Confederacy were denounced as Copperheads, especially in the border regions.
Many Northerners had only recently become religious (following the Second Great Awakening) and religion was a powerful force in their lives. No denomination was more active in supporting the Union than the Methodist Episcopal Church. Carwardine argues that for many Methodists, the victory of Lincoln in 1860 heralded the arrival of the kingdom of God in America. They were moved into action by a vision of freedom for slaves, freedom from the persecutions of godly abolitionists, release from the Slave Power 's evil grip on the American government and the promise of a new direction for the Union. Methodists formed a major element of the popular support for the Radical Republicans with their hard line toward the white South. Dissident Methodists left the church. During Reconstruction the Methodists took the lead in helping form Methodist churches for Freedmen and moving into Southern cities even to the point of taking control, with Army help, of buildings that had belonged to the southern branch of the church.
The Methodist family magazine Ladies ' Repository promoted Christian family activism. Its articles provided moral uplift to women and children. It portrayed the War as a great moral crusade against a decadent Southern civilization corrupted by slavery. It recommended activities that family members could perform in order to aid the Union cause.
Historian Stephen M. Frank reports that what it meant to be a father varied with status and age. He says most men demonstrated dual commitments as providers and nurturers and believed that husband and wife had mutual obligations toward their children. The war privileged masculinity, dramatizing and exaggerating, father - son bonds. Especially at five critical stages in the soldier 's career (enlistment, blooding, mustering out, wounding and death) letters from absent fathers articulated a distinctive set of 19th - century ideals of manliness.
There were numerous children 's magazines such as Merry 's Museum, The Student and Schoolmate, Our Young Folks, The Little Pilgrim, Forrester 's Playmate, and The Little Corporal. They showed a Protestant religious tone and "promoted the principles of hard work, obedience, generosity, humility, and piety; trumpeted the benefits of family cohesion; and furnished mild adventure stories, innocent entertainment, and instruction. '' Their pages featured factual information and anecdotes about the war along with related quizzes, games, poems, songs, short oratorical pieces for "declamation, '' short stories and very short plays that children could stage. They promoted patriotism and the Union war aims, fostered kindly attitudes toward freed slaves, blackened the Confederates cause, encouraged readers to raise money for war - related humanitarian funds, and dealt with the death of family members. By 1866, the Milton Bradley Company was selling "The Myriopticon: A Historical Panorama of the Rebellion '' that allowed children to stage a neighborhood show that would explain the war. It comprised colorful drawings that were turned on wheels and included pre-printed tickets, poster advertisements, and narration that could be read aloud at the show.
Caring for war orphans was an important function for local organizations as well as state and local government. A typical state was Iowa, where the private "Iowa Soldiers Orphans Home Association '' operated with funding from the legislature and public donations. It set up orphanages in Davenport, Glenwood and Cedar Falls. The state government funded pensions for the widows and children of soldiers. Orphan schools like the Pennsylvania Soldiers ' Orphan School, also spoke of the broader public welfare experiment that began as part of the aftermath of the Civil War. These orphan schools were created to provide housing, care, and education for orphans of Civil War soldiers. They became a matter of state pride, with orphans were paraded around at rallies to display the power of a patriotic schooling.
All the northern states had free public school systems before the war but not the border states. West Virginia set up its system in 1863. Over bitter opposition it established an almost - equal education for black children, most of whom were ex-slaves. Thousands of black refugees poured into St. Louis, where the Freedmen 's Relief Society, the Ladies Union Aid Society, the Western Sanitary Commission, and the American Missionary Association (AMA) set up schools for their children.
People loyal to the U.S. federal government and opposed to secession living in the border states (where slavery was legal in 1861) were termed Unionists. Confederates sometimes styled them "Homemade Yankees ''. However, Southern Unionists were not necessarily northern sympathizers and many of them, although opposing secession, supported the Confederacy once it was a fact. East Tennessee never supported the Confederacy, and Unionists there became powerful state leaders, including governors Andrew Johnson and William G. Brownlow. Likewise, large pockets of eastern Kentucky were Unionist and helped keep the state from seceding. Western Virginia, with few slaves and some industry, was so strongly Unionist that it broke away and formed the new state of West Virginia.
Still, nearly 120,000 Unionists from the South served in the Union Army during the Civil War and Unionist regiments were raised from every Confederate state except South Carolina. Among such units was the 1st Alabama Cavalry Regiment, which served as William Sherman 's personal escort on his march to the sea. Southern Unionists were extensively used as anti-guerrilla paramilitary forces. During Reconstruction many of these Unionists became "Scalawags '', a derogatory term for Southern supporters of the Republican Party.
Besides organized military conflict, the border states were beset by guerrilla warfare. In such a bitterly divided state, neighbors frequently used the excuse of war to settle personal grudges and took up arms against neighbors.
Missouri was the scene of over 1000 engagements between Union and Confederate forces, and uncounted numbers of guerrilla attacks and raids by informal pro-Confederate bands. Western Missouri was the scene of brutal guerrilla warfare during the Civil War. Roving insurgent bands such as Quantrill 's Raiders and the men of Bloody Bill Anderson terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements. Because of the widespread attacks and the protection offered by Confederate sympathizers, Federal leaders issued General Order No. 11 in 1863, and evacuated areas of Jackson, Cass, and Bates counties. They forced the residents out to reduce support for the guerrillas. Union cavalry could sweep through and track down Confederate guerrillas, who no longer had places to hide and people and infrastructure to support them. On short notice, the army forced almost 20,000 people, mostly women, children and the elderly, to leave their homes. Many never returned and the affected counties were economically devastated for years after the end of the war. Families passed along stories of their bitter experiences down through several generations -- Harry Truman 's grandparents were caught up in the raids and he would tell of how they were kept in concentration camps.
Some marauding units became organized criminal gangs after the war. In 1882, the bank robber and ex-Confederate guerrilla Jesse James was killed in Saint Joseph. Vigilante groups appeared in remote areas where law enforcement was weak, to deal with the lawlessness left over from the guerrilla warfare phase. For example, the Bald Knobbers were the term for several law - and - order vigilante groups in the Ozarks. In some cases, they too turned to illegal gang activity.
In response to the growing problem of locally organized guerrilla campaigns throughout 1863 and 1864, in June 1864, Maj. Gen. Stephen G. Burbridge was given command over the state of Kentucky. This began an extended period of military control that would last through early 1865, beginning with martial law authorized by President Abraham Lincoln. To pacify Kentucky, Burbridge rigorously suppressed disloyalty and used economic pressure as coercion. His guerrilla policy, which included public execution of four guerrillas for the death of each unarmed Union citizen, caused the most controversy. After a falling out with Governor Thomas E. Bramlette, Burbridge was dismissed in February 1865. Confederates remembered him as the "Butcher of Kentucky ''.
List of Wikipedia articles on Union states and major cities:
* Border states with slavery in 1861
† Had two state governments, one Unionist one Confederate, both claiming to be the legitimate government of their state. Kentucky and Missouri 's Confederate governments never had significant control of their state.
West Virginia separated from Virginia and became part of the Union during the war, on June 20, 1863. Nevada also joined the Union during the war, becoming a state on October 31, 1864.
The Union controlled territories in April, 1861 were:
The Indian Territory saw its own civil war, as the major tribes held slaves and endorsed the Confederacy.
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what is the biggest football stadium in the us | List of American football stadiums by capacity - wikipedia
The following is an incomplete list of current American football stadiums ranked by capacity. The list contains the home stadiums of all 32 professional teams playing in the NFL as well as the largest stadiums used by college football teams in the NCAA. The largest professional team stadium falls at number 16 on the list. Not included are several large stadiums used by teams in the now - defunct NFL Europa, as these were all built for and used mainly for association football, or Rogers Centre, located in Canada (although it does host occasional American football games). Currently all football stadiums with a capacity of 30,000 or more are included.
Stadiums are ordered by seating capacity. This is intended to represent the permanent fixed seating capacity, when the stadium is configured for football. Some stadiums can accommodate larger crowds when configured for other sports, or by using temporary seating or allowing standees.
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where are mucous membranes located in the body | Mucous membrane - wikipedia
A mucous membrane or mucosa is a membrane that lines various cavities in the body and covers the surface of internal organs. It consists of one or more layers of epithelial cells overlying a layer of loose connective tissue. It is mostly of endodermal origin and is continuous with the skin at various body openings such as the eyes, ears, inside the nose, inside the mouth, lip, vagina, the urethral opening and the anus. Some mucous membranes secrete mucus, a thick protective fluid. The function of the membrane is to stop pathogens and dirt from entering the body and to prevent bodily tissues from becoming dehydrated.
The mucosa of organs are composed of one or more layers of epithelial cells that secrete mucus, and an underlying lamina propria of loose connective tissue. The type of cells and type of mucus secreted vary from organ to organ and each can differ along a given tract.
Mucous membranes line the digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts and are the primary barrier between the external world and the interior of the body; in an adult human the total surface area of the mucosa is about 400 square meters while the surface area of the skin is about 2 square meters. They are at several places contiguous with skin: at the nostrils, the lips of the mouth, the eyelids, the ears, the genital area, and the anus. Along with providing a physical barrier, they also contain key parts of the immune system and serve as the interface between the body proper and the microbiome.
Some examples include:
Developmentally, the majority of mucous membranes are of endodermal origin. Exceptions include the palate, cheeks, floor of the mouth, gums, lips and the portion of the anal canal below the pectinate line, which are all ectodermal in origin.
One of its functions is to keep the tissue moist (for example in the respiratory tract, including the mouth and nose). It also plays a role in absorbing and transforming nutrients. Mucous membranes also protect the body from itself; for instance mucosa in the stomach protects it from stomach acid, and mucosa lining the bladder protects the underlying tissue from urine. In the uterus, the mucous membrane is called the endometrium, and it swells each month and is then eliminated during menstruation.
Niacin and vitamin A are essential nutrients that help maintain mucous membranes.
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why and when did the japanese attack the u.s. naval fleet at pearl harbor | Attack on Pearl Harbor - wikipedia
Coordinates: 21 ° 22 ′ N 157 ° 57 ′ W / 21.367 ° N 157.950 ° W / 21.367; - 157.950
Major Japanese tactical victory; precipitated the entrance of the United States into World War II
Southeast Asia
Burma
Southwest Pacific
North America
Japan
Manchuria
The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii Territory, on the morning of December 7, 1941. The attack, also known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor, led to the United States ' entry into World War II. The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI, and as Operation Z during its planning.
Japan intended the attack as a preventive action to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions that were planned in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. Over the next seven hours there were coordinated Japanese attacks on the U.S. - held Philippines, Guam and Wake Island and on the British Empire in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong.
The attack commenced at 7: 48 a.m. Hawaiian Time (18: 18 GMT). The base was attacked by 353 Imperial Japanese aircraft (including fighters, level and dive bombers, and torpedo bombers) in two waves, launched from six aircraft carriers. All eight U.S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four sunk. All but the USS Arizona were later raised, and six were returned to service and went on to fight in the war. The Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and one minelayer. One hundred eighty - eight U.S. aircraft were destroyed; 2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded. Important base installations such as the power station, dry dock, shipyard, maintenance, and fuel and torpedo storage facilities, as well as the submarine piers and headquarters building (also home of the intelligence section), were not attacked. Japanese losses were light: 29 aircraft and five midget submarines lost, and 64 servicemen killed. One Japanese sailor, Kazuo Sakamaki, was captured.
The surprise attack came as a profound shock to the American people and led directly to the American entry into World War II in both the Pacific and European theaters. The following day, December 8, the United States declared war on Japan, and several days later, on December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S. The U.S. responded with a declaration of war against Germany and Italy. Domestic support for non-interventionism, which had been fading since the Fall of France in 1940, disappeared.
There were numerous historical precedents for unannounced military action by Japan, but the lack of any formal warning, particularly while negotiations were still apparently ongoing, led President Franklin D. Roosevelt to proclaim December 7, 1941, "a date which will live in infamy ''. Because the attack happened without a declaration of war and without explicit warning, the attack on Pearl Harbor was later judged in the Tokyo Trials to be a war crime.
War between Japan and the United States had been a possibility that each nation had been aware of (and developed contingency plans for) since the 1920s, though tensions did not begin to grow seriously until Japan 's 1931 invasion of Manchuria. Over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all - out war between those countries in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and achieve sufficient resource independence to attain victory on the mainland; the "Southern Operation '' was designed to assist these efforts.
From December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay, the Allison incident, and the Nanking Massacre (the International Military Tribunal of the Far East concluded that more than 200,000 Chinese non-combatants were killed in indiscriminate massacres, though other estimates have ranged from 40,000 to more than 300,000) swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion, the United States, the United Kingdom, and France provided loan assistance for war supply contracts to China.
In 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina in an effort to control supplies reaching China. The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline to Japan, which was perceived by Japan as an unfriendly act. The U.S. did not stop oil exports to Japan at that time in part because prevailing sentiment in Washington was that such an action would be an extreme step that Japan would likely consider a provocation, given Japanese dependence on U.S. oil.
Early in 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved the Pacific Fleet to Hawaii from its previous base in San Diego and ordered a military buildup in the Philippines in the hope of discouraging Japanese aggression in the Far East. Because the Japanese high command was (mistakenly) certain that any attack on the UK 's Southeast Asian colonies, including Singapore, would bring the U.S. into war, a devastating preventive strike appeared to be the only way to avoid U.S. naval interference. An invasion of the Philippines was also considered necessary by Japanese war planners. The U.S. War Plan Orange had envisioned defending the Philippines with a 40,000 - man elite force. This was opposed by Douglas MacArthur, who felt that he would need a force ten times that size, and was never implemented. By 1941, U.S. planners anticipated abandonment of the Philippines at the outbreak of war and orders to that effect were given in late 1941 to Admiral Thomas Hart, commander of the Asiatic Fleet.
The U.S. ceased oil exports to Japan in July 1941, following Japanese expansion into French Indochina after the Fall of France, in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption. This in turn caused the Japanese to proceed with plans to take the Dutch East Indies, an oil - rich territory. On August 17, Roosevelt warned Japan that the U.S. was prepared to take steps against Japan if it attacked "neighboring countries ''. The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing from China and losing face or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource - rich, European - controlled colonies of Southeast Asia.
Japan and the U.S. engaged in negotiations during the course of 1941 in an effort to improve relations. During these negotiations, Japan offered to withdraw from most of China and Indochina when peace was made with the Nationalist government, adopt an independent interpretation of the Tripartite Pact, and not to discriminate in trade provided all other countries reciprocated. Washington rejected these proposals. Japanese Prime Minister Konoye then offered to meet with Roosevelt, but Roosevelt insisted on coming to an agreement before any meeting. The U.S. ambassador to Japan repeatedly urged Roosevelt to accept the meeting, warning that it was the only way to preserve the conciliatory Konoye government and peace in the Pacific. His recommendation was not acted upon. The Konoye government collapsed the following month when the Japanese military refused to agree to the withdrawal of all troops from China.
Japan 's final proposal, on November 20, offered to withdraw their forces from southern Indochina and not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia provided that the U.S., the UK, and the Netherlands ceased aiding China and lifted their sanctions against Japan. The American counter-proposal of November 26 (November 27 in Japan) (the Hull note) required Japan to evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with Pacific powers. However the day before the Hull Note was delivered, on November 26 in Japan, the main Japanese attack fleet left port for Pearl Harbor.
Preliminary planning for an attack on Pearl Harbor to protect the move into the "Southern Resource Area '' (the Japanese term for the Dutch East Indies and Southeast Asia generally) had begun very early in 1941 under the auspices of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, then commanding Japan 's Combined Fleet. He won assent to formal planning and training for an attack from the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff only after much contention with Naval Headquarters, including a threat to resign his command. Full - scale planning was underway by early spring 1941, primarily by Rear Admiral Ryūnosuke Kusaka, with assistance from Captain Minoru Genda and Yamamoto 's Deputy Chief of Staff, Captain Kameto Kuroshima. The planners studied the 1940 British air attack on the Italian fleet at Taranto intensively.
Over the next several months, pilots were trained, equipment was adapted, and intelligence was collected. Despite these preparations, Emperor Hirohito did not approve the attack plan until November 5, after the third of four Imperial Conferences called to consider the matter. Final authorization was not given by the emperor until December 1, after a majority of Japanese leaders advised him the "Hull Note '' would "destroy the fruits of the China incident, endanger Manchukuo and undermine Japanese control of Korea. ''
By late 1941, many observers believed that hostilities between the U.S. and Japan were imminent. A Gallup poll just before the attack on Pearl Harbor found that 52 % of Americans expected war with Japan, 27 % did not, and 21 % had no opinion. While U.S. Pacific bases and facilities had been placed on alert on many occasions, U.S. officials doubted Pearl Harbor would be the first target; instead, they expected the Philippines would be attacked first. This presumption was due to the threat that the air bases throughout the country and the naval base at Manila posed to sea lanes, as well as to the shipment of supplies to Japan from territory to the south. They also incorrectly believed that Japan was not capable of mounting more than one major naval operation at a time.
The Japanese attack had several major aims. First, it intended to destroy important American fleet units, thereby preventing the Pacific Fleet from interfering with Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies and Malaya and to enable Japan to conquer Southeast Asia without interference. Second, it was hoped to buy time for Japan to consolidate its position and increase its naval strength before shipbuilding authorized by the 1940 Vinson - Walsh Act erased any chance of victory. Third, to deliver a blow to America 's ability to mobilize its forces in the Pacific, battleships were chosen as the main targets, since they were the prestige ships of any navy at the time. Finally, it was hoped that the attack would undermine American morale such that the U.S. government would drop its demands contrary to Japanese interests, and would seek a compromise peace with Japan.
Striking the Pacific Fleet at anchor in Pearl Harbor carried two distinct disadvantages: the targeted ships would be in very shallow water, so it would be relatively easy to salvage and possibly repair them; and most of the crews would survive the attack, since many would be on shore leave or would be rescued from the harbor. A further important disadvantage -- this of timing, and known to the Japanese -- was the absence from Pearl Harbor of all three of the U.S. Pacific Fleet 's aircraft carriers (Enterprise, Lexington, and Saratoga). IJN top command was so imbued with Admiral Mahan 's "decisive battle '' doctrine -- especially that of destroying the maximum number of battleships -- that, despite these concerns, Yamamoto decided to press ahead.
Japanese confidence in their ability to achieve a short, victorious war also meant other targets in the harbor, especially the navy yard, oil tank farms, and submarine base, were ignored, since -- by their thinking -- the war would be over before the influence of these facilities would be felt.
On November 26, 1941, a Japanese task force (the Striking Force) of six aircraft carriers -- Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū, Hiryū, Shōkaku, and Zuikaku -- departed Hittokapu Bay on Kasatka (now Iterup) Island in the Kurile Islands, en route to a position northwest of Hawaii, intending to launch its 408 aircraft to attack Pearl Harbor: 360 for the two attack waves and 48 on defensive combat air patrol (CAP), including nine fighters from the first wave.
The first wave was to be the primary attack, while the second wave was to attack carriers as its first objective and cruisers as its second, with battleships as the third target. The first wave carried most of the weapons to attack capital ships, mainly specially adapted Type 91 aerial torpedoes which were designed with an anti-roll mechanism and a rudder extension that let them operate in shallow water. The aircrews were ordered to select the highest value targets (battleships and aircraft carriers) or, if these were not present, any other high value ships (cruisers and destroyers). First wave dive bombers were to attack ground targets. Fighters were ordered to strafe and destroy as many parked aircraft as possible to ensure they did not get into the air to intercept the bombers, especially in the first wave. When the fighters ' fuel got low they were to refuel at the aircraft carriers and return to combat. Fighters were to serve CAP duties where needed, especially over U.S. airfields.
Before the attack commenced, two reconnaissance aircraft launched from cruisers Chikuma and Tone were sent to scout over Oahu and Maui and report on U.S. fleet composition and location. Reconnaissance aircraft flights risked alerting the U.S., and were not necessary. U.S. fleet composition and preparedness information in Pearl Harbor was already known due to the reports of the Japanese spy Takeo Yoshikawa. A report of the absence of the U.S. fleet in Lahaina anchorage off Maui was received from the fleet submarine I - 72. Another four scout planes patrolled the area between the Japanese carrier force (the Kidō Butai) and Niihau, to detect any counterattack.
Fleet submarines I - 16, I - 18, I - 20, I - 22, and I - 24 each embarked a Type A midget submarine for transport to the waters off Oahu. The five I - boats left Kure Naval District on November 25, 1941. On December 6, they came to within 10 nmi (19 km; 12 mi) of the mouth of Pearl Harbor and launched their midget subs at about 01: 00 on December 7. At 03: 42 Hawaiian Time, the minesweeper Condor spotted a midget submarine periscope southwest of the Pearl Harbor entrance buoy and alerted the destroyer Ward. The midget may have entered Pearl Harbor. However, Ward sank another midget submarine at 06: 37 in the first American shots in the Pacific Theater. A midget submarine on the north side of Ford Island missed the seaplane tender Curtiss with her first torpedo and missed the attacking destroyer Monaghan with her other one before being sunk by Monaghan at 08: 43.
