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202300 – usr/src/tests/sys/file/newfileops_on_fork_test.c:87: bad sanity check ?
Bug 202300 - usr/src/tests/sys/file/newfileops_on_fork_test.c:87: bad sanity check ?
Summary: usr/src/tests/sys/file/newfileops_on_fork_test.c:87: bad sanity check ?
[usr/src/tests/sys/file/newfileops_on_fork_test.c:87]: (style) Same expression on both sides of '<'. | {
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The following 42 diy backyard projects are not only a breeze to accomplish but make for truly enjoyable summertime ventures. Diy 31 insanely easy and clever diy projects. Add essential oils for a nice aroma.
They are mostly adopted skids to ensure safe and damage free deliveries of various items from food grains to machinery to medicine and home appliances.
Best diy projects. Find this pin and more on your best diy projects by kelly at view along the way. By homebnc on 2018 04 16 diy projects. The 25 diy entryway bench projects below should offer you plenty of inspiration and should help you pick the best bench for your home.
Easy green tea sugar scrub with all the benefits of green tea and only three ingredients. Weve rounded up 50 of our favorite tutorials that show. That could be participating in a sport you love exercising.
Diy skin care recipes. These are the kind of simple projects for the laziest and most inept of crafters. Holiday door decorating ideas for your small porch by kelly marzka of view along the way.
Diy projects are the most fulfilling kinds arent they. By homebnc on 2017 05 22 diy projects. Diy entryway bench projects may help you become more organized and can help streamline your morning routine.
The best of us couldnt bring ourselves to do something we hate consistently so make getting in shape fun however youve gotta do it. From repurposed patio furniture to handmade hanging lights. 150 best diy pallet projects and pallet furniture crafts pallets are well built structural foundations that help to handle and store mostly the shipping materials in an efficient way.
Simple natural christmas porch decorating ideas monogram garland on front door. 20 projetos da decoracao da parede de diy que farao seu olhar da sala impressionante. Find the best ideas and designs for 2018.
Even if you can barely operate a drill you can do most of these. 29 easy crafts ideas at home here are some of the most beautiful diy projects you can try for your self at home if you enjoyed this diy room decor and easy crafts ideas at home. The best diy projects diy ideas and tutorials.
There are few things that are as satisfying as pulling off a successful diy project especially when a guest asks where you purchased it. Find the best designs for 2018. Here are 30 awesome diy projects ideas to inspire you to get crafting and creative.
Como obter video mais satisfatorio para os amantir recommended for you. Sewing paper craft diy. | {
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Joshua RobertsLeave a comment
Library staff recommendation: Ghosts in the House!
Ghosts in the House!
By Kazuno Kohara
741.641 K823g Greenfield Open Stacks
Ghosts in the House! is a sweet little book about a young witch who moves into a haunted house. Japanese illustrator Kazuno Kohara has used the linoleum cut printmaking process with only two colors for this book. Despite the simple orange and black (with white ghosts, of course), Kohara achieves a very rich setting for the story. Take a peek inside to see how the little witch and her black cat cleverly remedy their situation! Ghosts in the House! is sure to warm the hearts of readers of all ages.
Recommended by Casey Murphy
Library staff recommendation: Rome: The Complete First Season
Rome: The Complete First Season
GD934 Greenfield DVD
Rome: The Complete First Season examines and dramatizes Rome's transition from Republic to Empire, bringing a fresh set of eyes to a wide array of historical figures such as Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, Cleopatra, and Augustus, all vying for power in their own way. But like such shows as The Wire and Boardwalk Empire, Rome peels the layers off of Roman society, showing how the fates of the lower classes are intertwined with those in power, and how continuous war and violence can effect a society. While at times over the top, HBO and the BBC have brought impeccable production values to the series, helping to make it one of the best historical epics on film or television.
Recommended by Mike Sgier | {
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Q: Why a parameter of an Emacs lisp function is not evaluated? I want to define a list of accumulators with Emacs Lisp and write the following code, but I got a error saying that initV is a void variable. It seems initV is not evaluated in the function define-accum. Where is I make a mistake? (I just want to know why although I know there is other ways to reach my target.)
(defun define-accum (name initV)
(defalias name (lambda (v) (+ v initV))))
(setq accums '((myadd1 . 1)
(myadd2 . 2)))
(dolist (a accums)
(define-accum (car a) (cdr a)))
(message "result = %d" (+ (myadd1 1) (myadd2 1)))
A: You need to use backquotes properly. This would work for you, for instance:
(defun define-accum (name initV)
(defalias name `(lambda (v) (+ v ,initV))))
See here for an explanation
A: Apart from using backquotes, you can activate lexical binding (if you're using Emacs 24 or newer). For example, if I put your code in a .el file and put this on the first line:
;; -*- lexical-binding: t -*-
then I get the output:
result = 5
This works because the lambda function in define-accum will reference the initV in the environment where it's being defined (thus picking the variable in the argument list), and create a closure over this variable. With dynamic binding (the default), the function would look for initV in the environment where it's being called.
A: To add a little to what others have said -
*
*If the variable (initV) is never actually used as a variable, so that in fact its value at the time the accumulator is defined is all that is needed, then there is no need for the lexical closure that encapsulates that variable and its value. In that case, the approach described by @juanleon is sufficient: it uses only the value at definition time - the variable does not exist when the function is invoked (as you discovered).
*On the other hand, the lexical-closure approach lets the function be byte-compiled. In the backquote approach, the function is simply represented at runtime by a list that represents a lambda form. If the lambda form represents costly code then it can make sense to use the lexical-closure approach, even though (in this case) the variable is not really needed (as a variable).
*But you can always explicitly byte-compile the function (e.g. ##NAME## in your define-accum. That will take care of the inefficiency mentioned in #2, above.
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According to a new study involving mice exercise may help to safeguard the mind against depression.
Scientists have known that exercise seems to cushion against depression.
But precisely how exercise, a physical activity, can lessen someone's risk for depression, a mood state, has been a mysterious.
The study was published last week in Cell, researchers at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm.
>Mouse emotions are, of course, opaque to us. We can't ask mice if they are feeling cheerful or full of woe. Instead, researchers have delineated certain behaviors that indicate depression in mice. If animals lose weight, stop seeking out a sugar solution when it's available — because, presumably, they no longer experience normal pleasures — or give up trying to escape from a cold-water maze and just freeze in place, they are categorized as depressed.
Aerobic exercise, in both mice and people, increases the production within muscles of an enzyme called PGC-1alpha. In particular, exercise raises levels of a specific subtype of the enzyme known unimaginatively as PGC-1alpha1.
Mice were engineered to be awash in high levels of PGC-1alpha1.
These mice were then exposed to five weeks of mild stress. The mice responded with slight symptoms of worry. They lost weight. But they did not develop full-blown rodent depression. | {
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The preoperative, perioperative, and postoperative airway management by the anesthesiologist and the use of procedures and medicines that have the least interference with patients' discharge from the hospital are of utmost importance. This can be achieved by the use of laryngeal mask airway and endotracheal tube. This study compared the postoperative complications of diagnostic laparoscopy between two groups of infertile women undergoing this procedure. This study was a double-blind clinical trial carried out on 120 patients undergoing gynecologic surgical laparoscopy. The patients were assigned into two equal groups of 60. The laryngeal classic mask, size 3-4, was applied for patients in group A and the cuffed endotracheal tube, size 7, was used for the patients in group B. All kinds of complications of anesthesia, consumption of anti-emetic drugs, analgesics, and also discomfort and pain in airways were recorded up to 24 hs. Our findings indicated that the relative frequencies of sore throat, voice hoarseness, and cough were statistically different between the two groups at 6 h and 12 h after anesthesia (P=0.001). At 24 h after anesthesia, there was only a significant difference between the two groups regarding sore throat frequency (P=0.003). Also, there was a significant difference between the two groups regarding heart rate (P=0.053) and mean arterial pressure (P=0.011). | {
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It departs from Lokmanyatilak at 16:25 and arrives Partapgarh Jn at 19:05 on second day. Get live running train status of your train online using erailenquiry. Indian railway has released applications for smart phone and tablets. Click on Get Running Status. Trainman also tells the intermediate stations between all pair of stopping stations with distance and expected crossing time, therefore it becomes really easy for user to pinpoint the current train location.
Train running status is diaplayed. Getting information on your mobile makes it so much easier to know your train enquiry. For this you will know that to reach your destination on time and with comfort like the exact status of their train, train time, the arrival and departure time, its running status, coach position and exact location. This feature is very important because sometimes trains under are as late as 12 hours. Click on Get Running Status.
As when the train is about to arrive to a station the platform number is decided by the station master based on the previous arrival of the train and current traffic of trains on the station which were running late and arrived late at the stations and sometime its not updated in the railway system because of which we do not get to see the platform number while checking the live train running status. Also this is only applicable for major Junction stations as of now because the system to update the real time platform is not available to smaller stations. The total running duration of 12179 train is6hr , stopping at 14 stations during the journey. Select your journey station and journey date and hit Get Running Status button. Select your journey station and journey date and hit Get Running Status button. For example: If you are waiting for your train at Amethi railway station and your date of journey as printed on your ticket is of today. It is a popular Lucknow Ne to Agra Cantt train and covers a distance of about326 km.
To check bogie or coach position in a train, click on. Select your train from the suggestions available. Train enquiry is use Passengers know the exact status of their train, train time, the arrival and departure time, its running status, coach position and exact location. Get live running train status of your train online using erailenquiry. Click on Get Running Status.
It covers total journey of 327 kilometer and reaches its destination on day 1. Railway Zones and Divisions can be found by visit link. As when the train is about to arrive to a station the platform number is decided by the station master based on the previous arrival of the train and current traffic of trains on the station which were running late and arrived late at the stations and sometime its not updated in the railway system because of which we do not get to see the platform number while checking the live train running status. You will select your journey station as 'Amethi' and journey date as 'Today'. Indian railway has released applications for smart phone and tablets. Station Code Station Name Arrival Departure Distance 1 Source 15:55 Day 1 0 2 16:48 Day 1 16:50 Day 1 57 3 17:25 Day 1 17:30 Day 1 74 4 17:45 Day 1 17:46 Day 1 84 5 18:08 Day 1 18:09 Day 1 117 6 18:23 Day 1 18:24 Day 1 136 7 18:44 Day 1 18:45 Day 1 156 8 19:10 Day 1 19:11 Day 1 192 9 19:26 Day 1 19:27 Day 1 212 10 20:04 Day 1 20:05 Day 1 268 11 20:20 Day 1 20:21 Day 1 288 12 20:48 Day 1 20:50 Day 1 304 13 21:18 Day 1 21:20 Day 1 325 14 21:55 Day 1 Destination 327.
The Ljn Af Intercity train departs from Lucknow Ne at 03:55 hrs and arrives at Agra Cantt at 09:55 hrs. Station Code Station Name Arrival Departure Distance 1 Source 15:55 Day 1 0 2 16:48 Day 1 16:50 Day 1 57 3 17:25 Day 1 17:30 Day 1 74 4 17:45 Day 1 17:46 Day 1 84 5 18:08 Day 1 18:09 Day 1 117 6 18:23 Day 1 18:24 Day 1 136 7 18:44 Day 1 18:45 Day 1 156 8 19:10 Day 1 19:11 Day 1 192 9 19:26 Day 1 19:27 Day 1 212 10 20:04 Day 1 20:05 Day 1 268 11 20:20 Day 1 20:21 Day 1 288 12 20:48 Day 1 20:50 Day 1 304 13 21:18 Day 1 21:20 Day 1 325 14 21:55 Day 1 Destination 327. Train Enquiry Train Enquiry To completely analyze your train route before you start planning your journey with using Indian Railways train enquiry. How to Check Running Status : Check Running Status live using website : 1. Also this is only applicable for major Junction stations as of now because the system to update the real time platform is not available to smaller stations. For example: If your Train reaches to your station on the third day from the date it is departed from its source station, then you must select the date on which it was departed from its source station.
You will select your journey station as 'Amethi' and journey date as 'Today'. You can also check through different modes of transportation in the best possible way. Enter train number or train name in the field provided ans select Day of running. It is a popular Lucknow Ne to Agra Cantt train and covers a distance of about326 km. For example: If you are waiting for your train at Yamuna Bdg Agra railway station and your date of journey as printed on your ticket is of today.
You can also check through different modes of transportation in the best possible way. Trainman also tells the intermediate stations between all pair of stopping stations with distance and expected crossing time, therefore it becomes really easy for user to pinpoint the current train location. Train running status is diaplayed. Here you can find train running status, actual arrival and departure of the train and delays in the train. Live train running information can be checked by clicking on link. Train running status is diaplayed.
It covers total journey of 1582 kilometer and reaches its destination on day 2. For stations where train is yet to arrive one can know the expected arrival time considering the current delay. Train Enquiry Train Enquiry To completely analyze your train route before you start planning your journey with using Indian Railways train enquiry. Live Train running status of indian railway is a service using which you can locate the live train status to make your travel easy. Further passenger can enquire about cancelled and diverted trains on Trainman running status page similar to the. During winter a lot of trains run late in northern India due to dense fog. | {
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The inspiring image is segment of label outline s153433740290683542 p37 i1 w1100 has dimension 1100 x 610 pixel. You can download and obtain the label outline s153433740290683542 p37 i1 w1100 images by click the download button below to get multiple high-resversions. Here is crucial information about Outlines. We have the resource more image about Outlines. Check it out for yourself! You can get label outline s153433740290683542 p37 i1 w1100 and see the Label Outline in here. | {
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When you're planning to sell your home it can be overwhelming. I'm here to help!
I take great pride in helping people just like you sell their homes. My first priority is listening to you and learning what your needs and wants are. When you sell your home you need to have a clear plan of action. That's where I come in! Over the past 10 years I have sold hundreds of homes within the Guelph area. I possess the expertise and experience to negotiate successfully in today's stretched real estate market. Selling your home can and should be easy and enjoyable. Let's chat about your real estate goals.
Simply click on the button below for your free home evaluation and I'll be in touch with your current home value and tips to increase it's value.
Every selling situation is unique and no two clients are the same, but the process is always a seamless experience for my clients. I excel when faced with challenges, they become stepping stones to finding the right buyer. The goal is always to sell your home quickly for top dollar. Much time is dedicated to the evaluation, staging and marketing of your property … but just as much time and effort is dedicated to reviewing offers, drafting agreements, securing the sale, closing the sale and the after sale care. This process has always ended with extremely satisfied clients.
I am focused on reaching the ideal buyer for your property. That is accomplished with my marketing system ensuring your home has great exposure and presence from online to print throughout the local and surrounding communities. Your home is not only exposed and marketed in the Guelph area but surrounding areas – Toronto, Mississauga, Hamilton, Kitchener, Waterloo. I have a great working relationship with many Guelph agents which means I can share your home with many buyers quickly and effectively.
My team consists of assists, home stagers and marketers. From the perfect starter home to luxury homes to everything in between my team and I have you covered. We give 110% to fulfill your real estate dreams.
Luxury homes is a great passion of mine. I've worked hard to receive my Seller Representative Specialist (SRS) designation. Luxury homes is a different selling experience as the group of buyers is more select.
navigate through this buyer group smoothly and effortlessly.
I'd love the opportunity to help you!
Guelph is an amazing city and has so much to offer. Our strong economy, abundant jobs and vibrant community make Guelph a great city to live, work and play. I'm proud my job involves helping others find their home in this beautiful city. If you're looking at buying or selling real estate in Guelph I'd love to chat. I'm a top producing Guelph realtor well known for great customer service, consistent communication and strong attention to detail. Since 2006 I've helped nearly 500 families buy and sell their homes in Guelph.
Angela Crawford, a Guelph Realtor® with Coldwell Banker Neumann Real Estate, is committed to delivering a high level of expertise, customer service, and attention to detail to the marketing and sales of Guelph homes.
© Copyright 2019 Angela Crawford, Sales Representative, Coldwell Banker Neumann Real Estate. All rights reserved. | {
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Today is my princess 10th birthday and I'm not sure who's more excited. Me, her or her brothers.
Birthday's are special times at our house. On your birthday you get a special meal of your choice, a special birthday cake and a special gift from mom and dad.
I tried a few weeks ago and it was a big hit with all of my kids.
The first time I made it I layered mozzarella and spinach in a 10″ flour wrap but this time I got smarter and combined both the mozzarella and spinach in the food processor.
This is a healthy and yummy recipe for not just a birthday lunch, but for any day.
I actually created the following recipe after seeing the above picture on Pinterest. I saw the image and assumed it was made just the way I typed it out below. Now that I've actually gone and checked out the recipe, I see it was a bit different.
I made mine using the instructions below and the kids loved it. If you want to recipe for the image above be sure to click on the recipe link under the image.
Pulse spinach and mozzarella in the food processor.
Place as many tortillas in your pan as possible.
Sprinkle as much of the chopped mozzarella and spinach onto half of a tortilla and fold the empty side over the filling.
I plan to get all of my chores done early so that I can be 100% available to my sweetie on her birthday.
3- Call Mother in Law. | {
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HomePress Releases
Hibbert Rides to 100th Pro National Victory
Monster Energy / Arctic Cat / Ram Truck's Tucker Hibbert captured his 100th Pro National Snocross victory in a heroic come-from-behind win in Deadwood, SD Saturday night.
With an electric crowd packed into the Days of '76 Rodeo Grounds, Hibbert rallied through the field with blazing speed and determination to record this historic career milestone.
Taking his 99th victory in December, Hibbert fell short of number 100 three straight rounds. He finished 4-2 at Canterbury Park in Shakopee, Minn. and came within a sled length of winning Friday night at Deadwood after an aggressive ride.
Hibbert entered Saturday with a fresh focus and drive. He turned the fastest lap in practice, won both qualifying rounds and grabbed the Stud Boy holeshot in the 15-rider, 22-lap main event.
Out front early, it momentarily looked as though Hibbert could run away with his 100th win. In turn two, he hit a wall of snow left by a groomer and was rolled on his side – collecting Tim Tremblay in the process. After struggling to get his sled unlocked from Tremblay's sled, Hibbert reentered the race nearly a lap down and 20 seconds behind the leader.
What happened next, was a downright impressive display of determination and talent. Hibbert charged forward as if no one else was on the short, bullring-style track with him. Lap after lap, he made clean passes – crushing the gap between him and the race leader.
Without a clear idea where he was in the running order, he kept pushing and didn't give-up until he saw the checkers and flames go off on the finish-line jump.
Hibbert now holds a 64-point lead in the ISOC Pro Open Championship. Next up is the Eastern National in Salamanca, NY Feb. 6-7. Visit tucker-hibbert.com to follow him as he continues to chase his ninth national championship.
Tucker Hibbert – #68 Monster Energy / Arctic Cat / Ram Truck
"I didn't have a game plan after I crashed (in the opening lap Saturday night) and once I got up, I didn't consciously think 'I'm going to win this race.' I just put my head down and charged as hard as I could until I got the checkers. I didn't even take time to look at the pit board so I didn't know where I was the entire race."
"I know the crowd was going crazy but I couldn't hear them because I zoned everything out while I was racing. I was totally focused on hitting my lines and on what was right in front of me. It was a different feeling than Friday night's final. I was riding my own race and going where I wanted to go. You don't feel that good every time you're on the track so it was nice to have that kind of race."
"The season started awesome by winning the first four then I lost three in a row. The pressure and anticipation for 100 was really building up. Looking back, I'm glad 100 happened the way it did. I'm glad it wasn't a runaway victory. It definitely was frustrating losing those races but I know this is the way it was supposed to happen."
"It's really awesome to have that many wins – to be able to look back…so many memories, stories. For me, it's never about getting a certain amount of wins or a record. It's about being the best I can be. Getting 100 wasn't the motivation to win. The motivation was to not lose."
"Every single race, I've learned something – from each first, second and DNF. I'm thankful for the wins and the times I didn't win. It's what brought me to where I am now."
tucker-hibbert.com
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OFSC Message For International Snowmobile Safety Week, January 14 – 22
SKI-DOO SAYS RIDE RESPONSIBLY THIS WINTER
MASSIVE PRIZES FOR 2022 AVALANCHE ALLIANCE SWEEPSTAKES | {
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Variance predicts salience in central sensory processing
Ann M Hermundstad ,
John J Briguglio,
Mary M Conte,
Jonathan D Victor,
Vijay Balasubramanian,
Gašper Tkačik,
University of Pennsylvania, United States;
École Normale Supérieure, France;
Weill Cornell Medical College, United States;
City University of New York Graduate Center, United States;
Institute of Science and Technology Austria, Austria;
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03722
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Ann M Hermundstad
John J Briguglio
Mary M Conte
Jonathan D Victor
Vijay Balasubramanian
Gašper Tkačik
eLife 3:e03722.
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Information processing in the sensory periphery is shaped by natural stimulus statistics. In the periphery, a transmission bottleneck constrains performance; thus efficient coding implies that natural signal components with a predictably wider range should be compressed. In a different regime—when sampling limitations constrain performance—efficient coding implies that more resources should be allocated to informative features that are more variable. We propose that this regime is relevant for sensory cortex when it extracts complex features from limited numbers of sensory samples. To test this prediction, we use central visual processing as a model: we show that visual sensitivity for local multi-point spatial correlations, described by dozens of independently-measured parameters, can be quantitatively predicted from the structure of natural images. This suggests that efficient coding applies centrally, where it extends to higher-order sensory features and operates in a regime in which sensitivity increases with feature variability.
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03722.001
Our senses are constantly bombarded by sights and sounds, but the capacity of the brain to process all these inputs is finite. The stimuli that contain the most useful information must therefore be prioritized for processing by the brain to ensure that we build up as complete a picture as possible of the world around us. However, the strategy that the brain uses to select certain stimuli—or certain features of stimuli—for processing at the expense of others is unclear.
Hermundstad et al. have now provided new insights into this process by analyzing how humans respond to artificial stimuli that contain controllable mixtures of features that found in natural stimuli. To do this, Hermundstad et al. selected photographs of the natural world, and measured the brightness of individual pixels. After adjusting images in a way that mimics the human retina, the brightest 50% of the pixels in each photograph were colored white and the remaining 50% were colored black.
Hermundstad et al. then used statistical techniques to calculate the degree to which the color of pixels could be used to predict the color of their neighbors. In this way, it was possible to calculate the amount of variation throughout the images, and then make computer-generated images in which pixel colorings were more or less predictable than in the natural images.
Volunteers then performed a task in which they had to locate a computer-generated pattern against a background of random noise. The volunteers were able to locate this target most easily when it contained the same kinds of patterns and features that were meaningful about natural images.
While this shows that the brain is adapted to prioritize features that are more informative about the natural world, understanding exactly how the brain implements this strategy remains a challenge.
Sensory receptor neurons encode signals from the environment, which are then transformed by successive neural layers to support diverse and computationally complex cognitive tasks. A normative understanding of these computations begins in the periphery, where the efficient coding principle—the notion that a sensory system is tuned to the statistics of its natural inputs—has been shown to be a powerful organizing framework (Barlow, 2001; Simoncelli, 2002). Perhaps the best-known example is that of redundancy removal via predictive coding and spatiotemporal decorrelation. In insects, this is carried out by neural processing (Laughlin, 1981; van Hateren, 1992b); in vertebrates, fixational eye movements—which precede the first step of neural processing (Srinivasan et al., 1982; Atick and Redlich, 1990; Atick et al., 1992)—play a major role (Kuang et al., 2012). This approach was later extended to describe population coding, retinal mosaic structure (Barlow, 2001; Karklin and Simoncelli, 2001; Borghuis et al., 2008; Balasubramanian and Sterling, 2009; Liu et al., 2009; Garrigan et al., 2010; Ratliff et al., 2010; Kuang et al., 2012), adaptation of neural responses (Brenner et al., 2000; Fairhall et al., 2001; Schwartz and Simoncelli, 2001), and early auditory processing (Smith and Lewicki, 2006). Taken together, normative theories based on efficient coding have been successful in explaining aspects of processing in the sensory periphery that are tuned to simple statistical features of the natural world.
Can we extend such theories beyond the sensory periphery to describe cortical sensitivity to complex sensory features? Normative theories have been successful in predicting the response properties of single cells, including receptive fields in V1 (Olshausen and Field, 1996; Bell and Sejnowski, 1997; van Hateren and Ruderman, 1998; van Hateren and van der Schaaf, 1998; Hyvarinen and Hoyer, 2000; Vinje and Gallant, 2000; Karklin and Lewicki, 2009) and spectro-temporal receptive fields in primary auditory cortex (Carlson and DeWeese, 2002, 2012), as well as distributions of tuning curves across individual cells in a population (Lewicki, 2002; Ganguli and Simoncelli, 2011). Some complex features, however, might not be represented by the tuning properties of individual cells in any direct way, but rather emerge from the collective behavior of many cells. Instead of trying to predict individual cell properties, we therefore focus on the sensitivity of the complete neural population. Is there an organizing principle that determines how resources within the population are allocated to representing such complex features?
When the presence of complex features is predictable (i.e., can be accurately guessed from simpler features along with priors about the environment), mechanisms are best devoted elsewhere (See Discussion, van Hateren, 1992a). In contrast, sensory features that are highly variable and not predictable from simpler ones can serve to determine their causes (e.g., to distinguish among materials or objects), a first step in guiding decisions. We will show that these ideas predict a specific organizing principle for aggregate sensitivities arising in cortex: the perceptual salience of complex sensory signals increases with the variability, or unpredictability, of the corresponding signals over the ensemble of natural stimuli.
To test this hypothesis, we focus on early stages of central visual processing. Here, early visual cortex (V1 and V2) is charged with extracting edges, shapes, and other complex correlations of light between multiple points in space (Morrone and Burr, 1988; Oppenheim and Lim, 1981; von der Heydt et al., 1984). We compare the spatial variation of local patterns of light across natural images with human sensitivity to manipulations of the same patterns in synthetic images. This allows us to determine how sensitivity is distributed across many different features, rather than simply determining the most salient ones. (We will say that a feature is more salient if it is more easily discriminated from white noise.) To this end, we parametrize the space of local multi-point correlations in images in terms of a complete set of coordinates, and we measure the probability distribution of coordinate values sampled over a large ensemble of natural scenes. We then use a psychophysical discrimination task to measure human sensitivity to the same correlations in synthetic images, where the correlations can be isolated and manipulated in a mathematically rigorous fashion by varying the corresponding coordinates (Chubb et al., 2004; Victor et al., 2005; Victor and Conte, 2012; Victor et al., 2013). Comparing the measurements, we show that human sensitivity to these multi-point elements of visual form is tuned to their variation in the natural world. Our result supports a broad hypothesis: cortex invests preferentially in mechanisms that encode unpredictable sensory features that are more variable, and thus more informative about the world. Namely, variance is salience.
As we recently showed, some informative local correlations of natural scenes are captured by the configurations of luminances seen through a 'glider', that is, a window defined by a 2 × 2 square arrangement of pixels (Tkačik et al., 2010). We use this observation first as a framework for analyzing the local statistical structure of natural scenes, then to characterize psychophysical sensitivities via a set of synthetic visual texture stimuli, and finally to compare the two.
Analyzing local image statistics in natural scenes
The analysis of natural scenes is schematized in Figure 1. We collect an ensemble of image patches from the calibrated Penn natural image database (PIDB) (Tkačik et al., 2011). We preprocess the image patches as shown in Figure 1A. This involves first averaging pixel luminances over a square region of N × N pixels, which converts an image of size L1 × L2 pixels into an image of reduced size L1/N × L2/N pixels. Images are then divided into R × R square patches of these downsampled pixels and whitened (see 'Materials and methods', Image preprocessing, for further details). Since the preprocessing depends on a choice of two parameters, the block-average factor N and patch size R, we report results for multiple image analyses performed using the identical preprocessing pipeline but for various choices of N and R. After preprocessing, we binarize each patch to have equal numbers of black and white pixels (black = −1, white = +1). We characterize each patch by the histogram of 16 binary colorings (22×2) seen through a square 2 × 2 pixel glider (Figure 1B). Translation invariance imposes constraints on this histogram, reducing the number of degrees of freedom to 10 (Victor and Conte, 2012). These degrees of freedom can be mapped to a set of image statistic coordinates that separates correlations based on their order: (i) one first-order coordinate, γ, describes overall luminance, (ii) four second-order coordinates, {β|, β−, β/, β\}, describe two-point correlations between pixels arranged vertically, horizontally, or diagonally, (iii) four third-order coordinates, {θ⌞, θ⌜, θ⌝, θ⌟}, describe three-point correlations between pixels arranged into ⌞-shapes of different orientations, and (iv) one fourth-order coordinate, α, describes the single four-point correlation between all four pixels in the glider (Figure 1C). The binarization step of the preprocessing pipeline forces γ to zero, leaving nine coordinates. Each image patch is thus characterized by a vector of coordinate values {β|,β−,β/,β\,θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟,θ⌞,α}, that is, a point within the multidimensional space of image statistics. Accumulating these points across patches yields a multidimensional probability distribution that characterizes the local correlations in natural scenes (schematized in Figure 1D). A total of 724 images (up to 249780 patches, depending on the choice of N and R), was used to construct this distribution.
Figure 1 with 3 supplements see all
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Extracting image statistics from natural scenes.
(A) We first block-average each image over N × N pixel squares, then divide it into patches of size R × R pixels, then whiten the ensemble of patches by removing the average pairwise structure, and finally binarize each patch about its median intensity value (see 'Materials and methods', Image preprocessing). (B) From each binary patch, we measure the occurrence probability of the 16 possible colorings as seen through a two-by-two pixel glider (red). Translation invariance imposes constraints between the probabilities that reduce the number of degrees of freedom to 10. (C) A convenient coordinate basis for these 10° of freedom can be described in terms of correlations between pixels as seen through the glider. These consist of one first-order coordinate (γ), four second-order coordinates (β|,β−,β/,β\), four third-order coordinates (θ⌞,θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟), and one fourth-order coordinate (α). Since the images are binary, with black = −1 and white = +1, these correlations are sums and differences of the 16 probabilities that form the histogram in panel B (Victor and Conte, 2012). (D) Each patch is assigned a vector of coordinate values that describes the histogram shown in (B). This coordinate vector defines a specific location in the multidimensional space of image statistics. The ensemble of patches is then described by the probability distribution of coordinate values. We compute the degree of variation (standard deviation) along different directions within this distribution (inset). (E) Along single coordinate axes, we find that the degree of variation is rank-ordered as {β|,β−}>{β/,β\}>α>{θ⌞,θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟}, shown separately for different choices of the block-average factor N and patch size R used during image preprocessing.
To summarize this distribution, we compute the degree of variation (standard deviation) along each coordinate axis (Figure 1E). As is shown, the degree of variation along different coordinate axes exhibits a characteristic rank-ordering, given by {β|,β−}>{β/,β\}>α>{θ⌞,θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟}; that is, the most variable correlations are pairwise correlations in the cardinal directions, followed by pairwise correlations in the oblique directions, followed by fourth-order correlations. Interestingly, third-order correlations are the least variable across image patches. An analogous analysis performed on white noise yields a flat distribution with considerably smaller standard deviation values (See 'Materials and methods', Analysis variants for Penn Natural Image Database, and Figure 1—figure supplement 3 for comparison), and performing the analysis on a colored Gaussian noise (e.g. 1/fk spectrum) would also yield a flat distribution because of the whitening stage in the image preprocessing pipeline. These (and subsequent) findings are preserved across different choices of image analysis parameters (shown in Figure 1E for block-average factors N = 2, 4 and patch sizes R = 32, 48, 64; see 'Materials and methods', Analysis variants for Penn Natural Image Database, and Figure 3—figure supplement 5A for a larger set of parameters) and also across other collections of natural images (see 'Materials and methods', Comparison with van Hateren Database, and Figure 3—figure supplement 5B for a parallel analysis of the van Hateren image dataset (van Hateren and van der Schaaf, 1998), which gives similar results).
Characterizing visual sensitivity to local image statistics
To characterize perceptual sensitivity to different statistics, we isolated them in synthetic visual images and used a figure/ground segmentation task (Figure 2B). We used a four-alternative forced-choice task in which stimuli consisted of a textured target and a binary noise background (or vice-versa). Each stimulus was presented for 120ms and was followed by a noise mask. Subjects were then asked to identify the spatial location (top, bottom, left, or right) of the target. Experiments were carried out for synthetic stimuli in which the target or background was defined by first varying image statistic coordinates independently (Figure 2A shows examples of gamuts from which stimuli are built). Along each coordinate axis, threshold (1/sensitivity) was defined as the coordinate value required to support a criterion level of performance (Figure 2C, inset). We then performed further experiments in which the target or background was defined by simultaneously varying pairs of coordinates. For measurements involving each coordinate pair (to which we will refer as a 'coordinate plane'), we traced out an isodiscrimination contour (Figure 2C) that describes the threshold values not only along the cardinal directions, but also along oblique directions. Measurements were collected for four individual subjects in each of 11 distinct coordinate planes (representing all distinct coordinate pairs up to 4-fold rotational symmetry; see 'Materials and methods', Psychophysical methods, for further details). Each subject performed 4320 judgements per plane, for a total of 47,520 trials per subject.
Measuring human sensitivity to image statistics.
(A) Synthetic binary images can be created that contain specified values of individual image statistic coordinates (as shown here) or specified values of pairs of coordinates (Victor and Conte, 2012). (B) To measure human sensitivity to image statistics, we generate synthetic textures with prescribed coordinate values but no additional statistical structure, and we use these synthetic textures in a figure/ground segmentation task (See Victor and Conte, 2012 and 'Materials and methods', Psychophysical methods). (C) For measurements along coordinate axes, test stimuli are built out of homogeneous samples drawn from the gamuts shown in A (e.g. the target shown in B was generated from the portion of the gamut indicated by the red arrow in A; See 'Materials and methods', Psychophysical methods, and Victor et al., 2005; Victor and Conte, 2012; Victor et al., 2013). We assess the discriminability of these stimuli from white noise by measuring the threshold value of a coordinate required to achieve performance halfway between chance and perfect (inset). A similar approach is used to measure sensitivity in oblique directions; here, two coordinate values are specified to create the test stimuli. The threshold values along the axes and in oblique directions define an isodiscrimination contour (red dashed ellipse, main panel) in pairwise coordinate planes. (D) Along individual coordinate axes, we find that sensitivities (1/thresholds) are rank-ordered as {β|,β−}>{β/,β\}>α>{θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟,θ⌞}, shown separately for four individual subjects. A single set of perceptual sensitivities is shown for (β|,β−), (β/,β\), and (θ⌞,θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟), since human subjects are equally sensitive to rotationally-equivalent pairs of second-order coordinates and to all third-order coordinates (Victor et al., 2013).
Figure 2D shows perceptual sensitivities measured along each coordinate axis. For each of four subjects, a similar pattern emerges for sensitivities as was observed for variation in natural image statistics: sensitivities are rank-ordered as {β|,β−}>{β/,β\}>α>{θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟,θ⌞}.
Note that the difference between the sensitivities in the horizontal and vertical directions (β− and β|) vs the diagonal directions (β\ and β/) is not simply an 'oblique effect', that is, a greater sensitivity to cardinally- vs obliquely-oriented contours (Campbell et al., 1966). Horizontal and vertical pairwise correlations differ from the diagonal pairwise correlations in more than just orientation: pixels involved in horizontal and vertical pairwise correlations share an edge, while pixels involved in diagonal pairwise correlations only share a corner. Correspondingly, the difference in sensitivities for horizontal and vertical correlations vs diagonal correlations is approximately 50%, which is much larger than the size of the classical oblique effect (10–20%) (Campbell et al., 1966).
Natural scenes predict human sensitivity along single coordinates
Figures 1E and 2D show a rank-order correspondence between natural image statistics and perceptual sensitivities. This qualitative comparison can be converted to a quantitative one (Figure 3A), as a single scaling parameter aligns the standard deviation of natural image statistics with the corresponding perceptual sensitivities. In this procedure, each of the six image analyses is scaled by a single multiplicative factor that minimizes the squared error between the set of standard deviations and the set of subject-averaged sensitivities (see 'Materials and methods', Image preprocessing, and Figure 3—figure supplement 1 for additional details regarding scaling). The agreement is very good, with the mismatch between image analyses and human psychophysics comparable to the variability from one image analysis to another, or from one human subject to another.
Variation in natural images predicts human perceptual sensitivity.
(A) Scaled degree of variation (standard deviation) in natural image statistics along second- (β), third- (θ), and fourth-order (α) coordinate axes (blue circular markers) are shown in comparison to human perceptual sensitivities measured along the same coordinate axes (red square markers). Degree of variation in natural image statistics is separately shown for different choices of the block-average factor (N) and patch size (R) used during image preprocessing. Perceptual sensitivities are separately shown for four individual subjects. As in Figure 2C,A single set of perceptual sensitivities is shown for {β|,β−}, {β/,β\}, and {θ⌞,θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟}. (B) For each pair of coordinates, we compare the precision matrix (blue ellipses) extracted from natural scenes (using N = 2, R = 32) to human perceptual isodiscrimination contours (red ellipses). Coordinate planes are organized into a grid. The set of ellipses in each pairwise plane is scaled to maximally fill each portion of the grid; agreement between the variation along single coordinate axes and the corresponding human sensitivities (shown in A) guarantees that no information is lost by scaling. Across all 36 coordinate planes, there is a correspondence in the shape, size, and orientation of precision matrix contours and perceptual isodiscrimination contours. (C) Quantitative comparison of a single image analysis (N = 2, R = 32) with the subject-averaged psychophysical data. For single coordinates depicted in A, we report the standard deviation in natural image statistics (upper row) and perceptual sensitivities (middle row). For sets of coordinate planes depicted in (B), we report the (average eccentricity, angular tilt) of precision matrix contours from natural scenes (upper row) and isodiscrimination contours from psychophysical measurements (middle row). The degree of correspondence between predictions derived from natural image data and the psychophysical measurements can be conveniently summarized as a scalar product (see text), where 1 indicates a perfect match. In all cases, the correspondence is very high (0.938–0.999) and is highly statistically significant (p ≤ 0.0003 for both single coordinates and pairwise coordinate planes; see 'Materials and methods', Permutation tests, for details).
We quantify the correspondence between image analyses and psychophysical analyses by computing the scalar product between the normalized vector of standard deviations (extracted separately from each image analysis) and the normalized vector of subject-averaged sensitivities (extracted from the set of psychophysical analyses). A value of 1 indicates perfect correspondence, and 0 indicates no correspondence. This value ranges from 0.987 to 0.999 across image analyses and is consistently larger than the value measured under the null hypothesis that the apparent correspondence between statistics and sensitivities is chance (p ≤ .0003 for each image analysis; see Tables 1–2 and 'Materials and methods', Permutation tests, for details regarding statistical tests).
These findings support our hypothesis that human perceptual sensitivity measured along single coordinate axes (assessed using synthetic binary textures) is predicted by the degree of variation along the same coordinate axes in natural scenes.
Natural scenes predict human sensitivity to joint variations of all pairs of coordinates
The correspondence shown in Figure 3A considers each image statistic coordinate in isolation. However, it is known that image statistics covary substantially in natural images (as diagrammed in Figure 1D) and also that they interact perceptually (as diagrammed in Figure 2C). When pairs of natural image statistics covary, thus sampling oblique directions not aligned with the coordinate axes in the space of image statistics, our hypothesis predicts that human perceptual sensitivity is matched to both the degree and the direction of that covariation (we are referring here to the orientation of a distribution in the coordinate plane of a pair of image statistics, and not to an orientation in physical space). To test this idea, we proceeded as follows.
First, we fit the distribution of image statistics with a multidimensional Gaussian. When projected into pairwise coordinate planes, the isoprobability contours of this Gaussian capture the in-plane shape and orientation of the covariation of the distribution. Along single coordinate axes, the variation in natural image statistics predicts human perceptual sensitivities, as we have shown (Figure 3A). More generally, we would predict that sensitivity should be be high along directions in which the distribution of natural image statistics has high standard deviation, because in those directions, the position of a sample cannot be guessed. Within coordinate planes, the quantitative statement of this idea is that the inverse covariance matrix, or precision matrix, predicts perceptual isodiscrimination contours. Sensitivity is expected to be low (and therefore threshold high) along directions in which the precision matrix has a high value and the position of a sample can be guessed a priori.
