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The lightning speed of these thoughts, not to mention their judgmental spirit, even caught me off guard. I’m a positive person who generally sees the best in others and in fact, critical people feel like an aggressive choke-hold to me. So where on earth did this snap judgment come from? And just as importantly, if I can resist the urge to get mad at myself letting this critical thought happen, what can it teach me?
We hear a lot about humans being wired for love and connection and believe that with my whole heart. What I also know about humans is that the most primitive parts of our brains are wired for something very different: survival. The lower part of our brain has only one job: keep us alive. Keep us breathing. Keep us vigilant. Keep us safe. It just so happens that this part of our brain is also the quickest to respond, especially when a threat is perceived. This primal, reactive part of the brain is usually more reflex than conscious choice.
So back to my snap judgment of the cute 20-something who has the audacity to wear a trendy outfit in my presence. Given the vigilance of my lower brain to constantly be on the lookout for threats, it doesn’t have to look hard to find them. In an effort to keep me “safe,” my brain by default is sizing up everyone around me. It is constantly asking the question: “Who am I better than so I can know where to compete?” Vigilance, to the lower brain, is sizing up everyone and everything in the new environment and reporting back where I beat the “competition” and where I’m outgunned. This darling young thing had me outdone outfit to hairstyle and for some reason on that day, it was a threat to my place in the room.
So my fast-acting lower brain raced in with the report of where I’d been outdone and offered some reasoning for why someone could possibly be younger, cuter, and more fashionable than me. Apparently the answer was simple: She was obsessed with appearance—it was the only possible explanation. So, my lower brain (and probably some combo of my ego) consoles me with the verdict that while “yes, she does outgun you in some superficial categories, our deep reconnaissance ensures us that we are still more focused on the important things in life than she is and that actually makes us the winner! Yay!”
Before she’s even had time to introduce herself fully, my fast-acting lower brain has sized me up against her, figured out where she must surely be weak and offered a solution for how to ‘defeat’ her. That might be handy if we were about to engage in a fight to the death but damn, she was just joining us for coffee!
It’s ugly folks. Judgment always is. It’s not based in truth. It’s divisive. It feels gross and cuts us off from the connection we truly crave with others. But it is our default wiring that was once designed to keep us safe. Our snap judgments were essential when we needed to outwit predators and it would still be the quick thinking that keeps us safe if we were truly in a state of physical threat. But thankfully, 99.9% of the time, we aren’t. And our job is to tame these overzealous first-responders that view life only in terms of threat and safety.
So knowing this, what can I do when moments of harsh judgment like this strike?
- Call it what it is. Say to yourself: “Ah, Girl, you’re feeling threatened and this is pressing your “I’m not Enough” button, isn’t it?” Basically, offer a truer assessment of the situation that you and offer yourself grace.
- Circle back later: When you’re out of the moment and your biology is no longer hijacking your thinking, spend some time asking yourself why that particular person or incident seemed to trigger you. Not so that you can beat yourself up over it but so that you can know your tender areas and anticipate potential triggers.
Also, here are two things that will not help in a moment of snap judgment:
- Don’t go into a shame spiral: Don’t get mad at yourself for the knee-jerk reaction that was out of character for you. To do so is to give it too much mic-time. Your default settings over-reacted, you see it for what it is, and rework your thoughts.
- Don’t lean over and corrupt others with your lower-brain’s over-reactions by turning the snap judgments into juicy gossip or a chance to laugh at someone else’s expense. Again, it gives the thoughts more real estate than they deserve and that is the opposite of the goal.
We are not our thoughts. Yet, when our thoughts go unchecked, they can bleed into our way of being in the world. Let’s see our judgments for what they really are: a map to the tender areas in us that may need some of our time and attention. | http://connectiontable.com/2019/09/why-am-i-judgmental/ |
Manipulation is a form of influencing. What makes it different from others is that it uses dishonest means. The most common of those means are biased reporting, dishonest appeals to emotion, stacking the deck, suppressing dissent, and repetition.
Biased reporting is when a book, magazine, newspaper, etc. try to make you feel a certain way about something or influence your reaction on the topic. For example I was reading a newspaper last Sunday; the very first line read "A plan of action that will sure create disagreement." This article was trying to attempt to change my reaction to the news instead of just reporting it. A way I can resist this is to understand that there are a lot of misinformation and lies that can be spread and not to "believe everything I read" so that I can just get the news instead of reacting.
A dishonest appeal to emotion is when people use emotional issues to touch the audience so that they will side with them. Emotional language is great it's used to reinforce important issues, but a lot of people use it to manipulate. For example I was in class where people were giving speeches to try and persuade the audience to side with them. One student used emotional language in his speech but was very dishonest using it. The way I figured that out and made sure I wasn't manipulated was that I asked questions to deter them of emotions and realize they are being dishonest.
Stacking the deck is when a person tries to cheat people when there is an opposing view. For example also during a class debate, I was debating one of my classmates on the death penalty. My teacher who should have been neutral on the issue ended up siding with my classmate and would throw in information for that side making it a two-on-one debate. But luckily for me I came prepared and that's always what you need to do to overcome this kind of manipulation. I knew way more on my side of the issue then they thought and I beat them even if it was an "unfair battle." Knowing what you will talk about before hand and being prepared will resist this kind of manipulation.
Suppressing dissent is when there is no impression of an opposing view. For example, in high school I volunteered to help with the schools newspaper. I would put together collages of people and things going on in school, they were always published in the magazine. Although one week when I submitted my piece to the teacher he looked at it said it was good but never published it. I was never aware that he didn't like my work or that it wasn't what he was looking for. Instead of him just telling me when I handed it in I had to find out when it wasn't published. I did nothing about it and felt very manipulated but something that I could have done about this would have been to ask him questions, like what was wrong with my work, and maybe next time you should let me know before it was published.
Repetition is when you repeat a familiar idea so that people will believe it. People may do this technique of manipulation on accident, they may think what they are saying and continue to repeat it but there facts are wrong, and they tend to give out wrong information. For example I would always talk to my mom about specific things, like informing her on topics. Except one time I kept telling her one fact over and over again so that she would know it just like I did. But in fact I was wrong about this information and gave the wrong info to my mom thinking I was right. Something I could have done to prevent accidentally manipulating my mom was to check my sources before informing her on something I apparently didn't know about.
People are not born with individuality but the potential to develop it. There are many ways to develop your individuality. For example: be wary of first impressions, be honest to yourself, fight confusion, produce many ideas, acknowledge complexity, look for connections among subjects, consider other viewpoints, and base your judgment on evidence.
Be wary of first impressions, this is when you meet someone for the first time and the impression you get from that person, like the example in the book of meeting someone you have met before but you called them something totally different from what there real name is. This is not a lack of intelligence but just having a bad habit of relying on first impressions. This same exact example happened to me at a party, I felt humiliated that I have been calling this person the wrong name this whole time. I kind of ignored him after that because I felt horrible. What I should have done was remain open and not have ignored him and try to notice if he remembered my mistake and see is he accepts me.
Be honest with yourself, this is a lot easier then it sounds. It means facing a number of unpleasant truths. For example "much of what we blame on others is really our own fault."
(2008, 12). Critical Thinking. EssaysForStudent.com. Retrieved 12, 2008, from https://www.essaysforstudent.com/essays/Critical-Thinking/170.html
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As we welcome new faculty and students to campus, the Reinert Center is gearing up for its focus this year on Thinking Critically, Thinking Creatively. This theme will inform some of our regular programs, including workshops in our Certificate Program, our annual Winter Institute, and our Teaching with Technology series. Each semester also will feature two new offerings: a faculty panel and a blog series; both will focus on thinking critically this fall and on thinking creatively next spring.
For some, these concepts represent “habits of mind” or “essential skills” or “academic mindsets”. Some focus on the noun versions (critical thinking, creative thinking); some call them by other names altogether: entrepreneurial thinking, clinical reasoning, connective thinking, to name a few.
Public discourse periodically sees a spike in the number of commentators and researchers and employers who bemoan college graduates’ inability to think critically and/or creatively. Such seeming intellectual failures often are viewed as key indicators of the decline of universities. Indeed, in articles from the Wall Street Journal and The Harvard Business Review and in how-to guides for Teaching Applied Creative Thinking and Teaching for Critical Thinking: Tools and Techniques to Help Students Question Their Assumptions, many both in and out of the academy are preoccupied with questions about what it means to think critically and/or creatively, about how and when people learn to do it, and about who teaches them to do it.
Numerous universities have named these (and other) core academic mindsets as ideal outcomes for all their students. Most faculty on most campuses would likely rate critical thinking at or near the top of the list of skills they want students to excel at – but many also struggle to name what the features of thinking critically are, in concrete terms. When we add creative thinking to the mix, new challenges arise, since many faculty may believe “creativity,” in whatever form, cannot be taught (or at least not taught by them).
As nouns, the concepts of critical thinking and creative thinking can be challenging to define, but many have tried. Perhaps one of the best-known efforts for those of us in U.S. higher education comes from the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U). As part of its commitment to enhancing assessment, the AAC&U has overseen the development of VALUE rubrics on critical thinking and on creative thinking. These rubrics are the product of input and samples provided by faculty members from across the country. They define critical thinking and creative thinking as follows:
Critical thinking: “a habit of mind characterized by the comprehensive exploration of issues, ideas, artifacts, and events before accepting or formulating an opinion or conclusion”
Creative thinking: “both the capacity to combine or synthesize existing ideas, images, or expertise in original ways and the experience of thinking, reacting, and working in an imaginative way characterized by a high degree of innovation, divergent thinking, and risk taking”
As the AAC&U rubric suggests, critical thinking hinges on actions like suspending judgment, questioning evidence and considering complexities of context; ultimately, its purpose is to stake out a claim or perspective of one’s own. Although it builds on similar mental activities, creative thinking, on the other hand, involves intellectual risk-taking, imaginative thinking, creative exploration of new solutions to old problems, “embracing contradictions.”
For me, thinking critically and thinking creatively are two sides of the same intellectual coin. When I suspend judgment, actively seek and question new information, and cultivate my own stance on an issue, I am thinking creatively – imagining myself living someone else’s experience, embracing contradictions to arrive at some innovative way of resolving a tension. Obviously, there also are differences, but thinking critically is an inherently creative act.
In formulating a theme for this year, then, the Reinert Center has chosen to emphasize different approaches to thinking, rather than trying to define two discrete nouns. This year, we invite all SLU faculty and graduate instructors to articulate what “thinking critically” and “thinking creatively” really look like in their disciplines and in their courses. Once they name the features of these kinds of thinking, we hope they will also share strategies for teaching these skills. Whether you are full-time faculty, part-time faculty, or graduate students at SLU, whether you are on the St. Louis or the Madrid campus, we invite you to add your voice to the conversation. If you want to contribute to the blog series, let us know by completing this short form (LINK).
Ultimately, thinking critically and thinking creatively are essential for the kind of transformative learning we aim for at SLU. The more entrenched we become in our own ways of thinking about the world, the more we need others to nudge us out of our comfort zones and entice us to explore old ideas in new ways.
As you head into the new academic year, we encourage you to find creative ways to dislodge your students – and maybe even yourself – from the usual ways of looking at a topic. In doing so, you will promote learning that leads to change, and you might even find a renewed sense of energy and purpose in the classroom. | http://www.slu.edu/blogs/cttl/2015/08/26/thinking-critically-thinking-creatively-considerations-of-a-theme/ |
“Not everything that counts can be counted and not everything that can be counted counts” – William Bruce Cameron
Critical thinking is a rich concept that has been developing throughout the past 2500 years. This is a widely accepted educational goals. The use of the term critical thinking has been dated back to the teachings of Socrates recorded by Plato. Socrates maintained that for an individual to have a good life or to have one that is worth living, he must be a critical questioner and possess an interrogative soul.
According to Barry K. Beyer (1995), critical thinking means making clear, reasoned judgements.
Critical thinking is the process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating information to reach an answer or conclusion. It is an appraisal based on careful analytical evaluation. This is a type of thinking pattern that requires people to be reflective and pay attention to decision- making which guides their beliefs and actions. The thinker thinks about his thinking in a manner that is designed to organize, clarify and recognize errors and biases in one’s own thinking.
There is a general agreement to all definitions of critical thinking and that is the desire to reach a satisfactory result.
Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally, understanding the logical connection between ideas. It is about being an active learner and not a passive receptor of information.
WHO IS A CRITICAL THINKER?
Critical thinkers are self- guided and self- disciplined; they are people who think critically consistently and attempt to live rationally, reasonably and empathically. They are keenly aware of the imperfect nature of human thinking when left unchecked. These people try to diminish the power of their egocentric and sociocentric tendencies. Critical thinkers are balanced thinkers. They try to moderate their thinking so as to make sure they are not overthinking or under thinking. They are focus on destinations and not dramas.
Critical thinkers gathers and assess relevant information using abstract ideas to interpreted it effectively, comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions and test them. Critical thinkers use the illectual tools that critical thinking provides; concepts and principles that enable them to analyze, assess and improve thinking. They recognize the complexities in developing as thinkers and commit themselves to practice towards self- improvement. They also take others into consideration and try to understand the reason for people’s action as everybody understands things from their own perspective.
As a critical thinker, you should realize that no matter how profound you are as a thinker, you can always get better in your reasoning abilities and you will at times make mistakes in reasoning due to prejudices, self- interest, distortion, human irrationality and biases. You should strive to improve your world in whatever way that you can. You should think open- mindedly recognizing assumptions and implications, communicate effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.
10 FEATURES OF A CRITICAL THINKER
A critical thinker portrays many features as these features help them think and act rationally. Some of the features are:
- A critical thinker observes and has a high level of awareness
The awareness skill is very vital in helping to think critically. This characteristic allows you to know when to use critical thinking. It is impossible to understand every aspect of a problem or a situation. Observation is the best way of learning about the world, its limitations and laws. The more you use this skill as a critical thinker, the more experienced you become. Experience tends to build out potential to observe the smallest details and analyze them critically.
- A critical thinker is a curious person
Being curious about your surroundings, environment and the world makes you want to change things around you. Curious people ask questions and begin to look for answers. They want to know more, they are really inquisitive.
If you think critically, you must not settle for the facts. This process helps you to learn new things and discover new sides to your knowledge. This inquisitive and curious nature will help you to keep an open mind and channel you to gain deeper knowledge. It is crucial for a critical thinker.
- A critical thinker employs introspection in his dealings
Introspection refers to the process through which we can analyze our thoughts. This is thinking about how you think about things. It relates to self- reflection. It will give you this level of alertness and attentiveness and scrutinizes your biases. It is very important in critical thinking. Meditation allows you to question yourself and your perspective of life.
“The essence of independent mind does not lie in what you think but in how you think” -Christopher Hitchens
- A critical thinker is analytical in thinking
This feature helps you break information down to its component parts and evaluate how well those parts function together and separately. As a critical thinker, you should look at various forms of information and analyze it.
When analyzing, you approach all sides of an issue. This is essential to understand the best line of action. Analyses rely on observation; on gathering and evaluating evidence so you can come to a meaningful conclusion.
- A critical thinker identifies biases
This is one relevant feature of a critical thinker. No one is free from bias. When thinking critically, you must challenge your attitude towards a problem. This helps in giving a better solution to any problem that you face.
You have to identify the evidence that forms your beliefs and assess whether or not the sources are credible, understand your biases and question your preconceived notions. You will understand soon that the information you have received is not complete and could be improved.
- A critical thinker tries to determine the relevance of information
It should be noted that you cannot use all the data and information provided to you. You should have the ability to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant information. A large amount of unfiltered information makes your work ambiguous and baseless and you could be misguided.
To grow this skill, put together what information is the most important, meaningful and relevant to your situation. In most cases, information could be meaningful and relevant, but might not be important in solving the current issues. You will have to be able to look at the source information and identify unnecessary details easily.
- A critical thinker is compassionate and shows empathy
Though we have being asked to keep emotions in check when making important decisions. Compassion and empathy are two qualities that can significantly help your decision- making skills.
Critical thinking is not totally about having a lot of intelligence. It is important to note that we are still human and we have emotions. Everyone have gone through different challenges and have passed through hurdles that have shaped their lives into who they are today. We should always think of the well-being and betterment of the people around us.
As a critical thinker, you should celebrate the uniqueness of everyone.
- A critical thinker never settles for less
Critical thinkers question their status quo. They never settle for things that do not satisfy them. As a critical thinker, you should question your sense of judgement and continue to improve even when you feel satisfied. You need to examine the practices which are prevalent to build something new. You need to keep adding innovations to old methods. This will boost your creativity and productivity.
- A critical thinker is open- minded
A critical thinker wants to hear all perspectives and not jump into conclusions. They embrace other’s opinions and views. As a critical thinker, you have to see all the sides of the issue at hand and not fix your mind on a particular aspect.
You shouldn’t be biased or take sides when solving problems. Always review all possible ideas and opinions before determining the results and action to take.
“Discovery is seeing what everybody else has seen and thinking what nobody else has thought”
- A critical thinker listens attentively
Listening to others and analyzing the information helps you arrive at conclusions that couldn’t have reached on your own. Critical thinkers don’t just want to get their point across to others, they are also careful to engage in active listening. They ask questions to help them distinguish facts from assumption and gathers information and seek to gain insight by asking open- ended question.
BENEFITS OF CRITICAL THINKING
In critical thinking, we do not only accumulate information well, we also know how to use the information to deduce important facts and outcome.
Here are some benefits of critical thinking:
- Critical thinking will help to improve your skill of decision making
Critical thinkers are known for making the best choices. Critical thinking will help you deal with everyday problems as they come your way. Making big-life changing decision needs analysis and rational thinking. This process will help you think independently and trust your gut feeling.
- Critical thinking is a key to career success
Critical thinking is very important for many careers. Almost every career be it a doctor, lawyer, engineer and many others all use critical thinking. It is a very desirable skill to have in the workplace as it will enable you to think outside the box, solve problems innovatively and plan systematically.
- Enhances problem solving skills
Solving problems is part of a critical thinker’s basic and natural instinct. These people are committed to solving problems and they are patient. They have the potential to change the world they live.
“No problem is solved by the same consciousness that created it. We need to see the world anew” – Albert Einstein
- It creates room for independence
Thinking critically will make you trust yourself and judgement. This process is key to creating independence and self- reliance and students should be encouraged to make their own decision and form their own opinions.
- It promotes curiosity
Critical thinkers are constantly curious about life and many things about life and also have a wide range of interest. As a critical thinker, you ask questions constantly and want to know more and broaden your horizon about everything that happens around you. They do not take anything at face value.
“The important thing is not to stop questioning” – Albert Einstein
- It promotes and improves creativity
When you think critically, you are allowing yourself not to only solve problems, but also come up with new and unique ways to solve the problems. Critical thinkers are also highly creative thinkers and are unlimited when it comes to possibilities. The ability of this category of thinkers to consider and analyze different point of view and opinions makes them stand out and become creative.
“The human mind once stretched by a new idea never goes back to its original dimension” – Oliver Wendell Homes
- It can make you happier
When you allow yourself to think critically, you will have a deep understanding of why you think the way you think. Critical thinking will help you understand yourself better and switch off any kind of negative thought and limiting beliefs. As a critical thinker, you will learn to focus on your strengths and this will increase the quality of your life and in turn make you happy.
6 WAYS TO IMPROVE YOUR CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS AS A YOUTH
Here are some tips to improve your critical thinking skills:
- Define your question and goals
- Gather relevant information
- Ask the right questions
- Explore and analyze all sides
- Evaluate the existing evidence
- Remember to think of yourself and know that everyone cannot think critically 100% all the time
As it has been said, it is very important to think critically and analyze matters at hand very well. Youths are encouraged to start engaging in critical thinking as it helps them channel their mind appropriately. Critical thinking isn’t all about gathering information, analyzing the information and using them to make decision and fix problems is what makes you a critical thinker. It is not really easy but one can improve on the skill. If you want to evaluate your critical thinking skill, you can test the skill by questioning your abilities, self- reflection and keep an open mind. You start by defining your goals, and knowing what you are trying to achieve. When you know what you want to achieve, you can now foresee your solution (foresight) to your problem and look at all perspectives of solving the issue.
Take this home
“With a smile, we should instruct our youth” – Jean Baptiste Moliere
Image source: Pixabay.com
Can You Answer 50% Of This Quiz Questions? | https://westgatemigration.com/why-youths-should-be-critical-thinkers/ |
Boosting Your Reasoning Skills
It may seem hard to believe that the person who was perhaps the greatest thinker of the ancient world was commonly thought of as a gadfly by his own contemporaries, but it’s true. Socrates, the intellectual progenitor of Plato and Aristotle, was a much-disliked man in his time. In his day and age — during Athens’ golden age in the 5th century B.C. — the academic climate was dominated by the Sophists, a class of instructors whose educational methods were primarily designed to steer learners toward professional success rather than teach them how to think. Socrates, however, held that behind the admittedly polished and skillful rhetoric of the Sophists and their students were muddled meanings, sloppy argumentation and little substantive information.
In contrast, Socrates offered what’s called dialectical reasoning, though he wouldn’t have recognized that term. This is more or less a perpetual process of exhaustively questioning an idea or principle: The accuracy of any concepts or facts, regardless of how important they may or may not be, is never taken for granted, and any position taken must be carefully thought through. In Plato’s accounts, Socrates regularly shot holes in the arguments of the Sophists in public debates via this dialectical methodology and, not surprisingly, they hated him for it. In fact, Socrates was sentenced to death in 399 B.C. because his unique approach to teaching was eventually ruled as being dangerous to the state.
Although he passed long ago, the dialectical technique Socrates espoused has lived on into our times. Whenever students attempt to go beyond passive learning and venture into active reasoning — questioning and evaluating information instead of just absorbing it — they’re wittingly or unwittingly employing this method. IT professionals at all levels and in all job roles should seek to boost their ability to reason. Although this will help them in their training and certification endeavors, particularly in advanced learning and testing environments such as labs and simulations, critical thinking is more than just a means to prepare for and pass an exam. It’s something that will aid you in your progression through your professional and personal life.
A few relatively simple ways in which you can boost your reasoning skills include:
Make a Case for a Point of View at Odds with Your Own
As Socrates questioned everything — even his own viewpoints — so should you. Think of one of your most closely held beliefs, then try to refute it with an opposing fact-based argument. The point is not to change your values, but rather to enhance your critical thinking skills by shaking yourself out of restrictive thought processes. By debating yourself, you’ll boost your ability to reason through dialectical methods, and your own convictions will likely come out stronger for having been challenged and defended.
Play Reasoning Games
When you work through puzzles such as Sodoku and crosswords, or play strategy games like chess and Risk, you’re giving your brain a workout. These help you develop reason and logic by putting you in situations where you can identify patterns and relationships, overcome various obstacles and take the appropriate measures to achieve an objective. | http://certmag.com/boosting-your-reasoning-skills/ |
When someone outside of therapy learns that Panthea Saidipour is a psychoanalytic psychotherapist, their first question is usually: “Are you analyzing me right now?” Saidipour jokingly responds they shouldn’t worry because she’s off the clock.
Judgment has no place in therapy, said Saidipour, who works with young professionals in their 20s and 30s who want to gain a deeper understanding of themselves. It kills curiosity. And curiosity is critical in therapy.
“A few of the main goals of psychotherapy, as I see them, are to deepen your understanding of yourself, to help you get more in touch with your inner thoughts and feelings, and to make what’s unconscious more conscious,” Saidipour said. “This requires shifting from a place of judgment to curiosity about yourself.” And it’s from this place of curiosity that clinicians also operate.
The issue of judgment is just one of many questions that comes up. Below, you’ll find other questions clinicians get asked regularly, along with their responses.
This is probably the number one question psychotherapist Katrina Taylor, LMFT, gets asked by potential clients, who are wondering about her knowledge and experience, and if they’d be a good fit. Taylor stressed the importance of attending an initial session to see what it feels like to talk with a therapist—and to trust your gut feeling about whether they can help you or not.
Of course, this is hard to do if you’re in crisis or in the depths of a difficult illness, which is why Taylor shared these suggestions: Pause to check in with your body and yourself in the session. Ask yourself: How do I feel? What are my emotions telling me?
There also should be some understanding of your problem, she said. And while your issues won’t be resolved in one session, you and the therapist should have an understanding of how to move forward.
According to psychologist Matt Varnell, Ph.D, “Therapy is about building a relationship that helps you endure the pain of change.” So if your therapist feels cold or distant, you probably won’t trust them enough to fully engage in therapy, he said. “Having the experience that your therapist understands you and can relate well to you is the best indication that therapy will be successful,” said Varnell, who practices at The Center for Psychological and Family Services in the Chapel Hill, North Carolina area.
And, lastly, you’ll know that a therapist is a good fit if you leave the session with some hope, Taylor said.
Isn’t therapy like talking to a friend?
However, therapy also is very different. According to Howes, that’s because: clinicians are bound by confidentiality, which means they can’t share anything you say in session (unless you’re a danger to yourself or someone else); the focus is exclusively on you (not your therapist’s issues); and you’re working with a professional who specializes in helping people with your particular concerns.
As Howes said, “Your friend may be great in her line of work and sharp where relationships are concerned, but a graduate degree and thousands of hours of experience providing therapy aren’t even in the same league.” Even if your friend is a therapist, they’re limited in the help they can provide in that role, he added.
What do therapists think about during session?
As Saidipour noted, some clients worry that their therapists are judging them. Or they’re simply curious about what goes through their therapist’s mind as they’re talking.
According to Howes, the most obvious sign is that your symptoms are decreasing, and you’re accomplishing your goals. For instance, you came to therapy to become more assertive at work. You’ve already asked for a raise and spoke up when a coworker took all the credit for a joint project.
It also might look like noticing patterns in your life, and getting more curious about your automatic reactions, Saidipour said.
It also might seem worse because you’re feeling more painful emotions due to greater self-awareness, Taylor said. “Clients can get scared when they feel more. They’re afraid of their anger, hurt and sadness.” Which is understandable. However, this kind of work is the path to long-term healing, she said.
“Certainly, I can understand feeling a little skeptical about asking your therapist if therapy is working—as they have some stake in the response—but their answer should make some logical sense to you and help you feel more clear about the answer,” Howes said. And if it doesn’t and you feel your therapy isn’t helping, it might be time to find another therapist.
People often want to know how therapy works and exactly what it’ll feel like before they start, Saidipour said. But the relationship between each client and each clinician is unique. “The best way to learn about therapy is to experience it for yourself, and the most rigorous psychotherapy training programs require trainees to experience it for themselves,” too. | https://psychcentral.com/lib/how-do-i-know-if-therapy-is-working-and-other-questions-about-therapy-answered/ |
If you’re in a committed relationship with someone who is worth it and you want to know how to stop overthinking about your relationship, then this article will be helpful for you.
- Overthinking your relationship has many negative effects on your life. It causes stress, anxiety, depression, and lack of confidence. If you are feeling any of these symptoms, then you need to address them immediately.
- Overthinking can also cause arguments between the two people that are involved in the relationship. This is because when one person starts thinking too much about their partner, they start doubting things that have nothing to do with the other person. They may even start questioning whether or not their partner loves them.
When you doubt your partner’s feelings towards you, you are making yourself feel guilty. Guilt makes you feel like you’re doing something wrong. In turn, you start blaming yourself for everything that goes wrong in your relationship.
- You should never blame yourself for anything that happens in your relationship.
- Blaming yourself only leads to more problems in your relationship.
You should always try to look at the positive side of things instead of the negative ones. When you start looking at the positive side of your relationship, you’ll be able to see what you have together. You’ll be able to notice the good qualities of your partner and the things that make you happy.
Also, if you start looking at the negative side of things, you’ll only focus on the bad parts of your partner.
Overthinking is one of those things that we all do at some point in our lives. We might not even realize that we’re doing it until someone points it out to us. But if you find yourself constantly ruminating on a problem for hours on end, then you may be suffering from an undiagnosed mental health condition called “rumination syndrome.”
Why do I overthinking my relationship, anyway?
The simple answer is because we’re humans. We think; we feel; we react. It’s just who we are. But there’s more to it than that. In fact, some psychologists believe that our brains evolved this way so that we could survive as a species.
It turns out that thinking about things too much may actually help us make better decisions. That’s right! Thinking about the consequences of your actions can be beneficial in many ways.
When you think about something, you create an association between the two ideas. This process helps you remember what you learned and allows you to apply it later on. For example, if I ask you “What does the word ‘coconut’ remind you of?” You might say “Coconuts.” If I then tell you that coconuts have no meat inside them, you’ll probably remember that. By: Dr. Lori Copeland
It’s important to recognize that you can’t predict the future. You can only control your actions today. So if you’re worried that something bad might happen, focus on taking steps to prevent it from occurring.
If you’re concerned that your partner is going to leave you, talk to them about your concerns. If you’re worried that you’re going to lose your job, look into getting another job. If you’re worried about money, start budgeting.
And remember: there are always things we don’t know or understand. But when you act in a way that will help you cope with whatever comes up, then you’ll be better prepared for anything life throws at you.
Best ways to stop overthinking in a relationship
The best way to get out of a rut is to change something. If you’re in a relationship with someone who has been thinking about ending it for months or years, it might be time to take action and make some changes. Here are 10 expert-approved ways to help you stop overthinking your relationship.
- Ask yourself what you want from this person.: If you have been together for a while, chances are you know each other pretty well, but that doesn’t mean you know everything there is to know about the other person. Take some time to really think about what you want from the relationship — not just in terms of how they will meet your needs, but also what kind of life you want to live. This can be an eye-opening exercise if you haven’t thought much about it before.
- Talk to friends and family members about your relationship. You may feel like no one understands you when you’re going through a breakup, but talking to people who love you can actually help you understand yourself better. It can also give you perspective on things you didn’t realize were important to you until now.
- Get to know yourself better. When you’re feeling down, it’s easy to blame everyone else for your problems. But if you want to break up with someone, it’s worth taking some time to figure out why you’re doing it. What do you need? How can you improve? These questions can help you become more self-aware and less likely to keep making the same mistakes.
- Find new hobbies and interests. It’s hard to focus on anything when you’re depressed, so try finding activities that don’t require too much energy. You could start by joining a book club or volunteering at a local animal shelter. Or maybe you could join a gym and work out regularly. Whatever you choose, find something you enjoy doing and stick with it.
- Spend time alone. It’s normal to feel lonely after breaking up with someone, especially if you’ve been dating them for a long time. But spending time alone won’t necessarily solve all your problems. In fact, it can sometimes make you feel worse because you miss having someone around. So instead of trying to fix yourself, try focusing on being happy.
- Don’t let anyone tell you what you should do. People often say things like “you shouldn’t be thinking about him/her right now,” or “it’ll only hurt you if you stay with him/her.” While these statements may seem helpful, they aren’t always true. For example, even though it might hurt you to talk to your ex, it’s okay to do so. And if you decide to stay with someone, it‘s not fair to hold back any feelings you have.
- Try to see things from their point of view. Sometimes we get so caught up in our own thoughts and emotions that we forget to consider others’ feelings. When you’re sad, it’s natural to think about yourself and how you’re feeling. But if you want your relationships to last, it’s important to remember that people have different perspectives than yours. Try asking yourself: “How would I feel if I was in his shoes?”
- Change your expectations. Sometimes when you’re in love with someone, you expect them to fulfill certain roles in your life. Maybe you expected them to support you financially or take care of you emotionally. If you’re ending a relationship, it’s good to change your expectations. Instead of expecting your partner to be perfect, ask yourself what you can do to make sure your relationship works.
- Be honest. Even if you’re afraid of hurting someone, it’s never wrong to be open and honest about your feelings. The sooner you admit that you’re unhappy, the sooner you can move forward.
- Learn to cope with stress. Stress affects us all differently. Some people are able to handle stressful situations without getting upset, while others struggle to manage stress.
“The biggest mistake most couples make is thinking they want what they think they want,” says relationship coach and author, Dr. Jennifer Lehrman. “They get into a situation where they start to think they want to change someone else to fit themselves, but what they actually want is to fit themselves to someone else.”
Best way to rebuild trust back in a relationship
Relationships are meant to be challenging and even at times difficult, but if there’s one truth that can be extracted from all the research and studies into relationships, it is that trust is what makes or breaks them. So just like the best relationships don’t just happen and instead take work to build over time, so too with trust; it takes some effort and practice to develop it enough to last through thick and thin.
And when you do finally get a good relationship going, it’s not always easy to maintain.
So how do we go about building trust in our relationships? Here are some tips:
- Be honest. If something isn’t working out for you, tell your partner. Don’t keep things bottled up inside because you think they might find out another way. The more open you are with each other, the better chance you have of getting to know each other on a deeper level.