A third midget submarine, Ha - 19, grounded twice, once outside the harbor entrance and again on the east side of Oahu, where it was captured on December 8. Ensign Kazuo Sakamaki swam ashore and was captured by Hawaii National Guard Corporal David Akui, becoming the first Japanese prisoner of war. A fourth had been damaged by a depth charge attack and was abandoned by its crew before it could fire its torpedoes. Japanese forces received a radio message from a midget submarine at 00: 41 on December 8 claiming damage to one or more large warships inside Pearl Harbor.
In 1992, 2000, and 2001, Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory 's submersibles found the wreck of the fifth midget submarine lying in three parts outside Pearl Harbor. The wreck was in the debris field where much surplus U.S. equipment was dumped after the war, including vehicles and landing craft. Both of its torpedoes were missing. This correlates with reports of two torpedoes fired at the light cruiser St. Louis at 10: 04 at the entrance of Pearl Harbor, and a possible torpedo fired at destroyer Helm at 08: 21.
The attack took place before any formal declaration of war was made by Japan, but this was not Admiral Yamamoto 's intention. He originally stipulated that the attack should not commence until thirty minutes after Japan had informed the United States that peace negotiations were at an end. However, the attack began before the notice could be delivered. Tokyo transmitted the 5000 - word notification (commonly called the "14 - Part Message '') in two blocks to the Japanese Embassy in Washington. Transcribing the message took too long for the Japanese ambassador to deliver it on schedule; in the event, it was not presented until more than an hour after the attack began. (In fact, U.S. code breakers had already deciphered and translated most of the message hours before he was scheduled to deliver it.) The final part is sometimes described as a declaration of war. While it was viewed by a number of senior U.S government and military officials as a very strong indicator negotiations were likely to be terminated and that war might break out at any moment, it neither declared war nor severed diplomatic relations. A declaration of war was printed on the front page of Japan 's newspapers in the evening edition of December 8, but not delivered to the U.S. government until the day after the attack.
For decades, conventional wisdom held that Japan attacked without first formally breaking diplomatic relations only because of accidents and bumbling that delayed the delivery of a document hinting at war to Washington. In 1999, however, Takeo Iguchi, a professor of law and international relations at International Christian University in Tokyo, discovered documents that pointed to a vigorous debate inside the government over how, and indeed whether, to notify Washington of Japan 's intention to break off negotiations and start a war, including a December 7 entry in the war diary saying, "(O) ur deceptive diplomacy is steadily proceeding toward success. '' Of this, Iguchi said, "The diary shows that the army and navy did not want to give any proper declaration of war, or indeed prior notice even of the termination of negotiations... and they clearly prevailed. ''
In any event, even if the Japanese had decoded and delivered the 14 - Part Message before the beginning of the attack, it would not have constituted either a formal break of diplomatic relations or a declaration of war. The final two paragraphs of the message read:
Thus the earnest hope of the Japanese Government to adjust Japanese - American relations and to preserve and promote the peace of the Pacific through cooperation with the American Government has finally been lost.
The first attack wave of 183 planes was launched north of Oahu, led by Commander Mitsuo Fuchida. Six planes failed to launch due to technical difficulties. It included:
As the first wave approached Oahu, it was detected by the U.S. Army SCR - 270 radar at Opana Point near the island 's northern tip. This post had been in training mode for months, but was not yet operational. The operators, Privates George Elliot Jr. and Joseph Lockard, reported a target. But Lieutenant Kermit A. Tyler, a newly assigned officer at the thinly manned Intercept Center, presumed it was the scheduled arrival of six B - 17 bombers from California. The Japanese planes were approaching from a direction very close (only a few degrees difference) to the bombers, and while the operators had never seen a formation as large on radar, they neglected to tell Tyler of its size. Tyler, for security reasons, could not tell the operators of the six B - 17s that were due (even though it was widely known).
As the first wave planes approached Oahu, they encountered and shot down several U.S. aircraft. At least one of these radioed a somewhat incoherent warning. Other warnings from ships off the harbor entrance were still being processed or awaiting confirmation when the attacking planes began bombing and strafing. Nevertheless, it is not clear any warnings would have had much effect even if they had been interpreted correctly and much more promptly. The results the Japanese achieved in the Philippines were essentially the same as at Pearl Harbor, though MacArthur had almost nine hours warning that the Japanese had already attacked Pearl Harbor.
The air portion of the attack began at 7: 48 a.m. Hawaiian Time (3: 18 a.m. December 8 Japanese Standard Time, as kept by ships of the Kido Butai), with the attack on Kaneohe. A total of 353 Japanese planes in two waves reached Oahu. Slow, vulnerable torpedo bombers led the first wave, exploiting the first moments of surprise to attack the most important ships present (the battleships), while dive bombers attacked U.S. air bases across Oahu, starting with Hickam Field, the largest, and Wheeler Field, the main U.S. Army Air Forces fighter base. The 171 planes in the second wave attacked the Army Air Forces ' Bellows Field near Kaneohe on the windward side of the island, and Ford Island. The only aerial opposition came from a handful of P - 36 Hawks, P - 40 Warhawks, and some SBD Dauntless dive bombers from the carrier Enterprise.
In the first wave attack, about eight of the forty - nine 800 kg (1760 lb) armor - piercing bombs dropped hit their intended battleship targets. At least two of those bombs broke up on impact, another detonated before penetrating an unarmored deck, and one was a dud. Thirteen of the forty torpedoes hit battleships, and four torpedoes hit other ships. Men aboard U.S. ships awoke to the sounds of alarms, bombs exploding, and gunfire, prompting bleary - eyed men to dress as they ran to General Quarters stations. (The famous message, "Air raid Pearl Harbor. This is not drill. '', was sent from the headquarters of Patrol Wing Two, the first senior Hawaiian command to respond.) The defenders were very unprepared. Ammunition lockers were locked, aircraft parked wingtip to wingtip in the open to prevent sabotage, guns unmanned (none of the Navy 's 5 "/ 38s, only a quarter of its machine guns, and only four of 31 Army batteries got in action). Despite this low alert status, many American military personnel responded effectively during the attack. Ensign Joe Taussig Jr., aboard Nevada, commanded the ship 's antiaircraft guns and was severely wounded, but continued to be on post. Lt. Commander F.J. Thomas commanded Nevada in the captain 's absence and got her under way until the ship was grounded at 9: 10 a.m. One of the destroyers, Aylwin, got underway with only four officers aboard, all ensigns, none with more than a year 's sea duty; she operated at sea for 36 hours before her commanding officer managed to get back aboard. Captain Mervyn Bennion, commanding West Virginia, led his men until he was cut down by fragments from a bomb which hit Tennessee, moored alongside.
The second planned wave consisted of 171 planes: 54 B5Ns, 81 D3As, and 36 A6Ms, commanded by Lieutenant - Commander Shigekazu Shimazaki. Four planes failed to launch because of technical difficulties. This wave and its targets comprised:
The second wave was divided into three groups. One was tasked to attack Kāne ʻohe, the rest Pearl Harbor proper. The separate sections arrived at the attack point almost simultaneously from several directions.
Ninety minutes after it began, the attack was over. Two thousand and eight sailors were killed, and 710 others wounded; 218 soldiers and airmen (who were part of the Army until the independent U.S. Air Force was formed in 1947) were killed and 364 wounded; 109 marines were killed and 69 wounded; and 68 civilians were killed and 35 wounded. In total, 2,403 Americans died and 1,178 were wounded. Eighteen ships were sunk or run aground, including five battleships. All of the Americans killed or wounded during the attack were non-combatants, given the fact there was no state of war when the attack occurred.
Of the American fatalities, nearly half were due to the explosion of Arizona 's forward magazine after it was hit by a modified 16 - inch (410 mm) shell.
Already damaged by a torpedo and on fire amidships, Nevada attempted to exit the harbor. She was targeted by many Japanese bombers as she got under way and sustained more hits from 250 lb (113 kg) bombs, which started further fires. She was deliberately beached to avoid blocking the harbor entrance.
California was hit by two bombs and two torpedoes. The crew might have kept her afloat, but were ordered to abandon ship just as they were raising power for the pumps. Burning oil from Arizona and West Virginia drifted down on her, and probably made the situation look worse than it was. The disarmed target ship Utah was holed twice by torpedoes. West Virginia was hit by seven torpedoes, the seventh tearing away her rudder. Oklahoma was hit by four torpedoes, the last two above her belt armor, which caused her to capsize. Maryland was hit by two of the converted 16 '' shells, but neither caused serious damage.
Although the Japanese concentrated on battleships (the largest vessels present), they did not ignore other targets. The light cruiser Helena was torpedoed, and the concussion from the blast capsized the neighboring minelayer Oglala. Two destroyers in dry dock, Cassin and Downes were destroyed when bombs penetrated their fuel bunkers. The leaking fuel caught fire; flooding the dry dock in an effort to fight fire made the burning oil rise, and both were burned out. Cassin slipped from her keel blocks and rolled against Downes. The light cruiser Raleigh was holed by a torpedo. The light cruiser Honolulu was damaged, but remained in service. The repair vessel Vestal, moored alongside Arizona, was heavily damaged and beached. The seaplane tender Curtiss was also damaged. The destroyer Shaw was badly damaged when two bombs penetrated her forward magazine.
Of the 402 American aircraft in Hawaii, 188 were destroyed and 159 damaged, 155 of them on the ground. Almost none were actually ready to take off to defend the base. Eight Army Air Forces pilots managed to get airborne during the attack and six were credited with downing at least one Japanese aircraft during the attack: 1st Lt. Lewis M. Sanders, 2nd Lt. Philip M. Rasmussen, 2nd Lt. Kenneth M. Taylor, 2nd Lt. George S. Welch, 2nd Lt. Harry W. Brown, and 2nd Lt. Gordon H. Sterling Jr. Sterling was shot down by Lt. Fujita over Kaneohe Bay and is listed as Body Not Recovered (not Missing In Action). Lt. John L. Dains was killed by friendly fire returning from a victory over Kaawa. Of 33 PBYs in Hawaii, 24 were destroyed, and six others damaged beyond repair. (The three on patrol returned undamaged.) Friendly fire brought down some U.S. planes on top of that, including five from an inbound flight from Enterprise. Japanese attacks on barracks killed additional personnel.
At the time of the attack, nine civilian aircraft were flying in the vicinity of Pearl Harbor. Of these, three were shot down.
Fifty - five Japanese airmen and nine submariners were killed in the attack, and one was captured. Of Japan 's 414 available planes, 29 were lost during the battle (nine in the first attack wave, 20 in the second), with another 74 damaged by antiaircraft fire from the ground.
Several Japanese junior officers including Fuchida and Genda urged Nagumo to carry out a third strike in order to destroy as much of Pearl Harbor 's fuel and torpedo storage, maintenance, and dry dock facilities as possible. Genda, who had unsuccessfully advocated for invading Hawaii after the air attack, believed that without an invasion, three strikes were necessary to disable the base as much as possible. The captains of the other five carriers in the task force reported they were willing and ready to carry out a third strike. Military historians have suggested the destruction of these shore facilities would have hampered the U.S. Pacific Fleet far more seriously than the loss of its battleships. If they had been wiped out, "serious (American) operations in the Pacific would have been postponed for more than a year ''; according to Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, later Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet, "it would have prolonged the war another two years. '' Nagumo, however, decided to withdraw for several reasons:
At a conference aboard his flagship the following morning, Yamamoto supported Nagumo 's withdrawal without launching a third wave. In retrospect, sparing the vital dockyards, maintenance shops, and the oil tank farm meant the U.S. could respond relatively quickly to Japanese activities in the Pacific. Yamamoto later regretted Nagumo 's decision to withdraw and categorically stated it had been a great mistake not to order a third strike.
Seventeen ships were damaged or lost in the attack, of which fourteen were repaired and returned to service.
After a systematic search for survivors, formal salvage operations began. Captain Homer N. Wallin, Material Officer for Commander, Battle Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet, was immediately ordered to lead salvage operations. "Within a short time I was relieved of all other duties and ordered to full time work as Fleet Salvage Officer. ''
Around Pearl Harbor, divers from the Navy (shore and tenders), the Naval Shipyard, and civilian contractors (Pacific Bridge and others) began work on the ships that could be refloated. They patched holes, cleared debris, and pumped water out of ships. Navy divers worked inside the damaged ships. Within six months, five battleships and two cruisers were patched or refloated so they could be sent to shipyards in Pearl Harbor and on the mainland for extensive repair.
Intensive salvage operations continued for another year, a total of some 20,000 man - hours under water. Oklahoma, while successfully raised, was never repaired, and capsized while under tow to the mainland in 1947. Arizona and the target ship Utah were too heavily damaged for salvage, though much of their armament and equipment was removed and put to use aboard other vessels. Today, the two hulks remain where they were sunk, with Arizona becoming a war memorial.
In the wake of the attack, 15 Medals of Honor, 51 Navy Crosses, 53 Silver Stars, four Navy and Marine Corps Medals, one Distinguished Flying Cross, four Distinguished Service Crosses, one Distinguished Service Medal, and three Bronze Star Medals were awarded to the American servicemen who distinguished themselves in combat at Pearl Harbor. Additionally, a special military award, the Pearl Harbor Commemorative Medal, was later authorized for all military veterans of the attack.
The day after the attack, Roosevelt delivered his famous Infamy Speech to a Joint Session of Congress, calling for a formal declaration of war on the Empire of Japan. Congress obliged his request less than an hour later. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, even though the Tripartite Pact did not require it. Congress issued a declaration of war against Germany and Italy later that same day. The UK actually declared war on Japan nine hours before the U.S. did, partially due to Japanese attacks on Malaya, Singapore and Hong Kong, and partially due to Winston Churchill 's promise to declare war "within the hour '' of a Japanese attack on the United States.
The attack was an initial shock to all the Allies in the Pacific Theater. Further losses compounded the alarming setback. Japan attacked the Philippines hours later (because of the time difference, it was December 8 in the Philippines). Only three days after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the battleships Prince of Wales and Repulse were sunk off the coast of Malaya, causing British Prime Minister Winston Churchill later to recollect "In all the war I never received a more direct shock. As I turned and twisted in bed the full horror of the news sank in upon me. There were no British or American capital ships in the Indian Ocean or the Pacific except the American survivors of Pearl Harbor who were hastening back to California. Over this vast expanse of waters Japan was supreme and we everywhere were weak and naked ''.
Throughout the war, Pearl Harbor was frequently used in American propaganda.
One further consequence of the attack on Pearl Harbor and its aftermath (notably the Niihau incident) was that Japanese American residents and citizens were relocated to nearby Japanese - American internment camps. Within hours of the attack, hundreds of Japanese American leaders were rounded up and brought to high - security camps such as Sand Island at the mouth of Honolulu harbor and Kilauea Military Camp on the island of Hawaii. Eventually, more than 110,000 Japanese Americans, nearly all who lived on the West Coast, were forced into interior camps, but in Hawaii, where the 150,000 - plus Japanese Americans composed over one - third of the population, only 1,200 to 1,800 were interned.
The attack also had international consequences. The Canadian province of British Columbia, bordering the Pacific Ocean, had long had a large population of Japanese immigrants and their Japanese Canadian descendants. Pre-war tensions were exacerbated by the Pearl Harbor attack, leading to a reaction from the Government of Canada. On February 24, 1942, Order - in - Council P.C. no. 1486 was passed under the War Measures Act allowing for the forced removal of any and all Canadians of Japanese descent from British Columbia, as well as the prohibiting them from returning to the province. On 4 March, regulations under the Act were adopted to evacuate Japanese - Canadians. As a result, 12,000 were interned in interior camps, 2,000 were sent to road camps and another 2,000 were forced to work in the prairies at sugar beet farms.
The Japanese planners had determined that some means was required for rescuing fliers whose aircraft were too badly damaged to return to the carriers. The island of Niihau, only 30 minutes flying time from Pearl Harbor, was designated as the rescue point.
The Zero flown by Petty Officer Shigenori Nishikaichi of Hiryu was damaged in the attack on Wheeler, so he flew to the rescue point on Niihau. The aircraft was further damaged on landing. Nishikaichi was helped from the wreckage by one of the native Hawaiians, who, aware of the tension between the United States and Japan, took the pilot 's maps and other documents. The island 's residents had no telephones or radio and were completely unaware of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Nishikaichi enlisted the support of three Japanese - American residents in an attempt to recover the documents. During the ensuing struggles, Nishikaichi was killed and a Hawaiian civilian was wounded; one collaborator committed suicide, and his wife and the third collaborator were sent to prison.
The ease with which the local ethnic Japanese residents had apparently gone to the assistance of Nishikaichi was a source of concern for many, and tended to support those who believed that local Japanese could not be trusted.
Admiral Hara Tadaichi summed up the Japanese result by saying, "We won a great tactical victory at Pearl Harbor and thereby lost the war. '' To a similar effect, see Isoroku Yamamoto 's alleged "sleeping giant '' quote.
While the attack accomplished its intended objective, it turned out to be largely unnecessary. Unbeknownst to Yamamoto, who conceived the original plan, the U.S. Navy had decided as far back as 1935 to abandon ' charging ' across the Pacific towards the Philippines in response to an outbreak of war (in keeping with the evolution of Plan Orange). The U.S. instead adopted "Plan Dog '' in 1940, which emphasized keeping the IJN out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to Australia, while the U.S. concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany.
Fortunately for the United States, the American aircraft carriers were untouched by the Japanese attack; otherwise the Pacific Fleet 's ability to conduct offensive operations would have been crippled for a year or more (given no diversions from the Atlantic Fleet). As it was, the elimination of the battleships left the U.S. Navy with no choice but to rely on its aircraft carriers and submarines -- the very weapons with which the U.S. Navy halted and eventually reversed the Japanese advance. While six of the eight battleships were repaired and returned to service, their relatively low speed and high fuel consumption limited their deployment, and they served mainly in shore bombardment roles (their only major action being the Battle of Surigao Strait in October 1944). A major flaw of Japanese strategic thinking was a belief that the ultimate Pacific battle would be fought by battleships, in keeping with the doctrine of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan. As a result, Yamamoto (and his successors) hoarded battleships for a "decisive battle '' that never happened.
The Japanese confidence in their ability to achieve a short, victorious war meant that they neglected Pearl Harbor 's navy repair yards, oil tank farms, submarine base, and old headquarters building. All of these targets were omitted from Genda 's list, yet they proved more important than any battleship to the American war efforts in the Pacific. The survival of the repair shops and fuel depots allowed Pearl Harbor to maintain logistical support to the U.S. Navy 's operations, such as the Battles of Coral Sea and Midway. It was submarines that immobilized the Imperial Japanese Navy 's heavy ships and brought Japan 's economy to a virtual standstill by crippling the transportation of oil and raw materials: by the end of 1942, import of raw materials was cut to half of what it had been, "to a disastrous ten million tons '', while oil import "was almost completely stopped ''. Lastly, the basement of the Old Administration Building was the home of the cryptanalytic unit which contributed significantly to the Midway ambush and the Submarine Force 's success.
Ever since the Japanese attack, there has been debate as to how and why the United States had been caught unaware, and how much and when American officials knew of Japanese plans and related topics. Military officers including Gen. Billy Mitchell had pointed out the vulnerability of Pearl to air attack. At least two naval war games, one in 1932 and another in 1936, proved that Pearl was vulnerable to such an attack. Admiral James Richardson was removed from command shortly after protesting President Roosevelt 's decision to move the bulk of the Pacific fleet to Pearl Harbor. The decisions of military and political leadership to ignore these warnings has contributed to conspiracy theories. Several writers, including journalist Robert Stinnett and former United States Rear Admiral Robert Alfred Theobald, have argued that various parties high in the U.S. and British governments knew of the attack in advance and may even have let it happen or encouraged it in order to force the U.S. into war via the so - called "back door ''. However, this conspiracy theory is rejected by mainstream historians.
Informational notes
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what does the pharynx do for the respiratory system | Pharynx - wikipedia
The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the throat that is behind the mouth and nasal cavity and above the esophagus and the larynx, or the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs. The pharynx is an area found in vertebrates and invertebrates, though the structure is not universally the same across all of those species.
In humans the pharynx is part of the digestive system and also of the conducting zone of the respiratory system. (The conducting zone also includes the nostrils of the nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, and their function is to filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it into the lungs.) The pharynx makes up the part of the throat situated immediately behind the nasal cavity, behind the mouth and above the esophagus and larynx. The human pharynx is conventionally divided into three sections: the nasopharynx, the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx. It is also important in vocalization.
In humans there are two sets of pharyngeal muscles that form the pharynx, determining the shape of its lumen. These are arranged as an inner layer of longitudinal muscles and an outer circular layer.
The upper portion of the pharynx, the nasopharynx, extends from the base of the skull to the upper surface of the soft palate. It includes the space between the internal nares and the soft palate and lies above the oral cavity. The adenoids, also known as the pharyngeal tonsils, are lymphoid tissue structures located in the posterior wall of the nasopharynx. Waldeyer 's tonsillar ring is an annular arrangement of lymphoid tissue in both the nasopharynx and oropharynx.