Results in each coordinate plane are shown in Figure 3B. Across all subjects and all coordinate planes, we find that the shape and orientation of perceptual isodiscrimination contours (red ellipses) are predicted by the distribution of image statistics extracted from natural scenes (blue ellipses). As in Figure 3A, the correspondence is very good, with mismatch that is comparable to the variability observed across image analyses and across subjects.
To quantify the correspondence between natural image and psychophysical analyses, we describe each ellipse by a single vector ω→ that combines information about shape (eccentricity) and orientation (angular tilt), and we compute the scalar product between the image analysis vector ω→NI and the subject-averaged psychophysical vector ω→PP. This value, averaged across coordinate planes, ranges from 0.953 to 0.977 across image analyses. We compared this correspondence to that obtained under the null hypotheses that (i) the apparent correspondence between image statistic covariances and isodiscrimination contours is chance, or (ii) the apparent covariances in image statistics are due to chance. The observed correspondence is much greater than the value measured under either null hypothesis (p ≤.0003 for each image analysis under both hypotheses; see 'Materials and methods', Analysis of image statistics in pairwise coordinate planes, and Figure 3—figure supplement 2 for comparisons of eccentricity and tilt, and Tables 1–3 and 'Materials and methods', Permutation tests, for statistical tests).
These findings confirm that the shape and orientation of human isodiscrimination contours, measured across all pairwise combinations of coordinates, can be quantitatively predicted from the covariation of image statistics extracted from natural scenes. The observed correspondence is maintained within the full 9-dimensional coordinate space (see 'Materials and methods', Analysis of the full 9-dimensional distribution of image statistics, and Figure 3—figure supplement 3 for principal component analyses, and Tables 1–3 and 'Materials and methods', Permutation tests, for statistical tests), confirming that our hypothesis describes human sensitivity in the full 9-dimensional space of local image statistics extracted from natural scenes.
How should neural mechanisms be distributed to represent a diverse set of informative sensory features? We argued that, when performance requires inferences limited by sampling of the statistics of input features, resources should be devoted in proportion to feature variability. A basic idea here is that features that take a wider range of possible values are less predictable, and will better distinguish between contexts in the face of input noise. We used this hypothesis to successfully predict human sensitivity to elements of visual form arising from spatial multi-point correlations in images. This result is notable for several reasons. First, we successfully predicted dozens of independent parameters that describe human perceptual sensitivity. The only free parameter was a scale that converted between perceptual sensitivities and natural image statistics. Moreover, predictions about the rank ordering of sensitivities (Figure 3A) and the shape and orientation of isodiscrimination contours (Figure 3B) do not even require a scale factor. Second, the theoretical predictions and their psychophysical test were derived from two very different sources. Psychophysical stimuli consisted of mathematically-defined synthetic binary textures with precisely-controlled correlational structure that is unlikely to occur outside of the laboratory. In contrast, the efficient coding predictions were derived from calibrated photographs of natural scenes in which many types of correlations are simultaneously present. Third, predictions refer to multi-point (and not just pairwise) correlations, which are critical for defining local features such as lines and edges (Oppenheim and Lim, 1981; Morrone and Burr, 1988). In contrast, previous normative theories have have mainly focused on explaining the linear receptive fields of neurons in primary visual (Olshausen and Field, 1996; Bell and Sejnowski, 1997; van Hateren and Ruderman, 1998; van Hateren and van der Schaaf, 1998; Hyvarinen and Hoyer, 2000; Vinje and Gallant, 2000; Karklin and Lewicki, 2009) and auditory cortex (Carlson and DeWeese, 2002, 2012), or on deriving symmetry- and coverage-based mesoscopic models of cortical map formation in V1 (Wolf and Geisel, 1998; Swindale et al., 2000; Kaschube et al., 2011). Finally, the efficient coding prediction of greater sensitivity to more variable multipoint correlations is closely tied to the statistical structure of natural visual images. Specifically, this regime applies to highly variable multipoint correlations that cannot be predicted from simpler ones. Some other multipoint correlations (defined on configurations other than a 2 × 2 glider) are also highly variable, but they are predictable from simpler correlations. For these multipoint correlations, visual sensitivity is very low (Tkačik et al., 2010), and efficient coding is not applicable in the form proposed here.
In sum, the surprising predictive power and the high statistical significance of our results provide strong support for the proposed application of the efficient coding hypothesis to cortical processing of complex sensory features.
Perceptual salience of multi-point correlations likely arises in cortex
Although we did not record cortical responses directly, several lines of evidence indicate that that the perceptual thresholds we measured are determined by cortical processes. First, the stimuli had high contrast (100%) and consisted of pixels that were readily visible (14 arcmin), so retinal limitations of contrast sensitivity and resolution were eliminated. Second, the task requires pooling of information over wide areas (100–200 pixels, that is, a region whose diameter is 10–15 times the width of an image element; see Figure 7 in Victor and Conte, 2005). Retinal receptive fields are unlikely to do this, as the ratio of their spatial extent (surround size) to their resolution (center size) is typically no more than 4:1 (Croner and Kaplan, 1995; Kremers et al., 1995). Third, to account for the specificity of sensitivity to three- and four-point correlations, a cascade of two linear-nonlinear stages is required (Victor and Conte, 1991); retinal responses are quite well-captured by a single nonlinear stage (Nirenberg and Pandarinath, 2012), and cat retinal populations show no sensitivity to the four-point correlations studied used here (Victor, 1986) while simultaneous cortical field potentials do. Conversely, macaque visual cortical neurons (Purpura et al., 1994), especially those in V2, manifest responses to three- and four-point correlations (Yu et al., 2013).
Cortex faces a different class of challenges than the sensory periphery
Successive stages of sensory processing share the same broad goals: invest resources in encoding stimulus features that are sufficiently informative, and suppress less-informative ones. In the periphery, this is exemplified by the well-known suppression of very low spatial frequencies; in cortex, this is exemplified by insensitivity to high-order correlations that are predictable from lower-order ones. Previous work has shown that such higher-order correlations can be separated into two groups—informative and uninformative—and only the informative ones are encoded (Tkačik et al., 2010). We used this finding to select an informative subspace for the present study, and we asked how resources should be efficiently allocated amongst features within this informative subspace.
A simple model of efficient coding by neural populations is shown in Figure 4A (details in 'Materials ans methods', Two regimes of efficient coding). Here, to enable analytical calculations, we used linear filters of variable gain and subject to Gaussian noise to model a population of neural channels encoding different features. The optimal allocation of resources to maximize information transmitted by the population depends on the amount of input noise, the amount of output noise, the input signal variability, and the total resources available to the system, here quantified as a constraint on the total output power (i.e., sum of response variances) in the neural population. The constrained output power and the output noise together determine the 'bandwidth' of the system—that is, the expressive capacity of its outputs. Consider a neural population with input noise, output noise, and a fixed amount of output power. We find that when input signal variability is sufficiently large compared to the input noise, the gain of neurons should decrease with the variance of the input (regions to the right of the peaks in the right-hand panel of Figure 4A). This is a regime where the output bandwidth is low compared to the input range, and efficient coding predicts that signals should be 'whitened' by equalizing the variance in different channels. Conversely, consider input signals with a smaller range, which are thus more disrupted by input noise. In this case, the gain of neurons should increase with the variance of the input (regions to the left of the peaks in the right-hand panel of Figure 4A). This is a regime where the input noise dominates, and efficient coding predicts that the system should invest more resources in more variable, and hence more easily detectable, input signals. The relative sizes of input and output noise (controlled by Λ in Figure 4A) determines the input ranges over which the two qualitatively different regimes of efficient coding apply.
Regimes of efficient coding.
(A) To analyze different regimes of efficient coding, we consider a set of channels, where the kth channel carries an input signal with variability sk. Gaussian noise is added to the input. The result is passed through a linear filter with gain |Lk|, and then Gaussian noise is added to the filter output. We impose a constraint on the total power output of all channels, that is, a constraint on its total resources. With these assumptions, the set of gains that maximizes the transmitted information can be determined (see 'Materials and methods', Two regimes of efficient coding, and (van Hateren, 1992a; Doi and Lewicki, 2011; Doi and Lewicki, 2014)). This set of gains depends on the relative strengths of input and output noise and on the severity of the power constraint, quantified here by the dimensionless parameter Λ (right-hand panel). As Λ decreases from 1 to 0, the system moves from a regime in which output noise is limiting to one in which input noise is limiting. (B) The efficient coding model applied to the sensory periphery. Raw luminances from natural images are corrupted with noise (e.g. shot noise resulting from photon incidence) and passed through a linear filter. The resulting signal is carried by the optic nerve, which imposes a strong constraint on output capacity. In the bandwidth limited case where output noise dominates over input noise (e.g., under high light conditions when photon noise is not limiting), the optimal gain decreases as signal variability increases. Since channel input and channel gain vary reciprocally, channel outputs are approximately equalized, resulting in a 'whitening', or decorrelation. (C) The efficient coding model applied to cortical processing. Informative image features resulting from early cortical processing, caricatured by our preprocessing pipeline as applied to the retinal output, are sampled from a spatial region of the image. This sampling acts as a kind of input noise, because it only provides limited count-based estimates for the true statistical properties of the image source. When this input noise is limiting, the optimal gain increases as signal variability increases. Rather than whiten, the output signals preserve the correlational structure of the input. Note that in both regimes (B) and (C), there is a range of signals that are not encoded at all. These are the signals that are not sufficiently informative to warrant an allocation of resources.
To make these abstract considerations concrete, we first considered coding in the sensory periphery. A common strategy employed in the periphery is 'whitening', where relatively fewer resources are devoted (yielding lower gain) to features with more variation (Olshausen and Field, 1996). As an example, within the spatial frequency range that the retina captures well, sensitivity is greater for high spatial frequencies than for low ones, that is, sensitivity is inversely related to the degree of variation in natural scenes (the well-known 1/f2 power spectrum [Olshausen and Field, 1996]). Figure 4B illustrates how this strategy can emerge from the simple efficient coding scheme discussed above as applied to peripheral sensory processing. Spatiotemporal correlations of light undergo filtering before passing through the optic nerve bottleneck (a constraint on bandwidth). Such a constraint on bandwidth is equivalently understood as a regime where output noise is relatively large compared to input noise. In this limit, where output noise dominates over input noise, the optimal strategy is whitening (See Srinivasan et al., 1982 and Figure 4A). Of course, real neural systems contend with both input and output noise; indeed recent work has shown that simply whitening to deal with output noise underestimates the optimal performance that the sensory periphery can achieve (Doi and Lewicki, 2014).
An alternative regime arises when input noise limits performance. In this regime, relatively more resources are devoted to features with more variation. This regime was discussed in early work of van Hateren, (1992a) and was also recognized in (Doi and Lewicki, 2011, 2014), although it has received much less attention than the 'whitening' regime. Our results suggest that this is the regime is relevant to cortex, where it predicts the relative allocation of resources to higher-order image statistics. Figure 4C illustrates the simple efficient coding scheme in this context. We use our image preprocessing pipeline to mimic early visual processing, and we consider the downstream coding of higher-order image features. Because these features must be sampled from a finite patch of an image, they are subject to input noise arising from fluctuations in statistical estimation. When such input noise is limiting, the ability to detect a signal from noise increases with the variability of that signal. In this limit, efficient coding predicts that resources should be allocated in proportion to feature variability (Figure 4C). This captures the intuition that when signal reliability is in question, more reliable signals warrant more resources. Furthermore, if two or more channels have covarying signals, resources should be devoted in relation to the direction and degree of maximum covariance (see 'Materials and methods', Two regimes of efficient coding, Figure 4—figure supplement 3, and Figure 4—figure supplement 4).
The difference between these two efficient coding regimes is a consequence of the form of noise—output vs input noise—that is limiting. Our finding that cortex operates in a different regime than the well-known peripheral whitening reflects the fact that different stages and kinds of processing can face different constraints. While information transmission by the visual periphery is limited by a bottleneck in the optic nerve, cortex faces no such transmission constraint. Furthermore, while faithful encoding may be an immediate goal of early visual processing, cortical circuits have to interpret image features from a complex and crowded visual scene and perform statistical inference. For example, to discriminate between various textures, the cortex cannot perform pixel-by-pixel comparisons, but must rely on the estimation of local correlations (image statistics) instead. Because these correlations must be sampled from a finite patch of the visual scene, any estimate will be limited by sampling fluctuations.
Sampling constraints vs resource constraints
Sampling fluctuations constitute a source of input noise, the magnitude of which depends on the size of the sampled region. For natural images, this gives rise to a tradeoff: small regions lead to large fluctuations in the estimated statistics, while large regions blur over local details. This blurring may obscure the boundaries between objects with different surface properties. While the brain must implement such sampling, the size, scale, and potentially dynamic nature of the sampling region is not known. Interestingly, our predictions of human sensitivities do not change substantially over a wide range of spatial scales and image patch sizes, perhaps reflecting a scaling property of natural images (Stephens et al., 2013). An avenue for future research is to determine whether there is an optimal region size, and if so, whether it could be estimated from images themselves.
Sampling limitations alone do not suffice to account for the observed differential sensitivity of the brain to local image statistics. Were sampling limitations the only consideration, perceptual sensitivity would be the same along each coordinate axis, and perceptual isodiscrimination contours would be circular in each coordinate plane. This follows from an ideal observer calculation (See Appendix B of Victor and Conte, 2012). In contrast, we find that human observers have a severalfold variability in sensitivity along different coordinate axes (Figure 3A) and have isodiscrimination contours that are elongated in oblique directions (Figure 3B). The efficient coding principle can account for these findings by taking into consideration the fact that a real observer has finite processing resources. In this context (finite resources and substantial input noise), the efficient coding principle predicts that resources are invested in relation to the range of signal values that are typically present (van Hateren, 1992a), as we find. Interestingly, resource limitations seem to play an important role in the cortex despite the vast expansion in the number of neurons compared to the optic nerve. Presumably, this reflects the large number of complex features that could be computed and the corresponding need for a large overrepresentation of the stimulus space (Olshausen and Field, 1997).
Clues to neural mechanisms
While we find a close match between the variation in natural image statistics and human psychophysical performance, some aspects of the distribution of natural image statistics do not match psychophysical data.
These differences are not readily apparent when we examine the variances and covariances (Figure 3) of the distribution of natural image statistics but emerge only when one considers its detailed shape (see 'Materials and methods', Asymmetries in distributions of natural image statistics). For example, the distribution of α-coordinate values has a longer tail in the positive vs negative direction (see Figure 3—figure supplement 9 and (Tkačik et al., 2010)). In contrast, human perceptual sensitivity is symmetric, or very nearly so (within ∼20%), for positive vs negative values of α (Victor et al., 2005; Victor and Conte, 2012; Victor et al., 2013). This suggests that limitations imposed by 'neural hardware' force the system to use heuristics instead of matching the natural image distribution exactly. For example, an opponent mechanism responsible for detecting variations along, example, the α coordinate, might be a useful and easy (although imperfect) way to process the asymmetric distribution of four-point correlations found in natural scenes. Such a mechanism could be matched to the variance of the natural image distribution along the α coordinate, but not to its skew or other odd moments. An opponent mechanism would necessarily give rise to equal sensitivities to positive vs negative values of α, as observed in psychophysical results. Further study of deviations from a perfect match to the distribution of natural image statistics might provide additional insight into these or other possible neural mechanisms, and into the goals of the computations. Independently, our results also raise an interesting theoretical question about the optimal representation of non-gaussian, multidimensional signals under resource-limited conditions.
Looking forward, we hypothesize that the principle of efficient coding might apply to cortical processing at higher levels. For example, more complex image features, such as shapes, are represented as conjunctions of contour fragments (Brincat and Connor, 2004), where each contour fragment is a local image object defined by particular multi-point correlations. We might speculate that the joint statistics of contour fragments in natural scenes can predict, through appropriate formulation of the same efficient coding principle used here, the properties of neurons in area IT (Hung et al., 2012; Yau et al., 2012) or the associated perceptual sensitivities of human observers.
Finally, although we have focused on perception of image statistics, we do this with the premise that this process is in the service of inferring the materials and objects that created an image and ultimately, guiding action. Thus, it is notable that we found a tight correspondence between visual perception and natural scene statistics without considering a specific task or behavioral set. Indeed, the emergence of higher-order percepts without explicit task specification was the original hope of the efficient coding framework as first put forward by Barlow and Attneave (Attneave, 1954; Barlow, 1959, 1961). Doubtless, these 'top-down' factors also influence the visual computations that underlie perception, and the nature and site of this influence are an important focus of future research.
Image preprocessing
UPenn Natural Image Database
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A database of images was collected in the Okavango Delta, a savannah habitat of Botswana (Tkačik et al., 2011). Panoramic, eye-level shots were taken with a Nikon D70 camera during the dry season in midday illumination. Trichromatic images were then converted to equivalent log-luminance images. From this database, we selected a set of 924 images with minimal amounts of sky (see following paragraph).
Image selection
Natural images were taken from two different databases: the UPenn Natural Image Database (shown Figures 1 and 3) and the van Hateren Natural Image Dataset (shown in 'Materials and methods', Comparison with van Hateren Database). Images from the UPenn Natural Image Database were selected by hand to ensure that they contained no man-made objects. We required that images contained minimal (less that one-third of the total image area) amounts of sky, as the contribution of sky to the overall power spectrum of natural images is well-documented (Torralba and Oliva, 2003) and is not the focus of the present study. Images from the van Hateren Natural Image Dataset were chosen subject to the additional constraint that scenery which was clearly the result of human landscaping (e.g. trees all in a line) be excluded. The analyses presented here were performed using the logarithms of the pixel intensities, a standard procedure in the study of natural images (Ruderman and Bialek, 1994). However, the results were unchanged if absolute pixel intensities were used instead. For more details about the construction of the images from these sources, see (Tkačik et al., 2011) (UPenn dataset) and http://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/?id=227 (van Hateren dataset).
Block averaging
Images of size L1 × L2 are block-averaged by a factor of N, which involves averaging the intensities of pixels arranged into contiguous N × N squares. The resulting image is of size L1/N × L2/N. To the extent that natural images are scale invariant (a well-supported hypothesis (Field, 1987; Ruderman, 1997; Stephens et al., 2013)), this procedure leaves the underlying statistics invariant. In our analyses, we block average images by at least a factor of two (thereby eliminating the Nyquist frequencies) in order to avoid sampling artifacts imposed by the camera matrix during image acquisition. In Figures 1 and 3, we presented two values of N: N = 2, 4. In 'Materials and methods', Analysis variants for Penn Natural Image Database, we show that our results are consistent when N is extended to include N = 8, 12, 16, 20.
Fourier whitening
We divide each block-averaged image into square R × R patches. In Figures 1 and 3, we presented results using three values of R: R = 32, 48, 64. In 'Materials and methods', Analysis variants for Penn Natural Image Database, we show that our results are consistent when R is extended to include R = 80, 128.
To remove global correlations in natural images, we whiten the set of image patches by flattening the Fourier power spectrum of the image patch ensemble. This procedure removes expected ensemble-average (and thus predictable) pairwise correlations, but non-zero pairwise correlations may still exist within individual patches; such correlations are the subject of this study. To carry out this procedure, the whitening filter is the inverse square-root of the ensemble-averaged Fourier power spectrum. For the natural image analyses presented here, the filter has a center-surround structure similar to that observed in the retina.
Following the whitening procedure, we binarize each image patch about its median pixel intensity. This creates image patches with equal numbers of black and white pixels.
Removal of blurry images
In any image database, there will be blurring due to camera motion and focus artifacts. Because we are interested in the statistics computed from in-focus image patches, we use a mixture of components (MOC) method to separate blurred from in-focus image patches.
To perform this separation, we first examined the 9-dimensional distribution of natural image statistics (see Figure 1—figure supplement 1A for the projection of the distribution onto the (α, β−) plane). When projected onto various coordinate planes, the structure of the distribution suggested that the distribution could be well-described by a weighted sum of two components. We explored this two-component description by running a standard maximum likelihood MOC inference that described each component by a Gaussian distribution. This inference method returned the mean, covariance, and relative weighting of each putative Gaussian component. In this process, each image patch was assigned to one of the two components (Figure 1—figure supplement 1B; note that the two components are separated in the 9-dimensional space, although they appear overlapping in this particular projection). After inspecting the clustering of patches into each of the two components, we observed that one of the components contained image patches that are sharp (Figure 1—figure supplement 1C), while the other contained patches that are blurry (Figure 1—figure supplement 1D–E).
We performed several controls to show that this separation is precise and effective. We first confirmed, based on visual inspection of a large number of images, that this method reliably separates blurred from in-focus patches. For example, images that were uniformly composed of patches assigned to the 'blurry' component were fully blurred due, example, to camera motion (Figure 1—figure supplement 1E). Similarly, images in which a large percentage of patches were assigned to the 'blurry' component contained large regions that were blurred due to motion or camera focus artifacts (Figure 1—figure supplement 1D). Furthermore, the spatial boundary between blurred and in-focus regions in the original image matched the boundary between patches assigned to the 'blurry' vs 'in-focus' component.
We additionally tested this method by incrementally removing images that were significantly blurred and then re-running the MOC method. After the removal of each subsequent image, the MOC method returned a mixture of components that was incrementally more strongly weighted toward the 'in-focus' component.
Finally, we tested this method by applying motion and Gaussian blur filters to sharp images (Figure 1—figure supplement 2B). With a sufficiently strong blurring transformation, all of the patches within a sharp image changed assignment from the 'in-focus' to the 'blurry' component. Successive block averaging removes the effects of small blur, such that a larger blurring transformation is required to change the assignment of patches from the 'in-focus' to the 'blurred' component. Furthermore, the application of motion and blur filters altered the spatial distribution of natural image statistics in a manner consistent with the statistics observed in image patches assigned to the 'blurry' component via the MOC method (Figure 1—figure supplement 2A). Both types of blurring increased the values of second- and fourth-order statistics, but they did so in different manners. Camera motion strongly increased both the fourth-order statistic and the second-order statistic aligned parallel to the direction of motion. In comparison, camera focus artifacts (arising, e.g., from variations in field of depth) more uniformly increased all second- and fourth-order statistics.
Scaling image analyses
To compare between natural image and psychophysical analyses, we scale the set of 9 standard deviations extracted from a given image analysis by a multiplicative factor that minimizes the squared error between the set of nine standard deviations and the set of nine psychophysical sensitivities. Figure 3—figure supplement 1 shows the value of the scale factor for different choices of the block-average factor N and patch size R. This scaling places the greatest weight on the match between statistics with high variation/sensitivity (i.e. β| and β−). Note that a different choice of scaling factor can shift this weight to different statistics; for example, a scaling factor that minimizes the least squares error between inverse standard deviation and thresholds will place larger weight on the match between statistics with low variation/sensitivity (i.e. θ components).
Psychophysical methods
We determined perceptual sensitivity to local image statistics via a texture segmentation paradigm adapted from (Chubb et al., 2004), and in standard use in our lab (Victor et al., 2005; Victor and Conte, 2012; Victor et al., 2013); we describe it briefly here. These measurements were carried out in parallel with the natural scene analysis described above. Some of the psychophysical results have been previously reported (Victor and Conte, 2012; Victor et al., 2013); see 'Subjects' below.
The basic stimulus consisted of a 64 × 64 black-and-white array of square image elements ('checks'), in which a target 16 × 64 rectangle of checks was embedded, positioned eight checks from one of the four edges of the array. The target was distinguished from the rest of the array by its local statistical structure (see Victor and Conte, 2012 for details on the synthesis of these images), which was varied as described below.
Individual experimental sessions consisted of threshold measurements for each of a pair of image statistic coordinates (i.e., two choices from {β|,β−,β\,β/,θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟,θ⌞,α}), and their pairwise interactions. For the trials used to determine the sensitivity along a coordinate axis, the coordinate was set to one of five equally spaced values; lower-order coordinates were set to 0, and higher-order coordinates were set to their maximum-entropy values (0 for all cases except the (β,α) pair; see (Victor and Conte, 2012) for further details on this point). The highest coordinate value tested was determined from pilot experiments, and was set at 0.45 for β| and β−, 0.75 for β\ and β/, 1.0 for the θ's, and 0.85 for α. For the trials used to determine the sensitivity to pairwise combinations of coordinates, each coordinate was given a nonzero value; all sign combinations were used. The ratio of the coordinate magnitudes was fixed, and chosen in approximate proportion to the above maximum values. Two values for each sign combination were studied.
To ensure that the response was driven by figure/ground segmentation (rather than, say, a texture gradient), two kinds of trials were randomly intermixed: (1) trials in which the target contained the nonzero value(s) of the coordinates and the background was random (i.e., all coordinates set to 0), and (2) trials in which the background had the nonzero values, and the target was random. Targets were equally likely to appear in any of the four possible locations. All trials were intermixed. This amounted to a total of 288 trials per block along eight rays. We collected 15 such blocks per subject (4320 trials) for each coordinate pair, and tested 11 pairs, for a total of 47,520 trials per subject: (β−,β|), (β−,β\), (β\,β/), (β−,θ⌟), (β\,θ⌟), (β/,θ⌟), (θ⌟,θ⌞), (θ⌟,θ⌜), (β−,α), (β\,α), (θ⌟,α). These pairs encompass all the distinct coordinate pairs, up to 4-fold rotational symmetry. Since there was no detectable dependence on the orientation of pairwise or third-order correlations related by rotational symmetry in pilot experiments, measurements along coordinate axes and coordinate planes related by rotation are pooled in Figure 3 and in Figure 3—figure supplements 5–8.
Stimuli were presented on a mean-gray background, followed by a random mask. The display was an LCD monitor with control signals provided by a Cambridge Research ViSaGe system; mean luminance of 23 cd/m2 and refresh rate was 100 Hz. The stimulus size was 15° × 15° (check size of 14 min), contrast was 1.0, and viewing distance was 1m. Presentation time was 120 ms.
Four normal subjects (2 male, 2 female), ages 23 to 54 participated. One subject (MC) was a very experienced observer (several thousand hours); the other three had modest viewing experience (10–100 hr) prior to the experiment. JD and DF were naive to the purposes of the experiment. All subjects had visual acuities (corrected if necessary) of 20/20 or better. For subjects MC and DT, data from all coordinate planes other than the (β\,α)-plane were previously reported (Victor and Conte, 2012; Victor et al., 2013). For subjects JD and DF, data from the seven pairs of coordinates not containing α were previously reported (Victor et al., 2013).
Subjects were asked to indicate the position of the target (4-alternative forced choice), by pressing one of four buttons. They were informed that the target was equally likely to appear in any of four locations (top, right, bottom, left), and were shown examples of stimuli of both types (target structured/background random and target random/background structured) prior to the experiment. Subjects were instructed to fixate centrally and not scan the stimulus. During training but not data collection, auditory feedback for incorrect responses was given. After performance stabilized (approx. 3 hrs for a new subject), data collection began. Within blocks, trial order was random. Block order was counterbalanced across subjects.
Determination of sensitivity
To summarize the psychophysical performance, we fit Weibull functions to the fraction correct (FC) for each subject and each kind of block (i.e., each pair of coordinates). In the first step of the analysis of each dataset, maximum-likelihood fits were obtained separately for each of its eight rays r (the rays consisted of the positive and negative values for the two coordinates, and the four diagonal directions):
(0.1) FC(x)=14+34(1−2−(x/ar)br),
where x is the Euclidean distance from the coordinate vector to the origin, ar is the distance at which FC = 0.625 (halfway between chance and perfect), and br is a shape parameter, controlling the slope of the psychophysical curve. Since the shape parameter br was usually in the range 2.2–2.7 for each pairwise coordinate plane, we then fit the entire dataset within each plane by a set of Weibull functions constrained to share a common exponent b, but allowing the parameter ar to vary across rays. For each on-axis ray, we averaged the value of 1/ar obtained from all planes that included the ray (these were mutually consistent (Victor et al., 2013)) to obtain a final value for the perceptual sensitivity.
Determination of isodiscrimination ellipsoids
To determine the isodiscrimination ellipsoids, we first parameterized them by a quadratic ∑i,jQijcicj, where ci and cj each represent one of the local coordinates {β|,β−,β\,β/,θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟,θ⌞,α}, and Qij is the symmetric matrix for which criterion performance (FC = 0.625) is reached at ∑i,jQijcicj=1. The values of Qij were obtained by minimizing:
(0.2) F=∑r((∑i,j Qijci(Tr)cj(Tr))−1)2,
where Tr is the texture along the ray r at which criterion performance is reached (i.e., the texture at a distance ar from the origin, where ar is the sensitivity along the ray r, as determined above), and cij(T) is the value of the ith coordinate for the texture Tr. This minimization is a linear least-squares procedure in the Qij. Deviation of the fitted values of ∑i,jQijci(Tr)cj(Tr) from unity, which corresponds to deviation of the fitted ellipsoidal surface from the measured points of criterion performance, ranged from 7–10% (root-mean-squared) across subjects. The ellipses shown in Figure 3B, Figure 3—figure supplement 6, and Figure 3—figure supplement 7 correspond to loci at which ∑i,jQijcicj is constant, and the eigenvectors described in Figure 3—figure supplements 3 and 8 are the eigenvectors of Q.
Analysis of image statistics in pairwise coordinate planes
In pairwise coordinate planes, our hypothesis predicts that the inverse covariance matrix, or precision matrix, matches human isodiscrimination contours. A precision matrix is represented by the contour lines of its inverse (the covariance matrix M); these are the points (x, y) at which Mxxx2+2Mxyxy+Myyy2= constant. A short distance of this contour from the origin thus indicates a large value of M and a small value of the precision matrix. This in turn denotes a direction in which prior knowledge of the image statistic is imprecise.
Figure 3B shows a correspondence between contours of the precision matrix (extracted from natural images) and human isodiscrimination contours. This is shown again here in Figure 3—figure supplement 2A for subject-specific (lower half grid) and subject-averaged (upper half grid) isodiscrimination contours. This correspondence can be made quantitative by computing the angular tilt (Figure 3—figure supplement 2B) and eccentricity (Figure 3—figure supplement 2C) of each ellipse. Across all 36 pairwise coordinate planes, we find a detailed quantitative match between the shape and orientation of precision matrix contours and human isodiscrimination contours.
Analysis of the full 9-dimensional distribution of image statistics
Principal component decomposition
Here, we verify our hypothesis within the full 9-dimensional space of image statistics using an approach that does not single out coordinate axes, either individually or in pairs. Just as the projections of the natural image distribution can be fit by a bivariate Gaussian in each coordinate plane, the entire distribution can be fit by a multivariate Gaussian in the full 9-dimensional space. Similarly, the full set of perceptual isodiscrimination contours can be fit by a single 9-dimensional ellipsoid. Our hypothesis predicts that these two 9-dimensional ellipsoids have the corresponding shape and orientation.
To test this, we compare the principal axes {ξ→NI} of variation in natural scenes with the principal axes {ξ→PP} of human sensitivity inferred from the ellipsoidal isodiscrimination surface (Victor et al., 2013). To aid in this comparison, we first align the two sets of principal axes based on eigenvalue rank and symmetry considerations (discussed below). We then compute the fractional contribution f of sets of coordinates to each principal axis ξ→(i), therein grouping coordinates with similar ranges of variation. Figures 3—figure supplement 3A–D respectively show the fractional contributions f{β|,β−}, f{β\,β/}, f{θ⌞,θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟}, and fα to {ξ→NI} (blue bars) vs {ξ→PP} (red bars).
We find that the principal axes of variation in natural scenes match the principal axes of human sensitivity. As observed in Figure 3, the correspondence is within the range of variability observed across image analyses and human subjects.
We quantify the overlap between each image analysis and the set of psychophysical analyses by computing the scalar product between each principal component vector f→NI(i) extracted from natural images and the corresponding subject-averaged psychophysical vector f→PP(i), where f→={fβ|−,fβ\/,fθ, fα}. This overlap, averaged across principal components, ranges from 0.991 to 0.996 across image analyses and is consistently larger than the overlap measured under null hypotheses in which patch labels and coordinate labels are independently shuffled (p ≤.0004 for each image analysis under both hypotheses; see Appendix 4 for details).
Alignment of principal components
As described in the previous subsection, we use principal component analysis for the multivariate comparison of natural image statistics and perceptual sensitivities. In addition to the standard approach of ordering components by percentage of variance explained within each dataset, followed by comparing components of corresponding rank, we use an additional tool: the symmetries in the definitions of the image statistic coordinates. As detailed below, we use these symmetries to group principal components into symmetry classes, and we then rank-order the components within each class. By matching components based on both symmetry and rank order of explained variance, we avoid ambiguities that would otherwise occur if only explained variance was considered. The four symmetry classes are defined as follows:
1. 4-D subspace in which statistics are invariant under 90° rotations in the plane (here, designated 'SYM'). This is spanned by:
(i) β|=β−, all else 0 ([12,12,0,0,0,0,0,0,0])
(ii) β\=β/, all else 0 ([0,0,12,12,0,0,0,0,0])
(iii) θ⌜=θ⌝=θ⌟=θ⌞, all else 0 ([0,0,0,0,12,12,12,12,0])
(iv) α≠0, all else 0 ([0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1])
2. 2-D subspace in which coordinate values are negated after a horizontal or vertical mirror (here, designated 'HVI'). This is spanned by:
(i) β\=−β/, all else 0 ([0,0,12,−12,0,0,0,0,0])
(ii) θ⌜=−θ⌝=θ⌟=−θ⌞, all else 0 ([0,0,0,0,12,−12,12,−12,0])
3. 2-D subspace spanned by two vectors v1 and v2 for which a 90° rotation transforms v1 to v2 and v2 to −v1 (here, designated 'ROT'). This is spanned by:
(i) θ⌜=−θ⌟, all else 0 ([0,0,0,0,12,0,−12,0,0])
(ii) θ⌝=−θ⌞, all else 0 ([0,0,0,0,0,12,0,−12,0])
4. 1-D subspace in which a diagonal mirror negates coordinates (here, designated "DII"). This is spanned by:
(i) β|=−β−, all else 0 ([12,−12,0,0,0,0,0,0,0])
We compute the normalized principal axes {ξ→NI} of variability in natural image statistics and principal axes {ξ→PP} of human perceptual sensitivity. We then assign each set of components to the above symmetry classes by maximizing the total overlap between {ξ→} and the above classes. This is accomplished by computing the size of the projection of each individual component ξ→(i) into each of the above subspaces, and then assigning the component into the subspace that contains the largest projection. In one case where two components with nearly degenerate eigenvalues could not clearly be assigned to symmetry classes (analysis N = 20, R = 32 in the PIDB, shown in Figure 3—figure supplement 8A–D below), we force symmetry by performing a 45° rotation in the plane spanned by the degenerate components.
Once all components have been assigned to symmetry classes, we rank-order components within each class. This resulted in unambiguous pairing between natural image dataset and psychophysics in all but one pair of components in three image analyses (out of a total of 9 components for each of 31 separate image analyses). In those analyses (image analyses N = 2, R = 48, 64, 128 in the van Hateren database), there were two nearly-degenerate SYM components in the image dataset; we paired these components with the psychophysics data by maximizing their overlap.
To compare between natural image and psychophysics analyses, we compute the fractional contribution f→(i)=[fβ|−(i),fβ\/(i),fθ(i),fα(i)] of sets of coordinates to each principal component, where the components of f→(i) are given by:
(0.3) fβ|−(i)=(ξβ|(i))2+(ξβ−(i))2
(0.4) fβ\/(i)=(ξβ\(i))2+(ξβ/(i))2
(0.5) fθ(i)=(ξθ⌜(i))2+(ξθ⌝(i))2+(ξθ⌟(i))2+(ξθ⌞(i))2
(0.6) fα(i)=(ξα(i))2
and fβ|−(i)+fβ\/(i)+fθ(i)+fα(i)=1 for each normalized component ξ→(i).
The principal components shown in Figure 3—figure supplement 3 are rank-ordered within each symmetry class, where the four classes were ordered as follows: SYM (ξ→(1)−ξ→(4)), HVI (ξ→(5), ξ→(6)), ROT (ξ→(7), ξ→(8)), DII (ξ→(9)). Note that while the comparisons between psychophysics and natural images are based on the squares of the principal components coordinates (equations 0.3–0.6) and is insensitive to their signs, the classification of principal components by symmetry classes guarantees that we are only comparing psychophysical and natural-image components for which the signs within each coordinate set ({β|,β−}, {β\,β/}, and {θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟,θ⌞}) covary in the same fashion.
Permutation tests
Our results, shown in Figure 3 for single coordinates and pairwise coordinate planes, and extended to the full 9-dimensional distribution in Figure 3—figure supplement 3, show a consistent match between the variation in natural image statistics and psychophysical sensitivities. We quantify this match by first assigning vectors to the quantities shown in Figure 3 and Figure 3—figure supplement 3, and then computing the overlap between natural image vectors and the corresponding psychophysical vectors. We consider the following vector quantities:
Single coordinates: We describe the range of variation in natural image statistics by the normalized 9-component vector of standard deviations σ→NI/||σ→NI||, where ||v→|| denotes the L2 norm 1N∑i=1Nvi2 of a vector v→. Similarly, we describe the set of perceptual sensitivities by the normalized vector s→PP/||s→PP||. In both cases, the vector components are measured with respect to the coordinates {β|,β−,β\,β/,θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟,θ⌞,α}.
Pairwise coordinate planes: We describe each ellipse by the unit vector ω→ that is a combined measure of eccentricity (∈) and tilt (δ). We define ω→ on one quarter of the unit sphere: ω→=sin α cos δ x^+sin α sin δ y^+cos α z^, where ϵ=sin α and cos δ are defined on the interval [0,1] (the second follows from the 180° rotational symmetry of ellipses). Note that this definition of ω→ captures the ellipse property that when ϵ=sin α=0 (circular ellipses), δ is not defined. See Figure 3—figure supplement 4 for a schematic of this representation.
Principal components: We consider two related measures for describing principal components. As shown in Figure 3—figure supplement 3, we describe each principal component {ξ→(i)} by the normalized vector f→(i)/||f→(i)||, which measures the fractional contribution of sets of statistics to the principal components ξ→(i). For a more detailed comparison, we can similarly describe each principal component by the normalized vector F→(i)/||F→(i)||, where F→(i)=[fβ|(i),fβ−(i),fβ\(i),fβ/(i),fθ⌜(i),fθ⌝(i),fθ⌟(i),fθ⌞(i),fα(i)]. This measures the fractional contribution of individual statistics (rather than sets of statistics) to the principal components ξ→(i).
For each vector quantity (σ→, ω→, f→, and F→), we compute the scalar product between a given image analysis vector and the subject-averaged psychophysical vector. We then report the overlap values (scalar products) measured for the six image analyses considered Figures 1 and 3 (N = 2, 4 and R = 32, 48, 64). In computing the scalar product between ω→NI and ω→PP, we report the overlap averaged over all 36 pairwise coordinate planes. Similarly, in computing the overlap between f→NI and f→PP and between F→NI and F→PP, we report the overlap averaged over all 9 principal components. Note that, for each vector σ→, ω→, f→, and F→, the maximum overlap is 1.
We find that natural image analyses show consistently high overlap with the set of psychophysical results (see Tables 1–3). The overlap, as measured across image analyses, ranges from 0.988 to 0.999 for single coordinates (σ→), from 0.953 to 0.977 for pairwise coordinate planes (ω→), from 0.987 to 0.993 for fractional principal axes (f→), and from 0.829 to 0.917 for the full principal axes (F→). We test the significance of this overlap by comparing our results to the following two null models:
1A. Shuffled coordinate labels: sets of coordinates. This model (and model 1b) tests the null hypothesis that the apparent correspondence between image statistic covariances and isodiscrimination contours is chance. We examine the 23 permutations of the sets of coordinates {β|−,β\/,θ,α}. We apply these permutations to the psychophysical data, as human subjects are equally sensitive to coordinates within each set ({β|,β−}, {β\,β/} and all θ's). This shuffling creates a new set of subjects whose second-order cardinal, second-order oblique, third-order, and fourth-order coordinate values are randomly permuted (transforming the original vector [β|−,β\/,θ,α] into, example, the shuffled vector [β\/,θ,β|−,α]). If the correspondence between quantities derived from image analysis and psychophysics is statistically significant, we expect that the shuffled vectors σ→, ω→, f→, and F→ will show less overlap with the image analysis vectors than do the original psychophysical vectors (note that the limited number of permutations restricts the minimum p-value to be 0.04).