- Give credit where it’s due. When someone does something nice for you, give them the credit they deserve. It doesn’t matter who did what first, as long as both parties were involved in making the relationship work.
- Take responsibility. If you mess up, own up to it and apologize. This will help you learn from your mistakes and make sure that you don’t repeat them again.
- Make an effort to understand your partner’s point of view. Try to see things from their perspective rather than yours. You may come across as stubborn or unreasonable, but sometimes people need to hear what they want to hear before they’ll listen to you.
- Communicate effectively. Use words rather than actions to express yourself. Words are easier to change than actions.
- Don’t let your emotions control you. Keep your cool and try not to react emotionally when arguing.
- Stay positive. Even when you feel like you’re losing ground, stay optimistic and look forward to the future.
- Have fun together! Laughter helps break down barriers between partners and brings people closer together.
- Respect boundaries. Your partner should never expect you to do anything you aren’t comfortable doing.
- Remember that you’re both individuals. Each person has his or her own set of values and beliefs. While it’s important to respect those differences, it’s also important to accept that you hold different opinions.
- Don’t compare your partner to others. Everyone has strengths and weaknesses, and no two people are alike.
- Show appreciation. Appreciation goes a long way towards helping a couple grow stronger.
- Avoid arguments. Arguments only serve to bring couples further apart. Instead, focus on finding solutions to problems.
- Learn to compromise. Compromise is necessary to any healthy relationship.
- Set realistic expectations. Expectations can often lead to disappointment, especially if they’re unrealistic.
- Don’t use sex as a tool. Sex is great, but it shouldn’t be used as a means to an end.
- Don’t put pressure on your partner. Let him or her choose whether or not he or she wants to continue the relationship.
- Know when to walk away. Sometimes it’s best to call it quits and move on.
- Trust your instincts. If something feels off, chances are it probably is.
- Look after yourself. Self-care is essential to maintaining a happy, healthy relationship.
- Don’t take things personally. Relationships are complicated, so there’s bound to be some disagreements.
Remember that trust is earned over time
It’s important to remember that trust isn’t something you simply receive; it must be earned. If someone breaks their promise to you, don’t assume that you know what happened. Instead, ask questions and try to understand.
Conclusion.:
Overthinking is something that can happen when we are involved with someone and it’s not always easy to spot. It’s a very common problem that people have, especially if they are in a new relationship or just starting out on their first date.
It’s important to remember that there will be times when you feel like you are thinking too much about the person you are dating. You may find yourself wondering what he/she really thinks of you, how he/she feels about your family and friends, whether he/she has any problems at home etc. This is normal and happens because you want to know as much about your partner as possible. However, this type of overthinking can lead to feelings of anxiety and depression which could affect your relationship. | https://timesnewsmodernworld.com/stop-overthinking-relationship/ |
If building trust in a relationship is normally one of your biggest spanish girl points, then you most likely need some time to yourself. Obviously hard specifically the moment there are so many requirements on your time. Fortunately, there are a few easy guidelines that can help you get back on track with your spouse. Here are some suggestions.
The first key point to consider is whether or not both people inside the relationship actually want to build trust. The truth is that if one individual is constantly making the other person feel insecure or vulnerable, it will simply just create more tension and annoyance. You should try that the two partners happen to be in agreement about the necessity to do something about the difficulties. Then, the communication procedure takes the next step and really starts to take building trust to the next level.
When communicating about building trust, there really is only one a key point to remember. Put on t ever before assume that you may trust someone based purely on how they make you feel in just about any given situation. A trusted friend will be trustworthy depending upon how they treat you. In case you treat these questions way that is certainly consistently good and show them that they are trustworthy, then they will begin to gain your trust.
Another a key point to consider is the thought of using your words to talk rather than your actions. One of the main ways that relationships start to fall apart is when ever one person starts to yell with the other constantly or perhaps says suggest things lurking behind their returning. This type of behavior is often referred to as “authority” and is absolutely unacceptable. Instead of engage in this behavior, locate creative methods to communicate your needs without getting upset or perhaps authoritative.
Significant key point to keep in mind is the idea of uniformity. Consistency will assist you to build trust and your romantic relationship will be more apt to last. For example , if you are asking someone to make a move repeatedly, it is actually more likely that they can do it consistently so don t often ask for what you want to be done. The key level is to give consistent reminders of what you need done rather than becoming upset or needy when you are not getting your way.
You must also realize that while being trustworthy is vital, having very good judgment is just as crucial. A poor00 problems with decision making and always appear to be in the incorrect are seen very inadequately by others. In order to build trust in a relationship, you have to learn to generate decisions relative to what’s best for everyone involved rather than depending on approval. It is critical to understand that not everyone might agree with the decisions and it is essential that you respect that and let others know that you understand that they may well have different creative ideas about how elements should be done. We all want to be trustworthy and reliable so this is a crucial key point to not forget when building rely upon a relationship.
One last key point to keep in mind is that merely doing a good thing will usually give you even more benefit than trying to please everyone. In the event everyone likes something which you do, then you really want to undertake it, but if that they don’t, you probably shouldn’t. The key level here is that you always the actual right point and that really does matter. Therefore always observe your tum instinct and listen to your heart.
There are many ways to build trust in a relationship. If you consistently show these tips to your spouse, you will find that your relationship definitely will continue to expand. Your spouse will naturally want to be around somebody who is trustworthy. If you can prove that you can be reliable, your better half will want to spend time with you. Romantic relationship building trust takes time, persistence, and effort. But when you finally realize all the things you need to do to build trust in a relationship, you will find that it can be easier than you ever imagined. | https://aprendaacordeon.com.br/building-trust-in-a-relationship-proven-secrets-to-building-trust-in-a-relationship-5/ |
Fairness and independent reasoning are two examples of critical thinking attitudes that are designed to help nurses make clinical decisions 82. Which of these findings, if identified in a plan of care, should the registered nurse revise because it is not characteristic of critical thinking and the nursing process? Performance Review Phrases for Critical Thinking ... You would want a nurse in the ER to likely have exceptional critical thinking skills but an office clerk maybe not as much. If you find yourself having to rate performance in this area, here are some phrases that can help. Some positive performance review phrases for Critical Thinking could be: 10 Team-Building Games That Promote Critical Thinking See Also: 10 Team-Building Games To Promote Critical Thinking Aimee Hosler is a writer and mother of two living in Virginia. She specializes in a number of topics, but is particularly passionate about education and workplace news and trends.
18 Examples of Using Critical Thinking in Business / BLOG
3 Ways to Improve Critical Thinking Skills - wikiHow Critical Thinking is the art of using reason to analyze ideas and dig deeper to get to our true potential. Critical thinking isn't about thinking more or thinking harder; it's about thinking better. Honing your critical thinking skills can open up a lifetime of intellectual curiosity. But the journey isn't all rosy. Critical thinking examples at work - boyleheightsdentalcare.com Critical thinking analysis examples ppt 2 paragraph essay example how to write a paper on critical issues vanderbilt creative writing program do assignment synonyms writing short essays bplans business plan what is the importance of education essay free first grade homework calendars how to write a research proposal apa style, persuasive essay ...
Critical Thinking
7 Simple and Effective Critical Thinking Strategies That Work We can strategize to foster critical thinking with the resources available. We can work to enable students to accomplish anything these corporate giants have done, and more. Critical thinking strategies don't have to be hard or structured. Kids will develop these skills in the fun and rewarding situations that require them. Definition and Examples of Critical Analyses Performing a critical analysis does not necessarily involve finding fault with a work. On the contrary, a thoughtful critical analysis may help us understand the interaction of the particular elements that contribute to a work's power and effectiveness. See Examples and Observations below. Critical Thinking and Problem-solving - utc.edu "Critical thinking is thinking that assesses itself" ( Center for Critical Thinking, 1996b ). "Critical thinking is the ability to think about one's thinking in such a way as 1. To recognize its strengths and weaknesses and, as a result, 2. The Importance And Benefits Of Critical Thinking and ...
Critical thinking can always be used in order to enhance the process of work and social institutions. Some believe that critical thinking will affect one's creativity as it depends on rules of logic and rationality, as creativity might require breaking rules.
The circumstances demanding critical thinking vary from industry to industry. Some examples include: A triage nurse analyzes the cases at hand and decides the order by which the patients should be treated. A plumber evaluates the materials that best would suit a particular job.
Critical Thinking Skills | College Success - Lumen Learning The academic setting demands more of us in terms of critical thinking than everyday life. It demands that we evaluate information and analyze myriad issues. It is the environment where our critical thinking skills can be the difference between success and failure. In this environment we must consider information in an analytical, critical manner. 7 Interview Brainteasers to Assess Critical Thinking Critical thinking brainteasers have been created to assess candidates on the following key skills… - Problem Solving. Can they at least attempt to solve problems as they arise? You don't want an employee who keeps running to you, every time something goes even slightly wrong. - Analysis. Example of critical thinking at work - ifoi.ir
Questions That Promote Deeper Thinking Surveys of college faculty reveal that their number one instructional goal is to promote critical thinking, and reports on the status of American higher education have consistently called for greater emphasis on the development of college students' critical thinking skills. Definitions of Critical Thinking and Decision-Making Skills | Nurse Key Critical thinking is a skill that is developed for clarity of thought and improvement in decision-making effectiveness. The roots of the concept of critical thinking can be traced to Socrates, who developed a method of questioning as a way of thinking more clearly and with greater logical consistency. Use critical in a sentence | critical sentence examples There was some revival of the art of the sermon at Versailles a century later, where the Abbe Maury, whose critical work has been mentioned above, preached with vivid eloquence between 1770 and 1785; the Pere Elisee (1726-1783), whom Diderot and Mme Roland greatly admired, held a similar place, at the same time, in Paris. DOC Critical Thinking in the Workplace - Offices and Directory This is not to say that critical thinking needs to be set aside. But critical thinking does not attack people. It attacks problems and issues. When a people learn how to work together well by using behaviors that support a rational process, trust builds and along with it a sense of mutual acceptance, validation and support. | https://articlezrgilufq.netlify.app/arciola5771laze/examples-of-critical-thinking-at-work-wi.html |
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Abstract
Objective: The study focuses on the self-esteem of deaf and hard of hearing (D/HH) and hearing adolescents (HA) in Slovenia. The aim of this study is a comparison of self-esteem between D/HH and HA regarding the hearing status, age, gender, and the com¬parison among D/HH adolescents regarding communication and education settings. It is hypothesized that deaf and hard of hearing adolescents have lower self-esteem than their hearing peers. Methods: The final sample included 130 adolescents who were split into two groups with the method of equal pairs: 65 D/HH adolescents and 65 HA, which were esta¬blis¬hed on the basis of gender, age, nationality, and educational programme of schooling. The phenomenon of self-esteem was measured with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, which was translated and adapted into the Slovenian Sign Language (SSL). Results: The results show significant differ¬ren¬ces in self-esteem between D/HH and HA adolescents. D/HH adolescents have, on average, lower self-esteem than HA. There are differences in self-esteem regarding gender and also regarding ages of 16 and of 20. D/HH adolescents who use speech or sign language in their communication have higher self-esteem than those who use mostly sign language. D/HH adolescents in mainstream schools have higher self-esteem than those included into a segregated form of schooling. Discussion: There are differences among adolescents in how they view themselves. Self-esteem can be a significant predictor of life satisfaction. Conclusion: D/HH adolescents experience lower self-esteem when compared with HA peers. | http://eprints.jser.fon.edu.mk/262/ |
Earlier in 2018 I wrote an Ideospectus article on the tension that exists between two concepts, success and progress. This post is somewhat a continuation, and was inspired by something I heard one of my favourite artists say.
This post is about the difference between an artist’s ego and their self-esteem. The genesis of inspiration here is something I heard Dave Mustaine say, which I’m paraphrasing as, “Lots of musicians have huge egos, but no self-esteem.” I want to differentiate ego and self-esteem, which I think is a useful thing for all creative people to do – musicians, writers, and academics among them.
Opinion and prediction
I actually asked two of my old school, old-school friends – Ben McCulloch and Leon Tussie – what they thought the difference is. Ben made it to the big league in the world of professional boxing, and is also one of the smartest persons I know. In boxing, he held the PABA super-middleweight title from 2012 to 2014. More recently, he commented thus:
There’s a difference between the stereotypes of self-esteem and ego. Immense ego has a relationship with narcissism, whereas immense self-esteem can still have a person functioning as humble, altruistic and realistic.
— Ben McCulloch, personal communication, 2018.
Ben also commented on these concepts’ place in contemporary Australian society and cultures:
In the convict nation of Australia, ego = bad. Standing out and overconfidence, just like a big ego, is poison.
High self-esteem, if its channeled and steady, and not overly overt (because overt self-esteem can be threatening or too divergent) is personally sought after and publicly tolerated.
— Ben McCulloch, personal communication, 2018.
The other commentator, Leon, is a professional drummer who I’ve heard perform just about every style – no matter how technically demanding – without qualm. Leon brings his own character to everything he works on, including an acid jazz / metal band we were in together called The Loopholes And Your Brain. At our performances, we would supply the sonic loopholes and paradoxes, and you would supply your brain; the resulting blend was the chaotic sound permeating the venue.
Self-esteem is necessary for survival in a world without a structure, built to help those unable or unwilling to help themselves. Ego is a mental construct useful for protecting a soft and vulnerable core by creating an illusion of dominance.
— Leon Tussie, personal communication, 2018.
Both responses betray a few hypotheses that I am willing to pilot test:
H1: Ego has fewer connotations than self-esteem.
H2: Ego has fewer positive connotations than self-esteem.
Ego
To simplify things, I will ignore the psychoanalytic definition of ego, being the component of the psyche responsible for mediating conscious and unconscious drives.
The concept I want you to think about is at least superficially related to self-esteem. Think about people you know who you would describe as having a big ego. What are some of the words that come to mind?
Searching for the phrase celebrities with big egos in Google search engine yields over 700 thousand results in about 800 milliseconds, on average. Pro rata, the engine could find at least 875 thousand results in one second with this search term.
There are many lists out there, but due to the subjectivity of terms ‘celebrities’ and of course ‘ego’, not one of those lists are objectively valid, nor does there seem to be a great degree of agreement between lists. That said, there are some common names that pop up, such as Kanye West.
Self-esteem
Which words come to mind when you think about the term self-esteem? Are any of them the same as the words you thought about when reflecting on ego?
Searching for celebrities with high self-esteem in the same search engine results in roughly 10 million hits in 730 milliseconds, or over 13 million results per second. So, not only is this search many times more bountiful than the first; it is also performed more smoothly by Google’s powerful algorithms. We actually end up with a quicker search for celebrities with ‘high self esteem’ than for celebrities with ‘big egos’. The difference is statistically significant also. For those interested, I have reported the analyses in a post script, below.
Again, Internet lists lack validity and consistency with one another, but interestingly, there seem to be some names on the celebrity self-esteem lists that do not occur frequently on the celebrity big ego lists. Apparently, including ‘self-esteem’ in the search yields a greater variety of lists: celebrities who struggle with low self-esteem, celebrities who raised their self-esteem, celebrities who began with poor self-esteem, and many more. In contrast, ‘big ego’ is unmistakably about just that, so we do not see lists written about celebrities who struggle with small ego, for instance.
Conclusion
Perhaps conclusion is too strong a term here, but we have at least some evidence supporting each hypothesis:
H1: Ego has fewer connotations than self-esteem. Our search revealed about 14 times fewer results when the word ‘ego’ was used in place of ‘self-esteem’. We can infer from this that ‘ego’ is a more narrowly defined construct than self-esteem.
H2: Ego has fewer positive connotations than self-esteem. Our search was less efficient when the word ‘ego’ was used instead of ‘self-esteem’. A cursory inspection of the first page of hits suggests that ‘ego’ has negative connotations like ‘arrogance’ and ‘self-importance’; meanwhile, ‘self-esteem’ has more positive connotations, including ‘respect’ and ‘confidence’.
So, Dave Mustaine was right to suggest that you can have a huge ego and low self-esteem.
Post script: The stats of searching ‘big ego’ vs. ‘self-esteem’
The ‘big egos’ search time, averaged from 50 searches, was 799.8 ms (+/- 2.95% margin of error). The ‘high self-esteem’ search time, also averaged from 50 searches, came to 731.6 ms (+/- 2.68% margin of error). Welch’s t-test reveals a significant, moderate difference at the α = 0.05 level, t(94.73) = 2.23, p = .028, Cohen’s d = 0.45.
To conclude, the search for ‘celebrities with big egos’ is 6.82 ms slower on average than the search for ‘celebrities with high self-esteem’, and this difference is not likely due to chance. In fact, we can be reasonably confident that the ‘big egos’ search is between 0.74 and 12.90 ms slower. Formally, if the true difference in search times lies anywhere outside those bounds, then the observed difference (6.82 ms) is equal to or less than 5 percent likely to just pop up by surprise! | https://ideospectus.com/2018/11/01/ego-v-self-esteem/ |
Throughout the past, scientists have attempted to explain the health disparity between African Americans and Whites. With the completion of the human genome project, it was shown that there is very little difference between different races on the genetic level. However, “African Americans are twice as likely to die from cardiovascular disease as their European counterpart,” the question that has arisen is where do these differences stem from (Harell, Floyd, Daniels and Bell). Recently, scientists have begun to believe that racism could possibly explain these differences (Belgrave &Allison, 2010).
Racism has been an issue for African Americans since the early days of slavery. Everywhere they go, they face a possibility of being treated differently because of their race. Within the past fifty years, the racism that African Americans faced has dropped, however it is still prevalent. According to Belgrave and Allison, racism is defined as “the negative beliefs, actions, and emotions based on race” although there are different types of racism, this definition gives a generalization on what racism is. It seems as though racism is the cause of many of the health problems that are faced by African Americans. Whether it is because African Americans generally do not receive the same health service as Whites or because direct racism causes higher blood pressure, racism has a negative health effect on African Americans (Belgrave &Allison, 2010).
Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to see whether racism has an effect on the self-esteem of African Americans and the health risks associated with racism, mainly high blood pressure. The independent variable is perception of racism and the dependent variables are the self-esteem and blood pressure of African Americans. The hypothesis for this study is that African Americans who perceive a higher incident of racism will have lower self-esteem and higher blood pressure than those who perceive lower incidents of racism.
Participants
For this study, two hundred African American students will be surveyed. They will be randomly sorted into three groups One quarter will watch a racist interaction between an African American and a White person, One quarter will watch a neutral interaction, and the last quarter will watch a positive interaction. The control group will be the group who viewed the neutral interaction. These groups are valid because the control group is not viewing any incidents of racism, which gives a basis to measure the other groups. The incentive for this study is that the students will receive some sort of academic repercussion. The students will give their informed consent to participate in this study and they will be allowed to back out at any time. All ethical guidelines will be followed.
Materials
Heart rate levels will be recorded when the participants view the interaction between the African American and White person by using a hand grip heart monitor. ... | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-effect-of-racism-on-the-self-esteem-of-african-people-in-america-and-the-wellness-risks-related-to-racism |
When setbacks like this occur, it’s natural to try and soothe your ego by seeking a new win. “I’ll show them! I’ll get a better job, a nicer house, a more beautiful partner!” There’s nothing wrong with going after what you want, but Ohio State University psychologist Jennifer Crocker says that merely focusing on achievements and approval from others is a shaky path to self-esteem. “Even if you conclude at the moment ‘Yes I’ve been successful in my field. I’ve been honored. I have value,’ what about tomorrow when my grant proposal gets rejected? It isn't a reliable source of satisfaction or meaning in life,” said Crocker. Fortunately, Crocker’s research has uncovered a far more sustainable method. She and her colleagues found that people who derive their self-worth from internal sources—such as being kind, or living by one’s values—have better relationships and greater mental well-being (less anxiety and depression, lower rates of drug and alcohol consumption) than those who rely on external sources like good grades or popularity. Here are suggestions for creating a sturdier sense of self-worth.
In one study, Crocker found that the more students based their self-esteem on academic performance, the more prone they were to anxiety and depression. And this self-pressure didn’t even lead to better grades. “They were stressed out, felt they had no time for leisure, were dissatisfied with their performance, but their grades were not higher,” said Crocker. “They worked very hard and [the need for self-esteem] motivated them on some level, but not in a way that did them any good and probably did some harm." However, students had a much better experience when they focused on the purpose of their studies—to make a contribution to scientific research, for example.
“Having the goal to contribute to the well-being of people or institutions or circumstances outside of yourself makes it not about you. The question to ask is not, ‘Do I have worth or value?’ The question is, ‘What is the difference I’m making in the world?’” said Crocker. Making a difference in the world doesn’t have to mean finding a cure for cancer; it could be as simple as shifting your focus at work. For example, instead of trying to win a new account to prove to what a great salesperson you are, think about how your success would benefit the rest of your team—by making the company more financially stable and providing more job security for everyone.
Another study, conducted by Amy Canevello and Crocker, tracked the self-esteem of college roommates. The students answered questionnaires to determine whether they were primarily focused on “compassionate goals”—supporting their roommates, being sensitive to their feelings—or whether their main concern was their roommates’ opinion of them. The research found that students who had more compassionate goals had higher self-esteem and better relationships with their roommates than those who had more ego-related goals. In fact, the self-esteem of the participants with compassionate goals actually rose throughout the semester—and so did their roommates’. | https://www.headspace.com/articles/like-no-matter |
The development of Self-Esteem is a process that each individual deals with at a certain point in their life. This article by, Richard W. Robins, examines the development of self-esteem and its influence on important life outcomes. The evidence that is given in the article suggests that 1) self-esteem increases from when you are a young adult and peaks when you are around age 50 to 60 years old, 2) self-esteem is not a trait; people with low/high self-esteem at one point in life are more likely to have high/low self-esteem later in life, 3) having high self-esteem has many positives in life because you are more likely to be successful in relationships, work and health. This topic of self-esteem development is societal significance, which means that psychology is important and meaningful to individuals and to society as a whole.
You are more open and more successful in life morals with higher self-esteem, and it is proven. Self-esteem refers to an individual’s subjective evaluation of his or her worth as a person (see, e.g., Donnellan, Trzesniewski, & Robins, 2011; MacDonald & Leary, 2012). Self-esteem does not focus on a person’s abilities or how they are evaluated by other people but instead, just a feeling of feeling””good enough. Thus, self-esteem involves feelings of self-acceptance and self-respect, in contrast to the excessive self-regard and self-aggrandizement characterizing narcissistic individuals (Ackerman et al., 2011).
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When do people typically show the lowest and highest self-esteem in their lives? Is self-esteem a trait, and does it follow with embarrassment or a fear of any sort? Does self-esteem influence important life outcomes? Self-esteem usually increases from when you are a child, to middle adulthood, and then decreases when you enter old age. Each individual is different, but from lifespan studies, the data shows that men have higher self-esteem levels than women. Overall, both men and women show that increases from adolescence to middle adulthood and decreases in old age. (Erol & Orth, 2011; Orth et al., 2012; Orth et al., 2010; Wagner, Gerstorf, et al., 2013). Ethnic minorities are the ones that don’t have the same levels and patterns of self-esteem change as the usual majority group members. For example, the trajectory of African Americans increased more sharply during adolescence and young adulthood (Erol & Orth, 2011), but then declined more rapidly during old age (Orth et al., 2010). The data in recent research shows that people with some particular personality traits have higher chances to experience increases in their self-esteem as they go through life. Individuals who are emotionally stable and extraverted show more positive self-esteem development than those that are low on these specific traits.
In most studies,””cross-lagged designs are used that show that, self-esteem is a predictor of life success and it is not a consequence; which most people confuse the two. The studies have many possible outcomes that include, having a successful marriage as well as, close relationships, social media, physical/mental health, education, employment, job success, and good criminal behavior. People with particular personality traits have a higher chance at experiencing increases in their self-esteem as they go through life, especially people who are emotionally stable and extraverted, show more positive self-esteem development than those people who don’t show a lot of those particular personality traits. The results of the data are stronger when you use larger data samples. For example, having 1,000 participants or more that are within the community. Having low self-esteem is a larger risk factor for depression where individuals turn to drugs compared to people with high self-esteem.
In conclusion, studies have proved that the average lifespan trajectory hasn’t changed much during the 20th century. Second, a big portion of individuals have a difference in self-esteem and it has been stable throughout the years which also indicates that self-esteem is a personality trait. Third, the evidence from the studies show that self-esteem is a very important factor for an individual’s success in relationships, work, and health. Finally, the findings in the studies have important data, which point out that individuals have a certain amount of self-esteem in a certain point in their lives and can that can also contribute to helping find and design new ways at which they can positively increase the development of self-esteem in their lives and influence it as well.
Part 2: Solving the Applied Challenge
A teenager going into adulthood suffers from low self-esteem. When you have lower self-esteem in your adolescence, you get higher self-esteem as you go into adulthood and studies have. One of my guy friends, suffers from low self-esteem and he is 21 years old. He feels like he doesn’t have much to be proud of and constantly feels so shy and puts himself down so much. He is not very successful in his love relationships, health, and education. He believes he will be like this forever and that he will never have a good amount of self-esteem. I am always reassuring him that he needs to put himself out there, and that he has nothing to be scared or embarrassed of. He says, “”What do you know?
Scientific studies have been made in “”Development of Self-Esteem, which prove that in this age, it is very common to have little to no self-esteem because of social media, and everything that is going on around him in his life. It has nothing to do with his ethnicity, but it has everything to do with him being introverted. He is always keeping to himself and studies show that people who are extroverts, and have confidence in themselves, are more successful in the life morals such as, education, physical and mental health, marriage, close relationships, job success, and health. Self-esteem is commonly conceptualized as the “”feeling that one is ‘good enough,’ and people with higher self-esteem do not necessarily believe they are superior to others, also, self-esteem includes feelings of self-acceptance. He feels the urge to constantly compare himself to other men and puts himself down.
Individuals tend to have high and low self-esteem in different points in their life. This is the time where he has low self-esteem but as soon as he reaches more into his adulthood, he will start to realize that success comes from having high self-esteem and will work on helping himself having a better and more successful life. Having low self-esteem is a risk factor for depression which in comparison, individuals turn to drugs. He is not a drug abuser, but he is an alcohol abuser because he believes he has more confidence in himself, to talk to people and feels better. However, that is not the way to go and it is not a reliever but just a distraction.
In light of my friend feeling so horribly about himself, there are many studies with evidence that proves that there is ways to increase your self-esteem. I would tell him that he will not have low self-esteem for the rest of his life. Each individual is different and goes through this phase at different stages in their life, however they are the only ones who can really transition into a more positive outlook on life and themselves if they want to be successful in relationships, good health, job success, and education. Feeling bad about yourself won’t help in any way, you are the one who can truly change your perspective and also, the way you see yourself isn’t always the way people see you. The most important thing is that if you are struggling with low self-esteem to know that it is not forever, and you can influence yourself positively, you just have to want it and to want to be successful in life and everything that comes with it. | https://papersowl.com/examples/stuck-with-low-self-esteem/ |
This study set out to offer support for inclusion by analyzing learning disabled students in an inclusive environment and their pull-out program counterparts. The analysis focused on an examination of student self-esteem, a variable central to student success. A hypothesis stating that learning disabled students who were served in an inclusive environment will achieve higher scores of self-esteem than learning disabled students who were served in a traditional pull-out program was proposed. This hypothesis was based on previous research on the practice of inclusion, which showed positive effects for learning disabled students. The practice of inclusion has been supported throughout the literature as a viable option for learning disabled students, due to the positive effects it brought students socially, motivationally and academically. This study used the total self-esteem score and the Intellectual and School Status subtest score from the Piers-Harris Children's Self Concept Scale to examine student self-esteem. Twenty-seven learning disabled students who were served in either an inclusive classroom or a pull-out program were sampled. In contrast to the current literature, this study did not find significant differences in the self-esteem of students in an inclusive classroom and those in a pull-out program.
Recommended Citation
Occhetti, Constance, "A study of self-esteem in learning disabled students across placements" (1998). Theses and Dissertations. 1974. | https://rdw.rowan.edu/etd/1974/ |
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Terror management theory (TMT) is a developing area of study within the academic study of psychology. Empirical support for TMT has originated from more than 175 published experiments which have been conducted cross-culturally both nationally and internationally (Solomon, 2004). It looks at what researchers claim to be the implicit emotional reactions of people when confronted with the psychological terror of knowing we will eventually die (it is widely believed that our awareness of mortality is a trait that is unique to humans). The theory was first developed in the late 1980s by Skidmore College psychology professor Sheldon Solomon, University of Arizona psychology professor Jeff Greenberg, and Colorado University at Colorado Springs psychology professor Tom Pyszczynski, who were graduate students at the University of Kansas at the time. The trio were inspired by the theories of Ernest Becker (The Denial of Death, 1973) and Freud, on how potent reminders of one's own ultimate death often provoke a belief in some form of mystical transcendence (heaven, reincarnation, spiritualism, etc.) Terror management theory attempts to provide a rationale for the motivational catalysts of human behavior when life is threatened.
The theory builds from the assumption that the capability of self-reflection and the consciousness of one’s own mortality can be regarded as a continuous source for existential anguish. This "irresolvable paradox" is created from the desire to preserve life and the realization of that impossibility (because life is finite).
Unlike other biological species, humans are aware of the inevitability of their own death. Culture diminishes this psychological terror by providing meaning, organization and continuity to people's lives. Compliance with cultural values enhances one's feeling of security and self-esteem, provided that the individual is capable of living in accordance with whatever particular cultural standards apply to him or her. The belief in the rightness of the cultural values and standards creates the conviction necessary to live a reasonable and meaningful life. This cultural worldview provides a base of making sense of the world as stable and orderly, a place where one rests their hopes on symbolic immortality (e.g., fame, having children, legacies of wealth or fortune) or literal immortality (e.g., the promise of a life in an afterworld).
Our cultural world view is a "symbolic protector" between the reality of life and inevitability of death. Because of this men and women strive to have their cultural worldview confirmed by others, thereby receiving the community’s esteem. However, when one’s worldview is threatened by the world view of another, it often results in one’s self-respect being endangered as well. In such a situation people not only endeavour to deny or devalue the importance of others' world views, but try to controvert the ideas and opinions of others which may, as a consequence, escalate into a conflict (ie. religious holy wars). As a result, mortality salience increases stereotypic thinking and intergroup bias between groups.
Two hypotheses have emerged from TMT research; the mortality salience hypothesis and the anxiety-buffer hypothesis. The mortality salience hypothesis says that if cultural worldviews and self-esteem provide protection from the fear of death, then reminding people of the root of that fear will increase the needs of individuals to value their own cultural worldview and self-esteem. The anxiety-buffer hypothesis provides the rationale that self-esteem is a buffer which serves to insulate humans from death. By doing so our self-esteem allows us to deny the susceptibility to a short-term life. Experiments supporting the two hypotheses above have been conducted in the US, Canada, Israel, Japan and the Netherlands. (Williams, Schimel and Gillespie, 2006).
Developing from the analysis of authoritative leadership by Erich Fromm (1941) in Escape from Freedom, people in a state of emotional distress by nature are prone to the allure of charismatic leaders. Research has shown that people, when reminded of their own inevitable death, will cling more strongly to their cultural worldviews. The data appears to show that nations or persons who have experienced traumas (e.g. 9/11) are more attracted to strong leaders who express traditional, pro-establishment, authoritarian viewpoints. They will also be hyper-aware of the possibility of external threats, and may be more hostile to those who threaten them. Additional research indicates those who are raised by authoritarian parents tend to conform to authority more frequently than those who are not. This perpetuates the belief that culture worldviews are a product of the socialization process and those who are socialized through authority are more susceptible to conformity when their mortality is made salient.
The theory gained media attention in the aftermath of 9/11, and after the re-election of President George W. Bush in the USA, Prime Minister Tony Blair in the UK, and John Howard in Australia.
Terror management researchers have shown that making mortality salient to research participants will lead to such changes in behaviors and beliefs that seemingly protect worldview and encourage self-esteem striving. This mortality-salient state is usually induced by having participants write down the emotions that come to mind when thinking about death, and expanded by having participants write about what they think will happen as they die and after they die. Following this procedure a brief delay is provided. Past research indicates mortality salience effects are more pronounced following a brief delay. Nevertheless, these researchers have not yet demonstrated that this happens for the reason they propose, namely to alleviate unconscious fears of death. Direct tests of this hypothesis are likely to soon emerge in the scholarly literature. | http://www.artandpopularculture.com/Terror_management_theory |
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License.