Polyps or mucus can obstruct the nasopharynx, as can congestion due to an upper respiratory infection. The auditory tube, which connect the middle ear to the pharynx, opens into the nasopharynx at the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube. The opening and closing of the auditory tubes serves to equalize the barometric pressure in the middle ear with that of the ambient atmosphere.
The anterior aspect of the nasopharynx communicates through the choanae with the nasal cavities. On its lateral wall is the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube, somewhat triangular in shape, and bounded behind by a firm prominence, the torus tubarius or cushion, caused by the medial end of the cartilage of the tube which elevates the mucous membrane. Two folds arise from the cartilaginous opening:
The oropharynx lies behind the oral cavity, extending from the uvula to the level of the hyoid bone. It opens anteriorly, through the isthmus faucium, into the mouth, while in its lateral wall, between the palatoglossal arch and the palatopharyngeal arch, is the palatine tonsil. The anterior wall consists of the base of the tongue and the epiglottic vallecula; the lateral wall is made up of the tonsil, tonsillar fossa, and tonsillar (faucial) pillars; the superior wall consists of the inferior surface of the soft palate and the uvula. Because both food and air pass through the pharynx, a flap of connective tissue called the epiglottis closes over the glottis when food is swallowed to prevent aspiration. The oropharynx is lined by non-keratinised squamous stratified epithelium.
The HACEK organisms (Haemophilus, Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Cardiobacterium hominis, Eikenella corrodens, Kingella) are part of the normal oropharyngeal flora, which grow slowly, prefer a carbon dioxide - enriched atmosphere, and share an enhanced capacity to produce endocardial infections, especially in young children. Fusobacterium is a pathogen.
The laryngopharynx, (Latin: pars laryngea pharyngis), also known as hypopharynx, is the caudal part of pharynx; it is the part of the throat that connects to the esophagus. It lies inferior to the epiglottis and extends to the location where this common pathway diverges into the respiratory (larynx) and digestive (esophagus) pathways. At that point, the laryngopharynx is continuous with the esophagus posteriorly. The esophagus conducts food and fluids to the stomach; air enters the larynx anteriorly. During swallowing, food has the "right of way '', and air passage temporarily stops. Corresponding roughly to the area located between the 4th and 6th cervical vertebrae, the superior boundary of the laryngopharynx is at the level of the hyoid bone. The laryngopharynx includes three major sites: the pyriform sinus, postcricoid area, and the posterior pharyngeal wall. Like the oropharynx above it, the laryngopharynx serves as a passageway for food and air and is lined with a stratified squamous epithelium. It is innervated by the pharyngeal plexus.
The vascular supply to the laryngopharynx includes the superior thyroid artery, the lingual artery and the ascending pharyngeal artery. The primary neural supply is from both the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves. The vagus nerve provides a branch termed "Arnolds Nerve '' which also supplies the external auditory canal, thus laryngopharyngeal cancer can result in referred otalgia. This nerve is also responsible for the ear - cough reflex in which stimulation of the ear canal results in a person coughing.
Inflammation of the pharynx, or pharyngitis, is the painful inflammation of the throat.
Pharyngeal cancer is a cancer that originates in the neck and / or throat, and can cause serious clinical problems.
Waldeyer 's tonsillar ring is an anatomical term collectively describing the annular arrangement of lymphoid tissue in the pharynx. Waldeyer 's ring circumscribes the naso - and oropharynx, with some of its tonsillar tissue located above and some below the soft palate (and to the back of the oral cavity). It is believed that Waldeyer 's ring prevents the invasion of microorganisms from going into the air and food passages and this helps in the defense mechanism of the respiratory and alimentary systems.
The word pharynx (/ ˈfærɪŋks /) is derived from the Greek φάρυγξ phárynx, meaning "throat ''. Its plural form is pharynges / fəˈrɪndʒiːz / or pharynxes / ˈfærɪŋksəz /, and its adjective form is pharyngeal (/ ˌfærɪnˈdʒiːəl / or / fəˈrɪndʒiəl /).
All vertebrates have a pharynx, used in both feeding and respiration. The pharynx arises during development in all vertebrates through a series of six or more outpocketings on the lateral sides of the head. These outpocketings are pharyngeal arches, and they give rise to a number of different structures in the skeletal, muscular and circulatory systems. The structure of the pharynx varies across the vertebrates. It differs in dogs, horses and ruminants. In dogs a single duct connects the nasopharynx to the nasal cavity. The tonsils are a compact mass which point away from the lumen of the pharynx. In the horse the auditory tube opens into the guttural pouch and the tonsils are diffuse and raised slightly. Horses are unable to breathe through the mouth as the free apex of the rostral epiglottis lies dorsal to the soft palate in a normal horse. In ruminants the tonsils are a compact mass which point towards the lumen of the pharynx.
Pharyngeal arches are characteristic features of vertebrates whose origin can be traced back through chordates to basal deuterostomes who also share endodermal outpocketings of the pharyngeal apparatus. Similar patterns of gene expression can be detected in the developing pharynx of amphioxus and hemichordates. However, the vertebrate pharynx is unique in that it gives rise to endoskeletal support through the contribution of neural crest cells.
Pharyngeal jaws are a "second set '' of jaws contained within the pharynx of many species of fish, distinct from the primary (oral) jaws. Pharyngeal jaws have been studied in moray eels where their specific action is noted. When the moray bites prey, it first bites normally with its oral jaws, capturing the prey. Immediately thereafter, the pharyngeal jaws are brought forward and bite down on the prey to grip it; they then retract, pulling the prey down the eel 's esophagus, allowing it to be swallowed.
Invertebrates also have a pharynx. Invertebrates with a pharynx include the tardigrades, annelids and arthropods, and the priapulids (which have an eversible pharynx).
The "pharynx '' of the nematode worm is a muscular food pump in the head, triangular in cross-section, that grinds food and transports it directly to the intestines. A one - way valve connects the pharynx to the excretory canal.
Everted pharynx of Alitta virens (also known as Nereis virens), lateral view
Pharynx of the flatworm Prorhynchus fontinalis
Pharynx of the flatworm Platydemus manokwari visible as the worm feeds on a snail.
Longitudinal section through the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans showing the position of the pharynx in the animal body.
Microscopic cross section through the pharynx of a larva from an unknown lamprey species.
Nose and nasal
Coronal section of right ear, showing auditory tube and levator veli palatini muscle.
The entrance to the larynx, viewed from behind
Deep dissection of human larynx, pharynx and tongue seen from behind
The nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx or larynx can be seen clearly in this sagittal section of the head and neck.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 1141 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
General
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the development of english sonnet and ballad tradition | Sonnet - wikipedia
A sonnet is a poem in a specific form which originated in Italy; Giacomo da Lentini is credited with its invention.
The term sonnet is derived from the Italian word sonetto (from Old Provençal sonet a little poem, from son song, from Latin sonus a sound). By the thirteenth century it signified a poem of fourteen lines that follows a strict rhyme scheme and specific structure. Conventions associated with the sonnet have evolved over its history. Writers of sonnets are sometimes called "sonneteers '', although the term can be used derisively.
The sonnet was created by Giacomo da Lentini, head of the Sicilian School under Emperor Frederick II. Guittone d'Arezzo rediscovered it and brought it to Tuscany where he adapted it to his language when he founded the Siculo - Tuscan School, or Guittonian school of poetry (1235 -- 1294). He wrote almost 250 sonnets. Other Italian poets of the time, including Dante Alighieri (1265 -- 1321) and Guido Cavalcanti (c. 1250 -- 1300), wrote sonnets, but the most famous early sonneteer was Petrarch. Other fine examples were written by Michelangelo.
The structure of a typical Italian sonnet of the time included two parts that together formed a compact form of "argument ''. First, the octave, forms the "proposition '', which describes a "problem '', or "question '', followed by a sestet (two tercets), which proposes a "resolution ''. Typically, the ninth line initiates what is called the "turn '', or "volta '', which signals the move from proposition to resolution. Even in sonnets that do n't strictly follow the problem / resolution structure, the ninth line still often marks a "turn '' by signaling a change in the tone, mood, or stance of the poem.
Later, the abba, abba pattern became the standard for Italian sonnets. For the sestet there were two different possibilities: cde, cde and cdc, cdc. In time, other variants on this rhyming scheme were introduced, such as cdcdcd. Petrarch typically used an abba, abba pattern for the octave, followed by either cde, cde or cdc, cdc rhymes in the sestet. (The symmetries (abba vs. cdc) of these rhyme schemes have also been rendered in musical structure in the late 20th century composition Scrivo in Vento by Elliott Carter, inspired by Petrarch 's Sonnet 212, Beato in Sogno.)
In English, both the English or Shakespearean sonnet, and the Italian Petrarchan sonnet are traditionally written in iambic pentameter.
The first known sonnets in English, written by Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, used the Italian, Petrarchan form, as did sonnets by later English poets, including John Milton, Thomas Gray, William Wordsworth and Elizabeth Barrett Browning. Early twentieth - century American poet Edna St. Vincent Millay also wrote mostly Petrarchan sonnets.
On His Blindness by Milton, gives a sense of the Petrarchan rhyme scheme:
When I consider how my light is spent (a) Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, (b) And that one talent which is death to hide, (b) Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent (a) To serve therewith my Maker, and present (a) My true account, lest he returning chide; (b) "Doth God exact day - labour, light denied? '' (b) I fondly ask; but Patience to prevent (a) That murmur, soon replies, "God doth not need (c) Either man 's work or his own gifts; who best (d) Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state (e) Is Kingly. Thousands at his bidding speed (c) And post o'er land and ocean without rest; (d) They also serve who only stand and wait. '' (e)
Most Sonnets in Dante 's La Vita Nuova are Petrarchan. Chapter VII gives sonnet "O voi che per la via '', with two sestets (AABAAB AABAAB) and two quatrains (CDDC CDDC), and Ch. VIII, "Morte villana '', with two sestets (AABBBA AABBBA) and two quatrains (CDDC CDDC).
The sole confirmed surviving sonnet in the Occitan language is confidently dated to 1284, and is conserved only in troubadour manuscript P, an Italian chansonnier of 1310, now XLI. 42 in the Biblioteca Laurenziana in Florence. It was written by Paolo Lanfranchi da Pistoia and is addressed to Peter III of Aragon. It employs the rhyme scheme a-b-a-b, a-b-a-b, c-d-c-d-c-d. This poem is historically interesting for its information on north Italian perspectives concerning the War of the Sicilian Vespers, the conflict between the Angevins and Aragonese for Sicily. Peter III and the Aragonese cause was popular in northern Italy at the time and Paolo 's sonnet is a celebration of his victory over the Angevins and Capetians in the Aragonese Crusade:
An Occitan sonnet, dated to 1321 and assigned to one "William of Almarichi '', is found in Jean de Nostredame and cited in Giovanni Mario Crescimbeni 's, Istoria della volgar poesia. It congratulates Robert of Naples on his recent victory. Its authenticity is dubious. There are also two poorly regarded sonnets by the Italian Dante de Maiano.
In the 16th century, around Ronsard (1524 -- 1585)), Joachim du Bellay (1522 -- 1560) and Jean Antoine de Baïf (1532 -- 1589), there formed a group of radical young noble poets of the court (generally known today as La Pléiade, although use of this term is debated), who began writing in, amongst other forms of poetry, the Petrarchan sonnet cycle (developed around an amorous encounter or an idealized woman). The character of La Pléiade literary program was given in Du Bellay 's manifesto, the "Defense and Illustration of the French Language '' (1549), which maintained that French (like the Tuscan of Petrarch and Dante) was a worthy language for literary expression and which promulgated a program of linguistic and literary production (including the imitation of Latin and Greek genres) and purification.
By the late 17th century poets on increasingly relied on stanza forms incorporating rhymed couplets, and by the 18th century fixed - form poems -- and, in particular, the sonnet -- were largely avoided. The resulting versification -- less constrained by meter and rhyme patterns than Renaissance poetry -- more closely mirrored prose.
The Romantics were responsible for a return to (and sometimes a modification of) many of the fixed - form poems used during the 15th and 16th centuries, as well as for the creation of new forms. The sonnet however was little used until the Parnassians brought it back into favor, and the sonnet would subsequently find its most significant practitioner in Charles Baudelaire (1821 -- 1867). The traditional French sonnet form was however significantly modified by Baudelaire, who used 32 different forms of sonnet with non-traditional rhyme patterns to great effect in his Les Fleurs du mal.
When English sonnets were introduced by Thomas Wyatt (1503 -- 1542) in the early 16th century, his sonnets and those of his contemporary the Earl of Surrey were chiefly translations from the Italian of Petrarch and the French of Ronsard and others. While Wyatt introduced the sonnet into English, it was Surrey who developed the rhyme scheme -- abab cdcd efef gg -- which now characterizes the English sonnet. Having previously circulated in manuscripts only, both poets ' sonnets were first published in Richard Tottel 's Songes and Sonnetts, better known as Tottel 's Miscellany (1557).
It was, however, Sir Philip Sidney 's sequence Astrophel and Stella (1591) that started the English vogue for sonnet sequences. The next two decades saw sonnet sequences by William Shakespeare, Edmund Spenser, Michael Drayton, Samuel Daniel, Fulke Greville, William Drummond of Hawthornden, and many others. These sonnets were all essentially inspired by the Petrarchan tradition, and generally treat of the poet 's love for some woman, with the exception of Shakespeare 's sequence of 154 sonnets. The form is often named after Shakespeare, not because he was the first to write in this form but because he became its most famous practitioner. The form consists of fourteen lines structured as three quatrains and a couplet. The third quatrain generally introduces an unexpected sharp thematic or imagistic "turn '', the volta. In Shakespeare 's sonnets, however, the volta usually comes in the couplet, and usually summarizes the theme of the poem or introduces a fresh new look at the theme. With only a rare exception, the meter is iambic pentameter.
This example, Shakespeare 's "Sonnet 116 '', illustrates the form (with some typical variances one may expect when reading an Elizabethan - age sonnet with modern eyes):
Let me not to the marriage of true minds (a) Admit impediments, love is not love (b) * Which alters when it alteration finds, (a) Or bends with the remover to remove. (b) * O no, it is an ever fixèd mark (c) * * That looks on tempests and is never shaken; (d) * * * It is the star to every wand'ring bark, (c) * * Whose worth 's unknown although his height be taken. (d) * * * Love 's not time 's fool, though rosy lips and cheeks (e) Within his bending sickle 's compass come, (f) * Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks, (e) But bears it out even to the edge of doom: (f) * If this be error and upon me proved, (g) * I never writ, nor no man ever loved. (g) *
* PRONUNCIATION / RHYME: Note changes in pronunciation since composition. * * PRONUNCIATION / METER: "Fixed '' pronounced as two - syllables, "fix - ed ''. * * * RHYME / METER: Feminine - rhyme - ending, eleven - syllable alternative.
The Prologue to Romeo and Juliet is also a sonnet, as is Romeo and Juliet 's first exchange in Act One, Scene Five, lines 104 -- 117, beginning with "If I profane with my unworthiest hand '' (104) and ending with "Then move not while my prayer 's effect I take '' (117). The Epilogue to Henry V is also in the form of a sonnet.
A variant on the English form is the Spenserian sonnet, named after Edmund Spenser (c. 1552 -- 1599), in which the rhyme scheme is abab, bcbc, cdcd, ee. The linked rhymes of his quatrains suggest the linked rhymes of such Italian forms as terza rima. This example is taken from Amoretti:
Happy ye leaves! whenas those lily hands Happy ye leaves. whenas those lily hands, (a) Which hold my life in their dead doing might, (b) Shall handle you, and hold in love 's soft bands, (a) Like captives trembling at the victor 's sight. (b) And happy lines on which, with starry light, (b) Those lamping eyes will deign sometimes to look, (c) And read the sorrows of my dying sprite, (b) Written with tears in heart 's close bleeding book. (c) And happy rhymes! bathed in the sacred brook (c) Of Helicon, whence she derived is, (d) When ye behold that angel 's blessed look, (c) My soul 's long lacked food, my heaven 's bliss. (d) Leaves, lines, and rhymes seek her to please alone, (e) Whom if ye please, I care for other none. (e)
In the 17th century, the sonnet was adapted to other purposes, with John Donne and George Herbert writing religious sonnets (see John Donne 's Holy Sonnets), and John Milton using the sonnet as a general meditative poem. Probably Milton 's most famous sonnet is "When I Consider How My Light is Spent '', titled by a later editor "On His Blindness ''. Both the Shakespearean and Petrarchan rhyme schemes were popular throughout this period, as well as many variants.
The fashion for the sonnet went out with the Restoration, and hardly any sonnets were written between 1670 and Wordsworth 's time. However, sonnets came back strongly with the French Revolution. Wordsworth himself wrote hundreds of sonnets, of which amongst the best - known are "Upon Westminster Bridge '', "The world is too much with us '' and "London, 1802 '' addressed to Milton; his sonnets were essentially modelled on Milton 's. Keats and Shelley also wrote major sonnets; Keats 's sonnets used formal and rhetorical patterns inspired partly by Shakespeare, and Shelley innovated radically, creating his own rhyme scheme for the sonnet "Ozymandias ''. Sonnets were written throughout the 19th century, but, apart from Elizabeth Barrett Browning 's Sonnets from the Portuguese and the sonnets of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, there were few very successful traditional sonnets. Modern Love (1862) by George Meredith is a collection of fifty 16 - line sonnets about the failure of his first marriage.
Gerard Manley Hopkins wrote several major sonnets, often in sprung rhythm, such as "The Windhover '', and also several sonnet variants such as the 10 ⁄ - line curtal sonnet "Pied Beauty '' and the 24 - line caudate sonnet "That Nature is a Heraclitean Fire ''. Hopkin 's poetry was, however, not published until 1918. By the end of the 19th century, the sonnet had been adapted into a general - purpose form of great flexibility.
In the United States, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote many sonnets, among others the cycle Divina Commedia (Divine Comedy). He used the Petrarchan rhyme scheme. Emma Lazarus also published many sonnets. She is the author of perhaps the best - known American sonnet, "The New Colossus ''.
In Canada during the last decades of the century, the Confederation Poets and especially Archibald Lampman were known for their sonnets, which were mainly on pastoral themes.
This flexibility was extended even further in the 20th century. Among the major poets of the early Modernist period, Robert Frost, Edna St. Vincent Millay and E.E. Cummings all used the sonnet regularly. William Butler Yeats wrote the major sonnet "Leda and the Swan '', which uses half rhymes. Wilfred Owen 's sonnet "Anthem for Doomed Youth '' is another sonnet of the early 20th century. Spaniard Federico García Lorca also wrote sonnets. W.H. Auden wrote two sonnet sequences and several other sonnets throughout his career, and widened the range of rhyme - schemes used considerably. Auden also wrote one of the first unrhymed sonnets in English, "The Secret Agent '' (1928). Robert Lowell wrote five books of unrhymed "American sonnets '', including his Pulitzer Prize - winning volume The Dolphin (1973). Half - rhymed, unrhymed, and even unmetrical sonnets have been very popular since 1950; perhaps the best works in the genre are Seamus Heaney 's Glanmore Sonnets and Clearances, both of which use half rhymes, and Geoffrey Hill 's mid-period sequence "An Apology for the Revival of Christian Architecture in England ''. The 1990s saw something of a formalist revival, however, and several traditional sonnets have been written in the past decade.
Other modern poets, including Don Paterson, Joan Brossa, Paul Muldoon used the form. Wendy Cope 's poem "Stress '' is a sonnet. Elizabeth Bishop 's inverted "Sonnet '' was one of her last poems. Ted Berrigan 's book, The Sonnets, "is conventional almost exclusively in (the) line count) ''. Paul Muldoon often experiments with 14 lines and sonnet rhymes, though without regular sonnet meter. The advent of the New Formalism movement in the United States has also contributed to contemporary interest in the sonnet. This includes the invention of the "word sonnet '', which are fourteen line poems, with one word per line. Frequently allusive and imagistic, they can also be irreverent and playful. The Canadian poet Seymour Mayne published a few collections of word sonnets, and is one of the chief innovators of the form. Contemporary word sonnets combine a variation of styles often considered to be mutually exclusive to separate genres, as demonstrated in works such as "An Ode to Mary ''. The Greek poet Yannis Livadas in 1993 invented the so - called "fusion sonnet '', which first appeared in a poetry collection entitled The Hanging Verses Of Babylon / Οι Κρεμαστοί Στίχοι Της Βαβυλώνας (Melani Books, Athens 2007), ISBN 978 - 960 - 8309 - 78 - 4.
Paulus Melissus (1539 -- 1602) was the first to use the sonnet and the terza rima in German lyric. In his lifetime he was recognized as an author fully versed in Latin love poetry.
The Sonnets to Orpheus are a cycle of 55 sonnets written in 1922 by the Bohemian - Austrian poet Rainer Maria Rilke (1875 -- 1926). It was first published the following year. Rilke, who is "widely recognized as one of the most lyrically intense German - language poets '', wrote the cycle in a period of three weeks experiencing what he described a "savage creative storm ''. Inspired by the news of the death of Wera Ouckama Knoop (1900 -- 1919), a playmate of Rilke 's daughter Ruth, he dedicated them as a memorial, or Grab - Mal (literally "grave - marker ''), to her memory.