1B. Shuffled coordinate labels: individual coordinates. Here, we expand the test described in 1a to randomly shuffle the full set of coordinate labels {β|,β−,β\, β/,θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟,θ⌞,α}. In an analogous manner to that described in 2A, we expect that the shuffled vectors σ→, ω→, f→, and F→ will show less overlap with the image analysis vectors than do the original psychophysical vectors if the correspondence between quantities derived from image analysis and psychophysics is statistically significant.
2. Shuffled patch labels. This model tests the null hypothesis that the apparent covariances in image statistics are due to chance. For each coordinate, we randomly shuffle image patch labels. This shuffling creates a new set of null patches whose second-, third-, and fourth-order coordinate values are randomly drawn from a subset of the original image patches (e.g. a given null patch can be described by a β/-value measured from patch m but an α value measured from patch n). This shuffling destroys correlations between coordinate values measured within individual patches. Note that this shuffling does not alter the range of variation measured along single coordinate axes and will therefore not alter the values of precision matrix ellipses measured along coordinate axes. As a result, this test is not applicable to σ→, which measures natural image variation and human sensitivities along individual coordinate axes. However, shuffling will destroy correlations along oblique directions in coordinate planes, thereby aligning each ellipse along a single coordinate axis. Note that the eccentricity of each ellipse (in, e.g., the A-B plane) is then trivially related to the ratio of variances σ2 measured along the corresponding coordinate axes: ϵ=1−σA2/σB2. We therefore expect that this shuffling will most strongly affect the tilt and eccentricity in pairwise planes in which ellipses are oriented along oblique directions (β|β−, β\β/, and θθ planes). Finally, in destroying correlations between pairs of coordinates, this shuffling creates a diagonal covariance matrix, such that principal components are aligned with single coordinate axes. If the correspondence between quantities derived from image analysis and psychophysics is statistically significant, we expect that the shuffled vectors ω→, f→, and F→ will show less overlap with the psychophysical vectors than do the original image analysis vectors.
Each null model is constructed by randomly selecting permuted indices that independently shuffle coordinate labels for subject-averaged psychophysical data (Null Model 1) and independently shuffle image patch labels for a given statistic (Null Model 2). For null model 1a, we perform the full set of 23 non-identity permutations. For models 1B and 2, we perform 10,000 permutations.
For each permutation, we compute a set of shuffled vectors {σ→,ω→,f→,F→}, and we measure the overlap (defined as the scalar product (*)→NI⋅(*)→PP) between each shuffled vector and the corresponding subject-averaged psychophysical vector. Note that, when assigning shuffled principal components to symmetry classes, no hand-tuning was performed. However, as described previously, such hand-tuning was only applied to a very small fraction of components for select image analyses.
When repeated for many permutations, this procedure yields a distribution of shuffled overlap values against which we measure the significance of the true (observed) overlap. Significance values (p-values) are estimated by computing the fraction of permutations for which the shuffled overlap exceeds the true overlap.
We find that the original image analyses show significantly higher overlap with psychophysical data than do the analyses produced by either of the null models. Results are significant for each measure of overlap and for each of the six analyses presented in Figures 1 and 3 (p <0.0005, or as small as possible given the number of possible permutations, in all cases); see Tables 1–3 for full results.
Permutation tests for null model 1a: shuffled coordinate labels
Measures of overlap
Observed overlap
Shuffled overlap Values
Range/Sensitivity σ→NI⋅s→PP N = 2 R = 32 0.999 0.859 0.9 × 10−1 0.704 0.983 <0.04
R = 48 0.993 0.832 1.1 × 10−1 0.651 0.978 <0.04
N = 4 R = 32 0.998 0.825 1.1 × 10−1 0.638 0.969 <0.04
Inverse Range/Threshold 〈ω→NI⋅ω→PP〉 N = 2 R = 32 0.971 0.709 1.5 × 10−1 0.508 0.924 <0.04
Fractional Principal Components f→NI⋅f→PP N = 2 R = 32 0.994 0.382 1.5 × 10−1 0.160 0.657 <0.04
Full Principal Components 〈F→NI⋅F→PP〉 N = 2 R = 32 0.917 0.316 1.3 × 10−1 0.123 0.578 <0.04
We separately permute the sets of coordinate labels {β|−,β\/,θ,α}. We apply these permutations to the psychophysical data, therein examining all 23 non-identity permutations of the four labels. This shuffling significantly decreases the overlap between image analyses and psychophysical data. Results are significant across all six analyses considered in Figures 1 and 3 (N = 2, 4 and R = 32, 48, 64). p-values, estimated as the fraction of permutations for which the shuffled overlap exceeds the true overlap, are less than 0.04 (the minimum value given 23 permutations) for each image analysis.
Permutation Tests for null model 1b: shuffled coordinate labels
Range/Sensitivity σ→NI⋅s→PP N = 2 R = 32 0.999 0.806 6.8 × 10−2 0.659 0.999 0.0003
R = 48 0.993 0.775 7.7 × 10−2 0.610 0.993 <0.0001
N = 4 R = 32 0.998 0.828 6.0 × 10−2 0.707 0.998 <0.0001
R = 48 0.994 0.798 7.1 × 10−2 0.660 0.994 0.0002
Inverse Range/Threshold 〈ω→NI⋅ω→PP〉 N = 2 R = 32 0.971 0.693 8.1 × 10−2 0.499 0.972 0.0002
Fractional Principal Components 〈f→NI⋅f→PP〉 N = 2 R = 32 0.994 0.592 1.2 × 10−1 0.271 0.995 0.0003
N = 4 R = 32 0.995 0.590 1.2 × 10−1 0.218 0.995 0.0001
Full Principal Components 〈F→NI⋅F→PP〉 N = 2 R = 32 0.917 0.391 1.2 × 10−1 0.100 0.927 0.0002
We separately permute all nine coordinate labels {β|,β−,β\, β/,θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟,θ⌞,α}. This shuffling, applied to the psychophysical data, significantly decreases the overlap between image analyses and psychophysical data. Results are significant across all six analyses considered in Figures 1 and 3 (N = 2, 4 and R = 32, 48, 64). p-values, estimated as the fraction of permutations for which the shuffled overlap exceeds the true overlap, are less than 0.0005 for all image analyses.
Permutation tests for null model 2: shuffled patch labels
Inverse Range/Threshold 〈ω→NI⋅ω→PP〉 N = 2 R = 32 0.971 0.924 0.70 × 10−3 0.921 0.926 <0.0001
Fractional Principal Components 〈f→NI⋅f→PP〉 N = 2 R = 32 0.994 0.806 9.1 × 10−6 0.806 0.806 <0.0001
Full Principal Components 〈F→NI⋅F→PP〉 N = 2 R = 32 0.917 0.448 5.8 × 10−2 0.406 0.596 <0.0001
Within each image analyses, we separately permute image patch labels along individual coordinate axes. This shuffling does not alter the range of variation observed along individual coordinates; as a result, this test only applies to ω→ ,f→ and F→. We find that this shuffling significantly decreases the overlap between image analyses and psychophysical data. Results are significant across all six analyses considered in Figures 1 and 3 (N = 2, 4 and R = 32, 48, 64). p-values, estimated as the fraction of permutations for which the shuffled overlap exceeds the true overlap, are less than 0.0001 for each image analysis.
Analysis variants for Penn Natural Image Database
In Figures 1 and 3, we reported results using image analyses with varying values of the block-average factor N (N = 2, 4) and patch size R (R = 32, 48, 64). In Figure 1—figure supplement 3, we show that the relative variation in different image statistics (first shown in Figure 1E) is not an artifact of our image analysis pipeline, as the pattern of variation is destroyed if white-noise image patches are instead used. In Figures 3–figure supplement 5-3–figure supplement 8, we show that the comparison between natural image and psychophysical analyses is consistent across a wider range of image preprocessing parameters: N = 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 and R = 32, 48, 64, 80, 128. Note that sampling limitations restrict some combinations of N and R (e.g. for sufficiently large N, we must choose sufficiently small R to have a statistically significant number of image patches).
Comparison with van Hateren Database
All analyses reported in Results and shown in Figures 1 and 3 were performed on a set of images from the UPenn Natural Image Database (Tkačik et al., 2011). Here, we extend our analyses to a set of 2300 images from the van Hateren image database (van Hateren and van der Schaaf, 1998), using the same set of parameters used to analyze images from the UPenn database, with block-average factors N = 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 and patch sizes R = 32, 48, 64, 80, 128. Note that we are able to perform a larger number of analyses (specific combinations of N and R) than was performed using the Penn database, as we have a larger selection of images and therefore do not face the same sampling limitations. Figures 3—figure supplement 5-3–figure supplement 8 confirm that our results are consistent across image databases.
Asymmetries in distributions of natural image statistics
We find systematic asymmetries in the distributions of natural image statistics when examined beyond their second moments. Figure 3—figure supplement 9 shows the distributions of single coordinates for the image analysis N = 2, R = 32. All distributions are shifted toward positive coordinate values, and there is larger variation in positive vs negative coordinate values. We assess this asymmetry in natural image analyses by computing the ratio of the standard deviations measured along positive vs negative coordinate axes. We similarly assess asymmetry in psychophysical analyses by computing the ratio of human sensitivities to positive vs negative deviations of coordinate values. This comparison is shown in Figure 3—figure supplement 9. The mismatch provides potential clues for the neural mechanisms responsible for processing local image statistics (See Discussion).
Two regimes of efficient coding
In this section, we illustrate how two contrasting regimes emerge from the efficient coding principle: (i) the well-known transmission-limited regime, in which 'whitening' is optimal, and (ii) the sampling-limited regime, which is the focus of this paper. To enable exact calculations of optimal behavior, we consider a simplified scenario, in which all signals and noises are Gaussian, and all filters are linear.
We consider a set of channels dedicated to processing independent signals of varying sizes. The channels, which are indexed by k, are abstract and general. For example, each k can represent a different spatial or temporal frequency in the input, as in the traditional analysis of visual coding in the periphery. Here, we take the signal on each channel k to represent a complex image feature, that is the result of a specific local nonlinear transformation applied to the input image.
Figure 4—figure supplement 1 shows the setup of a single channel dedicated to processing the signal sk. Sampling noise, which is assumed to be identical for each channel, is added to this signal; without loss of generality, we can take its value to be unity. Note that for the parametrization of local image statistics used here, sampling noise is in fact identical for each parameter at the origin of the parameter space (see Equations B19-B20 in Victor and Conte, 2012).
The result is passed through a linear filter Lk, characterized by a gain |Lk|. The output of Lk then has intrinsic channel noise added, and the total dynamic range of all channels is constrained. All channels are assumed to have the same intrinsic noise. Again, without loss of generality, we take this value to be unity (as any scale associated with this noise can be absorbed into an overall multiplier for the filters Lk and the constraint on total dynamic range of the channels).
We seek to find the optimal set of gains {|Lk|} that maximize the mutual information ∑kHk between the signals {sk} and the channel input, subject to a constraint Q on total output power. Using a Lagrange multiplier Λ for the constraint, the problems translates into extremizing P=∑kHk+ΛQ by setting ∂P/∂Lk=0.
The solution can be found in Equation 8 of van Hateren, (1992a), noting the following correspondences between the setup of Figure 4—figure supplement 1 and the scenario considered in that paper. Referring to the notation in (van Hateren, 1992a), the input and channel noises, Np and Nc, respectively correspond here to the sampling and channel noises (both taken to be unity). The prefiltered stimulus power Sp corresponds here to signal variance sk2. The power transfer function pn of the neural filter corresponds here to the filter power |Lk|2. Finally, the negative Lagrange multiplier −λ corresponds here to the positive Lagrange multiplier +Λ. With these correspondences, the optimal filter for channel k has a gain |Lk| given by:
(0.7) |Lk|2=−(2+sk2)+sk4+4sk2/Λ2(1+sk2)
provided that the above quantity is non-negative, and has a gain of zero otherwise. The range of values of sk for which the above quantity is ≤0 corresponds to signals that are not worthwhile to code, because the signal-to-noise is too small given the constraint on the channel dynamic range. More specifically, the above quantity is positive (and hence |Lk| is nonzero) provided that sk>Λ/(1−Λ). Note that this critical value becomes infinite as Λ approaches one from below, indicating that Λ near one is the transmission-limited regime. Conversely, the critical value of sk approaches zero as Λ approaches zero from above, indicating that this is the sampling-limited regime. We further discuss these regimes below.
Transmission-limited regime
As mentioned, the transmission-limited regime corresponds to the limit of Λ→1 from below. For signals below the critical level of Λ/(1−Λ), the optimal gain is zero, and signals are not encoded. For signals that are large compared to this cutoff, the main limitation is output power. In this regime, the optimal gain is inversely proportional to the signal strength (Figure 4—figure supplement 2A), as the asymptotic behavior of Equation 0.7 in the limit of large signal strength sk is:
(0.8) |Lk|2∼1/Λ−11+sk2
This is the classic 'whitening' regime, namely small signals are enhanced so that output power is equalized across channels: |Lk| ∼1/sk for large sk.
Note that when Λ is close to 1, there is an abrupt transition between signals that are encoded in inverse proportion to their size, and signals that are too small to be encoded at all (Figure 4—figure supplement 2A).
Sampling-limited regime
When Λ→0 from above, the transition between signals that are not encoded at all, and signals that are encoded in inverse proportion to their size, undergoes a broadening. This results in a regime in which the optimal gain increases with signal strength (Figure 4—figure supplement 2B). This regime covers signals that are only modestly above the critical level of Λ/(1−Λ), that is signals for which sampling noise (rather than output capacity) is the dominant constraint. The extent of this regime increases as the relative importance of the output constraint Λ decreases toward 0.
We determine the limiting dependence of |Lk| on sk from the asymptotic behavior of Equation 0.7 in the limit of small Λ:
(0.9) |Lk|2∼sk1+sk21Λ
For signals that are small compared to the sampling noise (Λ<sk<1), the optimal filter is proportional to the square root of the signal strength, |Lk| ∼sk1/2Λ−1/4.
Correspondence with perceptual sensitivity to local image statistics
We interpret the gain |Lk| as representing the amount of resources devoted to a given signal sk. Since it is a direct measure of signal-to-noise for a unit-size input, it therefore corresponds to perceptual sensitivity.
In the psychophysical experiments here, we measure sensitivity for each of the image statistic coordinates {β|,β−,β/,β\,θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟,θ⌞,α}, using a highly artificial set of stimuli. As predicted from the sampling-limited regime, we find that gains |Lk| are larger for the channels in which the natural environment provides larger values of the signal sk.
While this analysis provides a rigorous identification of a regime in which gain increases with signal strength, we caution that it is an asymptotic analysis of a simplified model of feature coding. It therefore stops short of making the quantitative prediction that gain (sensitivity) is proportional to the square root of the signal strength of each image statistic.
On the other hand, the analysis does translate into a quantitative prediction about perceptual axes (i.e., about the orientations of the isodiscrimination contours). As shown in Figure 3 (blue contours), the image statistic coordinates {β|,β−,β/,β\,θ⌜,θ⌝,θ⌟,θ⌞,α} have substantial covariances. A rotation of the coordinates will thus yield a new set of coordinates with zero covariance and independent sampling errors. If these new coordinates are independently coded, then the perceptual axes will share the same axes as the image statistics which is what we find (Figure 3B).
Numerical optimization in two dimensions
Here, we numerically show that in the 2-dimensional case, the axes of the optimal encoder will be aligned with the principal axes of the input statistics. As shown in Figure 4—figure supplement 1, the response r is given by:
(0.10) r=L(s+ξ)+η,
where ξ is the sampling noise, η is the intrinsic channel noise, and s is a d-dimensional signal from natural scenes (each dimension corresponds to one of our image statistic coordinates; for simplicity, let d = 2, that is, we examine one pairwise plane). L is the linear transformation that we are looking for: this is essentially a 'gain' plus 'rotation' transformation. The axes of perceptual isodiscrimination contours should then be given by the eigenvalues of LLT. The covariance of the stimuli is S=〈ssT〉. Noise is assumed IID, given by 〈ξξT〉=ΞI at the input and 〈ηηT〉=ΣI at the output, where I is a 2 × 2 identity matrix and Ξ and Σ are noise magnitudes. With this notation, the total noise covariance matrix of the output is given by:
(0.11) N=ΣI+ΞLLT.
The total variance at the output is:
(0.12) r2=dΣ+Ξ Tr LLT+Tr LSLT.
By analogy to the van Hateren derivation, we fix the output power. Without loss of generality, we choose its value to be unity, which sets the unit for all power measures in the system. The information for a Gaussian multivariate channel in a standard form, r=L′s+η is:
(0.13) I=12log det(I+S12L′TL′S12),
but this is only valid when the noise η is IID unit variance. In the present study, this is not the case: first, the noise, N, is correlated in the two channels, because the sampling noise is mixed by L; second, the variances are not the same in the two channels. We can, however, make a change of variables, r′ = Or, such that the noise for the new output r′ is IID unit variance. To do this, we decompose N=VDVT into its eigensystem, make O=D−12VT, and identify L′=OL=D−12VTL, so that we can use the standard result given in Equation (0.13). The optimal linear filter is given by:
(0.14) L*=argmaxL,r2=1 12log det(I+S12L′TL′S12)
Since the output power is limited to 1 and channel noise Σ feeds directly into the output power, there is no solution for L for Σ>0.5 (since d = 2 and Σ is the noise in each of the channels, the total output power is taken up by channel noise at Σ=0.5). The magnitude of the sampling noise can be unbounded, since one can always select the gain in L to be low enough so that the constraint on total output power is satisfied. Because the gain rescales the input, we can fix the total power of the input signal (the trace of S) to be unity. With this choice, the remaining parameters of the problem are the magnitude of the channel noise (Σ) and the magnitude of the sampling noise relative to the input power (i.e. 1/SNR at the input).
Given these two parameters that determine the sampling and channel noise magnitudes, we generate input signal covariances S with total power of unity but with randomly selected 'tilts' (angles of the leading eigenvector of S measured relative to the horizontal) and 'eccentricities' (=1−gmin2/gmax2, where g are the eigenvalues of S); these quantities can be directly estimated from natural scenes. We then use constrained optimization to numerically identify the optimal transformation L∗. For each such solution for L∗, we compute the eigensystem of L∗L∗T, extract its eccentricity and tilt as describe above, and compare these values to the eccentricity and tilt of the input signal.
We identify the following efficient coding regimes that depend the total noise and on the relative magnitudes of sampling and channel noises (Figure 4—figure supplement 3):
Transmission-limited regime (total noise <0.5)
0≤Ξ≪Σ (dominating channel noise). The optimal strategy is decorrelation by whitening (Figure 4—figure supplement 4A); the tilt of the filter relative to the signal is π/2, and the eccentricities are equal (i.e., the small eigenvalue of L∗L∗T is proportional to the inverse of the large eigenvalue of S and vice versa, indicating that the gain scales as the inverse of the input power).
0<Ξ≪1,Σ=0 (zero channel noise, small sampling noise). The optimal strategy is still decorrelation (Figure 4—figure supplement 4B) with signal components of higher power being suppressed by the gain, but the suppression does not follow the inverse law as above.
Sampling-limited regime (total noise >0.5)
Ξ≥1,Σ=0 (zero channel noise, large sampling noise). The tilt of the filter matches the tilt of the signal, and the gain scales with input power. For high sampling noise and zero channel noise, the gain scales as the square-root of the input power (Figure 4—figure supplement 4C).
Ξ>Σ>0 (dominating sampling noise). In a broad regime of noise strengths where sampling noise dominates over non-zero channel noise, the tilt of the gain matches the tilt of the signal, and the gain roughly scales with the input power (Figure 4—figure supplement 4D). This regime is consistent with the correspondence that we observe between the natural scenes statistics and the psychophysical measurements.
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eLife posts the editorial decision letter and author response on a selection of the published articles (subject to the approval of the authors). An edited version of the letter sent to the authors after peer review is shown, indicating the substantive concerns or comments; minor concerns are not usually shown. Reviewers have the opportunity to discuss the decision before the letter is sent (see review process). Similarly, the author response typically shows only responses to the major concerns raised by the reviewers.
Thank you for sending your work entitled "Variance is salience: efficient coding in central sensory processing" for consideration at eLife. Your article has been evaluated by Eve Marder (Senior editor), Timothy Behrens (Reviewing editor), and 3 reviewers.
The Reviewing editor and the other reviewers discussed their comments before we reached this our decision, and the Reviewing editor has assembled the following comments to help you prepare a revision.
All reviewers found the data interesting, but all had concerns about whether they addressed the central hypotheses outlined in the abstract and introduction. In brief we do not find a convincing argument that the results 1) reflect a central mechanism, 2) relate to behavior, or 3) make different predictions than what one would predict for the sensory periphery given the efficient coding hypothesis. These questions are specified in detail in the reviews below. The consensus that emerged from the consultation session is that clarification and rewriting will be needed to ensure that the contribution of this work can be understood. Ordinarily eLife does not provide the full reviews, but in this case we believe it is important that you see the concerns of the reviewers as you prepare your revision.
Reviewer #1
The authors show that psychophysical detection thresholds for figure/ground segmentation of image patches in noise are extremely well predicted by the extent to which the features defining the patch are variable in natural images. Both follow a characteristic pattern in which cardinal, then oblique features are the most variable over images (and the most detectable), followed by fourth order statistics, followed by third order (L shapes in a 4-pixel glider). The correspondence between lines of isosensitivity and the precision matrix for pairwise comparisons in 10 dimensions are very striking. The authors interpret their findings as showing that efficient coding - heightened sensitivity to the most informative features of the world - occurs not only at a sensory level but at a central decision level.
I liked the paper and approach very much. I was a little more doubtful about the novelty of the findings. My concerns are as follows:
1) I wasn't sure how the paper demonstrated that efficient coding operates at a 'central' level, as the authors claim in the abstract In fact, the paper doesn't really have anything to do with what most cognitive scientists think of as 'central processing'. It shows that we are most sensitive to patches defined by cardinal orientations, and that variability along this axis is an informative way to characterise natural scenes.
2) The psychophysical results seems in part to restate the well-known oblique effect. It is known that we are most sensitive to cardinal orientations, and the neural underpinnings of this effect (in visual cortex) have been much discussed. The work of Simoncelli and colleagues (cited appropriately here) has been key in pointing out that sensitivity to cardinal directions matches the prevalence of cardinal information in the world. I think the work here extends that finding by demonstrating a particularly good correspondence between the spatial correlations in image statistics and this sensitivity over a number of basic features.
In short, I think this is an interestingly, well-presented paper that I would encourage others to read, and that I would cite in my own work. However, I am not sure whether it is telling us something we didn't know, or just demonstrating something we did know in a particularly elegant fashion.
This paper describes a robust and interesting observation that links properties of natural images to psychophysical properties of the visual system. While this observation is certainly worthwhile publishing, I'm less convinced about the author's conclusion with regard to "variance is salience" as an efficient coding principle for central sensory processing.
While the authors correctly note that central processing must be concerned with behaviorally relevant aspects of the inputs, the 'variance' in their principle is completely independent of the organism's behavior and purely defined in terms of the stimulus. In fact, none of their discussion nor references to the earlier van Hateren papers that the authors invoke as a framework for interpreting their findings involves behavior. I suggest to simply drop that part of their claim and the suggestion that their principle might account for central processing and describe it as a principle governing early sensory processing where different constraints apply than in the sensory periphery. (Unless I'm missing a central part of their argument, of course. Example below.)
I think the paper would benefit greatly from a more explicit setup, ideally including a Figure, of the various potential constraints faced by early sensory processing and their respective implications for their experiments. While this aspect is not the main contribution of their paper, it would make it more explicit which alternative models/constraints are being excluded by their observation. It would also delineate better, what is inevitable conclusion within the efficient coding framework (finite resources and high input noise), and what is interpretation/speculation. Both are currently mixed in the Discussion section.
Psychophysical measurements necessarily characterize the entire system; from periphery to behavior. The author suggest their results support an optimization principle separate and different from that in the periphery and while I agree on an intuitive level, I would welcome help in thinking through the implications of combining two different principles, applied after each other, for the aggregate quantities that are being measured. E.g. why does the high input noise constraint only refer to what enters cortex, not already the retina, overriding the output-bottleneck in the visual periphery?
Finally, I'd like to commend the authors on making excellent use of the possibility of including supplementary information.
In summary, I recommend publication of this paper subject to:
1) Providing a more explicit setup for the different hypotheses to be tested and how they derive from the efficient coding principle subject to different constraints.
2) Omitting the behaviorally relevant claims not supported by their framework.
3) Responses to more minor points of critique below.
The authors demonstrate that the level of variability in various local, multi-point statistics in natural scenes quantitatively predicts the relative salience of these statistics. I find their data largely convincing, and I feel that this is an important question and that the authors are careful and creative in their approach here. However, I have several concerns, which I suspect in part reflect my own ignorance or misunderstanding about the present paper and past work by these authors.
First, I am not clear on what is qualitatively new here beyond what was shown in the nice 2010 PNAS paper by several of the same authors. I can see that some of the details of their analyses are different, and the comparisons here are more quantitative, but it seems to me that the main ideas and conclusions were already in place in the previous work.
The authors pitch their results in terms of cortical processing, but the only data presented are from human psychophysics, used here as a proxy for cortical processing. The authors give arguments for why salience strongly reflects cortical processing. But I feel that the claims about cortical processing are stated too strongly in some parts of the paper given that they do not directly measure cortical activity nor perform any manipulations to cortex, for example.
It seems to me that the dichotomy set up by the authors between predictions for peripheral and central processing is somewhat overstated. For example, in the final sentence of the Abstract, they state that the efficient coding hypothesis applies in "a different guise" and makes "different predictions" for the central nervous system than the periphery. They predict that sensitivity in the CNS should be greater for highly variable stimuli, but it is not clear to me that this is not one of the predictions one would make for peripheral sensory neurons using this principle.
What was the exact task being performed by the subjects?
What would Figure 1E look like for IId samples from white (or colored) noise?
How do the results change for images pixelated along a grid that is 45° tilted relative to the vertical and horizontal directions?
Related to this, could the √2 differences in the degree of variation for the vertical/horizontal and diagonal beta data points in Figure 3A be due to the difference in the distance between the points in question given the orientation of the pixelation grid?
Response to broad concerns:
1) To what extent do our results reflect a central mechanism?
There are three lines of evidence, and we detail these below and in the manuscript. First, stimuli are all high contrast (100%) and of a readily visible size (14 arcmin), so retinal limitations of contrast sensitivity and resolution are eliminated. Second, the task requires pooling of information over wide areas. Third, extracting three- and four-point correlations requires a kind of nonlinear processing (two stages of nonlinearity) that is not generally considered to be present in the retina; physiologic recordings show that neural responses to these correlations are not present in the thalamus, but are present in visual cortex, and much more so in V2 than in V1. We acknowledge that these lines are indirect; we do not directly record cortical activity, and we now state this explicitly in the manuscript (see response to comments raised by Reviewer 3). But we believe that together, these lines of evidence justify the statement that the thresholds are determined by limitations of central processing.
2) To what extent do our results relate to behavior?
The goal of the visual system is to make discriminations that are useful to guide action, rather than to reconstruct the image per se. We had used the term "behaviorally relevant" to highlight this idea, once in the Abstract and once in the manuscript; we have now removed it from the Abstract, where we see how it might have been confusing, and we expand on the point in the Introduction.
With regard to the comments raised by Reviewer 2, obviously our analysis of natural image statistics was without regard to task, and the psychophysical task was not designed to mimic a real-life behavior. But we think this is a strong point, not a weakness, as it shows that the allocation of resources in early cortical visual processing can be accounted for in a general framework. We now comment on this in the text.
3) To what extent do our results make different predictions than one would predict for the sensory periphery?
We now clarify this at several points in the manuscript, and we add a new Figure. Briefly, the contrast is not between peripheral and central processing per se, but the difference between two efficient coding regimes: one that is limited by noise in the output (i.e., limited capacity) and one regime that is limited by noise in the input (i.e., limited sampling). The periphery is typically considered to be characterized by the first regime, at least when it comes to thinking about receptive field properties, and we hypothesize that central processing is characterized by the second. The new Figure illustrates the qualitative difference between these regimes: when output noise is limiting, efficient coding predicts a whitening (reduced sensitivity for more variable input components); when input noise is limiting, efficient coding predicts the opposite (increased sensitivity for more variable input components).
Since central processing follows the peripheral processing, one could wonder how the two stages of the same processing stream can be subject to different constraints. The reason is as follows: the "input signal" in the context of efficient coding for the retina is directly the raw light intensity, and efficient coding regime is derived from the spatiotemporal correlation structure of light intensity. In contrast, the input signals for central coding are nonlinear functions of the original image (image statistic coordinates); this means that efficient coding regime is derived from the covariance structure of image statistics. Since the formal inputs to the encoders are very different (light or contrast in the periphery, image statistic estimates centrally), a different regime of efficient coding emerges.
[…] In short, I think this is an interestingly, well-presented paper that I would encourage others to read, and that I would cite in my own work. However, I am not sure whether it is telling us something we didn't know, or just demonstrating something we did know in a particularly elegant fashion.
We are very pleased that Reviewer 1 found our paper to be both interesting and well-presented. We do feel that the paper is telling us something new and rather exciting, as we explain below in responses to the specific comments.
1) I wasn't sure how the paper demonstrated that efficient coding operates at a 'central' level, as the authors claim in the abstract. In fact, the paper doesn't really have anything to do with what most cognitive scientists think of as 'central processing'.
With regard to 'central processing': We use this term to distinguish our focus – cortical sensory processing – from processing in the sensory periphery. We think this is a reasonable use of the term, even though there is (of course) much additional central processing that we do not consider. But we understand the potential for confusion, and we now clarify the use of the term in the Introduction: "To test this hypothesis, we focus on early stages of central visual processing. Here, early visual cortex (V1 and V2) is charged with extracting edges, shapes, and other complex correlations of light between multiple points in space..."
We feel that there is strong evidence that the computations that determine task performance occur in primary visual cortex, both V1 and V2, and we expand on this point in the paper. Specifically, we now state:
Discussion: "Although we did not record cortical responses directly, several lines of evidence indicate that that the perceptual thresholds we measured are determined by cortical processes. […] Conversely, macaque visual cortical neurons (Purpura et al., 1994), especially those in V2, manifest responses to three- and four-point correlations (Yu et al., 2013). "
It shows that we are most sensitive to patches defined by cardinal orientations, and that variability along this axis is an informative way to characterise natural scenes.
Our results about sensitivities to pairwise statistics in horizontal, vertical, and diagonal directions go substantially beyond a demonstration of previously-known findings, in several ways.
First, the "on-axis" sensitivities are not obvious consequences of the orientation tuning of cortical neurons (since we consider both positive and negative correlations) or the oblique effect (our observed differences are substantially larger, likely because these configurations differ in more than orientation). For further discussion of the oblique effect, please see our response to point 2 below.
Second, only a small portion of our findings (a prediction of four relative sensitivities) relate to individual "axes." Most of our findings (more than a dozen free parameters) relate to how the axes interact – again, not something that is a consequence of orientation-tuning or the oblique effect.
Finally, it is possible that there is a misunderstanding about the axes themselves: they are not the spatial axes within an image, but abstract axes within a space of image statistics. We can see how this might have been confusing, and we now clarify it with the following text:
Results: "When pairs of natural image statistics covary, thus sampling oblique directions not aligned with the coordinate axes in the space of image statistics, our hypothesis predicts that human perceptual sensitivity is matched to both the degree and the direction of that covariation (we are referring here to the orientation of a distribution in the coordinate plane of a pair of image statistics, and not to an orientation in physical space)."
An important way in which our results extend beyond what is already known relates to the predictions of normative theories. To date, normative theories applied to cortical processing have been focused on predicting the response properties of single cells, considered as linear or quasilinear filters. Here, we ask how resources should be distributed across a population of cells to represent a diverse set of nonlinear, higher-order features that cover a multidimensional domain. We highlight this goal within the Introduction:
Introduction: "Can we extend such theories beyond the sensory periphery to describe cortical sensitivity to complex sensory features? […] We will show that these ideas predict a specific organizing principle for aggregate sensitivities arising in cortex: the perceptual salience of complex sensory signals increases with the variability, or unpredictability, of the corresponding signals over the ensemble of natural stimuli."
We additionally emphasize that the goal of our study is to measure how sensitivities are distributed across a set of features, and is not limited to identifying features for which sensitivity is greatest. We now highlight this within the Introduction and Discussion:
Introduction: "We compare the spatial variation of local patterns of light across natural images with human sensitivity to manipulations of the same patterns in synthetic images. This allows us to determine how sensitivity is distributed across many different features, rather than simply determining the most salient ones. To this end..."
Discussion: "How should neural mechanisms be distributed to represent a diverse set of informative sensory features? We argued that..."
While we can see how our findings might at first glance be considered to be part of an "oblique effect," they are actually quite different. The effect size we report is much larger: sensitivities are about 50% higher for cardinal directions vs diagonal ones; in the classical oblique effect, sensitivity for oblique- vs cardinal-direction gratings differ by 10–20% in the midrange of spatial frequencies (Campbell et al., 1966). The reason that the effect size we observe is much larger is that the horizontal and vertical pairwise correlations differ from the diagonal pairwise correlations in more ways than just orientation: checks involved in horizontal and vertical pairwise correlations share an edge, while checks involved in diagonal pairwise correlations only share a corner. Furthermore, the image property relevant to explaining the oblique effect in the work of Simoncelli and colleagues are the local statistics of image gradients / oriented edges. While pairwise correlations between pixels (that we study) can influence image gradients (responsible for explaining the oblique effect) and vice versa, there is no simple one-to-one mapping between the two sets of statistics (e.g., high beta-vertical does not by itself imply a lot of vertical edge fragments). We now explain how our findings differ from the oblique effect:
Results: "Note that the difference between the sensitivities in the horizontal and vertical directions (β− and β|) vs the diagonal directions (β\ and β/) is not simply an "oblique effect", i.e., a greater sensitivity for cardinally- vs obliquely-oriented contours (Campbell et al., 1966). Horizontal and vertical pairwise correlations differ from the diagonal pairwise configurations in more than just orientation: checks involved in horizontal and vertical pairwise correlations share an edge, while checks involved in diagonal pairwise correlations only share a corner. Correspondingly, the difference in sensitivities for horizontal and vertical correlations vs diagonal correlations is approximately 50%, which is much larger than the size of the classical oblique effect (10–20%) (Campbell et al., 1966)."
Additionally, much of our study is devoted to third and fourth-order correlations and the interactions of the texture statistics. These statistics are qualitatively different from any pairwise correlations that might be relevant for the oblique effect, and are crucial for our demonstration that efficient coding also applies beyond the pairwise order.
In sum, we agree that the main finding of the work can be framed in the context of the match between image statistics and visual sensitivities (as in the Simoncelli framework), but we think that it is important to emphasize that we are not looking at an "oblique effect."
[…] In summary, I recommend publication of this paper subject to:
We are very pleased that Reviewer 2 recommends publication of our paper subject to his/her outlined changes. Below, we address each of his/her concerns: (A) is addressed in points 1-2 below, (B) is addressed in points 3 and 9 below, and (C) is addressed in points 4-8 below.
1) I think the paper would benefit greatly from a more explicit setup, ideally including a figure, of the various potential constraints faced by early sensory processing and their respective implications for their experiments. While this aspect is not the main contribution of their paper, it would make it more explicit which alternative models/constraints are being excluded by their observation. It would also delineate better, what is inevitable conclusion within the efficient coding framework (finite resources and high input noise), and what is interpretation/speculation. Both are currently mixed in the Discussion section.
We agree. We added substantial clarifying material and a new figure (Figure 4), as described below.
2) Psychophysical measurements necessarily characterize the entire system - from periphery to behavior. The authors suggest their results support an optimization principle separate and different from that in the periphery and while I agree on an intuitive level, I would welcome help in thinking through the implications of combining two different principles, applied after each other, for the aggregate quantities that are being measured. E.g. why does the high input noise constraint only refer to what enters cortex, not already the retina, overriding the output-bottleneck in the visual periphery?
If we understand the reviewer's comment, it can be rephrased as follows: how can the cortex be operating in a regime dominated by input noise, when it follows peripheral processing, which sees the same input but is dominated by output noise?
The resolution of this apparent paradox is twofold. First, the critical issue is not the amount of input noise, but rather its size relative to the output noise. So, even though there is input noise at the level of the visual input, its severe output restriction (the transmission bottleneck) means that peripheral processing may be operating in a regime dominated by output noise. For cortex, which does not have the same output bottleneck, the same amount of input noise can dominate. The second consideration is the following. As we and others suggest, we view the "job" of early cortical processing as making inferences about surfaces and materials from visual texture (an idea that we formalize by measuring sensitivity to local image statistics). Given this goal, the fact that cortex only has access to a limited sample of a texture (i.e., the sample presented by a particular object) is also a form of input noise.
To illustrate this point, consider the following "toy visual system" whose task is to detect and estimate the local coherent motion of small, randomly moving point-like objects that are of high contrast (for example, the classic task of Newsome and Pare (1988), but with the dots placed on a 1/f background). Neurons in the periphery efficiently code the dots, making use of decorrelation. Centrally, however, the object of interest is the correlation structure of moving dots in small image patches, to extract the local coherent motion component. For this task, central processes must compare counts of how many dots move in each direction; at low density of dots, these estimates will be subject to large sampling errors due to random arrival and departure of dots from the region that is being sampled. Importantly, no matter what the SNR of the input is (even in 100% contrast vision where each dot is perfectly resolved), the local coherence estimates will be noisy due to the fact that local dot detections come as rare (and random) events; and the efficient central processing will thus be subject to large input noise. In our case, the local image statistics play the role of local dot counts, but the basic idea, that sampling is a form of noise, is identical. In both cases, because the signals relevant to periphery and cortex are different, one can end up in a different efficient coding regime at each stage of visual processing.
As suggested by the reviewer, we have added a new figure (Figure 4) to help clarify these points. Figure 4 illustrates the emergence of two efficient coding regimes in a system that operates under a total power (resource) constraint. The relevant regime, which depends on the relative strengths of input and output noise, reflects the constraints faced by the system in consideration. For our system (modeled as in Figure 4C), we take inputs to be nonlinear image features that have already undergone peripheral preprocessing, as caricatured by our image analysis pipeline. We then apply the efficient coding framework to this set of nonlinear features, and we ask how sensitivities should be distributed among them.
The key point is that because these image features (counts of glider colorings) must be sampled from a spatial region of an image, any estimation of these features will be limited by sampling noise. We hypothesize that this sampling noise, which is a form of input noise, dominates. This predicts (as shown in Figure 4), that sensitivity should increase with signal variability. We test this prediction and show that it holds.
We reorganized and added to the text in order to illustrate this:
Discussion: "A simple model of efficient coding by neural populations is shown in Figure 4A (details in Methods, Two regimes of efficient coding). Here, to enable analytical calculations, we used linear filters of variable gain and subject to Gaussian noise to model a population of neural channels encoding different features. […] The relative sizes of input and output noise (controlled by Λ in Figure 4A) determines the input ranges over which the two qualitatively different regimes of efficient coding apply."
In addition, we clarified our language throughout the Discussion (see Discussion, Cortex faces a different class of challenges than the periphery ) to emphasize that the efficient coding regimes are a general feature of information optimization, and neither regime is a priori restricted to peripheral vs central processing. Thus, even in sensory periphery, there exist specific scenarios in which the signal is input- noise dominated. The best known example is perhaps that of night vision, when photon shot noise is no longer negligible and qualitatively reshapes peripheral information processing. Instead of decorrelation by center-surround receptive fields, receptive fields average the signal, i.e., they apply gain that enhances the correlations already present in the input in order to fight the detrimental effects of input noise.
We would like to emphasize clearly that the constraints considered here (nonlinear image features subject to sampling noise) thus differ from those considered by some of the most successful applications of efficient coding in the periphery. Because of these constraints, our finding that sensitivity increases with signal variability differs qualitatively from the findings of these studies, where whitening is optimal (or near optimal, see Doi and Lewicki (2014)) and sensitivity decreases with signal variability. Moreover, since feature extraction is thought to be one of the main tasks of central vision, the sampling noise constraint is likely to represent a general aspect of cortical processing, rather than a special case as for night vision in the periphery. And finally, the predictions made are quite different; we predict sensitivity to a wide variety of nonlinear features and their combinations, not the effective filtering behavior (i.e., shape) of a quasilinear receptive field.