Date of Graduation
Spring 2016
Document Type
Thesis
Degree Name
Bachelor of Arts (BA)
Department
Department of Psychology
Advisor(s)
Ashton D. Trice
Abstract
There is a long tradition of research on children from military families, which has focused on observations that these children often exhibit both internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors. One of the emphases over that last several decades as the military moves to an all-volunteer force, is a recognition that the military is no longer largely staffed by single males. An emphasis on military families has been exhibited at many different levels. This research compared university students with and without a parental history of military service on extroversion, self-esteem, and attachment style. The hypothesis regarding higher rates of extroversion among children from military families follows from an analysis that extraversion would be a highly desirable trait among service personnel. I also assumed that individuals with a military connection would score higher on self-esteem due to findings that the long-term impact of frequent relocation is high self-esteem. Finally, my hypotheses regarding attachment came from suggestions in the clinical literature that parental absences may lead to insecure attachment patterns. Results indicated that individuals from military families did not differ significantly from individuals without a military connection on any of these personality variables. The results of this study may indicate a greater level of attention to the lives of military families that has positively impacted the attachment and self-esteem of children from military families. These results may also indicate that parental military service does not have a long-lasting effect on the personality variables that were studied.
Recommended Citation
Malloy, Shannon M., "Military connections" (2016). Senior Honors Projects, 2010-2019. 146. | https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/honors201019/146/ |
"We are each gifted in a unique and important way. It is our privilege and our adventure to discover our own special light." ~Mary Dunbar
A friend of mine gave me two articles to read after a conversation we had on the importance of self-esteem. The articles were by Carol B. Low, Psy.D, of The Center of Conscious Living. One was entitled, "Unconditional Self-Acceptance: Beyond Self-Esteem" and the other was "The Importance of Self Esteem."
During our conversation we discussed that some people never think about self-esteem because it's something they are born with. One example were people who are financially successful simply because they were born beautiful. They turn heads, and many times make millions of dollars based on their good looks. My guess is that self-esteem is rarely an issue for them.
"Beauty is not in the face; beauty is a light in the heart." ~Khalil Gibran
For those of us who weren't born looking like a supermodel, and who don't possess an ample amount of self-esteem, Ms. Low's article about separating self-esteem from self-acceptance, understanding the difference between the two and learning how to achieve unconditional self-acceptance was fascinating.
Self-esteem can be a lifelong pursuit. We may feel unworthy, and can't see ourselves as having great value while we try to find our place in the world. Some days we experience higher levels of worthiness, yet as life unfolds we make mistakes, such as yelling at our children or trusting the wrong people. When we make these mistakes, our self-esteem plunges and there we are, back to possessing low self-esteem again. This cycle of highs and lows happens continuously over a lifetime, and they happen to everyone because we are all imperfect human beings.
"You yourself, as much as anybody in the entire universe, deserve your love and affection" ~Siddhartha Gautama
In her article, Dr. Low describes a much more doable state of being: unconditional self-acceptance. In unconditional self-acceptance, she states the following:
"It turns out that seeking self-esteem can be a life-long pursuit and that changes in one's circumstances tend to lower one's self-esteem, whereas unconditional self-acceptance, once defined and achieved, is stable over time. Thus, it is my contention that pursuing unconditional self-acceptance is a heartier and more useful concept than pursuing high self-esteem."
"To be beautiful means to be yourself. You don't need to be accepted by others. You need to accept yourself." ~Thich Nhat Hanh
We must empower ourselves by learning to like ourselves unconditionally. We are not bad or undeserving because of mistakes we make. We are human and will face many obstacles over the course of a lifetime. If we can learn to embrace ourselves as we are, our journey will be much more joyful.
Finding self-acceptance for myself is something I'm working hard on. After reading Dr. Low's articles I felt a certain amount of relief when I realized the simplicity in attaining self-acceptance.
Have you found total self-acceptance?
Photo Courtesy of pixabay.com. | https://www.huffpost.com/entry/why-its-important-to-lear_1_b_5446391 |
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That is the message that we encounter constantly, in books, television shows, superhero comics, and common myths and legends. We are told that we can accomplish anything if we believe in ourselves. Of course, we know that to be untrue; we cannot accomplish anything the in the world simply through belief—if that were true, a lot more children would be soaring in the skies above their garage roof instead of lugging around a cast for a few weeks!
However, we know that believing in yourself and accepting yourself for who you are is an important factor in success, relationships, and happiness and that self-esteem plays an important role in living a flourishing life.
Signs of Healthy and Low Self-Esteem
It provides us with belief in our abilities and the motivation to carry them out, ultimately reaching fulfillment as we navigate life with a positive outlook. Various studies have confirmed that self-esteem has a direct relationship with our overall well-being, and we would do well to keep this fact in mind—both for ourselves and for those around us, particularly the developing children we interact with. An important note is that self-esteem is not fixed.
It is malleable and measurable, meaning we can test for and improve upon it. Self-esteem has been a hot topic in psychology for decades, going about as far back as psychology itself. While there is much we still have to learn about self-esteem, we have at least been able to narrow down what self-esteem is and how it differs from other, similar constructs.
Read on to learn what sets self-esteem apart from other self-directed traits and states. Self-esteem is not self-concept, although self-esteem may be a part of self-concept.
Put simply, the awareness of who we are is our concept of our self. According to Carl Rogers, founder of client-centered therapy , self-concept is an overarching construct that self-esteem is one of the components of it McLeod, Another similar term with a different meaning is self-image; self-image is similar to self-concept in that it is all about how you see yourself McLeod, Instead of being based on reality, however, it can be based on false and inaccurate thoughts about ourselves.
Our self-image may be close to reality or far from it, but it is generally not completely in line with objective reality or with the way others perceive us.
What is the Meaning of Self-Esteem? A Definition
Self-esteem is a similar concept to self-worth but with a small although important difference: self-esteem is what we think, feel, and believe about ourselves, while self-worth is the more global recognition that we are valuable human beings worthy of love Hibbert, Self-esteem is not self-confidence ; self-confidence is about your trust in yourself and your ability to deal with challenges, solve problems, and engage successfully with the world Burton, As you probably noted from this description, self-confidence is based more on external measures of success and value than the internal measures that contribute to self-esteem.
One can have high self-confidence, particularly in a certain area or field, but still lack a healthy sense of overall value or self-esteem. Similar to self-confidence, self-efficacy is also related to self-esteem but not a proxy for it. You could have high self-efficacy when it comes to playing basketball, but low self-efficacy when it comes to succeeding in math class.
Self esteem defined pdf editor
Unlike self-esteem, self-efficacy is more specific rather than global, and it is based on external success rather than internal worth. Finally, self-esteem is also not self-compassion. Self-compassion centers on how we relate to ourselves rather than how we judge or perceive ourselves Neff, n. Being self-compassionate means we are kind and forgiving to ourselves, and that we avoid being harsh or overly critical of ourselves.
Self-compassion can lead us to a healthy sense of self-esteem, but it is not in and of itself self-esteem. There is a component of self-esteem within this level of the hierarchy, but Maslow felt that the esteem of others was more important for development and need fulfillment than self-esteem.
Self-Esteem and Psychology
He explained that for one to achieve self-actualization and grow, their need for inner-respect and esteem from others must be met. Martin Seligman has some concerns about openly accepting self-esteem as part of positive psychology. He expressed the following in I am not against self-esteem, but I believe that self-esteem is just a meter that reads out the state of the system.
It is not an end in itself. When you are doing well in school or work, when you are doing well with the people you love, when you are doing well in play, the meter will register high. When you are doing badly, it will register low. Seligman makes a great point, as it is important to take his words into consideration when looking at self-esteem. Self-esteem and positive psychology may not marry quite yet, so it is important to look at what research tells us about self-esteem before we construct a rationale for it as positive psychology researcher, coach, or practitioner.
Examples of these characteristics are being open to criticism, acknowledging mistakes, being comfortable with giving and receiving compliments, and displaying a harmony between what one says, does, looks, sounds, and moves.
People with high self-esteem are unafraid to show their curiosity, discuss their experiences, ideas, and opportunities. They can also enjoy the humorous aspects of their lives and are comfortable with social or personal assertiveness Branden, Although low self-esteem has received more attention than high self-esteem, the positive psychology movement has brought high self-esteem into the spotlight.
Self-esteem
We now know more about what high self-esteem looks like and how it can be cultivated. We also know that there are some simple ways to tell if you have high self-esteem. For example, you likely have high self-esteem if you:.
Based on these characteristics, we can come up with some good examples of what high self-esteem looks like.
The foundation of self-esteem.
Imagine a high-achieving student who takes a difficult exam and earns a failing grade. Having a healthy sense of self-esteem guides her toward accepting reality, thinking critically about why she failed, and problem-solving instead of wallowing in self-pity or giving up. For a second example, think about a young man out on a first date. He really likes the young woman he is going out with, so he is eager to make a good impression and connect with her.
Over the course of their discussion on the date, he learns that she is motivated and driven by completely different values and has very different taste in almost everything. To him, it is more important to behave authentically than to focus on getting his date to like him.
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It can be hard to really wrap your mind around self-esteem and why it is so important. Although some of these facts may make sense to you, you will likely find that at least one or two surprise you—specifically those pertaining to the depth and breadth of low self-esteem in people and particularly young people and girls. The whole story shows that there are many people with a healthy sense of self-esteem, and they enjoy some great benefits and advantages.
For instance, people with healthy self-esteem:. Given the facts on the sad state of self-esteem in society and the positive outcomes associated with high self-esteem, it seems clear that looking into how self-esteem can be built is a worthwhile endeavor. Luckily, there are many researchers who have tackled this topic.
Numerous studies have shown us that it is possible to build self-esteem, especially in children and young people.
One of the most interesting results came from a cross-cultural research on life satisfaction and self-esteem, which was conducted in 31 countries.
They found differences in self-esteem between collective and individualistic cultures with self-esteem being lower in collectivist cultures. They found that similar to other collectivist cultures, self-esteem also had an effect on resilience with teenagers. Teenagers with low self-esteem had a higher sense of hopelessness and had low resilience Karatas, However, the potential to boost your self-esteem and reap the benefits is not limited to students!
Adults can get in on this endeavour as well, although the onus will be on them to make the changes necessary.
Self-esteem researcher and expert Dr. John M. Grohol outlined six practical tips on how to increase your sense of self-esteem, which include:. It can be as simple as writing down 10 of your strengths and 10 of your weaknesses. This will help you to begin developing an honest and realistic conception of yourself.
For example, setting an extremely high expectation or an expectation that someone else will change their behavior is virtually guaranteed to make you feel like a failure, through no fault of your own.
Acknowledge both your accomplishments and mistakes. Nobody is perfect, and trying to be will only lead to disappointment. Acknowledging your accomplishments and recognizing your mistakes is the way to keep a positive outlook while learning and growing from your mistakes. The importance of knowing yourself and being at peace with who you are cannot be overstated. This can take some trial and error, and you will constantly learn new things about yourself, but it is a journey that should be undertaken with purpose and zeal.
We all change as we age and grow, and we must keep up with our ever-changing selves if we want to set and achieve meaningful goals.
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Comparing ourselves to others is a trap that is extremely easy to fall into, especially today with social media and the ability to project a polished, perfected appearance. The only person you should compare yourself to is you Grohol, Another list of specific, practical things you can do to develop and maintain a good sense of self-esteem comes from the Entrepreneur website:. For example, although we recommend improving self-esteem to positively impact grades or work performance, success in these areas is at least somewhat dependent on self-esteem as well.
Similarly, those who have a healthy level of self-esteem are more likely to have positive relationships, but those with positive relationships are also more likely to have healthy self-esteem, likely because the relationship works in both directions.
While there is nothing wrong with boosting your self-esteem, keep in mind that in some cases you may be putting the cart before the horse, and commit to developing yourself in several areas rather than just working on enhancing your self-esteem. Based on research like that described above, we have learned that there are many ways therapy and counseling can help clients to improve their self-esteem.
Besides clinical interventions, there are also things people can do on their own to boost their self-esteem. One of these methods is meditation—yes, you can add yet another benefit of meditation to the list! However, not only can we develop self-esteem through meditation , we also gain some other important benefits. When we meditate, we cultivate our ability to let go and to keep our thoughts and feelings in perspective.
We learn to simply observe instead of actively participate in every little experience that pops into our head. While this may sound counterintuitive to developing and maintaining a positive sense of self, it is actually a great way to approach it. Through meditation, we gain the ability to become aware of our inner experiences without over-identifying with them, letting our thoughts pass by without judgment or a strong emotional response.
As meditation expert Andy Puddicombe notes, low self-esteem can be understood as the result of over-identification with the self. We may even get obsessive about the self, going over every little word, thought, or feeling that enters our mind. A regular meditation practice can boost your self-esteem by helping you to let go of your preoccupation with your self, freeing you from being controlled by the thoughts and feelings your self-experiences.
Self-esteem is the topic of many a psychological scale and assessment, and many of them are valid, reliable, and very popular among researchers; however, these assessments are not perfect.
What is Self-Esteem? A Psychologist Explains.
There are a few problems and considerations you should take into account if you want to measure self-esteem, including:. Although these issues are certainly not unique to the measurement of self-esteem, one should approach the assessment of self-esteem with multiple measurement methods in hand, with the appropriate level of caution, or both.
Still, even though there are various issues with the measurement of self-esteem, avoiding the measurement is not an option! This scale was developed by Rosenberg and presented in his book Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. | http://beymapro.ru/epub/self-esteem-defined-pdf-editor.php |
.Introduction1.
1. Back ground of the studyThecapitalized “Deaf” is used to describe the cultural practice of a group whoshare a language and culture with in a group. Lower case “deaf” is to refer tothe condition of not hearing or the large group of individuals with hearingloss without reference to this particular culture. Deaf people range from thosewho are profoundly deaf to those who hear nearly well enough to carry on aconversation and use telephone called hard of hearing (padden, Humphris. 2005).Socialsupport is most of the time used in a broad sense.
It is used to refer to thesocial resources that a person perceives or become aware of the available orthat are actually provided to them by non-professionals in the situation ofboth formal support groups and informal helping relationships. (Cohen,Underwood, Gottlieb, 2000). It can be structured into three broadclassifications. Social empeddedness, perceived social support, and enacted support.This research will only focus on perceived social support which is the mentalevaluation of being dependably connected to others. It is measured by includingtwo dimensions perceived availability and sufficiency of supportive ties.
Thesemeasures do not quantify the number of supports; instead they try to capture individuals’confidence that sufficient support would be accessible if it was needed. (cohenand hoberman 1983; Holahan and moos ,1981; Pracidano & Heller, 1983; Turneret al.,1983)Self-esteem is a principal component ofmental health. Morris Rosenberg defined self-esteem as a person’s briefevaluation of their value as a human being. In this explanation, self-esteem isglobal as it refers to the totalities of personal attributes rather than to asingle aspect (Rosenberg, Schooler, Schoenbach, & Rosenberg, 1995)Theself-esteem theory says that self-esteem is relates to an individual’s totaloptimistic estimate about the self (Rosenberg et al., 1995) it is humancapacity for judgment and the capacity to define who you are then decide if youlike the identity or not.
Self-esteem grows out of your circumstances in lifeand your circumstances in life are strongly influenced by self-esteem. (McKay,Fanning, 2008). It is made up of two different dimensions. The first one iscompetence dimension (efficacy-based self-esteem) it is the extent to whichpeople look at themselves as competent and efficient. The second one is (worth-based self-esteem) it is the extent to which individual has the impression thatthey are a person of value and significance. (Cast, Burke, 2002). When we discus about self esteem we must alsomention what self concept is.
Self-concept, broadly defined, is a person’sperception of him or herself. These perceptions are formed through one’sexperience with and interpretations of one’s environment, and are influencedespecially by reinforcements, evaluations of significant others, and one’sattributions for one’s own behavior (Shavelson, Hubner & Stanton, 1976).1.2 Statement of the problemThequestion if deaf individuals have lower self-esteem than their hearing peers isstill exposed to arguments.
Self esteem is a crucial idea since it is consideredto have wide speeded effect on human cognition, motivation emotion andbehavior. Earlier studies have shown that it is highly correlated with overallpsychological well being, achievement and ability to cope with stressful lifeevents (Campbell& Lavallee, 1993). In general research studies of self-esteem anddeafness produce a varying outcome (Crowe, 2003).
A number of findings havefound a higher occurrence of low self-esteem with deaf individuals than withhearing ones (Schlesinger, 2000). Other findings recommend that one need toconsider this complex phenomenon more carefully to know how deafness influence self-conceptand self-esteem (Bat-Chava, 2000). Other research found that deaf children whohad deaf parents had higher self-esteem than deaf children with a hearingparent. Also found that although self-esteem is higher for deaf people who grewin deaf community by using sign language and having deaf friends, it is lowerif deaf people do not feel proud of being member of the cultural group. (Beta-Chave, 1994). Other indicates similar self-esteem across auditory status(Percy-Smith et al.
, 2008, Sahli&Belgin 2006).Amongdifferent determinant factors many researchers found family and peer support isrelated to self-esteem (Fass& Tubman, 2002). Way of communications of deafwith their family and peers and identification of one’s in a group determinestheir self-esteem. A number of studies show that those deaf children who areraised by deaf parents often have advantages over those who are born to hearingfamilies because they are growing up in an environment where communication isnaturally dependent on visual, not oral, cues.
Almost all deaf parents use signlanguage while interacting with their children, and as a result family membersare more likely to understand each other’s needs and feelings (Crowe, 2003;McIntosh, 2000; Schirmer, 2001). These children often do not use a formallanguage fluently until they enter an environment where sign language is thedominant language (Luey, Glass, & Elliott, 1995). They also often feel moresocially isolated in their home and communities than those who have lessrestricted opportunities to communicate in the family environment (Hillburn, etal., 1997).Groupidentification is deemed one of the most important factors leading to positiveself-esteem among deaf people. For those deaf people who identify with the Deafcommunity, being deaf is not seen as a deficiency; rather, it is a part oftheir total identity. For those who adhere to a medical/pathological view anddo not recognize the cultural or linguistic aspects of their deafness, beingdeaf is a disability and disorder.
Linderman (1997) argues that internalizingthe pathological approach and rejecting deafness as a cultural concept has anegative impact on the self-esteem of deaf people. On the other hand, those whoidentify strongly with the Deaf community and spend considerable time withsimilar others often have positive self-worth (Bat-Chava, 1994; Schirmer,2001). Even though these Deaf individuals also have to face discrimination andprejudicial attitudes on the part of the hearing during their everyday lives,they belong to a community of people that share the same experiences and acommon fate. Previous studies show that those who identify strongly with theirgroup often have positive self-esteem (Bat-Chava, 1994, 2000). On the otherhand, deaf individuals who do not identify with the Deaf community but rathertry to fully fit in with the hearing world are likely to suffer poorself-esteem (Schirmer, 2001).Oneimportant factor that is claimed to have a moderating effect on self-esteem ismembership in a minority group. A minority group consists of members who shareone or more characteristics and are in a subordinate position in societyvis-à-vis a more powerful majority group.
Minority groups are often stigmatizedand include racial/ethnic minorities, people with disabilities, and deafpeople, among others. Crocker and Major (1989), in their discussion of theself-protective properties of stigma, argue that minority group membershipprotects one’s self-esteem not only from explicit prejudice or discriminationbut also from daily setbacks, failure, and rejections. Established membershipin the minority group enables the individual to disregard the opinions ofoutsiders as non-significant and only incorporate the positive appraisals ofsignificant others within one’s own group.Sincethe mid -1970s there has been expanding curiosity in the function of socialsupport as coping resource. A number of researches have proven that thecapacity of social support is directly related to the described harshness ofpsychological and physical symptoms and as a barrier between worrying lifeincidents and symptoms (Sarason, Sarason &Antoni, 1985).
Regarding the issuehow a social support function was proposed by Thoits that social supportoperate mainly as a ‘copping assistance’. This is to say that the negativeimpact of a stressful situation is improved when other peoples help someonedeal with the situation by themselves (thoits, 1986). Others proposed these isdone by improving self esteem and sense of control over environment .it alsohelps to promote positive emotional experiences there by reducing the negativeeffect of stress (Pearlin, Liberman,Menagnan & Mullan, 1981). Bothquantitative measures (number of friends to go to when one need support) andqualitative measures (perception of social support adequacy) have been studied.Some studies restated that significantly inverse association exists between quantitativemeasures of social support and psychological state like anxiety stress. Also itwas suggested that size of social support system and the satisfaction with thesupport received are two separate aspects of social support. (Sarason et al.
,1985).Soin this research the student researcher tries to find if self-esteem is higheror lower among deaf students and if it has an association with perceived socialsupport. This study is worth studying because it will add to our knowledge if self-esteemand social support have a negative or positive relation or association and if self-esteemis higher or lower among deaf students.1.3 Research QuestionsThisresearch asks questions as, is there an association between self-esteem andperceives social support among deaf students? And if there is an association,what kind of association is there? What is the level of self-esteem among deafstudents? And what is the degree of perceived social support?2. Methodology 2.1. Research DesignThestudy will use both a quantitative descriptive approach and a correlationaldesign.
The decision to use this design is because description is used to identify and obtain information on thefeature of a particular issue and usually used to summarize and representthe association mathematically by information undertaken to be certain of andto describe the characteristics of the issue. Correlational design will be used due to the factthat it enabled the researcher to discover the relationship between variablesthrough the use of correlational statistics (Gall, Borg & Gall 1996;Orodho, 2005).A major purpose of correlational research is to clarify ourunderstanding of important phenomena through the identification ofrelationships among variables: self-esteem and perceived social support(Babbie,2011).This study attempted to determine the relationships that occur betweenperceived social support and self-esteem among deaf students in Addis AbabaUniversity 6 kilo campus. 2.
2. Population and SamplingToaddress a research questions, the researcher decides which people and researchsites can best provide information, and puts a sampling procedure in place, anddetermines the number of individuals (i.e.
sample) that will be needed toprovide data.Samplingis the process of selecting a few cases from a large population of cases forpurpose of studying these few cases and generalizing on the large population. Thetarget population refers to all the members of a real or hypothetical set ofpeople, events or subjects to which we generalize the results of our research.Thestudent researcher purposively selected 6 Kilo campus among all campuses ofAddis Ababa University. The campus is selected for its sizeable deaf studentbody among others and it is representative of the population of deaf studentsin Addis Ababa University since majority of the deaf students are attendingtheir education at the selected campus.
(Source: center for disabilityimplemented by African Aid Initiative International, AAII)Thetarget population of this research is all deaf students in 6 kilo campus whoare registered to attend their education from fresh man to graduate class. Ofthe total of 120 Deaf students in the campus simple random sampling techniqueof systematic sampling will used to select study participant. (Source: centerfor disability implemented by African Aid Initiative International, AAII)2.3. Data collection instrumentTwobalancing approaches describe the effort made to establish measures thatevaluate difference among people.
Those are questionnaires and rating scales(Carano,Brewer, 2002).Theinstruments that will be used to address the research questions in this studyincludes Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSE) and multidimensional scale ofperceived social support. Rosenberg self-esteemscale (RSE): It is a self-report 10-item measurerwas designed by Morris Rosenberg, PhD in 1965 to evaluate self-esteem amongadolescence. It is a global and unidimensional measure. It is answered usingthe 4-point Likert scale developed by Rensis Likert fairly easy to understand,based on based on the relative intensity of different items and the scoresrange from 10-40 with higher score representing higher self-esteem. It is byfar the most commonly used. (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991 cited in Robins,Hendin &Trzesniewski ,2001). RSE has been given more psychometric analysisand practical proof than any other self-esteem measure.
(Gary-Little, 1997)Multidimensional scaleof perceived social support: For measuringperceived social support the student researcher will use multidimensional scaleof perceived social support to measure social support. It is a compromised of12-item with 4 items for each subscale it was designed by Gregory Zimet,NancyDahlem, Sara Zimet ,and Gordon Farley in 1988.In an attempt to increaseresponses variability and minimize the restricting effect , a 7 point Likert-type scaling ranging from very stronglydisagree(1)to very strongly agree (7) will be implemented. Questionnairedesigned to measure perceptions of social support and satisfaction with thatsupport. Each item in the questions request two answer.
Part one asksparticipants to list all the people that fit the description of the questionand part two asks participants to indicate how satisfied they are in generalwith these people. This scale is preferred because it has a good internal andtest-retest reliability as well as moderate construct validation and is alsospecifically addresses the subjectivity evaluation of social support. It assessesadequacy of social support from three specific sources: family, friends, andsignificant others. It is self-descriptive to use, time saving that make it anideal research instrument for use when researcher’s time is limited and thereare a number of variables being measured at the same time (Zimet, Dahlem, Zimet,& Farley, 1988).2.
4.Data collection procedureInstrumentwill be distributed to the systematic randomly selected deaf students. Participants will be asked to read and sign aninformed consent form prior to completing the survey.
An explanation of the instrumentand the consent form will be given to students for who are interested in participatingin the study. Then participants will watch videotaped version of bothRosenberg’s self esteem scale and multidimensional scale for perceives socialsupport which will be translated into Ethiopian sign language by professionaltranslator. Participants will be given the necessary time to complete each ofthe questions in both scales. And they will circle the answer of thecorresponding question.2.5.Method of data analysisThe demographic variables (age, sex, academicyear and so on) of the respondent will be analyzed through frequencydistribution like mean, median, mode and percentage.
Comparison oflevels of self-esteem and perceived social support among different domains willbe analyzed using Analysis of variance (ANOVA) analysis method. This is becausethe student researcher wants to analyze whether there is association betweentwo variables (i.e. self-esteem and perceived social support) the studentresearcher will use Pearson’s correlation statistical analysis. 2.6.Ethical considerationTermpreference Thestudent researcher will not view the deaf students as disable and will notcompare them with the hearing groups by one is normal and the other isincapable or disabled and will not focus on the supposed effect of deafness.
Offensiveterms like “Deaf and Dumb”, “Deaf- mute”, and “Hearing-impaired” will not beused. These terms are offensive because “Dumb and Mute” is to mean “silent”deaf peoples are by no means “silent” since they use sign language lip-reading,vocalizations and other means to communicate. And the last term is offensivebecause it has a negative meaning that it focuses on what they can’t do bysetting the standard as ‘hearing’ and meaning to be anything other than’hearing’ is not acceptable. (Singleton, Jones, & Hunmantha, 2014)Informedconsent Participantswill be informed about the research being conducted, the purpose of conductingit, what will be done with record materials, how their data will be used andafter informing the participants they will be allowed to make an informeddecision on continuing to participate or withdrawing. AnonymityThestudent researcher will inform all the participants in the research that it isforbidden to write any information that will lead to the identification of the respondentsor reveal the identity of the participantsVoluntaryparticipationThestudent researcher will inform all the deaf participants to participate bytheir own free will and without any threatening force.
And that it is possibleto withdraw their participation at any time.ConfidentialityTheconfidential records of the participants will be kept in a secure Area where itis only access able for the student researcher. | https://nanoandes.org/holahan-and-moos-1981-pracidano/ |
Introduction: A tripling in the number of overweight adolescents has occurred during the past two decades, with type 2 diabetes reaching epidemic proportions. Although obesity has been identified as a correlate of depression and low self-esteem in adolescents, the relationships among key cognitive/mental health variables and healthy attitudes, beliefs, choices, and behaviors in overweight teens have yet to be explored. Therefore, the aim of this study was to describe these relationships so that an effective intervention program to promote and sustain healthy lifestyle behaviors could be implemented. Methods: A descriptive correlational study was conducted with 23 overweight teens. Key variables measured included depressive symptoms, state and trait anxiety, self-esteem, beliefs/confidence about engaging in a healthy lifestyle, perceived difficulty in leading a healthy lifestyle, and healthy attitudes, choices, and behaviors. Findings: Teens with higher state and trait anxiety as well as depressive symptoms had less healthy lifestyle beliefs, and teens with higher self-esteem had stronger beliefs about their ability to engage in a healthy lifestyle. Stronger beliefs about the ability to engage in healthy lifestyles were related to healthier living attitudes and healthier lifestyle choices. Teens who perceived healthy lifestyles as more difficult had less healthy attitudes and reported less healthier choices and behaviors. Discussion: Including a strong cognitive behavioral skills building component into clinical interventions with overweight teens may be key in boosting their beliefs/confidence about being able to engage in healthy behaviors and lessening their perceived difficulty in performing them, which should result in healthier choices and lifestyle behaviors. | https://asu.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/mental-health-correlates-of-healthy-lifestyle-attitudes-beliefs-c |
Content may be subject to copyright.
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS AND GROUP
PROCESSES
Social Comparison in Everyday Life
Ladd Wheeler and Kunitate Miyake
University of Rochester
Ninety-four college students recorded details of their social comparisons over
2
weeks using a new
instrument, the Rochester Social Comparison Record. Major results
were
(a) comparison direction
varied with relationship with the target; (b) precomparison negative mood led more often to
upward comparison than to downward comparison, supporting a selective affect-cognition prim-
ing model in which dysphoria primes negative thoughts about the self (Bower,
1991;
Forgas,
Bower,
&
Moylan,
1990)
rather than a motivational self-enhancement model
(Wills,
1981,1991);
(c)
upward
comparison decreased subjective well-being, whereas downward comparison increased it; and (d)
high self-esteem individuals engaged in more self-enhancing comparison.
Festinger's theory of social comparison processes (Festinger,
1954)
continues to
be
an active arena for theory and research. A
new edited book (Suls
&
Wills,
1991), a symposium at the 1990
meeting of the Society for Experimental Social Psychology
(SESP), and frequent journal articles attest to this vigor. Yet
underlying the vitality
is
a feeling of uneasiness, obvious in the
comments occasioned by the SESP symposium, in which a
group of extraordinarily knowledgeable participants showed
little agreement about such apparently basic questions as "Do
people compare at all (or very much)? When do people com-
pare?
How
do people balance upward and downward compari-
sons? How much does similarity count in comparison? Do peo-
ple compare with actual targets, or are all comparisons con-
structed in people's heads? The problem is that there are many
measures of social comparison, and they do not agree well with
one
another,
leading
to
theoretical proliferation lacking a coher-
ent empirical base. These measures may not agree with one
another because of difficulties with the measures themselves
(Wood, 1991), because they measure different motives for so-
cial
comparison (cf.
Wood
& Taylor,
1991),
or because they have
been used in different
contexts.
The one thing on which there is
general agreement is that social comparison is a wonderfully
flexible process that can best be studied under naturalistic
Portions of the article were presented at the meeting of the Ameri-
can Psychological Society, Dallas, Texas, June 1990. Preparation of
this article was supported by the University of Rochester.
We
are very grateful to Miron Zuckerman for his support and sug-
gestions throughout this project and to Rachel Lewis, Carol Cutalo,
and Sharon Lazarow for their assistance in data
collection.
John Arro-
wood, Emory Cowen, Larry Gruder, Richard Koestner, and Joanne
Wood commented on earlier drafts. Gordon Bower provided a crucial
interpretation.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Ladd Wheeler, Department of Psychology, Meliora
Hall,
University of
Rochester, Rochester, New \brk
14627.
Electronic mail may be sent to
[email protected].
conditions lacking constraints imposed by the experimenter
(Ross,
Eyman, & Kishchuk, 1986; Ruble & Frey,
1991;
Suls &
Wills,
1991;
Wills,
1991;
Wood,
1991).
Suls
and
Wills
noted that
existing methods for studying naturalistic social comparison
can obtain only retrospective accounts and that it would be an
important step to use some sort of experience sampling tech-
nique to measure social comparison as it
occurs.
The purpose
of this article is to describe such a method and to present the
first data produced by using it.
There are three basic methods for the self-recording of daily
life events (Wheeler & Reis, 1991):
1.
Interval-contingent self-recording, in which respondents
report on their experiences at some regular, predetermined in-
terval. The reports may refer to what has happened since the
previous interval or to what one
is
experiencing
at
the moment.
Much of the stress research uses this technique (cf. Delongis,
Folkman, & Lazarus, 1988).
2.
Signal-contingent self-recording, in which respondents
report on their experiences whenever signaled by the re-
searcher. These are often referred to as
beeper studies
(cf. Csik-
szentmihalyi, Larson, & Prescott, 1977; Hurlburt, 1979;
Klinger, 1978).
3.
Event-contingent self-recording, in which respondents re-
port on a denned class of events whenever one of the events
occurs. Examples are the Rochester Interaction Record (cf.
Wheeler
&
Nezlek, 1977; Wheeler, Reis, & Bond,
1989;
Reis
&
Wheeler, 1991) and the Iowa Communication Record (Duck,
Rutt, Hurst,
&
Strejc, 1991).
The most likely technique for a representative and accurate
study of
social
comparison
is the
event-contingent method. The
interval-contingent method would
be
retrospective, and the
sig-
nal-contingent method would be likely to miss many of the
comparisons. For example, one subject in a beeper study said
that he thought about sex 40% of
his
waking life, but that the
signal never caught him at it (Hurlburt, 1979). Nevertheless,
signal-contingent self-recording is excellent for certain pur-
poses (Wheeler
&
Reis, 1991).