In the Netherlands Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft wrote sonnets. A famous example is Mijn lief, mijn lief, mijn lief. Some of his poems were translated by Edmund Gosse. More recent examples include Martinus Nijhoff and Jan Kal.
In the Indian subcontinent, sonnets have been written in the Assamese, Bengali, Dogri, English, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Sindhi and Urdu languages. Urdu poets, also influenced by English and other European poets, took to writing sonnets in the Urdu language rather late. Azmatullah Khan (1887 -- 1923) is believed to have introduced this format to Urdu literature in the very early part of the 20th century. The other renowned Urdu poets who wrote sonnets were Akhtar Junagarhi, Akhtar Sheerani, Noon Meem Rashid, Mehr Lal Soni Zia Fatehabadi, Salaam Machhalishahari and Wazir Agha. This example, a sonnet by Zia Fatehabadi taken from his collection Meri Tasveer, is in the usual English (Shakespearean) sonnet rhyme - scheme.
ڈبکںی پسِ پردہ کِسی نے میرے ارمانوں کی محفِل کو ، کچھ اِس انداز سے دیکھا ، کچھ ایسے طور سے دیکھا ، غُبارِ آہ سے دے کر جلا آئینۂ دل کو ، ہر اِک صورت کو میں نے خوب دیکھا ، غور سے دیکھا نظر آئی نہ وہ صورت ، مجھے جس کی تمنّا تھی بہت ڈھُونڈا کیا گلشن میں ، ویرانے میں ، بستی میں منّور شمعِ مہر و ماہ سے دِن رات دُنیا تھی مگر چاروں طرف تھا گُھپ اندھیرا میری ہستی میں دلِ مجبور کو مجروحِ اُلفت کر دیا کِس نے مرے احساس کی گہرایوں میں ہے چُبھن غم کی مٹا کر جسم ، میری روح کو اپنا لیا کس نے جوانی بن گئی آما جگہ صدماتِ پیہم کی حجاباتِ نظر کا سلسلہ توڈ اور آ بھی جا مجھے اِک بار اپنا جلوۂ رنگیں دکھا بھی جا
Sonnet ' Dubkani ' ڈبکںی by Zia Fatehabadi taken from his book titled Meri Tasveer
Alexander Pushkin 's novel in verse Eugene Onegin consists almost entirely of 389 stanzas of iambic tetrameter with the unusual rhyme scheme "AbAbCCddEffEgg '', where the uppercase letters represent feminine rhymes while the lowercase letters represent masculine rhymes. This form has come to be known as the "Onegin stanza '' or the "Pushkin sonnet. ''
Unlike other traditional forms, such as the Petrarchan sonnet or Shakespearean sonnet, the Onegin stanza does not divide into smaller stanzas of four lines or two in an obvious way. There are many different ways this sonnet can be divided.
In post-Pushkin Russian poetry, the form has been utilized by authors as diverse as Mikhail Lermontov, Vyacheslav Ivanov, Jurgis Baltrušaitis and Valery Pereleshin, in genres ranging from one - stanza lyrical piece to voluminous autobiography. Nevertheless, the Onegin stanza, being easily recognisable, is strongly identified as belonging to its creator.
John Fuller 's 1980 "The Illusionists '' and Jon Stallworthy 's 1987 "The Nutcracker '' used this stanza form, and Vikram Seth 's 1986 novel The Golden Gate is written wholly in Onegin stanzas.
The sonnet was introduced into Polish literature in the 16th century by Jan Kochanowski, Mikołaj Sęp - Szarzyński and Sebastian Grabowiecki. Later in 1826 Adam Mickiewicz wrote a series known as Crimean Sonnets, which was translated into English by Edna Worthley Underwood. Sonnets were also written by Adam Asnyk, Jan Kasprowicz and Leopold Staff. Polish poets usually shape their sonnets according to Italian or French practice. The English sonnet is not common. Kasprowicz used a Shelleyan rhyme scheme: aba bcb cdc ded ee. Polish sonnets are typically written in either hendecasyllables (5 + 6 syllables) or Polish alexandrines (7 + 6 syllables).
The sonnet was introduced into Czech literature at the beginning of the 19th century. The first great Czech sonneteer was Ján Kollár, who wrote a cycle of sonnets named Slávy Dcera (The daughter of Sláva / The daughter of fame). Kollár was Slovak and a supporter of Pan-Slavism, but wrote in Czech, as he disagreed that Slovak should be a separate language. Kollár 's magnum opus was planned as a Slavic epic poem as great as Dante 's Divine Comedy. It consists of The Prelude written in quantitative hexameters, and sonnets. The number of poems increased in subsequent editions and came up to 645. The greatest Czech romantic poet, Karel Hynek Mácha also wrote many sonnets. In the second half of the 19th century Jaroslav Vrchlický published Sonety samotáře (Sonnets of a Solitudinarian). Another poet, who wrote many sonnets was Josef Svatopluk Machar. He published Čtyři knihy sonetů (The Four Books of Sonnets). In the 20th century Vítězslav Nezval wrote the cycle 100 sonetů zachránkyni věčného studenta Roberta Davida (One Hundred Sonnets for the Woman who Rescued Perpetual Student Robert David). After the Second World War the sonnet was the favourite form of Oldřich Vyhlídal. Czech poets use different metres for sonnets, Kollár and Mácha used decasyllables, Vrchlický iambic pentameter, Antonín Sova free verse, and Jiří Orten the Czech alexandrine. Ondřej Hanus wrote a monograph about Czech Sonnets in the first half of the twentieth century.
In Slovenia the sonnet became a national verse form. The greatest Slovenian poet, France Prešeren, wrote many sonnets. His best known work worldwide is Sonetni venec (A Wreath of Sonnets), which is an example of crown of sonnets. Another work of his is the sequence Sonetje nesreče (Sonnets of Misfortune). In writing sonnets Prešeren was followed by many later poets. After the Second World War sonnets remained very popular. Slovenian poets write both traditional rhymed sonnets and modern ones, unrhymed, in free verse. Among them are Milan Jesih and Aleš Debeljak. The metre for sonnets in Slovenian poetry is iambic pentameter with feminine rhymes, based both on the Italian endecasillabo and German iambic pentameter.
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when did the us acquire california from mexico | Mexican -- American war - wikipedia
American victory
The Mexican -- American War, also known as the Mexican War in the United States and in Mexico as the American intervention in Mexico, was an armed conflict between the United States of America and the United Mexican States (Mexico) from 1846 to 1848. It followed in the wake of the 1845 American annexation of the independent Republic of Texas. Mexico had considerable instability under the caudillo leadership of President / General Antonio López de Santa Anna, with many constitutional changes leading up to the conflict. Mexico still considered Texas to be its northeastern province and a part of its territory, and did not recognize the Republic of Texas, which had seceded from Mexico in the 1836 Texas Revolution a decade earlier. In 1845, newly elected U.S. President James K. Polk sent troops to the disputed area, and a diplomatic mission to Mexico. After Mexican forces attacked American forces, Polk cited this in his request that Congress declare war.
U.S. forces quickly occupied the capital town of Santa Fe de Nuevo México along the upper Rio Grande and the Pacific coast territory province of Alta California (Upper California). They then invaded to the south into parts of central Mexico (modern - day northeastern Mexico and northwest Mexico). Meanwhile, the Pacific Squadron of the United States Navy conducted a blockade and took control of several garrisons on the Pacific coast farther south in lower Baja California Territory. The U.S. Army, under the command of Major General Winfield Scott, after several fierce battles of stiff resistance from the Mexican Army outside of the capital, Mexico City, eventually captured the city, having marched west from the port of Veracruz, where the Americans staged their first amphibious landing on the Gulf of Mexico coast.
The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, forced onto the remnant Mexican government, ended the war and specified its major consequence, the Mexican Cession of the northern territories of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México to the United States. The U.S. agreed to pay $15 million compensation for the physical damage of the war. In addition, the United States assumed $3.25 million of debt already owed earlier by the Mexican government to U.S. citizens. Mexico acknowledged the loss of their province, later the Republic of Texas (and now the State of Texas), and thereafter cited and acknowledged the Rio Grande as its future northern national border with the United States. Mexico had lost over one - third of its original territory from its 1821 independence.
The territorial expansion of the United States toward the Pacific coast had been the goal of Polk, the leader of the Democratic Party. At first, the war was highly controversial in the United States, with the Whig Party, anti-imperialists, and anti-slavery elements strongly opposing. Critics in the United States pointed to the heavy casualties suffered by U.S. forces compared to earlier American wars, and the conflict 's high monetary cost. The war intensified the debate over slavery in the United States, contributing to bitter debates that culminated in the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865).
In Mexico, the war came in the middle of continued domestic political turmoil, which increased into chaos during the conflict. The military defeat and loss of territory was a disastrous blow, causing Mexico to enter "a period of self - examination... as its leaders sought to identify and address the reasons that had led to such a debacle. '' In the immediate aftermath of the war, some prominent Mexicans wrote that the war had resulted in "the state of degradation and ruin '' in Mexico, further claiming, for "the true origin of the war, it is sufficient to say that the insatiable ambition of the United States, favored by our weakness, caused it. '' The shift in the Mexico - U.S. border left many Mexican citizens separated from their national government. For the indigenous peoples who had never accepted Spanish or Mexican rule, the change in border meant conflicts with a new outside power.
Mexico obtained independence from Spain and the Spanish Empire with the Treaty of Córdoba in 1821, and briefly experimented with monarchy, becoming a republic in 1824. It was characterized by considerable instability, leaving it ill - prepared for international conflict only two decades later, when war broke out in 1846. In the decades preceding the war, Native American raids in Mexico 's sparsely settled north prompted the Mexican government to sponsor migration from the United States to the Mexican province of Texas to create a buffer. However, the newly named "Texians '' revolted against the Mexican government of President / dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna, who had usurped the Mexican Constitution of 1824, in the subsequent 1836 Texas Revolution, creating a republic not recognized by Mexico, which still claimed it as part of its national territory. In 1845, the Texan Republic agreed to an offer of annexation by the U.S. Congress and became the 28th state in the Union on December 29 that year.
The northern area of Mexico was sparsely settled and not well controlled politically by the government based in Mexico City. After independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico contended with internal struggles that sometimes verged on civil war and the northern frontier was not a high priority. In the sparsely settled interior of northern Mexico, the end of Spanish rule was marked by the end of financing for presidios and for subsidies to indigenous Americans to maintain the peace. There were conflicts between indigenous people in the northern region as well. The Comanche were particularly successful in expanding their territory in the Comanche -- Mexico Wars and garnering resources. The Apache -- Mexico Wars also made Mexico 's north a violent place, with no effective political control.
The Apache raids left thousands of people dead throughout northern Mexico. When the United States Army entered northern Mexico in 1846 they found demoralized Mexican settlers. There was little resistance to US forces from the civilian population.
Hostile activity from indigenous people also made communications and trade between the interior of Mexico and provinces such as Alta California and New Mexico difficult. As a result, New Mexico was dependent on the overland Santa Fe Trail trade with the United States at the outbreak of the Mexican -- American War.
Mexico 's military and diplomatic capabilities declined after it attained independence and left the northern half of the country vulnerable to the Comanche, Apache, and Navajo. The indigenous people, especially the Comanche, took advantage of the weakness of the Mexican state to undertake large - scale raids hundreds of miles into the country to acquire livestock for their own use and to supply an expanding market in Texas and the US.
The Mexican government 's policy of settlement of US citizens in its province of Tejas was aimed at expanding control into Comanche lands, the Comancheria. Instead of settlement occurring in the central and west of the province, people settled in East Texas, where there was rich farmland and which was contiguous to southern US slave states. As settlers poured in from the US, the Mexican government took steps to discourage further settlement, including its 1829 abolition of slavery.
In 1836, Mexico was relatively united in refusing to recognize the independence of Texas. Mexico threatened war with the United States if it annexed the Republic of Texas. Meanwhile, U.S. President Polk 's assertion of Manifest Destiny was focusing United States interest on westward expansion beyond its existing national borders.
During the Spanish colonial era, the Californias (i.e., the Baja California peninsula and Alta California) were sparsely settled. After Mexico became independent, it shut down the missions and reduced its military presence. In 1842, the US minister in Mexico, Waddy Thompson Jr., suggested Mexico might be willing to cede Alta California to settle debts, saying: "As to Texas, I regard it as of very little value compared with California, the richest, the most beautiful, and the healthiest country in the world... with the acquisition of Upper California we should have the same ascendency on the Pacific... France and England both have had their eyes upon it. ''
US President John Tyler 's administration suggested a tripartite pact that would settle the Oregon boundary dispute and provide for the cession of the port of San Francisco from Mexico. Lord Aberdeen declined to participate but said Britain had no objection to U.S. territorial acquisition there. The British minister in Mexico, Richard Pakenham, wrote in 1841 to Lord Palmerston urging "to establish an English population in the magnificent Territory of Upper California '', saying that "no part of the World offering greater natural advantages for the establishment of an English colony... by all means desirable... that California, once ceasing to belong to Mexico, should not fall into the hands of any power but England... daring and adventurous speculators in the United States have already turned their thoughts in this direction. '' But by the time the letter reached London, Sir Robert Peel 's Tory government, with its Little England policy, had come to power and rejected the proposal as expensive and a potential source of conflict.
A significant number of influential Californios were in favor of annexation, either by the United States or by the United Kingdom. Pío de Jesús Pico IV, the last governor of Alta California, was in favor of British annexation.
In 1800, Spain 's colonial province of Texas (Tejas) had few inhabitants, with only about 7,000 non-Indian settlers. The Spanish crown developed a policy of colonization to more effectively control the territory. After independence, the Mexican government implemented the policy, granting Moses Austin, a banker from Missouri, a large tract of land in Texas. Austin died before he could bring his plan of recruiting American settlers for the land to fruition, but his son, Stephen F. Austin, brought over 300 American families into Texas. This started the steady trend of migration from the United States into the Texas frontier. Austin 's colony was the most successful of several colonies authorized by the Mexican government. The Mexican government intended the new settlers to act as a buffer between the Tejano residents and the Comanches, but the non-Hispanic colonists tended to settle where there was decent farmland and trade connections with American Louisiana, which the United States had acquired in the Louisiana Purchase, rather than further west where they would have been an effective buffer against the Indians.
In 1829, as a result of the large influx of American immigrants, the non-Hispanic outnumbered native Spanish speakers in the Texas territory. President Vicente Guerrero, a hero of Mexican independence, moved to gain more control over Texas and its influx of southern non-Hispanic colonists and discourage further immigration by abolishing slavery in Mexico. The Mexican government also decided to reinstate the property tax and increase tariffs on shipped American goods. The settlers and many Mexican businessmen in the region rejected the demands, which led to Mexico closing Texas to additional immigration, which continued from the United States into Texas illegally.
In 1834, General Antonio López de Santa Anna became the centralist dictator of Mexico, abandoning the federal system. He decided to quash the semi-independence of Texas, having succeeded in doing so in Coahuila (in 1824, Mexico had merged Texas and Coahuila into the enormous state of Coahuila y Tejas). Finally, Stephen F. Austin called Texians to arms, and they declared independence from Mexico in 1836. After Santa Anna defeated the Texians in the Battle of the Alamo, he was defeated by the Texian Army commanded by General Sam Houston and captured at the Battle of San Jacinto; he signed a treaty recognizing the independence of Texas.
Texas consolidated its status as an independent republic and received official recognition from Britain, France, and the United States, which all advised Mexico not to try to reconquer the new nation. Most Texians wanted to join the United States of America, but annexation of Texas was contentious in the US Congress, where Whigs were largely opposed. In 1845 Texas agreed to the offer of annexation by the US Congress and became the 28th state on December 29, 1845.
In 1845, newly elected U.S. President James K. Polk made a proposition to purchase Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México from Mexico, and to agree upon the Rio Grande river as the southern border of United States. When that offer was rejected, President Polk moved U.S. troops commanded by Major General Zachary Taylor further south into the disputed Nueces Strip
The border of Texas as an independent state was originally never settled. The Republic of Texas claimed land up to the Rio Grande based on the Treaties of Velasco, but Mexico refused to accept these as valid, claiming that the Rio Grande in the treaty was the Nueces, and referred to the Rio Grande as the Rio Bravo. The ill - fated Texan Santa Fe Expedition of 1841 attempted to realize the claim to New Mexican territory East of the Rio Grande, but its members were captured and imprisoned.
Reference to the Rio Grande boundary of Texas was omitted from the US Congress 's annexation resolution to help secure passage after the annexation treaty failed in the Senate. President Polk claimed the Rio Grande boundary, and when Mexico sent forces over the Rio Grande, this provoked a dispute.
In July 1845, Polk sent General Zachary Taylor to Texas, and by October 3,500 Americans were on the Nueces River, ready to take by force the disputed land. Polk wanted to protect the border and also coveted for the U.S. the continent clear to the Pacific Ocean. At the same time Polk wrote to the American consul in the Mexican territory of Alta California, disclaiming American ambitions in California, but offering to support independence from Mexico or voluntary accession to the United States, and warning that the United States would oppose a British or French takeover.
To end another war scare with the United Kingdom over the Oregon Country, Polk signed the Oregon Treaty dividing the territory, angering northern Democrats who felt he was prioritizing Southern expansion over Northern expansion.
In the Winter of 1845 -- 46, the federally commissioned explorer John C. Frémont and a group of armed men appeared in Alta California. After telling the Mexican governor and the American Consul Larkin he was merely buying supplies on the way to Oregon, he instead went to the populated area of California and visited Santa Cruz and the Salinas Valley, explaining he had been looking for a seaside home for his mother. Mexican authorities became alarmed and ordered him to leave. Frémont responded by building a fort on Gavilan Peak and raising the American flag. Larkin sent word that Frémont 's actions were counterproductive. Frémont left California in March but returned to California and took control of the California Battalion following the outbreak of the Bear Flag Revolt in Sonoma.
In November 1845, Polk sent John Slidell, a secret representative, to Mexico City with an offer to the Mexican government of $25 million for the Rio Grande border in Texas and Mexico 's provinces of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México. US expansionists wanted California to thwart British ambitions in the area and to gain a port on the Pacific Ocean. Polk authorized Slidell to forgive the $3 million owed to US citizens for damages caused by the Mexican War of Independence and pay another $25 to $30 million in exchange for the two territories.
Mexico was not inclined nor able to negotiate. In 1846 alone, the presidency changed hands four times, the war ministry six times, and the finance ministry sixteen times. Mexican public opinion and all political factions agreed that selling the territories to the United States would tarnish the national honor. Mexicans who opposed direct conflict with the United States, including President José Joaquín de Herrera, were viewed as traitors. Military opponents of de Herrera, supported by populist newspapers, considered Slidell 's presence in Mexico City an insult. When de Herrera considered receiving Slidell to settle the problem of Texas annexation peacefully, he was accused of treason and deposed. After a more nationalistic government under General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga came to power, it publicly reaffirmed Mexico 's claim to Texas; Slidell, convinced that Mexico should be "chastised '', returned to the US.
The Mexican Army emerged from the war of independence (1810 -- 1821) as a weak and divided force. Before the war with the United States, the military faced both internal and foreign challenges. The Spanish still occupied the coastal fortress of San Juan de Ulúa, and Spain did not recognize Mexico 's independence, so that the new nation was at risk for invasion. In 1829, the Spanish attempted to reconquer their former colony and Antonio López de Santa Anna became a national hero defending the homeland. The army had a set of privileges (fueros), established in the colonial era, that gave it jurisdiction over many aspects of its affairs. In general, the military supported conservative positions, advocating for a strong central government and upholding privileges of the military and the Catholic Church.
Some military men exercised power in local areas as caudillos and resisted central command. Liberal politicians, such as Valentín Gómez Farías, sought to rein in the military 's power. The military faced insurrections and separatist movements in Tabasco, Yucatán, and Texas. The French blockaded in Veracruz in 1838 to collect debts, a conflict known to history as the Pastry War. Compounding the demands on the Mexican military, there were continuing Indian challenges to power in the northern region.
On the Mexican side, only 7 of the 19 states that formed the Mexican federation sent soldiers, armament, and money for the war effort, as the young Republic had not yet developed a sense of a unifying, national identity.
Mexican soldiers were not easily melded into an effective fighting force. Santa Anna said "the leaders of the army did their best to train the rough men who volunteered, but they could do little to inspire them with patriotism for the glorious country they were honored to serve. '' According to leading conservative politician Lucas Alamán, the "money spent on arming Mexican troops merely enabled them to fight each other and ' give the illusion ' that the country possessed an army for its defense. '' However, an officer criticized Santa Anna 's training of troops, "The cavalry was drilled only in regiments. The artillery hardly ever maneuvered and never fired a blank shot. The general in command was never present on the field of maneuvers, so that he was unable to appreciate the respective qualities of the various bodies under his command... If any meetings of the principal commanding officers were held to discuss the operations of the campaign, it was not known, nor was it known whether any plan of campaign had been formed. ''
At the beginning of the war, Mexican forces were divided between the permanent forces (permanentes) and the active militiamen (activos). The permanent forces consisted of 12 regiments of infantry (of two battalions each), three brigades of artillery, eight regiments of cavalry, one separate squadron and a brigade of dragoons. The militia amounted to nine infantry and six cavalry regiments. In the northern territories of Mexico, presidial companies (presidiales) protected the scattered settlements there.