3) While the authors correctly note that central processing must be concerned with behaviorally relevant aspects of the inputs, the 'variance' in their principle is completely independent of the organism's behavior and purely defined in terms of the stimulus. In fact, none of their discussion nor references to the earlier van Hateren papers that the authors invoke as a framework for interpreting their findings involves behavior. I suggest to simply drop that part of their claim and the suggestion that their principle might account for central processing and describe it as a principle governing early sensory processing where different constraints apply than in the sensory periphery. (Unless I'm missing a central part of their argument, of course. Example below.)
We don't intend to suggest that we are studying behavior, and we have edited the manuscript so that this is completely clear. We also added material to the Introduction and Discussion, including a new figure, that frames the work as consequences of differing constraints on peripheral and central processing.
Even though our focus is on visual processing and perception, the fact that visual processing must ultimately guide action plays a fundamental role: it motivates the idea that the visual system needs to make useful distinctions about the outside world, rather than reconstruct the image. But we can see that the term "behaviorally relevant" might have been misleading, so we have removed the term from the abstract, and we have explained the idea more carefully in the introduction:
"Can we extend such theories beyond the sensory periphery to describe cortical sensitivity to complex sensory features? Normative theories have been successful in predicting the response properties of single cells, including receptive fields in V1 (Olshausen and Field, 1996; Bell and Sejnowski, 1997; van Hateren and van der Schaaf, 1998; van Hateren and Ruderman, 1998; Hyvarinen and Hoyer, 2000; Vinje and Gallant, 2000; Karklin and Lewicki, 2009) and spectro-temporal receptive fields in primary auditory cortex (Carlson and DeWeese, 2002, 2012). […] We will show that these ideas predict a specific organizing principle for aggregate sensitivities arising in cortex: the perceptual salience of complex sensory signals increases with the variability, or unpredictability, of the corresponding signals over the ensemble of natural stimuli."
Also (as mentioned in the response to the editors), we think that the fact that the image analysis and psychophysics was without regard to task is a strong point, not a weakness. We find it quite remarkable that we see such a striking match between natural image statistics and perceptual sensitivity without including any notion of "value" as related to behavior. This finding, that higher order percepts emerge from efficient coding without explicit specification of the goal, was the original hope of the efficient coding framework as first put forward by Barlow and Attneave (Barlow, 1959, 1961; Attneave, 1954). It remains an interesting direction for future research to ask how the inclusion of value would shape the framework studied here. We now mention this explicitly in the Discussion:
"Finally, we emphasize that although we have focused on perception of image statistics, we do this with the premise that this process is in the service of inferring the materials and objects that created an image and ultimately, guiding action. Thus, it is notable that we found a tight correspondence between visual perception and natural scene statistics without considering a specific task or behavioral set, and indeed, the emergence of higher order percepts without explicit specification of a task was the original hope of the efficient coding framework as first put forward by Barlow and Attneave (Barlow, 1959, 1961; Attneave, 1954). Doubtless, these "top-down" factors influence the visual computations that underlie perception, and the nature and site of this influence are an important focus of future research."
4) In my understanding, the black/white asymmetry is the main systematic deviation from the prediction that was empirically found. I think this should be included (with Figure) and discussed in the main manuscript and not just in the SI.
We feel that the reviewer might have misunderstood our results in this regard: the main systematic deviation from prediction concerns positive and negative values of the fourth-order statistic α, not black/white asymmetry (the latter was eliminated by our preprocessing, in which we binarize image patches at the pixel intensity median such that each patch has equal numbers of black and white pixels (see Results, Analyzing local image statistics in natural scenes).
Specifically, there is an asymmetry of the distribution of α-values extracted from natural images that is not mirrored in psychophysical sensitivities. We mention this in Discussion, Clues to neural mechanisms, where we reference the relevant figure (Figure 3–figure supplement 8). We now also include the discussion of this asymmetry within the main manuscript, in Methods, Asymmetries in distributions of natural image statistics.
5) If your "glider" is anything more than a 2 × 2 window, then please explain in more detail.
The reviewer is correct: the glider is a 2 × 2 window. We now clarify this in two places in the main text:
Results: "As we recently showed, some informative local correlations of natural scenes are captured by the configurations of luminances seen through a "glider", i.e., a window defined by a 2 × 2 square arrangement of pixels (Tkačik et al., 2010)."
Results: "We characterize each patch by the histogram of 16 binary colorings (22×2) seen through a square 2 × 2 pixel glider."
6) Block average should be explained better in the main text; wouldn't have understood it without resorting to SI.
We now clarify the block-averaging process within the main text:
Results: "We preprocess the image patches as shown in Figure 1A. This involves first averaging pixel luminances over a square region of N × N pixels, which converts an image of size L1 × L2 pixels into an image of reduced size L1/N × L2/N pixels. Images are then divided into R × R square patches of these downsampled pixels and whitened (see Methods, Image preprocessing, for further details)."
7) "Single scaling parameter for each image analysis": what exactly does that mean? How many parameters per subject and comparison are needed? Can you say anything interesting about their distribution and the correlations between them?
We clarify these points in the main text, including a rewording of the quoted phrase. As we explain, we carried out image analyses for several choices of two size parameters: a block-average factor N (where N × N image pixels are averaged at the first step of the processing pipeline) and a patch size R (where R × R is the size of a patch in N × N pixels in which statistics are determined). There were 2 choices of N (2 and 4) and 3 choices of R (32, 48, and 64), for a total of 6 parallel image analyses (in the SI, we show that our results hold over a wider range too). For each of these analyses, there was just one scale factor (the same for all statistics and all subjects), adjusted to minimize the least-squares error between the set of standard deviations and the set of psychophysical sensitivities:
Results: "This qualitative comparison can be converted to a quantitative one (Figure 3A), as a single scaling parameter aligns the standard deviation of natural image statistics with the corresponding perceptual sensitivities. In this procedure, each of the six image analyses is scaled by a single multiplicative factor that minimizes the squared error between the set of standard deviations and the set of subject-averaged sensitivities (see Methods, Image preprocessing, and Figure 3–figure supplement 1 for additional details regarding scaling)."
With regard to a relationship between the scale factors and the analysis parameters (the block-average factor N and patch size R), there is (as one might expect) a systematic relationship. We now show this in detail in Methods, Image preprocessing, with a new figure and new text:
Methods: "To compare between natural image and psychophysical analyses, we scale the set of 9 standard deviations extracted from a given image analysis by a multiplicative factor that minimizes the squared error between the set of 9 standard deviations and the set of 9 psychophysical sensitivities. Figure 3–figure supplement 1 shows the value of the scale factor for different choices of the block-average factor N and patch size R."
Figure 3–figure supplement 1. Scaling of natural image analyses. We scale each image analysis by a single scale factor that minimizes the squared error between the set of 9 standard deviations and the set of 9 psychophysical sensitivities. The scale factors are shown here as a function of block-average factor N for different choices of the patch size R. We find that the variance of image statistics decreases with increasing values of N, and thus larger values of N require a larger scale factor. Similarly, for a given value of N, the variance of image statistics increases with increasing R, and thus larger values of R require a larger scale factor.
8) I'd welcome it if the authors could spell out the Null-hypothesis for their significance tests, rather than saying what they did mechanistically ("coordinate labels independently shuffled").
We now do this within the main text by replacing the mechanistic description of the significance tests with a description of each null hypothesis:
Results: "This value ranges from 0.987 to 0.999 across image analyses and was consistently larger than the value measured under the null hypothesis that the apparent correspondence be- tween statistics and sensitivities is chance (p ≤ 0.0003 for each image analysis; see Methods, Permutation tests, for details regarding statistical tests)."
Results: "This value, averaged across coordinate planes, ranges from 0.953 to 0.977 across image analyses. We compared this correspondence to that obtained under the null hypotheses that either (i) the apparent correspondence between image statistic covariances and isodiscrimination contours is chance, or (ii) the apparent covariances in image statistics are due to chance. The observed correspondence is much greater than the value measured under either null hypothesis (p ≤ 0.0003 for each image analysis under both hypotheses; see Methods, Analysis of image statistics in pairwise coordinate planes, and Figure 3–figure supplement 2 for comparisons of eccentricity and tilt, and Methods, Permutation tests, for statistical tests)."
We also made corresponding additions to Methods, Permutation tests, in order to supplement the mechanistic description of the significance tests with the full descriptions of the null hypotheses.
9) Discussion: "Cortical mechanisms should be...": This is in clear contradiction to the behaviorally relevant argument elsewhere in the paper. Very variable features may be behaviorally relevant demanding cortical resources, or they may not be asking for them to be factored/normalized out (e.g. overall brightness). The theoretical framework is all about maximizing information with respect to the inputs, not with respect to behaviorally relevant outputs.
We agree, this sentence did not properly explain our ideas. We rewrote this section as follows:
Discussion: "How should neural mechanisms be distributed to represent a diverse set of informative sensory features? We argued that, when performance requires inferences limited by sampling of the statistics of input features, resources should be devoted in proportion to feature variability. A basic idea here is that features that range over a wider range of possible values are less predictable, and will better distinguish between contexts in the face of input noise. We used this hypothesis to successfully predict..."
Briefly, the previous work (Tkačik et al., 2010) demonstrated a close relationship between which image statistics are analyzed by the visual system, and the statistics of natural images: resources are devoted to image statistics that cannot be predicted from simpler ones (Tkačik et al., 2010). Here, we build on this, and examine allocation of resources within this identified set of informative images. The previous work made no attempt to predict this allocation, and the current work is not applicable to image statistics that are uninformative (the distinction made in the previous work).
Previous work considered natural scene statistics defined based on local correlations defined over different spatial configurations of pixels. It demonstrated that these statistics can be divided into two groups, informative and uninformative. Informative features – higher-order statistics whose value cannot be deduced from lower-order statistics – are encoded, while uninformative features are not. Indeed, the visual system would be wasteful if it were to invest in mechanisms to encode uninformative statistics, and evidence from Tkačik et al. (2010) suggests that this does not happen. This advance was crucial; as one looks at high-order statistics, there is an exponential explosion of correlations that we (or the brain) could compute. Tkačik et al. (2010) showed that it only makes sense to focus on ones that are informative, and that "informativeness" can be determined from natural scenes alone.
The current manuscript takes this finding as a starting point for exploring the relative allocation of resources to encoding the set of nine informative statistics defined by the 2 × 2 square glider. Unlike Tkačik et al. (2010), which simply identified this set of statistics as informative, here we make and confirm dozens of quantitative predictions concerning how resources are allocated to encode them. The fact that an application of the efficient coding principle is successful in characterizing resource allocation is by no means a straightforward consequence of Tkačik et al. (2010), as any allocation of resources within this parameter set would have been consistent with those previous results.
To clarify this distinction, we have schematized the existence of informative vs uninformative features in a newly-added figure (Figure 4), and in the associated text. We note that the existence of uninformative statistics was the focus of previous work, and we note that the present work focuses on the optimal allocation of resources among those statistics that are informative:
Results: "Successive stages of sensory processing share the same broad goals: invest resources in encoding stimulus features that are sufficiently informative, and suppress less-informative ones. In the periphery, this is exemplified by the well-known suppression of very low spatial frequencies; in cortex, this is exemplified by insensitivity to high-order correlations that are predictable from lower-order ones. Previous work has shown that such higher-order correlations can be separated into two groups – informative and uninformative – and only the informative ones are encoded (Tkačik et al., 2010). We used this finding to select an informative subspace for the present study, and we asked how should resources should be efficiently allocated amongst features within this informative subspace."
We rewrote this section, acknowledging that the inference is indirect and explicitly stating that we did not record cortical responses. But we do feel that the evidence that psychophysical performance reflects cortical processing is compelling, as it is based on independent lines of evidence that, individually, are strong: briefly, stimuli are many times above contrast and resolution thresholds; task performance requires pooling over wide areas; the computations required for the task are more complex than what is considered to occur in the retina; and physiologic recordings show that neural responses to high-order correlations are not present in the thalamus, but are present in visual cortex, and much more so in V2 than in V1.
Specifically, we state:
Results: "Although we did not record cortical responses directly, several lines of evidence indicate that that the perceptual thresholds we measured are determined by cortical processes. […] Conversely, macaque visual cortical neurons (Purpura et al., 1994), especially those in V2, manifest responses to three- and four-point correlations (Yu et al., 2013)."
Because this evidence is admittedly indirect, we added the modifier "likely" to the subheader for this section, to read "Perceptual salience of multi-point correlations likely arises in cortex."
We see how a 'dichotomy' is an oversimplification, and a fairer description is that of two qualitatively different regimes ("whitening" and input-noise limiting) depending on the relative strengths of input and output noise.
As mentioned in our response to Reviewer 1, we clarified our language throughout the Discussion to emphasize that the efficient coding regimes are a general feature of information optimization, and neither regime is a priori restricted to peripheral vs central processing. Thus, even in sensory periphery, there might exist special regimes when the signal is input-noise dominated. The best known example is perhaps that of night vision, when photon shot noise is no longer negligible and qualitatively reshapes peripheral information processing. Instead of decorrelation by center-surround receptive fields, receptive fields averaging the signal, i.e., they apply gain that enhances the correlations already present in the input in order to fight the detrimental effects of input noise. These special considerations, which are relevant for night vision, do not apply generally to the extensively-studied area of daylight vision.
We would like to emphasize clearly that the constraints considered here (nonlinear image features subject to sampling noise) thus differ from those considered by some of the most successful applications of efficient coding in the periphery. Because of these constraints, our finding that sensitivity increases with signal variability differs qualitatively from the findings of these studies, where whitening is optimal (or near optimal, see Doi and Lewicki (2014)) and sensitivity decreases with signal variability. Moreover, since feature extraction is thought to be one of the main tasks of central vision, the sampling noise constraint is likely to represent a general aspect of cortical processing, rather than a special case as for night vision in the periphery.
In addition to changes in the text, we have added a fourth figure that illustrates these two regimes in a simple parallel-channel model. As an illustration of the regime in which output noise dominates, we discuss the well-known suppression of low spatial frequencies (Discussion). We then hypothesize that the other regime (input noise dominating) is relevant for central processing (Discussion). We discuss the specific application of efficient coding in this context, which differs from an application in the sensory periphery. Here, we apply efficient coding to complex nonlinear features (counts of glider colorings), where sampling fluctuations in glider counts provide a source of input noise.
We removed language that dichotomizes peripheral vs central processing, such as "it applies in a different guise and makes different predictions" (formerly the final sentence of the Abstract). Instead, we call upon the previous successes of efficient coding in the periphery in order to highlight one particular regime of efficient coding (whitening), and we use these examples to contrast the qualitative findings of our study.
We added the following clarification about the psychophysical task, and we refer the reader to Methods, Psychophysical methods, for additional details:
Results: "To characterize perceptual sensitivity to different statistics, we isolated them in synthetic visual images and used a figure/ground segmentation task (Figure 2B). We used a four-alternative forced-choice task in which stimuli consisted of a textured target and a binary noise background (or vice-versa). Each stimulus was presented for 120ms and was followed by a noise mask. Subjects were then asked to identify the spatial location (top, bottom, left, or right) of the target. Experiments were carried out for synthetic stimuli in which the target or back- ground was defined by varying image statistic coordinates independently (Figure 2A shows examples of gamuts from which stimuli are built)."
When natural images are replaced with white noise, the variation is identical across individual image statistics. (The same is true for colored noise, since our processing pipeline includes whitening.) While this is mathematically guaranteed, it may not be obvious, and we agree that showing it is helpful. We now include a sentence within the main manuscript:
Results: "Interestingly, third-order correlations are the least variable across image patches. An analogous analysis performed on white noise yields a flat distribution with considerably smaller standard deviation values (See Methods, Analysis variants for Penn Natural Image Database, and Figure 1–figure supplement 3 for comparison). These (and subsequent) findings are preserved across different choices of image analysis parameters..."
We have also included an additional Figure in Methods, Analysis variants for Penn Natural Image Database that illustrates this comparison, along with a corresponding addition to the text:
Methods "In Figure 1–figure supplement 3, we show that the relative variation in different image statistics (first shown in Figure 1E) is not an artifact of our image analysis pipeline, as the pattern of variation is destroyed if white-noise image patches are instead used."
Figure 1–figure supplement 3. Image statistics along single coordinate axes for white-noise patches. The robustly observed statistical structure of natural scenes (open circles) is completely absent from the same analysis performed on samples of white noise (shaded circles). The inset shows that this holds across analysis parameters.
How do the results change for images pixelated along a grid that is 45 degrees tilted relative to the vertical and horizontal directions?
Of course we predict that there would still be a close correspondence between image statistics and psychophysics. But testing this; and doing so in a way that accurately isolates what would likely be a subtle effect of the grid rotation, is unfortunately not practical. Re-photographing the images with an oblique sensor would be required to avoid the artifacts that would arise from digital rotation and resampling. Collecting a parallel set of psychophysical data would require approximately 200,000 additional psychophysical judgments (the better part of a year at a humane pace). We hope the reviewer understands.
Related to this, could the√2 differences in the degree of variation for the vertical/horizontal and diagonal beta data points in Figure 3A be due to the difference in the distance between the points in question given the orientation of the pixelation grid?
It is an interesting observation, but there is more going on than just a difference in center points: for vertical/horizontal two-point sensitivities, the checks involved share a common edge, while for the diagonal case, they only share a corner. Conversely, other experiments show that increasing the spacing between
checks (in either the cardinal or diagonal directions) has very little effect on the sensitivities, over a fivefold range including the range used here (Conte et al., 2014). So we think that the finding that the √ 2 is likely to be a coincidence. We'd therefore prefer not to mention this point, ratio is approximately
as mentioning it but then describing the above evidence would likely be viewed as a distraction.
But we do now emphasize that the diagonal and cardinal directions differ by configuration and not just orientation, so that it is clear that the difference in sensitivities is not simply an "oblique effect." We have clarified this with the following addition to the main text:
Results: "Note that the difference between the sensitivities in the horizontal and vertical directions (β− and β|) vs the diagonal directions (β\ and β/) is not simply an "oblique effect", i.e., a greater sensitivity cardinally- vs obliquely-oriented contours (Campbell et al., 1966). Horizontal and vertical pairwise correlations differ from the diagonal pairwise correlations in more than just orientation: checks involved in horizontal and vertical pairwise correlations share an edge, while checks involved in diagonal pairwise correlations only share a corner. Correspondingly, the difference in sensitivities for horizontal and vertical correlations vs diagonal correlations is approximately 50%, which is much larger than the size of the classical oblique effect (10–20%, see Campbell et al. (1966))."
Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, United States
Laboratoire de Physique Théorique, École Normale Supérieure, Paris, France
AMH, Conception and design, Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation of data, Drafting or revising the article, Contributed unpublished essential data or reagents
For correspondence
[email protected]
The authors declare that no competing interests exist.
JJB, Conception and design, Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation of data, Drafting or revising the article, Contributed unpublished essential data or reagents
Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, United States
MMC, Conception and design, Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation of data, Drafting or revising the article, Contributed unpublished essential data or reagents
JDV, Conception and design, Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation of data, Drafting or revising the article, Contributed unpublished essential data or reagents
Contributed equally with
Vijay Balasubramanian and Gašper Tkačik
Initiative for the Theoretical Sciences, City University of New York Graduate Center, New York, United States
VB, Conception and design, Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation of data, Drafting or revising the article, Contributed unpublished essential data or reagents
Jonathan D Victor and Gašper Tkačik
Institute of Science and Technology Austria, Klosterneuburg, Austria
GT, Conception and design, Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation of data, Drafting or revising the article, Contributed unpublished essential data or reagents
Jonathan D Victor and Vijay Balasubramanian
National Eye Institute (EY07977)
National Science Foundation (PHY-1058202)
Austrian Science Fund (FWF P25651)
National Eye Institute (Vision Training Grant 5-T32-EY007035-32)
Fondation Pierre Gilles de Gennes
The funders had no role in study design, data collection and interpretation, or the decision to submit the work for publication.
We thank Jason Prentice and Eizaburo Doi for valuable discussions. This work was supported by NIH EY07977, NSF PHY-1058202, FWF P25651, NEI Vision Training Grant 5-T32-EY007035-32, and the Fondation Pierre Gilles de Gennes.
Human subjects: The human subjects research (visual psychophysics) was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Weill Cornell Medical College, and was in accord with the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from each subject prior to the experimental sessions, and consent to publish was obtained from Mary Conte (MC), the one subject who is potentially identifiable by the initials since she is also an author.
Reviewing Editor
Timothy Behrens, Oxford University, United Kingdom
Received: June 19, 2014
Accepted: November 13, 2014
Accepted Manuscript published: November 14, 2014 (version 1)
Version of Record published: December 22, 2014 (version 2)
© 2014, Hermundstad et al.
This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use and redistribution provided that the original author and source are credited.
Article citation count generated by polling the highest count across the following sources: Scopus, Crossref, PubMed Central.
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natural scene statistics
neural coding
visual cortex
normative theories
Research organism
Built upon by
Rat sensitivity to multipoint statistics is predicted by efficient coding of natural scenes
Riccardo Caramellino, Eugenio Piasini ... Davide Zoccolan
Research Advance Dec 7, 2021
Efficient processing of sensory data requires adapting the neuronal encoding strategy to the statistics of natural stimuli. Previously, in Hermundstad et al., 2014, we showed that local multipoint correlation patterns that are most variable in natural images are also the most perceptually salient for human observers, in a way that is compatible with the efficient coding principle. Understanding the neuronal mechanisms underlying such adaptation to image statistics will require performing invasive experiments that are impossible in humans. Therefore, it is important to understand whether a similar phenomenon can be detected in animal species that allow for powerful experimental manipulations, such as rodents. Here we selected four image statistics (from single- to four-point correlations) and trained four groups of rats to discriminate between white noise patterns and binary textures containing variable intensity levels of one of such statistics. We interpreted the resulting psychometric data with an ideal observer model, finding a sharp decrease in sensitivity from two- to four-point correlations and a further decrease from four- to three-point. This ranking fully reproduces the trend we previously observed in humans, thus extending a direct demonstration of efficient coding to a species where neuronal and developmental processes can be interrogated and causally manipulated.
Physics of Living Systems
Efficient coding of natural scene statistics predicts discrimination thresholds for grayscale textures
Tiberiu Tesileanu, Mary M Conte ... Vijay Balasubramanian
Research Advance Updated Sep 16, 2020
Previously, in Hermundstad et al., 2014, we showed that when sampling is limiting, the efficient coding principle leads to a 'variance is salience' hypothesis, and that this hypothesis accounts for visual sensitivity to binary image statistics. Here, using extensive new psychophysical data and image analysis, we show that this hypothesis accounts for visual sensitivity to a large set of grayscale image statistics at a striking level of detail, and also identify the limits of the prediction. We define a 66-dimensional space of local grayscale light-intensity correlations, and measure the relevance of each direction to natural scenes. The 'variance is salience' hypothesis predicts that two-point correlations are most salient, and predicts their relative salience. We tested these predictions in a texture-segregation task using un-natural, synthetic textures. As predicted, correlations beyond second order are not salient, and predicted thresholds for over 300 second-order correlations match psychophysical thresholds closely (median fractional error <0.13).
Visual processing of informative multipoint correlations arises primarily in V2
Yunguo Yu, Anita M Schmid, Jonathan D Victor
Research Advance Updated May 12, 2015
Using the visual system as a model, we recently showed that the efficient coding principle accounted for the allocation of computational resources in central sensory processing: when sampling an image is the main limitation, resources are devoted to compute the statistical features that are the most variable, and therefore the most informative (eLife 2014;3:e03722. DOI: 10.7554/eLife.03722 Hermundstad et al., 2014). Building on these results, we use single-unit recordings in the macaque monkey to determine where these computations—sensitivity to specific multipoint correlations—occur. We find that these computations take place in visual area V2, primarily in its supragranular layers. The demonstration that V2 neurons are sensitive to the multipoint correlations that are informative about natural images provides a common computational underpinning for diverse but well-recognized aspects of neural processing in V2, including its sensitivity to corners, junctions, illusory contours, figure/ground, and 'naturalness.'
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Sailor's Report
Monday, 04 November 2013 /// Written by Trippe
We spent a little time floating about on the San Francisco Bay yesterday, and while out there heard/ saw a couple news worthy bits.
UPDATE 11/6: After much silence, the tech giant fesses up on its connection to the uncommon structure in San Francisco Bay, which it's now proclaiming Google Barge
As reported last week, Google is involved in building a very secretive structure at Hanger 3 on Treasure Island, and within the last week have pulled out their privacy fences which have been there for months. All that seems to be left is the shipping container structure sitting on the the barge. Did the stories come out, and Google broke it all down and hit the road with their secrets in tact? --- There was another Google barge spotted in Portland last week too. Floating data centers to be placed outside of US territory?
Google's floating data centers being built in San Francisco and Portland?
As heard on the VHF at approx 1:30pm, a sailboat found a dead body of a small woman wearing black shorts by the South Tower of the Golden Gate Bridge floating face up. Considering we've heard other boats report jumpers and bodies over the years, and there's a reported 2 jumpers every month, not sure how news worthy it is... Bummer though.
Remove Your Google Search History
Thursday, 23 February 2012 /// Written by Van Edwards
How to Remove Your Google Search History Before Google's New Privacy Policy Takes Effect <-- On March 1st, Google will implement its new, unified privacy policy, which will affect data Google has collected on you prior to March 1st as well as data it collects on you in the future. Until now, your Google Web History (your Google searches and sites visited) was cordoned off from Google's other products. This protection was especially important because search data can reveal particularly sensitive information about you, including facts about your location, interests, age, sexual orientation, religion, health concerns, and more. If you want to keep Google from combining your Web History with the data they have gathered about you in their other products, such as YouTube or Google Plus, you may want to remove all items from your Web History and stop your Web History from being recorded in the future. ~read on
Wednesday, 02 February 2011 /// Written by Trippe
GOOGLE ART PROJECT <-- yeah, virtually tour some of the greatest museums in the world. Google is amazing... So we know what you're doing tonight. | {
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Russell Kalmacoff, President
Russell Kalmacoff is a financial executive and capital markets generalist and President of Rockmount Financial Corporation. Mr. Kalmacoff acquired Rockmount Financial Corporation (formerly Security Home Financing Limited) in 1975 and has operated it and its related entities for over 40 years. He is also President and CEO of the Rockmount Group of Companies which also include Hub Oil Company Limited and Kalmacoff Holdings Ltd.
He divides his time among various business and management duties, volunteer work in academia and public policy development. He is on the advisory boards of the Clausen Center for International Business and Policy, and the Canadian Studies Program, at UC Berkeley; the Real Estate MBA Program and the International Committee (US) at the University of Calgary; and the Business Leadership Advisory Committee at Athabasca University, where he is also Executive in Residence. He is on the Board of Directors of the Frontier Centre for Public Policy, a Canadian think tank. He served on the Government of Alberta's task force on technology commercialization where he designed the implementation plan for the Alberta Enterprise Corporation.
Mr. Kalmacoff spent two years at the University of Calgary in engineering before transferring to the University of Manitoba where he received a Bachelor of Commerce. He then earned an MBA from the University of California, Berkeley.
Originally form Kamsack Saskatchewan, Mr. Kalmacoff has called Calgary home since the late 60's. He has been married to his wife Evelyn for 45 years. The Kalmacoffs are active in their community and in the United Church of Canada.
Read Mr. Kalmacoff's full biography here | {
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I've decided to combine my Little Victories posts for October and November into one because I forgot to post my October one at the beginning of this month! D'oh!
I can't believe it's December already. This year has just flown by!
I'm happy to report that I survived November, which is usually my least favourite month and the time of the year when I struggle with my mental health the most. But this year I kept busy and gave myself things to focus on, and it's honestly made such a difference to my overall happiness.
Now I'm looking forward to a month of festivities ahead. As always, I'm excited to go home for Christmas and spend a week or so with my friends and family. Oh and eat lots of incredible food because that's what Christmas is all about, am I right?!
I managed to get my hands on tickets to see Billy Joel in Manchester next summer. I've booked a hotel too so we're going to make a nice weekend of it.
I also got tickets to see Kasabian in Liverpool in December. The tickets actually went on sale when I was in New York, but Tyrone wasn't that interested in going. But in the end I decided to go with my friend Rebecca who is a fellow Kasabian fan, and now I cannot wait!!
Tyrone and I celebrated our 8 year anniversary! It was on a Sunday and it was surprisingly warm for a day in October, but we went on a little road trip in North Wales.
I (sort of) conquered my fear of going to the dentist after my last check up resulted in a panic attack. I moved surgeries and the dentist at this new one seems a lot nice. Unfortunately I've got to have two fillings in December!
I finished my course of CBT and I'm actually noticing a difference in how I feel. But I was sad to finish because my therapist was so lovely!
Tyrone celebrated his 24th birthday and I made him an incredible chocolate orange cake to celebrate. I don't normally blow my own trumpet but it was so tasty!
I started using the Five Minute Journal app again after purchasing it about a year ago! I didn't get into it the first time around but I saw Pauline talking about it on her blog and I decided to give it another go, and I've found that it really does help.
Continuing on with the theme of buying tickets for awesome events, I managed to get tickets for Electric Light Orchestra's 2018 tour. I actually tried to get tickets for their last tour but it sold out straight away. This time I used O2 Priority.
I also bought ticket to see Peter Kay! Yes, he's not on in Liverpool until 2019 but we have incredible seats just 8 rows from the front and I cannot wait!!!
I bought a new Dyson vacuum cleaner in the Black Friday Sales and I don't think I've ever been so excited about such a mundane item! But seriously, it's life changing.
I also bought a Nintendo Switch in the Cyber Monday Sales. Can someone snap my bank card in half, please?!!!
I had a load of annual leave left over to use it by the end of the year, so I decided to take a week off at the end of November (this week!). I just used the time to start my Christmas shopping a look after myself. It's been wonderful!
One more thing before I finish! I'm doing a blogger Christmas card exchange this year. I put out a Tweet to announce this but I realised that I should have asked here on the blog too. I'm sending out most of my cards today but I also have time to post cards next Tuesday (December 5th), so if you'd like to get involved, just let me know in the comments, or send me a Tweet. The deadline is Monday December 4th!
How were October and November for you? Did you have any victories, big or small?
Little Victories is a monthly (or so!) series, celebrating the things that make life great, no matter how small.
Thanks Pauline! I did consider buying the paper version of the Five Minute Journal but I've found that I don't have time in the mornings to write my morning entry before I go to work, and so I end up writing it when I arrive at work, so the app is perfect for that.
Haha I'm usually really bad at treating myself! It's sods law that all my favourite bands/singers/comedians announce tours at the same time!
I love this series so much, Holly! It's great to see that so many great things have been happening in your life, especially considering it's a month you usually struggle with. I'm so happy to hear you're doing well, and that CBT has been helpful to you. I can't believe how few therapy sessions you get on the NHS though?! I know so many people who've had CBT and was astounded by how quickly it's over. Hope the skills you've learned in the sessions work for you.
All the gigs/shows you're going to sound great. I really wanted to go to Peter Kay, but it's really the wrong time of year for me to be spending money on tickets. I still have way too many Christmas presents to buy! Hope you have fun!
I want a Nintendo Switch. I've been considering it since they came out, but I'm not sure how much free time I'd have to use it. They look amazing though!
Thanks Amy! Too be honest I felt like 6 sessions wasn't enough, and I think my therapist realised this too. So I've been put on the waiting list to have counselling in addition to my CBT therapy.
Yeah November is a really bad time to be spending money! I actually decided to give ELO tickets to my mum, my dad and Tyrone for Christmas so that meant I got most of my Christmas shopping done in one go!
Congratulations on your recent little victories! Sounds like you have a lot to look forward to with seeing Kasabian, Billy Joel, and other artists. Major congrats on your 8 year anniversary! That's a huge milestone :). Haha, I feel like you know you're an adult when you're excited about buying some home appliances. Hope you'll have a nice December!
Haha yep, I'm definitely an adult now!
Happy anniversary to you and Tyrone! 8 years is a long time! That's also exciting at all the tickets you got for shows to see. Looks like you have several things to look forward to next year!
haha, I know what you mean about getting excited for a vacuum. I would actually love to get a Dyson some time. We recently bought new appliances, and I'm really looking forward to having them soon!
I think that's great that you take actions to look after yourself and your mental health. Good job on surviving November! Taking a week off for yourself is also a really good idea. I did the same, and it was nice to have some time to myself. I hope December will be a good month for you!
Haha, I highly recommend a Dyson. We had a Dyson Ball before we got the hand held one which was great, but it was on deaths door after 4 years of picking up my hair!!!
It sounds like you had a lot of success in October and November. Well done'[ on getting all of those gig tickets! That's very impressive – I wasn't able to get Billy Joel tickets because of work, but my brother did; I'm very jealous!
Well done on overcoming your dentist fear, and for finishing your CBT. I'm happy that you're noticing a difference as a result of it! Will you get to have little catch ups with your therapist?
There's nothing wrong with getting excited by household items! I'd love a new vacuum! Enjoy your Switch, too! Have you downloaded Stardew Valley?
Happy anniversary! I totally understand… when winter time comes, it affects my mental health so bad. I stayed locked in the house for three days straight because it was too cold outside. This time of the year severely depresses me. | {
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We want every guest that visits Ariel's Point to have an enjoyable and memorable experience. As you plan your various Boracay activities, we invite you to read some of the reviews that other Ariel's Point guests have shared with us. If you have any additional questions about Ariel's Point (or if you have a travel article or blog you would like us to include), please let us know!
"We were just singing along and some were even dancing at the back! Talk about a BOAT PARTY, HAHAHA!!! Seriously, that ride back was the most enjoyable boatride I had in my entire life." – Casey, Soooo Blogging This!!!! | {
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Membership in LRWA offers the published or aspiring author many opportunities to improve their knowledge of craft and further their writing career, regardless of where they are on their career path.
Support all members, regardless of the stage of one's writing career.
Provide information regarding upcoming writing conferences, writing contests, promotional opportunities, and changes in the romance industry.
Educate members on craft for the purpose of improving one's writing skills.
Provide opportunities to network with industry professionals.
Provide opportunities to socialize with other authors for the purposes of encouraging both established and aspiring authors and providing feedback on manuscripts and career choices.
Assist members in establishing their online presence.
Each month our Program Director amazes us with talented and exciting speakers and workshops. Join us for lunch, networking, and learning!
LRWA offers dozens of informative online craft and career workshops throughout the year — and each LRWA member gets to attend one workshop of their choice each year for FREE!
Our newsletter, Rendezvous, is available to all LRWA Members. Our editor keeps us on our toes with interesting editorials, craft articles, industry news, and the latest books and achievements from our members. Learn from the pros with on-target tricks for writing, marketing, and staying sane in a romance writing career.
Got a scene that just isn't coming together? Having trouble outlining your character's backstory. Our members are available to help each other critique their works in progress, brainstorm story ideas, and generally encourage each other to keep on writing!
Finished with your manuscript, but want another set of eyes on it before you submit it to your editor, agent, or query an industry professional? Look no further than your fellow LRWA members for beta reading your novel.
Having trouble making time to work on your manuscript? Join us for our monthly write-ins where we put our fingers to the keys, our butts in our seats, and push each other to reach our target word counts.
Our members assist each other by providing or informing each other of opportunities to promote their work and their blog. Release announcements? Cover reveals? Interviews? Our members can help you out!
Oh what fun we have as we exchange secret writing related gifts, recognize members for their writing related accomplishments, draw numbers for door prizes, and have a Christmas themed luncheon and dessert.
Imagine all you can gain by joining LRWA today, including writing fellowship with some of the most dynamic authors you could ever hope to meet.
We hope you'll join us at our next monthly meeting and consider becoming a member today!
Please note: You must be a member of RWA National to join the Lowcountry RWA chapter. | {
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Airmaster offers its Heavy-Duty High Ambient Air Circulators.
Based on Airmaster's Heavy-Duty Air Circulator design, the High Ambient Air Circulators are specially designed for the rigors of continuous operation in areas where the air temperature may be more than 104 degrees Fahrenheit. The Heavy-Duty High Ambient Air Circulators are designed to provide full service life up to 150 degrees Fahrenheit.
Other features include a 30-inch diameter, two-speed non-oscillating fan available in pedestal, wall, I-beam and vertical mounts. The Heavy-Duty High Ambient Air Circulators are designed for use in laundries, foundries, brick making facilities, glass factories and anywhere high ambient temperatures are found. | {
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Same-sex Marriage Leads Catholic Charities to Adjust Benefits
March 3, 2010 - 8:55 pm Chris 6 Comments 715 views
Employees at Catholic Charities were told Monday that the social services organization is changing its health coverage to avoid offering benefits to same-sex partners of its workers — the latest fallout from a bitter debate between District officials trying to legalize same-sex marriage and the Catholic Archdiocese of Washington.
Starting Tuesday, Catholic Charities will not offer benefits to spouses of new employees or to spouses of current employees who are not already enrolled in the plan. A letter describing the change in health benefits was e-mailed to employees Monday, two days before same-sex marriage will become legal in the District.
Today Show Wii Fail
Different Interpretations of the Same Picture
March 3, 2010 - 4:18 pm Chris 11 Comments 1265 views
I found this on my friend Dalia's blog where the description read:
When he died, his wife commissioned this sculpture, as an expression of her love for him.
I want love like that.
me too. doesn't every girl?
I reacted differently to the photo. My first thought was:
Oh. They've encased her in Carbonite. She should be quite well protected. If she survived the freezing process, that is.
March 3, 2010 - 3:47 pm March 3, 2010 - 3:51 pm Chris 5 Comments 757 views
Cornjob wins.
He's dead meat if he ever does that to one of Patrick Bateman's business cards!!!
Runner up was Becca:
Ohh my god Chris. Get over it you sado, its an animated film and you should respect your wife for who she is and not be a pervert for a film, your being a bad influance on your son. plus you shouldn't be imaging yourself runnning away to pandora and leaving YOUR family. Sorry if you don't agree with me but you shouldn't say your a horny obsessive man.
Actually, she would have won but her comment wasn't from today.
Business Card or How to Make People Angry
Fed Up: School Lunch Project
March 3, 2010 - 2:19 pm Chris 1 Comment 1022 views
A teacher is eating the school lunch everyday in 2010 and blogging about it. With pictures!
(via J-Walk)
Food / Lunch
Ayn Rand Was a Big Admirer of a Serial Killer
March 3, 2010 - 12:47 pm March 8, 2010 - 8:10 am Chris 31 Comments 774 views
From Alternet:
The best way to get to the bottom of Ayn Rand's beliefs is to take a look at how she developed the superhero of her novel, Atlas Shrugged, John Galt. Back in the late 1920s, as Ayn Rand was working out her philosophy, she became enthralled by a real-life American serial killer, William Edward Hickman, whose gruesome, sadistic dismemberment of 12-year-old girl named Marion Parker in 1927 shocked the nation. Rand filled her early notebooks with worshipful praise of Hickman. According to biographer Jennifer Burns, author of Goddess of the Market, Rand was so smitten with Hickman that she modeled her first literary creation — Danny Renahan, the protagonist of her unfinished first novel, The Little Street — on him.
What did Rand admire so much about Hickman? His sociopathic qualities: "Other people do not exist for him, and he does not see why they should," she wrote, gushing that Hickman had "no regard whatsoever for all that society holds sacred, and with a consciousness all his own. He has the true, innate psychology of a Superman. He can never realize and feel 'other people.'"
Where's Jesus?
Daily Ingersoll
Actus Formalis Defectionis
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© 2020 Cynical-C | {
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first line: Jude had a private collection.
The black, heart-shaped box that Coyne receives in the mail not only contains the suit of a dead man but also his vengeance-obsessed spirit….
I re-read Heart-Shaped Box by Joe Hill this past October. The protagonist Judas Coyne is a 54-year-old rock-star who lives with is assistant and his current 20 something year old goth girlfriend Georgia.
Judas enjoys collecting macabre items, he has a snuff film and a hand written letter from a woman killed for witchcraft during old witch trials among other things. One day his assistant tells him he received an email offer to buy a ghost online. The ghost comes attached to a dead man's suit. Judas cannot resist and he buys it for his collection. The suit and ghost arrive to his home inside a black heart-shaped box. When Georgia goes to touch the suit she is pricked with what they assume has to be a pin. Not long after Judas starts seeing a man's ghost in his home and Georgia's pin prick starts to get badly infected. When Judas decides to call the suit's previous owner, a woman named Jessica, she tells him the real history behind the suit and it involves someone from Judas' past. He then becomes frantic trying to rid himself of this ghost before it is too late.