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
1992,
Vol.
62,
No. 5, 760-773
Copyright 1992 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0022-3514/92/S3.00
760
SOCIAL COMPARISON761
Thus,
the method used here, which we call the Rochester
Social Comparison Record (RSCR, reproduced in the Appen-
dix),
is
simply to ask respondents to keep a record of all of their
social comparisons
as
they
occur.
Completing the RSCR is con-
tingent on a comparison having taken place. In addition to the
comparison dimension and relationship to the comparison
others, respondents
are
asked to indicate their mood before and
after comparison and their similarity to the comparison other
on the comparison dimension—from inferior through similar
to superior. This method should provide the first response to
Wills's
(1991,
p.
73) call
for "knowledge about
the
typical
mix of
upward and downward comparisons in prevailing naturalistic
conditions."
How does this method articulate with the group of methods
critically discussed by Wood
(1991)?
First, it
is
an information-
seeking1 measure only to the extent that respondents seek com-
parisons; in real life "comparison...
is
often effectively forced
upon the individual
by his social
environment, even if
he
would
prefer
to avoid
comparing"
(Mettee
&
Riskind,
1974,
p.
348;
see
also Wood, 1989). The RSCR does not at this time distinguish
between sought and forced comparisons, although it could be
modified to do so. Second, it is not an affiliation2 measure,
because comparison is not inferred from affiliative choice.
Third, it is an effects-of-comparison measure in the sense that
momentary mood change as a result of comparison is mea-
sured. However, the evidence for
a
comparison does not rest on
these effects. Fourth, it
is
a comparative rating method, because
respondents rate themselves relative to the comparison other.
However, it is different from the typical comparative rating
situation in that respondents
rate
themselves
relative to a
partic-
ular other
with
whom they
have
compared.
Remarking on com-
parative
ratings,
Ross et
al.
(1986,
p.
82)
wrote,
"These compari-
sons are fairly easy to make. But are they the ones people make
in their daily lives?" In the case of the RSCR, the answer is
strongly affirmative. Fifth, the RSCR is not a free-response
method, which measures comparison conclusions that people
express spontaneously in conversation or in interviews. How-
ever, it
has
many of the same advantages in that respondents are
free to compare or not on any dimension with
anyone.
It
has
the
additional important advantage of measuring comparison be-
haviors rather than comparison conclusions.
In summary, the RSCR is primarily a combination of the
information-seeking (or information-exposure) and compara-
tive ratings methods, with additional information from the ef-
fects-of-comparison method. It was designed recognizing that
in real life, comparison selection, comparative judgment, and
reaction to comparison are essentially simultaneous and insepa-
rable.
Because this method has not been used before and because
the attempt
is
to a large extent exploratory, we present a limited
set of hypotheses.
Hypothesis
1.
Similar comparisons3 will be more frequent
with close friends, and dissimilar comparisons (upward and
downward) will be more
frequent
in more distant relationships.
Not only should close friends be objectively more similar, but
one would
also
want
to avoid
dissimilar comparisons
with
close
friends. According to Brickman and Bulman
(1977,
p.
152),
"If
two people compare themselves on a valued dimension, the
chances are that one will be superior and one will be inferior.
Someone will feel bad, and both parties or
the
collectivity must
be concerned with coping with these negative feelings." Al-
though Brickman and Bulman did not make it explicit, close
friends should be particularly concerned with avoiding such
negative feelings. Similarly, according to Tesser
(1988),
upward
comparison with close friends on dimensions relevant to the
self
is
particularly threatening.
Hypothesis
2. Comparison direction will be related to pre-
comparison affect. There are opposing predictions about the
nature of this relationship. Downward comparison theory
(Wills, 1981,1991) predicts that when a person
is
experiencing
low subjective well-being (in the present study, feeling discour-
aged and unhappy), comparison will be downward
(with
some-
one worse off). The individual is motivated to increase his or
her subjective well-being and attempts
to do this by
focusing on
his
or her superiority
to
another.
In
contrast
to
this motivational
theory is a selective affect-cognition priming model in which
dysphoria primes
negative
thoughts about
the
self (Bower,
1981,
1991;
Forgas et al., 1990) that have been associated in the past
with negative feelings
(e.g.,
"Others are better than
I
am").
If one
has the thought of being inferior, one will tend to
notice,
select,
perceive, and interpret others as superior, leading to upward
comparison under conditions of low subjective well-being.
Thus,
both theories predict
a
relationship
between precompar-
ison affect and direction of comparison, but in different direc-
tions.
Hypothesis
3.
Downward comparison will enhance subjec-
tive well-being (Affleck & Tennen, 1991; Crocker & Gallo,
1985;
Gibbons,
1986;
Wills, 1981,1991). This is one of the two
major propositions of downward comparison theory, the other
being that, as stated in Hypothesis
2,
individuals will compare
downward when self-esteem is threatened. However, Wills
(1991,
p.
60) suggested that there are limiting conditions on the
enhancement of well-being through downward
comparison:
"If
the comparison situation conveys information suggesting that
the probability of becoming like the target person
is
high, pre-
sumably there would be negative change
(i.e.,
anxiety would be
increased)." Major, Testa, and Bylsma (1991) argued similarly
that downward comparison will enhance well-being primarily
when the comparison is esteem-relevant and when individuals
perceive their superior standing
as
stable or
as
under their per-
1 The information-seeking measure
is
exemplified by the rank order
paradigm, in which subjects are asked to select
a
person above or below
them in a rank order for purposes of comparing their scores. The
method has typically produced upward comparison. See Gruder
(1977) for a review.
2 The affiliation measure is exemplified by Schachter's (1959) stud-
ies of anxiety and affiliation, and the focus typically has been on the
emotional and situational similarity of the comparison target. See
Wheeler (1974) and Cottrell and Epley (1977) for reviews. See Taylor
and Lobel (1989) for a discussion of more recent work.
3
By
similar
comparisons,
we
mean similarity in performance rather
than similarity on related attributes (Goethals & Darley, 1977). The
RSCR contained a question (not
shown),
"How similar are you to the
person on other dimensions related to the comparison dimension?"
This was an attempt to measure related attributes. Not surprising (in
retrospect), subjects did not understand the question. Perhaps the ef-
fect of related attributes is best studied in the laboratory, or perhaps
there is a less abstruse way to ask about them.
762LADD WHEELER AND KUNITATE MIYAK.E
sonal control; otherwise, downward comparison might make
them feel vulnerable. These interesting theoretical qualifica-
tions probably do not apply to everyday social comparisons in
normal populations (barring strong manipulations), because
people don't feel that bad things will happen to them (Taylor
&
Brown, 1988); hence, we make the directional prediction of
downward comparison leading to more positive affect.
We predict that upward comparison will lead to negative
affective reactions. The literature on relative deprivation
(Crosby, 1976; Martin, 1986), inequity (Walster, Walster, &
Berscheid, 1978), jealousy (Salovey & Rodin, 1984), perfor-
mance comparison (Tesser,
1988),
and satisfaction with life do-
mains (Emmons
&
Diener, 1985) supports such a prediction.
Hypothesis
4.
Self-esteem will be related to the direction of
comparison. Once again there are opposing predictions about
the nature of the relationship. Downward comparison theory
predicts that individuals with low self-esteem, particularly
when self-esteem
is
threatened,
will
compare downward. These
are the people in the greatest need for self-enhancement.
Usually cited
as
supporting evidence are studies using the rank
order paradigm (Friend & Gilbert,
1973;
Smith & Insko, 1987;
Wilson &Benner, 1971).
On the other hand, there is a body of evidence using the
comparative rating method that high self-esteem individuals
rate themselves higher than others to a greater extent than do
low self-esteem individuals (Brown, 1986; Campbell, 1986;
Crocker
&
Schwartz, 1985) and do so more when self-esteem is
threatened (Crocker, Thompson, McGraw,
&
Ingerman, 1987).
Both Wood and Taylor (1991) and Wills (1991) explained the
discrepancy between the two sets of studies by noting that al-
though it is difficult for
low
self-esteem people to claim superi-
ority on a comparative rating (because they do not perceive
themselves as superior), it is less direct and therefore possible
for them to select downward comparison
targets.
As
the RSCR
has aspects of both the information-seeking and comparative
rating methods, we do not make a directional prediction.
Self-esteem can also be related to the responses to compari-
son, as discussed in Hypothesis 3. Downward comparison
theory (Wills, 1991) would argue that low self-esteem individ-
uals will respond more positively than high self-esteem individ-
uals to downward comparison, as they are in the most need of
psychic reassurance. On the other hand, Taylor and Brown
(1988)
concluded that high self-esteem individuals are the most
likely to engage in self-enhancing illusions, such
as
minimizing
negative feedback and maximizing positive feedback.
Method
Subjects
Subjects were 39 men and 55 women enrolled in the University of
Rochester. Eighty-four percent were
first-semester
freshmen. They par-
ticipated in this study to fulfill part of a course requirement.
Materials
The RSCR, reproduced in the Appendix, includes information
about the circumstances of the comparison (social interaction, visual,
etc.),
the dimension of the comparison (academics, personality, etc.),
the type of relationship to the comparison other(close friend, ordinary
friend, etc.), the comparison similarity to the other (from inferior to
superior), affective ratings
(pre-
and postcomparison ratings on affect),
and an open-ended description of the comparison. Subjects were in-
structed to
fill
out the RSCR for each social comparison they made for
2 weeks.
Procedure
At
small group organizational meetings, concrete examples of social
comparisons were provided and discussed. It was suggested that
merely noticing a similarity with or a difference from another person
would not necessarily be called a comparison unless accompanied by
some psychological reactions.
Subjects were asked to keep records of social comparisons they
made in daily life for 2 weeks. It was emphasized that it was better to
record right after a comparison was
made.
If, for some reason, compari-
sons
could not be recorded immediately, subjects
were
instructed to fill
out the social comparison record at a regular time each
day,
such as just
before
bedtime.
An
abbreviated scratch sheet
was
provided
to
facilitate
memory. Subjects
were
assured that on one
day
they might have a lot of
comparisons but on another day they might not, and there might be
individual differences in the number of social comparisons people
make. To eliminate misunderstanding, mistakes, ambiguities, and so
forth, subjects were asked to turn in their records every day at the
beginning of the
2-week
period but were allowed to stretch this
to 2
or
3
days as the
2-week
period progressed. This procedure was used to
promote regularity of record keeping and also to distribute new blank
forms as subjects needed them. After the
2-week
record keeping pe-
riod, a postexperimental questionnaire was administered to examine
any potential sources of inaccuracy in the comparison records. It was
emphasized that the promised participation credit would be given
regardless of the answers. Subjects were told that they were coinvesti-
gators rather than typical subjects in a psychological experiment and
were treated accordingly throughout the study.
Personality Scales
During the self-observation period, subjects completed several per-
sonality measures. The only one we are concerned with here, because
of its theoretical importance in the social comparison literature,
is
the
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965).
Results
Postexperimental Questionnaire
Overall ratings on the postexperimental questionnaire were
as follows:
1.
How difficult was it to record comparisons
(1
=
very
diffi-
cult,
4 =
neutral,
and 7 = not at
all
difficult)!
Overall = 4.10.
2.
How accurate do you perceive your comparison records
were
(1
=
very
inaccurate,
4 =
neutral,
and 7 =
very
accurate)!
Overall = 4.69.
3.
How much did keeping the Comparison Record interfere
with your daily life
(1
=
very
little,
4 =
neutral,
and 7 = very
much)?
Overall = 3.78.
4.
This study made me more sensitive to comparisons so that
I changed the number of comparisons I usually make
(1
= very
little, 4 =
neutral,
and 7 = very much). Overall = 3.97.
5.
As for other factors which contribute to inaccuracy (1 =
very little, 4 =
neutral,
and 7 = very
much):
(a) forgetting, over-
all = 4.39; (b) difficulty of being attentive, overall = 4.67; (c)
lack of clarity in instructions, overall
=
2.29;
(d) I
felt an obliga-
SOCIAL COMPARISON763
tion to make comparisons, overall =
3.83;
(e)
I hesitate to report
comparisons due to guilt feelings, overall = 2.67; and (f) com-
parison was too subtle to be noticed, overall = 3.83.
Reliability
The number of social comparisons for the
first
5 days
and the
last
5
days correlated
.74.
This method simulates test-retest or
split-half reliability.
Method of Analysis
The unit of analysis throughout this study
was
the individual
subject who reported multiple social comparisons. Conse-
quently, all statistics were computed for each subject and then
were used for analysis. When degrees of freedom seem too
large, it is because of the repeated measures, not because we
have departed from using the individual as the unit of analysis.
Descriptive Statistics
Table
1
shows percentage of comparisons
by
target
sex,
situa-
tion, dimension, relationship, and direction. Percentages are
presented for men and women, separately and combined.
Male and female subjects showed
a
strikingly similar pattern
for most of the
categories.
Only a few
of the
sex
differences were
significant, and these were in relatively infrequent categories.
Men were more likely to make comparisons while daydream-
ing, t(92) = 2.18, p < .05. Women were more likely to make
comparisons on eating
habits,
t(92) =
2.08,
p
<
.05,
and appear-
ance,
t(92)
= 1.88, p < .10, whereas men were more likely to
make opinion comparisons, t(92) = 2.47, p < .05. Men were
more likely to compare with famous people,
t(92) =
2.51,
p <
.05,
whereas women were more likely to compare with family
members,
t(92)
= 2.39, p
<
.05.
Factor Analysis
of Dimensions
To simplify the data, we performed a principal-components
factor analysis using varimax rotation on the number of com-
parisons on all the dimensions containing at least 5% of the
comparisons,
thus
excluding
wealth,
opinions,
and "other"
(e.g.,
relationships and eating habits).4 A two-factor structure ap-
peared. The first factor contained academic matters, lifestyle,
and personality (eigenvalue
=
1.9; factor loadings
=
.59,
.87,
and
.76,
respectively). The second factor contained abilities, social
skills,
and appearance (eigenvalue = 1.2; factor loadings = .63,
.71,
and .69, respectively). Cross-factor loadings ranged from
.00 to
.23,
averaging
.07.
With
some
trepidation,
as
factor names
tend to take on a life of their own, we named the first factor
Lifestyle
and the second factor, Assets. The Lifestyle factor per-
haps represents what college students are—their lifestyle is re-
lated to their personality and determines the academic ap-
proach and outcome, whether they are serious students,
leaders, athletes, partiers, or some combination of these things
and
others.
The Assets factor perhaps represents the raw mate-
rials that determine how gracefully and powerfully one can
carry out a lifestyle. We are better able to characterize these
factors as we describe how they differ in the comparison pro-
cess.
Number of Comparisons
We performed an analysis of variance (ANOV\) on number
of same-sex comparisons per
10
days5 with the following vari-
ables:
dimension—Lifestyle and Assets; relationship—close
friend, ordinary friend, acquaintance, and stranger; direction
—upward, same level, downward; and sex (the first three vari-
ables were repeated measures). Upward comparisons were
those on which the subject indicated that
he
or
she was
inferior,
poor, or undesirable relative to the comparison other
(-1
to -3
on Item
5
of the
RSCR);
downward comparisons
were
those on
which the subject indicated superiority
to the
comparison other
(1 to 3). Target sex was included in a preliminary analysis and
merely muddled the
results,
which
was
not surprising in
view of
the great predominance of same-sex comparisons. There were
too few opposite-sex comparisons to be meaningfully broken
down across the other variables. That comparisons are largely
with same-sex others
has
been shown
with
other methods (Feld-
man & Ruble,
1981;
Major & Forcey,
1985;
Suls, Gaes, & Gas-
torf,
1979; Zanna, Goethals, & Hill, 1975) and serves as a par-
tial validity check of the RSCR. There were no significant ef-
fects for sex of subject. The Dimension X Relationship X
Direction means for same-sex comparisons are shown in Ta-
ble 2.
The main effect for dimension was that there were more
Lifestyle than Assets comparisons, F(l, 92) =
4.1,
p
<
.05.
The
main effect of relationship was that there were more compari-
sons with close friends than with ordinary friends and more
comparisons with ordinary friends than with acquaintances or
strangers, F(3,276) =
18.1,
p
<
.001.
(The linear contrast from
close friend through stranger produced F[l, 276] = 50.97, p <
.001.) The main effect of direction was that there were more
downward than same-level or upward comparisons, F(2,184)
=
10.9,
p<.
001.
Hypothesis
1
was that similar comparisons would be more
frequent with close friends, predicting the Direction X Rela-
tionship interaction, F(6,552)
=
5.2, p
<
.001,
shown in Figure
1.6
The close friend versus all others contrast of same versus
4 If a subject checked more than one comparison dimension, one of
us consulted the open-ended description at the end of the RSCR to
determine the most appropriate dimension. For example, if a subject
compared herself to a prettier woman in an expensive dress and
checked both physical appearance and wealth as comparison dimen-
sions,
and then went on to describe her or the other's
figure,
hair, smile,
and so on, it was coded as a physical appearance comparison. As we
stressed using only one category, fewer than 5% of the comparisons
presented this problem.
5 Although subjects were asked to use the RSCR for
14
days, there
was
a minor variation in the number of
days.
Accordingly,
we
equated
subjects on the number of days and also standardized to a 10-day pe-
riod with the following formula:
(no.
of comparisons/no, of
days)
X10.
Thus,
no data were discarded.
6 Interactions are presented as interaction residuals (Rosnow
&
Ro-
senthal, 1989) because they show the interaction effects uncontami-
nated by main effects (and all of our main effects are significant).
Residuals shown are what remains when
row,
column, and grand mean
effects are removed. Thus, a positive residual indicates a relatively
stronger effect than would be expected from the marginals. The raw
means can be obtained from Table
2
for those who want to know what
the interactions look like in combination with the main effects.
764
LADD WHEELER AND KUNITATE MIYAKE
upward and downward comparisons produced F(l, 552) =
16.61,
p < .001, supporting Hypothesis 1. However, the great
frequency of downward comparisons with ordinary friends was
completely unexpected. The logic of Hypothesis
1
would not
predict any abrupt difference between ordinary friends and
others, yet the ordinary friend versus all others contrast of
downward comparison versus same and upward7 yielded F(\,
552) =12.74,
p<.001.
These results were qualified by the three-way interaction,
Direction
X
Relationship
X
Dimension (not
shown),
F(6,552) =
3.9, p <
.001.
We examine the two strong contrasts, described
in the previous paragraph, as a function of the dimension. The
close friend versus all others contrast of same-level versus up-
Table
1
Percentage
of
Social Comparisons
for
Men,
Women,
and
Men
and
Women Combined
Table 2
Number of
Comparisons
by
Dimension,
Relationship,
and
Direction
VariableMen Women
(n
=
39) (n
= 55)
Combined
(N
=
94)
Target sex
Same sex
Opposite sex
Mixed sex
Unknown
Situation
Social interaction
Visual
Daythought
Brief contact
Telephone
Dimension
Academic
Personality
Physical appearance
Lifestyle
Abilities
Social skills
Wealth
Opinion
Other
Relationships
Eating habits
Uncategorized
Relationship
Close friend
Ordinary friend
Acquaintance
Stranger
Family member
Imaginary person
Boyfriend or girlfriend
Famous person
Other
Similarity level
1-target
superior
2
3
4-target same
5
6
7-target
inferior
71.08
22.50
4.10
2.32
45.83
20.79
17.31
8.89
7.18
24.99
13.56
11.68
14.03
13.95
7.74
4.70
3.88
0.81
0.00
4.49
31.34
27.14
19.23
15.45
0.86
3.46
0.61
1.57
0.18
4.84
12.66
12.40
25.45
18.63
19.33
6.69
68.24
24.02
6.57
1.18
51.46
21.61
10.56**
9.07
7.30
27.24
14.94
15.89*
10.88
12.37
6.10
3.74
1.63**
1.57
1.53"
4.11
31.44
25.69
18.82
14.52
3.94**
1.67
1.77
0.47**
1.68
3.69
13.59
13.43
27.12
17.59
19.14
5.43
69.41
23.39
5.55
1.65
49.12
21.27
13.36
9.00
7.25
26.31
14.37
14.14
12.19
13.03
6.78
4.14
2.56
1.26
0.89
4.27
31.40
26.29
18.99
14.91
2.66
2.41
1.29
0.93
1.08
4.17
13.20
13.00
26.43
18.02
19.22
5.96
Relationship
Dimension-
direction
Lifestyle
Upward
Same level
Downward
Assets
Upward
Same level
Downward
Close
friend
0.621
1.031
0.872
0.478
0.408
0.551
Ordinary
friend
0.395
0.418
0.967
0.282
0.25
0.448
Acquaintance
0.257
0.156
0.463
0.45
0.213
0.262
Stranger
0.126
0.057
0.202
0.445
0.142
0.554
Note. Entries are the number of comparisons adjusted to 10 days.
ward and downward comparisons was stronger on the Lifestyle
than
on the
Assets dimension, F(l, 552)
=
6.86,
p <
.01.
Simi-
larly, the ordinary friend versus all others contrast of downward
comparison versus same level
and
upward was relatively more
pronounced on the Lifestyle than on the Assets dimension,
F(\,
552)
=
8.52,
p <
.01.
In
short, both tendencies—to make simi-
lar comparisons with close friends and to make downward com-
parisons with ordinary friends—were stronger on the Lifestyle
dimension.8
Precomparison Affect Ratings and Direction of
Comparison
Precomparison and postcomparison states were rated on
two
7-point
bipolar adjective pairs:
happy-depressed
and dis-
couraged-encouraged,
r(94) = -.81. The happy-depressed
scale was reversed, and the two scales were averaged to create
an affect measure with higher numbers indicating more posi-
tive affect.
Hypothesis 2 predicted that comparison direction would be
related to precomparison affect. To test this hypothesis, the
average precomparison ratings were categorized into negative Q
to
3.5),
neutrally),
and positive
(4.5
to
7)
states.
The analysis was
a 3 (precomparison states)
X
3 (direction)
X
2 (dimension) AN-
OVA
on the number of social comparisons per
10
days,
in which
Note. Percentages are based on 23.5 comparisons per subject over
13.1
days.
The p
values
refer to significant
sex
differences.
*p<A0. **p<.05.
7 We realize that this contrast is completely post hoc and probably
indefensible;
we
include
it
to draw attention to the serendipitous result.
8 Two other interactions were significant. They are not germane
to
any of the hypotheses, but they do provide information about the na-
ture
of
the dimensions: (a) The interaction
of
Dimension
X
Relation-
ship,
F(3, 276)
=
18.2,
p <
.001, was due
to
Lifestyle comparisons
decreasing steadily from close friend
to
stranger, relative
to
Assets
comparisons. The Lifestyle-Assets contrast by the linear main effect
reported earlier for relationship produced F(l, 276) = 59.98,
p
<
.001.
(b)
The interaction of Dimension
X
Direction,
F(2,184) =
7.5,
p
<
.001,
was due to upward comparisons being relatively more frequent on the
Assets dimension than on the Lifestyle dimension. The Lifestyle-As-
sets
X
Direction (linear) contrast produced F(l, 184) =
11.76,
p
<
.001.
In short, Assets comparisons are more likely
to be
upward and with
less close friends.
SOCIAL COMPARISON765
11*
I Same
I Down
Number of
comparisons:
Residual
means
Figure
1.
RelationshipX Direction interaction for number of compar-
isons:
residual means. (Close = close friend; ordinary = ordinary
friend; acquaint = acquaintance.)
all three variables were repeated measures. Our primary inter-
est was determining whether there was a Direction
X
Precom-
parison Affect interaction and whether this interaction was the
same for the two dimensions.
The Direction X Precomparison Affect interaction, F(4,
368)= 5.17, p < .001, was that downward comparisons were
associated with precomparison positive affect rather than with
precomparison negative affect. The raw means and the interac-
tion residuals
are
shown in
Table
3.
The Linear (affect)
X
Linear
(direction) contrast on the residuals yielded F(l, 368) =17.16,
p <
.001.
The better subjects felt, the more likely they were to
compare downward. There were no other significant interac-
tions.
Effects
of
Comparison
on
Affect
Hypothesis 3 predicted that downward comparison would
enhance subjective well-being and that upward comparison
would decrease it. To test this hypothesis, the affect measure
was analyzed in a 2 (precomparison vs. postcomparison)
X
3
(direction) ANOV\, in which both variables were repeated
measures. The
analysis was
performed separately for each of the
relationships (close friend, ordinary friend, acquaintance, and
stranger) and dimensions (Lifestyle and
Assets),
because
loss
of
subjects would have been too great otherwise. (The repeated
measures analysis required that a subject have upward, same-
level, and downward comparisons, unlike the test of Hypothe-
ses 1
and
2
in which
a zero
comparison
was a
legitimate datum.)
The results of the series of Comparison
X
Direction analyses
on the happy-encouraged measure can be seen in Table 4.
These analyses are close friend, ordinary friend, acquaintance,
stranger, lifestyle, assets, and
overall.
The left third of the table
presents the mean
pre-
and postcomparison
rating.
The middle
third of the table
presents
the mean
change
scores.
The Fs at
the
far right column are the Comparison
X
Direction interaction,
equivalent to a one-way ANOV\ on the change scores.
Regardless of the relationship or the dimension, subjects felt
significantly better after downward comparisons and signifi-
cantly worse after upward comparisons. Overall, they also felt
somewhat better after a same-level comparison.
Self-Esteem
Hypothesis 4 predicted that self-esteem would be related to
direction of comparison, but there were opposing predictions
about how it should be related. Downward comparison theory
(Wills, 1991) predicts that low self-esteem will be related to
downward comparison (particularly under conditions of
threat).
However, there is a considerable body of evidence that
high self-esteem individuals are more likely to engage in
self-
enhancing strategies (see Taylor
&
Brown, 1988, for a review).
We correlated the self-esteem score with the number of up-
ward, same-level, and downward comparisons, separately for
the Lifestyle and Assets dimensions. The left side of Table 5
presents these results.
Self-esteem was positively related to the number of down-
ward comparisons on the Lifestyle dimension; there were no
significant correlations on the
Assets
dimension. Thus, the pre-
diction from downward comparison theory
was
not supported.
Rather, it was high self-esteem individuals who were more
likely to make downward comparisons.
For a finer analysis, self-esteem scores were trichotimized
and added
to the
Precomparison Affect
X
Direction of Compar-
ison analysis shown in Table
3.
Downward comparison theory
Table 3
Number
of
Comparisons in
Each
Direction
as a
Function
of
Precomparison Affect
Happy-encouraged
adjective prerating
Negative
M
Interaction residual
Neutral
M
Interaction residual
Positive
M
Interaction residual
Upward
0.56
1.34
0.61
0.04
0.93
-1.38
Direction of comparison
Same level
0.45
1.00
0.53
-0.09
0.90
-0.91
Downward
0.49
-2.33
0.91
0.04
1.59
2.29
Note. Means are the number of comparisons adjusted to
10
days.
The
number of comparisons is slightly less than shown in Table 2 because
of failures to complete one or more of the precomparison affect scales.
Interaction residuals were multiplied by
10
to avoid rounding errors.
766LADD WHEELER AND KUNITATE MIYAKE
Table 4
Effects
of Comparison
Variable
on
Happy-Encouraged Affect
Upward Same levelDownwardUpward
Change score
Same levelDownwardSignificance
Relationship
Close friend (n = 39)
Precomparison
Postcomparison
Ordinary friend (n = 30)
Precomparison
Postcomparison
Acquaintance in = 23)
Precomparison
Postcomparison
Stranger (« = 12)
Precomparison
Postcomparison
Dimension
Lifestyle (« = 65)
Precomparison
Postcomparison
Assets (n
=
46)
Precomparison
Postcomparison
Overall (n
=
75)
Precomparison
Postcomparison
4.41,
3.69,
4.17,
3.63,
4.21.
3.43,
4.16.
3.19,
4.11.
3-32,
4.45.
3.67,
4.22.
3.52,
4.12.
4.82,
4.43.
4.73,
4.09
4.32
4.90
4.96
4.16.
4.72,
4.47
4.68
4.27.
4.64,
4.35.
4.81,
4.48.
5.02,
4.46.
5.02,
4.65.
5.63,
4.32.
5.03,
4.55.
5.33,
4.42.
5.04,
72.
54.
78.
97.
79.
78.
70.
.70,
•30,
.23,
.06,
•
56,
•21,
.37,
.46,
•54,
.56,
.98,
•71,
.78C
.62,
F(2,
74) = 14.79**
F(2,
56) = 19.79**
F(2,
42) = 6.78*
F(2,
20) =
10.63**
F(2,
126) =
49.13**
F(2,
88) = 31.49**
F(2,
146) = 50.68**
Note. For the precomparison and postcomparison columns, within each directional choice column, the mean scores that do not share the same
subscript significantly differed from each other. For the change score rows, the mean scores that do not share the same subscript significantly
differed from each other. In all cases, p < .05 using TukeyB. Sample sizes are reduced because of failures to complete one or more of the affect
scales.
*p<.01.
**p<.001.
would predict a three-way interaction such that those low in
self-esteem experiencing negative precomparison affect should
compare downward. However, there were no significant inter-
actions involving self-esteem. Again, there was no support for
the downward comparison theory prediction.
Next we examined how self-esteem related to reactions to
comparisons. We regressed the postcomparison affect scores
on the precomparison affect scores, self-esteem, and the inter-
action between precomparison scores and self-esteem,9 sepa-
rately for
each
direction of comparison on each dimension. The
right side of Table
5
presents the correlations between the aver-
age postcomparison affect rating and self-esteem, with pre-
comparison affect partialed
out,
within each comparison direc-
tion. Higher
scores
on the affect measure indicate more happy-
encouraged responses.
High self-esteem subjects relative to low self-esteem subjects
responded more positively to same-level and upward compari-
son on the affect measures, but only on the Assets dimension.
Remember that the affective response to upward comparison
was generally quite negative (Table
4),
so these correlations do
not mean that higher self-esteem subjects felt good about up-
ward comparisons, but rather that they felt less bad about
them. (An analysis by tertiles of self-esteem confirmed that
even the highest self-esteem subjects responded negatively to
upward comparison.)
The interaction between self-esteem and precomparison af-
fect was included in the regression analysis predicting post-
comparison affect, because downward comparison theory pre-
dicts that
low
self-esteem individuals have a particular need for
enhancement when self-esteem is threatened. In contrast,
Crocker
et
al.
(1987) found that high self-esteem individuals are
more likely to self-enhance when threatened. In fact, however,
the interaction term was never a significant predictor of post-
comparison affect. The effects of self-esteem were independent
of the level of threat.
In summary, high self-esteem was related to
(a)
a greater fre-
quency of downward comparisons on the Lifestyle dimension
and (b) more positive reactions to same-level and upward com-
parisons on the Assets dimension.
Discussion
We
discuss the limitations of the research first, because they
have an impact on what we can say about the meaning of our
results. Although it is common to use first-semester college
freshmen as subjects, ours
is
a
situation in which the fact of their
being in a new and challenging environment may have had a
9 The
change score could be used
as
an index of
reactions,
but it is
correlated to both pre- and postcomparison affect and tends to be
unreliable (Cohen &
Cohen,
1983).
One
could also correlate
the
change
score to self-esteem with precomparison affect partialed
out.
We
felt
uncertain about
such a
roundabout
procedure.
The
procedure
we used
was
more
straightforward and should yield unambiguous results.
SOCIAL COMPARISON767
Table 5
Self-Esteem Correlations
With Number of
Comparisons
and
With
Affective Reactions
to
Comparisons
Dimension
Lifestyle
Upward
Same level
Downward
Assets
Upward
Same level
Downward
Number of
comparisons*
.02
.15
.26*
-.04
.12
.08
Happy-
encouraged11
.01
.11
.12
.25*
.36**
.02
* A
positive correlation indicates that the higher the self-esteem, the
greater the number of comparisons. b A positive correlation indi-
cates that the higher the self-esteem, the more positive the postcom-
parison affect, with precomparison affect partialed out.
* p
<
.05,
two-tailed.
**
p
<
.01,
two-tailed.
strong impact on their
responses.
We
are not certain, for exam-
ple,
that comparison dimensions later in
college
would produce
the same factors. Nor are we convinced that relationship and
direction of comparison would necessarily interact in the same
way. The fascinating result that comparisons with ordinary
friends were predominantly downward might not occur among
respondents who had more time to sort out their friendships.
The freshman might call some dormmates "ordinary friends"
not out of positive sentiment but out of frequent (and perhaps
situationally constrained) interaction. In short, this research
should be seen as bearing on social comparison at a particular
life-transition stage (Deutsch, Ruble, Fleming, Brooks-Gunn,
&Stangor, 1988).