One of the contributing factors to loss of the war by Mexico was the inferiority of their weapons. The Mexican army was using surplus British muskets (e.g. Brown Bess) from the Napoleonic Wars period. While at the beginning of the war the majority of American soldiers were still equipped with the very similar Springfield 1816 flintlock muskets, more reliable caplock models gained large inroads within the rank and file as the conflict progressed. Some US troops carried radically modern weapons that gave them a significant advantage over their Mexican counterparts, such as the Springfield 1841 rifle of the Mississippi Rifles and the Colt Paterson revolver of the Texas Rangers. In the later stages of the war, the US Mounted Rifles were issued Colt Walker revolvers, of which the US Army had ordered 1,000 in 1846. Most significantly, throughout the war the superiority of the US artillery often carried the day. While technologically Mexican and American artillery operated on the same plane, US army training as well as the quality and reliability of their logistics gave US guns and cannoneers a significant edge.
Desertion was a major problem for the Mexican army, depleting forces on the eve of battle. Most soldiers were peasants who held loyalty to their village and family, but not to the generals who had conscripted them. Often hungry and ill, under - equipped, only partially trained, and never well paid, the soldiers were held in contempt by their officers and had little reason to fight the invading US forces. Looking for their opportunity, many slipped away from camp to find their way back to their home village.
Women who traveled with the men in the Mexican army where known as soldaderas. While they only carried their packs, there were recorded instances where the soldaderas would join in the battle alongside the men. These women were involved in street fighting during the defence of Mexico City and Monterey. Some women such as Dos Amandes and Maria Josefa Zozaya would be remembered as heroes.
Political divisions inside Mexico were another factor in the US victory. Inside Mexico, the centralistas and republicanos vied for power, and at times these two factions inside Mexico 's military fought each other rather than the invading US Army. Another faction called the monarchists, whose members wanted to install a monarch (some advocated rejoining Spain), further complicated matters. This third faction would rise to predominance in the period of the French intervention in Mexico. The ease of the American landing at Veracruz was in large part due to civil warfare in Mexico City, which made any real defense of the port city impossible. As Gen. Santa Anna said, "However shameful it may be to admit this, we have brought this disgraceful tragedy upon ourselves through our interminable in - fighting. ''
On the U.S. side, the war was fought by regiments of regulars and various regiments, battalions, and companies of volunteers from the different states of the Union as well as Americans and some Mexicans in the California and New Mexico territories. On the West Coast, the US Navy fielded a battalion of sailors, in an attempt to recapture Los Angeles. Although the US Army and Navy were not large at the outbreak of the war, the officers were generally well trained and the numbers of enlisted men fairly large compared to Mexico 's. At the beginning of the war, the US Army had eight regiments of infantry (three battalions each), four artillery regiments and three mounted regiments (two dragoons, one of mounted rifles). These regiments were supplemented by 10 new regiments (nine of infantry and one of cavalry) raised for one year of service by the act of Congress from February 11, 1847.
State volunteers were raised in various sized units and for various periods of time, mostly for one year. Later some were raised for the duration of the war as it became clear it was going to last longer than a year.
US soldiers ' memoirs describe cases of looting and murder of Mexican civilians, mostly by State Volunteers. One officer 's diary records:
We reached Burrita about 5 pm, many of the Louisiana volunteers were there, a lawless drunken rabble. They had driven away the inhabitants, taken possession of their houses, and were emulating each other in making beasts of themselves.
John L. O'Sullivan, a vocal proponent of Manifest Destiny, later recalled:
The regulars regarded the volunteers with importance and contempt... (The volunteers) robbed Mexicans of their cattle and corn, stole their fences for firewood, got drunk, and killed several inoffensive inhabitants of the town in the streets.
Many of the volunteers were unwanted and considered poor soldiers. The expression "Just like Gaines 's army '' came to refer to something useless, the phrase having originated when a group of untrained and unwilling Louisiana troops were rejected and sent back by Gen. Taylor at the beginning of the war.
1,563 US soldiers are buried in the Mexico City National Cemetery, which is maintained by the American Battle Monuments Commission.
In 1846, after Polk ordered General Taylor 's troops into the disputed territory, Mexican forces attacked an American Army outpost ("Thornton Affair '') in the occupied territory, killing 12 U.S. soldiers and capturing 52. These same Mexican troops later laid siege to an American fort along the Rio Grande. Polk cited this attack as an invasion of U.S. territory and requested that the Congress declare war.
President Polk ordered General Taylor and his forces south to the Rio Grande, entering the territory that Mexicans disputed. Mexico laid claim to all the lands as far north as the Nueces River -- about 150 mi (240 km) north of the Rio Grande. The U.S. claimed that the border was the Rio Grande, citing the 1836 Treaties of Velasco. However, Mexico rejected the treaties and refused to negotiate, instead still claiming all of Texas. Taylor ignored Mexican demands to withdraw to the Nueces. He constructed a makeshift fort (later known as Fort Brown / Fort Texas) on the banks of the Rio Grande opposite the city of Matamoros, Tamaulipas.
The Mexican forces under General Santa Anna immediately prepared for war. On April 25, 1846, a 2,000 - man Mexican cavalry detachment attacked a 70 - man U.S. patrol under the command of Captain Seth Thornton, which had been sent into the contested territory north of the Rio Grande and south of the Nueces River. In the Thornton Affair, the Mexican cavalry routed the patrol, killing 11 American soldiers.
Regarding the beginning of the war, Ulysses S. Grant, who had opposed the war but served as an army lieutenant in Taylor 's Army, claims in his Personal Memoirs (1885) that the main goal of the U.S. Army 's advance from Nueces River to Rio Grande was to provoke the outbreak of war without attacking first, to debilitate any political opposition to the war.
The presence of United States troops on the edge of the disputed territory farthest from the Mexican settlements, was not sufficient to provoke hostilities. We were sent to provoke a fight, but it was essential that Mexico should commence it. It was very doubtful whether Congress would declare war; but if Mexico should attack our troops, the Executive could announce, "Whereas, war exists by the acts of, etc., '' and prosecute the contest with vigor. Once initiated there were but few public men who would have the courage to oppose it...
Mexico showing no willingness to come to the Nueces to drive the invaders from her soil, it became necessary for the "invaders '' to approach to within a convenient distance to be struck. Accordingly, preparations were begun for moving the army to the Rio Grande, to a point near Matamoras (sic). It was desirable to occupy a position near the largest centre of population possible to reach, without absolutely invading territory to which we set up no claim whatever.
A few days after the defeat of the U.S. troops by General Arista, the Siege of Fort Texas began on May 3, 1846. Mexican artillery at Matamoros opened fire on Fort Texas, which replied with its own guns. The bombardment continued for 160 hours and expanded as Mexican forces gradually surrounded the fort. Thirteen U.S. soldiers were injured during the bombardment, and two were killed. Among the dead was Jacob Brown, after whom the fort was later named.
On May 8, Zachary Taylor and 2,400 troops arrived to relieve the fort. However, General Arista rushed north and intercepted him with a force of 3,400 at Palo Alto. The U.S. Army employed "flying artillery '', their term for horse artillery, a type of mobile light artillery that was mounted on horse carriages with the entire crew riding horses into battle. It had a devastating effect on the Mexican army. In contrast to the "flying artillery '' of the Americans, the Mexican cannons at the Battle of Palo Alto fired at such slow velocities that it was possible for American soldiers to dodge artillery rounds. The Mexicans replied with cavalry skirmishes and their own artillery. The U.S. flying artillery somewhat demoralized the Mexican side, and seeking terrain more to their advantage, the Mexicans retreated to the far side of a dry riverbed (resaca) during the night. It provided a natural fortification, but during the retreat, Mexican troops were scattered, making communication difficult.
During the Battle of Resaca de la Palma the next day, the two sides engaged in fierce hand to hand combat. The U.S. Cavalry managed to capture the Mexican artillery, causing the Mexican side to retreat -- a retreat that turned into a rout. Fighting on unfamiliar terrain, his troops fleeing in retreat, Arista found it impossible to rally his forces. Mexican casualties were heavy, and the Mexicans were forced to abandon their artillery and baggage. Fort Brown inflicted additional casualties as the withdrawing troops passed by the fort. Many Mexican soldiers drowned trying to swim across the Rio Grande. Both these engagements were fought before war was declared.
In 1846, relations between the two countries had deteriorated considerably and on April 23, 1846, the president of Mexico issued a proclamation, declaring Mexico 's intent to fight a "defensive war '' against the encroachment of the United States. On April 25, 1846, two thousand Mexican cavalry crossed into the disputed territory and routed a small detachment of American soldiers, sparking the "Thornton Affair ''. Polk received word of the Thornton Affair, which, added to the Mexican government 's rejection of Slidell, Polk believed, constituted a casus belli (cause for war). His message to Congress on May 11, 1846, claimed that "Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon American soil. ''
The U.S. Congress approved the declaration of war on May 13, 1846, after a few hours of debate, with southern Democrats in strong support. Sixty - seven Whigs voted against the war on a key slavery amendment, but on the final passage only 14 Whigs voted no, including Rep. John Quincy Adams.
In Mexico, although President Paredes issued a manifesto on May 23, 1846 and a declaration of a defensive war on April 23, both of which are considered by some the de facto start of the war, Mexico officially declared war by Congress on July 7, 1846.
Once the U.S. declared war on Mexico, Antonio López de Santa Anna wrote to the Mexican government, saying he no longer had aspirations to the presidency but would eagerly use his military experience to fight off the foreign invasion of Mexico as he had before. President Valentín Gómez Farías, a civilian, was desperate enough to accept the offer and allowed Santa Anna to return. Meanwhile, Santa Anna had secretly been dealing with representatives of the U.S., pledging that if he were allowed back into Mexico through the U.S. naval blockades, he would work to sell all contested territory to the United States at a reasonable price. Once back in Mexico at the head of an army, Santa Anna reneged on both agreements. He declared himself president once again and unsuccessfully tried to fight off the U.S. invasion.
In the United States, increasingly divided by sectional rivalry, the war was a partisan issue and an essential element in the origins of the American Civil War. Most Whigs in the North and South opposed it; most Democrats supported it. Southern Democrats, animated by a popular belief in Manifest Destiny, supported it in hope of adding slave - owning territory to the South and avoiding being outnumbered by the faster - growing North. John L. O'Sullivan, editor of the Democratic Review, coined this phrase in its context, stating that it must be "our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions. ''
Northern antislavery elements feared the expansion of the Southern Slave Power; Whigs generally wanted to strengthen the economy with industrialization, not expand it with more land. Among the most vocal opposing the war in the House of Representatives was John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts. Adams had first voiced concerns about expanding into Mexican territory in 1836 when he opposed Texas annexation. He continued this argument in 1846 for the same reason. War with Mexico would add new slavery territory to the nation. When the vote to go to war with Mexico came to a vote on May 13, Adams spoke a resounding "NO '' in the chamber. Only 13 others followed his lead.
Ex-slave Frederick Douglass opposed the war and was dismayed by the weakness of the anti-war movement. "The determination of our slave holding president, and the probability of his success in wringing from the people, men and money to carry it on, is made evident by the puny opposition arrayed against him. None seem willing to take their stand for peace at all risks. ''
Democrats wanted more land; northern Democrats were attracted by the possibilities in the far northwest. Joshua Giddings led a group of dissenters in Washington D.C. He called the war with Mexico "an aggressive, unholy, and unjust war '', and voted against supplying soldiers and weapons. He said:
In the murder of Mexicans upon their own soil, or in robbing them of their country, I can take no part either now or hereafter. The guilt of these crimes must rest on others. I will not participate in them.
Fellow Whig Abraham Lincoln contested Polk 's causes for the war. Polk had said that Mexico had "shed American blood upon American soil ''. Lincoln submitted eight "Spot Resolutions '', demanding that Polk state the exact spot where Thornton had been attacked and American blood shed, and clarify whether or not that location was actually American soil, or in fact had been claimed by Spain and Mexico.
Whig Senator Thomas Corwin of Ohio gave a long speech indicting presidential war in 1847. Whig leader Robert Toombs of Georgia declared:
This war is nondescript... We charge the President with usurping the war - making power... with seizing a country... which had been for centuries, and was then in the possession of the Mexicans... Let us put a check upon this lust of dominion. We had territory enough, Heaven knew.
Northern abolitionists attacked the war as an attempt by slave - owners to strengthen the grip of slavery and thus ensure their continued influence in the federal government. Acting on his convictions, Henry David Thoreau was jailed for his refusal to pay taxes to support the war, and penned his famous essay Civil Disobedience.
Democratic Representative David Wilmot introduced the Wilmot Proviso, which would prohibit slavery in new territory acquired from Mexico. Wilmot 's proposal passed the House but not the Senate, and it spurred further hostility between the factions.
Besides alleging that the actions of Mexican military forces within the disputed boundary lands north of the Rio Grande constituted an attack on American soil, the war 's advocates viewed the territories of New Mexico and California as only nominally Mexican possessions with very tenuous ties to Mexico. They saw the territories as actually unsettled, ungoverned, and unprotected frontier lands, whose non-aboriginal population, where there was any at all, represented a substantial -- in places even a majority -- American component. Moreover, the territories were feared to be under imminent threat of acquisition by America 's rival on the continent, the British.
President Polk reprised these arguments in his Third Annual Message to Congress on December 7, 1847. He scrupulously detailed his administration 's position on the origins of the conflict, the measures the U.S. had taken to avoid hostilities, and the justification for declaring war. He also elaborated upon the many outstanding financial claims by American citizens against Mexico and argued that, in view of the country 's insolvency, the cession of some large portion of its northern territories was the only indemnity realistically available as compensation. This helped to rally congressional Democrats to his side, ensuring passage of his war measures and bolstering support for the war in the U.S.
The Mexican - American War was the first American war that was covered by mass media, primarily the penny press and was the first foreign war covered primarily by American correspondents. Press coverage in the United States was characterized by support for the war and widespread public interest and demand for coverage of the conflict. Mexican coverage of the war (both written by Mexicans and Americans based in Mexico) was affected by press censorship, first by the Mexican government and later by the American military.
The coverage of the war was an important development in the U.S., with journalists as well as letter - writing soldiers giving the public in the U.S. "their first - ever independent news coverage of warfare from home or abroad. '' During the war, inventions such as the telegraph created new means of communication that updated people with the latest news from the reporters, who were on the scene. The most important of these was George Wilkins Kendall, a Northerner who wrote for the New Orleans Picayune, and whose collected Dispatches from the Mexican War constitute an important primary source for the conflict. With more than a decade 's experience reporting urban crime, the "penny press '' realized the public 's voracious demand for astounding war news. Moreover, Shelley Streetby demonstrates that the print revolution (1830s - 1840s), which preceded the U.S. - Mexican War, made it possible for the distribution of cheap newspapers throughout the country. This was the first time in American history that accounts by journalists, instead of opinions of politicians, had great influence in shaping people 's opinions about and attitudes toward a war. Along with written accounts of the war, there were war artists giving a visual dimension to the war at the time and immediately afterward. Carl Nebel 's visual depictions of the war are well known.
By getting constant reports from the battlefield, Americans became emotionally united as a community. News about the war always caused extraordinary popular excitement. In the Spring of 1846, news about Zachary Taylor 's victory at Palo Alto brought up a large crowd that met in a cotton textile town of Lowell, Massachusetts. New York celebrated the twin victories at Veracruz and Buena Vista in May 1847. Among fireworks and illuminations, they had a "grand procession '' of about 400,000 people. Generals Taylor and Scott became heroes for their people and later became presidential candidates.
After the declaration of war on May 13, 1846, U.S. forces invaded Mexican territory on two main fronts. The U.S. War Department sent a U.S. Cavalry force under Stephen W. Kearny to invade western Mexico from Jefferson Barracks and Fort Leavenworth, reinforced by a Pacific fleet under John D. Sloat. This was done primarily because of concerns that Britain might also try to seize the area. Two more forces, one under John E. Wool and the other under Taylor, were ordered to occupy Mexico as far south as the city of Monterrey.
United States Army General Stephen W. Kearny moved southwest from Fort Leavenworth, Kansas with about 1,700 men in his Army of the West. Kearny 's orders were to secure the territories Nuevo México and Alta California.
In Santa Fe, Governor Manuel Armijo wanted to avoid battle, but on August 9, Catholic priests, Diego Archuleta (the young regular - army commander), and the young militia officers Manuel Chaves and Miguel Pino forced him to muster a defense. Armijo set up a position in Apache Canyon, a narrow pass about 10 miles (16 km) southeast of the city. However, on August 14, before the American army was even in view, he decided not to fight. (An American named James Magoffin claimed he had convinced Armijo and Archuleta to follow this course; an unverified story says he bribed Armijo.) When Pino, Chaves, and some of the militiamen insisted on fighting, Armijo ordered the cannon pointed at them. The New Mexican army retreated to Santa Fe, and Armijo fled to Chihuahua.
Kearny and his troops encountered no Mexican forces when they arrived on August 15. Kearny and his force entered Santa Fe and claimed the New Mexico Territory for the United States without a shot being fired. Kearny declared himself the military governor of the New Mexico Territory on August 18 and established a civilian government. American officers with a background in law drew up a temporary legal system for the territory called the Kearny Code.
Kearny then took the remainder of his army west to Alta California. When he departed with his forces for California, he left Colonel Sterling Price in command of U.S. forces in New Mexico. He appointed Charles Bent as New Mexico 's first territorial governor.
Following Kearny 's departure, dissenters in Santa Fe plotted a Christmas uprising. When the plans were discovered by the U.S. authorities, the dissenters postponed the uprising. They attracted numerous Indian allies, including Puebloan peoples, who also wanted to push the Americans from the territory. On the morning of January 19, 1847, the insurrectionists began the revolt in Don Fernando de Taos, present - day Taos, New Mexico, which later gave it the name the Taos Revolt. They were led by Pablo Montoya, a New Mexican, and Tomás Romero, a Taos pueblo Indian also known as Tomasito (Little Thomas).
Romero led an Indian force to the house of Governor Charles Bent, where they broke down the door, shot Bent with arrows, and scalped him in front of his family. They moved on, leaving Bent still alive. With his wife Ignacia and children, and the wives of friends Kit Carson and Thomas Boggs, the group escaped by digging through the adobe walls of their house into the one next door. When the insurgents discovered the party, they killed Bent, but left the women and children unharmed.
The next day a large armed force of approximately 500 New Mexicans and Pueblo attacked and laid siege to Simeon Turley 's mill in Arroyo Hondo, several miles outside of Taos. Charles Autobees, an employee at the mill, saw the men coming. He rode to Santa Fe for help from the occupying U.S. forces. Eight to ten mountain men were left at the mill for defense. After a day - long battle, only two of the mountain men survived, John David Albert and Thomas Tate Tobin, Autobees ' half brother. Both escaped separately on foot during the night. The same day New Mexican insurgents killed seven American traders who were passing through the village of Mora. At most, 15 Americans were killed in both actions on January 20.
The U.S. military moved quickly to quash the revolt; Col. Price led more than 300 U.S. troops from Santa Fe to Taos, together with 65 volunteers, including a few New Mexicans, organized by Ceran St. Vrain, the business partner of the brothers William and Charles Bent. Along the way, the combined forces beat back a force of some 1,500 New Mexicans and Pueblo at Santa Cruz de la Cañada at Embudo Pass. The insurgents retreated to Taos Pueblo, where they took refuge in the thick - walled adobe church.
During the ensuing battle, the U.S. breached a wall of the church and directed cannon fire into the interior, inflicting many casualties and killing about 150 rebels. They captured 400 more men after close hand - to - hand fighting. Only seven Americans died in the battle.
A separate force of U.S. troops under captains Israel R. Hendley and Jesse I. Morin campaigned against the rebels in Mora. The First Battle of Mora ended in a New Mexican victory. The Americans attacked again in the Second Battle of Mora and won, which ended their operations against Mora. New Mexican rebels engaged U.S. forces three more times in the following months. The actions are known as the Battle of Red River Canyon, the Battle of Las Vegas, and the Battle of Cienega Creek. After the U.S. forces won each battle, the New Mexicans and Indians ended open warfare.
Although the U.S. declared war against Mexico on May 13, 1846, it took almost three months (until early August 1846) for definitive word of Congress ' declaration of war to get to California. American consul Thomas O. Larkin, stationed in Monterey, worked successfully during the events in that vicinity to avoid bloodshed between Americans and the Mexican military garrison commanded by General José Castro, the senior military officer in California.
Captain John C. Frémont, leading a U.S. Army topographical expedition to survey the Great Basin, entered the Sacramento Valley in December 1845. Frémont 's party was at Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Territory, when it received word that war between Mexico and the U.S. was imminent; the party then returned to California.
Mexico had issued a proclamation that unnaturalized foreigners were no longer permitted to have land in California and were subject to expulsion. With rumors swirling that General Castro was massing an army against them, American settlers in the Sacramento Valley banded together to meet the threat. On June 14, 1846, 34 American settlers seized control of the undefended Mexican government outpost of Sonoma to forestall Castro 's plans. One settler created the Bear Flag and raised it over Sonoma Plaza. Within a week, 70 more volunteers joined the rebels ' force, which grew to nearly 300 in early July. This event, led by William B. Ide, became known as the Bear Flag Revolt.