This whole list could be Stephen King novels couldn't it though? It took me a while to finally be brave enough to read Pet Sematary . I've read it twice so far and it is my favorite King novel. The film is good too and I am looking forward to the remake. Not only is this one terrifying but it is very sad, like most King novels tend to be.
I only read Poe during the Fall. It is a little reading tradition I have. I will grab my copy of Complete Tales and Poems and I will read a few stories or poems. Poe had a flair for the dramatic and I enjoy his gloomy and beautiful writing….The Tell Tale Heart, The Raven and Annabel Lee are among my favorites. This book is a great for any Poe fan. | {
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Years later, Marine families bear scars of poisoning at Camp Lejeune
Life was about to take a sudden, shattering turn as Paula Twitty Bushman stood in her green, dress uniform of the U.S. Marine Corps, ready for another day in traffic court at Camp Lejeune.
The young Marine was a paralegal and four months pregnant. Suddenly, she felt discomfort below her waist and saw blood running down her leg and onto her black patent-leather shoes. A colonel at the court saw a burst of fear cross her face.
When Bushman awoke at the base hospital, confused and uncertain, a military doctor told her the news: The child wasn't right. We had to take it.
The 1983 loss began years of torment that included another child stillborn at eight months, and health problems that continue to plague her.
"Something was stolen from me," said Bushman, now 55. "Something was stolen without me ever saying it could be taken."
As many as a million people stationed at the Marine base from 1953 to 1987 became
part of one of the darkest chapters in the Corps' history. Toxins linked to miscarriages, birth defects, cancers and neurological behaviors polluted the drinking water.
Those exposed not only drank the poison water, they used it to bathe, swim, cook, wash clothes — and mix baby formula.
Georgia now has one of the largest concentrations of Lejeune veterans and dependents in the country with 10,561 on a national registry of those exposed to the contamination. Nearly 259,000 men and women across the country have joined the list.
"We were there to do a job and we did it, and now 30 years later we're all sick," said Crystal Dickens, a Lejeune Marine veteran in DeKalb County who lost two babies in pregnancy and now suffers from chronic health conditions. "Even the daycare, the mess hall, everywhere you went the water was contaminated and we didn't know."
Reluctantly, Congress in 2012 extended cost-free VA health care coverage to veterans and a more limited plan for family members suffering from conditions linked to the polluted water, acknowledging for the first time the harm it caused. The Obama administration followed in January 2017 with a plan to provide $2 billion in disability benefits to Lejeune veterans.
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Inventors of Killing Machines Like the AK-47 Often... | {
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After 39 long days of waiting on the transplant list, I have finally begun my new lease on life.
My life with CF, through a patient's eyes, raw and real.
Cystic Fibrosis is a very progressive disease and it is also a very individualized and isolated disease. One CF patient can be 18 and be invert good health, maybe even reducing hospital stays to less than once a year, while another 18 year old patient from the same area can be close to death and in desperate need of a lung transplant.
I can recall a time where I could run around with my puppy and maybe cough once or twice. As much as it seems like that was forever ago in my mind, it really was only about two and a half years ago. I went from being almost fine, and having the occasional coughing fit to being someone with close to no lung function.
I don't get a regular amount of sleep because when I was around ten I was prescribed medicines that as a side effect can make you drowsy, and once I was taken off of those I almost didn't know how to fall asleep naturally. On top of that, when I finally can get myself to sleep, I wear a bi-pap mask on my face every night, am hooked up to a feeding tube all night and I wake up almost every hour due to coughing, or from machines beeping at me.
Over time, I have noticed that walking from point a to point b has gotten more and more difficult. Thinking back, I can remember being able to walk around shopping centers with my friends, but now I can barely walk from my car to the front door. Every time I put my car in park I say to myself "And the journey begins" because each little destination, wether it be from my car to the front door, or from my front door to my room is like a grueling task. | {
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1969-70 Baltimore Bullets
View All NBA Seasons
Basketball-Reference.com
SimLeague Basketball lets you put Kobe, Magic, Kareem, Bird & Duncan on the court at the same time!
Click to Try SimLeague Basketball for Free!
The 1969-70 Baltimore Bullets roster is below. Clicking on a tab heading will display the specified set of statistics. All columns may be sorted by clicking the column name. Clicking on an individual player will display the player's career statistics including his time with the 1969-70 Baltimore Bullets.
Per 48 Min
69-70 Fred Carter SG 76 1219 414 157 439 20 62 80 116 62 192 121 82 53 16 137
69-70 Mike Davis SG 56 1330 695 260 586 26 78 149 192 50 128 111 103 57 14 174
69-70 Leroy Ellis C 72 1163 482 194 414 8 25 86 116 116 376 47 67 32 53 129
69-70 Gus Johnson PF 78 2919 1388 578 1282 35 106 197 272 314 1086 264 191 111 67 269
69-70 Kevin Loughery SG 55 2037 1257 477 1082 50 143 253 298 43 168 292 167 95 16 183
69-70 Jack Marin SF 82 2947 1664 666 1363 46 131 286 339 159 537 217 185 97 46 248
69-70 Earl Monroe PG 82 3051 1991 695 1557 69 198 532 641 74 257 402 268 130 18 258
69-70 Ray Scott PF 73 1393 674 257 605 21 60 139 173 132 457 114 96 50 36 147
69-70 Al Tucker PF 28 262 137 49 96 6 18 33 42 20 53 7 17 7 0 34
69-70 Wes Unseld C 82 3234 1331 526 1015 6 30 273 428 418 1370 291 214 104 186 250
TOTALS 19555 10033 3859 8439 287 851 2028 2617 1388 4624 1866 1390 736 452 1829
All totals adjusted to 82 game season
STAT KEY
Pos = Position GP = Games Played Min = Total Minutes
Pts = Total Points FGM = Total Field Goals Made FGA = Total Field Goals Attempted
3PM = Total 3 Point Field Goals Made 3PA = Total 3 Point Field Goals Attempted FTM = Total Free Throws Made
FTA = Total Free Throws Attempted OReb = Total Offensive Rebounds Reb = Total Rebounds
Ast = Total Assists TO = Total Turnovers Stl = Total Steals
Blk = Total Blocks PF = Total Fouls
For profiles of all teams and players available in NBA SimMatchup and SimLeague Basketball, please view the Historical Team List. Then start building your ultimate NBA Dream Team! | {
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What Happens If a Corporation Does Not File a Tax Return When It Owes No Taxes?
By Michael Marz
Do You Need to File an Initial Return for an S Corporation That Had No Activity?
Does a Corporation Have to File a Federal Income Tax Return When It Has No Sales?
Penalties for Late Income Tax Filing for S Corporations
How to Amend a Corporation's Tax Return
Companies That File 1040X Amended Tax Returns
All businesses that operate as corporations have to file tax returns on Form 1120 with the Internal Revenue Service regardless of whether taxes are owed or not. Failing to file a corporate tax return can have both legal and practical consequences that may ultimately cost your business money. And if you incorrectly assume that no taxes are owed, the financial costs are more severe.
No IRS Penalties
The IRS has the authority to charge corporations that don't file tax returns a late-filing penalty. This penalty is calculated as a percentage of the amount of unpaid tax that should have been reported on Form 1120. Therefore, failing to file a corporate tax return for a year in which your business isn't profitable and doesn't owe tax won't result in a late-filing penalty.
Future Tax Audits
Even if you don't have to pay penalties, failing to file Form 1120 allows the IRS to audit the missing tax year at any time. This is because the three-year statute of limitations period that the Internal Revenue Code imposes on the IRS for conducting audits doesn't start running until Form 1120 is filed. For example, suppose you filed the corporation's 2008 tax return on March 15, 2009. In this case, the IRS only has until March 15, 2012, to audit the corporation's 2008 tax year. If the 2008 return is never filed, the three-year limitations period doesn't start running on March 15, 2009, which means the IRS can audit the corporation's 2008 tax year before or after March 15, 2012, and assess income tax on it.
Post-audit Penalties
An audit can cost your business more than just the tax you didn't realize the corporation owed. In the event the IRS determines that your business does owe tax, the corporation is then subject to late-filing and late-payment penalties, as well as interest charges. To illustrate, suppose you didn't file the corporation's 2008 return because you believed that a substantial depreciation deduction would offset all business profits and bring the corporation's taxable income below zero. If the IRS decides to audit the corporation's 2008 tax year and on March 15, 2011, assesses tax because the depreciation deduction is significantly less than you assumed, the corporation is going to owe a lot more than just the original amount of income tax that was due. At this point, the IRS can go back and charge the corporation the monthly late-filing penalty of 4.5 percent for a maximum of five months, which totals 22.5 percent of the unpaid tax. In addition, the agency will concurrently charge a late-payment penalty of one-half of 1 percent for each month the tax was unpaid, which by March 15, 2011, is already 24 months.
Net Operating Losses
An audit and penalty charges are the worst outcomes of not filing a return for a year in which no taxes are owed, but you're also prevented from using the corporation's net operating loss on your tax return. Generally, when a corporation's taxable income is a negative number -- meaning business expenses exceed revenue -- the IRS lets you reduce the corporation's taxable income reported on the returns for the prior two years or on a return that you'll file in the next 20 years. However, to use a net operating loss, the loss needs to first be reported on a filed 1120.
Internal Revenue Service Publication 542
Internal Revenue Service: Instructions for Form 1120
Cornell University Law School: Internal Revenue Code 6501
Michael Marz has worked in the financial sector since 2002, specializing in wealth and estate planning. After spending six years working for a large investment bank and an accounting firm, Marz is now self-employed as a consultant, focusing on complex estate and gift tax compliance and planning.
Penalty for Failure to File Corporate Tax Return
Do Corporations With No Transactions Need to File Taxes?
What Are the Consequences of Not Dissolving a Corporation?
Penalty for Writing Off Invalid Business Expenses
When Does IRS Form 7004 Need to Be Filed for Corporations?
How to Deduct Business Expenses Without Income on Taxes
What Do You Do with an Inactive S Corp?
What Happens if You Mail in Your Corporate Tax Return Late?
How to File an S Corp Election Late
1 Penalty for Failure to File Corporate Tax Return
2 Do Corporations With No Transactions Need to File Taxes?
3 What Are the Consequences of Not Dissolving a Corporation?
4 Penalty for Writing Off Invalid Business Expenses | {
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-m toggle mail only mode.
-n newsgroup specify news group.
-D server specify NNTP server.
-M server specify SMTP server.
-P server specify POP3 server.
See manual for other options.
# This is a sample mnews setup file.
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The conveyancing process need not be tiring. Thousands of home buyers and sellers every month choose Fridaysmove on the basis of an unbeatable service and great value fees. Our conveyancing solicitors will help you to move house faster.
For standard sale or purchase conveyancing, your fixed fee quote for conveyancing in Thamesmead confirms all applicable solicitor's fees. In addition, No Sale, No Fee protection is included with all quotes, at no additional cost.
You can get a conveyancing quote to verify what your fees will be, or contact a member of our conveyancing team on 0330 660 0286 if you have any questions or would like to get things underway.
It will pay to always get a few solicitors quotes if looking for cheap Thamesmead solicitors. Also, always read the official terms of business for additional fees .
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It is always really traumatic when a home move falls through at the last hour. Many issues can end up leading to the conveyancing not exchanging, e.g. the chain collapsing or an adverse survey report.
With our No Completion, No Fee assurance, home movers do not pay for any legal fees if your sale or purchase fails to proceed.
Any Thamesmead solicitors deposit can be transferred to your alternative property or sale and you will just need to cover any third party disbursements incurred, such as searches.
While it is true that there is wide variance in the quality of conveyancing between firms, service levels, speed or cost have little to do with whether a solicitor markets their services online.
Although some home buyers and sellers like to visit their conveyancing solicitor in person, it is rarely required. A proactive conveyancer should help to move you faster than a lawyer you need to visit in person.
Remortgage conveyancing solicitors who work with Fridaysmove work on behalf of owners who wish to arrange a remortgage for their house or flat, and charge very competitive solicitor's fees, and hidden charges.
Our solicitors will be able to act on behalf of all the building societies and lenders nationally. The proactive attitude employed by our conveyancing lawyers should increase the chance that completions will occur faster, so you will take advantage of your new rate earlier.
Legal charges are divided into a couple of discrete parts referred to as disbursements and fees.
Conveyancing disbursements are essentially third party charges sustained by the Thamesmead conveyancer on your behalf such as lease enlargement indemnity insurance or stamp duty. Solicitors conveyancing fees are the sums that the customer pays to the Thamesmead conveyancer for the legal work.
The best way to comparing Thamesmead conveyancing solicitors costs is to read the conveyancing solicitors contractual terms.
Additional fees could include fees for exchanging contracts and completing the transaction within 5 days of each other.
The shortage of existing housing stock is encouraging the construction of more new build property. Pros when looking at new build houses and flats include being chain-free, but cons may include time spent snagging, and problems that can arise as a result.
In some cases, new build homes are marketed with free or discounted legal fees, while it may be the case that developer recovers the cost of this 'offer' elsewhere, it is vital that completely independent legal advice is sought from a conveyancing solicitor. Settling for the developer's preferred solicitor may create a conflict of interest. | {
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← Paul McCulley on Bloomberg on Minsky, Liquidity Traps, Euro, and Fiscal Policy
MMP Post #10 — Keeping Track of Stocks and Flows: The Money of Account →
More Bad Beer From S&Ps David Beers
Posted on August 7, 2011 by admin | 10 Comments
Like the horrible aftertaste that comes from throwing up the contents of one's stomach after a night of binge drinking, the ratings agencies have reared their ugly heads again. David Beers, head of S&P's government debt rating unit, announced Friday night that S&P has downgraded the U.S. credit rating for the first time, from AAA to AA. It's a sham: S&P's whole analytical framework reflects ignorance about modern money. If the US government, Treasury, and the Federal Reserve, capitulate to this outrageous act of economic extortion, it will effectively be sanctioning a beer hall putsch by the rentier class.
Justifying its decision, Standard and Poor said "political brinkmanship" in the debate over the debt had made the U.S. government's ability to manage its finances "less stable, less effective and less predictable." It said the bipartisan agreement reached this week to find at least $2.1 trillion in budget savings "fell short" of what was necessary to tame the nation's debt over time and predicted that leaders would not be likely to achieve more savings in the future.
"It's always possible the rating will come back, but we don't think it's coming back anytime soon," said Beers.
Of course, the response from Treasury was equally inane:
"A judgment flawed by a $2 trillion error speaks for itself," a Treasury spokesman said last Friday.
$2 trillion, $4 trillion, who cares if the S&P is math-challenged? It's irrelevant! The notion that the US can arbitrarily summon up the ability to register $4 trillion in "savings" demanded by Standard & Poor as the price for upholding America's AAA rating is nonsensical, as it ignores the impact that the withdrawal of income will have on the overall economy and, by extension, the size of the government deficits that the ratings agencies regularly decry. An ex post outcome is never guaranteed by an ex ante action undertaken by government. In other words, it's not a number that can be controlled by the actions of political hacks in DC, so it's truly pointless debating whether S&P screwed up on its calculations or not. And in their ideological zeal to demonize public debt and budget deficits, all of the ratings agencies are by definition relying on more private sector debt to drive growth, given that this is the only way to replace the government spending withdrawn. How did that work out for us in the last decade?
Treasury would have been on stronger ground if it had simply pointed out the sterling historic track record of the ratings agencies. Recall how well the S&P (along with Moody's and Fitch) covered themselves with glory during the housing bubble, rating toxic subprime junk as AAA rated paper. Not only were the agencies politically corrupted by virtue of their incestuous ties to Wall Street, but criminally incompetent as well. Yves Smith of Naked Capitalism gives a perfect illustration of the latter:
The biggest proof of criminal incompetence was their downgrades of RMBS versus CDOs made pretty much entirely of the same RMBS. They started downgrading RMBS en masse in July 2007. They didn't start marking down CDOs until six month later, and the process took another six months. Yet it should have been impossible to downgrade the RMBS and not the CDOs at the same time. The downgrades were based on the failures of the underlying loans. You can't have it show up in one product and not the other.
And S&P continues to screw up MBS ratings in the wake of heightened scrutiny (see here).
Credit ratings are based on ability to pay and willingness to pay. And, as Alan Greenspan explained in 1997, a sovereign issuer always has the ability to pay:
[A] government cannot become insolvent with respect to obligations in its own currency. A fiat money system, like the ones we have today, can produce such claims without limit.
Whether it chooses to make those payments is another matter. But that's a matter of politics, not economics.
To be fair to Mr. Beers, his agency did specifically cite the political brinkmanship of a number of US Congressmen, who seemed far too inclined to contemplate the option of default as a means of securing greater spending cuts on the part of the US government. But that wasn't the full story. S&P placed particular emphasis on the size of the cuts, implicitly suggesting that larger cuts would have superseded the political questions. That's intellectual dishonesty at its worst.
Here are a few questions the S&P ought to have considered before it issued its debt downgrade:
Is government spending so high that it is competing with private sector spending plans? Certainly not – substantial amounts of plant and equipment remain idle, unemployment remains at depression like levels, and there is ample capacity for firms to expand if they want to do so. Businesses, however, are constrained by inadequate demand for their output, a phenomenon which would become even worse if the US were to follow the prescribed level of cuts advocated by S&P to retain its AAA rating with these economic blackmailers. That is a real cost (and it also drives those "horrible" government deficits higher, as tax revenues plunge and social welfare expenditures via the automatic stabilizers rise).
Is government issuing so much debt that it is causing interest rates to skyrocket? Not in the slightest. Rates have actually gone NEGATIVE in term yields under 12 months over the past few weeks (so much for the notion that the end of QE2 would drive rates sky-high). We have a deflation problem, not inflation. Widespread austerity of the sort now advocated by the S&P is destroying economic growth and the claims by politicians and economists that we would enjoy a "fiscal contraction expansion" if only the government stopped "crowding out" the private sector are now being revealed as bogus propaganda. And the political dysfunction that Mr. Beers describes could have easily been avoided through a number of options, which would not have left the country in the hands of irrational deficit terrorists. As Joe Firestone notes:
Treasury can cease issuing long-term bonds, and sell only three-month bonds. Three-month bond interest rates are generally controlled by overnight rates for bank reserves, and overnight rates can be driven down to near zero by flooding the banks with excess reserves. That's basically how the Japanese keep their bond interest rates near zero, and that's how we can do the same.
Firestone is right: A sovereign government like the US only sells securities in order to drain excess reserves to hit its interest rate target. It could always choose to simply leave excess reserves in the banking system, in which case the overnight rate would fall toward whatever rate the central bank offers to pay commercial banks for excess overnight reserves.
Even with our existing legal constraints (predicated on a now non-existent gold standard system in which we are forced to sell bonds before Treasury spends), Treasury/Fed have other tools to counteract the alleged effect of this downgrade. Mr. Bernanke can simply call up the NY Fed and gives Mr. Dudley instructions to buy all the 10-year UST on offer to keep the US 10 year at, say 2.5%. It is an open market operation, which the Fed performs all the time. And the banks cannot lend out these reserves, so it's not inflationary (see here for more explanation). Then, as Rob Parenteau and I have noted before, every time some so-called "bond market vigilante" tries to push it above 2.5% by shorting Treasuries, the Fed can slam their face into the concrete by having the open market desk buy the hell out of UST until the 10 year yield is back to 2.5%. Burn Fido enough times, yank his chain enough times, and like the Dog Whisperer, he gets it and stops.
Think this can't be done if the ratings agencies downgrade the US?
Japan is a perfect illustration of how little these downgrades impact borrowing rates for a sovereign government (thanks to Bill Mitchell): In November 1998, the day after the Japanese Government announced a large-scale fiscal stimulus to its ailing economy, Moody's Investors Service began the first of a series of downgradings of the Japanese Government's yen-denominated bonds, by taking the Aaa (triple A) rating away. The next major Moody's downgrade occurred on September 8, 2000.
Then, in December 2001, Moody's further downgraded the Japan Governments yen-denominated bond rating to Aa3 from Aa2. On May 31, 2002, Moody's Investors Service cut Japan's long-term credit rating by a further two grades to A2, or below that given to Botswana, Chile and Hungary. This at a time when the Japanese economy was then almost 1,000 times the size of Botswana's, had the world's largest foreign reserves, $446 billion; the world's largest domestic savings, $11.4 trillion; and about $1 trillion in overseas investments.
In a statement at the time, Moody's said that its decision "reflects the conclusion that the Japanese government's current and anticipated economic policies will be insufficient to prevent continued deterioration in Japan's domestic debt position … Japan's general government indebtedness, however measured, will approach levels unprecedented in the postwar era in the developed world, and as such Japan will be entering 'uncharted territory'."
"Uncharted territory" – well, the last time anybody looked, the Japanese government was still comfortably issuing 10-year government debt at around 1%. That Japan's debt is largely domestically held is irrelevant: the denomination of the debt, NOT the debt holder is the key consideration.
There are only two sectors to issue bonds to, the domestic private and international. US and Japan are on opposite ends of the spectrum, with the US issuing a lot to the latter (though still more domestically in fact), and Japan issuing a lot to the former. The interesting thing is that this hasn't mattered at all in the determination of rates–the key difference affecting relative interest rates between the US/Japan and, say, the periphery countries of the euro zone, has been the nature of the monetary system–the US/Japan are currency issuers under flexible foreign exchange, whilst the member states of the European Monetary Union are not. As Scott Fullwiler indicated to me in a recent email exchange, "For the former, rates follow monetary policy; for the latter, rates follow markets' perceptions of default risk. This is why for the former credit rating downgrades are complete monetary non-events, like QE. Note further that if the int'l sector were to stop buying US debt, this just means that the US trade balance improves and the breakdown of government debt sales starts to look more like Japan's."
To argue otherwise is to ignore the actual causation of the transaction, which is that China exports something to the US in exchange for dollars, and then that money goes into their checking account at the Federal Reserve. It's called a reserve account because it's the Federal Reserve, and they give it a fancy name. But in reality it is a checking account, just like you or I use. Now China has 3 choices with what they can do with the money in their checking account. They could spend it and buy real assets in the US, which would be great for our economy, or they can put it into another currency (say, euros), in which case the dollar declines, which enhances our export position, or they can put it in another account at the Federal Reserve called a Treasury security, which is nothing more than a savings account. In other words, the bond purchase, if it occurs, comes at the end of the transaction and actually 'funds' nothing.
Economist Warren Mosler has noted on numerous occasions that China and others buy US Treasury securities primarily to support the dollar versus their own currencies, and thereby drive exports to the US, and not because they are looking for safe investments per se. That is, it's a consequence of their drive for 'competitiveness' and their desire to net save in US dollars. It takes two to tango. And with no Treasury securities China would be forced to buy state debt, corporate debt, euro debt (say, Greek bonds?), equities, etc. which is highly problematic for them for a variety of reasons.
A final question for Mr. Beers: Is government spending so high that the dollar is crashing in international exchange markets? No. Certainly the dollar has its ups and downs — we've got a floating exchange rate and it is supposed to go up and down. So let's assume that our dollar falls because China no longer wishes to net save in greenbacks. In fact, this has been occurring over the past several months and the bond market has gone up during this period. If this were to go on long enough, the ultimate impact would be that our external balances improve significantly (as does the likely desire of foreigners to accumulate cheap US assets via FDI), because our exports increase, which means the current account deficit goes down and less bonds are available for China to 'fund' us".
Now that's not the way I would go as a growth strategy, as it entails a "race to the bottom" as far as wages go. Moreover, if budget deficits are not allowed to grow large enough to enable private domestic agents reduce their overall debt levels, then the economy will remain mired in its stagnant state. With austerity being pursued everywhere it is a fool's hope to think that net exports are going to swing enough to save the day. But from a straight sectoral balances point of view, IF we did export more, these increased exports would mitigate the ability of countries like Japan or China to net save in our currency. By definition, this would also correspondingly reduce their holdings in US Treasuries.
Floating rates float. This is not synonymous with economic and financial degeneracy, as our economic moralists, or the gold bugs seem to imply. Over the past 10 years, the Australian dollar has fluctuated between 50 cents to $1.08 against the greenback. The last time I looked Australia was still surviving and thriving. One can also consider the more extreme case of Russia in 1998, during which its entire financial system imploded and the ruble lost two thirds of its external value against the dollar. Yet the currency itself did not "evaporate" and the ruble remains Russia's currency unit of account today.
It is questionable how much of this deficit austerianism is ideological and how much is really a misunderstanding (an "innocent fraud" in the words of John Kenneth Galbraith). Governments around the world have been led to believe that they need to issue bonds and collect taxes to finance government spending, and that good policies should be judged by their ability to enforce fiscal austerity. Mainstream economists and ratings agencies such as S&P have guided policymakers into imposing artificial constraints on fiscal policy and government finances, such as issuing bonds when running deficits, debt ceilings, forbidding the central bank to directly buy treasury debt, allowing the markets to set interest rates on government bonds, etc. While last Friday's downgrade per se probably won't do much, if anything, to interest rates, growth, and employment, ratings agencies like the S&P reinforce the current deflationary state of affairs because their perverse rating actions simply reinforce efforts for further substantial deficit reduction and a balanced budget amendment. Ironically, if the siren songs of "sound finance" are followed, we will get exactly the outcome now predicted by the likes of Michelle Bachmann: the US WILL become like Greece.
This entry was posted in Uncategorized and tagged Uncategorized. Bookmark the permalink.
10 responses to "More Bad Beer From S&Ps David Beers"
rvm | August 7, 2011 at 12:08 pm |
Not that it matters at all, but the much bigger US Dollar denominated debt held by the rest of the world in comparison to the Japanese debt might also be explained by the world reserve currency status of the dollar.
Philip Pilkington | August 7, 2011 at 1:08 pm |
Everyone is calling bullshit on this, even Greenspan. Steve Forbes — Republican Steve Forbes — claimed that S&P were 'playing politics'.I think the real story here is that US financial institutions are fast losing credibility in the eyes of… well… everyone. Even those working within them. Maybe that, more than anything else, is what is causing the present anxiety.It's like the Soviet Union in the late-80s. All the institutions still stand but absolutely no one believes in them anymore. All there is is cynical bureaucrats jockeying for power.(P.S. I'm not saying that the US is about to suffer economic collapse like the USSR did, I'm just saying that the political and financial structures are showing the same signs of rot as those in the Soviet Union at that time).
bosscauser | August 7, 2011 at 1:49 pm |
Speaking of our export position the most interesting phenomena is Canadians invading the U.S and stripping the shelves of our retailers. I see a thousands pour in to Walmart 60 miles from the B.C – Idaho border and stock up on cigs, booze, breakfast cereal and anything else they can get their hands on.I'm told the reason is that their buck is worth $1.07 and they see everything here at a big discount from what they pay at home.I have to admit the ramification of this is stunning. I can remember exchanging a Loony for, I believe, 75 cents not long ago.
Tom Hickey | August 7, 2011 at 2:44 pm |
More self-serving neoliberal nonsense from the financial sector. Oh, and notice that much of the criticism of S$P is also moralistic, like S&P is challenging "American exceptionalism." Wake me up when there is an economic argument.
lambert strether | August 7, 2011 at 2:46 pm |
C'mon, Marshall. Say what you REALLY feel.
"You can't buy Beers — you can only rent him!"* * *Rentier geek jokes! The hour was produced the meme!
Letsgetitdone | August 7, 2011 at 6:43 pm |
"Ironically, if the siren songs of "sound finance" are followed, we will get exactly the outcome now predicted by the likes of Michelle Bachmann: the US WILL become like Greece."Thanks Marshall. And once we get that BB amendment, then they can loot us even more easily than they're doing now.
Vladimir Gagic | August 9, 2011 at 11:24 am |
I actually think Mr. Auerback is being too generous: the S&P committed conspiracy to defraud the US because they are misstating US solvency to regain credibility from their overvaluing of mortgages. I would hope the Justice Dept. seriously thinks about prosecuting them.
SEO Company | August 11, 2011 at 5:39 am |
If they can't do against that then they fall the rank down. I hope they do something, Thanks for sharing most valuable information about it.
zip codes | August 14, 2011 at 5:32 am |
we want everything to be resolved soon before its too late for America | {
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I've been on the web for several years but this is my first home page.
Because I really didn't have anything to say to anyone but I see that didn't stop the rest of you sooooo here's my page.
I moved to the mountains of NC (1999) to live amidst their beauty and to enjoy what solitude they provide. Recently, I bought the two adjoining lots (5 acres) across the road to keep someone like me from building there.
"To love the world, you have to get away from it."
The Priest from my favorite movie, The King of Hearts.
I have tried, in my way, to be free."
"You may call my love Sophia but I call my love Philosophy." | {
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Colossians 4:17 Tell Archippus: "See to it that you complete the ministry you have received in the Lord."
Tell Archippus: "See to it that you complete the ministry you have received in the Lord."
And say to Archippus: "Take heed to the ministry that you have received in the Lord, that you may fulfill it."
Remind Archippus to do the work that the Lord has given him to do.
And tell Archippus, "Be sure to finish the task you were given in the Lord's service."
Tell Archippus, "See that you complete the ministry you have received from the Lord."
And tell Archippus, "See to it that you complete the ministry you received in the Lord."
Tell Archippus to complete all the work that he started as the Lord's servant.
And say to Archippus, Take heed to fulfil the ministry which thou hast received in the Lord.
And say to Archippus, Take heed to the ministry which you have received in the Lord, that you fulfill it.
And say to Archippus: Take heed to the ministry which thou hast received in the Lord, that thou fulfil it.
Strong's Greek 751: Archippus, a Christian of Colossae. From arche and hippos; horse-ruler; Archippus, a Christian.
Strong's Greek 3880: From para and lambano; to receive near, i.e. Associate with oneself; by analogy, to assume an office; figuratively, to learn.
(17) Say to Archippus.--Archippus is included in the salutation of the Epistle to Philemon (Philemon 1:1) apparently as a member of his family, and is generally thought to have been his son. He held a "ministry in the Church. The word is the same as the word "diaconate," but it is obviously used in a more general sense, precisely as in the charge to Timothy (2Timothy 4:5), "Make full proof of thy ministry; "and the whole tone of the passage here suggests that, like Timothy's, it was a ministry of some prominence in the Church. Tradition makes him afterwards a bishop of Laodicea; it is likely enough that he had that leadership among the presbyters, from which the episcopate was developed at the close of the Apostolic period. Whether this was at Colossae--his father's native place--or Laodicea, cannot be gathered with any certainty from the context. The exhortation comes in close connection with Laodicea; yet, on the other hand, it seems strange to send through one church a message to a chief pastor of another. In any case this indirect transmission of a charge is curious, standing in marked contrast with the direct personal addresses of the Philippian Epistle (Philippians 4:2-3).
Which thou hast received in the Lord.--Properly, which thou dost receive. The probability seems to be that he received it from St. Paul, or perhaps Epaphras. The phrase is "in the Lord," not "from the Lord." Contrast Galatians 1:12, "I received it not from man, neither was I taught but by revelation of Jesus Christ."
Verse 17. - And say to Archippus, Take heed to the ministry which thou receivedst in (the) Lord, that thou fulfil it (Acts 20:28; 1 Timothy 1:18, 19; 1 Timothy 4:6, 11-16; 1 Timothy 6:13, 14, 20, 21; 2 Timothy 2:15; 2 Timothy 4:5). From the connection of this verse with the two preceding, it seems likely that "the ministry" of Archippus related to the Laodicean Church. Hence he is not addressed directly. If he was, as we gather from Philemon 1, 2, the son of Philemon, whose house formed a centre for the Colossian Church (Philemon 1:2), the warning would be suitably conveyed through this channel. In the letter to Philemon, the apostle calls him his" fellow soldier" (comp. Colossians 4:10; Philippians 1:29, 30). Both from this fact, and from the emphasis of the words before us, it would appear that his office was an important one, probably that of chief pastor. This warning addressed so early to the minister of the Laodicean Church is premonitory of the lapsed condition in which it is afterwards found (Revelation 3:14-22); see Lightfoot, pp. 42, 43. (For "ministry" (διακονία), comp. Colossians 1:7, 23; 1 Corinthians 4:1, etc. For "received," comp. note, Colossians 2:6.) "In the Lord; "for every office in the Church is grounded in him as Head and Lord (Colossians 1:18; Colossians 2:6; Colossians 3:17, 24; Colossians 4:7; Ephesians 1:22; Ephesians 4:5; 1 Corinthians 8:6; 1 Corinthians 12:5, etc.), and must be administered according to his direction and as subject to his judgment (see 1 Corinthians 3:5; 1 Corinthians 4:1-5; 2 Corinthians 10:17, 18; 2 Corinthians 13:10; Galatians 1:1; 1 Timothy 1:12; 2 Timothy 4:1, 2). "Fulfil" (comp. Colossians 1:26; 2 Timothy 4:5; Acts 12:25). This admonition resembles those addressed to Timothy in the Pastoral Epistles.
4:10-18 Paul had differed with Barnabas, on the account of this Mark, yet he is not only reconciled, but recommends him to the churches; an example of a truly Christian and forgiving spirit. If men have been guilty of a fault, it must not always be remembered against them. We must forget as well as forgive. The apostle had comfort in the communion of saints and ministers. One is his fellow-servant, another his fellow-prisoner, and all his fellow-workers, working out their own salvation, and endeavouring to promote the salvation of others. The effectual, fervent prayer is the prevailing prayer, and availeth much. The smiles, flatteries, or frowns of the world, the spirit of error, or the working of self-love, leads many to a way of preaching and living which comes far short of fulfilling their ministry. But those who preach the same doctrine as Paul, and follow his example, may expect the Divine favour and blessing. | {
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Q: How to set a whitelist in web view with Android Management API I am using Chrome Managed Configurations to set a whitelist with this code in my policy:
{
"packageName": "com.android.chrome",
"managedConfiguration": {
'URLBlacklist': ['*'],
'URLWhitelist': ['chrome://*', 'google.com', 'stackoverflow.com'],
'ForceGoogleSafeSearch': True,
'NTPContentSuggestionsEnabled': False,
}
}
Now, in the Chrome enterprise docs it says there is a way to apply the same settings to Android Web view with the com.android.browser:URLBlacklist restriction, but it does not explain where I would put this in my policy.
The following code does not work:
{
"packageName": "com.android.chrome",
"managedConfiguration": {
'com.android.browser:URLBlacklist': ['reddit.com', 'youtube.com'],
'com.android.browser:URLWhitelist': ['stackoverflow.com', 'google.com']
}
}
It shows an error in chrome://policy on the phone.
com.android.browser is not even a real app.
Where do I need to use this com.android.browser:URLBlacklist to apply restrictions to all web views on the phone?
A: You have to set the blacklist/whitelist for each app individually.
For example:
{
"packageName": "com.jetblue.JetBlueAndroid",
"managedConfiguration": {
'com.android.browser:URLBlacklist': ['*'],
'com.android.browser:URLWhitelist': ['jetblue.com']
}
}
This code blocks all domains within the JetBlue app besides for JetBlue.com
There are some things to be aware of:
1. Be careful not to block any domains the app needs to function (including login pages, etc.).
2. If an app uses a direct API to display content, not a web view, then these restrictions will not apply.
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Stevens Institute of Technology (SIT) is a coeducational, private research university in Hoboken, New Jersey. It was incorporated in 1870 and is one of the oldest technological universities in the country. SIT was also the first university in the U.S. dedicated solely to mechanical engineering, and it is home to three national Centers of Excellence as designated by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the U.S. Department of Defense. The school is also home to two Nobel Prize winners — Irving Langmuir and Frederick Reines.
Stevens Institute of Technology Accreditation Details
Stevens Institute of Technology is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education. In addition, all undergraduate and graduate business programs offered by SIT are accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB).
Stevens Institute of Technology Application Requirements
Courses in the online master's in management degree program provide a broad overview of management and business skills, making them ideal for students who have limited exposure to leadership and business concepts. To be considered for admittance into the program, students must submit a completed application as well as two letters of recommendation, an official conferment of their bachelor's degrees, an official transcript from every academic institution previously attended and an up-to-date resume.
Students pursuing a graduate degree will pay a full-time rate of $17,247 per semester and $1,554 per credit for courses above a 12-credit-hour course load. Stevens Institute of Technology offers a limited number of graduate assistantships on a merit-basis through its academic departments. Graduate students may also be eligible for certain types of federal financial aid such as work-study programs, loans and grants. In addition, SIT participates in the Yellow Ribbon Program and offers several financial and educational benefits to veterans, active service members and their dependents. Interested students should contact the Stevens Veterans Office for more information and to determine eligibility.
Online Master's in Management Degree Available
Stevens Institute of Technology offers an online Master's in Management degree that College Choice ranks as one of the best of its kind. In 2017, U.S. News & World Report ranked the program 26th in the country among best non-MBA online business programs. In addition, PayScale College ROI Report ranks the degree within the top 10 schools for the best 20-year return on investment for graduates. TFE Times ranks the Master's in Management from SIT 13th in the nation, and Value Colleges indicates that the degree is within the top 20 "Best Value Master's Programs."
The online master's degree in management from Stevens Institute of Technology helps students who have limited exposure to business as it allows them the opportunity to round out their resumes. Students will receive practical instruction that teaches them how strategy, economics, innovation and leadership shape and define the careers they will have in the industry. The collaborative emphasis of the School of Business and the interdisciplinary curriculum teachers graduates to drive change on a global scale by approaching the world looking to solve problems.
The master's degree in management is designed for students who have little to no work experience, including students with less than two years' experience, those who have just completed their undergraduate degrees and students with bachelor's degrees in non-business disciplines. Through applied, hands-on learning, coursework prepares professionals to confidently lead projects and people across the enterprise without needing to spend years catching up on these methods during evening classes.
Students seeking a management degree gain firsthand experience via a solid curriculum. In addition, students may consider adding valuable depth to their resumes by working with a company through the Field Consulting Program. This program is designed to wrap up the year-long management curriculum and provide students with the opportunity to apply their learning in a professional setting as well as meet managers with whom they work closely on the project. Upon graduation, students will receive thorough preparation for management roles within the industry.
The core curriculum covers topics such as organizational behavior and design, strategic management, economics for managers, financial decision-making, project management fundamentals, technology and innovation management, operations management and marketing management. In addition, these eight core courses are supplemented by two electives that can offer a deeper dive into leadership, information systems, analytics or project management. Students may also substitute one elective with the Field Consulting Program should they wish to work with a company and develop real-world experience.
Students will learn how to deal with the basic issues that often arise during the management of a project, and they will develop a strong foundational knowledge of conceptual and operational issues such as the project definition, plan, implementation, control and evaluation. Conceptual issues may include morale, motivation, project authority, matrix organization and hierarchal management versus project management. Graduate students seeking a career in business management must also develop the skills to be able to understand accounting terms as they relate to the past performance of a company while also projecting the future economic consequences of the firm.
In fact, the most valuable part of the online master's degree is time. Students can earn their graduate degree in one year, making it a strong complement to an undergraduate bachelor's degree. Students may also take the program fully online, an aspect that allows students to continue with their current careers and provide for their families.
In addition, the school's proximity to industries of all kinds, including technology, accounting, media and finance, creates endless opportunities for students to meet potential employers through networking sessions, special events, class projects, seminars and guest lectures. Online students who reside in the area may take advantage of these opportunities.
Related Resource: Top 30 Ranked Affordable Online Master's in Management
The online master's degree in management is all about helping students to develop the skills they need as efficiently and thoroughly as possible. The 30-credit program can be completed in just one year, allowing graduates to quickly pursue higher-level jobs or enter the workplace for the first time. Many pursuing a management degree have already earned a bachelor's degree and are hoping to secure a higher position right after they graduate. SIT boasts a nationally recognized Career Development Office where students may work on their interview and resume-writing skills. The Office may also connect students at Stevens Institute of Technology to a wide network of recruiters in both the Manhattan area and across the country. | {
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Crystal Springs Brewing Company began its life in a single-car garage up a Boulder canyon, and as its popularity grew, it was apparent that a permanent production facility and community gathering space for the beer was necessary. The company found a new home in Louisville just biking distance from downtown. The project involved a tenant finish for a two-story, 3,550 sf space, divided into two primary areas: a Tasting Room with upstairs meeting and office space, and a fully equipped Brewhouse and Cold Room in back.