Our method of data collection is a second limitation, as well
as being a strength. We have no illusions that respondents re-
ported every social comparison. Comparisons are often subtle
and fleeting. We do believe, however, that reported compari-
sons were really comparisons and that they were the most sa-
lient comparisons to the respondents. In addition to not having
data on all comparisons, the fact that all the data about a com-
parison were recorded at the same time is problematical, be-
cause it could be argued that precomparison affect does not
really reflect a precomparison appraisal but instead a post-
comparison appraisal of precomparison affect.
We
discuss this
somewhat more fully later in this article.
Comparison Dimensions
The two comparisons dimensions revealed through factor
analysis, Lifestyle and Assets, related to the comparison pro-
cess differently in several ways. Assets comparisons were rela-
tively more likely with acquaintances and strangers and were
more likely to be upward (see Footnote 7). The tendencies to
make similar comparisons with close friends and downward
comparisons with ordinary friends were both less pronounced
on the Assets dimension. Last, the direction of comparison on
the Assets dimension was not related to self-esteem. These dif-
ferences suggest to us that Assets comparisons are more likely
to be forced than are Lifestyle comparisons. Assets (ability, ap-
pearance, and social skills) can be seen fairly directly, even in
strangers, whereas Lifestyle (personality, lifestyle, and aca-
demic matters) are more likely to be revealed through interac-
tion and conversation, over which an individual has more con-
trol. For example, a person does not have to ask a friend how
prepared the friend is for a physics exam if
the
person doesn't
want to be reminded of
his
or her own lack of preparation. On
the other hand, one has less choice in at least noticing differ-
ences in ability or physical appearance. This
was
shown vividly
by a female subject's description of an upward physical appear-
ance comparison with an acquaintance:
I drove up to a building in [dorm complex] and saw this girl I had
met before. She is very pretty and she
was
getting out of a [expen-
sive car] and dressed very nicely. This usually doesn't affect me
but there is something about this
girl
that really
gets
me.
I
felt very
down, jealous, and envious for a while afterwards and
keep
think-
ing about it. I hate the fact that it bothers me like this!
Let us stress that we are not arguing that Lifestyle compari-
sons are totally sought and Assets comparisons are totally
forced; a friend may volunteer that he or she is well- or ill-pre-
pared for an exam, and we may selectively fail to perceive dif-
ferences in ability or appearance. However, there does seem to
be a difference in the degree to which comparisons are sought
or forced. Let us also note that the several internally consistent
and meaningful differences between the two dimensions lends
plausibility and validity to the RSCR.
Direction ofComparison and Relationship With the
Target
As predicted, same-level comparisons were relatively more
frequent with close friends than with
others,
consistent with the
position of Brickman and Bulman (1977) that dissimilar com-
parisons would be painful to one party or the other and consis-
tent with the expectation that close friends ought to be similar
in many ways. The totally unexpected result was that down-
ward comparisons were relatively more frequent with ordinary
friends than with anyone else. We noted earlier that ordinary
friends during the first semester of college may not be like
ordinary friends in more settled circumstances, and so we
would
like to see
these results replicated with
a
different popula-
tion. However, it
is
entirely possible that the phenomenon will
replicate—that one of the functions of ordinary friends is to
afford downward comparison. Downward comparison with
close
friends could threaten the relationship, and
one is likely
to
have some criticisms of ordinary friends that keep them out of
the close friend category.
Precomparison Affect and Direction ofComparison
Probably our most controversial result was that respondents
compared upward when they felt bad and downward when they
felt
good.
The
result is controversial because downward compar-
ison theory
(Wills,
1981,1991) predicts
the
opposite.
According
to this theory, when a person is experiencing low subjective
well-being, she or he will compare downward for purposes of
self-enhancement. There are at least two ways to approach this
inconsistency.
First, the method of data collection may have produced mis-
leading results. Subjects indicated their affect before compari-
768LADD WHEELER AND KUNITATE MIYAKE
son, the direction of
the
comparison, and their affect after com-
parison on the same questionnaire, perhaps obscuring the di-
rection of
causation.
Thus,
feeling bad after
an
upward compari-
son may have led subjects to infer that they felt bad before the
comparison, and feeling good after a downward comparison
may have led them to infer that they felt good before the com-
parison, leading
to
an artifactual relationship between precom-
parison affect and direction of comparison. This problem
might be particularly acute when there was a long period of
time between
the
occurrence of the comparison and
the
record-
ing of it. If subjects recorded a comparison immediately after it
occurred, we would expect them to be aware of their precom-
parison affect. If, however, the comparison occurred hours be-
fore it was recorded, memory of precomparison affect might
not be clear, but memory of postcomparison affect would be
good, because recording the comparison would revivify reac-
tions to it. Under these circumstances, inferring precompari-
son affect from postcomparison affect would seem to be more
likely. Unfortunately, we did not collect data about the times at
which comparisons occurred and when they were recorded.
This should certainly be done in future research.
The major argument against this affect-inference explana-
tion is that subjects were able to distinguish between pre- and
postaffect, as shown by the strong affect changes as a result of
comparison direction (Table
4).
The affect-inference argument
would
have
to get very tortuous to explain how preaffect can be
inferred from postaffect when the two differ systematically
as
a
function of comparison direction.
The second possibility is that downward comparison theory
is wrong about low subjective well-being leading to downward
comparison. Most of the recent supporting evidence comes
from studies of victimized individuals, such
as
cancer patients.
The widely accepted reasoning about these studies
is as
follows:
(a) Victimized individuals are threatened; (b) victimized indi-
viduals make downward
comparisons;
and
(c)
therefore, threat-
ened people make downward comparisons. However, the
various studies of victimized individuals have not found a rela-
tionship between severity of threat and downward comparison,
as is implied by downward comparison theory (cf. Wood &
Taylor, 1991, pp. 43-45). Moreover, the second assumption,
that victimized individuals make downward comparisons, can
be questioned; whether they do appears to depend on the
method used for measuring comparisons. For
example,
Taylor,
Wood, and Lichtman (1983) found that, when asked directly
how they were coping in comparison to
others,
only
2
out of 78
cancer patients said that they were coping worse than other
cancer
patients.
In addition, free responses made
by
these same
patients in interviews (Wood, Taylor, & Lichtman, 1985) indi-
cated a strong preponderance of downward comparison. In
contrast, using retrospective questions about the direction of
comparison and responses to it, Buunk, Collins, Taylor, \an-
Yperen, and Dakof (1990) found that cancer patients from a
very similar population were only slightly less likely to have
made upward comparisons than to
have made downward
com-
parisons. Furthermore, Taylor and Lobel (1989)
reviewed
the
literature on cancer patients and concluded that these patients
preferred contact with and information about
others "who have
either overcome their threatening circumstances or adjusted
well to them and that they avoid exposing themselves to those
who are doing poorly" (p. 571).
Thus,
whether one finds that victimized individuals make
downward comparisons seems to depend on what one accepts
as a measure of comparison. Conclusions about comparative
status,
whether indicated on rating scales or by free response in
interviews, point to downward comparison. Preferences for in-
formation and contact point to upward comparison. Memory
of comparisons made points about equally to upward and
downward comparisons.
What of the Experimental
Evidence
That
Threat
Leads to
Downward Comparison?
Most of the experimental evidence comes from studies using
the rank order paradigm, which in the vast majority of cases
has shown upward comparison.
The study most frequently cited in support of the hypothesis
that threat leads to downward comparison is that by Hakmiller
(1966).
In this
study,
the subject
was
told that, on the basis of the
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), she
should belong to
a
subgroup of three people
(out
of
six)
with low
scores on the personality trait "hostility toward one's own par-
ents,"
described very
negatively,
as
leading
to
personality deteri-
oration (high
threat),
or somewhat
positively,
as
reflecting matu-
rity (low threat). However, a second test, which was said to
relate to the MMPI with better than 50-50 accuracy in rank
ordering the entire group, showed the subject to have a quite
high score, either
60
or
80
on a scale of
100.
Subjects in the high
threat condition were more likely to choose to see the highest
score (most hostility) in the group than subjects in the low
threat condition, who showed no preference for any particular
score.
Hakmiller himself recognized the possibility of an alterna-
tive "maudlin [sic] curiosity" explanation, namely, that the
highest score "might have been viewed as less 'pathological'
and therefore, less interesting to the Low-Threat subjects"
(Hakmiller, 1966,
p.
38). In short, given the descriptions of the
trait, subjects in the two conditions were not faced with dimen-
sions
of equal drama and interest. In the much cleaner manipu-
lation of threat, there was no difference between subjects re-
ceiving a score of 60 and those receiving a score of
80,
although
the latter group was predicted to be more threatened than the
former in the high-threat condition. Hakmiller's study has
never been replicated, and many rank order studies
have
shown
choice of
the
highest score in the group even when the trait to
be evaluated
is
a positive
one.
(For explanations, see Arrowood
&
Friend,
1969;
Gruder, Korth, Dichtel,
&
Glos,
1975;
Wheeler
etal., 1969.)
In fact, two of the other most frequently cited studies used
avoidance of the highest (most positive) score as evidence for
defensive comparison under threat (Smith
&
Insko, | https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232577119_Social_Comparison_in_Everyday_Life |
Our self-talk (our internal dialogue) influences who we are, and the self-help movement has made the case that self-affirmations are the cure for boosting self-esteem.
Not so fast.
Research is clear that affirmations can be powerfully positive for some people. Studies also show that it’s powerfully negative for others.
That’s why people who love affirmations are such strong advocates for affirmations. Meanwhile, those who try affirmations and don’t see the benefits…often feel worse. And sometimes, a lot worse.
Affirmations and High Self-Esteem
Researchers have found that people with high self-esteem tend to benefit from positive self-statements, such as affirmations. People tend to use affirmations before taking an exam (85%), before giving a presentation (78%), and coping with a difficult situation (74%).
The higher a person’s self-esteem, “the more helpful they said such statements were,” reported researchers Joanne V. Wood, W.Q Elaine Perunovic, and John W. Lee.
Affirmations and Low Self-Esteem
While individuals with high self-esteem appear to benefit from affirmations, people with low self-esteem often suffer from doing affirmations. The same researchers conducted another study and found that “positive self-statements (or focusing on how they were true) were detrimental to people with low self-esteem.”
When people with low self-esteem or people with anxiety or depression used affirmations, they often felt worse. Their feelings about themselves didn’t improve and neither did their moods.
A lot of our culture encourages individuals to “think positively.” Yet, this doesn’t always work for everyone, particularly for those who ruminate or who have minds that tend to dwell on the hard stuff of life.
What’s the difference between a high and a low self-esteem? Researchers Wood, Perunovic, and Lee measure self-esteem by three measures: 1) mood, 2) the current state of your self-esteem, and 3) how happy you are with yourself. For people with low self-esteem who try positive affirmations, their negative thoughts often intrude in the process, and they quickly conclude that affirmations don’t work and that something’s wrong with them. (All of this, flattens their mood and self-confidence even more.)
The Power of Loving-Kindness Meditation
So what’s more powerful than affirmations?
This form of meditation also uses positive statements, but they’re not affirmations or positive self-talk. Instead, loving-kindness meditation incorporates loving-kindness phrases that are wishes. The affirmation, “I’m becoming stronger every day,” is more powerful as a loving-kindness phrase, “May I feel strength throughout my day.” The affirmation is an absolute “I’m becoming,” which can trip up some people. The loving-kindness phrase is an intention, a wish, a hope.
Some people see affirmations as self-esteem boosts (like inflating a balloon that already has air). For some people (particularly those with a strong sense of self-esteem), affirmations may be helpful and can inspire them to tap into the strongest parts of themselves.
Loving-kindness meditation phrases, in contrast, are invitations. For most people, loving-kindness meditation helps to soothe our souls and minds and invites us to plant seeds within ourselves to be more mindful, to be more kind, to be more compassionate towards ourselves.
Greater Good in Action, which is part of the Greater Good Science Center at the University of California, Berkeley, provides a number of loving-kindness phrases that you can use to get started. Besides the phrases, it’s helpful to sit comfortably and close your eyes. Your body position is just as important as the intentional phrases that you say.
Consider the powerful effects of loving-kindness meditation. This form of meditation helps you to connect with the deepest parts of yourself, whether or not your self-esteem is high or low. Loving-kindness meditation is about developing compassion and kindness towards yourself—and others. | https://thriveglobal.com/stories/affirmations-powerfully-positive-or-powerfully-negative/ |
This research was conducted to examine how life role patterns influence self-esteem, happiness, satisfaction with life and mental adjustment of middle-aged college-educated women. Considerable research has concluded that middle-aged women have lower self-esteem, higher rates of adjustment disturbances, and less satisfaction and happiness in their lives than either men or women in other age groups. Two hypothesized explanations for these findings were explored. One hypothesis was related to socialization sex-role theory. According to this theory, girls are encouraged to follow the traditional lifestyle of wife/homemaker/mother to the exclusion of other achievement focused activities. This exclusion results in reduced well-being for middle-aged women because society places less importance on the family roles. A second explanation is that the traditional female role prohibits women from feeling competent and thus reduces their self-esteem. Self-reports of happiness, satisfaction, levels of stress, mental health and measures of self-esteem and achievement motivation from middle-aged college-educated women were analyzed with respect to four life role patterns: Career (occupation/job, but no marriage/family), Concurrent (both occupation/job and marriage/family at the same time), Sequential (both occupation/job and marriage/family but at different times), and Homemaker (no occupation/job but marriage/family). The results indicated that: (1) the Concurrent and Sequential combination roles related to higher self-esteem at middle age than did the Career and Homemaker single roles, (2) despite lower esteem, Homemaker women at middle age were no less happy, had no greater stress, or lower levels of mental health than women who had lived their lives in the other roles, (3) middle-aged women, across all groups, were no less happy or satisfied than they reported themselves to be at earlier periods in their lives.
DOI
https://doi.org/10.31274/rtd-180813-5166
Publisher
Digital Repository @ Iowa State University, http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/
Copyright Owner
Rita Lundt Frevert
Copyright Date
1982
Language
en
Proquest ID
AAI8224330
File Format
application/pdf
File Size
213 pages
Recommended Citation
Frevert, Rita Lundt, "Effects of life career pattern on self-esteem and life satisfaction of college educated women in the middle years " (1982). Retrospective Theses and Dissertations. 7538. | https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/7538/ |
B. Cade Massey once said, “It 's gotten to the point where people really feel pressure to think and talk in an optimistic way” (Massey). Optimism is generally seen as healthy, while pessimism is generally seen as dangerous. The difference between optimism and pessimism is a difference in perspective and mindset. An optimist has a positive perspective and cheerful mindset, while a pessimist has a negative perspective and a gloomy mindset. There are consequences to both perspectives.
Yes, being optimistic is believed to be beneficial in terms of living a long and healthier life, but too much of it can sometimes create problems. Being overly optimistic can be a disadvantage. When it comes to financial decisions, overly optimistic people do not make the decisions that a pessimist would. (Nauer, 2005) Optimists tend to not budget their money well, which can lead to debt. A little optimism can be beneficial at times, but too much can hurt someone economically.
Is There Evidence for the View that We Have an Unrealistically Optimistic View of Ourselves? And To What Extent Does Such a Positive Self-View Makes for a Better Life? “The optimism bias stands guard. It’s in charge of keeping our minds at ease and our bodies healthy. It moves us forward, rather than to the nearest high-rise rooftop.”– Sharot.
Social anxiety and shyness is correlated to low self-esteem. High self-esteemers have clear and consistent ideas about themselves, whereas people with low self-esteem do not. People with low self-esteem are more likely to bec... ... middle of paper ... ...put others down to make themselves feel better. People accept information that makes them look good, but rejects and find faults in people who criticize them. For instance, when people take a test and perform well on it, the test is fair and valid.
Mill explains happiness as pleasure lacking pain and that pleasure can differ in levels of quality and quantity. Many people misinterpret utilitarianism by interpreting utility in confliction with pleasure but in reality, utility is described as pleasure itself lacking pain. Another label for utility is the Greatest Happiness Principle. This opinion embraces that "actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure.” Meaning that, deeds are perceived to be good after they lead to a larger happiness and bad after it cuts down happiness.
Optimism and pessimism are alike in a way because individuals apply both outlooks into their daily life causing an impact. The difference is the application of positive or negative perspectives. Someone who is optimistic will make decisions that are based on positive outcomes. A person who is pessimistic will expect the worst outcome. I consider myself to be a pessimist, because I prepare myself for life’s disappointments and in doing so, I feel more adapted.
Hanson in the article titled, “How to Build a Happier Brain.” However, people might argue that positive thinking is the key to success. Although this may be true, positive thinking is just verbal or for the moment; it actually does not count as true happiness. To illustrate, Dr. Hanson explains that positive thinking might be helpful, but is does not have a valuable impact on how people feel or react over a normal day. He declares that people who limit themselves to only think positively might look happy on the outside, but deep down they are angry, sad, or lonely. That is to say, they lack a way of seeing things clearly.
They cause a person to think more observantly because it triggers a more systematic way of thinking. A person needs negative emotions in order to experience the broad spectrum of human emotion. David explains, “People in negative moods tend to be less skeptical, while happy folks may accept easy answers and trust false smiles” (125). Negative emotions keep the human mind balanced and on track. They are just as valuable as positive emotions, if not more valuable.
I think that there are alternative actions that people can take to naturally increase their happiness, and the happiness of our society overall. One major problem with decreasing suffering is that you cannot appreciate the good without the bad (Power, “The End of Suffering”). It is very important to go through struggles in order to fully appreciate good times, and be truly happy when things are going well. Good times would not truly feel amazing if they occurred all of the time. It has also been suggested that a
Psychologists say that people who function well in life and generally accepted themselves, have high self-esteem as opposed to those who are not coping well when face personal problems and seek the way out with solutions that are imbued with self-doubt and fear. People of high self-esteem are looking for challenges and new experiences, and set demanding goals for themselves. Achieving these goals works on the way that their self-esteem becomes even greater. In contrast, people with low self-esteem prefer safety and well-known situation, avoiding demanding goals and thus maintain a low self-esteem. The higher self-esteem we have, the more successful we can cope with different requirements - both in private and in the professional sphere. | https://www.123helpme.com/essay/The-Difference-Between-Optimism-And-Pessimism-638215 |
According to a Gallup Inc. poll with a sample size of 554,066 adults, "Very religious Americans are more likely to practice healthy behaviors than those who are moderately religious or nonreligious."
There are preliminary studies indicating that individuals who reject Christianity in Western cultures have lower self-esteem than the Christian population.
In addition, obese individuals can have lower self-esteem related to their obesity. In the United States, obese people are often stereotyped as being "lazy, lacking self-discipline and being mentally slow" (Medical science research indicates that excess weight impairs brain function.). In March 2011, USA News and World Report declared that an Arizona State University study suggests that fat stigma has gone global. In addition, parts of the world that once viewed being overweight favorably now hold negative views concerning having extra pounds and also hold negative views concerning overweight individuals.
Poor self-esteem has been linked to an increase in suicide attempts and atheists have higher rates of suicide than the general population. Obese atheists likely have significantly higher rates of suicide than the general public. | https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Atheism,_obesity_and_self-esteem&action=edit |
How many moles of sodium are filtered in the Bowman's capsule a day?
2500 mmoles
How many moles of sodium are excreted a day?
150 mmol
How many litres of blood are filtered a day?
180 L
How many litres of urine are produced a day?
1.5 L
What happens to the sodium and water that are not excreted?
Reabsorbed in the tubules
What are the sites of reabsorption in the tubule?
PCT -> PST -> DTLLH -> TALLH -> DCT -> Collecting duct
What reabsorption happens in the PCT?
50% water and 50% sodium is reabsorbed Isotonic
What reabsorption happens in the PST?
20% water and 20% sodium Isotonic
What reabsorption happens in the DTLLH?
5% water
What reabsorption happens in the ATLLH?
20% sodium
What reabsorption happens in the DCT?
5% sodium
What reabsorption happens in the collecting duct?
4% sodium 19% water
In which parts of the tubule is reabsorption isotonic?
PCT and PST
Which parts of the tubule are impermeable to water?
TALLH and DCT
What separates the lumen and interstitial fluid in a renal epithelial cell?
Tight junction
What controls most reabsorption in the renal epithelial cells?
Sodium movement
What controls movement of sodium in and out of renal epithelial cells?
Sodium potassium pump
What does the lumen refer to?
The tubule
What does the interstitial milieu refer to?
The blood
What substances are reabsorbed in the PCT along with sodium?
Glucose Amino acids Phosphate Chlorine Protons Water
What type of transporters control the movement of these molecules along with sodium?
Most are symporters Protons - sodium - proton antiporter Chlorine - channel Water - aquaporins
What feature makes cells permeable to water?
Presence of aquaporins
What is the role of the TDLLH in controlling salt and water reabsorption?
Mainly control equilibration of sodium and water via channels and aquaporins
Is the process of reabsorption in the TALLH active?
Yes - requires lots of ATP
What type of cotransporter is uniquely present on epithelial cells of the TALLH?
2-chloride, potassium, sodium cotransporter
What does the potassium transporter on TALLH epithelial cells do?
Recycle potassium
Why is a positive transepithelial potential created in TALLH epithelial cells?
Chlorine is transported into the blood - 2 chlorines for every sodium Transporting more chlorine ions than sodium = positive transepithelial potential
What does this positive transepithelial potential do?
Transports additional chlorine, sodium, potassium and calcium through a paracellular shunt
Which cells of the collecting duct regulate water and sodium reabsorption?
ENaC - epithelial sodium channel ROMK - Renal Outer Medullary Potassium Channel
Is water and sodium permeability regulated in collecting duct epithelial cells?
Yes
What is the name of the cells in the colllecting duct that regulate sodium and water reabsorption?
Principal cells
How do ENaC and ROMK work to control sodium and potassium concentration?
Sodium reabsorption is paralleled by potassium excretion into the urine
How does the ability to regulate the expression of ROMK and ENaC affect the function of the collecting ducts?
Allows Potassium excretion to be regulated by the cells Sodium concentration in the urine to be regulated
What is Tmax?
Point at which increases in concentration of a molecule does not result in an increase in the movement of a substance across a membrane
What is the Tmax of glucose?
10 mmol/L
What happens if there is glucose in urine?
Osmotic diuresis Dehydration
What is glycosuria?
Glucose in the urine
What are two conditions that can lead to glycosuria?
Renal glycosuria - defective uptake in PCT due to mutation in SGLT2 (gene encoding for sodium glucose cotransporter) Diabetes mellitus - plasma glucose is very high, exceeds transport capacity of nephrons
What are names of diseases affecting salt handling?
Bartter's syndrome EAST syndrome Pseudohypoaldosteronism Gitelman's syndrome Liddle syndrome
What is Barterr's syndrome?
Condition that affects the 2 major ion transporters of TALLH NKCC2 ROMK - recycling potassium pathway ClC-K
What is EAST syndrome?
Affects basolateral potassium channels in the DCT
What is Gitelman's syndrome?
Affects NaCl cotransporters in the DCT
What is Pseudohypoaldosteronism?
Gain of function of ENaC in the collecting duct
What is Liddle syndrome?
Loss of function of ENaC in the collecting duct
What are diseases affecting water handling?
Nephrogenic
Central
Nephrogenic syndrome of innapropriate antidiuresis
Diabetes insipidus
What is the reason for central source affecting water handling?
Low secretion of ADH from pituitary
Due to pituitary tumours or due to post surgery effects
How does diabetes insipidus affect water handling?
Large amounts of severly diluted urine is produced
Due to impaired glucose metabolism
How does nephrogenic syndrome of innapropriate antidiuresis affect water handling?
Gain of function of V2 ADH receptors
How does nephrogenic syndrome affect water handling?
Collecting ducts do not respond to ADH
What does a generalised renal epithelial cell look like?
What does a PCT epithelial cell look like?
What does a TALLH epithelial cell look like?
What does a DCT epithelial cell look like?
What does a principal cell look like? | https://m.brainscape.com/flashcards/sodium-and-water-transport-along-the-neph-6772951/packs/10761552 |
The nephron (from Greek νεφρός – nephros, meaning "kidney") is the microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney. It is composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. The renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called a glomerulus and an encompassing Bowman's capsule. The renal tubule extends from the capsule. The capsule and tubule are connected and are composed of epithelial cells with a lumen. A healthy adult has 0.8 to 1.5 million nephrons in each kidney. Blood is filtered as it passes through three layers: the endothelial cells of the capillary wall, its basement membrane, and between the foot processes of the podocytes of the lining of the capsule. The tubule has adjacent peritubular capillaries that run between the descending and ascending portions of the tubule. As the fluid from the capsule flows down into the tubule, it is processed by the epithelial cells lining the tubule: water is reabsorbed and substances are exchanged (some are added, others are removed); first with the interstitial fluid outside the tubules, and then into the plasma in the adjacent peritubular capillaries through the endothelial cells lining that capillary. This process regulates the volume of body fluid as well as levels of many body substances. At the end of the tubule, the remaining fluid—urine—exits: it is composed of water, metabolic waste, and toxins.
|Nephron|
Diagram (left) of a long juxtamedullary nephron and (right) of a short cortical nephron. The left nephron is labelled with six named nephron segments. Also labelled is the collecting duct, mislabelled the "collection duct"; it is not part of the nephron.
|Details|
|Precursor||Metanephric blastema (intermediate mesoderm)|
|System||Urinary system|
|Identifiers|
|Latin||Nephroneum|
|MeSH||D009399|
|FMA||17640|
|Anatomical terminology|
The interior of Bowman's capsule, called Bowman's space, collects the filtrate from the filtering capillaries of the glomerular tuft, which also contains mesangial cells supporting these capillaries. These components function as the filtration unit and make up the renal corpuscle. The filtering structure (glomerular filtration barrier) has three layers composed of endothelial cells, a basement membrane, and podocytes (foot processes). The tubule has five anatomically and functionally different parts: the proximal tubule, which has a convoluted section the proximal convoluted tubule followed by a straight section (proximal straight tubule); the loop of Henle, which has two parts, the descending loop of Henle ("descending loop") and the ascending loop of Henle ("ascending loop"); the distal convoluted tubule ("distal loop"); the connecting tubule, and the collecting ducts. Nephrons have two lengths with different urine concentrating capacities: long juxtamedullary nephrons and short cortical nephrons.
The four mechanisms used to create and process the filtrate (the result of which is to convert blood to urine) are filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion. Filtration occurs in the glomerulus and is largely passive: it is dependent on the intracapillary blood pressure. About one-fifth of the plasma is filtered as the blood passes through the glomerular capillaries; four-fifths continues into the peritubular capillaries. Normally the only components of the blood that are not filtered into Bowman's capsule are blood proteins, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Over 150 liters of fluid enter the glomeruli of an adult every day: 99% of the water in that filtrate is reabsorbed. Reabsorption occurs in the renal tubules and is either passive, due to diffusion, or active, due to pumping against a concentration gradient. Secretion also occurs in the tubules and is active. Substances reabsorbed include: water, sodium chloride, glucose, amino acids, lactate, magnesium, calcium phosphate, uric acid, and bicarbonate. Substances secreted include urea, creatinine, potassium, hydrogen, and uric acid. Some of the hormones which signal the tubules to alter the reabsorption or secretion rate, and thereby maintain homeostasis, include (along with the substance affected) antidiuretic hormone (water), aldosterone (sodium, potassium), parathyroid hormone (calcium, phosphate), atrial natriuretic peptide (sodium) and brain natriuretic peptide (sodium). A countercurrent system in the renal medulla provides the mechanism for generating a hypertonic interstitium, which allows the recovery of solute-free water from within the nephron and returning it to the venous vasculature when appropriate.
Some diseases of the nephron predominantly affect either the glomeruli or the tubules. Glomerular diseases include diabetic nephropathy, glomerulonephritis and IgA nephropathy; renal tubular diseases include acute tubular necrosis and polycystic kidney disease.
Structure
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron is composed of a renal corpuscle, the initial filtering component; and a renal tubule that processes and carries away the filtered fluid.
Renal corpuscle
The renal corpuscle is the site of the filtration of blood plasma. The renal corpuscle consists of the glomerulus, and the glomerular capsule or Bowman's capsule. The renal corpuscle has two poles – a vascular pole and a urinary pole.
The arterioles from the renal circulation enter and leave the glomerulus at the vascular pole. The glomerular filtrate leaves the Bowman's capsule at the renal tubule at the urinary pole.
Glomerulus
The glomerulus is the network known as a tuft, of filtering capillaries located at the vascular pole of the renal corpuscle in Bowman's capsule. Each glomerulus receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation. The glomerular blood pressure provides the driving force for water and solutes to be filtered out of the blood plasma, and into the interior of Bowman's capsule, called Bowman's space.
Only about a fifth of the plasma is filtered in the glomerulus. The rest passes into an efferent arteriole. The diameter of the efferent arteriole is smaller than that of the afferent, and this difference increases the hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus.
Bowman's capsule
The Bowman's capsule, also called the glomerular capsule, surrounds the glomerulus. It is composed of a visceral inner layer formed by specialized cells called podocytes, and a parietal outer layer composed of simple squamous epithelium. Fluids from blood in the glomerulus are filtered through the visceral layer of podocytes, resulting in the glomerular filtrate.
The glomerular filtrate next moves to the renal tubule, where it is further processed to form urine. The different stages of this fluid are collectively known as the tubular fluid.
Renal tubule
The renal tubule is the portion of the nephron containing the tubular fluid filtered through the glomerulus. After passing through the renal tubule, the filtrate continues to the collecting duct system.
The components of the renal tubule are:
- Proximal convoluted tubule (lies in cortex and lined by simple cuboidal epithelium with brush borders which help to increase the area of absorption greatly.)
- Loop of Henle (hair-pin like, i.e. U-shaped, and lies in medulla)
- Descending limb of loop of Henle
- Ascending limb of loop of Henle
- The ascending limb of loop of Henle is divided into 2 segments: Lower end of ascending limb is very thin and is lined by simple squamous epithelium. The distal portion of ascending limb is thick and is lined by simple cuboidal epithelium.
- Thin ascending limb of loop of Henle
- Thick ascending limb of loop of Henle (enters cortex and becomes - distal convoluted tubule.)
- Distal convoluted tubule
- Connecting tubule
Blood from the efferent arteriole, containing everything that was not filtered out in the glomerulus, moves into the peritubular capillaries, tiny blood vessels that surround the loop of Henle and the proximal and distal tubules, where the tubular fluid flows. Substances then reabsorb from the latter back to the blood stream.
The peritubular capillaries then recombine to form an efferent venule, which combines with efferent venules from other nephrons into the renal vein, and rejoins the main bloodstream.
Types by length
Cortical nephrons (the majority of nephrons) start high in the cortex and have a short loop of Henle which does not penetrate deeply into the medulla. Cortical nephrons can be subdivided into superficial cortical nephrons and midcortical nephrons.
Juxtamedullary nephrons start low in the cortex near the medulla and have a long loop of Henle which penetrates deeply into the renal medulla: only they have their loop of Henle surrounded by the vasa recta. These long loops of Henle and their associated vasa recta create a hyperosmolar gradient that allows for the generation of a concentrated urine. Also the hairpin bend penetrates up to the inner zone of medulla.
Juxtamedullary nephrons are found only in birds and mammals, and have a specific location: medullary refers to the renal medulla, while juxta (Latin: near) refers to the relative position of the renal corpuscle of this nephron - near the medulla, but still in the cortex. In other words, a juxtamedullary nephron is a nephron whose renal corpuscle is near the medulla, and whose proximal convoluted tubule and its associated loop of Henle occur deeper in the medulla than the other type of nephron, the cortical nephron.
The juxtamedullary nephron comprises only 20–30% of the nephrons in the human kidney. However, it is this type of nephron which is most often depicted in illustrations of nephrons.
Function
The nephron uses four mechanisms to convert blood into urine: filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion of numerous substances. The structure and function of the epithelial cells lining the lumen change during the course of the nephron, and have segments named by their location and which reflects their different functions.
Proximal convoluted tubule
The proximal tubule as a part of the nephron can be divided into an initial convoluted portion and a following straight (descending) portion. Fluid in the filtrate entering the proximal convoluted tubule is reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries, including approximately two-thirds of the filtered salt and water and all filtered organic solutes (primarily glucose and amino acids).
Loop of Henle
The loop of Henle is a U-shaped tube that extends from the proximal tubule. It consists of a descending limb and an ascending limb. It begins in the cortex, receiving filtrate from the proximal convoluted tubule, extends into the medulla as the descending limb, and then returns to the cortex as the ascending limb to empty into the distal convoluted tubule. The primary role of the loop of Henle is to concentrate the salt in the interstitium, the tissue surrounding the loop.