On June 25, Frémont 's party arrived to assist in an expected military confrontation. San Francisco, then called Yerba Buena, was occupied by the Bear Flaggers on July 2. On July 5 Frémont 's California Battalion was formed by combining his forces with many of the rebels.
Commodore John D. Sloat, commander of the U.S. Navy 's Pacific Squadron, near Mazatlan, Mexico, had received orders to seize San Francisco Bay and blockade California ports when he was positive that war had begun. Sloat set sail for Monterey, reaching it on July 1. Sloat, upon hearing of the events in Sonoma and Frémont 's involvement, erroneously believed Frémont to be acting on orders from Washington and ordered his forces to occupy Monterey on July 7 and raise the American flag.
On July 9, 70 sailors and marines landed at Yerba Buena and raised the American flag. Later that day in Sonoma, the Bear Flag was lowered and the American flag was raised in its place.
On Sloat 's orders, Frémont brought 160 volunteers to Monterey, in addition to the California Battalion. On July 15, Sloat transferred his command of the Pacific Squadron to Commodore Robert F. Stockton, who was more militarily aggressive. He mustered the willing members of the California Battalion into military service with Frémont in command. Stockton ordered Frémont to San Diego to prepare to move northward to Los Angeles. As Frémont landed, Stockton 's 360 men arrived in San Pedro. General Castro and Governor Pío Pico wrote farewells and fled separately to the Mexican state of Sonora.
Stockton 's army entered Los Angeles unopposed on August 13, whereupon he sent a report to the Secretary of State that "California is entirely free from Mexican dominion. '' Stockton, however, left a tyrannical officer in charge of Los Angeles with a small force. The Californios under the leadership of José María Flores, acting on their own and without federal help from Mexico, in the Siege of Los Angeles, forced the American garrison to retreat on September 29. They also forced small U.S. garrisons in San Diego and Santa Barbara to flee.
Captain William Mervine landed 350 sailors and Marines at San Pedro on October 7. They were ambushed and repulsed at the Battle of Dominguez Rancho by Flores ' forces in less than an hour. Four Americans died, with 8 severely injured. Stockton arrived with reinforcements at San Pedro, which increased the American forces there to 800. He and Mervine then set up a base of operations at San Diego.
Meanwhile, U.S. Colonel Stephen W. Kearny and his force of about 100 men, who had performed a grueling march across New Mexico and the Sonoran Desert, crossed the Colorado River in late November, 1846. Stockton sent a 35 - man patrol from San Diego to meet them. On December 7, 100 lancers under General Andrés Pico (brother of the governor), tipped off and lying in wait, fought Kearny 's army of about 150 at the Battle of San Pasqual, where 22 of Kearny 's men (one of whom later died of wounds), including three officers, were killed in 30 minutes of fighting. The wounded Kearny and his bloodied force pushed on until they had to establish a defensive position on "Mule Hill ''. However, General Pico kept the hill under siege for four days until a 215 - man American relief force arrived.
Frémont and the 428 - man California Battalion arrived in San Luis Obispo on December 14 and Santa Barbara on December 27. On December 28, a 600 - man American force under Kearny began a 150 - mile march to Los Angeles. Flores then moved his ill - equipped 500 - man force to a 50 - foot - high bluff above the San Gabriel River. On January 8, 1847, the Stockton - Kearny army defeated the Californio force in the two - hour Battle of Rio San Gabriel. That same day, Frémont 's force arrived at San Fernando. The next day, January 9, the Stockton - Kearny forces fought and won the Battle of La Mesa. On January 10, the U.S. Army entered Los Angeles to no resistance.
On January 12, Frémont and two of Pico 's officers agreed to terms for a surrender. Articles of Capitulation were signed on January 13 by Frémont, Andrés Pico and six others at a rancho at Cahuenga Pass (modern - day North Hollywood). This became known as the Treaty of Cahuenga, which marked the end of armed resistance in California.
USS Independence assisted in the blockade of the Mexican Pacific coast, capturing the Mexican ship Correo and a launch on May 16, 1847. She supported the capture of Guaymas, Sonora, on October 19, 1847, and landed bluejackets and Marines to occupy Mazatlán, Sinaloa, on November 11, 1847. After upper California was secure, most of the Pacific Squadron proceeded down the California coast, capturing all major cities of the Baja California Territory and capturing or destroying nearly all Mexican vessels in the Gulf of California. Other ports, not on the peninsula, were taken as well. The objective of the Pacific Coast Campaign was to capture Mazatlán, on the Mexican mainland, which was a major supply base for Mexican forces. Numerous Mexican ships were also captured by this squadron, with the USS Cyane given credit for 18 ships captured and numerous destroyed.
Entering the Gulf of California, Independence, Congress, and Cyane seized La Paz, then captured and burned the small Mexican fleet at Guaymas. Within a month, they cleared the Gulf of hostile ships, destroying or capturing 30 vessels. Later, their sailors and Marines captured the port of Mazatlán on November 11, 1847. A Mexican campaign under Manuel Pineda Muñoz to retake the various captured ports resulted in several small clashes (Battle of Mulege, Battle of La Paz, Battle of San José del Cabo) and two sieges (Siege of La Paz, Siege of San José del Cabo) in which the Pacific Squadron ships provided artillery support. U.S. garrisons remained in control of the ports.
Following reinforcement, Lt. Col. Henry S. Burton marched out. His forces rescued captured Americans, captured Pineda, and, on March 31, defeated and dispersed remaining Mexican forces at the Skirmish of Todos Santos, unaware that the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo had been signed in February 1848 and a truce agreed to on March 6. When the American garrisons were evacuated to Monterey following the treaty ratification, many Mexicans went with them: those who had supported the American cause and had thought Lower California would also be annexed along with Upper California.
The Mexican Army 's defeats at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma caused political turmoil in Mexico, turmoil which Antonio López de Santa Anna used to revive his political career and return from self - imposed exile in Cuba in mid-August 1846. It was President Polk 's plan to bring back the exiled dictator who had defeated the Texans at the Alamo and Goliad. On 4 August 1846, "Polk negotiated a deal to not only bring Santa Anna back, but to pay him $2 million -- ostensibly a bribe as an advance payment on the cession of California. ''
Santa Anna promised the U.S. that if he was allowed to pass through the blockade, he would negotiate a peaceful conclusion to the war and sell the New Mexico and Alta California territories to the U.S. Once Santa Anna arrived in Mexico City, however, he reneged on his deal with the U.S. and offered his services to the Mexican government. Then, after being appointed commanding general, he reneged again and seized the presidency.
Led by Zachary Taylor, 2,300 U.S. troops crossed the Rio Grande after some initial difficulties in obtaining river transport. His soldiers occupied the city of Matamoros, then Camargo (where the soldiery suffered the first of many problems with disease) and then proceeded south and besieged the city of Monterrey. The hard - fought Battle of Monterrey resulted in serious losses on both sides. The American light artillery was ineffective against the stone fortifications of the city. The Mexican forces were under General Pedro de Ampudia and repulsed Taylor 's best infantry division at Fort Teneria.
American soldiers, including many West Pointers, had never engaged in urban warfare before and they marched straight down the open streets, where they were annihilated by Mexican defenders well - hidden in Monterrey 's thick adobe homes. Two days later, they changed their urban warfare tactics. Texan soldiers had fought in a Mexican city before (the Siege of Béxar in December 1835) and advised Taylor 's generals that the Americans needed to "mouse hole '' through the city 's homes. In other words, they needed to punch holes in the side or roofs of the homes and fight hand to hand inside the structures. Mexicans called the Texas soldiers the Diabólicos Tejanos (the Devil Texans). This method proved successful. Eventually, these actions drove and trapped Ampudia 's men into the city 's central plaza, where howitzer shelling forced Ampudia to negotiate. Taylor agreed to allow the Mexican Army to evacuate and to an eight - week armistice in return for the surrender of the city. Under pressure from Washington, Taylor broke the armistice and occupied the city of Saltillo, southwest of Monterrey. Santa Anna blamed the loss of Monterrey and Saltillo on Ampudia and demoted him to command a small artillery battalion.
On February 22, 1847, Santa Anna personally marched north to fight Taylor with 20,000 men. Taylor, with 4,600 men, had entrenched at a mountain pass called Buena Vista. Santa Anna suffered desertions on the way north and arrived with 15,000 men in a tired state. He demanded and was refused surrender of the U.S. Army; he attacked the next morning. Santa Anna flanked the U.S. positions by sending his cavalry and some of his infantry up the steep terrain that made up one side of the pass, while a division of infantry attacked frontally along the road leading to Buena Vista. Furious fighting ensued, during which the U.S. troops were nearly routed, but managed to cling to their entrenched position, thanks to the Mississippi Rifles, a volunteer regiment led by Jefferson Davis, who formed them into a defensive V formation. The Mexicans had inflicted considerable losses but Santa Anna had gotten word of upheaval in Mexico City, so he withdrew that night, leaving Taylor in control of part of Northern Mexico.
Polk mistrusted Taylor, who he felt had shown incompetence in the Battle of Monterrey by agreeing to the armistice. Taylor later used the Battle of Buena Vista as the centerpiece of his successful 1848 presidential campaign.
The Bear Springs Treaty ended a large scale insurrection by the Ute, Zuni, Moquis, and Navajo tribes. After the successful conquest of New Mexico, American troops moved into modern - day northwest Mexico.
On March 1, 1847, Alexander W. Doniphan occupied Chihuahua City. British consul John Potts did not want to let Doniphan search Governor Trias 's mansion, and unsuccessfully asserted it was under British protection. American merchants in Chihuahua wanted the American force to stay in order to protect their business. Major William Gilpin advocated a march on Mexico City and convinced a majority of officers, but Doniphan subverted this plan. Then in late April, Taylor ordered the First Missouri Mounted Volunteers to leave Chihuahua and join him at Saltillo. The American merchants either followed or returned to Santa Fe. Along the way, the townspeople of Parras enlisted Doniphan 's aid against an Indian raiding party that had taken children, horses, mules, and money.
The civilian population of northern Mexico offered little resistance to the American invasion, possibly because the country had already been devastated by Comanche and Apache Indian raids. Josiah Gregg, who was with the American army in northern Mexico, said that "the whole country from New Mexico to the borders of Durango is almost entirely depopulated. The haciendas and ranchos have been mostly abandoned, and the people chiefly confined to the towns and cities. ''
Southern Mexico had a large indigenous population and was geographically distant from the capital. Yucatán in particular had closer ties to Cuba and to the United States than it did to central Mexico. On a number of occasions in the early era of the Mexican Republic, Yucatán seceded from the federation. There were also rivalries between regional elites, with one faction based in Mérida and the other in Campeche. These issues factored into the Mexican -- American War.
The U.S. Navy contributed to the war by controlling the coast and clearing the way for U.S. troops and supplies, especially to Mexico 's main port of Veracruz. Even before hostilities began in the disputed northern region, the U.S. Navy created a blockade. Given the shallow waters of that portion of the Gulf coast, the U.S. Navy needed ships with a shallow draft rather than large frigates. Since the Mexican Navy was almost non-existent, the U.S. Navy could operate unimpeded in Gulf waters.
Commodore Matthew C. Perry led a detachment of seven vessels along the northern coast of Tabasco state. Perry arrived at the Tabasco River (now known as the Grijalva River) on October 22, 1846, and seized the town Port of Frontera along with two of their ships. Leaving a small garrison, he advanced with his troops towards the town of San Juan Bautista (Villahermosa today). Perry arrived in the city of San Juan Bautista on October 25, seizing five Mexican vessels. Colonel Juan Bautista Traconis, Tabasco Departmental commander at that time, set up barricades inside the buildings. Perry realized that the bombing of the city would be the only option to drive out the Mexican Army, and to avoid damage to the merchants of the city, withdrew its forces preparing them for the next day.
On the morning of October 26, as Perry 's fleet prepared to start the attack on the city, the Mexican forces began firing at the American fleet. The U.S. bombing began to yield the square, so that the fire continued until evening. Before taking the square, Perry decided to leave and return to the port of Frontera, where he established a naval blockade to prevent supplies of food and military supplies from reaching the state capital.
On June 13, 1847, Commodore Perry assembled the Mosquito Fleet and began moving towards the Grijalva River, towing 47 boats that carried a landing force of 1,173. On June 15, 12 miles (19 km) below San Juan Bautista, the fleet ran through an ambush with little difficulty. Again at an "S '' curve in the river known as the "Devil 's Bend '', Perry encountered Mexican fire from a river fortification known as the Colmena redoubt, but the fleet 's heavy naval guns quickly dispersed the Mexican force.
On June 16, Perry arrived at San Juan Bautista and commenced bombing the city. The attack included two ships that sailed past the fort and began shelling it from the rear. David D. Porter led 60 sailors ashore and seized the fort, raising the American flag over the works. Perry and the landing force arrived and took control of the city around 14: 00.
The U.S. was concerned with the extension of British power in the Caribbean, especially Spanish Cuba, as well as the strategic Yucatán peninsula. In 1847 Maya revolted against the white elites of the peninsula in a racial war known as the Caste War of Yucatan. Jefferson Davis, then a senator from Mississippi, argued in congress that the president needed no further powers to intervene in Yucatan since the war with Mexico was underway. Davis 's concern was strategic and part of his vision of Manifest Destiny, considering the Gulf of Mexico "a basin of water belonging to the United States '' and continuing "the cape of Yucatan and the island of Cuba must be ours '' rather than under British influence. In the end, the U.S. did not intervene in Yucatán, but it had figured in congressional debates about the Mexican -- American War. At one point, the government of Yucatán petitioned the U.S. for protection during the Caste War, but the U.S. did not respond.
Desertion was a major problem for the Mexican Army, depleting forces on the eve of battle. Most soldiers were peasants who had a loyalty to their village and family, but not to the generals who had conscripted them. Often hungry and ill, under - equipped, only partially trained, and never well paid, the soldiers were held in contempt by their officers and had little reason to fight the Americans. Looking for their opportunity, many slipped away from camp to find their way back to their home village.
The desertion rate in the U.S. Army was 8.3 % (9,200 out of 111,000), compared to 12.7 % during the War of 1812 and usual peacetime rates of about 14.8 % per year. Many men deserted to join another U.S. unit and get a second enlistment bonus. Some deserted because of the miserable conditions in camp. It has been suggested that others used the army to get free transportation to California, where they deserted to join the gold rush; this, however, is unlikely as gold was only discovered in California on January 24, 1848, less than two weeks before the war concluded. By the time word reached the eastern U.S. that gold had been discovered, word also reached it that the war was over.
Several hundred U.S. deserters went over to the Mexican side. Nearly all were recent immigrants from Europe with weak ties to the U.S. The Mexicans issued broadsides and leaflets enticing U.S. soldiers with promises of money, land bounties, and officers ' commissions. Mexican guerrillas shadowed the U.S. Army and captured men who took unauthorized leave or fell out of the ranks. The guerrillas coerced these men to join the Mexican ranks. The generous promises proved illusory for most deserters, who risked being executed if captured by U.S. forces.
The most famous group of deserters from the U.S. Army, was the Saint Patrick 's Battalion or (San Patricios), composed primarily of several hundred immigrant soldiers, the majority Catholic Irish and German immigrants, who deserted the U.S. Army because of ill - treatment or sympathetic leanings to fellow Mexican Catholics and joined the Mexican army. The battalion also included Canadians, English, French, Italians, Poles, Scots, Spaniards, Swiss, and Mexican people, many of whom were members of the Catholic Church.
Most of the battalion were killed in the Battle of Churubusco; about 100 were captured by the U.S. and roughly half of the San Patricios were tried and were hanged as deserters following their capture at Churubusco in August 1847.. The leader, Jon Riley, was merely branded since he had deserted before the war started.
Rather than reinforce Taylor 's army for a continued advance, President Polk sent a second army under General Winfield Scott, which was transported to the port of Veracruz by sea, to begin an invasion of the Mexican heartland. On March 9, 1847, Scott performed the first major amphibious landing in U.S. history in preparation for the Siege of Veracruz. A group of 12,000 volunteer and regular soldiers successfully offloaded supplies, weapons, and horses near the walled city using specially designed landing crafts. Included in the invading force were Robert E. Lee, George Meade, Ulysses S. Grant, James Longstreet, and Thomas "Stonewall '' Jackson.
The city was defended by Mexican General Juan Morales with 3,400 men. Mortars and naval guns under Commodore Matthew C. Perry were used to reduce the city walls and harass defenders. After a bombardment on March 24, 1847, the walls of Veracruz had a thirty - foot gap. The city replied the best it could with its own artillery. The effect of the extended barrage destroyed the will of the Mexican side to fight against a numerically superior force, and they surrendered the city after 12 days under siege. U.S. troops suffered 80 casualties, while the Mexican side had around 180 killed and wounded, about half of whom were civilian. During the siege, the U.S. side began to fall victim to yellow fever.
Scott then marched westward on April 2, 1847, toward Mexico City with 8,500 healthy troops, while Santa Anna set up a defensive position in a canyon around the main road about 50 miles (80 km) north - west of Veracruz, near the hamlet of Cerro Gordo. Santa Anna had entrenched with 12,000 troops, and artillery that were trained on the road, where he expected Scott to appear. However, Scott had sent 2,600 mounted dragoons ahead and they reached the pass on April 12. The Mexican artillery prematurely fired on them and therefore revealed their positions, beginning the Battle of Cerro Gordo.
Instead of taking the main road, Scott 's troops trekked through the rough terrain to the north, setting up his artillery on the high ground and quietly flanking the Mexicans. Although by then aware of the positions of U.S. troops, Santa Anna and his troops were unprepared for the onslaught that followed. In the battle fought on April 18, the Mexican army was routed. The U.S. Army suffered 400 casualties, while the Mexicans suffered over 1,000 casualties and 3,000 were taken prisoner. In August 1847, Captain Kirby Smith, of Scott 's 3rd Infantry, reflected on the resistance of the Mexican army:
They can do nothing and their continued defeats should convince them of it. They have lost six great battles; we have captured six hundred and eight cannon, nearly one hundred thousand stands of arms, made twenty thousand prisoners, have the greatest portion of their country and are fast advancing on their Capital which must be ours, -- yet they refuse to treat (i.e., negotiate terms)!
In May, Scott pushed on to Puebla, the second largest city in Mexico. Because of the citizens ' hostility to Santa Anna, the city capitulated without resistance on May 1. During the following months, Scott gathered supplies and reinforcements at Puebla and sent back units whose enlistments had expired. Scott also made strong efforts to keep his troops disciplined and treat the Mexican people under occupation justly, so as to prevent a popular rising against his army.
With guerrillas harassing his line of communications back to Veracruz, Scott decided not to weaken his army to defend Puebla but, leaving only a garrison at Puebla to protect the sick and injured recovering there, advanced on Mexico City on August 7 with his remaining force. The capital was laid open in a series of battles around the right flank of the city defenses, the Battle of Contreras and Battle of Churubusco. After Churubusco, fighting halted for an armistice and peace negotiations, which broke down on September 6, 1847. With the subsequent battles of Molino del Rey and of Chapultepec, and the storming of the city gates, the capital was occupied. Scott became military governor of occupied Mexico City. His victories in this campaign made him an American national hero.
The Battle of Chapultepec was an encounter between the Mexican Army and the United States on the castle of Chapultepec in Mexico City. At this time, this castle was a renowned military school in Mexico City. After the battle, which ended in an American victory, the legend of "Los Niños Héroes '' was born. Although not confirmed by historians, six military cadets between the ages of 13 and 17 stayed in the school instead of evacuating. They decided to stay and fight for Mexico. These Niños Héroes (hero children) became icons in Mexico 's pantheon of heroes. Rather than surrender to the U.S. Army, some military cadets leaped from the castle walls. A cadet named Juan Escutia wrapped himself in the Mexican flag and jumped to his death.
In late September 1847, Santa Anna made one last attempt to defeat the Americans, by cutting them off from the coast. General Joaquín Rea began the Siege of Puebla, soon joined by Santa Anna, but they failed to take it before the approach of a relief column from Veracruz under Brig. Gen. Joseph Lane prompted Santa Anna to stop him. Puebla was relieved by Gen. Lane October 12, 1847, following his defeat of Santa Anna at the Battle of Huamantla on October 9, 1847. The battle was Santa Anna 's last. Following the defeat, the new Mexican government led by Manuel de la Peña y Peña asked Santa Anna to turn over command of the army to General José Joaquín de Herrera.
Following his capture and securing of the capital, General Scott sent about a quarter of his strength to secure his line of communications to Veracruz from the Light Corps of General Joaquín Rea and other Mexican guerrilla forces that had been harassing it since May. He strengthened the garrison of Puebla and by November had added a 1200 - man garrison at Jalapa, established 750 - man posts along the National Road, the main route between the port of Veracruz and the capital, at the pass between Mexico City and Puebla at Rio Frio, at Perote and San Juan on the road between Jalapa and Puebla, and at Puente Nacional between Jalapa and Veracruz. He had also detailed an anti guerrilla brigade under Brig. Gen. Joseph Lane to carry the war to the Light Corps and other guerrillas. He ordered that convoys would travel with at least 1,300 - man escorts. Victories by General Lane over the Light Corps at Atlixco (October 18, 1847), at Izucar de Matamoros (November 23, 1847), and at Galaxara Pass (November 24, 1847) ended the threat of General Rea.