The Tasting Room is designed to seat 45 guests in a variety of settings, and is equipped with a cooler, direct taps, and bar seating area. The space is meant to retain a raw, industrial feel, and will feature reclaimed-wood furnishings and an acid stained concrete floor. | {
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In 2012, STIHL Qingdao launched a very special project: planting trees on the plant premises. It serves as a visible sign of respect and appreciation that STIHL shows to its employees.
As a manufacturer of chain saws and power tools for gardening and landscaping, we at ANDREAS STIHL AG believe that we depend on a sound natural environment. We are constantly working to harmonise our business goals with environmental demands. For this very reason, STIHL is committed to making a direct contribution to environmental conservation in addition to its efforts aimed at reducing emissions resulting from processes and products. Among our many activities, we have supported the organisation Bergwaldprojekt (Mountain Forest Project) since 2006. Today, we would like to tell you a little more about this project. | {
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Bowen's disease of the nail apparatus is uncommon. Since often characteristic clinical features are missing, diagnosis and treatment are delayed. We have analyzed our patients' files from January 2001 to July 2015 for this disorder. We identified eight patients with Bowen's disease of the nail apparatus, six male and two female individuals. Fingers were more often affected than toes. The disease does not respect the anatomical borders of the nail apparatus. Therefore, we performed delayed Mohs surgery with skin grafts in seven patients and with second intention healing in one patient. Two relapses were noted but only one ate the same digit. Since relapses occurred after 2–3 years, a follow-up of such patients seems justified.
Lee JH, Lee JH, Bae JM, et al. Successful treatment of Bowen's disease with ingenol mebutate 0.05 % gel. J Dermatol. 2015. doi:10.1111/1346-8138.12936. | {
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Danganronpa The Animation Manga Volume 2 features story and art by Takashi Tsukimi.
Having lived through the first round of judgment in the trap that is Hope's Peak Academy, bonds are beginning to form among the surviving students. But the evil paws of Monokuma, the villainous bear that holds them captive, are stretched around them... one light, one dark, signifying that at this school there's only room for two kinds of students: those found innocent- and those found guilty! | {
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Richard's big day out
by Rumbold
23rd September, 2008 at 9:37 pm
Richard Barnbrook doesn't like foreigners, especially Muslims. That is why he is the BNP's London Assembly member. Yet, despite this loathing, he found time in his busy schedule to go help some foreigners in Germany (or 'Germans', as they are better known). What a nice chap. These Germans (called the Pro-Cologne group), don't like Muslims either, which was why they were trying to stop the construction of a mosque in Cologne. Richard and his new friends got on well:
(Foreigner, right)
Now Richard tells us what happened:
"Not long back from the Pro-Cologne conference which had to be abandoned due to the violent actions of thousands of specially bussed in left wing thugs."
There were thousands of you?
"On picking up The Times this morning I am left astonished about the nature of the report concerning the weekend's events."
So it wasn't a BNP propaganda piece you mean?
"I could go and spend several hours trying to put forward a case of astonishing hypocrisy."
Good idea; stick to what you know best.
Sadly, the conference descended into farce when left-wing protestors found out the location and converged on it. All the brave Islamophobes ran away, and the local businesses wouldn't even serve them a beer. Richard said the Times article failed to reflect reality, so he made up what happened (no, really). I can do no better than to quote one of the commentators on the thread:
"The somewhat important difference between your reports would appear to be that the events in one actually happened and you just made up the other.
You need to grasp the distinction between 'out there' (in the world) and 'in here' (in your mind)."
Perhaps it was simply Richard's creative side reasserting itself?
Filed in: Current affairs,Race politics,The BNP
Sid — on 24th September, 2008 at 10:45 am
Someone should tell Richard that the BNP hate poofters as much as they hate wogs.
marvin — on 24th September, 2008 at 5:00 pm
Even Charles Johnson is against it
http://littlegreenfootballs.com/article/31341_No_Fascists_No_Apology
billericaydicky — on 24th September, 2008 at 6:09 pm
A friend of mine, she's black I do have one or two, used to work at a place called the "Colony Room" run by a woman now dead called Muriel Belcher. It was the Soho drinking place for the Krays, Francis Bacon an lately people like Gilbert and George. Very bohemian ducky, if you get my drift.
Richard was a patron and always turned up pissed, usually with a rent boy in tow. At the time of the Stephen Lawrence thing the club had an exhibition about the killing a which Barnbrook made a number of racial remarks and was barred. I wonder do his friends in the BNP know about this.
Mind you it is a very badly kept secret that Nick Griffin had an affair with the NF national organiser Martin Webster. Hmmmmm?
Suzy — on 24th September, 2008 at 6:23 pm
Why are so many nazis closet gays? Is there a connection between their not accepting their sexuality and the appeal of fascism, like an unacknowledged rage or something?
My cousin who is gay says that there is a lot of unapologetic racism amongst gays.
Amrit — on 24th September, 2008 at 6:31 pm
billericaydicky — on 25th September, 2008 at 12:00 pm
Good point, someone should do a Phd on it! A friend of mine who used to be in the NF and the BNP said there were many gay men in the movement who refused to acknowledge their sexuality. I remember in the seventies that the Martin Webster I refered to always used to move around with his own personal guard dressed in leather overcoats.
In Hackney at the moment there is a real rpoblem with Bangladeshi youths attacking gay men around the Shoreditch area which has a lot of gay friendly venues.
In today's East London Advertiser two Bangladeshis have just been sent down for assaulting two gay men and another is still in a serious condition after being stabbed.
blah — on 28th September, 2008 at 7:09 pm
Apparently those protesting the march are rabid anti-semites we find so much on the left. They assualt a young Jewish man trying to join his neo-Nazi brethren in protesting against the Mooslims
Aviel, a Jewish man who was beaten up in Cologne on 20 September, explains:
"My [Jewish] friend, Michael Kucherov was the first casualty here on Friday. He got beaten up for trying to enter the first of our [=Pro Cologne] meetings on Friday. I sorely resent myself for not being there at that time for him. It rips me apart to hear about a Jew being beaten up in the streets of Germany. Well he wouldn't be the only Jew. The next day as I was trying to enter Heumarkt, I was beaten up by Antifa thugs on Eibahnstrasse. In both incidents, as we were being beaten up, they were yelling and screaming 'Nazi' which was quite odd. Michael dressed in a suit but I was wearing my kippa and quite easily identified as a Jew so you can understand how odd it seems to be beaten by Germans in the street and called Nazi when you are Jewish. Anyway, I am going home with a broken rib but my pride still intact. I could have tried to escape or run but no way no how and I going to run or get on my knees for these people. Not this Jew. And one more thing, just let them all know that we (Jews) aren't all soft. Living here in Europe, we battle thugs and islamists all the time and still ask for more. That's why I traveled from France to Germany to make this conference. We are on the frontline of a battle which grows darker by the minute."
Golam Murtaza — on 11th October, 2008 at 10:09 am
You hate Muslims so much you're willing to align yourself with neo-Nazis? Who not that long ago hated you. And probably still do secretly. Oh wonderful. So that's what Mordechai Anielewicz fought and died for… | {
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Q: NoClassDefFound : Scala/xml/metadata I'm running a simple spark program in Java (IDE : Eclipse Luna, Maven).
My Sample program is
import org.apache.spark.SparkConf;
import org.apache.spark.api.java.JavaSparkContext;
public class testSpark {
public static void main(String[] args) {
SparkConf conf = new SparkConf().setAppName("Testing").setMaster("local");
JavaSparkContext sc = new JavaSparkContext(conf);
System.out.println(sc.appName());
}
}
But I'm getting error while running my sample program
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.NoClassDefFoundError:
scala/xml/MetaData at
org.apache.spark.ui.jobs.JobsTab.<init>(JobsTab.scala:30) at
org.apache.spark.ui.SparkUI.initialize(SparkUI.scala:50) at
org.apache.spark.ui.SparkUI.<init>(SparkUI.scala:61) at
iScope.testSpark.main(testSpark.java:9)
Caused by:
java.lang.ClassNotFoundException: scala.xml.MetaData at
java.net.URLClassLoader.findClass(Unknown Source) at
java.lang.ClassLoader.loadClass(Unknown Source)
My pom.xml file is
<dependency>
<groupId>org.apache.spark</groupId>
<artifactId>spark-core_2.11</artifactId>
<version>1.2.1</version>
</dependency>
<dependency>
<groupId>com.google.guava</groupId>
<artifactId>guava</artifactId>
<version>18.0</version>
</dependency>
<dependency>
<groupId>org.apache.spark</groupId>
<artifactId>spark-mllib_2.11</artifactId>
<version>1.2.1</version>
</dependency>
A: Adding the following dependency fixed the issue for me.
<dependency>
<groupId>org.scala-lang.modules</groupId>
<artifactId>scala-xml_2.11</artifactId>
<version>1.0.6</version>
</dependency>
A: As your exception's stack trace clearly states, the problem happens when SparkUI tries to build up the Jobs Tab. For that to happen, the JobsTab class (org.apache.spark.ui.jobs.JobsTab) tries to create a page (org.apache.spark.ui.jobs.JobPage) and attach it to itself. If you look into the JobPage source code you will note that it makes heavy use of scala.xml (The Standard Scala XML Library), which you are probably missing.
As already pointed out by other contributors, adding the scala.xml library to the list of your dependencies should fix the problem. At the time of writing, the latest version is 1.2.0 for Scala 2.13 (you can check the Maven repository for updates), hence:
Maven:
<dependency>
<groupId>org.scala-lang.modules</groupId>
<artifactId>scala-xml_2.13</artifactId>
<version>1.2.0</version>
</dependency>
Gradle:
compile group: 'org.scala-lang.modules', name: 'scala-xml_2.13', version: '1.2.0'
SBT:
libraryDependencies += "org.scala-lang.modules" %% "scala-xml" % "1.2.0"
A: SparkUI seems to use a scala package, try adding this dsependency to your pom file to put the scala.xml package on your classpath.
<dependency>
<groupId>org.scala-lang</groupId>
<artifactId>scala-xml</artifactId>
<version>2.11.0-M4</version>
</dependency>
A: you need to add the class or .jar file which contains this class into the java classpath.
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Přírodní památka Hrádek se nalézá v opuštěném andezitovém lomu na návrší v intravilánu obce Bánov v okrese Uherské Hradiště. Již v pozdní době kamenné bylo návrší opevněno, do dnešní doby se dochovaly nepatrné zbytky valů hradiště a ve středověku zde stával strážní hrad. Chráněné území je ve správě Krajského úřadu Zlínského kraje.
Předmět ochrany
Předmětem ochrany je pozůstatek projevu třetihorní vulkanické činnosti v oblasti Hlucké pahorkatiny, odkrytý v andezitovém lomu, ve kterém byla ukončena těžba v 50. letech 20. století. Lokalita byla poté z větší části zavezena a rekultivována, odkryta zůstala jen horní část lomové stěny. Nacházejí se zde balvanité vulkanické brekcie, tvořené bloky a úlomky biotit-pyroxenických andezitů, dále vypálených jílovců neboli porcelanitů a pískovců nivnického souvrství bělokarpatské jednotky. Přírodní památka Hrádek představuje jeden z výchozů neovulkanitů, vyskytujících se východně od Uherského Brodu po obou stranách tzv. nezdenického zlomu v prostoru Bánov - Komňa - Bojkovice. Další podobnou lokalitou je přírodní památka Skalky, která se nachází zhruba 1,5 km východně od Bánova.
Flóra
Lom zarůstá náletovými dřevinami a popínavými rostlinami.
Fauna
Z ohrožených druhů hmyzu se zde vyskytují především motýli, např. otakárek fenyklový (Papilio machaon) a otakárek ovocný (Iphiclides podalirius).
Odkazy
Reference
Externí odkazy
Přírodní památky v okrese Uherské Hradiště
Chráněná území ve Vizovické vrchovině
Chráněná území vyhlášená roku 2002
Lomy v okrese Uherské Hradiště
Geologické lokality ve Zlínském kraji
Bánov | {
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Discussion in 'Trucks and Trailers' started by woodlawnservice, Jan 15, 2018.
Been quite a few yrs since i had to tear any trailers down but after enough "patching", this yr was time to tear out some floors and all new paint and decals on all our trailers.. this one is just a 16' landscaping trailer we put a new floor.in, modified the racks, and fabricated a stand to mount the skid sprayer on to make it sit higher up in the trailer..
That looks good I plan to do exact same to mine. Did you paint with brush. I plan to use solid metal on sides instead of stretch metal so I can haul dirt gravel etc,if necessary.
You Can Find Me In The Basement!!!!
I have zero experience with spay gun....what kind did you use?
Any comment on this turbine spray set up? Seems like the advantage with turbine is less paint going up into air? If I guessed this unit might clog more may be a problem?
I mainly paint small stuff usually use spray can or hand paint. Is compressed air with one the HVLP gravity fed spray guns good enough? Forget the turbine? | {
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End-User License Agreement for consumers accessing public MLS and broker web sites, including Broker Reciprocity sites
To satisfy the requirements of RMLS policy (1) This agreement must be available to consumers before they are able to see the IDX data and must be available for review at the beginning of each visit by the consumer. (2) The consumers must assent affirmatively to the terms by clicking a button that prominently says I AGREE. (3) Failure of a consumer to assent to the terms must result in no further access to the data for that consumer.
This can be done unobtrusively by putting a link above the 'Search' button on the search page. The link could say "I have read and agree to the terms of the license agreement" (with "license agreement" linked to the full text of the EULA). The language used in the agreement must be exactly the language presented below, unless RMLS approves alterations in writing in advance.
Required Agreement text
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Identifying and legend fuse box Dodge Charger, Dodge Magnum 2005 2010. Skip to content. Fuse box diagram. Menu. Alfa Romeo; ... Fuses and relay Dodge Ram 2009 2016.
Find great deals on eBay for 2009 dodge fuse box. Shop with confidence. | {
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Charming boutique hotel located on the north bank of River Jihlava in historically significant Jewish Quarter which was included in the prestigious UNESCO World Heritage List in 2003. Location gives you opportunity to wander through narrow alleys and passages that date back to the Middle Ages.
Recently refurbished 19th century building, offers you comfortable stay in fully furnished and decorated rooms.
We are family friendly: Kid's menu options, toys for our younger customers and high-chair for the very young. Also dogs are allowed and welcomed on our restaurant's premises. | {
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The 929 got my vote. Looking good.
Bindelsf2 is that your bike in the super streetbike magazine this month in readers ride?
There are some nice bikes this month.
I am a 954 rider but I had to go with Bindelsf2 this mo. that paint is PIMP.
i nominated dementedf3 for ROTM like 3 times. poor guy doesnt get a break. its a damn bad *** bike. and love the 2 tone paint on the tail of havoc's f4i. looks like im gonna get my *** handed to me.
thanks. hey dimented is that a setback plate under your rearsets? the polished thing underneath your rearsets. | {
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This is the end of the tutorial. I'd like to write some more extensive examples of how to create a complete game in the engine, can't find the time for this atm. The tutorial itself can probably be improved in many points. Please email me about things that weren't clear or that you would like to see.
Bento itself is not perfect by all means and still in development. The engine is actually based on Glue, which I worked on in the past. I ironed out a lot of ideas, but some troublesome elements still remain.
Entities are too bulky atm. E.g. origin, position and boundingbox are integrated standardly, but ideally they should be components. This however, created circular dependencies, since these three are very closely related in many aspects. Components ideally should be independent from eachother. I'm sure there is an elegant solution for this!
Lots of getters and setters (such as getPosition) could be better integrated as object property or as components.
Component initialization is a messy thing that still needs to be ironed out. When exactly should a component initialize for example? When an entity is added to the game or attached to another entity, the event that propagates through the scenegraph is not always relevant to the component. I noticed this was particularly true for the clickable component.
Hierarchical Spatial Hash Grid (https://github.com/kirbysayshi/HSHG) was added, but was deeply integrated in the object manager. Could/should this be moved to a component?
The root of the scenegraph is the object manager, but is not part of the scene graph...! The object manager itself should perhaps be an entity (it is not, currently) or at least able to implement some components so root transformations are possible.
Pixi integration is not very smooth, as it's not a stateless rendering engine. It has its own scene graph which poses some difficulties. Definitely not impossible though, so far I can sort of work around the other scene graph, but it's not ideal.
Some modules are not part of Bento yet, though I already wrote some. Such as the text module. | {
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Osa zla ( Axis of evil) je termín používaný bývalým prezidentem USA George W. Bushem. Podle něj jsou to státy, které napomáhají terorismu (např. tím, že poskytují zázemí teroristům a teroristickým organizacím) a vyrábějí zbraně hromadného ničení. Bush v projevu, ve kterém poprvé použil tohoto spojení, jmenoval za státy osy zla Irák, Írán a Severní Koreu. Autorem jeho řeči z 29. ledna 2002 a tedy i autorem tohoto termínu je David Frum.
Velvyslanec Spojených států u OSN John Bolton později k těmto státům přidal další tři: Kubu, Libyi a Sýrii.
Od roku 2002 byly ze seznamu států podporujících terorismus vyškrtnuty dva státy: Irák a Libye. Irák byl dobyt USA v roce 2003 a nyní jej spravuje proamerická vláda. Libye byla ze seznamu vyškrtnuta v roce 2006, kdy její čelný představitel Muammar Kaddáfí začal se Spojenými státy spolupracovat a zastavil zbrojní programy této země.
Státy stojící proti "ose zla" americká propaganda označovala termínem koalice ochotných.
Severní Korea
Na podzim roku 2007 měla být ze seznamu zemí podporujících terorismus "vyškrtnuta" Severní Korea, Spojené státy vzápětí tuto zprávu dementovaly. Severní Korea v reakci na nemožnost přímého nepodmíněného jednání vypověděla trilaterální smlouvu o nukleárním odzbrojování a ke konci září 2008 obnovila jaderný program v Jongbjonu a mezinárodní pozorovatele agentury pro atomovou energii vykázala. Později USA vyšly Severní Koreji vstříc a prezident Bush ji vyškrtl ze seznamu zemí podporujících terorismus za podmínek, že Korea bude odzbrojovat a spolupracovat s mezinárodními inspektory. Bohužel ani to se nestalo a Severní Korea čelila v roce 2013 tlaku ostatních zemí za obnovení svého jaderného programu.
Odkazy
Reference
Literatura
LAURENT, E., Tajný svět George W. Bushe
Související články
Říše zla
Externí odkazy
Jak byla vynalezena Bushova 'osa zla'
The link between US-targeted troublespots and the euro
Válka proti terorismu
Zprávy o stavu Unie
Anglická slova a fráze
Mezinárodní vztahy v roce 2002
Komunismus
Socialismus
Islamismus
Neologismy
Válka v Iráku
Propaganda
George W. Bush | {
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Our most sophisticated and top notch bag! Outer pockets, inner pockets, string clip for your keys, pouch, whatever! A nostalgic design with a 2018 twist; waterproof, machine washable, eco-friendly and fabulous <3 Great diaper bag, gym bag or book bag. If you love this color pallet but not this designs maybe you'll like our Mojave Zippy Tote. | {
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As climate change continues to steadily impact life on earth we are only slowly discovering its effects on many facets of plant growth and distribution. A recent example of this is the discovery that despite increases in wood volume, forest trees in Central Europe are showing a reduction in overall density that was found to have been occurring for over 100 years.
Researchers at the Technical University of Munich carried out their study in Central European forests covering some of the oldest surviving experimental plots in Europe. This area contains the dominant species: Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H.KARST.), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), and sessile oak (Quercus petraea (MATTUSCHKA) LIEBL.) In total 41 monospecific stands were sampled containing 13 Norway Spruce, 11 Scots pine, 9 Sessile oak and 8 European Beech, covering 13 ecoregions and 17 sub-ecoregions. Ages of sampled trees ranged from 31-194 years old. For each tree sampling involved taking an increment core at breast height designed to capture as many growth rings as possible. A LIGNOSTATION™ high frequency densitometer was used to calculate wood density along the sample by analysing the level to which a 10 MHz signal is propagated through the wood. Density was determined for each ring in a given core in three values: mean wood density (MWD), earlywood density (EWD) and latewood density (LWD).
The results showed that all dominant species have been decreasing in wood density for over 100 years. Reductions in tree density for each species were as follows; Norway spruce (7.7%), European beech (11.8%), sessile oak (11.2%) and scots pine (5.4%). Despite the decrease in wood density, overall biomass still increased for all species studied due to an increase in volume growth rate; the result of longer growing seasons, warmer temperatures and higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations.
The reduction in density was thought to have been caused by higher N-deposition, temperature increases and longer growing seasons. The authors also reported that decreased latewood strongly contributed to a reduction in overall wood density, suggesting an increased role for temperature as it has previously been linked to changes in average and latewood density. Wood density was also found to be impacted by ring width; the authors propose that by reducing stand density, the subsequent increase in growth ring size may offset the decrease in density.
The reduction in overall and late wood density naturally translates into a lower stiffness and strength for affected trees. For a controlled stem diameter and annual ring width, tree stability against windthrow, woodstrength, energy content and C sequestration are all reduced leaving the trees at an increased risk of snow and storm damage. The plots sampled covered roughly 7,000,000 ha making the results of this study more widely applicable for the species studied across all central European conditions. The sample areas chosen mean the authors were able to rule out silvicultural interventions as the cause for this loss of density, suggesting it to be the effect of environmental variables. In summary, the key message of this study is that it is inaccurate to use historical statistical values for wood density – similar to growth rate, density calculations need to be monitored and updated to produce accurate estimates of carbon sequestration and biomass production both for science and management. | {
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Advancing Security Worldwide ®
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SM Weekly
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Illustration by Stephanie Dalton Cowan
Calm in the Crucible
By Clint Hilbert
Print Issue: September 2017
On July 12, 2006, fighting between the Israeli army and the Lebanese militant group Hezbollah suddenly erupted and started to spread. Hezbollah fired rockets and anti-tank missiles; Israel responded with airstrikes and artillery fire, and later launched a ground invasion of southern Lebanon. The 2006 Lebanon War raged on for 34 days before the United Nations brokered a ceasefire.
I received word of the fighting shortly before the news reports hit. I was GE's divisional global security director at the time, based at the corporate headquarters building of General Electric (GE) Healthcare in Waukesha, Wisconsin. I was responsible for the security and wellbeing of employees at more than 600 properties around the world, including three sites in Israel and one in Lebanon. Calls were coming in from both sides of the battle; many employees were at risk of losing their lives.
However, as the war entered its tenth day, we had relocated more than 1,000 employees and family members out of harm's way, with the help of our corporate executive team and several strategic partners. This wasn't an easy task. We were able to continue basic operations with minimal losses in Israel, but all activity in Lebanon came to an abrupt stop. What further complicated matters was the U.S. government's refusal, or inability, to assist with any form of safe passage from Lebanon. Still, we were able to complete relocations by using several dangerously remote and unpopulated routes to reach Jordan through Syria.
An event of this magnitude—an actual war—is difficult to navigate, and can be wholly draining. While the war crisis proceeded, the company continued to operate, so long hours were a requirement. For three days after that first call, I didn't get many chances to sleep.
Managing a serious crisis as a group leader can be stressful, both physically and emotionally. It is crucial to recognize that your effectiveness in successfully leading others will diminish if you openly demonstrate indecisiveness, emotional frailty, and operational ignorance during the event.
But it is also important to realize that crisis leadership begins long before the actual crisis occurs. The right preparation is essential for being an effective crisis leader, and for a security executive this groundwork can start from day one on the job. By focusing on preparation, and by consistently practicing certain management best practices, managers can greatly improve their chances of being an effective crisis leader. This article explores these practices and preparation, including building technical expertise, assessing situations, developing relationships with key stakeholders, and training for emergencies.
Build Expertise
Knowing the business you support is the most critical factor to your success as a crisis management leader. Thus, if you're new to an organization, you should dedicate as much time as possible in your first three months to learning all you can about every facet of the business—from sales to production to market share—and meeting the people who are the driving forces in those areas.
In my career, I have had the opportunity to manage security programs for several companies in completely different vertical markets. Each market change required extended study time. There's a huge variance in the operational methodologies of security programs at a hospital and a nuclear power plant, for example. Although the core principles of security can be applied to any industry, each line of business retains its own unique characteristics and regulatory framework.
Besides operational knowledge, you must also develop relationships with most of the key process and resource owners who support the business's primary missions. Once those relationships are established, you should then strive to understand the secondary and tertiary levels of operations, resources, and personnel necessary to keep the business going.
In addition, you should also learn some basic business continuity planning skills and conduct a few business impact assessments. These will allow you a fuller understanding of the potential vulnerabilities and the gaps that may exist in business operations, the contingency plans themselves, and the resource base that will be available when a crisis occurs.
However, conducting a business impact assessment of your company can be a daunting task if you attempt to assess the whole business in a single review. And it can be almost impossible to complete without the full cooperation of nearly everyone in your company. Instead, consider focusing on key revenue streams, products or services that define the company, and significant vulnerabilities that could interrupt these streams and services—such as the sudden loss of a single-sourced major component, a labor disruption, or a stoppage in distribution channels. Even if the assessment seems to have little to do with traditional security activities, it is a great way to learn about the inner workings of your company.
For example, after the Great Tohoku Earthquake struck Japan on March 11, 2011, I was working as a security manager at Paramount Pictures. Due to the earthquake, almost all of the film industry's specialized magnetic recording and video storage tape became unavailable. Sony, with its entire tape manufacturing business located in Japan, was the exclusive maker of such tape, and its production stopped cold.
This was a supply chain crisis for sure, and we at Paramount were scrambling for tapes. Fortunately, our security team had enough operational and business continuity knowledge to know where to look and who to call. By volunteering to help secure tapes for the many television productions on the lot, our team knew where to find hundreds of new and reusable tapes in dozens of secure storage locations. It was like an Easter egg hunt gone wild. Armed with this knowledge and with very little effort, the security department was able to secure dozens of the remaining tapes, which kept our production teams going until other recording methods were found.
Sometimes, it takes great effort to avoid being constrained into a departmental silo and stuck in the dark when it comes to internal business workings. But the effort is worth it. Get out there and mingle, don't be afraid to ask questions and build relationships and alliances. Learn the business so you can contribute to its survival.
Assess Situations
Another important component of crisis leadership preparation is staying current on domestic and international events, especially if your company is a global one. Third-party providers of intelligence and communications services can be useful here. Many of these providers even offer crisis forecasting by region and country to keep your team abreast of problem areas.
This global understanding, combined with business knowledge, will allow you to see the big picture and anticipate which operations might be interrupted if a crisis starts to unfold.
Moreover, demonstrating this knowledge improves your chances of being part of the inner circle at your business. For example, as a matter of practice, GE security leaders routinely gathered for periodic operational continuity development sessions. In these meetings, we shared intelligence derived from in-country leaders, paid global intelligence services, and geopolitical analysts. At the first signs of trouble—what we called "a smoldering issue"—the affected business units were identified, and key revenue processes were analyzed for potential impacts and vulnerabilities.
Often, a smoldering issue has the potential to challenge several exposed operational and distribution channels, and the material or human resources they contain. Thus, effective coordination and communication is critical during these initial stages.
Develop Relationships
With sufficient business knowledge and a global understanding, you will be in a position to advise the C-suite on events once a crisis starts to unfold and help your firm be active rather than reactive.
However, this cannot happen if organizational leaders reject an inclusionary approach when it comes to crisis leadership. For example, early in my career, the company I worked for decided to move forward on a major acquisition—the purchase of a competitor's remanufacturing division. In general, not all security departments are included in every C-suite function; some do not get much visibility into major corporate decisions. This held true in our particular case because the security team was not part of the company's diligence support team. Furthermore, the security team was not included in the company's crisis response team, which consisted mostly of legal and financial leadership, supported by communications and customer relations staff.
As a result, the security team was unable to flag any discrepancies that might have shown up in the due diligence process. The division that was purchased turned out to be a fraudulent shell company. When news of the bad purchase reached the press a few days later, our firm suffered a severe financial loss and some reputational damage to its brand.
The incident illustrates the importance of maintaining a wide representation of all business functions on a crisis management team. By emphasizing teamwork and relationship building, a manager can help develop and maintain collaborative channels that will be invaluable during a crisis. Moreover, a well-structured and collaborative crisis management team can incorporate the use of predictive tools, such as event forecasting and analysis, that maximize the chances of avoiding a crisis in the first place.
Even so, if a crisis does occur, successful collaboration between many stakeholders is usually a prerequisite for formulating an acceptable and viable solution. An effective crisis management leader knows where to go to seek out advice from others when considering options to present to company leaders. While it is often necessary to quickly provide solution options during a crisis, it is also advisable for managers to carefully consider all security-based spending decisions, which can sometimes be driven more by fear than by reason after a major event
Once options have been considered and a response plan is approved, a manager needs strong interactive leadership skills to ensure that others buy in and follow the course laid out. As the example of the shell company purchase shows, a collaborative effort can be quickly derailed by preventing a single department, which might hold a critical part of the solution, from participating.
Good leaders make intelligent decisions; great leaders do so consistently. The combination of business operations knowledge and current event understanding will help a security leader make better decisions.
But in the final analysis, leadership is not about making the best decision possible in every instance, or about always being the smartest person in the room. It's ultimately about your ability to earn the trust of others to the point where they will willingly follow you. Here, effective communication is vital.
In July 2005, four suicide bombers armed with rucksacks full of explosives detonated bombs on the London Underground that killed 52 people and injured hundreds more. Within four hours of the bombings, our security team at GE Healthcare was able to quickly identify—from a pool of roughly 45,000 employees —that 483 were confirmed or expected to be traveling in or about London that day for work. Using our mass communication system, we located all but nine employees on business travel that were in London or had passed through London within an eight-hour window of the bombings.
By other means, we quickly confirmed that the remaining nine travelers were safe. Additionally, some of our employees on personal leave and vacation were traveling in London that day. Because those employees had included their private cell phone numbers in the company's emergency notification system, we were able to receive confirmations that they, too, were safe.
On the other hand, sometimes crisis pressure can lead to costly communication errors. Take for example, one of the most high-profile crisis situations in recent memory, the 9/11 terrorist attacks. After the planes hit the towers, one senior security manager of a major corporation in New York was overheard saying, "We're being attacked! I don't think anyone's gonna make it out of Manhattan!" The comment started a panic in the entire office building, which took hours to calm.
The example shows that even accomplished managers can succumb to pressure. However, specialized crisis management leadership training can be invaluable in reducing the chances of this happening. Communication is often an important component of this type of training; many programs provide guidance on how bad news can be communicated without embellishment, panic, or fear, and how correct communication can provide stability and hope by demonstrating a confident resolve—indicating that something is being done immediately, or will be in the near future.
In addition, crisis training helps managers better understand the anatomy of a crisis, which is an essential element in remaining rational and functioning calmly. Drills can help build response memory, which in turn helps a leader avoid freezing or panicking.
In cases where in-house crisis training is unavailable, security managers should consider building their own training. With a little research online about crisis management planning, managers can first assemble the basics: contact sheets, resource directories, contingency plans, meeting schedules, and organizational charts. Then, with help from both the legal and human resource departments, the manager can coordinate partnerships with local emergency service and communication providers, and design some crisis training exercises.
Becoming skilled at anything takes practice, and crisis management leadership is no exception. If you ever find yourself in a room filled with managers trying to solve a major problem, don't be shy; step up to the plate and share your knowledge and experience, and contribute something. This will build on your experience base, and allow you to practice being in crisis situations.
In the end, the best coaches are those who prepare, know the rules inside and out, and can lead their players strategically. Stopping in the middle of a crisis to learn more about the business, means you haven't learned the business well enough and you aren't prepared to lead.
Clint Hilbert is the owner of Corporate Protection Technologies, a North Carolina-based private investigation firm. He has served as a security executive for General Electric, Pacific Gas and Electric, and Paramount Pictures. Earlier in his career, he was a commander of protective services for the U.S. Delegation to NATO for the U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Command.
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Copyright © 2019 ASIS International | {
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A cute joint leg owl that is not only a unique decor piece but also a joy to play with. The childlike nature, hand painting and loose joints make for a special item that is just as great for you as it is for a gift.
NB* Please note: Size of items shown may vary as these are handcrafted, one off and unique pieces, however, we do endeavor to give you the precise option selected. | {
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Congratulations! If you are watching this programme you must have survived the many calamities that have struck the Earth in 2015.
The idea that climate change can cause earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or tsunamis seems, at first sight, to be outlandish. How can we confirm that the thin layer of gas that envelops our planet has an effect on the huge processes that take place deep beneath the Earth's crust?
This year's El Niño pattern is likely the most powerful on record and affects, like never before, weather around the world. This anomaly pushes cyclones out of their usual paths, changes the level of the sea in local areas and moves areas of precipitation and drought.
The year 2015 has seen extremely violent climactic and geological phenomena - earthquakes in Nepal, extreme drought in California, Cyclone Pam in Vanuatu, a heatwave in Europe, the eruption of the Calbuco volcano in Chile and of Bardarbunga in Iceland.
Stunning 4K images shot in far flung and hostile corners of our planet, international experts and state of the art graphics decipher the secrets of our biosphere: the thin layers of rock and gas below and above our feet are seriously intertwined, responding to rapid changes.
2015 will remain in climate archives as a tipping point – the point beyond which it is too late to stave off catastrophic global warming… For good reasons: the average temperature of our atmosphere has increased by 1°C since the industrial revolution… achieving half of the way towards the dangerous 2°C threshold.
We have already witnessed some extremely unusual climatic events: the worst Cyclone to hit Vanuatu Islands, the more eastern Hurricane ever (in Capo Verde), the worst forest fires in California and the most extreme temperatures in Western Europe on record, the worst El Nino phenomenon ever… to cite a few.
Are these events some tell-tale signs of what the future holds in store?
Most of 2015 geological events have occurred in areas affected by a rapid melting of glaciers – the most sensitive indicator of climate change: the volcanic eruption of Bardarbunga in Iceland and Calbuco in Chile, and, the most lethal of all, Nepal's earthquakes which killed more than 8 000 citizens.
The sheer weight of glaciers depresses the crust underneath them: unload them, and the crust rebounds…sometimes violently, creating volcanic eruption or earthquakes.
According to a panel of scientists, this so-called glacial isostatic adjustment is not limited to an upward rebound movement. Discover how it also involves horizontal crustal movements, changes in global sea level, inducing earthquakes and even changes in the rotational motion.
Are we currently waking the giant beneath our feet ? | {
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Q: use of $_GET to get value in same page in php? I am writing a code to perform action in php. When i started the page it shows the error below:
Notice: Undefined index: action in D:\page.php on line 19 for the $action.
and when the action occurs it does not show for the $dev also. When i start the page there is no action and no $dev on the page.
So the error shows. how can i fix the problem ?
<?php
$action = $_REQUEST['action'];
$dev =$_GET['dev'];
if ($action == "viewfootage"){
}
A: You need to check for the existence of $_REQUEST['action'] and $_GET['dev'] using the isset function
if(!isset($_REQUEST['action']))
$action="";//or any value for which you capture the desired output
Same thing goes for $_GET['dev]
If you want to check for all variable in one line use logical OR operator
if(!isset($_REQUEST['action']||!isset($_GET['dev']))
A: Use
if(isset($_REQUEST['action']))
{
$action = $_REQUEST['action'];
$dev =$_GET['dev'];
if ($action == "viewfootage"){
}
}
A: Use this :
if(isset($_REQUEST['action']))
{
$action = $_REQUEST['action'];
$dev = $_GET['dev'];
if ($action == "viewfootage"){
}
}
Check whether the url consists of action and dev params
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Everyone loves their home looking stylish and neat. Whether it be by buying vintage furniture or by using different lighting styles in your house ;whatever your preferences are.
How Lava lamp bong Can Make Your Room Beautiful?
Alien lava lamps are among the unique kind of lighting that you can offer to your room, usually comprising of a cone-molded base that encompasses a light bulb. | {
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Valencia Essays
Posted in Theology
EDNAS AWAKENING ESSAY
admin July 16, 2019 Leave a comment
She discovers that she is incomplete being just a wife and a mother. After the swim, Edna had gained confidence in her solitude that translated into her life immediately when she refuses to get into the marriage bed even after Leonces demands. In "Awakening" by Kate Chopin, Edna Pontellier is "awake", recognizing that she is not a husband but a person. She also experienced a struggle to get rid of social constraints. Wisdom gained through time. Awakening began at a resort in Oshima. She hopes to rebel what she wants, not to answer anyone, and society wants her to be a "mother".
In her Victorian culture, women are the belongings of men and have no claims to their own lives, nor have they any means to their own wants and needs; this was the custom everyone had grown up on, the custom everyone was used to. In many cases, we will not choose our own position, but we still have an obligation to fill it. Click to learn more https: Though starting simply as the odd one out among the mother-women, she becomes the lone rebel across the societal boundaries. This is just a sample from a fellow student.
If you contact us after hours, we'll get back to you in 24 hours or less. There was with her an overwhelming feeling of awakeninv.
Should she kiss, or in this case, marry, whether or not it is love? When asked why Reisz loves Robert to Edna, Edna said, "Why is that because the hair is brown and it is away from the temple, because my eyes are closed and my esszy are closed, my nose is a bit jerky "The complex details that she previously ignored will be in love with only the artists concentrating.
FORMATO DE CURRICULUM VITAE LUCAS5
We use ednqs to give you the best experience possible. Accessed May 23, The music played by Mademoiselle Rice awakens the soul of Edna.
Here is a distinguished statesman with presidential possibilities; I shall proceed to fall in love with him. Robert was esaay game at first, but once he met Edna, he was shocked by her beauty and he began to change his own way.
To escape, Miss Pontellier left her family and moved to "pigeon".
In the novel The Awakening by Kate Chopinthe illuminating episode is when Edna has an epiphany after swimming out into ewsay sea. Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you.
However, Edna's suicide was only her last attempt to escape her life. When she thought about Robert, Edna was in a fantasy world. She believes that Edna is a bird seeking habits away from society and her responsibilities as a wife and mother. The touch of the sea is sensuous, enfolding the body in its soft, close embrace. Her marriage to Leonce was more a social convention than it was a loving relationship, as if she only married because it was the thing to do.
Soon enough though, that Robert would leave her just as abrupt and cruel as the original one had. Pontellier was forced to admit she knew of none better. Edna stands under this symbol of love, she is faced with a dilemma.
But Edna does not understand Mislead's advice. The other characters cannot accept that Edna has achieved something on her own; therefore, they attempt to give credit to themselves for the accomplishment. They are considered good daughters, good wives, good mothers. We follow the path without questioning its intent.
Mental awakening, she strives to find her own space for the universe beyond the scope of social norms. The episode is necessary as it enables Chopin to later uncover that women should act upon feelings of individuality and sexuality.
EPQ DISSERTATION EDEXCEL
Some wdnas to chase after a dream while others are more apt to cope with reality.
Edna's Swim: The First Step in Her "Awakening": Essay Example, words GradesFixer
Later in rediscovering music and art, she also shirks all responsibility as a wife and mother, ignoring her expected duties in order to concentrate on eednas painting. These are emotions which she does not usually experience, and which would not be considered appropriate for a woman of her status to be feeling. Edna feels empowered by her newfound-skill and thus is launched on her path to her self-discovery.
At that time, women in history, women did what they had to do.
Awakening By Edna Pontellier Essay
Leave your email and we will send you an example after 24 hours Therefore, Edna ignored his duty as a "mother and daughter" and awaening to change his life such as moving to his own house. Before Edna began discovering herself, she fell into the desire to explore herself and the desire to more fully desire the reality and life of a Victorian woman. As Adna advanced further in the awakening, she became increasingly dissatisfied with the life she led. She gained freedom, wwakening she must fly and misunderstand by herself.
Master's or higher degree.
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LITERATURE REVIEW ON ZOBO | {
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This name is in version 1.1 of The Plant List, record kew-2714249, and has not been changed.
Chaerophyllum karsianum Kit Tan & Ocakv.
The record derives from WCSP (in review) which reports it as an accepted name with original publication details: Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 44: 160 1986 .
Full publication details for this name can be found in IPNI: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:930873-1. | {
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European gas prices soar: Ukraine warns of Russian pressure
Nord Stream 2 Vessel Castoro 10 doing a AWTI in the Baltic Sea close to Ruegen (11.08.19) Press photo: Axel Schmidt/Nord Stream 2.