Considerable differences aid in distinguishing the descending and ascending limbs of the loop of Henle. The descending limb is permeable to water and noticeably less permeable to salt, and thus only indirectly contributes to the concentration of the interstitium. As the filtrate descends deeper into the hypertonic interstitium of the renal medulla, water flows freely out of the descending limb by osmosis until the tonicity of the filtrate and interstitium equilibrate. The hypertonicity of the medulla (and therefore concentration of urine) is determined in part by the size of the loop of Henle.
Unlike the descending limb, the thin ascending limb is impermeable to water, a critical feature of the countercurrent exchange mechanism employed by the loop. The ascending limb actively pumps sodium out of the filtrate, generating the hypertonic interstitium that drives countercurrent exchange. In passing through the ascending limb, the filtrate grows hypotonic since it has lost much of its sodium content. This hypotonic filtrate is passed to the distal convoluted tubule in the renal cortex.
Distal convoluted tubule
The distal convoluted tubule has a different structure and function to that of the proximal convoluted tubule. Cells lining the tubule have numerous mitochondria to produce enough energy (ATP) for active transport to take place. Much of the ion transport taking place in the distal convoluted tubule is regulated by the endocrine system. In the presence of parathyroid hormone, the distal convoluted tubule reabsorbs more calcium and secretes more phosphate. When aldosterone is present, more sodium is reabsorbed and more potassium secreted. Atrial natriuretic peptide causes the distal convoluted tubule to secrete more sodium.
Connecting tubule
This is the final segment of the tubule before it enters the collecting duct system.
Collecting duct system
Each distal convoluted tubule delivers its filtrate to a system of collecting ducts, the first segment of which is the connecting tubule. The collecting duct system begins in the renal cortex and extends deep into the medulla. As the urine travels down the collecting duct system, it passes by the medullary interstitium which has a high sodium concentration as a result of the loop of Henle's countercurrent multiplier system.
Because it has a different origin during the development of the urinary and reproductive organs than the rest of the nephron, the collecting duct is sometimes not considered a part of the nephron. Instead of originating from the metanephrogenic blastema, the collecting duct originates from the ureteric bud.
Though the collecting duct is normally impermeable to water, it becomes permeable in the presence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH affects the function of aquaporins, resulting in the reabsorption of water molecules as it passes through the collecting duct. Aquaporins are membrane proteins that selectively conduct water molecules while preventing the passage of ions and other solutes. As much as three-quarters of the water from urine can be reabsorbed as it leaves the collecting duct by osmosis. Thus the levels of ADH determine whether urine will be concentrated or diluted. An increase in ADH is an indication of dehydration, while water sufficiency results in a decrease in ADH allowing for diluted urine.
Lower portions of the collecting organ are also permeable to urea, allowing some of it to enter the medulla of the kidney, thus maintaining its high concentration (which is very important for the nephron).
Urine leaves the medullary collecting ducts through the renal papillae, emptying into the renal calyces, the renal pelvis, and finally into the urinary bladder via the ureter.
Juxtaglomerular apparatus
The juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) is a specialized region associated with the nephron, but separate from it. It produces and secretes into the circulation the enzyme renin (angiotensinogenase), which cleaves angiotensinogen and results in the ten amino acid substance angiotensin-1 (A-1). A-1 is then converted to angiotensin-2, a potent vasoconstrictor, by removing two amino acids: this is accomplished by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). This sequence of events is referred to as the renin–angiotensin system (RAS) or renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). The JGA is located between the thick ascending limb and the afferent arteriole. It contains three components: the macula densa, juxtaglomerular cells, and extraglomerular mesangial cells.
Clinical significance
Diseases of the nephron predominantly affect either the glomeruli or the tubules. Glomerular diseases include diabetic nephropathy, glomerulonephritis and IgA nephropathy; renal tubular diseases include acute tubular necrosis, renal tubular acidosis, and polycystic kidney disease.
Additional images
- Glomerulus is red; Bowman's capsule is white.
- Kidney tissue
- Glomerulus
- This image shows the types of cells present in the glomerulus part of a kidney nephron. Podocytes, Endothelial cells, and Glomerular mesangial cell are present.
See also
References
- Pocock, Gillian; Richards, Christopher D. (2006). Human physiology : the basis of medicine (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 349. ISBN 978-0-19-856878-0.
- J., Tortora, Gerard (2010). Principles of anatomy and physiology. Derrickson, Bryan. (12th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. p. 1024. ISBN 9780470233474. OCLC 192027371.
- J., Tortora, Gerard (2010). Principles of anatomy and physiology. Derrickson, Bryan. (12th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. p. 1027. ISBN 9780470233474. OCLC 192027371.
- Ecology & Evolutionary Biology - University of Colorado at Boulder. "The Kidney Tubule I: Urine Production." URL: http://www.colorado.edu/eeb/web_resources/cartoons/nephrex1.html. Accessed on: March 6, 2007. Archived October 2, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- Hook, Jerry B. & Goldstein, Robin S. (1993). Toxicology of the Kidney. Raven Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-88167-885-6.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
- Nosek, Thomas M. Essentials of Human Physiology. Section 7/7ch03/7ch03p16
- Jameson, J. Larry & Loscalzo, Joseph (2010). Harrison's Nephrology and Acid-Base Disorders. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-07-166339-7.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
- "Regulation of Urine Concentration". Anatomy & Physiology. CliffsNotes. Archived from the original on 25 October 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2012.
- Walter F. Boron. Medical Physiology: A Cellular And Molecular Approaoch. Elsevier/Saunders. p. 743. ISBN 1-4160-2328-3. | http://medbox.iiab.me/kiwix/wikipedia_en_medicine_2019-12/A/Nephron |
Flashcards in Renal Part II Deck (20)
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1
Distinguish between paracellular and transcellular transport of water and solutes.
2/3 NaCl is transported across the cell via Na/K pumps. 1/3 water is transported via aquaporins in the cell membrane. Small molecules go through paracellularly as well as the other 2/3 water. The water pulls ca2+ and K osmotically.
2
What is secondary active transport?
When Na diffuses across the luminal membrane on co-transporters with H+, HCO3-, K+, Cl-
3
What are aquaporins?
Membrane proteins permeable to water
4
Where in the tubule are water and Na reabsorbed? Where does most of it occur?
Proximal tubule: Na and water reabsorbed (65%)
Thick ascending loop and distal convoluted tubule: Na reabsorbed via ion pumps (10% each)
Collecting tubule and duct: water variably reabsorbed via aquaporins under regulation via ADH (<24%)
Thin descending limb: Water (10%)
5
Describe reabsorption of organic solutes such as glucose.
Organic solutes are cotransported with Na across the luminal side of the cell. Occurs in the proximal convoluted tube. Na actively transports via ATP-ase across the basolateral side. Na concentration gradient pulls in the Na and organic solute. Proteins and peptides are broken down into amino acids and reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tube. Small amount of proteins reabsorbed via pinocytosis.
6
What is transport maximum?
Saturation level for a given solute. Limited by saturation of carrier proteins. In diabetes, excess glucose is excreted in the urine.
7
Where does most of reabsorption of Na and water occur?
Proximal convoluted tube
8
Give a general description of secretion.
While some organic anions and cations and drugs are filtered in the usual way, most organic ions and drugs are protein bound and not filtered. Instead, they must be secreted by peritubular capillaries into the proximal convoluted tube. In peritubular capillaries, blood flow is slow, allowing for more time for dissociation and secretion. Ions are then taken up by proximal tubular cells via secondary active transport. OA- are taken up into the cell against their concentration gradient in exchange for a-ketoglutarate via OAT 1,2,3 antiporters. OAs then go through facilitated diffusion into the tubules via MRP2 and OAT transport proteins.
9
How is secretion of organic ions and drugs maintained? Is it ATP dependent?
Maintained by a constant flow of proteins. Not ATP dependent-- however, need specificity of transporters.
10
What are some examples of endogenous anions?
Urate, hippurates (PAH), bile salts, prostaglandins, hydrozybenzoates, oxalate, fatty acids
(Do not filter nicely. Either they are too big or attached to proteins. Must use transporters)
11
What are some examples of endogenous cations?
Histamine, choline, acetylcholine, dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine
(Neurotransmitters)
12
What are some examples of drugs secreted?
Atropine, chlorothiazide, furosemide, penicillin, saccharin, salicylates, morphine
(Bound to proteins)
13
Why do protein bound waste metabolites need to be secreted?
Either they are too big or attached to proteins and proteins are not filtered. Higher pressure in the glomerus = higher pressure. The pressure drops at the efferent and afferent arterioles and further drops in the peritubular capillaries. As the pressure drops, the flow decreases, allowing for more time for dissociation. This is also why the basal side is invaginated to allow for a greater surface area for secretion.
14
Give a general description of clearance.
Plasma clearance is an abstract concept that measures how well the kidneys are clearing of the blood of certain substances. It is the volume of plasma from which a substance is completely cleared by the kidneys per unit time (usually 24 hours).
15
What are some typical values of clearance?
Phosphate is partially reabsorbed, its clearance lies between inulin and glucose. It's clearance is 14 ml/min. The higher the number = more dumped into the urine. Inulin and creatinine have high numbers while glucose is close to 0. Na is around .9, K is around 12, urea is around 70, inulin is around 125 and creatinine is close to 140.
16
Why are inulin and PAH used to measure GFR and RPF, respectively?
Inulin clearance can help estimate the GFR because it is filtered but neither secreted or reabsorbed. Creatinine is filtered and minimally secreted, so it can also be used to estimate the GFR like inulin. There is a consistent overestimate of 12%, so GFR can be estimated by using a 12% reduction. Glucose is completely reabsorbed, so its clearance is 0.
PAH clearance estimates renal plasma flow. 90% is cleared from the plasma by both filtration and secretion. It estimates the amount of plasma flow into the kidney, not just the amount filtered. Clearance is 585 ml/min. RPF is then 650 ml/min
17
What is inulin?
Inulin is a fructose polysaccharide from the inula plant that is completely cleared from the blood.
18
What is creatinine?
Creatinine is a muscle metabolite. It is filtered and minimally secreted.
19
What is PAH?
Para-aminohippuric acid. It is a carboxylic acid found in the urine of horses and other herbivores. | https://www.brainscape.com/flashcards/renal-part-ii-447969/packs/931108 |
This is the discussion of the results of the anatomy of the urinary system. The report analyses the structure and functions of various organs and cells that are involved in the excretion of toxic material from the body.
Simple cuboidal epithelium of the kidney the
The epithelial cells: are uni-layered, they are square in shape. The nucleus is placed at the centre of theses tissues. They have Squamous cells that are plate like. They appear very thin.
Surface epithelium: have different surface proteins. Facilitate absorption and transportation of filtered materials in the kidney tubes.
Transitional Epithelium of the Bladder
ct = connective tissuelu = lumenrbc = red blood cell (stained bright pink in this slide)
The cells provide transitional capabilities depending on the fill of the bladder. The connections cells connect the outer and the inner part allowing for the stretch and contraction. They expand as excretion continues allowing for more space for storages of urine before it is passed out through the urethra.
Cross-section of the ureter
Connective cells: connects the inner and outer layer of the ureter. Found in the transitional epithelium.
Cross Section of Urethra
Transitional epithelium cells allow for expansion and contraction of the urethra.
Part one
How is the tissue of the kidneys structurally modified to aid in filtration?
Nephrons are adapted to their function in following ways. They have glomerular capillaries with fenestrations. The capillaries allow substances of certain size to pass through. Red blood cells and plasma cells are too big to pass through the fenestrations.
Within the nephron, there is the Bowman’s capsule that has squamous cells and podocytes. It wraps around the fenestrations leaving filtration slits. It is negatively charged and repeals some of the molecules that are negatively charged. The basement membrane also blocks some of the molecules from entering it.
Proximal tubes receive the molecules that go beyond the fenestrations, basement membrane and filtration slits. Amino acids, glucose, and electrolytes are reabsorbed.
The loop of Henle receives molecules from the proximal tubes. Water is reabsorbed at this point.
Distal Tubules and collecting duct; reabsorbs sodium and excretes potassium and hydrogen ions. It has lining cells that allow chloride to pass through back to the system.
What is important functionally about transitional epithelium?
The transitional epithelium allows for expansion and contraction of the bladder depending on the fill.
What is the function of the ureter? How does its structure support this function?
The ureter connects the kidneys and the urinary bladder. It is the passage of the excreted waste from the kidney to the bladder. It is thick walled, has mucous coating on the inside to reduce corrosion, and has smooth muscles. The ureter is such an angle as it enters the bladder such that it cannot allow urine to go back. The outer layer has fibrous connective tissues.
What is the function of the urethra? How does its structure support this function?
The urethra passes out urine from the balder. The inner surface is coated with mucous and has relatively thick smooth muscle tissues that are longitudinal.
Part two
What is the function of the fat that surrounds the kidneys?
The fat surrounding the kidneys serves to cushion the kidneys from damage. The fat acts as insulators to external pressure that cannot be withstood by the surrounding organs.
What is the function of the kidneys?
The kidney serves as part of the homeostasis of the whole body. It regulates acid and bases in body as well as the electrolyte concentration. It also regulates blood pressure. In specific terms, the kidney excretes metabolism products that include the nitrogenous wastes known as urea. The urea is removed from catabolism, uric acid, and nucleic acid. The kidney also helps in the reabsorption of the vital molecules required by the body. These include glucose, water, among others.
The human body is adapted to remove waste in the following ways. The first is exhalation that removes carbon dioxide from the body through the lungs. The skin regulates salt in body and removes wastes from the body through sweating. The skins also remove dead skin. The kidneys also remove urea from the body.
What is a nephron and what does it do?
The nephron refers to one of the components of the kidney. It is located within the kidney. Its main function is to regulate the concentration of the sodium salts and water filtered from the blood. It reabsorbs the vital molecules in the process of filtration of the blood in the kidney. It also excretes and eliminates the waste from the body. It regulates the blood pressure and volume too.
Part three
How is the tissue in the renal pyramids modified to carry out its functions?
The renal pyramids have the following sections that make its tissue adapted to its functions. Connecting tubule that is the most proximal part of the collecting duct adjacent o distal convoluted tubule. It connects adjacent nephrons to form the cortical tubules that join to from collecting ducts. Cortical collecting ducts that receive and filter rom the multiple connecting tubules descending form the medulla forming the medullary collecting ducts. The medullary collecting acts have inner and outer segments. Its main purposes are to reabsorption or secretion of potassium, hydrogen, ion, etc. It has papillary ducts referred to as Bellini that forms the terminal parts of the medullary collecting ducts and empty at the minor calyx.
How is the density of the tissue on the renal cortex related to its function?
The renal cortex receives blood at very high pressure. Therefore, the dense tissues are adopted to withstand the high pressure of blood from the renal artery.
How does the structure of the renal medulla aid in its function?
It is pyramid in shape. Blood in the glomerulus reaches a very high pressure gradient. A large surface area forces the serum of the blood out of the vessel in to the renal tubes then into the proximal tube, loop of Henle and then leaves through the renal duct from the collecting duct. The structure is constructed in such a way that it withstands the high pressure of the blood.
How do the sheep and human organs compare? What are the similarities and differences you observed?
There are basic similarities between the organs of a sheep to that of humans. For example, they both have a mammalian heart, kidney, breathing system, etc. but these are not exactly similar. For example, the colliculus in the sheep’s brain is larger than it is in the humans. This is because the sheep rely more on senses than humans to survive. The valves in the heart of the humans are the same to that of the sheep in both size and structure. | https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/sample-essay-on-urinary-system/ |
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Kidney and Urinalysis Prepared by: Sr. Siti Norhaiza Hadzir
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Functions of the kidney Elimination of excess body water Elimination of waste products of metabolism e.g urea & creatinine Elimination of foreign substances e.g drugs Retention of substances necessary for normal body function e.g protein, amino acids & glucose Regulation of electrolytes balance & osmotic pressure of the body fluids.
3
The Nephron The functional unit of the kidney. Consists of renal corpuscle (glomerulus) & renal tubule. Structure of glomerulus Structure of tubule
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Kidney blood supply Renal artery from aorta → afferent arterioles → efferent arterioles → renal vein → heart
5
Glomerular Filtration Rate Normally this amounts to about 130mL per minute (180 liters per 24 hours).
6
Renal Function Test Falls into 2 major group: i)Detect the presence of disease- not give indication as to the degree of functional impairment e.g proteinuria, cast, hematuria, WBC ii)Evaluate the degree of impairment e.g BUN, creatinine
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Test of Urinary tract involvement Proteinuria Healthy glomerular permeable membrane passes only substances with MW of less than 70 000. Excess small proteins are reabsorbed completely by proximal tubule Albumin is very close to cut off value (70000MW) can get access to the urine in glomerular disease. Proteinuria are classified into 3: Pre-renal - The glomerular membrane damage and tubular reabsorption inefficiency e.g Bence Jones protein in multiple myeloma. Renal - renal parenchyma disease e.g amyloidosis. Postrenal - Urinary tract problem e.g inflammation
8
Figure 1: Normal urine is compared with proteinuria sample. Note increase in turbidity in proteinuria sample
9
Cast Cast are precipitates of protein formed in the distal convoluted and collecting tubules of the kidney, where conditions of filtrate flow and pH are optimal for protein precipitation. Normal condition-hyaline cast in small number Large number indicates active renal disease.
10
Nature of cast It is a muco-protein formed normally by the tubule; it is not formed in plasma. It is long, rod like, flexible molecule. As the glomerular filtrate travels down the nephron tubule, the concentrations of salts & H + ↑. At pH about 4.5, albumin and myoglobin change from negatively to positively charge molecules, the muco- protein is still negatively charge. Opposite electric charge leads to precipitation and the formation of casts.
11
Hematuria & hemoglobinuria Presence indicate bleeding within the urinary tract. In acute glomerulonephritis there is hemorrhage from the glomeruli, Hb is convreted to hematin and methemoglobin. These factors combine to give the “smoky” red brown urine characteristic of the disease.
12
Figure 2: The presence of blood in the urine
13
White Blood Cells An increased number of white blood cells in a correctly collected specimen indicates inflammation in the urinary tract.
14
Test for Degree of Renal Impairment Test based on water elimination and reabsorption Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) Creatinine BUN: Creatinine
15
Test based on water elimination and reabsorption Normally, conservation of water is reflected by concentrated urine with a high specific gravity Excretion of an excess of water is illustrated by urine of low specific gravity
16
Impaired concentrating power Tubular damage e.g chronic glomerulonephritis, polycystic disease Severe potassium depletion Hypercalcemia e.g due to vitamin D intoxication, hyperPTH Inborn defects of tubular function Diabetes insipidus
17
Non-protein nitrogen in blood It is heterogenous collection of substances including urea, creatinine, uric acid, nucleotides, glutathione. Estimation of NPN was replaced by determination of urea and creatinine, more specific indicators of renal condition, easily automated.
18
Blood Urea/BUN Urea is the major excretion product of protein catabolism. After elaboration, urea is passed to the blood and is excreted through the glomeruli and partly reabsorbed in the tubules.
19
Causes of ↑ BUN Pre-renal: Circulation in the kidney is less efficient e.g CCF Renal: Renal parenchyma damage, phylonephritis Post-renal: Obstruction to the urinary tract Presence of high level of urea is called uremia. Very high level of urea leads to azotemia with kidney failure.
20
Creatinine Nitrogenous substances found in muscle. Since creatinine is derived entirely from endogenous metabolism (not form dietary protein) and is not reabsorbed by the renal tubules, its blood level; is a reliable index to renal function.
21
BUN/creatinine ratio Normal ratio is 10:1. Ratio more than 10:1 occur in: Ration less than 10:1 occur in: -Excessive turnover of protein (hemorrhage, burns and infection) - Reduced glomerular perfusion - Repeated dialysis - Severe vomiting or diarrhea - Liver failure
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Routine urinalysis The procedure 1.Urine collection and storage 2.Macroscopic examination - Color - turbidity and clarity (smoky. milky, cloudy) - smell - SG and osmolality
23
ColorPossible cause Straw to amberNormal OrangeConcentrated urine Greenish orangebilirubin SmokyRed blood cells Brown to black on standing Melanin or homogentisic acid Almost colorlessDilute urine
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Urine container Centrifuge tube Pipetting the supernatant
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The procedure: cont; Urine processing - Centrifuge - Separate debris and supernatant - Microscopic examination [cells (epithelium, RBC, WBC, cast, mucus tread, ova and parasites, crystals] - Biochemical analysis (pH, protein, glucose, ketones, bilirubin, blood, nitrite, urobinogen, ascorbic acid)
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Urine dipstick
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Anatomically, there are several components of the collecting duct system, including the connecting tubules, cortical collecting ducts, and medullary collecting ducts.
The collecting duct system is the last component of the kidney to influence the body's electrolyte and fluid balance. In humans, the system accounts for 4-5% of the kidney's reabsorption of sodium and 5% of the kidney's reabsorption of water. At times of extreme dehydration, over 24% of the filtered water may be reabsorbed in the collecting duct system.
The wide variation in water reabsorption levels for the collecting duct system reflects its dependence on hormonal activation. The collecting ducts, particularly the outer medullary and cortical collecting ducts, are largely impermeable to water without the presence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or vasopressin).
connecting tubule With respect to the renal corpuscle, the "connecting tubule" is the most proximal part of the collecting duct system. It is adjacent to the distal convoluted tubule, the most distal segment of the renal tubule. Connecting tubules from several adjacent nephrons merge to form cortical collecting tubules, and these may join to form cortical collecting ducts. Connecting tubules of some juxtamedullary nephrons may arch upward, forming an arcade.
cortical collecting ducts The "cortical collecting ducts" receive filtrate from multiple connecting tubules and descend into the renal medulla to form medullary collecting ducts.
medullary collecting ducts "Medullary collecting ducts" are divided into outer and inner segments, the latter reaching more deeply into the medulla. The variable reabsorption of water and, depending on fluid balances and hormonal influences, the reabsorption or secretion of sodium, potassium, hydrogen and bicarbonate ion continues here.
papillary ducts, also known as duct of Bellini The terminal portions of the medullary collecting ducts are the "papillary ducts", which end at the renal papilla and empty into a minor calyx.
The principal cell mediates the collecting duct's influence on sodium and potassium balance via sodium channels and potassium channels located on the cell's apical membrane. Aldosterone determines if the sodium channels transport ions.
For their contribution to acid-base homeostasis, the intercalated cells play important roles in the kidney's response to acidosis and alkalosis. Damage to the α-intercalated cell's ability to secrete acid can result in distal renal tubular acidosis (RTA type I, classical RTA).
↑ Essentials of Human Physiology by Thomas M. Nosek. Section 7/7ch03/7ch03p19. - "The Nephron: Collecting Duct"
↑ Essentials of Human Physiology by Thomas M. Nosek. Section 7/7ch07/7ch07p17. - "Intercalated Cells"
Histology image: 15803loa – Histology Learning System at Boston University - "Urinary System: kidney, medulla, collecting duct and ascending tubule"
Histology image: 16013loa – Histology Learning System at Boston University - "Urinary System: kidney, H&E, collecting duct and ascending tubule"
This page was last edited 00:03, 9 August 2012 by wikidoc user WikiBot. Based on work by Scott Williams, [email protected], Jacki Buros (bot) and Alexandra Almonacid and wikidoc anonymous user Arakin. | http://es.wikidoc.org/index.php/Collecting_duct_system |
Medicine Notes > Physiology and Pharmacology Notes
This is an extract of our Formation Of Dilute And Concentrated Urine document, which we sell as part of our Physiology and Pharmacology Notes collection written by the top tier of Oxford students.
The following is a more accessble plain text extract of the PDF sample above, taken from our Physiology and Pharmacology Notes. Due to the challenges of extracting text from PDFs, it will have odd formatting:
Formation of dilute and concentrated urine
-Water intake = 2500ml/day, fluid intake, food metabolism, 1000ml/day lost in sweat, faeces at airways, remainder lost in urine
-Abnormally high water intake : DIuresis= water loss? large volume of dilute hypotonic urine, 20L/day, 50mOsm/L
-Abnromally low water intake: Anti-diuresis = water conservation ? small volume of concentrated, hypertonic urine, 0.5L/day, 1200Osm/l
-Switch between the two states in ADH released in hydropenia-acts on the collecting ducts-water reabsorption
-average conditions of water and solute intake- 600mOsmol is dissolved in a daily urine output of 1500ml Proximal tubule
-Default is to produce dilute urine but under prescence of hormones can become more concentrated
-Proximal tubule-reabsorbs 2/3rd of the filtered fluid isomotically-high water permeability Loop of Henle Concentration of urine occurs in Loop of Henle of juxtamedullary nephrons
-Loop of Henle-differential permeabilities to water-acts as a counter current multiplier system- reabsorbs salt in excess of water, creates a hypertonic interstitium in renal medualla, -this generates an osmotic gradient in the collecting ducts, Hypotonic urine enters the collecting duct- Evidence:: Longer the loop the more concentrated the urine The Loop of Henle is known as a countercurrent multiplier because it is able to multiply the transverse gradient of 200mOsm at each point into an axial gradient of about 900mOsm: forms a hyperosmolar itnerstituim that increases from 300mOsm/L in interstitium of outer medulla to as much as 1200 mOsm at renal papilla Starting conditions- isosmotic fluid- 300 mOsm throughout the ascending and descending limbs and in the interstituim a) Step 1-single effect
-Thick ascending limb, impermeable to water, moves NaCl from lumen out to interstitium using combination of transcellular and paracellular mechanisms
DRAW DIAGRAM IN EXAM
-Transcellular: Na+, Cl- taken up through the apical Na/K/Cl cotransporter NKCC2couples the inward movement of 1Na+ , 1K+, 2CL- in electroneutral process driven by downhill concentration gradient of Na (set up Na-K pumps) ad Cl- , ions are exported into blood using Na-K pumps and Cl- channels
-There is no net uptake of K+ channels, as they are transported out of the apical membrane through ROMK channels- 'Renal outer medullary Pottasium channels', also potassium channels on the basolateral membraneBartter Syndrome, the NKCC gene is mutated, which reduces uptake of sodium in TALH- Salt washing, polyuria, hypokalaemia. Secondary aldosteronism due to tubuloglomerular feedback mechanisms (decreased uptake by macular densa cells) This causes expression of aldosterone and leads to hypokalemia, which has many associated symptoms including fatigue and dysrhythmias.
-Paracellular transport: Mg2+, Ca2+
Hyperosmolar interstitium instantaneously equilibriates with lumen of descending limb- due to the high water permeability no permeability to solutes- increase in osmolarity in the tubular fluid of the descending limb
-The reabsorption of NaCl creates a 200mOsm difference between ascending limb and the combination of interstituim and descending limb- osmolaltiy of ascending limb falls to 200mOsm wheras the osmolaltiy of the interstituim and descending limb rise to 400mOsm b) Step 2: Axial shift
-Shift of new isosmotic fluid from the proximal tubule in the cortex into the descending limb pushes the colum of tubules fluid along the loop of Henle- this leads to decrease in osmolaltiy at the top of the descending limb and increase in osmolaltiy at the bottom of the ascending limb
-The high concentration of NaCl in the lumen as the thin ascending loop is due to concentrating of NaCL in the thin descending limb- high water permeability, due to high expression of aquaporins 1, it has low permeability to NaCl, finite urea permeability
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17.1 Regulation of Water Balance
The regulation of body water depends on the dynamic balance between the rates of water movement into and out of the body. The two major mechanisms responsible for water balance are thirst and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulation of urinary water excretion.
– The circulating level of ADH regulates the amount of water reabsorption from distal tubules and collecting ducts into peritubular capillary blood. Therefore, the regulation of renal excretion of water is ultimately determined by factors that influence the rate of synthesis and release of ADH into the blood and its renal action. ADH is a peptide hormone synthesized in specialized hypothalamic neurons and transported within axons to the posterior pituitary, where it is stored until release. Because water gain or deficit significantly affects total solute concentration within body fluids, plasma osmolality is the most important regulator of ADH release (Figs. 16.6, p.169, and 17.1). The amount of ADH released increases with a rise in plasma osmolality via stimulation of hypothalamic osmoreceptors. A decrease in blood volume also stimulates ADH release, because the resulting decrease in atrial pressure relieves the inhibitory effect of atrial baroreceptors on ADH release. ADH binds to V2 receptors on peritubular membranes of epithelial cells of the distal nephron and, via activation of the adenylate cyclase enzyme system, increases the permeability of luminal membranes of the epithelial cells to water.
Fig. 17.1 Regulation of water balance.
(1) Net water losses (hypovolemia) due, for example, to sweating make extracellular fluid (ECF) hypertonic. Osmolality rises of only 1 to 2% are sufficient to increase the secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the posterior pituitary. ADH decreases urinary H2O excretion. Fluid intake from outside the body is also required. The hypertonic cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) stimulates the secretion of (central) angiotensin II (AT II), which triggers hyperosmotic thirst. (2) In water excess, the osmolality of ECF is reduced. This signal inhibits the secretion of ADH, resulting in water diuresis and normalization of plasma osmolality within 1 hour.
– Water intake is regulated through a thirst center located in the hypothalamus. Thirst is also stimulated by both an increase in plasma osmolality and a decrease in extracellular fluid (ECF) volume, thus working in concert with the ADH mechanism to maintain water balance. Angiotensin also stimulates thirst.
17.2 Concentration and Dilution of Urine
The kidneys are able to produce urine that is either more concentrated or more diluted than plasma by altering the amount of water that is reabsorbed via the regulation of ADH (Fig. 17.2).
Production of Concentrated (Hyperosmotic) Urine
Hyperosmotic urine is produced when plasma ADH concentration is high and is facilitated by the corticomedullary osmotic gradient.
Fig. 17.2 Water reabsorption and excretion.
Approximately 65% of the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed at the proximal tubule. The “driving force” is the reabsorption of NaCl. This slightly dilutes the urine in the tubule, but H2O immedi ately follows this small osmotic gradient because the proximal tubule is “leaky.” The reabsorption of H2O can occur through leaky tight junctions or through water channels (aquaporins) in cell membranes. The urine in the proximal tubule therefore remains isotonic. Oncotic pressure in the peritubular capillaries provides an additional driving force for water reabsorption. The more water filtered at the glomerulus, the higher this oncotic pressure. Thus, the reabsorption of water at the proximal tubule is, to a certain extent, adjusted in accordance with the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Because the descending limb of the loop of Henle has aquaporins that make it permeable to water, the urine in it is largely in osmotic balance with the hypertonic interstitium, the content of which becomes increasingly hypertonic as it approaches the papillae. The urine therefore becomes increasingly concentrated as it flows in this direction. In the thin descending limb, which is only sparingly permeable to NaCl, this increases the concentration of Na+ and Cl−. Most water drawn into the interstitium is carried off by the vasa recta. Because the thin and thick ascending limbs of the loop of Henle are largely impermeable to water, Na+ and Cl− passively diffuse (thin limb) and are actively transported (thick limb) out into the interstitium. Because water cannot escape, the urine leaving the loop of Henle is hypotonic. Final adjustment of the excreted urine volume occurs in the collecting duct. In the presence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) via V2 receptors, aquaporins in the luminal membranes are used to extract water from the urine passing through the increasingly hypertonic renal medulla. This results in maximum antidiuresis. The absence of ADH results in water diuresis. (FEH2O, fraction excreted)
Corticomedullary Osmotic Gradient
The corticomedullary osmotic gradient is a gradient of osmolarity from the corticomedullary border (~300 m Osmol/kg H2O) to the inner medulla. The maximum value reached in the papilla varies depending on hydration status, but it may reach 1200 mOsmol/kg H2O in conditions of severe dehydration.
– The gradient is established by NaCl and urea and leads to the reabsorption of water (in the presence of ADH).
Role of NaCl in establishing the corticomedullary gradient. The corticomedullary osmotic gradient is established by the countercurrent multiplication system in the loop of Henle. This is dependent upon the close apposition of the descending and ascending limbs of the loop of Henle in the medulla and the transport characteristics of each limb.
– The descending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to water but poorly permeable to solutes.
– The thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle actively reabsorbs NaCl but is impermeable to water.
These characteristics allow the ascending limb to dilute the tubular fluid and concentrate the medullary interstitium (“single effect”), creating a horizontal osmotic gradient between tubular fluid in the ascending limb and that in the descending limb. This horizontal osmotic gradient is then multiplied vertically along the length of the descending loop of Henle, generating an osmotic gradient within the tubular fluid. The medullary interstitium is equilibrated with the fluid in the descending limb because this nephron segment is highly permeable to water.