Later a raid against the guerrillas of Padre Jarauta at Zacualtipan (February 25, 1848) further reduced guerrilla raids on the American line of communications. After the two governments concluded a truce to await ratification of the peace treaty, on March 6, 1848, formal hostilities ceased. However some bands continued in defiance of the Mexican government until the American evacuation in August. Some were suppressed by the Mexican Army or, like Padre Jarauta, executed.
Outnumbered militarily and with many of its large cities occupied, Mexico could not defend itself; the country was also faced with many internal divisions, including the Caste War of Yucatán. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, by American diplomat Nicholas Trist and Mexican plenipotentiary representatives Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto, and Miguel Atristain, ended the war. The treaty gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, established the U.S. - Mexican border of the Rio Grande, and ceded to the United States the present - day states of California, Nevada, and Utah, most of New Mexico, Arizona and Colorado, and parts of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming. In return, Mexico received $ 15 million ($424 million today) -- less than half the amount the U.S. had attempted to offer Mexico for the land before the opening of hostilities -- and the U.S. agreed to assume $3.25 million ($92 million today) in debts that the Mexican government owed to U.S. citizens. The treaty was ratified by the U.S. Senate by a vote of 38 to 14 on March 10, and by Mexico through a legislative vote of 51 - 34 and a Senate vote of 33 - 4, on May 19. News that New Mexico 's legislative assembly had passed an act for organization of a U.S. territorial government helped ease Mexican concern about abandoning the people of New Mexico.
The acquisition was a source of controversy, especially among U.S. politicians who had opposed the war from the start. A leading antiwar U.S. newspaper, the Whig National Intelligencer, sardonically concluded that "We take nothing by conquest... Thank God. ''
Jefferson Davis introduced an amendment giving the U.S. most of northeastern Mexico, which failed 44 -- 11. This amendment was supported by both senators from Texas (Sam Houston and Thomas Jefferson Rusk), Daniel S. Dickinson of New York, Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, Edward A. Hannegan of Indiana, and one each from Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri, and Tennessee. Most of the leaders of the Democratic party -- Thomas Hart Benton, John C. Calhoun, Herschel V. Johnson, Lewis Cass, James Murray Mason of Virginia, and Ambrose Hundley Sevier -- were opposed. An amendment by Whig Senator George Edmund Badger of North Carolina to exclude New Mexico and Upper California lost 35 -- 15, with three Southern Whigs voting with the Democrats. Daniel Webster was bitter that four New England senators made deciding votes for acquiring the new territories.
The acquired lands west of the Rio Grande are traditionally called the Mexican Cession in the U.S., as opposed to the Texas Annexation two years earlier, though division of New Mexico down the middle at the Rio Grande never had any basis either in control or Mexican boundaries. Mexico never recognized the independence of Texas before the war, and did not cede its claim to territory north of the Rio Grande or Gila River until this treaty.
Before ratifying the treaty, the U.S. Senate made two modifications: changing the wording of Article IX (which guaranteed Mexicans living in the purchased territories the right to become U.S. citizens) and striking out Article X (which conceded the legitimacy of land grants made by the Mexican government). On May 26, 1848, when the two countries exchanged ratifications of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, they further agreed to a three - article protocol (known as the Protocol of Querétaro) to explain the amendments. The first article claimed that the original Article IX of the treaty, although replaced by Article III of the Treaty of Louisiana, would still confer the rights delineated in Article IX. The second article confirmed the legitimacy of land grants under Mexican law. The protocol was signed in the city of Querétaro by A.H. Sevier, Nathan Clifford, and Luis de la Rosa.
Article XI offered a potential benefit to Mexico, in that the US pledged to suppress the Comanche and Apache raids that had ravaged northern Mexico and pay restitutions to the victims of raids it could not prevent. However, the Indian raids did not cease for several decades after the treaty, although a cholera epidemic reduced the numbers of the Comanche in 1849. Robert Letcher, U.S. Minister to Mexico in 1850, was certain "that miserable 11th article '' would lead to the financial ruin of the US if it could not be released from its obligations. The US was released from all obligations of Article XI five years later by Article II of the Gadsden Purchase of 1853.
Before the secession of Texas, Mexico comprised almost 1,700,000 sq mi (4,400,000 km), but by 1849 it was just under 800,000 square miles (2,100,000 km). Another 30,000 square miles (78,000 km) were sold to the U.S. in the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, so the total reduction of Mexican territory was more than 55 %, or 900,000 square miles (2,300,000 km).
Though the annexed territory was about the size of Western Europe, it was sparsely populated. The land contained about 14,000 non-indigenous people in Alta California and about 60,000 in Nuevo México, as well as large Indian nations, such as the Papago, Pima, Puebloan, Navajo, Apache and many others. Although some native people relocated farther south in Mexico, the great majority remained in the U.S. territory.
The American settlers surging into the newly conquered Southwest were openly contemptuous of Mexican law (a civil law system based on the law of Spain) as alien and inferior and disposed of it by enacting reception statutes at the first available opportunity. However, they recognized the value of a few aspects of Mexican law and carried them over into their new legal systems. For example, most of the southwestern states adopted community property marital property systems, as well as water law.
Mexicans and Indians in the annexed territories faced a loss of civil and political rights, even though the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo promised American citizenship to all Mexican citizens living in the territory of the Mexican Cession. The U.S. government withheld citizenship from Indians in the southwest until the 1930s, despite the fact that they were citizens under Mexican law.
In much of the United States of America, victory and the acquisition of new land brought a surge of patriotism. Victory seemed to fulfill Democrats ' belief in their country 's Manifest Destiny. While Whig Ralph Waldo Emerson rejected war "as a means of achieving America 's destiny, '' he accepted that "most of the great results of history are brought about by discreditable means. '' Although the Whigs had opposed the war, they made Zachary Taylor their presidential candidate in the election of 1848, praising his military performance while muting their criticism of the war.
Has the Mexican War terminated yet, and how? Are we beaten? Do you know of any nation about to besiege South Hadley (Massachusetts)? If so, do inform me of it, for I would be glad of a chance to escape, if we are to be stormed. I suppose (our teacher) Miss (Mary) Lyon would furnish us all with daggers and order us to fight for our lives...
A month before the end of the war, Polk was criticized in a United States House of Representatives amendment to a bill praising Major General Zachary Taylor for "a war unnecessarily and unconstitutionally begun by the President of the United States. '' This criticism, in which Congressman Abraham Lincoln played an important role with his Spot Resolutions, followed congressional scrutiny of the war 's beginnings, including factual challenges to claims made by President Polk. The vote followed party lines, with all Whigs supporting the amendment. Lincoln 's attack won lukewarm support from fellow Whigs in Illinois but was harshly counter-attacked by Democrats, who rallied pro-war sentiments in Illinois; Lincoln 's Spot resolutions haunted his future campaigns in the heavily Democratic state of Illinois, and were cited by enemies well into his presidency.
Many of the military leaders on both sides of the American Civil War were trained at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point and had fought as junior officers in Mexico. This list includes military men fighting for the Union: Ulysses S. Grant, George B. McClellan, William T. Sherman, George Meade, and Ambrose Burnside. Military men who joined the Southern secessionists of the Confederate States of America were Robert E. Lee, Stonewall Jackson, James Longstreet, Joseph E. Johnston, Braxton Bragg, Sterling Price, and the future Confederate President Jefferson Davis. Both sides had leaders with significant experience in active combat in strategy and tactics, likely shaping ways the Civil War conflict played out.
President Ulysses S. Grant, who as a young army lieutenant had served in Mexico under General Taylor, recalled in his Memoirs, published in 1885, that:
Generally, the officers of the army were indifferent whether the annexation was consummated or not; but not so all of them. For myself, I was bitterly opposed to the measure, and to this day regard the war, which resulted, as one of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation. It was an instance of a republic following the bad example of European monarchies, in not considering justice in their desire to acquire additional territory.
Grant also expressed the view that the war against Mexico had brought punishment on the United States in the form of the American Civil War:
The Southern rebellion was largely the outgrowth of the Mexican war. Nations, like individuals, are punished for their transgressions. We got our punishment in the most sanguinary and expensive war of modern times.
This view was shared by the philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson, who towards the end of the war wrote that "The United States will conquer Mexico, but it will be as the man swallows the arsenic, which brings him down in turn. Mexico will poison us. ''
Veterans of the war were often broken men. "As the sick and wounded from Taylor 's and Scott 's campaigns made their way back from Mexico to the United States, their condition shocked the folks at home. Husbands, sons, and brothers returned in broken health, some with missing limbs. '' As late as 1880, the "Republican Campaign Textbook '' by the Republican Congressional Committee described the war as "Feculent, reeking Corruption '' and "one of the darkest scenes in our history -- a war forced upon our and the Mexican people by the high - handed usurpations of Pres 't Polk in pursuit of territorial aggrandizement of the slave oligarchy. ''
General Robert E. Lee, leader of the Confederate forces through the end of the American Civil War, began building his reputation as a military officer in America 's war against Mexico. At the start of the Mexican -- American War, Captain Lee invaded Mexico with General Wool 's engineering department from the North. By early 1847, he helped take the Mexican cities of Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, and Chapultepec. Lee was wounded in Chapultepec. By September, Mexico City surrendered and the United States was victorious.
General Scott was the ranking officer in the army during the Mexican -- American campaign. He described Robert E. Lee as "gallant and indefatigable, '' saying that Lee had displayed the "greatest feat of physical and moral courage performed by any individual in (his) knowledge during the campaign. '' Robert E. Lee 's humility and professionalism was apparent early on in his career when gave credit to General Scott for the victories. He said that "It was his stout heart... his bold self reliance... his indomitable courage that... ressed us forward to this capital. '' It is important to note that although Lee is remembered for his valor during the Mexican -- American War, he was only a junior officer "who had never commanded a regiment in the field ''.
In 1861, it was General Scott who advised Abraham Lincoln to ask Lee to command the union forces. Lee declined, and later recounted "I declined the offer he made me to take command of the army that was brought into the field, stating candidly and as courteously as I could that though opposed to secession and deprecating war, I could take no part in the invasion of the southern states. '' On 9 April 1865, it was General Robert E. Lee who had surrendered to President Lincoln 's Union Forces.
Despite initial objections from the Whigs and abolitionists, the war nevertheless united the U.S. in a common cause and was fought almost entirely by volunteers. The army swelled from just over 6,000 to more than 115,000. The majority of 12 - month volunteers in Scott 's army decided that a year 's fighting was enough and returned to the U.S.
Anti-slavery elements fought for the exclusion of slavery from any territory absorbed by the U.S. In 1847, the House of Representatives passed the Wilmot Proviso, stipulating that none of the territory acquired should be open to slavery. The Senate avoided the issue, and a late attempt to add it to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was defeated.
The war was a decisive event for the U.S., marking a significant waypoint for the nation as a growing military power, and a milestone in the U.S. narrative of Manifest Destiny. The war did not resolve the issue of slavery in the U.S. but rather in many ways inflamed it, as potential westward expansion of the institution took an increasingly central and heated theme in national debates preceding the American Civil War. By extending the nation from coast to coast, the Mexican -- American War was a next step in the huge migrations to the West of Americans, which culminated in transcontinental railroads and the Indian wars later in the same century.
The obvious impact of the war for Mexico was the loss of its northern regions and the defeat of its military. The war remains a painful historical event for Mexicans. In the immediate aftermath of the war, a group of prominent Mexicans wrote an assessment of the reasons for the war and Mexico 's defeat, edited by Ramón Alcaraz and including contributions by Ignacio Ramírez, Guillermo Prieto, José María Iglesias, and Francisco Urquidi. The work was translated to English by Col. Albert Ramsey, a veteran of the Mexican -- American War, and published in 1850.
In Mexico City 's Chapultepec Park, the Niños Héroes (Monument to the Heroic Cadets) commemorates the heroic sacrifice of six teenaged military cadets who fought to their deaths rather than surrender to American troops during the Battle of Chapultepec Castle on September 13, 1847. The monument is an important patriotic site in Mexico. On March 5, 1947, nearly one hundred years after the battle, U.S. President Harry S. Truman placed a wreath at the monument and stood for a moment of silence.
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who wrote it was the best of times it was the worst of times | A Tale of Two Cities - Wikipedia
A Tale of Two Cities (1859) is a novel by Charles Dickens, set in London and Paris before and during the French Revolution. The novel tells the story of the French Doctor Manette, his 18 - year - long imprisonment in the Bastille in Paris and his release to life in London with his daughter Lucie, whom he had never met; Lucie 's marriage and the collision between her beloved husband and the people who caused her father 's imprisonment; and Monsieur and Madame Defarge, sellers of wine in a poor suburb of Paris. The story is set against the conditions that led up to the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror.
Dickens 's famous opening sentence introduces the universal approach of the book, the French Revolution, and the drama depicted within:
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way -- in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only.
In 1775, a man flags down the nightly mail - coach on its route from London to Dover. The man is Jerry Cruncher, an employee of Tellson 's Bank in London; he carries a message for Jarvis Lorry, a passenger and one of the bank 's managers. Mr. Lorry sends Jerry back to deliver a cryptic response to the bank: "Recalled to Life. '' The message refers to Alexandre Manette, a French physician who has been released from the Bastille after an 18 - year imprisonment. Once Mr. Lorry arrives in Dover, he meets with Dr. Manette 's daughter Lucie and her governess, Miss Pross. Lucie has believed her father to be dead, and faints at the news that he is alive; Mr. Lorry takes her to France to reunite with him.
In the Paris neighbourhood of Saint Antoine, Dr. Manette has been given lodgings by his former servant Ernest Defarge and his wife Therese, owners of a wine shop. Mr. Lorry and Lucie find him in a small garret, where he spends much of his time making shoes -- a skill he learnt in prison -- which he uses to distract himself from his thoughts and which has become an obsession for him. He does not recognise Lucie at first but does eventually see the resemblance to her mother through her blue eyes and long golden hair, a strand of which he found on his sleeve when he was imprisoned. Mr. Lorry and Lucie take him back to England.
In 1780, French émigré Charles Darnay is on trial for treason against the British Crown. The key witnesses against him are two British spies, John Barsad and Roger Cly, who claim that Darnay gave information about British troops in North America to the French. Barsad states that he would recognise Darnay anywhere, at which point Darnay 's defense counsel, Stryver, directs attention to Sydney Carton, a barrister present in the courtroom who looks almost identical to him. With Barsad 's eyewitness testimony now discredited, Darnay is acquitted.
In Paris, the hated and abusive Marquis St. Evrémonde orders his carriage driven recklessly fast through the crowded streets, hitting and killing the child of Gaspard in Saint Antoine. The Marquis throws a coin to Gaspard to compensate him for his loss. Defarge, having observed the incident, comes forth to comfort the distraught father, saying the child would be worse off alive. This piece of wisdom pleases the Marquis, who throws a coin to Defarge also. As the Marquis departs, a coin is flung back into his carriage.
Arriving at his country château, the marquis meets with his nephew and heir, Darnay. Out of disgust with his aristocratic family, Darnay has shed his real surname and adopted an anglicized version of his mother 's maiden name, D'Aulnais. The following passage records the Marquis ' principles of aristocratic superiority:
"Repression is the only lasting philosophy. The dark deference of fear and slavery, my friend, '' observed the Marquis, "will keep the dogs obedient to the whip, as long as this roof, '' looking up to it, "shuts out the sky. ''
That night, Gaspard, who followed the Marquis to his château by riding on the underside of the carriage, stabs and kills him in his sleep. Gaspard leaves a note on the knife saying, "Drive him fast to his tomb. This, from JACQUES. '' After nearly a year on the run, he is caught and hanged above the village well.
In London, Darnay gets Dr. Manette 's permission to wed Lucie; but Carton confesses his love to Lucie as well. Knowing she will not love him in return, Carton promises to "embrace any sacrifice for you and for those dear to you ''. Stryver, the barrister who defended Darnay and with whom Carton has a working relationship, considers proposing marriage to Lucie, but Mr. Lorry talks him out of the idea.
On the morning of the marriage, Darnay reveals his real name and family lineage to Dr. Manette, a detail he had been asked to withhold until that day. In consequence, Dr. Manette reverts to his obsessive shoemaking after the couple leave for their honeymoon. He returns to sanity before their return, and the whole incident is kept secret from Lucie. Mr. Lorry and Miss Pross destroy the shoemaking bench and tools, which Dr. Manette had brought with him from Paris.
As time passes in England, Lucie and Charles begin to raise a family, a son (who dies in childhood) and a daughter, little Lucie. Mr. Lorry finds a second home and a sort of family with the Darnays. Stryver marries a rich widow with three children and becomes even more insufferable as his ambitions begin to be realized. Carton, even though he seldom visits, is accepted as a close friend of the family and becomes a special favourite of little Lucie.
In July 1789, the Defarges help to lead the storming of the Bastille, a symbol of royal tyranny. Defarge enters Dr. Manette 's former cell, "One Hundred and Five, North Tower, '' and searches it thoroughly. Throughout the countryside, local officials and other representatives of the aristocracy are dragged from their homes to be killed, and the St. Evrémonde château is burned to the ground.
In 1792, Mr. Lorry decides to travel to Paris to collect important documents from the Tellson 's branch in that city and bring them to London for safekeeping against the chaos of the French Revolution. Darnay intercepts a letter written by Gabelle, one of his uncle 's servants who has been imprisoned by the revolutionaries, pleading for the Marquis to help secure his release. Without telling his family or revealing his position as the new Marquis, Darnay sets out for Paris.
Shortly after Darnay arrives in Paris, he is denounced for being an emigrated aristocrat from France and jailed in La Force Prison. Dr. Manette, Lucie, little Lucie, Jerry, and Miss Pross travel to Paris and meet Mr. Lorry to try to free Darnay. A year and three months pass, and Darnay is finally tried.
Dr Manette, viewed as a hero for his imprisonment in the Bastille, testifies on Darnay 's behalf at his trial. Darnay is released, only to be arrested again later that day. A new trial begins on the following day, under new charges brought by the Defarges and a third individual who is soon revealed as Dr Manette. He had written an account of his imprisonment at the hands of Darnay 's father and hidden it in his cell; Defarge found it while searching the cell during the storming of the Bastille.
While running errands with Jerry, Miss Pross is amazed to see her long - lost brother Solomon, but he does not want to be recognized in public. Carton suddenly steps forward from the shadows and identifies Solomon as Barsad, one of the spies who tried to frame Darnay for treason at his trial in 1780. Jerry remembers that he has seen Solomon with Cly, the other key witness at the trial and that Cly had faked his death to escape England. By threatening to denounce Solomon to the revolutionary tribunal as a Briton, Carton blackmails him into helping with a plan.
At the tribunal, Defarge identifies Darnay as the nephew of the dead Marquis St. Evrémonde and reads Dr Manette 's letter. Defarge had learned Darnay 's lineage from Solomon during the latter 's visit to the wine shop several years earlier. The letter describes Dr Manette 's imprisonment at the hands of Darnay 's father and uncle for trying to report their crimes against a peasant family. Darnay 's uncle had become infatuated with a girl, whom he had kidnapped and raped; despite Dr. Manette 's attempt to save her, she died. The uncle killed her husband by working him to death, and her father died from a heart attack on being informed of what had happened. Before he died defending the family honour, the brother of the raped peasant had hidden the last member of the family, his younger sister. The Evrémonde brothers imprisoned Dr Manette after he refused their offer of a bribe to keep quiet. He concludes his letter by condemning the Evrémondes, "them and their descendants, to the last of their race. '' Dr. Manette is horrified, but he is not allowed to retract his statement. Darnay is sent to the Conciergerie and sentenced to be guillotined the next day.
Carton wanders into the Defarge 's wine shop, where he overhears Madame Defarge talking about her plans to have both Lucie and little Lucie condemned. Carton discovers that Madame Defarge was the surviving sister of the peasant family savaged by the Evrémondes. At night, when Dr. Manette returns, shattered after spending the day in many failed attempts to save Darnay 's life, he falls into an obsessive search for his shoemaking implements. Carton urges Lorry to flee Paris with Lucie, her father, and Little Lucie, asking them to leave as soon as he joins.
Shortly before the executions are to begin, Solomon sneaks Carton into the prison for a visit with Darnay. The two men trade clothes, and Carton drugs Darnay and has Solomon carry him out. Carton has decided to be executed in his place, which he is able to do because of their similar appearances, and has given his own identification papers to Mr Lorry to present on Darnay 's behalf. Following Carton 's earlier instructions, the family and Mr Lorry flee to England with the unconscious Darnay, who slowly comes to consciousness as they travel by stages to cross the waters to England.