Ukraine says that Russia is causing the current crisis by not supplying enough gas and that they are doing so to push for the completion of Nord Stream 2.
As winter is coming, the European gas prices are reaching record highs. UBN writes how the gas prices in Europe yesterday exceeded $1,000 per 1,000 cubic meters, and the high prices haven't gotten unnoticed among politicians in Europe and Ukraine.
Olha Stefanishyna, the Ukrainian deputy prime minister, told EUobserver that the gas prices are manipulated by Russia.
"We can see what's happening with the gas prices, which we treat as an incident of hybrid warfare, basically… the signal Russia is sending to European capitals is: 'We're really manipulating prices, so you should launch Nord Stream 2 to stabilize the prices'. This is a clear narrative for us," said Stefanishyna, calling for the EU to put its foot down.
Natural gas prices in (USD/MMBtu) by Tradingseconomics:
She is not the only Ukrainian pointing fingers at Russia. Sergiy Makogon, CEO of Ukraine's transmission system operator GTSOU, recently wrote a piece in the Atlantic Council, arguing that Russia is tightening its grip on the European gas market.
"Nord Stream 2 is not yet operational, but the Kremlin's tightening grip on energy supplies is already being felt across Europe. The price of gas futures continues to hit record highs and has increased by over 600% in a matter of twelve months," Makogon wrote.
"What we are currently witnessing in Europe is a rerun of the oil shocks America experienced in the 1970s. The commodity is different, the safeguards are stronger, but the underlying dynamics are the same," he added.
No shortage of capacity
Makogon clarifies that there isn't any lack of capacity in the transit network and that it is instead the Russians who is to blame for the shortages and high prices in Europe.
"Allowing the completion of Nord Stream 2 was always a terrible idea. Doing so under pressure from the Kremlin would set a dangerous precedent well beyond the realm of energy that Germany and Europe will inevitably come to regret," he argues.
In contrast, the Russian state-owned gas company Gazprom says that it "is supplying gas in accordance with requests of consumers according to current contractual commitments." Kremlin Spokesman Dmitry Peskov recently said that the completion of Nord Stream 2 would positively affect the gas prices in Europe.
"Obviously, the commissioning of Nord Stream 2 as soon as possible will substantially balance natural gas price parameters in Europe, including on the spot market," he said.
Not everyone says it is Russia
While Ukraine is pointing its fingers at Russia, others claim that there are more reasons for the increasing gas prices in Europe. In an article in Al Jazeera, Jeff Currie, global head of commodities research at Goldman Sachs Group Inc., says that the rising costs are also due to "the war on climate change, the war on income inequality."
"All of these dynamics lead to a structural rise in commodity demand against this whole idea of the revenge of the old economy," he added.
The investment company S&P Global recently wrote that Russia holds the key to fixing the crisis no matter what is the reason for the current spike in prices.
"While European gas and power supply and demand hangs in balance, market participants look to controversial Nord Stream 2 for a sign of hope, as the project enters certification proceedings," they wrote.
Ekspert: Nedgang i industrien har en forklaring
Grønlandsk film vinder pris på Kyiv Kortfilmsfestival
Større samarbejde mellem Finland og Ukraine
Parlamentet vedtager ny aftale om grøn energi: Giver lidt ro i maven
EU til Rusland: Åben op for strædet igen | {
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Holiday Home Vallee de Rabais.28 is located in Virton and offers a garden. The property is 15 miles from Arlon, and private parking is featured. The vacation home features 2 bedrooms, a TV and a fully equipped kitchen that provides guests with a microwave. The vacation home also has a bathroom with a shower. The vacation home has a playground. Esch-sur-Alzette is 26 miles from Holiday Home Vallee de Rabais.28, while Torgny is 8 miles away. | {
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San Francisco, California. U.S.A. • mmonk/Flickr
Home›Destinations›North America›USA›California›San Francisco›Things to See›Pier 39
Architectural Highlights
Neighborhoods Worth a Visit
Especially for Kids
San Francisco› Attraction
On the waterfront at the Embarcadero and Beach St
About our rating system
Our Rating Hours Shops daily 10am–9pm, with extended hours during summer and on weekends. Restaurant hours vary. Transportation Bus: 8X, 39, or 47. Streetcar: E/F. Cable car: Powell-Mason. Phone 415/705-5500 Web site Pier 39 Other Parking: Pier 39 Garage across the street (1 hr. parking free with validation for diners at full-service Pier 39 restaurants)
Anchoring the eastern boundary of Fisherman's Wharf, Pier 39 is a multilevel waterfront complex constructed on an abandoned cargo pier. It is, ostensibly, a re-creation of a turn-of-the-20th-century street scene, but don't expect a slice of old-time maritime life here: Today, Pier 39 is a bustling mall welcoming millions of visitors per year. Still, don't let that put you off; touristy as it is, Pier 39 is a lot of fun and offers something for everyone. You will find more than 50 stores (personal favorites include Lefty's, where you can buy things like left-handed scissors and coffee cups; Krazy Kaps, where more people spend time trying on ridiculous hats than actually buying them; and Candy Baron, which offers barrels and barrels of candy, with adult-themed candy hidden at the back right), as well as 13 full-service restaurants, a two-tiered Venetian carousel, bungee jumping, the Aquarium of the Bay, Magowan's Infinite Mirror Maze, and a stage for street performers who juggle, ride unicycles, and tell corny jokes. Kids love Trish's Mini Donuts, where you can put your nose on the glass and watch a machine drop blobs of batter into boiling oil and make tiny, fat, sugar-powdered rings.
Best of all, Pier 39 has the California sea lions. Decades ago, hundreds of them took up residence on the floating docks, attracted by herring (and free lodging). They can be seen most days sunbathing, barking, and belching in the marina—some nights you can hear them all the way from Washington Square. Weather permitting, naturalists from Aquarium of the Bay offer educational talks at Pier 39 daily from 11am–4pm (Memorial Day through mid-October) that teaches visitors about the range, habitat, and adaptability of the California sea lion.
Pier 39 is the place that some locals love to hate (present company excluded), but kids adore it. Considering Fisherman's Wharf, including Pier 39, is rated one of the top tourist attractions in the world, don't listen to the naysayers; go check it out for yourselfand grab a bag of donuts.
- Erika Lenkert
On the waterfront at the Embarcadero and Beach St San Francisco
View our full list of Attractions in San Francisco
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1 star Frommer's Recommended
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Frommer's only recommends things we think you will enjoy and that will make your trip both authentic and unforgettable. Our experts personally appraise each choice in terms of their overall enthusiasm for it.
Our star system does not denote hotel amenities but it does denote the level of our approval. A place with one star is worth a look—after all, it made the list. A rating of two stars means it's excellent, and three stars is the highest praise we give. | {
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We will be undergoing a phone system upgrade on Wednesday, April 3rd from 11:45 am until 2:00 pm. Our phone lines will be down during that time. We apologize in advance for this inconvenience and look forward to assisting you after the upgrade is complete.
We would like to welcome you to our website. Hoodview Disposal & Recycling is the franchise service provider for many parts of Clackamas and Multnomah counties. We appreciate the opportunity to serve you and we will do everything possible to make your experience as pleasant as possible.
Hoodview Disposal & Recycling is a full service garbage and recycling company company. We employ over 200 employees and operate of fleet of 50 trucks to serve the diversified needs of our customers in communities in Northwest Oregon.
We have been servicing homes, businesses, organizations, and governmental facilities throughout Northwest Oregon since 1967. We invite you to view this website to learn important information about the garbage and recycling services we provide. As a customer of Hoodview Disposal & Recycling, the ability to view your account information, pay your bill, and order temporary use containers are just a few of the features offered right here on our website. | {
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Hemel, St Albans, Harpenden, Amersham, Tring, Aylesbury, Dunstable and near you!
We clean most types of tile including porcelain, ceramic, and Victorian and terracotta floors. The tile and grout are treated with a hard floor cleaner specific to the type of floor we are cleaning. We then use an oscillating rotary machine, which breaks down any dirt in the tile and grout. The left over slurry is then vacuumed up and then rinsed with a neutraliser. To keep your tile and grout in best condition we recommend getting your tile and grout sealed. Please note that cleaning methods can vary depending on the condition of the tile.
Natural stone floors are becoming increasingly popular and so is the demand to have them looking their best. HOBBS CARPET CLEANING expanded its services to include the cleaning of such floors and making sure that they look their best. Depending on the condition of the floor we will advise a strip, clean and seal cleaning method. We clean travertine, limestone and most other types of hard floors. It is highly recommended you have your stone and grout sealed as this will prolong the life of your hard floor and keep your stone and grout looking cleaner for longer.
All of our cleaning operators are fully trained, uniformed and fully insured to carry work out in your home.
CARPET CLEANING HEMEL HEMPSTEAD, CARPET CLEANING ST ALBANS, CARPET CLEANING HARPENDEN, CARPET CLEANING BERKHAMSTED, CARPET CLEANING AMERSHAM, CARPET CLEANING TRING, CARPET CLEANING AYLESBURY, CARPET CLEANING DUNSTABLE.
If your home or business is outside of these areas, please get in touch – we will travel for larger jobs.
Please call 0800 8620023 or 07825 442459 or email [email protected] for a friendly chat and a no-obligation quote. | {
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Info library Accessible
Principles and Barriers for Meaningful Youth Engagement
Image is illustrative. Photo by James Baldwin on Unsplash
This set of principles is derived from consultation processes of the UN MGCY and builds on its work around related efforts throughout the UN system. The UN MGCY sees them as intrinsic to any form of meaningful youth engagement with the UN. In addition, these principles draw legitimacy from rights already granted to young people while engaging with the UN in various avenues.
UN Major Group for Children and Youth 2017 Principles and Barriers for Meaningful Youth Engagement
APPLICATION - 0.44 MB
Policy-makers
United Nations Major Group for Children and Youth (UNMGCY)
Established in 1992, the United Nations Major Group for Children and Youth is the United Nations General Assembly mandated, official, formal and self organised space for children and youth to contribute to and engage in certain intergovernmental and allied policy processes at the United Nations.
Voice' Is Not Enough: Conceptualising Article 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
PARTISPACE Policy brief no. 1 Spaces and Styles of Youth Participation Key Findings and Recommendations for Policy and Practice
YouthWiki
"Sniffin' glue" – Scanning some horizons for youth policy in 2020
Youth Engagement in Development: Effective Approaches and Action-Oriented Recommendations for the Field
National Strategy on Children and Young People's Participation in Decision-Making 2015-2020
Unpacking 'Participation' Models, meanings and practices
Participation Models: Citizens, Youth, Online
Info library, Tools
Youth Wiki Participation Comparative Overview Map
Spinning the wheel of empowerment
Recommendation Rec (2012) 2 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the participation of children and young people under the age of 18
Child Participation Assessment Tool
From Participation to Engagement: A Review of Conceptual Models for Developing Youth Engagement Strategies
General Comment 12: The Right of the Child to be Heard | {
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The goal of 360°Rolls agreements is to ensure that customers can meet the requirements set for their operations. Valmet helps customers to maintain high levels of equipment operations, improve efficiency, and give all-round cost-control of their roll maintenance spend. By setting common targets, the performance of rolls can be raised to a completely new level.
360°Rolls agreements are an efficient way to minimize the lifecycle costs of rolls. This is achieved by optimizing roll maintenance intervals, adopting best practices related to roll covers, and reducing the number of roll failures. A 360°Rolls agreement is not only a question of maintenance, it is also about making sure the customer has the right technological solutions in place to improve efficiency.
Valmet's 360°Rolls agreements are always tailored to meet specific customer needs. The range of services is grouped into three levels: Maintain, Improve, and Optimize. The choice of service depends on the type of involvement you would prefer.
Stora Enso's mills in Skoghall, Kvarnsveden, Fors and Skutskär are covered by Valmet's roll grinding agreement. | {
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Moleculin's New STAT3 Inhibitor Attacks Cancer from Inside the Cell
Published: Sep 13, 2018 By Alex Keown
Walter Klemp, Chairman and CEO of Moleculin Biotech
The death of Sen. John McCain helped raise awareness about the plight of brain tumor patients and the lack of movement on developing new therapies for this disease over the past several years. But now, Houston-based Moleculin Biotech has launched a clinical trial that could be a game-changer if all goes well.
Working in conjunction with University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Moleculin has initiated a Phase I trial for WP1066, a molecule that Walter Klemp, chairman and chief executive officer of Moleculin, said is an entirely new approach to treating brain tumors. The first patient has been dosed in the early trial, the company announced.
"We're excited about opening a new chapter in the development of brain tumor treatments," Klemp told BioSpace Wednesday afternoon.
Moleculin's WP1066, a first in class drug candidate, is built from the chemical backbone of the active ingredient in propolis and is the first anticancer agent with drug-like properties that consistently inhibits the activated form of STAT3 within cancer cells. STAT3 is a target that has been long-sought because of its broad range of tumor-promoting effects. When activated, STAT3 proliferates the growth of tumor cells and supports the "evasion of the immune response and metastasis to distant organs," the company said. Because of its importance in supporting the growth of cancer cells in the brain, it's a significant target for therapies.
"This represents a major milestone for Moleculin. Being able to say we finally have a druggable STAT3 inhibitor gets people's attention," Klemp said.
Moleculin Chief Medical Officer Sandra Silberman said WP1066 inhibits STAT3, which controls not just proliferation, but also some immunologic function including cytokine release and T-cell infiltration. By inhibiting STAT3, it will allow the T-cell to penetrate the tumor, Silberman said. In animal and preclinical studies, Silberman said WP1066 has shown "extremely promising results."
The Phase I study at MD Anderson will not only include the standard dose escalation and tolerability studies, but adds a surgical aspect, which is standard of care when it comes to glioblastoma. When the time is right, MD Anderson will attempt to remove the tumors from patients' brains and see the effects of WP1066 and determine if the T-cells are penetrating and if they get a cytokine response.
"We're going to get a lot of information out of this," Silberman said.
Kemp added that is it indicative the community understands the importance of STAT3 as a target and that until now, it's been "difficult to find an agent that can do that."
Moleculin is eying dosing 15 patients in the Phase I trial. While the first patient has already been dosed, Klemp said the study will depend on the rate of trial recruitment, which could be slow. Practically speaking, Klemp said he anticipates a data readout in 2019.
"Given the significant unmet need, if they see encouraging data, they believe this is an undertaking that could ultimately receive fast-track handling from the FDA," Klemp said.
Klemp also noted that MD Anderson isn't the only research facility interested in exploring the abilities of WP1066. The Mayo Clinic and Emory University have also reached out to the company to form collaborative efforts to test WP1066 in their labs. Those institutes have their eyes on using the STAT3 inhibitor in into pediatric brain tumor trials, Klemp said.
While Moleculin is excited about the potential of WP1066 in brain tumors, the company has several other irons in the fire. Klemp noted that unlike other small biotechs with a central focus around one molecule or therapeutic theme, Moleculin has three distinct core technologies. In addition to WP1066, the company has a suite of molecules that inhibit glycolysis, a primary source of energy for tumors, and annamycin, a second generation anthracycline for the treatment of relapsed or refractory acute myeloid leukemia. Klemp said the company is driving these molecules into the clinic as part of a broad-based scope of research. | {
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Academic and Common Reading Program Catalog
Comprehensive Wendell Berry Catalogue
Religion & Spirituality Backlist
Last of the Curlews
By Fred Bodsworth, Foreword by W S Merwin, Afterword by Murray Gell-Mann, Illustrator Abigail Rorer
May 24, 2011 | Paperback | 5 x 8, 174 pages | ISBN 9781582437354
Order Now From
In this conservation classic, originally published fifty-five years ago, Fred Bodsworth tells the story of a solitary Eskimo curlew's perilous migration and search for a mate. The lone survivor comes to stand for the entirety of a species on the brink of extinction, and for all in nature that is endangered. This new paperback edition includes a foreword by Pulitzer Prize-winning poet W.S. Merwin and an afterword by Nobel Prize-winning physicist Murray Gell-Mann.
W. S. Merwin is one of our most distinguished poets and translators and is the acting United States Poet Laureate. A two-time recipient of the Pulitzer Prize, he has also been honored with the Bollingen Prize and a Fellowship of the Academy of American Poets. In 1995 he received the first Dorothea Tanning Prize. He lives and works in Hawaii.
← Late Nights on Air The Last Novel →
Heat and Dust
Ruth Prawer Jhabvala $16.95
Eto Mori $16.95
Lesson In Red
Maria Hummel $27.00
Secrets of Happiness
Joan Silber $27.00
The Elephant of Belfast
S. Kirk Walsh $27.00
On Harrow Hill
John Verdon $28.00
The Low Desert
Tod Goldberg $26.00
Scarlett Thomas $16.95
The Center of Everything
Jamie Harrison $26.00
Todd Robert Peterson $16.95
The Beadworkers
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Zero Zone
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Three Flames
Alan Lightman $16.95
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COUNTERPOINT PRESS
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To save you (and us!) time, we've put together answers to our most frequently asked questions. If your question is not listed here, feel free to contact us.
©2015 Counterpoint Press | All material on the COUNTERPOINT PRESS website is copyrighted and cannot be used without permission.
Design by NICE Design | Technology by PAGEPOINT ©2015 | {
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Prof Stephen Blyth elected to be next Principal of LMH
We are delighted to announce the election of Professor Stephen Blyth to be the next Principal of Lady Margaret Hall from Michaelmas term 2022.
Professor Blyth said "I am honoured to have been elected by the Governing Body as the next Principal and am delighted to be joining LMH. I look forward to working together with the Fellowship to support, strengthen and champion the pioneering academic mission of the college. I admire LMH's bold initiatives in recent years and its achievements in diversifying access to an Oxford education. Founded with the goal of opening education and career opportunities to the previously excluded, LMH is a distinctive academic community which transforms lives and tackles pressing challenges facing higher education."
Professor Stephen Blyth is currently Professor of the Practice of Statistics at Harvard University. He graduated from Christ's College Cambridge as 3rd Wrangler in the Mathematical Tripos and obtained his PhD in Statistics from Harvard. He began his career as a Lecturer in the Department of Mathematics at Imperial College London before moving to the financial industry where he held senior positions at Morgan Stanley and Deutsche Bank. In 2006 he returned to Harvard to take a leadership role at the Harvard Management Company (HMC), working directly to support and advance higher education. In 2014 he was appointed President and Chief Executive Officer of HMC, responsible for the management of the University's endowment of approximately $41 billion (c. £30 billion), the world's largest.
Professor Blyth has been on the faculty of the Department of Statistics at Harvard since 2006 and was appointed Professor of the Practice of Statistics in 2012. Professor Blyth's dedication to his students has been recognised by several awards for excellence in teaching. As endowment chief, professor and alumni leader, he has been committed to reducing barriers to higher education, increasing access and developing academic talent regardless of background. | {
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class PrefService;
class Profile;
namespace user_prefs {
class PrefRegistrySyncable;
}
// StartupPref specifies what should happen at startup for a specified profile.
// StartupPref is stored in the preferences for a particular profile.
struct SessionStartupPref {
enum Type {
// Indicates the user wants to open the New Tab page.
DEFAULT,
// Deprecated. See comment in session_startup_pref.cc
HOMEPAGE,
// Indicates the user wants to restore the last session.
LAST,
// Indicates the user wants to restore a specific set of URLs. The URLs
// are contained in urls.
URLS,
// Number of values in this enum.
TYPE_COUNT
};
// For historical reasons the enum and value registered in the prefs don't
// line up. These are the values registered in prefs.
// The values are also recorded in Settings.StartupPageLoadSettings histogram,
// so make sure to update histograms.xml if you change these.
static const int kPrefValueHomePage = 0; // Deprecated
static const int kPrefValueLast = 1;
static const int kPrefValueURLs = 4;
static const int kPrefValueNewTab = 5;
static const int kPrefValueMax = 6;
static void RegisterProfilePrefs(user_prefs::PrefRegistrySyncable* registry);
// Returns the default value for |type|.
static Type GetDefaultStartupType();
// What should happen on startup for the specified profile.
static void SetStartupPref(Profile* profile, const SessionStartupPref& pref);
static void SetStartupPref(PrefService* prefs,
const SessionStartupPref& pref);
static SessionStartupPref GetStartupPref(Profile* profile);
static SessionStartupPref GetStartupPref(PrefService* prefs);
// If the user had the "restore on startup" property set to the deprecated
// "Open the home page" value, this migrates them to a value that will have
// the same effect.
static void MigrateIfNecessary(PrefService* prefs);
// Whether the startup type and URLs are managed via policy.
static bool TypeIsManaged(PrefService* prefs);
static bool URLsAreManaged(PrefService* prefs);
// Whether the startup type has not been overridden from its default.
static bool TypeIsDefault(PrefService* prefs);
// Converts an integer pref value to a SessionStartupPref::Type.
static SessionStartupPref::Type PrefValueToType(int pref_value);
explicit SessionStartupPref(Type type);
~SessionStartupPref();
// What to do on startup.
Type type;
// The URLs to restore. Only used if type == URLS.
std::vector<GURL> urls;
};
#endif // CHROME_BROWSER_PREFS_SESSION_STARTUP_PREF_H__
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Tiny pieces of fun that fit in your pocket!
We have created this miniature line of your favorite animals while still including all the rich detail and realism as our regular sized figures.
As much as we would love to guarantee good luck with each or our minis we do promise these tiny toys will spread big joy.
Each replica is hand painted non-toxic and soft to the touch. *Sold as a set of 10 individual pieces*.
M03.01-M03.43 Counters - Good Luck Minis - Complete Set of 10 Each. | {
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The Florida League of Cities annual conference is held each August in various locations throughout the state. The annual conference is an opportunity for municipal officials and senior staff to enhance leadership skills, share ideas with peers, discuss strategies for Florida's future, and learn the latest in products and services designed for municipal governments.
Download the Announcement for complete conference details.
This year marks the 50th anniversary of Constitutional Home Rule. Florida voters ratified this authority in the 1968 Constitution giving cities the right to perform municipal functions and deliver services without express permission from the state, except as otherwise provided by law.
At this year's Annual Conference, we will celebrate the Home Rule authority that makes cities essential to the quality of life Floridians enjoy on a daily basis. This will be a conference like no other. You will not want to miss this historic event where delegates will come together at a Home Rule Rally to re-energize the long-held notion that local self–government is the keystone of American democracy!
The conference will feature educational sessions, valuable networking opportunities and a variety of speakers who will inspire, educate and motivate local leaders. Join us as we make history and proclaim #LetCitiesWork! | {
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Cable Comparison: Is Cable Internet or DSL the better choice?
Nowadays saving money is a priority for most people. People are looking for ways to reduce expenses and save money. Entertainment is one of those things people are looking to cut back on. The cable and internet may seem like a necessity to many people, but it provides entertainment without the need to go out of the house.
Since it's labeled as entertainment and not a necessity, the cable and internet are usually at the top of the list of bills to reduce when budget needs are addressed. However, there are ways to cut back on in-house entertainment such as the Cable Internet bill without doing away with the service or entertainment altogether. One way to cut back is to make a decision as to what type of service offers more for the money.
First thing you need to do to decide on which service is better for you is the availability. Are both services, Cable and DSL, available in your area? Cable uses external wires and lines to provide you with access to Cable. DSL is connected through the phone lines. So if you are interested in DSL you will need a phone line already installed.
What type of connection speed do you want? Cable speed is usually much faster than DSL speed. If you don't get on the internet much or do very little on the internet, perhaps only use it to search around and to use the Office software, then you don't need to worry about faster speeds.
Decide on what type of quality you are looking for. Quality for DSL connections usually depend on the quality of the phone line. The quality of Cable depends on how and where your cable line is installed, and how many people are hooked to that cable line. If there is a large amount of users using the cable line, cable speeds usually run much slower. As far as DSL lines, if the phone lines are cut off or disconnected due to weather or some other reason, you want have access to the internet.
Definitely compare the costs. Most times Cable and DSL providers have similar costs for their services. Competition is pretty fierce and the packages or services usually run about the same cost. Check out the competition. Do your research. Find out if bundles are included. Do they have bundled packages? Do they have special deals or offers available to first-time customers?
Competition is fierce in the internet arena since the services are very popular among the masses. Most cities have more than one Cable and DSL Company in the area. Although some only provide service to certain areas in the city, you can find out if you are located in one of those areas.
Contact the cable and DSL companies and ask if they have any bundled or combined services available. Many people prefer cable services to DSL services because cable is more reliable and much faster than DSL. Plus, with many cable companies you get bundled services. Of course, the decision is up to you and want is best for you and your pocketbook. | {
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A walk through this ethnic enclave takes you on a learning journey into what life was like when our Malay and other Muslim pioneers first established themselves in early Singapore. On a guided tour of the Malay Heritage Centre, students will learn about the early Malay and other Muslim immigrants, their traditions, costumes and the contributions of the early pioneers. Complete the learning experience with a traditional games session and a Malay cultural experience like sarong tying or a traditional Malay handicraft. | {
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function initProduct(productId, div) {
calculatePrice(productId, div);
$(div + ' select').change(function(e) { // select element changed
calculatePrice(productId, div);
});
$(div + ' :radio').change(function(e) { // radio changed
calculatePrice(productId, div);
});
$(div + ' :checkbox').change(function(e) { // radio changed
calculatePrice(productId, div);
});
}
function calculatePrice(productId, div) {
var values = new Array();
i = 0;
$(div).find(':input').each(function(){
if($(this).hasClass('attribute')) {
if($(this).is(':checkbox')) {
var checkboxSelected = $(this).is(':checked');
if(checkboxSelected==true) {
values[i] = $(this).val();
//console.log('checkbox ' + values[i]);
i++;
}
} else if ($(this).is(':radio')) {
var radioChecked = $(this).is(':checked');
if(radioChecked==true) {
values[i] = $(this).val();
//console.log('radio ' + values[i]);
i++;
}
} else {
if($(this).val()) {
values[i] = $(this).val();
//console.log('select ' + values[i]);
i++;
}
}
}
});
if(values.length==0) {
return;
}
$(div).showLoading();
$.ajax({
type: 'POST',
url: getContextPath() + '/shop/product/' + productId + '/calculatePrice.html',
dataType: 'json',
data:{"attributeIds":values},
cache:false,
error: function(e) {
$(div).hideLoading();
console.log('Error while loading price');
},
success: function(price) {
$(div).hideLoading();
//console.log('product price ' + price.finalPrice);
var displayPrice = '<span itemprop="price">' + price.finalPrice + '</span>';
if(price.discounted) {
displayPrice = '<del>' + price.originalPrice + '</del> <span class="specialPrice"><span itemprop="price">' + price.finalPrice + '</span></span>';
}
$('#productPrice').html(displayPrice);
}
});
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Unreal mode — режим роботи процесора x86, який активно використовували в деяких програмах для MS-DOS на початку 1990-их років, в тому числі деяких іграх, які частково актуальні і зараз. Також відомий як , або «плаский режим».
З'явився як недокументована можливість процесора (можливо, що це лише баг).
Опис
Ядро MS-DOS працює в 16-бітному режимі процесора, реальному або V86.
Щоб забрати обмеження у розмірі адресного простору в 1Мб, необхідний захищений режим, і, скоріш за все, 32-бітний захищений режим (бо в 16-бітному доступно тільки 16Мбайт).
Так, для розробки програм під MS-DOS, що використовують всю пам'ять, приходилося або програмувати в захищеному режимі й використовувати DOS-extender та DPMI (до речі, так написаний Doom), або ж використовувати недокументовану можливість процесора.
Ця можливість дозволяє ненадовго увійти в 32-бітний захищений режим, завантажити туди дескриптори сегментів з межами, що перевищують 64Кб і, згодом, вийти назад в 16-бітний реальний режим. При виході зберігається 32-бітне значення границі.
Після того можна звертатися до усієї пам'яті комп'ютера прямо, відносно сегменту з «невірною границею».
Розробка в захищеному режимі потребувала використання всього пакету інструментів та налагоджувача, розрахованих на це, та зазвичай, зв'язаного з конкретним DOS-extender'ом. Ці пакети були дорогими і не так популярні, як звичайні середовища розробки під DOS.
Unreal mode дозволяв використовувати всю пам'ять у програмах, розроблених в звичайних середовищах розробки, наприклад, Borland C++.
Обмеження
Неможливість роботи в багатозадачних середовищах на основі DOS та V86-вікні операційної системи Windows, в тому числі в NTVDM Windows NT.
Більш того, unreal mode не сумісний з EMM386 — останній працює, створюючи єдину віртуальну машину V86 та завантажуючи туди весь DOS.
Повноцінні віртуальні машини, такі, як Virtual PC і VMWare Workstation, зазвичай працюють без проблем. Тим не менш, Hyper-V не підтримує unreal mode.
Приклади ігор
Ultima VII The Black Gate
Ultima VII Serpent Isle.
Див. також
x86
DOS
Режими x86
Технології операційних систем | {
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Infiniti is all around us, in every reflection we see, there is a doorway into the endless unknown.
We are often so pre-occupied that this integral part of reality is overlooked. By bringing the transient nature of infiniti into something tangible, this exhibition hopes to remind us of our metaphysical connection with one another and the world beyond our earthly existence.
A collective of visual artists specialising in live projection (VJing), liquid light, decor design, psychedelic safespaces and events curation!
Optic Soup is a visual collective formed as a branch off events curation brand Octopus Pi. The collective is fluid and invites people to join and interact in visual arts experiences from projections and film screenings to installations and creative projects.
We're particularly interested in interactive media, blending new and analogue technologies and experimental media.
We have several years experience providing live visuals for bands, DJs, performance artists and spaces at events big and small including Wormwood parties and the Wormwoodstock festival, Regrowth, Dragon Dreaming, Peats Ridge, Mayan Prophepsy Solstice, Tribal Rhythms, Jurrasic Lounge as well as heaps of UFO club indoor and outdoor parties and other pioneering and renegade events. | {
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Karl Environmental Group is fully licensed and insured to provide environmental remediation and abatement services for many potential environmental problems.
Our decades of experience in the environmental remediation business have put us at the forefront of correct abatement methods. Set-up, removal, and disposal activities are performed in accordance with state and federal regulations, and always follow best industry practices. Fully executed paperwork, including waste manifests will be provided for the handling and disposal of all regulated materials.
Contact us today to provide you with a free quote for your remediation project. We provide high-quality customer service and environmental assessments and testing in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. | {
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Welcome to my world on the web! Below's a collection of my favorite things I've found (or put) on the web. Enjoy!
Comments? Complaints? Links going nowhere?
This page has been through several variations during its decade of existence, but is still (relatively) easily viewed with any of the major browsers, from IE to Netscape to Opera to Firefox to Chrome. | {
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So, what would you do if you are the happy, proud and no doubt protective owner of an all new McLaren P1? You would want to protect it so it stays in its prestine condition for the rest of eternity, am I right?
Jealousy aside, Jay invite chis viewers of his popular YouTube channel, Jay Leno's Garage, to come with and witness as his latest addition to his ever growing car collection gets wrapped in a protective coating that will keep it looking spiff and spam for years to come – perhaps not for the rest of eternity, but, close enough.
Protective Film Solutions are the guys behind the clever coating and, in the video, explains to Jay and the viewers how the coating works and what it will protect it fro,. Then, the continue to cover his P1 in said coating right before our eyes.
The protective film goes all over the car with a special coating on the windshield that (should) protect it from cracking.
It might nit be the most exciting video we've ever seen come out of Jay's garage, but it sure is interesting. Oh, and it also doesn't hurt that it gives us an up close and personal view of the new McLaren P1. | {
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Our escorted Bulgaria tours reveal the history and culture of this overlooked corner of Europe. Join our expert guides to explore UNESCO World Heritage Sites like the Rila Monastery, famed for its frescoes. You'll learn how Bulgaria's rose oil is distilled and visit medieval towns like Veliko Tarnovo. And visit cosmopolitan Sofia before crossing the Carpathian Mountains to continue your tour in neighboring Romania.
With our engaging native-born guides and a congenial group of never more than 16 guests, our unique itinerary plumbs the rich heritage, colorful stories and UNESCO World Heritage Sites of this often overlooked corner of Europe. | {
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X-Frame design - designed for simplicity, speed, and agility the TSX houses a 180mm quad size body with 220mm or 250mm arms, for 5" or 6" respectively.
Integrated PDB with 5v regulator and all associated pads required for a tidy and hassle-free build.
1.5mm matte twill carbon body with 3mm arms, meaning only 108g for the whole 220mm frame (with hardware), and 114g for the 250mm frame.
Supports ZMR arms - a hugely common frame amongst all levels of pilots - why not use that redundant hardware instead of it gathering dust?
I set about putting the frame together with a spare CC3D I had lying around to see how it all fits together, checking out all the little details in the frame to see if anything is amiss or needing to be added etc - it all went together lovely with everything fitting perfectly. I particularly like the camera cut out here - the bottom plate provides adequate protection to the camera while the top plate has the cutout for the lens so you can obtain the maximum angle you need to fly - for most of us that is at least 35 degrees so it's a good test to see if we can put the frame through its paces.
Here we can see some test-fitting of other components, and trying a rough layout of where the D4R-II could go. I do take pride in my builds despite them often being multi-coloured from the printed parts, for me the wiring is a big part in ensuring the quad is both functional and has the eye-candy to go with it.
The next item was of course putting in the HS1177 - on the pre-production plates there are no screw holes for the camera so this was left very much down to us. Being new to the frame I wanted to have the best of both worlds - a good camera angle when I want it, but a protected camera when the angle is not so extreme (for tight courses).
At this point, I was in two minds as to whether or not to strip down my ZMR250 or to just build another quad. The easy choice was to build another as it's great fun, and to try and re-use some old components I had (such as the T-Motors which are hilariously bent). I did end up getting a set of bearings, but sadly it did not cure their rough running so it was at this point I decided there was nothing else to do but tear down the ZMR250 and re-house it - something which I would be doing at some point down the line anyway as this would be my new "go-to" quad.
The next part of the testing was actually see how well the GoPro mount would work, particularly as I am one of the only people running 1800mAh 4s, so it was interesting to see how well stuff fits still - as you know it's running a 180mm size body so space is actually quite limited. I'm pleased to say it actually fits very well - I do plan to downsize Lipos in future so that I can get that level playing field when racing (to reduce some more weight and give me some better agility), but the option is there if I want it for longer courses or just fun flying :).
At this point I suggested having motor-protectors - having flown in car parks many many times, I know all to well how brutal crashes can really be quite painful, and the repair bills do take their toll when you are killing motors and lots of props each session. It starts adding up, especially with Cobras. Warren kindly developed this motor protector, and I can say having used them in the UK Drone Show on the weekend just gone, they 100% helped. There were a few crashes where I had unfortunately smashed into the ground (who put that gravity there?) - however the motors were not even scratched, and the PLA motor protectors had cracks in them as I had planned - strong enough to take the impact but not strong enough that they damage other parts of the frame. They are very very cheap for me to print so it seems ideal. I would print these in ABS but I don't really like printing ABS as it's a pain to do so.
You'll also notice in the previous picture and in this one that I was testing as a prototype for Tom - a side-mounted antenna mount - for those like me who were running 1800mAh 4s but still wanted to film their flights as well. I have to say this worked very well, you can see there's a slot in-between the frame and the antenna - that's for the battery strap. I believe this will be available as an extra, and as you can see on the latest picture I've used shorter standoffs to make it sit below the top plate, meaning the battery placement or height is not affected.
I made sure to take this picture before the tear-down as that was my main focus on the TSX - the ZMR actually did everything I needed, except it was a little on the heavy side, but I knew already from the get go that the TSX would be a huge improvement on weight, which in turn means better flying characteristics and more agility.
So the all important weight - and what's that? Over 100 grams lighter! Now, I don't know about you, but I think that is an amazing saving considering both quads run PDBs, and in fact run roughly the same arm lengths. I am over the moon about that, that is such a saving it's unreal. Saving weight on quads is not easy when they already have a PDB - most of the wiring you would usually shorten is not there to cut, so the only way you can normally save weight is by cutting corners - not something I'd want to do - so this is amazing.
And here it is in all it's glory - ready for the UK Drone Show. I can tell you it performed superbly. On the Sundays' racing, the top 3 finalists were all running TSX250's, including BanniUK. The public absolutely loved in, and more importantly - so did all of us flying it. Considering I had literally 5 minutes of tuning done on the Friday before the rain kicked in and during high winds, it flew absolutely flawlessly.
I admittedly did have an arm broken (actually the first race of the first day), but that was down to Luke (BanniUK) flying into me that fast, the impact was really quite something. I can safely say there were no other injuries over the course of the weekend, and when you consider we were flying in concrete and the stakes were high, so many mistakes were made and in turn we all had a few crashes (well, most of us) - the frame has more than lived up to expectations.
Here's BanniUK's Final run - such insane speed.
My ZMR felt "comfortable", and I liked that - but at the end of the day I go to all these events to race, and it is not a place you should feel comfortable, not even for a second. So I made the decision to move my ZMR250 components (remember this is a fully working, fully tuned, awesome flying quad) into a brand new frame without any knowledge prior, and I can say 100% that I made the right decision. I know I keep banging on, but the frame is really that good, and that really does conclude my thoughts on the frame.
The frame is available at: Stanton Frames and I-Drone.
There's also a Facebook group full of tips, tricks and builds here. | {
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Tag: Aisha Tyler
Happy 20th anniversary to the U.S. edition of Whose Line Is It Anyway
by Sean L. McCarthy August 6, 2018
When people talk about the longest-running TV shows in American history, will they remember to mention Whose Line Is It Anyway? Before August 1998, improvisational …
TJ Miller, Ron Funches and Aisha Tyler populate Conan's "Star Wars" diner
Conan O'Brien's special Star Wars episode of Conan last night on TBS included much of the cast of Episode VII: The Force Awakens. But before …
Preview the movie trailer for mockumentary "Adventures in Comedy"
by Sean L. McCarthy January 27, 2015 January 27, 2015 1
Tom McCaffrey is even more of an aspiring stand-up comedian in Adventures In Comedy than he is in real-life. Or is he? Such is the …
Hurricane Odile cancels 2014 Cabo Comedy Festival; NUVOtv and Levity organize relief benefit show Oct. 1 in California
by Sean L. McCarthy October 1, 2014
The second annual Cabo Comedy Festival was supposed to start tonight at the southern tip of Baja Mexico, but Hurricane Odile had other ideas, devastating …
My Pod Week: Week ending 9/28/14, live from the LA PodFest!
by Mike Flinn September 29, 2014 September 29, 2014
Mike Flinn (@realmikeflinn) isn't just a podcast producer and engineer; he's also an avid fan of the form. "My Pod Week" recaps and reviews the …
CDs/DVDs / Movies
"Why We Laugh: Funny Women," narrated and executive produced by Joan Rivers
by Sean L. McCarthy September 14, 2014 September 14, 2014 3
In 2012, after her acclaimed documentary had wowed film festivals and she surged back into our consciousness even more with a "win" on NBC's Celebrity …
Carrie Keagan's open letter to Late-Night TV: "Hire Some Women Already!"
by Sean L. McCarthy July 29, 2014
Carrie Keagan, who was great late in the mornings as host of VH1's Big Morning Buzz Live from 2011-2013, could, would and perhaps should also be …
The CW renews Whose Line Is It Anyway? for 24 more half-hours into 2015
by Sean L. McCarthy July 21, 2014 July 21, 2014
The CW announced at the TCAs over the weekend that it's going to keep the make-em-up funnies coming for at least another year, ordering 24 …
Audio / Books
My Pod Week: Week ending 5/25/14
by Mike Flinn May 27, 2014 1
Audio / CDs/DVDs
Comedy wins none of the 2014 Billboard Music Awards but all of the focus of this week's magazine issue
by Sean L. McCarthy May 19, 2014 May 19, 2014
You probably heard about, if you didn't also already see, the hologram of the late Michael Jackson performing at Sunday night's Billboard Music Awards, televised … | {
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In this one hour interview offered by Experts.com and moderated by Nick Rishwain, Forensic DNA Expert, Suzanna Ryan, expounds upon her experience and expertise. Through targeted questions and answers, viewers get a better understanding of what services a Forensic DNA Expert Witness can offer to attorneys. Ms. Ryan also explains the circumstances under which she is retained as a consultant, unrelated to litigation.
Suzanna Ryan, MS, D-ABC, is a former forensic DNA analyst and forensic DNA Technical leader with 15 years of experience in the field of Forensic Serology and DNA Analysis. She has had the opportunity to work for both public and private DNA laboratories and has testified numerous time for both the prosecution and the defense.