Role of urea in establishing the corticomedullary gradient. Urea is the other major solute within the medullary interstitium besides NaCl. Filtered urea undergoes passive net re-absorption into proximal tubule cells (Fig. 17.3). However, urea concentration at the end of the proximal tubule is approximately twice that of plasma due to water reabsorption. Urea is secreted into the tubular lumen in the deep regions of the loop of Henle. Due to the low permeability of the distal tubule and cortical collecting duct to urea, urea concentration in the tubular fluid remains high as the fluid flows through the medullary collecting duct, which is more permeable to urea. Urea diffuses out of the collecting duct, entering the interstitium and vasa recta, as well as reentering the loop of Henle. Therefore, there is a medullary recycling of urea.
– In the presence of ADH, urea constitutes ~40% of papillary osmolality because ADH increases the permeability of medullary collecting ducts to urea as well as to water.
– In the absence of ADH, < 10% of medullary interstitial osmolality is due to urea.
The medullary recycling of urea thus helps establish an osmotic gradient within the medulla with less energy expenditure (urea transport is passive) and enhances water conservation.
Role of the vasa recta in maintaining the corticomedullary osmotic gradient. The vasa recta are hairpin blood vessels in the renal medulla formed from efferent arterioles of juxtamedullary glomeruli in apposition to the loop of Henle and collecting ducts. Like other systemic capillaries, they are permeable to solutes and water. Because of their unique countercurrent arrangement, the vasa recta act as a passive countercurrent exchanger system (Fig. 17.4). As solutes are transported out of the ascending loop of Henle, they diffuse down their concentration gradients into the descending vasa recta. Thus, blood in the descending vasa recta becomes progressively more concentrated as it equilibrates with the corticomedullary osmotic gradient. In the ascending vasa recta, solutes diffuse back into the medullary interstitium and into the descending vasa recta. In this manner, solutes recirculate within the renal medulla, keeping the solute concentration high within the medullary interstitium. The passive equilibrium of blood within each limb of the vasa recta with the preexisting medullary osmotic gradient at each horizontal level helps maintain the medullary osmotic gradient necessary for the production of hyperosmotic urine.
Fig. 17.3 Urea in the kidney.
About 50% of the filtered urea leaves the proximal tubule by diffusion. Much of this reenters the tubule by secretion in the loop of Henle. Because the distal tubule and the cortical and outer medullary sections of the collecting duct are only sparingly permeable to urea, its concentration increases in these parts of the nephron. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) can (via V2 receptors) introduce urea carriers in the luminal membrane, thereby making the inner medullary collecting duct permeable to urea. Urea now diffuses back into the interstitium (where urea is responsible for half of the high osmolality there) and is then transported by carriers back into the descending limb of the loop of Henle, comprising the recirculation of urea. The nonreabsorbed fraction of urea is excreted (FEurea).
Fig. 17.4 Countercurrent systems.
Countercurrent exchange of water in the vasa recta of the renal medulla occurs if the medulla becomes increasingly hypertonic toward the papillae and if the vasa recta become permeable to water. Part of the water diffuses by osmosis from the descending vasa recta to the ascending ones, thereby “bypassing” the inner medulla. Due to the extraction of water, the concentration of all other blood components increases as the blood approaches the papillae. The plasma osmolality in the vasa recta is therefore continuously adjusted to the osmolality of the surrounding interstitium, which rises toward the papillae. Conversely, substances entering the blood in the renal medulla diffuse from the ascending to the descending vasa recta, provided the walls of the vessels are permeable to them. The countercurrent exchange in the vasa recta permits the necessary supply of blood to the renal medulla without significantly altering the high osmolality of the renal medulla and hence impairing the urine concentration capacity of the kidney.
Note: If blood flow is rapid in the vasa recta, the osmotic gradient will decrease. This happens when a person takes on a large water load.
Production of Dilute (Hyposmotic) Urine
Hyposmotic urine is produced when plasma [ADH] is low.
– Isosmotic tubular fluid from the proximal tubule enters the descending limb of the loop of Henle. It becomes progressively more concentrated as it moves toward the bend because fluid in the descending limb equilibrates osmotically with fluid within the medullary interstitium. The concentrated fluid at the bend of the loop then becomes progressively more diluted as it flows through the ascending loop of Henle because NaCl is reabsorbed without water. When there is a very low level of ADH, the permeability of the collecting duct to water is very low. Consequently, no water will be reabsorbed in the distal nephron even though salts continue to be reabsorbed. Therefore, the diluted tubular fluid that emerges from the ascending loop of Henle will remain hyposmotic as it flows through the distal nephron and medullary collecting ducts, producing hyposmotic urine (~100 mOsmol/kg H2O).
17.3 Measurement of Concentrating and Diluting Ability
Free Water Clearance
Free water (solute free water) is produced in the ascending loop of Henle and early distal tubule, where NaCl is reabsorbed without water.
Free water clearance (CH2O) is defined as the amount of pure water that must be subtracted from or added to the urine (per unit of time) to make that urine isosmotic with plasma. It is used as a measure of the ability of the kidneys to concentrate or dilute urine.
– Urine is CH2O positive when there is no ADH and free water is excreted (i.e., the urine has excess water).
– Urine is CH2O negative when ADH is secreted and water is reabsorbed by the late distal nephron and the collecting ducts. The negative CH2O represents the amount of water that would have to be added back to make the urine isosmotic.
Free water clearance is calculated from the following equation:
where is free water clearance (in mL/min), V is urine flow rate (in mL/min), and Cosm is osmolar clearance, which equals V × (urineosm/plasmaosm) (in mL/min).
Example: A patient with a plasma osmolality of 300 mOsmol/kg H2O produces urine at a rate of 1.2 mL/min. The urine osmolality is 450 mOsmol/kg H2O.
Cosm = 1.2 mL/min × [(450 mOsmol/kg H2O)/(300 mOsmol/kg H2O)] = 1.8 mL/min
Note: The negative value indicates that water would have to be added to make the urine isosmotic.
Table 17.1 summarizes the hormones that act on the kidney.
Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus
In nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, the kidney is unresponsive to ADH, and thiazide diuretics cause a paradoxical reduction in the excessive urination (i.e., they decrease polyuria). The mechanism for this effect is uncertain, but it is usually attributed to changes in Na+ excretion. Thiazides inhibit NaCl reabsorption in the early segments of the distal tubule but have little effect in the thick ascending limb, which is involved in concentrating the urine. Although all thiazides share this effect, chlorothiazide is most commonly used to treat this condition. | https://doctorlib.info/physiology/illustrated/21.html |
The kidneys are the principal organs for excreting water-soluble substances. The biliary system contributes to excretion to the degree that drug is not reabsorbed from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Generally, the contribution of intestine, saliva, sweat, breast milk, and lungs to excretion is small, except for exhalation of volatile anesthetics. Excretion via breast milk may affect the breastfeeding infant (see table Some Drugs Contraindicated for Breastfeeding Mothers).
Hepatic metabolism often increases drug polarity and water solubility. The resulting metabolites are then more readily excreted.
(See also Overview of Pharmacokinetics.)
Renal excretion
Renal filtration accounts for most drug excretion. About one fifth of the plasma reaching the glomerulus is filtered through pores in the glomerular endothelium; nearly all water and most electrolytes are passively and actively reabsorbed from the renal tubules back into the circulation. However, polar compounds, which account for most drug metabolites, cannot diffuse back into the circulation and are excreted unless a specific transport mechanism exists for their reabsorption (eg, as for glucose, ascorbic acid, and B vitamins). With aging, renal drug excretion decreases (see table Effect of Aging on Drug Metabolism and Elimination); at age 80, clearance is typically reduced to half of what it was at age 30. Renal drug excretion may also change with various health conditions. In critically ill patients, kidney injury may temporarily decrease renal drug excretion; in contrast, augmented renal clearance (for example, in critically ill patients who may be younger and have intact kidney function) may enhance renal drug excretion, resulting in subtherapeutic plasma concentrations of certain drugs, especially antimicrobials, in both children and adults (for review, see ).
The principles of transmembrane passage govern renal handling of drugs. Drugs bound to plasma proteins remain in the circulation; only unbound drug is contained in the glomerular filtrate. Un-ionized forms of drugs and their metabolites tend to be reabsorbed readily from tubular fluids.
Urine pH, which varies from 4.5 to 8.0, may markedly affect drug reabsorption and excretion because urine pH determines the ionization state of a weak acid or base (see Passive diffusion). Acidification of urine increases reabsorption and decreases excretion of weak acids, and, in contrast, decreases reabsorption of weak bases. Alkalinization of urine has the opposite effect. In some cases of overdose, these principles are used to enhance the excretion of weak bases or acids; eg, urine is alkalinized to enhance excretion of acetylsalicylic acid. The extent to which changes in urinary pH alter the rate of drug elimination depends on the contribution of the renal route to total elimination, the polarity of the un-ionized form, and the molecule’s degree of ionization.
Active tubular secretion in the proximal tubule is important in the elimination of many drugs. This energy-dependent process may be blocked by metabolic inhibitors. When drug concentration is high, secretory transport can reach an upper limit (transport maximum); each substance has a characteristic transport maximum.
Anions and cations are handled by separate transport mechanisms. Normally, the anion secretory system eliminates metabolites conjugated with glycine, sulfate, or glucuronic acid. Anions compete with each other for secretion. This competition can be used therapeutically; eg, probenecid blocks the normally rapid tubular secretion of penicillin, resulting in higher plasma penicillin concentrations for a longer time. In the cation transport system, cations or organic bases (eg, pramipexole, dofetilide) are secreted by the renal tubules; this process can be inhibited by cimetidine, trimethoprim, prochlorperazine, megestrol, or ketoconazole.
Excretion reference
-
1. Bilbao-Meseguer I, Rodríguez-Gascón A, Barrasa H, et al: Augmented renal clearance in critically ill patients: A systematic review. Clin Pharmacokinet 57(9):1107-1121, 2018. doi:10.1007/s40262-018-0636-7
Biliary excretion
Some drugs and their metabolites are extensively excreted in bile. Because they are transported across the biliary epithelium against a concentration gradient, active secretory transport is required. When plasma drug concentrations are high, secretory transport may approach an upper limit (transport maximum). Substances with similar physicochemical properties may compete for excretion.
Drugs with a molecular weight of > 300 g/mol and with both polar and lipophilic groups are more likely to be excreted in bile; smaller molecules are generally excreted only in negligible amounts. Conjugation, particularly with glucuronic acid, facilitates biliary excretion.
In the enterohepatic cycle, a drug secreted in bile is reabsorbed into the circulation from the intestine. Biliary excretion eliminates substances from the body only to the extent that enterohepatic cycling is incomplete—when some of the secreted drug is not reabsorbed from the intestine. | https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-nz/professional/clinical-pharmacology/pharmacokinetics/drug-excretion |
a small tube; especially, a minute canal found in various structures or organs of the body. adj., adj tu´bular.
collecting t's the terminal channels of the nephrons, which open on the summits of the renal pyramids in the renal papillae.
convoluted t's channels that follow a tortuous course; there are convoluted renal tubules and convoluted seminiferous tubules.
dentinal t's the tubular structures of the teeth.
galactophorous t's small channels for the passage of milk from the secreting cells in the mammary gland.
Henle's t's the straight ascending and descending portions of a renal tubule forming Henle's loop.
mesonephric t's the tubules comprising the mesonephros, or temporary kidney, of amniotes.
metanephric t's the tubules comprising the permanent kidney of amniotes.
renal tubule the minute canals composing the substance of the kidney and secreting, collecting and conducting the urine; in the glomerulus they have a basement membrane and epithelial lining.
seminiferous t's the tubules of the testis, in which spermatozoa develop and through which they leave the gland.
uriniferous t's renal tubules; channels for the passage of urine.
/tu·bule/ (too´būl) a small tube.
collecting tubule one of the terminal channels of the nephrons which open on the summits of the renal pyramids in the renal papillae.
dental tubules , dentinal tubules dental canaliculi.
distal convoluted tubule a distal, convoluted part of the ascending limb of the renal tubule, extending from the distal straight tubule to the junctional tubule.
distal straight tubule part of the renal tubule primarily on the ascending limb, extending from the thin tubule to the distal convoluted tubule.
Henle's tubule see under loop.
junctional tubule a short, curved part of the distal end of the renal tubule, extending from the distal convoluted tubule to a collecting duct.
mesonephric tubules those constituting the mesonephros of the embryo of an amniote.
metanephric tubules those constituting the metanephros of an amniote.
pronephric tubules the rudimentary tubules constituting the pronephros of an amniote.
proximal convoluted tubule the most proximal part of the renal tubule, extending from the glomerular capsule to the proximal straight tubule.
proximal straight tubule part of the descending limb of the renal tubule, extending from the proximal convoluted tubule to the thin tubule.
renal tubule the minute reabsorptive canals made up of basement membrane and lined with epithelium, composing the substance of the kidney and secreting, collecting, and conducting the urine; see also nephron.
seminiferous tubules channels in the testis in which the spermatozoa develop and through which they leave the gland, each comprising a convoluted portion and a straight terminal portion.
T tubules the transverse intracellular tubules invaginating from the cell membrane and surrounding the myofibrils of the T system of skeletal and cardiac muscle, serving as a pathway for the spread of electrical excitation within a muscle cell.
thin tubule part of the renal tubule where the walls are especially thin, extending from the proximal straight tubule to the distal straight tubule.
A very small tube or tubular structure.
a small tube, such as one of the collecting tubules in the kidneys, the seminiferous tubules of the testes, or Henle's tubules between the distal and proximal convoluted tubules. tubular, adj.
A small tube or tubular structure.
any small tubular structure; an example is a kidney tubule.
Tissues and cells associated with the structures that connect the renal pelvis to the glomeruli.
n a small tube, such as one of the collecting tubules in the kidneys. The dentin of the tooth contains dentinal tubules that communicate from the pulp to the dentinoenamal interface.
a small tube; a minute canal found in various structures or organs of the body.
the terminal channels of the nephrons which open on the summits of the renal papillae or renal crests.
channels which follow a tortuous course. See also renal tubules (below) and tubuli contorti.
minute channels in the dentine of a tooth that extend from the pulp cavity to the cement or the enamel. Called also dentinal canaliculi.
small channels for the passage of milk from the secreting cells in the mammary gland. Called also lactiferous ducts.
the tubules comprising the mesonephros, or temporary kidney, of amniotes.
the tubules comprising the permanent kidney of amniotes.
intrarenal site for the reabsorption of most of the protein in the tubular fluid.
the portion of the nephron immediately succeeding the glomerulus; susceptible to disease because of its early exposure to toxins in the glomerular filtrate.
the minute canals made up of basement membrane and lined with epithelium, composing the substance of the kidney and secreting, reabsorbing, collecting and conducting the urine. Include proximal convoluted, the nephron loop (containing the proximal straight tubule, descending and ascending thin, and the distal straight tubules) and the distal convoluted tubules.
the tubules of the testis, in which spermatozoa develop and through which they leave the gland.
renal tubules; channels for the passage of urine.
The interstitial tissue was found in the spaces between the adjacent seminiferous tubules.
During the current investigation, the histological examination of testis showed no statistically significant difference in the mean diameters of the seminiferous tubules among various groups.
Common procedures used to decrease dentinal hypersensitivity are the use of desensitizing agent that occlude or desensitize tubules.
Selective SGLT-2 inhibitors reduce renal glucose reabsorption by inhibiting SGLT-2 in the kidney, thus reducing the maximum glucose transport capacity in the proximal renal tubule and increasing renal glucose excretion.
Grier and Taylor (1998) created a classification of five classes, such as the ones that were described in this study: regressed (Class I) distribution of abundant spermatogonia cysts in the tubules; early maturation (Class II) beginning of spermatogenesis, cysts in a greater number and sizes; mid maturation (Class III) testis with non-synchronous spermatogenesis, distal tubules with maximum spermatogenic activity and main tubule with greater spermiation; late maturation (Class IV) abundant spermatozoa in the lumen, maximum spermiation activity and reduction of spermatogenesis; regression (Class V) empty tubular lumen and quick regeneration of germinal epithelium.
Whereas seminiferous tubule diameter was lower in hinny than both of the stallion and Jack donkey, which resulted in the mean seminiferous tubule cross-sectional area being lower in the hinny than either in the stallion or Jack donkey.
Only round tubules of perfectly clear transverse section were measured for diameter of seminiferous tubules.
The objectives of this study was to identify and measure the effect of cypermethrin, at similar concentration observed in areas of high exposure to these agropesticidas, on the morphometry and cellular activity in the seminiferous tubules of the testis of Dugesia gonocephala, an aquatic species from the Chilean Altiplano.
The histological sections of testes were observed under light microscope, and interpreted on the basis of diameter of seminiferous tubules both during breeding and non-breeding seasons, as well as their epithelial cell heights from initial, middle and terminal segments using stage and ocular micrometers.
2 Photomicrographs show a tumour composed of variably sized tubules (a: Hematoxylin and eosin stain [H&E] x100) and cystic spaces (b: H&E x100) that are separated by thin, hypocellular fibrovascular septae (c: H&E x200), with the lining epithelium showing tombstone appearance focally (d: H&E x200); the tubules are lined by atypical cuboidal to pseudostratified ciliated columnar cells (arrow) with abundant eosinophilic cytoplasm (e: H&E x400), large round to ovoid nuclei with prominent nucleoli (f: H&E x400) and hobnail appearance (g: H&E x600); solid areas show smaller tubules lined by similar atypical cells in a sclerotic stroma (h: H&E x200; i: H&E x400).
Mucus coating may also assist the fish in resisting the sticky substances emitted by the Cuvierian tubules (Trott, 1970).
2]), TuL = tubule length (mm), TuW = tubule width (mm), WT = wall thickness (mm), LS = length of septa (mm), Ta5 = number of tabulae in 5 mm TaL TaW TaA TuL Minimum value 1. | http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/tubule |
Name:
_______________________________________________
_____ 1. Choose
the correct statement
A. The left kidney is lower in the abdomen than the
right
B. The right kidney is lower in the abdomen than the
left
C. The kidneys are located supratentorially
D. The kidneys are not in the abdomen
E. The kidney receives less blood flow than the brain
_____ 2. You are
in a severe car wreck and damage your renal hilum. How does this affect renal
functioning?
A. Arterial flow is reduced, but not venous
B. Venous blood flow is reduced but not arterial
C. All functions are affected
D. Ureter is affected, but not arterial of venous
_____ 3. Which one
of these is NOT a function of the kidneys
A. Control the life expectancy of RBC’s & WBC’s
B. Regulate plasma ion concentration
C. pH
D. Blood volume and blood pressure
_____ 4. Which
item is seldom freely found in filtrate?
A. Water
B. Glucose
C. Large proteins
D. Amino acids
_____ 5. How does
the osmolality of the kidneys change with location?
A. It gets more concentrated as you go from the
outside to the center
B. It gets more concentrated as you go from the center
to the outside
C. Maximum concentration is in the afferent arteriole
D. pH remains the same throughout the structures
_____ 6. Which one
of these is/are not part of the tubule system?
A. Glomerulus
B. Collection duct
C. Loop pf Henle
D. PCT & DCT
_____ 7. You are
born with a genetic abnormality: a reduced number of microvilli in the PCT. How
is absorption affected?
A. Slows down the flow of filtrate
B. Slow down the production of filtrate
C. Slow down the absorption of filtrate
D. Will cause crowding for all the extra mitochondria
that are present
_____ 8. You have
a bleeding ulcer that breaks a big gastric blood vessel and drops your blood
pressure. What does this do to GFR?
A. Increases
B. Decreases
C. No effect
D. What is GFR
_____ 9. The
juxtaglomerular complex is the source for which of these compounds?
A. Aldosterone
B. Renin
C. Angiotensinogen
D. Cortisol
E. A, B & C
_____ 10. Water
always follows sodium EXCEPT in the:
A. Cell membranes
B. Nuclear membranes
C. Collection ducts
D. Peritubular capillaries
_____ 11. One of
these is NOT the function of the renal tubules. Choose which one.
A. Reabsorb organic nutrients
B. Reabsorb water
C. Secrete unwanted waste products
D. Maintain elevated intraglomerular blood pressure
_____ 12. Erythropoietin
is released from the kidneys by the:
A. Macula Densa
B. Peripheral tubule
C. Vasa Recta
D. Pyelonephrotic junction junction
_____ 13. Define
osmolality:
A. The directional movement of water
B. The ratio of sodium to potassium ions
C. How many compounds and ions are dissolved in how
much water
D. The final deciding factor in an action potential
propagation
_____ 14. When the
renal threshold of a substance exceeds its tubular maximum:
A. More of the substance will be filtered
B. More of the substance will be reabsorbed
C. More of the substance will be secreted
D. The amount of the substance that exceeds the
tubular maximum will be found in the urine
E. Both A & D occur
_____ 15. You are
drinking a lot of water while you do this test. Your urine will have what
specific gravity?
A. 1.003
B. 1.030
C. 1.025
D. Cloudy
_____ 16. The
largest amount of water in the body is located where?
A. Intracellularly
B. Interstitially
C. Extracellularly
D. Interposotional
_____ 17. The main
extracellular anion is:
A. Na
B. K
C. Cl
D. HPO4
_____ 18. The main
intracellular cation is:
A. Na
B. K
C. Cl
D. HPO4
_____ 19. What is
the difference between osmosis and diffusion?
A. Diffusion refers only to the movement of water
molecules
B. Osmosis is the facilitated transport by ATP powered
ion pump channels
C. Osmosis refers only to the movement of water
molecules
D. Diffusion is the movement of solutes from an area
of low concentration to high concentration
_____ 20. You are
trapped in a lifeboat at sea with no water. You’re A&P professor said don’t
drink sea water. Why?
A. Your blood becomes hypotonic, causing water to come
out of your cells
B. Your blood becomes hypertonic, causing water to
come out of your cells
C. Your blood becomes hypotonic, causing water to go
into your cells
D. Your blood becomes hypertonic, causing water to go
into your cells
_____ 21. The main
organ that ultimately controls pH of the body is the:
A. Lungs
B. Lymphatic system
C. Kidney
D. Heart
_____ 22. Sodium
reabsorption in the DCT and the cortical portion of the collection system is
increased by secretion of:
A. ADH
B. Renin
C. Erythropoietin
D. Aldosterone
_____ 23. Neurohypophyseal
secretion of ADH makes:
A. The amount of water reabsorbed increase
B. The collection system becomes impermeable to water
C. Action of mitochondria and ATP production increases
D. Sodium ions are exchanged for potassium
_____ 24. Plasma
membranes are selectively permeable. This means what?
A. Osmosis is a major factor
B. Ions can only pass through after the supply of ATP
is depleted
C. They can control what ions are allowed to pass
through
D. You need to stay away from high concentrations of
radiation
_____ 25. Changes
in solute concentration in a cell make what happen?
A. Water can go into a cell
B. Water can go out of a cell
C. Ions can go into a cell
D. Ions can go out of a cell
E. All are possible
_____ 26. Changes
in fluid composition in the body first happen where
A. Right atrium
B. ECF
C. ICF
D. Interstitially
_____ 27. You have
a bad reaction to a drug and destroy both your kidneys. How does this affect
your aldosterone control of sodium?
A. Not at all since aldosterone comes from your
adrenal glands
B. It causes your lungs to produce more
angiotensinogen
C. Quite a bit because it means you no longer can make
renin
D. Not much, but it makes your potassium levels become
the driving factor in respiration
_____ 28. Your
brain is producing small amounts of ADH. What values are your urine specific
gravity, volume and concentration?
A. High, low, high
B. High, Low, Low
C. High, High, Low
D. Low, High, Low
_____ 29. Choose
the true statement:
A. If daily gains of water are less that daily loss,
you will become hypotonic
B. If daily gains of water are greater than daily
loss, you will become hypotonic
C. Glucose follows salt
D. Glucose follows water
_____ 30. What is
the renal Transport Maximum for a drug to treat the Stage Four Butt cancer you
developed taking this test?
A. Varies on if the drug was given orally or as an
injection
B. It would be high since this compound is not
supposed to be in filtrate
C. There is not a value since this compound does not
normally appear in your body
D. Depends on whether or not you have insurance
_____ 31. How do
your afferent & efferent arterioles respond to low blood pressure?
A. Both dilate
B. Both constrict
C. Afferent constricts and efferent dilates
D. Efferent constricts and afferent dilates
_____ 32. The renal corpuscle is made of :
A. Macula densa & mesangial cells
B. Glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule
C. PCT, Loop of Henle and DCT
D. Afferent & efferent arteriole
_____ 33. You are
on Spring Break you volunteer in a 3rd world country and get cholera.
How do your kidneys respond?
A. You are volume depleted from fluid loss, so it
signals the heart to beat slower
B. You are volume and sodium depleted from diarrhea,
so they release more renin
C. You have a metabolic acidosis from losing acid from
vomiting, so they try to lose a bicarbonate ion
D. You have a metabolic alkalosis from losing acids
from vomiting, so they try to reclaim extra acid ions
_____ 34. What
effect would drinking a pitcher of Sports drink (like Gatorade) have on ADH
levels?
A. Increase
B. Decrease
C. No effect
_____ 35. Which is
more dangerous and why: problems in sodium or potassium balance?
A. Sodium because it can cause swelling
B. Sodium because it can cause dehydration
C. Potassium because it can affect the heart and
nerves
D. Potassium because it can affect thyroid hormones
TRUE / /
FALSE ( A = TRUE B = FALSE)
_____ 36. The goal
of urine production is to maintain homeostasis
_____ 37. The kidneys
will secrete the fat soluble compounds the liver cannot manage
_____ 38. Urine
will become filtrate.
_____ 39. The cortical
nephrons extend their Loops of Henle deep into the medulla.
_____ 40. Composition
of the filtrate changes constantly throughout the tubules
_____ 41. The
kidneys can function adequately with extremely high pressure conditions
_____ 42. In a
healthy person, your body can go for hours without making any urine.
_____ 43. Dietary
gains of water and electrolytes must equal daily loses
_____ 44. Osmotic
gradients of sodium, potassium or chloride have little effect on the movement of
water
_____ 45. Kidneys
do not have autonomic innervation
_____ 46. There is
a daily loss of fluid from the body due to skin and lungs
_____ 47. Camel
humps are made of fat and are a good source of metabolic water production
_____ 48. Cells
lining the PCT have minimal number of mitochondria because of the free flow of
water
_____ 49. The Aquaporins
are cells that line the PCT and affect water retention. | https://cheggwriters.com/kidney-and-fluidselectrolyte-on-anatomy-and-physiology-2402-ch26-27/ |
| To assess the effect of thiazides on the transporters participating in the passive and active calcium reabsorption under severe hypercalciuric condition, the expression of NHE3 and SGLT1 on the PT, NKCC2 on the TAL, and TRPV5 and calbindin-D28K on the DCT was analyzed.
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|To examine some of their functional properties, full-length cDNAs for two of these isoforms, rat NHE-1 and NHE-3, were stably transfected in Na/H exchanger-deficient Chinese hamster ovary cells (AP-1) and assayed for transport activity by measuring amiloride-inhibitable H(+)-activated 22Na+ influx.|
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|In contrast immunoperoxidase microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy demonstrated that NHE3 immunolabeling in the brush border of the proximal tubules was markedly enhanced in AngII-treated rats, suggesting that high plasma AngII levels may contribute to an enhanced renal Na+ and HCO3- reabsorption in kidney tubules by increasing the abundance of NHE3 and BSC-1 in mTAL cells as well as increasing NHE3 expression in the proximal tubule brush border.|
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|Heterologous expression and functional properties of amiloride high affinity (NHE-1) and low affinity (NHE-3) isoforms of the rat Na/H exchanger.|
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| In conclusion, 1) candesartan treatment in an early phase of CRF is associated with decreased renal hypertrophy and increased BUN level; 2) decreased AQP2 level in CRF is likely to play a role in the decreased urine concentration, and the downregulation is not altered in response to candesartan treatment; 3) candesartan treatment decreases NHE3 and TSC expression; and 4) an increase of BSC-1 is prominent in candesartan-treated CRF rats, which could be associated with the increased delivery of sodium and water to the thick ascending limb.
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|In contrast, the expression of NHE3 (25%) and TSC (27%) was decreased in CRF-C, whereas no changes were observed in CRF-V.|
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|We have previously demonstrated that chronic infusion of supraphysiological doses of AngII in normal rats was associated with significantly increased abundance and apical expression level of the Na-H exchanger NHE3 and Na-K-2Cl cotransporter BSC-1 in medullary thick ascending limbs (mTAL), whereas Na,K-ATPase and electroneutral Na-HCO3 cotransporter (NBCn1) levels remained unchanged (10).|
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| Expression of NHE3, SGLT1, and NKCC2 mRNA was significantly decreased in the high Ca-vitamin D group, which increased when HCTZ was administered. mRNA expression results are summarized in Table 3.
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General Comments
This test has worked. | http://gnteam.cs.manchester.ac.uk/demos/wiki-pain/vhosts/wikipaints/mediawiki-1.19.1/index.php/INT59655 |
explain the basic anatomy of the kidney 2 kidneys L & R, surrounded by a connective tissue capsule, the external region is referred to as the cortex the internal region is referred to as the medulla that is segmented into renal pyramids.
what is the role of the proximal convoluted tubule where filtered salt and water are reabsorbed. tubular reabsorption.
what is the role of the distal convoluted tubule to make adjustments of extracellular sodium levels. controls sodium balance through the exchange of sodium and potassium.
explain the process of tubular reabsorption sodium is transported into the tubule cell from the filtrate, and co transports by glucose, amino acids, ions, vit. sodium then gets pumped out of the cell in exchange for potassium. the sodium is picked up by the peritublue capillary. where ever sodium goes so does water as well. chlorine is also absorbed along with some urea and fat soluble substances.
how is Anti diuretic hormone released osmoreceptors from hypothalamus monitor osmotic pressure. when omostic pressure increases due to the decrease in H2O/dehydration, neurones in hypo. produce ADH and it is released from the poster pituitary.
explain the molecular means of the counter current multiplier system CCMS creates a osmotic gradient through opposite directional flow in the ALH,DLH and the multiplication of osmolarity towards the apex of the medulla. this is cripple for the formation of urine-but not formed here. molecularly NA+Cl and K+ are pumped out of the ALH to causes an osmotic gradient in the ISF; further cause H2O to pump out as well. as H2O is pumped out the filtrate becomes hypertonic (more dilute). filtrate is most concentrated at apex as this is where osmolarity is greatest.
what is the function of Antiduretic hormone to increase reabsorption of h20 in the descending convoluted tubules by opening channels in the cells. this is done by ADH binding to cell receptors to create more aquaporins for the H20, and creating sensation of thirst to replace lost H2O.
explain the renin-angiotensin system for sodium balance blood vessels in liver have an inactive protein called angiotensinogen circulating -> kidney releases renin to convert into angiotensin 1 -> lungs release ACE to convert to angiotensin 2 -> A2 stimulates adrenal cortex to create aldosterone that acts on kidney to increase sodium and water uptake and also creates arteriole vasoconstriction to increase blood pressure to increase sodium and water uptake in the kidney as well.
what are the two major roles of the kidney elimination of waste products by filtering the blood and expelling the waste through urine. waste consists of drugs, pesticides, food additives, metabolic waste such as ammonia, potassium, hydrogen ions. and reabsorption of nutrients and water. the body recycles water as a survival mechanism. | https://chloedraws.com/flashcards/9renal-physiology-week-9-lsb258 |
Two ships sailed from Venice - a cargo speed of 10 knots and a ferry speed of 18 knots. At what time will the ferry catch up with the cargo ship if it sailed 10 hours later?
Correct answer:
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There are many ways to find how far is Mumbai from Vadodara, the distance calculated in kilometers and miles by Haversine formula - distance between coordinates: 19.095509 / 72.874970 and 22.329077 / 73.215700.
When planning a trip on your own, you want to know how many hours it would take to get to your destination and find the shortest way between your current location and the target point. Our service is designed to deliver fast and accurate information on how far Mumbai (IN) from Vadodara (IN) is for you to make a sound decision as to the best transportation mode and other details of your journey.
The distance from Mumbai to Vadodara amounts to 361 km / 225 mil. It is calculated as an air miles distance since this is the fastest and most direct path between two points. However, it is not exactly a straight line because the trigonometric formula used in the calculations takes into account the curvature of the Earth’s surface. We have factored in the actual sites occupied by the cities and figured the distance by taking coordinates from 19.095509 / 72.874970 and coordinates to 22.329077 / 73.215700.