Meanwhile, Madame Defarge, armed with a dagger and pistol, goes to the Manette residence, hoping to apprehend Lucie and little Lucie and bring them in for execution. However, the family is already gone and Miss Pross stays behind to confront and delay Madame Defarge. As the two women struggle, Madame Defarge 's pistol discharges, killing her and causing Miss Pross to go permanently deaf from noise and shock.
The novel concludes with the guillotining of Carton. As he is waiting to board the tumbril, he is approached by a seamstress, also condemned to death, who mistakes him for Darnay (with whom she had been imprisoned earlier) but realises the truth once she sees him at close range. Awed by his unselfish courage and sacrifice, she asks to stay close to him and he agrees. Upon their arrival at the guillotine, Carton comforts her, telling her that their ends will be quick but that there is no Time or Trouble "in the better land where... (they) will be mercifully sheltered '', and she is able to meet her death in peace. Carton 's unspoken last thoughts are prophetic:
I see Barsad, and Cly, Defarge, The Vengeance (a lieutenant of Madame Defarge), the Juryman, the Judge, long ranks of the new oppressors who have risen on the destruction of the old, perishing by this retributive instrument, before it shall cease out of its present use. I see a beautiful city and a brilliant people rising from this abyss, and, in their struggles to be truly free, in their triumphs and defeats, through long years to come, I see the evil of this time and of the previous time of which this is the natural birth, gradually making expiation for itself and wearing out.
I see the lives for which I lay down my life, peaceful, useful, prosperous and happy, in that England which I shall see no more. I see Her with a child upon her bosom, who bears my name. I see her father, aged and bent, but otherwise restored, and faithful to all men in his healing office, and at peace. I see the good old man (Mr. Lorry), so long their friend, in ten years ' time enriching them with all he has, and passing tranquilly to his reward.
I see that I hold a sanctuary in their hearts, and in the hearts of their descendants, generations hence. I see her, an old woman, weeping for me on the anniversary of this day. I see her and her husband, their course done, lying side by side in their last earthly bed, and I know that each was not more honoured and held sacred in the other 's soul, than I was in the souls of both.
I see that child who lay upon her bosom and who bore my name, a man winning his way up in that path of life which once was mine. I see him winning it so well, that my name is made illustrious there by the light of his. I see the blots I threw upon it, faded away. I see him, fore-most of just judges and honoured men, bringing a boy of my name, with a forehead that I know and golden hair, to this place -- then fair to look upon, with not a trace of this day 's disfigurement -- and I hear him tell the child my story, with a tender and a faltering voice.
It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done; it is a far, far better rest that I go to than I have ever known.
While performing in The Frozen Deep, Dickens was given a play to read called The Dead Heart by Watts Phillips which had the historical setting, the basic storyline, and the climax that Dickens used in A Tale of Two Cities. The play was produced while A Tale of Two Cities was being serialized in All the Year Round and led to talk of plagiarism.
Other sources are The French Revolution: A History by Thomas Carlyle (especially important for the novel 's rhetoric and symbolism); Zanoni by Edward Bulwer - Lytton; The Castle Spector by Matthew Lewis; Travels in France by Arthur Young; and Tableau de Paris by Louis - Sébastien Mercier. Dickens also used material from an account of imprisonment during the Terror by Beaumarchais, and records of the trial of a French spy published in The Annual Register.
The 45 - chapter novel was published in 31 weekly instalments in Dickens 's new literary periodical titled All the Year Round. From April 1859 to November 1859, Dickens also republished the chapters as eight monthly sections in green covers. All but three of Dickens 's previous novels had appeared only as monthly instalments. The first weekly instalment of A Tale of Two Cities ran in the first issue of All the Year Round on 30 April 1859. The last ran thirty weeks later, on 26 November.
A Tale of Two Cities has been cited as one of the best - selling novels of all time. It has been stated to have sold 200 million copies since its first publication, though this figure has been dismissed as "pure fiction '' by Oxford University 's Peter Thonemann. As with other contenders for the title, such as Don Quixote and Three Musketeers, available sales figures are not reliable, or indeed, for such public domain works, not available.
Many of Dickens 's characters are "flat '', not "round '', in the novelist E.M. Forster 's famous terms, meaning roughly that they have only one mood. For example, the Marquis is unremittingly wicked and relishes being so; Lucie is perfectly loving and supportive. As a corollary, Dickens often gives these characters verbal tics or visual quirks such as the dints in the nose of the Marquis. Forster believed that Dickens never truly created rounded characters.
A Tale of Two Cities is one of only two works of historical fiction by Charles Dickens (the second being Barnaby Rudge). Dickens relies much on The French Revolution: A History by Thomas Carlyle as a historical source. Dickens wrote in his Preface to Tale that "no one can hope to add anything to the philosophy of Mr. Carlyle 's wonderful book ''.
Dickens uses literal translations of French idioms for characters who can not speak English, such as "What the devil do you do in that galley there?!! '' and "Where is my wife? -- - Here you see me. '' The Penguin Classics edition of the novel notes that "Not all readers have regarded the experiment as a success. ''
J.L. Borges quipped: "Dickens lived in London. In his book A Tale of Two Cities, based on the French Revolution, we see that he really could not write a tale of two cities. He was a resident of just one city: London. ''
In Dickens 's England, resurrection always sat firmly in a Christian context. Most broadly, Sydney Carton is resurrected in spirit at the novel 's close (even as he, paradoxically, gives up his physical life to save Darnay 's -- just as Christ died for the sins of the world.) More concretely, "Book the First '' deals with the rebirth of Dr. Manette from the living death of his incarceration.
Resurrection appears for the first time when Mr. Lorry replies to the message carried by Jerry Cruncher with the words "Recalled to Life ''. Resurrection also appears during Mr. Lorry 's coach ride to Dover, as he constantly ponders a hypothetical conversation with Dr. Manette: ("Buried how long? '' "Almost eighteen years. ''... "You know that you are recalled to life? '' "They tell me so. '') He believes he is helping with Dr. Manette 's revival and imagines himself "digging '' up Dr. Manette from his grave.
Resurrection is a major theme in the novel. In Jarvis Lorry 's thoughts of Dr. Manette, resurrection is first spotted as a theme. It is also the last theme: Carton 's sacrifice. Dickens originally wanted to call the entire novel Recalled to Life. (This instead became the title of the first of the novel 's three "books ''.) Jerry is also part of the recurring theme: he himself is involved in death and resurrection in ways the reader does not yet know. The first piece of foreshadowing comes in his remark to himself: "You 'd be in a blazing bad way, if recalling to life was to come into fashion, Jerry! '' The black humour of this statement becomes obvious only much later on. Five years later, one cloudy and very dark night (in June 1780), Mr. Lorry reawakens the reader 's interest in the mystery by telling Jerry it is "Almost a night... to bring the dead out of their graves ''. Jerry responds firmly that he has never seen the night do that.
It turns out that Jerry Cruncher 's involvement with the theme of resurrection is that he is what the Victorians called a "Resurrection Man '', one who (illegally) digs up dead bodies to sell to medical men (there was no legal way to procure cadavers for study at that time).
The opposite of resurrection is of course death. Death and resurrection appear often in the novel. Dickens is angered that in France and England, courts hand out death sentences for insignificant crimes. In France, peasants had formerly been put to death without any trial, at the whim of a noble. The Marquis tells Darnay with pleasure that "(I) n the next room (my bedroom), one fellow... was poniarded on the spot for professing some insolent delicacy respecting his daughter -- his daughter! ''
Interestingly, the demolition of Dr. Manette 's shoe - making workbench by Miss Pross and Mr. Lorry is described as "the burning of the body ''. It seems clear that this is a rare case where death or destruction (the opposite of resurrection) has a positive connotation since the "burning '' helps liberate the doctor from the memory of his long imprisonment. But Dickens 's description of this kind and healing act is strikingly odd:
So wicked do destruction and secrecy appear to honest minds, that Mr. Lorry and Miss Pross, while engaged in the commission of their deed and in the removal of its traces, almost felt, and almost looked, like accomplices in a horrible crime.
Sydney Carton 's martyrdom atones for all his past wrongdoings. He even finds God during the last few days of his life, repeating Christ 's soothing words, "I am the resurrection and the life ''. Resurrection is the dominant theme of the last part of the novel. Darnay is rescued at the last moment and recalled to life; Carton chooses death and resurrection to a life better than that which he has ever known: "it was the peacefullest man 's face ever beheld there... he looked sublime and prophetic ''.
In the broadest sense, at the end of the novel, Dickens foresees a resurrected social order in France, rising from the ashes of the old one.
Hans Biedermann writes that water "is the fundamental symbol of all the energy of the unconscious -- an energy that can be dangerous when it overflows its proper limits (a frequent dream sequence). '' This symbolism suits Dickens 's novel; in A Tale of Two Cities, the frequent images of water stand for the building anger of the peasant mob, an anger that Dickens sympathizes with to a point, but ultimately finds irrational and even animalistic.
Early in the book, Dickens suggests this when he writes, "(T) he sea did what it liked, and what it liked was destruction. '' The sea here represents the coming mob of revolutionaries. After Gaspard murders the Marquis, he is "hanged there forty feet high -- and is left hanging, poisoning the water. '' The poisoning of the well represents the bitter impact of Gaspard 's execution on the collective feeling of the peasants.
After Gaspard 's death, the storming of the Bastille is led (from the St. Antoine neighbourhood, at least) by the Defarges; "As a whirlpool of boiling waters has a centre point, so, all this raging circled around Defarge 's wine shop, and every human drop in the cauldron had a tendency to be sucked towards the vortex... '' The crowd is envisioned as a sea. "With a roar that sounded as if all the breath in France had been shaped into a detested word (the word Bastille), the living sea rose, wave upon wave, depth upon depth, and overflowed the city... ''
Darnay 's jailer is described as "unwholesomely bloated in both face and person, as to look like a man who had been drowned and filled with water. '' Later, during the Reign of Terror, the revolution had grown "so much more wicked and distracted... that the rivers of the South were encumbered with bodies of the violently drowned by night... '' Later a crowd is "swelling and overflowing out into the adjacent streets... the Carmagnole absorbed them every one and whirled them away. ''
During the fight with Miss Pross, Madame Defarge clings to her with "more than the hold of a drowning woman ''. Commentators on the novel have noted the irony that Madame Defarge is killed by her own gun, and perhaps Dickens means by the above quote to suggest that such vicious vengefulness as Madame Defarge 's will eventually destroy even its perpetrators.
So many read the novel in a Freudian light, as exalting the (British) superego over the (French) id. Yet in Carton 's last walk, he watches an eddy that "turned and turned purposeless, until the stream absorbed it, and carried it onto the sea '' -- his fulfilment, while masochistic and superego - driven, is nonetheless an ecstatic union with the subconscious.
As is frequent in European literature, good and evil are symbolized by light and darkness. Lucie Manette is the light, as represented literally by her name; and Madame Defarge is darkness. Darkness represents uncertainty, fear, and peril. It is dark when Mr. Lorry rides to Dover; it is dark in the prisons; dark shadows follow Madame Defarge; dark, gloomy doldrums disturb Dr. Manette; his capture and captivity are shrouded in darkness; the Marquis 's estate is burned in the dark of night; Jerry Cruncher raids graves in the darkness; Charles 's second arrest also occurs at night. Both Lucie and Mr. Lorry feel the dark threat that is Madame Defarge. "That dreadful woman seems to throw a shadow on me, '' remarks Lucie. Although Mr. Lorry tries to comfort her, "the shadow of the manner of these Defarges was dark upon himself ''. Madame Defarge is "like a shadow over the white road '', the snow symbolising purity and Madame Defarge 's darkness corruption. Dickens also compares the dark colour of blood to the pure white snow: the blood takes on the shade of the crimes of its shedders.
Charles Dickens was a champion of the poor in his life and in his writings. His childhood included some of the pains of poverty in England, as he had to work in a factory as a child to help his family. His father, John Dickens, continually lived beyond his means and eventually went to debtors ' prison. Charles was forced to leave school and began working ten - hour days at Warren 's Blacking Warehouse, earning six shillings a week.
Dickens considered the workings of a mob, in this novel and in Barnaby Rudge, creating believable characters who act differently when the mob mentality takes over. The reasons for revolution by the lower classes are clear, and given in the novel. Some of his characters, notably Madame Defarge, have no limit to their vengeance for crimes against them. The Reign of Terror was a horrific time in France, and she gives some notion for how things went too far from the perspective of the citizens, as opposed to the actions of the de facto government in that year. Dickens does not spare his descriptions of mob actions, including the night Dr Manette and his family arrive at Tellson 's bank in Paris to meet Mr Lorry, saying that the people in the vicious crowd display "eyes which any unbrutalized beholder would have given twenty years of life, to petrify with a well - directed gun ''.
The reader is shown that the poor are brutalised in France and England alike. As crime proliferates, the executioner in England is "stringing up long rows of miscellaneous criminals; now hanging housebreaker... now burning people in the hand '' or hanging a broke man for stealing sixpence. In France, a boy is sentenced to have his hands removed and be burned alive, only because he did not kneel down in the rain before a parade of monks passing some fifty yards away. At the lavish residence of Monseigneur, we find "brazen ecclesiastics of the worst world worldly, with sensual eyes, loose tongues, and looser lives... Military officers destitute of military knowledge... (and) Doctors who made great fortunes... for imaginary disorders ''. (This incident is fictional, but is based on a true story related by Voltaire in a famous pamphlet, An Account of the Death of the Chevalier de la Barre.)
So riled is Dickens at the brutality of English law that he depicts some of its punishments with sarcasm: "the whipping - post, another dear old institution, very humanising and softening to behold in action ''. He faults the law for not seeking reform: "Whatever is, is right '' is the dictum of the Old Bailey. The gruesome portrayal of quartering highlights its atrocity.
Dickens wants his readers to be careful that the same revolution that so damaged France will not happen in Britain, which (at least at the beginning of the book) is shown to be nearly as unjust as France; Ruth Glancy has argued that Dickens portrays France and England as nearly equivalent at the beginning of the novel, but that as the novel progresses, England comes to look better and better, climaxing in Miss Pross 's pro-Britain speech at the end of the novel. But his warning is addressed not to the British lower classes, but to the aristocracy. He repeatedly uses the metaphor of sowing and reaping; if the aristocracy continues to plant the seeds of a revolution through behaving unjustly, they can be certain of harvesting that revolution in time. The lower classes do not have any agency in this metaphor: they simply react to the behaviour of the aristocracy. In this sense it can be said that while Dickens sympathizes with the poor, he identifies with the rich: they are the book 's audience, its "us '' and not its "them ''. "Crush humanity out of shape once more, under similar hammers, and it will twist itself into the same tortured forms. Sow the same seed of rapacious licence and oppression over again, and it will surely yield the same fruit according to its kind ''.
With the people starving and begging the Marquis for food, his uncharitable response is to let the people eat grass; the people are left with nothing but onions to eat and are forced to starve while the nobles are living lavishly upon the people 's backs. Every time the nobles refer to the life of the peasants it is only to destroy or humiliate the poor.
Some have argued that in A Tale of Two Cities Dickens reflects on his recently begun affair with eighteen - year - old actress Ellen Ternan, which was possibly platonic but certainly romantic. Lucie Manette has been noted as resembling Ternan physically.
After starring in a play by Wilkie Collins titled The Frozen Deep, Dickens was first inspired to write Tale. In the play, Dickens played the part of a man who sacrifices his own life so that his rival may have the woman they both love; the love triangle in the play became the basis for the relationships between Charles Darnay, Lucie Manette, and Sydney Carton in Tale.
Sydney Carton and Charles Darnay may also bear importantly on Dickens 's personal life. The plot hinges on the near - perfect resemblance between Sydney Carton and Charles Darnay; the two look so alike that Carton twice saves Darnay through the inability of others to tell them apart. Carton is Darnay made bad. Carton suggests as much:
' Do you particularly like the man (Darnay)? ' he muttered, at his own image (which he is regarding in a mirror); ' why should you particularly like a man who resembles you? There is nothing in you to like; you know that. Ah, confound you! What a change you have made in yourself! A good reason for talking to a man, that he shows you what you have fallen away from and what you might have been! Change places with him, and would you have been looked at by those blue eyes (belonging to Lucie Manette) as he was, and commiserated by that agitated face as he was? Come on, and have it out in plain words! You hate the fellow. '
Many have felt that Carton and Darnay are doppelgängers, which Eric Rabkin defines as a pair "of characters that together, represent one psychological persona in the narrative ''. If so, they would prefigure such works as Robert Louis Stevenson 's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Darnay is worthy and respectable but dull (at least to most modern readers), Carton disreputable but magnetic.
One can only suspect whose psychological persona it is that Carton and Darnay together embody (if they do), but it is often thought to be the psyche of Dickens himself. Dickens might have been quite aware that between them, Carton and Darnay shared his own initials, a frequent property of his characters. However, he denied it when asked.
Research published in The Dickensian in 1963 suggests that the house at 1 Greek Street, now The House of St Barnabas, forms the basis for Dr Manette and Lucie 's London house.
In a building at the back, attainable by a courtyard where a plane tree rustled its green leaves, church organs claimed to be made, and likewise gold to be beaten by some mysterious giant who had a golden arm starting out of the wall... as if he had beaten himself precious.
The "golden arm '' (an arm - and - hammer symbol, an ancient sign of the gold - beater 's craft) now resides at the Charles Dickens Museum but you could have seen a modern replica sticking out of the wall near the Pillars of Hercules pub at the western end of Manette Street (formerly Rose Street), until this building was demolished in 2017.
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when the sun goes down album kenny chesney | When the Sun Goes Down (Kenny Chesney album) - wikipedia
When the Sun Goes Down is the seventh studio album by country music singer Kenny Chesney, released on February 3, 2004. It debuted at # 1 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart, after selling over 550,000 copies during its first week.
The album includes the singles "There Goes My Life '', "When the Sun Goes Down '' (originally recorded by Jimmy Buffett), "I Go Back '', "The Woman with You '', "Anything but Mine '', and "Keg in the Closet '', which were all released between 2003 and 2005. Respectively, they peaked at number 1, number 1, number 2, number 2, number 1, and number 6 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs charts. The title track, a duet with Uncle Kracker, is also Uncle Kracker 's first country chart entry.
Also included on this album is the song "Some People Change '', which was later recorded by Montgomery Gentry as the title track to their 2006 album Some People Change. Montgomery Gentry 's version was released as a single and became a Top 10 hit for them that year.
As listed in liner notes.
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when is the next episode of boruto airing | List of Boruto: Naruto next GENERATIONS episodes - wikipedia
Boruto: Naruto Next Generations is a Japanese anime series based on the manga series of the same name and is a spin - off of and sequel to Masashi Kishimoto 's Naruto. It is directed by Noriyuki Abe, Hiroyuki Yamashita (episodes # 1 -- 66), Toshirō Fujii (episodes # 67 --) and written by Makoto Uezu (episodes # 1 -- 66), Masaya Honda (episodes # 67 --). Manga writer Ukyō Kodachi is supervising the series. Boruto follows the exploits of Naruto Uzumaki 's son Boruto and his comrades from Konohagakure 's ninja academy while finding a path to follow once they grow up. It premiered on TV Tokyo on April 5, 2017 and aired every Wednesday at 5: 55 PM JST Starting May 3, 2018 (episode 56) it aired every Thursday at 7: 25 PM JST. Starting October 7, 2018 (episode 76) it now airs every Sunday at 5: 30 PM JST. The series is also being released in DVDs. Viz Media licensed the series on March 23, 2017 to simulcast it on Hulu, and on Crunchyroll.
The series uses eleven pieces of theme music, four opening and seven ending songs. From episodes 1 - 26, the first opening theme is "Baton Road '' (バトン ロード, Baton Rōdo) by KANA - BOON. From episodes 27 - 51, the second opening theme is "OVER '' by Little Glee Monster. From episodes 52 - 75, the third opening theme is "It 's all in the game '' by Qyoto. From episodes 76 - onwards, the fourth opening theme is "Lonely Go! '' by Brian the Sun.
From episodes 1 -- 13, the first ending theme is "Dreamy Journey '' (ドリーミー ジャーニー, Dorīmī Jānī) by the peggies. From episodes 14 - 26, the second ending theme is "Goodbye Moon Town '' (サヨナラ ムーン タウン, Sayonara Mūn Taun) by Scenario Art (シナリオ アート, Shinario Āto). From episodes 27 - 39, the third ending theme is "I Keep Running '' (僕 は 走り 続ける, Boku wa Hashiri Tsuzukeru) by MELOFLOAT (メロ フロート, Merofurōto). From episodes 40 - 51, the fourth ending theme is "Telegraph Soul '' (デン シン タマシイ, Denshin Tamashī) by Game Jikkyōsha Wakuwaku Band (ゲーム 実況 者 わくわく バンド, Gēmu Jikkyō - sha Wakuwaku Bando). From episodes 52 - 63, the fifth ending theme is "Beauties of Nature '' (花鳥 風月, Kachō Fūgetsu) by Coala Mode (コアラ モード., Koara Mōdo.). From episodes 64 - 75, the sixth ending theme is "Laika '' (ライカ, Raika) by Bird Bear Hare and Fish. From episodes 76 - onwards, the seventh ending theme is "Polaris '' (ポラリス, Porarisu) by Hitorie (ヒトリエ).
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