Ms. Ryan has been accepted as an expert witness in forensic serology and DNA analysis over 60 times in her career in state superior courts, state supreme court, federal court, and military court, and has been deposed as an expert witness in both criminal and civil trials over 20 times. | {
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Manti hosts Temple View Qualifier track tournament
Madison Norris (left) from Manti High and Sheilah Cheruiyot from Wasatch Academy battle for first place in the 800 meter last Saturday.
Manti hosts Temple View
Qualifier track tournament
By Kellie Harrison
MANTI—High school track teams in the county are warming up with the warmer weather, and teams from Manti, Gunnison Valley, North Sanpete and Wasatch Academy showed their stuff as they competed at the TempleView Qualifier in Manti on Friday, April 6.
Gunnison Valley High
Carl Wimmer, a Gunnison Valley High School coach, said they had more kids turn out this season for track, which translates into many first-time competitors. Yet the team is doing better than in previous years.
Gunnison Valley High School athlete Garrett Francis (right) leaps a hurdle while trailing a Tintic High athlete last Saturday during a track meet in Manti. Francis's specialty is the high jump and is one of the school's top track athletes.
Garrett Francis, a sophomore, is one of Gunnison's top athletes. His main event is high jump and, according to Wimmer, "He can jump as high as he is tall." He currently jumps six feet.
Ben Jacko Hill is also a sophomore at Gunnison. He took 15th in the 800-meter run with a time of 2:21. Hill has already qualified for the BYU Invitational.
Another one of Gunnison's top athletes is Annika Liddiard. She took 13th out of 50 competitors with a time of 14.14 seconds in the 100-meter dash at the TempleView Qualifier last Friday.
Jade Wimmer, a Gunnison sprinter, took first in the 200-meter dash at the TempleView Qualifier with a time of 26.32 seconds. She also took first in the 400-meter dash with a time of one minute. She has already qualified for state in both the 200 meter and the 400 meter.
Wasatch Academy
Bill Bedford, Wasatch Academy's track coach, said that for the first time in a while, they have a lot of boys competing in many different events.
Their top thrower is Reuben Stromquist, who took seventh in javelin with a throw of 128 feet and 5 inches.
Brayden Butler is a 400- and 800-meter runner who, according to Bedford, is doing well so far in the season and his teammate, Dallon Larsen, is a 400-meter runner who is currently ranked second in 2A at 53 seconds.
Bedford said, "We are looking to see what some of the other boys can do and then formulate some quality relays." Jake Palmer and Ben Cottam are showing promise in the sprinting events.
For the girls, Bedford said their top athletes are again a trio of Kenyans who specialize in the distance races. Sheilah Cheruiyot, a junior, won the 800-meter run with a school record time of 2:30, with Ashley Lagat taking fourth place.
North Sanpete
Scott Butler, the North Sanpete High School coach, said they are excited for this season. They have already had many athletes qualify for the BYU Invitational.
Their top distance runner, Orange Peel, took eighth in the mile at the TempleView Qualifier with a time of 5:04. His personal record is 4:58.
Jamal Mayoul, North Sanpete's top jumper, took 14th in long jump on April 6 with a jump of 17 feet and fifth in high jump with a jump of 5 feet and 8 inches.
Linty Flinders, a junior, took third place in the 400 meter last Friday. She finished with a time of 1:03.
Parker and Izzy Hightower are brother and sister and are also North Sanpete's top sprinters. Izzy ran a 13-second 100-meter dash, taking first place, and her brother, Parker, took second with a time of 11.56 seconds.
Concerning his team, Jack Rapier, Manti's coach, said, "We are excited and training to do our best." He said every year is a different year.
Manti High athlete Brody Barson prepares to release his javelin during the track meet last Saturday.
Rapier said they had a successful meet. Two-thirds of Manti's team made personal records at the TempleView Qualifier on April 6.
Madison Norris, a senior, ran the 800 meter in 2:31 seconds and took second place.
Kjiersten Birch, throwing 99 feet 6 inches, and Keyera Braithwaite, throwing 88 feet 6 inches, took sixth and eighth in javelin at the TempleView Qualifier.
Brody Barson took fifth in javelin, throwing 128 feet 8 inches, and his teammate, Jens Lefevre, placed 11th throwing 124 feet 3 inches.
In the 400-meter race, senior Riley Searle took first at the TempleView Qualifier with a time of 51.88 seconds, and junior Jaden Sterner took third place with a time of 52.77 seconds. | {
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Q: Get smaller size of image, get_the_post_thumbnail My theme is using this code in a shortcode to get the image of the post. However, this is the full size image and i am looking to get the small thumbnail instead. How could I do this?
$image_output = '<div class="x-recent-posts-img">' . get_the_post_thumbnail( get_the_ID(), 'entry', NULL ) . '</div>';
A: Just change the code to:
$image_output = '<div class="x-recent-posts-img">' . get_the_post_thumbnail( get_the_ID(), 'thumbnail', NULL ) . '</div>';
See in the Codex:
Thumbnail Sizes
get_the_post_thumbnail
| {
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Last month, the 2016 Manufacturing & Distribution Sales and Technology Survey went out to wholesalers, distributors, and manufacturers around the world to gain a deeper understanding of how the industry is changing in the wake of new challenges, disruptive technologies, and shifting customer expectations.
Survey respondents were asked about their operational challenges, sales and fulfillment processes, and technology investments, with a particular focus on the areas of B2B eCommerce and mobile technology.
In this year's report, we'll reveal the biggest insights from the survey and the trends you need to stay on top of.
The top insights from this year's survey, including B2B eCommerce adoption and growth statistics, mobile commerce trends, and the changing role of sales reps.
The 3 key findings that represent huge opportunities for manufacturers and distributors to differentiate from competitors. | {
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Focus on Learning Technologies helps teachers understand the role of digital technologies in supporting language learning for second of foreign language learners aged 5-18. Drawing on research with school-age learners, the book equips teachers with the knowledge necessary to make effective and principled decisions about choosing and using learning technologies in the ir own language classes.
The book provides an accesible overview of key research studies on learning technologies, considers examples from real classroom practice, and provides activities to help teachers relate the content to their own teaching contexts.
Teachers will find an accessible introduction to the complex technology choices and issues they face in their English language teaching today. Nicky Hockly has selectively harvested and masterfully presented the key concepts to create a gateway into this complex area of research and practice.
Nicky Hockly has once again given us a thoughtful exploration of technology use in the language classroom. Learning Technologies provides a readable look at the research behind classroom use of digital devices and the Internet, with a focus on primary and secondary schools. Research should inform how ESL and EFL teachers, administrators, and policy-makers make decisions about adopting and using technology.
"Book of the month... Focus on Learning Technologies is a timely addition to the innovative Oxford Key Concepts for the Language Classroom series, which aims to link research and practice... This book addresses the critical question: do digital technologies support language learning?... Highly suitable for teacher development programs, this book is accessible, balanced and authoritative. Excellent."
"Focus on Learning Technologies incorporates pertinent synopses of classroom settings and research involving technology... Of particular interest are Hockly's references to investigation into the effectiveness of digital technology in the classroom... this is a well-researched and informative guide for both trainee and practising teachers."
"The Focus series is a set of instructional guides for primary and secondary teachers, but teachers of adults will find a lot they can use... I found the research interesting [and] I was particularly interested in the discussion about vocabulary acquisition." | {
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Equal in size to factory halogen bulb and 30% smaller heat sink than standard Silver-Lux Pro.
Custom aluminum tower designed to correctly position the LED behind in the lens.
Each lamp includes a Cree XHP70 LED - with 180 degree beam angle and 6000 lumen output per kit.
Bright white light rated at 6000K. | {
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namespace NGauge.Core
{
public interface IStepTextParameterExtractor
{
string ExtractParameters(string stepText);
}
}
| {
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Q: PHP/MYSQL: Update Query where value is missing from WHERE clause I think I know the answer to this but want to get confirmation.
If you have a simple update query with a where clause and the value of the variable in the where clause is missing, does that mean every record gets updated?
//let's say $name is empty
UPDATE users SET name= 'Jason' WHERE userid = '$name'
is that the same as
UPDATE users SET name= 'Jason' WHERE userid = ''
Is the behavior that every record would get updated?
And, if so, is there anything you can put in the SQL to prevent this potential catastrophe?
Thanks for guidance.
A: Both queries will update all records where userid column is empty. But it doesn't means that rows with userid value which is equal to NULL will be affected. If you want to use WHERE against NULL column, read how to working with NULL values.
A: If the variable is empty, or without a value, or "", and on your table there is no record where userid is empty or null, then no record will be updated as the where-condition would favor no record, however if there is any record with empty userid, then the record will be updated with the values you provided to the respective columns.
| {
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MarketFrames Group is an innovative marketing services firm that helps clients achieve best-in-class performance and business results from their marketing investments, organizations and operations.
We start with optimizing marketing spend and drive towards systemic effective and efficient marketing organizations and operations. We transform traditional marketing organizations through custom renovation of structure and process. And we sustain marketing effectiveness through ongoing marketing services.
MarketFrames services are built on three pillars: our advantaged network point of view; our proprietary process models, methods, and tools; and our customizable client engagement model powered by experienced industry marketing professionals.
Founded in 2003, MarketFrames brings to every client project decades of success in leadership roles at global marketing organizations. Our team has led marketing operations for $100 million to multi-billion dollar categories at the world's largest, most dynamic, and successful innovation firms. We've helped client companies develop and implement marketing processes, operations, and structures to improve their marketing spend and to address disruptive industry and business change in both the U.S. and Europe. Learn more about our team.
Your marketing processes and structure can and need to be optimized to achieve greater market impact. MarketFrames helps companies bridge the gap between traditional, silo-oriented marketing approaches and the knowledge-powered network that Marketing must become.
Learn more about what we do to build great marketing organizations and download a copy of our latest White Paper.
Vivicomm Group offers clients world-class marketing consulting and services, providing the perfect balance between large, multi-disciplinary marketing agencies and highly specialized firms. Each firm in Vivicomm Group only employs seasoned pros on client engagements and works in tight integration with its partner firms. This enables us always to deliver expert counsel and extraordinary programs that drive positive bottom-line results. Visit Vivicomm Group's website to see the full breadth of our capabilities.
Firms today face many challenges that often result in downward momentum and slower growth: commoditization, fragmenting markets, global competition, cost pressures, and rapid new channel dynamics.
We work with clients to build or renovate their marketing organizations. MarketFrames helps to maximize the value of current assets, develop essential new capabilities, and achieve acceleration and momentum in their next stage of growth and profits. | {
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Emphasis areas at bachelor of science level in biochemistry, polymer and coatings science, and pre-medicine chemistry. Emphasis area at bachelor of arts level in secondary education.
Chemistry is the study of the elements, the compounds they form and the reactions they undergo.
The program of study encompasses the full range of the subject plus mathematics, physics, and, if desired, biology. Students may also pursue special interests such as analytical, biological, electrochemical, environmental, inorganic, nuclear, organic, physical or polymer chemistry.
The B.A. offers a general education degree with a chemistry focus. The B.A. degree may be appropriate for students in pre-professional programs (pre-medicine, pre-veterinary, pre-dentistry, pre-pharmacy, chemical sales and marketing).
Chemists tackle a broad range of challenges, from environmental cleanup and pollution prevention to creating the materials that will take humans to Mars. A bachelor's degree in chemistry will provide many career possibilities. It has been called the central science because it occupies a pivotal place in many disciplines. As such it serves as the foundation for many other professions such as medicine, biotechnology, ceramics, chemical engineering, polymers, materials, metallurgy and environmental sciences.
All students are encouraged to participate in research programs during their undergraduate career. Such participation can lead to valuable experience and the possibility of publications, awards and recognition in the chemistry work place. Students may opt to participate in the campus wide "Opportunities for Undergraduate Research Experience" (OURE). Through OURE they can receive academic credit and a stipend for conducting a research project of mutual interest to the student and a faculty member.
Schrenk Hall is home to the department and where most chemistry classes and laboratories are held. The department has a broad range of modern instrumentation and equipment to prepare the student for the future.
Students must complete a minimum of 120 credit hours for the bachelor of arts in chemistry degree. Students may have to take more than the minimum number of coursework hours to comply with the B.A. requirements due to variations in minor degree and foreign language requirements within an individual's program of study.
Elective credits include a required minor in one of the following areas: English, economics, history, philosophy, psychology, sociology, communications, speech, media, political science, music, mathematics, statistics, foreign language, computer science, biology, or art. See Undergraduate catalog for courses required for specific minor. All chemistry majors are encouraged to do research through CHEM 4099 . A total of 9 credits of a modern foreign language must also be taken as part of the electives above.
A grade of "C" or better is required for each Chemistry course counted towards the degree.
Students must complete a minimum of 135 credit hours for the Bachelor of Arts in Chemistry degree with a Secondary Education Emphasis Area. The degree program is intended to culminate in a Certification Recommendation for an initial Missouri teaching certification. Students should also consult the Secondary Teacher Education Program section for Teacher Certification requirements through the Education department.
For this Bachelor of Arts degree program, the minor degree and foreign language requirements of the typical program of study are waived and there are other course substitutions in lieu of education coursework and requirements. A total of nine humanities credit hours are required to be selected from ENGLISH 1221 or ENGLISH 1222 , PHILOS 1105 , ART 1180 , MUSIC 1150 , or THEATRE 1190 .
Four hours of a Chemistry Elective must be selected from one or more of the following: CHEM 4210 , CHEM 4297 , CHEM 4410 , CHEM 4510 , CHEM 4610 , CHEM 4619 , CHEM 4620 , CHEM 4710 , CHEM 4810 , CHEM 4819 , CHEM 4850 , and CHEM 4099 . CHEM 4099 may not count for more than 3 hr credit toward the degree. All chemistry majors are encouraged to do research through CHEM 4099 .
A minimum of 127 credit hours is required for a Bachelor of Science degree in Chemistry and an average of at least two grade points per credit hour must be obtained. These requirements for the B.S. degree are in addition to credit received for algebra, trigonometry, and basic ROTC.
The Chemistry science curriculum requires nine semester hours in humanities and must include ENGLISH 1160 or ENGLISH 3560 . A minimum of nine semester hours is required in social sciences, including either HISTORY 1300 , HISTORY 1310 , HISTORY 1200 , or POL SCI 1200 . Specific requirements for the bachelor degree are outlined in the sample program listed below.
Grade Requirements: A minimum grade of "C" is required for each chemistry course counted towards the degree.
ROTC: Basic ROTC may be taken in the freshman and sophomore year, but does not count towards the degree.
Electives: There are thirty-three (33) hours of electives, not to include Math courses that are prerequisite to calculus. Twelve (12) hours must be 2xxx, 3xxx, 4xxx (or 5xxx or higher with permission) level in chemistry or another technical area with permission of department. Six (6) elective hours must be completed in the social sciences. Six (6) elective hours are required in the humanities. Three (3) of the humanities hours must be literature.
Grade Requirements: A minimum grade of "C" is required for each chemistry course counted towards the degree.
ROTC: Basic ROTC may be taken in the freshman and sophomore years, but does not count towards the degree.
Electives: There are twenty-one (21) hours of electives, not to include Math courses that are prerequisite to calculus. Six (6) elective hours must be completed in the social sciences. Six (6) elective hours are required in the humanities. Three (3) of the humanities hours must be literature.
Undergraduate Research: The undergraduate research CHEM 4099 must be done in Polymers and Coatings Science.
Electives: There are twenty-three (23) hours of electives, not to include Math courses that are prerequisite to calculus. Six (6) elective hours must be completed in the social sciences. Six (6) elective hours are required in the humanities. Three (3) of the humanities hours must be literature.
Electives: There are eleven (11) hours of electives, not to include Math courses that are prerequisite to calculus. Three (3) elective hours must be completed in the social sciences. Three (3) elective hours are required in the humanities, which must be literature.
A minor in chemistry requires a minimum of 19 hours of chemistry course work selected in conjunction with a chemistry faculty advisor. The required courses are CHEM 1100 , CHEM 1310 , CHEM 1319 , CHEM 1320 , CHEM 2210 and either CHEM 2219 or CHEM 2289 . Five additional hours of chemistry are to be selected from CHEM 1510 or other Chem 2000, 3000, and 4000-level courses. A minimum grade of "C" is required for each course counted toward the minor. | {
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I relentlessly mock socialism, in part because it's such a target-rich environment. But I'm also hoping that humor is a way of debunking this wretched ideology. I'm worried, after all, that socialism may triumph thanks to a combination of "public choice" and diminishing societal capital.
Today, let review the case against socialism. We'll start with this short clip from a recent interview, where I recycled my argument that greater levels of socialism produce greater levels of economic misery.
I now have some new evidence on my side, thanks to the just-released Economic Report of the President.
Here are some excerpts from the socialism chapter (begins on page 381), including some analysis about how to define the term.
…economists generally agree about how to define socialism, and they have devoted enormous time and resources to studying its costs and benefits. …we review the evidence from the highly socialist countries showing that they experienced sharp declines in output, especially in the industries that were taken over by the state. We review the experiences of economies with less extreme socialism and show that they also generate less output, although the shortfall is not as drastic as with the highly socialist countries. …Whether a country or industry is socialist is a question of the degree to which (1) the means of production, distribution, and exchange are owned or regulated by the state; and (2) the state uses its control to distribute the country's economic output without regard for final consumers' willingness to pay or exchange (i.e., giving resources away "for free"). …we find that socialist public policies, though ostensibly well-intentioned, have clear opportunity costs that are directly related to the degree to which they tax and regulate.
The chapter looks at totalitarian forms of socialism.
…looking closely at the most extreme socialist cases, which are Maoist China, the USSR under Lenin and Stalin, Castro's Cuba… Food production plummeted, and tens of mil-lions of people died from starvation in the USSR, China, and other agricultural economies where the state took command. Planning the nonagricultural parts of those economies also proved impossible. …Venezuela is a modern industrialized country that elected Hugo Chávez as its leader to implement socialist policies, and the result was less output in oil and other industries that were nationalized. In other words, the lessons from socialized agriculture carry over to government takeovers of oil, health insurance, and other modern industries: They produce less rather than more. …A broad body of academic literature…finds a strong association between greater economic freedom and better economic performance, suggesting that replacing U.S. policies with highly socialist policies, such as Venezuela's, would reduce real GDP more than 40 percent in the long run, or about $24,000 a year for the average person.
For what it's worth, the International Monetary Fund published some terrible research that said dramatically reduced living standards would be good if Americans were equally poor.
So I guess it makes sense that Crazy Bernie endorsed Venezuelan economic policy.
But I'm digressing. Let's get back to the contents of the chapter, including this table that shows the collapse of agricultural output in Cuba following nationalization.
The chapter also looks at what is sometimes referred to as "democratic socialism" in the Nordic nations.
These countries don't actually practice socialism since there is no government ownership of the means of production, no central planning, and no government-dictated prices.
But they do have bigger government, and the report echoes what I said in the interview about this leading to adverse consequences.
…the Nordic countries' policies now differ significantly from policies that economists view as characteristic of socialism. …Nordic taxation overall is greater… Living standards in the Nordic countries, as measured by per capita GDP and consumption, are at least 15 percent lower than those in the United States. …a monopoly government health insurer to provide healthcare for "free" (i.e., without cost sharing) and to centrally set all prices paid to suppliers, such as doctors and hospitals. We find that if this policy were financed through higher taxes, GDP would fall by 9 percent, or about $7,000 per person in 2022.
The report notes that Nordic nations have cost sharing, so the economic losses in that excerpt would apply more to the British system, or to the "Medicare for All" scheme being pushed by some Democrats.
But Nordic-style fiscal policy is still very expensive.
It means higher taxes and lower living standards.
I've previously shared AIC data, so regular readers already know this data.
And regular readers also won't be surprised at this next chart since I wrote about Nima Sanandaji's work back in 2015.
Here's the bottom line from the report.
Highly socialist countries experienced sharp declines in output, especially in the industries that were taken over by the state. Economies with less extreme forms of socialism also generate less output, although the shortfall is not as drastic as with the highly socialist countries.
In other words, lots of socialism is really bad while some socialism is somewhat bad.
Let's close by citing some other recent publications, starting with this editorialfrom the Wall Street Journal.
Democrats are embracing policies that include government control of ever-larger chunks of the private American economy. Merriam-Webster defines socialism as "any of various economic and political theories advocating collective or governmental ownership and administration of the means of production and distribution of goods."…consider the Democratic agenda that is emerging from Congress and the party's presidential contenders. …Bernie Sanders' plan, which has been endorsed by 16 other Senators, would replace all private health insurance in the U.S. with a federally administered single-payer health-care program. Government would decide what care to deliver, which drugs to pay for, and how much to pay doctors and hospitals. Private insurance would be banned. …The Green New Deal…, endorsed by 40 House Democrats and several Democratic presidential candidates, would require that the U.S. be carbon neutral within 10 years. …this would mean a complete remake of American electric power, transportation and manufacturing. …as imagined by Rep. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, all of this would be planned by a Select Committee For a Green New Deal. Soviet five-year plans were more modest.
The column also mentions government-guaranteed jobs, Washington imposing controls on businesses, and confiscatory tax rates, all of which are terrible policies.
Whether this is technically socialist can be debated.
What can't be debated is that this agenda would make the U.S. – at best – akin to Greece in terms of economic liberty.
Here's a look at some excerpts from a column in the Weekly Standard.
Most interesting, we also have a column by Cass Sunstein, a former Obama appointee.
President Donald Trump was entirely right to reject "new calls to adopt socialism in our country." He was right to add that "America was founded on liberty and independence — not government coercion," and to "renew our resolve that America will never be a socialist country." …socialism calls for government ownership or control of the means of production. By contrast, capitalism calls for private ownership and control — for a robust system of property rights. In capitalist systems, companies and firms, both large and small, are generally in private hands. In socialist systems, the state controls them. …Socialist systems give public officials a great deal of authority over prices, levels of production and wages. …Whether we are speaking of laptops or sneakers, coffee or candy bars, umbrellas or blankets, markets establish prices, levels of production and wages on the basis of the desires, the beliefs and the values of countless people. No planner can possibly do that. …Those who now favor large-scale change should avoid a term, and a set of practices, that have so often endangered both liberty and prosperity.
Last but not least, here's a video about socialism.
Narrated by Gloria Alvarez, it looks at the grim evidence from Cuba and Venezuela.
And she also points out that Nordic nations are not socialist.
Indeed, most of them would be closer to the United States than to France on this statism spectrum.
In other words, the real lesson is not that socialism is bad (that should be obvious), but rather that there's a strong relationship between national prosperity and economic liberty.
Simply stated, the goal of policy makers should be to reject all forms of collectivism (including communism and fascism) and instead strive to minimize the footprint of government. | {
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The A6/A6+ CNC Hob Sharpening Machines from ACSTAR are developed with ACSTAR's extensive experience in cutting tool machining equipment in combination with the latest technology. Featuring advanced computer control the series of machine are high precision, versatile grinding machines with 5 axes control and 4 axes simultaneous control. These machines are applicable for sharpening hobs with straight and spiral flutes. In addition, upon customer's requirement, these machines are available to design with an additional complicated part grinding function for sharpening the cutting edge of the slotting hob. The models A6/A6+ employ HSK interchangeable grinding wheel shank that helps to reduce wheel change time during machining, resulting in a higher production efficiency and increase of customer's product development competition capabilities. As such, ACSTAR A6/A6+ series is your best choice in upgrading production competitiveness and product development.
Come to take a look!
Copyright © ACSTAR PRECISION MACHINERY CO., LTD. | {
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Urban living, extended screen time and reduced physical activity are factors contributing to fewer green space play opportunities for children. Recent studies find that there is a danger in overprotecting young ones, which can outweigh the possible risk of a sprained ankle or a couple of scrapes on the knee. Essentially, there is a risk to not taking risks.
that are needed for healthy development?
Below are items identified in an article published by Peter Gray in Psychology Today .
Rapid Speeds: Children swing on vines, ropes, or playground swings, propel down slides, shoot down rapids on logs/boats and ride bikes fast enough to produce the thrill of almost but not quite losing control.
Rough and Tumble: Children everywhere chase one another and fight playfully. They typically prefer being in the most vulnerable position—the one being chased or the one underneath in wrestling–the position that involves the most risk of being hurt and requires the most skill to overcome.
Disappearing/Getting Lost: Little children play hide and seek and experience the thrill of temporary, scary separation from their companions. Older ones venture off – on their own and away from adults – into territories that to them are new and filled with imagined dangers including the danger of getting lost.
Habitat Systems can work with you to create a play space place that encourages an appropriate amount of risky play while ensuring CSA compliance. Contact us today and learn more.
Learn more about the benefits of risky play. | {
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2019 Fellows & Mentors (Imperial College London)
2019 Fellows & Mentors (Warwick & Alan Turing Institute)
2018 Fellows & Mentors (Chicago)
2018 Fellows & Mentors (Portugal)
2017 Fellows & Mentors
Working with us: Data Agreements, Access, and Security
Home/Blog Post/You say you want Transparency and Interpretability?
You say you want Transparency and Interpretability?
Rayid Ghani
We keep hearing and saying that in order to implement and correctly use machine learning and predictive models , they must be transparent and interpretable. That makes sense. You don't want a black box model making important decisions — although one could argue that the guts and intuitions of many human beings are often as opaque and worse in performance than a black box. Domain experts and policymakers need to know what the predictive models are doing, and will do in the future, in order to trust them and deploy them.
Transparency-Gameability Tradeoff?
But then a new wrinkle comes along. For certain problems, it turns out that people don't want the system to be too transparent because that allows the predictions and outcomes to be gamed. This has traditionally been true in fraud detection systems, but let's take two examples we've worked on recently that ran into this issue:
Building predictive models for on-time high school graduation
Building early intervention systems to prevent adverse police interactions
In this example, it's obvious why you want the predictive models to be transparent and interpretable. The model assigns a score to each student according to their probability of dropping out or not graduating on time. This risk score allows high schools to provide additional targeted support and interventions efficiently and increase graduation rates. When we worked with several school districts and developed predictive models that were both highly accurate and interpretable, one surprising comment we received was that "we don't want to expose the model to the teachers because then they might game the system to reduce the risk scores."
The worry was that teachers may feel (or will be) evaluated on the percentage of students in their class who are above a certain risk threshold. If the model was transparent — for example, heavily reliant on math GPA — the teacher could inflate math grades and reduce the intermediate risk scores of their students. We say intermediate, because ultimately, the inflated GPA student will probably still not graduate on time, but by that time it may be too late to assign the blame on the teacher they had in 9th grade. You could argue that the real problem here is not the interpretability of the model, but instead the incentive structure and the lack of good, affordable, and rational teacher evaluation models. However, the school district's concern of the model being "gameable" still existed, and hindered the likelihood of it being implemented effectively.
This example is perhaps more clear. Existing early intervention systems used by many police departments to flag officers who may go on to have adverse interactions with the public (such as unjustified uses of force, violence, or weapons) are threshold-based. The departments select a handful of indicators, such as number of previous uses of force, or number of citizen complaints, and select a threshold as well as a time window that results in a warning flag. For example, one rule could be that if an officer has had greater than 3 uses of force in a 90 day window, an "early warning flag" is raised and the officer must meet with a supervisor.
This type of system has a lot of problems, including ineffectiveness at providing accurate and timely warnings (see our work on improving these systems by making them data-driven and predictive). Here we want to focus on a specific shortcoming, as highlighted by several police departments — that too much transparency allows officers to easily game the system. Some of the police departments we talked to complained about these systems being very easy to understand and interpret, but that also makes them easy to game. An officer who has had two uses of force in the past 80 days may choose to be a bit more careful over the next 10 days, until the count rolls over to zero again. While this short-term behavioral effect is beneficial, over the long term, it defeats the whole purpose of having these systems in the first place.
So what can we do?
Make our systems opaque? No, we don't think so. We do want explanations and interpretability in our models. There are far too many dangers and risks in building machine learning systems that are not understandable. This is especially critical when dealing with public policy since important aspects of people's lives are being affected.
Can we make machine learning systems that are transparent and interpretable but not gameable? We don't know, but we think it's worth exploring further. We should at least explore whether it's a real tradeoff or if we can get all the interpretability, accuracy, and other performance measures we want, while still protecting against gaming.
Here are some initial thoughts:
Gameability could be fine as long as gaming the system means doing the right thing and increasing behaviors that reduce the risk of negative outcomes. If gaming the system means inflating everyone's grades, that's bad. If it means reducing the number of unjustified uses of force, that's a good thing.
One way to make that happen is by creating features (variables) that are interpretable but difficult to game, or even better, designing them such that "gaming" would mean doing the right thing. Instead of a feature for "math GPA in the past semester," what if we only use the GPA percentile? This is desirable anyway for most machine learning models, but the goal here would be specifically to make the model more difficult to game. What about features that are deltas from a previous time period (slope of a raw count) such as "increase in GPA from previous semester," and what if we normalized that as well so its slope compared to everyone else's slope? We can keep getting more and more complex, making it difficult for people to game these features without going deeper into the model and understanding it better. Of course, some of these features would still be gameable, and some of them would also make the model more opaque.
As we make our features more and more complex, we'll need to translate the predictions into something end users can still understand. Can we make the model complicated but focus on making the translations more easily interpretable, instead of transparent? Can we take individual predictions and use case/instance-based explanations? Those types of explanations are used in many domains (law and medicine for example) to explain predictions, and at the same time are difficult to use for gaming the model.
These are just some early thoughts. The goal of this blog post is not to give solutions but to highlight this potential tradeoff and ask for other people's thoughts on this topic. So what do you think? Is this a real issue? Are there good ways to deal with it? Have people done work on this topic?
rayid2018-05-12T14:07:08-05:00
Data Science for Social Good Adds UK Locations, Opens 2019 Applications
Improving Workplace Safety in Chile through Proactive Inspections
Improving Traffic Safety in Jakarta Through Video Analysis
Tackling Tenant Harassment in New York City: A Data-Driven Approach
Data Science for Social Good Announces 2018 Projects in Chicago and Lisbon
Tech Lessons Learned Implementing Early Intervention Systems in Charlotte and Nashville - JukeLogic on Reducing Adverse Police Interactions
Are Ethics in Data Science Really That Important? - Datassist on An Ethical Checklist for Data Science
Solving social problems with data – Agenparl on Police Project Update: Expanding and Implementing the Early Intervention System
Leçons techniques apprises Mise en œuvre de systèmes d'intervention précoce à Charlotte et à Nashville – Datakeo on Reducing Adverse Police Interactions
Leçons apprises par l'homme mettant en œuvre des systèmes d'intervention précoce à Charlotte et à Nashville – Datakeo on Reducing Adverse Police Interactions
[email protected]
This program is run by the Data Science for Social Good Foundation
All DSSG Program and Event Participants and attendees agree to the DSSG Code of Conduct
Can we reduce recidivism by proactive mental health outreach? DSSG 2018 video youtube.com/watch?v=RJtOa1… followed by… twitter.com/i/web/status/1…
This started as a 2014 summer project at DSSG and we're so proud of all the people who've made it from a prototype… twitter.com/i/web/status/1…
Applications for the 2020 Data Science for Social Good Fellowship at Carnegie Mellon University are now open - Appl… twitter.com/i/web/status/1…
Copyright 2019 Data Science for Social Good Foundation
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int main(int argc, char** argv) {
if (argc != 2) {
printf("Usage: %s server_ip:server_port,...\n", argv[0]);
return -1;
}
saber::SetLogHandler(nullptr);
saber::DefaultWatcher watcher;
saber::ClientOptions options;
options.root = "/ls";
options.servers = argv[1];
options.watcher = &watcher;
saber::RunLoop loop;
saber::MySaber mysaber(&loop, options);
mysaber.Start();
loop.Loop();
return 0;
}
| {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
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microbraids.org 9 out of 10 based on 300 ratings. 400 user reviews.
I changed out the battery clamps, spark plugs, alternator belt, PGM FI Relay, Fuel Filter(I heard the fuel pump run after changing the filter and starting the car), Air Filter and it continues to die between 10 and 12 minutes after starting the car.
HONDA CIVIC DEL SOL 1993 OWNER'S MANUAL Pdf Download.
View and Download Honda Civic del Sol 1993 owner's manual online. Civic del Sol 1993 Automobile pdf manual download.
All the Honda car parts and accessories you need online at Auto Parts Warehouse. Get up to 70% off on retail prices! Free Shipping when you order over $50. | {
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Poetry are the ideal method to describe any kind of humane emotions. Feelings such as such joy, sadness, cardiovascular full of sadness or really like nothing may express these types of feelings much better than poems. From time to time feelings tend to be tough to share with terms and frequently you are wordless while visiting fact you might have so much to say.
Merely conveying your adore through phrases and providing your enjoy through poetry are 2 different ways and also the latter is actually anytime much more touching. Poetries have been typical way of offerring one's sensation.
Poetry is really a form of materials, which utilizes artistic as well as rhythmic characteristics of talk. This includes 'phonaesthetics', symbolism associated with sound, and also 'metre'. To get technical description aside beautifully constructed wording is the wreath of thoughts beautifully organized that gets the ideal solution to express one's feeling.
Women inside love usually wish their own lover in order to woo all of them. Thus, males try better to do so. But what is important to allow them to understand is the fact that nothing woos a woman a lot better than a poetry. A poems that explains their elegance and like can bring an immediate smile on her behalf face.
Poetries have lengthy history. Furthermore, the history shows the beauty concealed poems. Nonetheless, it is not feasible for men to explain their appreciate with poetries. In such cases, several sites just like offer a system for creative people to emphasize their verses. Additionally , these people allow someone to forward these kinds of poems for their loved ones along with flicker their particular love.
Therefore, when you wish to be able to covey anything at all, forwarding traditional love poetry can say everything. | {
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|
Inspiring solutions for complex challenges
We spoke with Engineering Manager for INEOS O&P Charles Okereafor and asked him to share his experience of how INEOS is committed to finding workable solutions that drive operational reliability and so help reduce emissions at Grangemouth.
Charles led the team effort behind an innovative breakthrough that has seen efficiency, productivity and reliability increase significantly on INEOS O&P's KG ethylene cracker production line at Grangemouth. He explained the background in a recent interview.
Published Date: 28th July 2021
I've spent my life in a variety of interesting and challenging places in different roles, however none have been more important than our current challenge to get to Net Zero at Grangemouth by 2045.
When I was growing up, my parents wanted me to become a doctor, I wanted to become a doctor, and now I find myself diagnosing problems and designing treatments for things like sticky valves… it's just that they're not inside human hearts but they are inside the pumps at the heart of our operations.
What Charles was referring to is a challenge that had been haunting a generation of engineers on site at Grangemouth, how to stop the seals on the pumps for the ethylene pipelines breaking down and triggering automatic plant shutdowns?
Those unplanned shutdowns decrease our operational efficiency, lead to increased levels of flaring, and therefore increase our emissions; implementing innovative solutions that bring down those emissions makes good sense for the business and the planet.
Those pumps are critically important to INEOS; they transport finished product ethylene from Grangemouth to our customers in Runcorn and beyond, earning a steady stream of revenue for the operations on site. Thousands of tonnes of high-pressure ethylene are pumped down pipelines hundreds of miles long, 24 hours a day 7 days a week. Being part of the solution is what drives many of the INEOS engineers working on site at Grangemouth. Creating safe and sustainable products that meet society's needs and to do that efficiently is the core purpose of our engineering teams. Finding a solution to the fragile seals would avoid the need for replacing the pumps themselves, which at over £1 million a pump for the equipment, installation, and commissioning, would represent a significant cost for the business.
Realistically it was also not the solution, these pumps are performing their vital jobs under extremely tough operating conditions, it was the seals that couldn't handle the operating environment: extremely cold -29oC, under tremendous pressures of 90 BAR and spinning at 15,000 RPM.
The actual solution was devised using a process called Root Cause Analysis that Charles had been trained in and used extensively while working at the Grangemouth Refinery, owned and operated by Petroineos.
With a history of seal failures, the carbon/ silicon carbide (a naturally occurring crystalline mineral pictured right) used in these 3-micron tolerance seals (thinner than a human hair) weren't working well because they weren't durable enough for the challenge. Despite being tougher than granite, the pump seals would wear out and need to be replaced as often as every 6-8 weeks – this was highly disruptive; complex stoppage situations if more than one seal failed simultaneously would result in tripping the plant.
Like with other site operations, every unplanned outage had unwanted consequences - increased flaring of the ethylene that could not be exported, leading to lost sales, and contributing to GHG emissions at Grangemouth – there are powerful economic and environmental benefits to improving operational reliability.
Charles put together a cross-functional team of mechanical, operations and process engineers drawn from across the INEOS Grangemouth team with support from expert engineers from the pump suppliers.
The assembled team of engineers – from across and outside INEOS – had one thing in common, their individual and collective reputations as "Creative Trouble-shooters" were on the line… they had to find a solution.
That solution was determined by the team using all the data available to them, the core task was to increase the durability and operational "toughness" of the seals – a solution that was fit for sub-zero temperatures, high pressures, 24/7 high volume operations, and an intense focus on operational reliability and safety – the team's answer to the challenge had to combine high performance and high integrity. The hard-wearing carbon/ silicon carbide seals had to go and make way for something even tougher… diamond!
How would the call to invest even more in these 10cm diameter diamond seals go down with site management?
Charles was straightforward in his response, "The business case was there, the engineering team's rationale was solid, and the approval was instant. Within weeks, we were stopping the line for planned maintenance, the team installed a new diamond seal into one of the existing pumps, and then rigorously tested it side-by-side against its old carbon/ silicon carbide sealed identical twin and within three months the evidence was clear. We proceeded to change out all the old pump seals and 15 months later, despite planned intermittent stops and starts, the pumps are working perfectly without a single failure resulting in an improvement in operational reliability and a marked reduction in GHG emissions."
So "Diamonds are forever then?"
Not exactly, responds Charles, as an engineer you always know that at some point in the future another brighter, smarter engineer is going to come along with an even better solution, that's why we all become engineers in the first place! | {
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WHBC
Kanye West Postpones Forthcoming Album and Promises New Movie
by WHBC Contributor
Contributed by: Morgan Goldsmith
Kanye West continues to stall the release of his highly-anticipated gospel album, Jesus Is King. Fans expected the rapper's ninth studio album to hit streaming platforms over the weekend, as promised by his wife, Kim Kardashian. Kardashian previously released the tracklist for the album along with the original release date, Friday, September 27. Fans in Detroit had the opportunity to attend an album listening party on Friday, but as Friday came to an end, there was no sign of the album on streaming platforms.
However, fans were assured that the album would be finished and ready for streaming by the coming Sunday after Kanye made a few final tweaks to the project. Kanye is set to also hold listening parties in his hometown of Chicago on Saturday and in New York on Sunday, allegedly releasing the album Sunday night. Unfortunately, the album still is not available, as Kanye continues to make changes.
@kanyewest LA Monster snippet from NYC listening party for #JesusIsKing pic.twitter.com/udvoapDuzd
— ᴋʏʟᴇ 𝔇𝔬𝔱𝔠𝔬𝔪 (@fri3d) September 30, 2019
Based on videos from the listening parties, it seems like the album will be worth the wait. Fans at the listening party were impressed with features from Lauryn Hill, Pusha T and Malice. The listening parties also revealed more promises from Kanye, as he announced a movie to accompany the album. Jesus Is King: A Kanye West Experience is an IMAX documentary directed by Nick Knight, a long time Kanye collaborator on videos like "Bound 2" and "Black Skinhead." Fans can expect the documentary to hit IMAX theaters on October 25.
The rapper also announced that he will no longer continue to make secular music. Kanye West has been on somewhat of a spiritual journey since the release of his 2018 album, ye. The Chicago artist started a church-inspired series called Sunday Service in early 2019. The series features gospel inspired remixes of songs from every genre with an occasional sermon. Kanye's spiritual explorations have been very public and have definitely made an impact on his overall creative vision.
Kanye West keeps both fans and critics on their toes with his ever changing visions and antics. Fans will continue to await the release of Jesus Is King as well as the album's accompanying documentary.
RT if Jesus Is King is never dropping.
— WATERPARKS #1 FAN PAGE (@theneedledrop) October 2, 2019
Tags: album, Kanye West, Kim Kardashian, movie
© Copyright 2020 Howard University Radio Network.
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