The flight time of 0 hours, 25 minutes is calculated based on the average speed of modern commercial aircraft. However, you are not limited to traveling from Mumbai (IN) to Vadodara (IN) by plane and can estimate your drive time and backward distance if you opt for traveling by car. Also, note the time zones of the cities, which are Asia/Kolkata / Asia/Kolkata.
Reverse direction from Vadodara to Mumbai.
|Depart from||Mumbai (IN)|
|Arrives in||Vadodara (IN)|
|Mumbai to Vadodara distance||361 km / 225 mil|
|Avg car duration||4 hours, 0 minutes (90 km/h)|
|Avg bus duration||6 hours, 1 minute (60 km/h)|
|Avg train duration||3 hours, 36 minutes (100 km/h)|
|Avg flight duration||0 hours, 24 minutes (900 km/h)|
* Estimated time when driving in a straight line at the same speed. | https://distancem.com/cities/from-mumbai-in-to-vadodara-in |
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One employee leaves with two briefcases every day and returns on the 4th day. These two briefcases won't be available till the 05th day as the departing employee leaves before the briefcases arrive back and are adequately cleaned. How many briefcases are
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Before Christmas, Eva bought two cylindrical candles - red and green. Red was 1 cm longer than green. She lit a red candle on Christmas Day at 5:30 PM, lit a green candle at 7:00 PM, and left them on fire until it burned. At 9:30 PM, both candles were the
- Timetable 20313
The train ran the distance between stations at a speed of 90km / h in 4 hours. What speed can it take if, according to the new timetable, the journey takes an hour longer?
- The tourist
The tourist wanted to walk the route 16 km at a specific time. He, therefore, came out at the necessary constant speed. However, after a 4 km walk, he fell unplanned into the lake, where he almost drowned. It took him 20 minutes to get to the shore and re
- Fast tourists
If three tourists pass the route in 5 hours, how long will the same route take six equally fast tourists?
- Water current
John swims upstream. After a while, he passes the bottle, and from that moment, he floats for 20 minutes in the same direction. He then turns around and swims back, and from the first meeting with the bottle, he sails 2 kilometers before he reaches the bo
- Rotaty motion
What minimum speed and frequency do we need to rotate with the water can in a vertical plane along a circle with a radius of 70 cm to prevent water from spilling?
- Distance 11711
The observer sits in a room 2 m from a 50 cm wide window. A road runs parallel at a distance of 500 m. What is the cyclist's average speed on this road when the observer sees him at 15 s?
- Pozdechodim 11611
Mr. Pozdechodim was hit by a bus at 10.05. V10.10 drove around Jindra. The bus runs at an average speed of 60km / h, and Jindra at 80km / h. The bus still 20 km away is 1 km away.
- The escalator
I run up the escalator at a constant speed in the stairs' direction and write down the number of steps A we climbed. Then we turned around, ran it at the same constant speed in the opposite direction, and wrote down the number of steps B that I climbed. I
- The tourist
The tourist traveled 78km in 3 hours. Part of the journey went on foot at 6km/h, the rest of the trip by bus at 30km/h. How long did he walk?
- Long bridge
Roman walked on the bridge. When he heard the whistle, he turned and saw Kamil running at the beginning of the bridge. They would meet in the middle of the bridge if he went to him. Roman rushed and did not want to waste time returning 150m. He continued
- Uphill and downhill
The cyclist moves uphill at a constant speed of v1 = 10 km/h. When he reaches the top of the hill, he turns and passes the same track downhill at a speed of v2 = 40 km/h. What is the average speed of a cyclist?
- Kilometers 7631
At 8:00, Peter set out on a hike at 5 km / h. At 9:12, Michal followed him on a bike at a speed of 20 km / h. At what time did Michal Petra run, and how many kilometers did he cover?
- Two cities
The car goes from city A to city B at an average speed of 70 km/h and back at an average speed of 50 km/h. If it goes to B and back at an average speed of 60 km/h, the whole ride will take 8 minutes less. What is the distance between cities A and B?
- Two trains
Through the bridge, long l = 240m, the train passes through the constant speed at time t1 = 21s. A train running along the traffic lights at the edge of the bridge passes the same speed at t2 = 9s. a) What speed v did the train go? b) How long did a train
Reason - practice problems. Motion problems - practice problems. | https://www.hackmath.net/en/word-math-problems/reason?tag_id=143 |
Speed Time and Distance MCQ Questions and Answers on ArithmeticHome | Arithmetic Ability | Speed Time And Distance
Speed Time and Distance MCQ Questions and Answers on Arithmetic Ability: here learn Speed Time and Distance objective questions and answers on arithmetic ability and you can also download study material pdf.
1) Two buses start from a bus terminal with a speed of 20 km/h at interval of 10 minutes. What is the speed of a man coming from the opposite direction towards the bus terminal if he meets the buses at interval of 8 minutes?
2) Waking 3/4 of his normal speed, Rabi is 16 minutes late in reaching his office. The usual time taken by him to cover the distance between his home and office:
3) Two trains for Mumbai leave Delhi at 6 am and 6.45 am and travel at 100 kmph and 136 kmph respectively. How many kilometers from Delhi will the two trains be together:
4) A man takes 6 hours 15 minutes in walking a distance and riding back to starting place. He could walk both ways in 7 hours 45 minutes. The time taken by him to ride back both ways is:
5) A man completes a certain journey by a car. If he covered 30% of the distance at the speed of 20kmph. 60% of the distance at 40km/h and the remaining of the distance at 10 kmph, his average speed is:
6) From two places, 60 km apart, A and B start towards each other at the same time and meet each other after 6 hour. If A traveled with 2/3 of his speed and B traveled with double of his speed, they would have met after 5 hours. The speed of A is:
7) A, B and C start together from the same place to walk round a circular path of length 12km. A walks at the rate of 4 km/h, B 3 km/h and C 3/2 km/h. They will meet together at the starting place at the end of:
8) Ravi and Ajay start simultaneously from a place A towards B 60 km apart. Ravi's speed is 4km/h less than that of Ajay. Ajay, after reaching B, turns back and meets Ravi at a places 12 km away from B. Ravi's speed is:
9) The speed of A and B are in the ratio 3:4. A takes 20 minutes more than B to reach a destination. Time in which A reach the destination? | https://study2online.com/arithmetic-ability/speed-time-and-distance/1.html |
If you travel from Malta to Bahamas by plane, your trip will be over in 9 hours, 29 minutes.
You can also cover the distance of 5312 miles (8548 km) between MT and BS in other convenient ways: by bus, personal car, train or ship.
You can figure out how many hours the journey from Malta to Bahamas will take by choosing a transport type and adding an expected number of stops.
|Depart from||Malta (MT)|
|Arrives in||Bahamas (BS)|
|Malta to Bahamas distance||8548 km / 5312 mil|
|Avg car duration||94 hours, 58 minutes (90 km/h)|
|Avg bus duration||142 hours, 28 minutes (60 km/h)|
|Avg train duration||85 hours, 29 minutes (100 km/h)|
|Avg flight duration||9 hours, 29 minutes (900 km/h)|
* Estimated time when driving in a straight line at the same speed.
|Name||IATA||ICAO||Size|
|Rock Sound Airport||RSD||MYER||M|
|Lynden Pindling International Airport||NAS||MYNN||L|
|Grand Bahama International Airport||FPO||MYGF||M|
|Exuma International Airport||GGT||MYEF||M|
|North Eleuthera Airport||ELH||MYEH||M|
There are many ways to find how far is Malta from Bahamas, the distance calculated in kilometers and miles by Haversine formula - distance between coordinates: 35.944017 / 14.379524 (MT) and 24.087747 / -76.593508 (BS).
Find out the distance from Malta to Bahamas using our online calculator to plan your trip with maximum comfort, understanding the MT to BS distance is also helpful for choosing the most suitable mode of transport.
To learn an answer to the question "How far is Malta from Bahamas?", enter the countries names or opt for our list of cities for each destination. Geographically, your departure coordinates are 35.944017 / 14.379524 while you arrive at 24.087747 / -76.593508. The calculator shows the shortest distance between MT and BS and illustrates the route as a straight line on the map.
So, how far is it from Malta to Bahamas? The distance is 8548 km / 5312 mil, and it displays remoteness based on the haversine formula, which factors in the spherical shape of the Earth for more precise results.
Also, the service will show you how many hours from Malta to Bahamas by air, car and other modes of transport according to the average speed of each transportation type. For example, the flight time is 10 hours, 10 minutes while the IATA country codes are (MT to BS).
Reverse direction from Bahamas to Malta. | https://distancem.com/countries/from-malta-to-bahamas |
There are many ways to find how far is Uganda from Rwanda, the distance calculated in kilometers and miles by Haversine formula - distance between coordinates: 1.370730 / 32.303241 (UG) and -1.943706 / 29.880578 (RW).
Find out the distance from Uganda to Rwanda using our online calculator to plan your trip with maximum comfort, understanding the UG to RW distance is also helpful for choosing the most suitable mode of transport.
To learn an answer to the question "How far is Uganda from Rwanda?", enter the countries names or opt for our list of cities for each destination. Geographically, your departure coordinates are 1.370730 / 32.303241 while you arrive at -1.943706 / 29.880578. The calculator shows the shortest distance between UG and RW and illustrates the route as a straight line on the map.
So, how far is it from Uganda to Rwanda? The distance is 456 km / 284 mil, and it displays remoteness based on the haversine formula, which factors in the spherical shape of the Earth for more precise results.
Also, the service will show you how many hours from Uganda to Rwanda by air, car and other modes of transport according to the average speed of each transportation type. For example, the flight time is 0 hours, 32 minutes while the IATA country codes are (UG to RW).
Reverse direction from Rwanda to Uganda.
|Depart from||Uganda (UG)|
|Arrives in||Rwanda (RW)|
|Uganda to Rwanda distance||456 km / 284 mil|
|Avg car duration||5 hours, 4 minutes (90 km/h)|
|Avg bus duration||7 hours, 36 minutes (60 km/h)|
|Avg train duration||4 hours, 33 minutes (100 km/h)|
|Avg flight duration||0 hours, 30 minutes (900 km/h)|
* Estimated time when driving in a straight line at the same speed. | https://distancem.com/countries/from-uganda-to-rwanda |
There are many ways to find how far is Ostrava from Fortaleza, the distance calculated in kilometers and miles by Haversine formula - distance between coordinates: 49.841272 / 18.290248 and -3.779073 / -38.540836.
Use our service to calculate the Ostrava to Fortaleza distance in order to choose an appropriate type of transport and reserve the necessary amount of time for the journey.
If you want to know an answer to the question "How far is Ostrava from Fortaleza?", enter the names of the cities in the online calculator and view the route on the map, the remoteness is calculated as a distance in air miles, which is the fastest way.
It is also important to understand how many hours it will take to get from Ostrava to Fortaleza by air. We quote the flight time, which is 9 hours, 35 minutes, based on the average speed of aircraft, and you can also find out an average trip duration by other modes of transport.
In addition to the shortest distance, which is 8055 km / 5005 mil, you will learn that your departure coordinates are 49.841272 / 18.290248 while the arrival coordinates are -3.779073 / -38.540836.
Please also note that Ostrava is in the Europe/Prague time zone and Fortaleza is located in the America/Fortaleza time zone, so you need to take the time difference into account when planning your trip.
Reverse direction from Fortaleza to Ostrava.
|Depart from||Ostrava (CZ)|
|Arrives in||Fortaleza (BR)|
|Ostrava to Fortaleza distance||8055 km / 5005 mil|
|Avg car duration||89 hours, 30 minutes (90 km/h)|
|Avg bus duration||134 hours, 15 minutes (60 km/h)|
|Avg train duration||80 hours, 33 minutes (100 km/h)|
|Avg flight duration||8 hours, 57 minutes (900 km/h)|
* Estimated time when driving in a straight line at the same speed. | https://distancem.com/cities/from-ostrava-cz-to-fortaleza-br |
Would you like to see Ancient Greek and/or other dead languages on Duolingo?
With Latin coming very soon to Duolingo, I would like to hear people's opinions on adding more dead/extinct languages in the future. Do you think it's a good idea? Why or why not? Are you interested in learning some dead language yourself? Which one? What's your motivation?
Personally, I am interested in Latin and Ancient Greek. I actually tried to self-study each of them over a decade ago, when I was still a teenager. Unfortunately, I gave up very soon (just about after the first 5-10 chapters of the textbook, I had no persistence back then) but I regret it and they both remain high on my language list. So I am glad Latin is coming to Duolingo and I hope for Ancient Greek to be added in the future (yes, I know it's not coming anytime soon). And yes, I am aware there are other learning resources, but the Duolingo system suits me very well so it would be great to have this option, too.
Generally speaking, I would like to see as many languages as possible on Duolingo, including the dead/extinct ones, even when I may not be interested in learning the language myself.
I'm sure many people are going to say things like "what's the point of learning a dead language, no one actually speaks it, it's useless, what a waste of time". Well, I beg to differ. "Usefulness" isn't the only reason to learn a foreign language. And in my opinion it's not the most important one either. People learn languages for many different personal reasons - they want to learn the native language of their ancestors, they want to re-read their favorite books in original, they want to read books and watch films that haven't been translated/dubbed/subtitled into their native language, they are interested in a specific country or culture, or they may simply find some language appealing without even knowing why (this happened to me with Spanish). All these reasons are completely valid.
325 Comments
I think it would be great to add Ancient Greek, and maybe Sanskrit, and Old Norse, Old English, etc., etc.
We'll see how good the Latin course turns out to be, and how people take to it, I guess. IMHO there's no reason why courses for such languages shouldn't be as good as or better than courses for Russian, Ukrainian, Czech, Polish, etc.
Here's hoping!
It would be fun, but I'm not sure how realistic. We have a pretty limited corpus of Anglo Saxon works. There's a clear north/south divide, with the north being, I think, the more prestige dialect. Very limited for the purer period, before the Viking invasions. After that, there's a simplification of the inflections, and a growth of more positional grammar. English was in a pretty much constant flux from 800-1400. (At least, this is what I remember from a 'development of English' class from 28 years ago!).
This is a language probably best learned in a classroom where the sources can be discussed in depth, in their historical context. Any duolingo course would probably be highly artificial. Our sources are too few and spread over too big a period of linguistic change.
That said, I would mind a mini-course gamification to just learn to read Beowulf!
Small point of pedantry, but it is West Saxon that is the prestige dialect. Alfred the Great and all that. Wessex was the stronghold of Old English.
I agree! I have been studying Latin (not on Duolingo) for a while. Duolingo has quite a few Latin-based languages anyway, so I think it would be really interesting to add Ancient Greek, especially as they have Modern Greek. It would also be very interesting to compare both Ancient and Modern Greek to see how the language has evolved and changed. I think Old English would also be quite interesting.
But let's take our time, see how the Latin course turns out and then if it's successful, Duolingo can (maybe) start adding more older languages!
ancient greek pronunciations compared to modern is definitely debatable though. I'd love an Old English and French course.
definitely debatable
What is your point, exactly?
It is true that some people will support pronouncing ancient Greek with a "restored" pronunciation, and others will support pronouncing it as modern Greek is pronounced, and yet others, maybe, in a sort of middle, "Koiné," pronunciation. But that is simply a detail and has no bearing on whether the language should be offered or not, does it? The dialect of ancient Greek--Epic, Ionic, Attic, Koiné, whatever--will be in question too.
Any of these older languages would be so cool, you're right! But how many more, if any, Duolingo would be willing to develop ...
It is mostly the American Protestant tradition that teaches its clergy what they call an Erasmasian pronunciation of Koine Greek-- which was never used outside of their classrooms.
However, Greek Orthodox Christians all over the world read Koine Greek with a modern pronunciation. It is preferred in European Protestant Christian classes as well. And it makes more sense to use the modern pronunciation with Koine if you are going to create modules.
Classical Greek has a reconstructed pronunciation, but it isn't too different from modern. Classical Greek is different from Koine Greek which is Biblical Greek and there are more debates about its pronunciation (see my other comment).
As a Greek I have to say that we use the same pronunciation for modern and ancient greeks. It would be a torture to ask people to learn to pronounce the same word in two different ways. Par example, the ancient greek phrase "Εγώ ειμί καλός και αγαθός" in modern greek is "Εγώ είμαι καλός και αγαθός" (I am beautiful and good). Almost same words, different pronunciation. I am realistic, so I recognize the fact that after 2500 years the pronunciation must have changed dramatically, as in every single language, but it is too difficult for me to pronounce the same word in two different ways. Moreover, nobody can be sure how the ancient Greeks used to pronounce the letters and the words. We have some clues but nothing sure. So we have chosen the only one we know best, modern greek pronunciation.
So, for the relatively few Greeks in the world, you would have everyone else learn a pronunciation that cannot be understood accurately by ear?
To quote a Wikipedia article, "In Modern Greek the letters and digraphs ι, ει, η, υ, υι (rare), οι, are all pronounced [i]." That is, they all represent the sound of "ee" in English "see." They all sound the same. This is not to mention the changes in some of the consonants. How would one be able to tell words apart, listening to them pronounced as in modern Greek?
For instance the ancient Greek pronouns meaning "we" and "you" (plural)--ἡμεῖς and ὑμεῖς, respectively--although spelled differently both sound the same in modern Greek pronunciation, so that Greek now uses a different pronoun for "you." But the two now-like-sounding pronouns were used in Ancient Greek because they were pronounced differently from each other then. In fact, in ancient manuscripts, which were written later than the texts they contain, there are instances where the scribes, themselves, confused these, because pronunciation had changed to be more like Modern Greek, by the time the texts were copied.
Although, unless some sort of time machine were invented, we can't be absolutely sure of how ancient Greek was pronounced, we can come close, with a pronunciation that allows one spelling for each sound and that is MUCH closer than is modern Greek pronunciation. There is no comparison between the two for people learning the language from the beginning.
The phenomenon of different combinations of letters being pronounced the same way is not unique to the Greek language.
People learn English all the time and yet:
there, their, they're
might, mite
sea, see
and countless more.
Another interesting phenomenon is when the same combination of letters can be pronounced in more than one ways. This occurs in English:
live read lead close
The latter does not occur in Greek. Therefore, once one learns how to read (modern) Greek, one can pronounce any written word even if they've never heard it before.
English has nothing to do with this, and you did not directly address what I said about Greek.
... once one learns how to read (modern) Greek, one can pronounce any written word even if they've never heard it before.
Certainly any word can be pronounced with the modern Greek pronunciation. But will it be understood when heard? Or will it be confused with another word because the two are now pronounced the same in Greek, although they were not originally?
Again: why use a pronunciation that causes words to be confused when there is a perfectly viable way to pronounce the language--a way that is closer to the original--that does not cause confusion? You still have not addressed that question. Please don't go off on tangents about English.
I understand your discomfort at relearning a few changes in pronunciation, but it would be similar to learning a new dialect in Greek, such as Tsakonian Greek or Albanian Greek. It might be hard at first, but I think you would be able to get used to it.
Greek never died. It has been spoken continuously for thousands of years and has had different ages and dialects.
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It's a bit of a question of semantics, at what point a language which is not really mutually intelligible with its descendants is still the same language?
I am familiar with classical Greek, Koine and modern, and I can tell you that many words are the same or similar and there is a continuity present AND it is still in use. You can't say the same for languages such Latin, Hurrian, Akaddian, Egyptian/Coptic, etc.
And if an ancient classical Greek speaker were to be transported to modern Greece, they could read the signs and get around. Conversation would be challenging, but after learning modern words for things invented since the ancient days (like car, TV, radio, etc), there would be a good sense of understanding, even though the grammar has changed to a degree.
One correction: Latin has been used continuously by the Catholic Church up to today. In the Vatican and in the thousands of churches around the world where the Traditional Latin Mass is still celebrated (and which is now becoming more popular again). Pope Francis even has a Latin Twitter Feed. Granted, the church uses the Ecclesiastical pronunciation and vocabulary, which is more in line with Vulgar Latin (the Latin spoken by the common people not the elite). And it is the Vulgar Latin, not the Classical, that morphed into the Romance languages.
Restored Classical Latin (and its vocabulary and unique pronunciation) is fantastic and necessary to read many of the great historical works, but it is only known to have been in use from roughly 100 BC at the earliest until around 50 AD. So it is not the be all and end all of the way Latin was spoken throughout history, even by the learned.
That being said, I think the differences between Classical and Ecclesiastical are often overstated.
Old English would be so cool, I tried to study it a while ago and lost motivation so seeing it on duo would be great!
Check out Leornende Eald Englisc on YouTube. I've been learning phrases from his channel.
thats honestly a great idea! im not interested in such languages but it would be amazing to have that kind of selection of languages!
Would love to see Tamil on here since it's apparently the oldest language in the world, as well as Sanskrit and the 20 other official languages of India. As of now, there's only Hindi.
We should learn Tuyuca. ISO code tue. Only 1000 people still speak it. There's not much you can find on the web for it though. Learn more here. https://forum.duolingo.com/comment/35932995
Personally, I dont see why not. Aslong as enough of the dead language still exists to be taught properly (I suspect some of them might have not just lost their native speakers, but written accounts of grammar and vocab) and enough people fluent enough can be locked into a room to make the course here.
And as someone who has spent an unhealthy amount of time learning Esperanto, some people just want to learn for the fun of it, regardless of the practicality. I have zero need for latin, but I will atleast be trying it when it launches.
I think there's definitely a lot of people who would be interested in Biblical Greek and Hebrew.
Agreed. Grad students and seminarians everywhere would be extremely grateful, not to mention more casual scholars. Koine Greek and ancient Hebrew please!
I don't know about Hebrew but when you read the bible in Greek you understand a lot more, because some things get lost in translation.
As one who has casually learned Koine at different times, yes, this would be very helpful.
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I think the Latin course is a test to see if people are open to ancient languages courses. Some people were asking for conlangs like Ido and Lingua Nova but why Duolingo would create an Ido course if Esperanto is in the bottom of the course list by active leaners?
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On the other hand, both High Valyrian and Klingon have (much) more people learning them, surpassing not only Esperanto but a whole slew of natural languages.
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Both High Valyrian and Klingon have a high number of active learners but few people get to the end of the course. A lot of people just have the Klingon badge in their profile to show they are trekkies. I'm totally in favour of having all 7000 languages available and many conlangs, artlangs and ancient languages, I'm just saying there is a cost for the site to keep these courses running and maybe there is no demand for them. I'm going to do the Latin course and I did some of the Esperanto course but then I took it out.
Thank you for your voice of reason. I might add, totally appropriate in this context since the ancient Greeks were heavy into logic and reason. People keep wanting this language or that language, but there are courses that have a limited number of learners.
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I am always in favour of seeing a new language added on Duolingo whether it's an existing language, or something endangered, or reviving a language that is (seemingly) extinct. Though I personally wouldn't use an extinct language, I think people who work as archaeologists and historians would benefit, allowing the rest of the world to find out what they've discovered from old texts.
That said, there would have to be a team of people willing to donate a lot of time to reconstruct the language and format it in such a way for learning. Then there is the maintenance needed for the course.
When I first used Duolingo I remember seeing a topic from a Duolingo staff member who put out a call for those who were interested in contributing to any rare languages. This was an indication that they are certainly willing to include just about anything!
I don't know how the creators and contributors do it all, but it's amazing how they can come together to upload a course for the world to learn.
I have always wanted to learn Latin, Ancient Greek, Ancient Persian and Sanskrit simultaneously, the four pillars of modern Indo-European language group. This can give the learner a great window into the entire spectrum, and I suspect they will be relatively easier learning side-by-side.
Good insight pointing out that classical language "quad," if you will. Of course of the four, only Ancient Greek and Ancient Persian would have direct modern descendants. As for a course for the latter, it's hard enough getting a modern Farsi one going, despite ready volunteers and expressed demand for it.
In any case, being that Sanskrit and more-or-less Islamic Persian would be the "parents," if I may, of Hindustani/Hindi-Urdu, I would especially like to see courses for both of them.
Old Farsi is actually older than arabic, so I think it would be a good idea
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The Coast Salish Tribal group of the Pacific Northwest features a trading language known as Lushootseed. It has a dictionary, college sponsored courses and a long tradition. It's domain spans the waterways and coasts of Washington State as well as most of Southern British Columbia. It was not a written language so it is entirely represented by phonetic Western lettering. It's spoken by many of my relatives but it is a risk of dying out with the elder generation. More than 100k younger natives would join up over night. It would be the talk of tribal gatherings for years to come if it were available through Duolingo to be transmitted to a younger generation.
Dying languages and dead languages are two entirely different matters, and I think the later actually need more attention than the former, but maybe it needs its own separate topic.
I hope Duolingo will add more endangered languages, so that as few of them as possible actually join the "dead language" list.
Oh, although that seems very unlikely to be added, I still love the idea!
I was thinking about Middle Egyptian. Typing in all the vultures and owls and bunnies and men holding various types of sticks would be a task, though. Unless your keyboard is very different from mine.
I love the idea of learning ancient languages! I learned Latin in school and can definitely testify to its usefulness. it doesn't have to be spoken in everyday conversation. Learning Latin helped me understand grammatical structures (something I never really got in English), and made it easier for me to learn Romance languages as well. And either way, whether it's something you use in daily life or not, I've seen a lot of people interested in learning ancient languages.
Sure, I would try some Ancient Greek. Which means I should probably get started fairly soon on the Modern Greek course. But if DL adds Old English as well, my life would be complete. :D
Volgav vitsenanieff nivya kevach varatsach.
It would be nice to see Ancient Greek here.There are many people who would benefit from this
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A widely accepted theory says that Greek is a continuum that is there was no interrupt in Greek. So Modern Greek can be used as a buffer language. The same can be accepted for Italian with Latin, even though Sardenian dialect is the closest ancestor to Latin. It is sure that Modern Greek is the only ancestor of Ancient Greek. As soon as Latin launches it would be a pleasure to start a course. I already know much Italian and Spanish so it would be easy. Latin is more compound than the modern Romance languages. The same is valid for Greek. Ancient Greek is so. But if you know some modern Greek Ancient Greek has the same alphabet and some forms are the same. You can understand easily a lot of expressions. Specially those of Ancient Koene.
I wish it could be done soon. Even it didn't start yet.
You'll find deka glossai agrees with you. Take a look at his several videos concerning Greek. But as far as using modern Greek pronunciation for ancient Greek and learning modern Greek first, I don't agree, although what he has to say is interesting and based on experience.
Ancestor? Do you perchance mean descendant?
Volgav vitsenanieff nivya kevach varatsach.
the basis of italian is NOT latin but a dialect written by Dante. the dialect of italian is the dialect Dante used and not latin
But Dante's Italian developed from Latin. Ergo, Italian is based on Latin.
vulgar latin is a meme and it would be impossible to have it on duolingo
Yes, Egyptian would be very useful, it would probably curb fatalities from mummy attacks.
I scrolled all the way down and didn't see anyone mentioning Old Church Slavonic :(
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Me too! I'm looking forward to Latin but Ancient Egyptian is higher on my list. :)
I would like to see an Old Norse and Old English course. Dead languages might not be useful but indeed they are cool.
They are useful to see commons and developments in the modern languages now, though! :)
Prakrit, Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Latin, Scots. Please for the love of god give us dead languages, People need this for intellectual purposes. Just for that reason it is objectively extremely important that they are added, we also need Icelandic, and Estonian, Slovenian, Slovak, This should not be up for debate, Duolingo is a great way to learn, Its helped me alot, and its fun. somebody needs to give these fools a grant, to get these languages quicker, I see others requesting Old English and Old Norse, that would be nice, But please give us everything else i just said plus Scots Gaelic, Urdu, Basque, Finnish*, and Persian. Please.
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i would love to get in to Scottish Gaelic Ancient greek is a bit daunting but i know many people who would love it
Not a dead language, but I'd be interested in Yiddish. As far as Biblical Hebrew, maybe a few lessons highlighting the differences between Modern and Biblical, added to the Modern Hebrew course, would be interesting. There are lots of Biblical words we really don't know the meaning of. Even some of the grammar is unclear in intent.
Yiddish would be fun. A friend in college studied it--he claimed solely so he could understand his grandmother's cursing.
It is in the incubator, but probably won’t be ready for a long time. If you know it, perhaps you could contribute....
Yes! I would love to see more historical languages in addition to Latin—like Ancient Greek and Old Norse, too!
I taught myself to read Latin several years ago. I got to quite a high level. However, I'm now rusty so I will be logging into Duolingo Latin when it comes out, as a refresher. I'd also like to see Ancient Greek.
Ancient greek would be more than awesome! As well as some runic language
Aramaic. Aramaic rose to prominence under the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC), under whose influence Aramaic became a prestige language, and its use spread throughout most of Mesopotamia and the Levant. At its height, spoken in Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Eastern Arabia, northern Arabia, southeastern and south central Turkey, and parts of northwest Iran. Aramaic was the language of Jesus, who spoke the Galilean dialect during his public ministry, as well as the language of large sections of the biblical books of Daniel and Ezra, and also one of the languages of the Talmud. (info from Wiki)
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I studied Aramaic in university (along with Hebrew). One day, one of my fellow students told us how she had helped a lady fix a flat tyre (of her bike). The lady spoke to her little son in a language that sounded like Hebrew but wasn't. So she asked the lady what language she was speaking. She explained that she was originally from this little village in the Middle East where they still spoke Aramaic. So, at least back in the 80's Aramaic was still spoken by some people.
Depending on how you look at it, Aramaic isn't entirely dead.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandaic_language
I think it's a cool idea - I learned New Testament Greek as a kind of "light" version of Ancient Greek, which I thought was too tricky to learn just for fun.
I had a close friend who studied classical Greek in college--this was more than 30 years, at UTexas, mostly under the legendary professor Douglass Parker--who used to say he couldn't stand reading Biblical Greek, because it was so simplified and uninteresting.
He used to mention odd things he encountered, like a verb in an Aristophanes play (LOTS of studying Aristophanes, because Parker, of course) that looked like "to radish", that upon looking up in Liddell & Scott, meant to insert a radish in someone's rectum as a punishment for adultery.
About 25 years ago I did too, really enjoyed it, and read Koiné Greek for a couple of years--but ran out of things I really wanted to read, and stopped after changing jobs. Not that my work had anything to do w/ Greek, but "life got in the way," especially as I had not yet tried to make the transition to Attic or Ionic or Epic Greek, which I figured would be more interesting. And now it's all to be learned again. :( Still I plan to get back to it after improving my Latin. W/ the Internet thriving, I could actually interact with people who are interested in Ancient Greek. What a concept! What a difference that will make! I hope.
→ → What book did you learn it from? I used Machen's New Testament Greek for Beginners--very old fashioned and clunky, but I truly love the book, seeing as it worked perfectly for me.
In fact I was just looking at it yesterday, drawing up a spreadsheet to compare how the Russian translation (which I have) changed the presentation of the language to suit Russians, who are plenty used to declining nouns, etc., but not at all used to complex verb conjugations. Now that I'm done with Duo for today, I'll get back to it.
I personally would love to study old language courses, while there may be no one who speaks dead languages there are still plently of texts that can be read and understood.
I would love ancient and dead languages! Ancient Greek is almost as influential as Latin, and I would love it, but I don’t really like learning new alphabets, I find it very confusing. There wouldn’t be too many ancient languages where we know them very well, we wouldn’t have a clue how to do an ancient Mesopotamian language course.
I’d love every language on Duolingo, the more the better! Even for future purposes, having them here would be great because they’re here whenever I need them. Maybe Duolingo will help languages survive!
Exactly. You have my uttermost support. Duolingo should get more financial support though. I love that it's free, but the more they add the more servers and stuff they need.
I still want it to be free and not completely stuck between ads. ... I wonder how this whole thing figures out
Thanks. Maybe they could make a choice so people could donate ONLY if they wanted to. I think a lot of people would, considering Duo has so many users. They might make a bit of money that way. And ads can get them financial support as a well.
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Even on the grounds of usefulness, it's not the case that someone who'd just speak the language as a tourist or in the occasional encounter with a native speaker has more use for it than an academic who might well use an ancient language every single day for their work. I think it actually happens far more often than with ancient languages that people start learning living ones with no clear idea how they'll use them - and vague ideas about it being maybe neat to be able to speak another language are not that. Even ideas about making friends from other cultures beg the question about what they're expecting to be different -native English speakers already have lots of people they could hypothetically be friends with but aren't, including many many non-native English speakers-, and statements about liking the culture are often equally vague or downright stereotypical. I don't think 'I love the food' is a more practical reason to learn Italian than 'I just want to read that one thing Tactitus wrote in the original' is for Latin. 'I specifically want to study cookery at this place in Italy' on the other hand, is one of those more considered reasons. Usually the people who imagine speaking, which tends to be envisaged on a basic level, as the automatic focus of language learning don't seem to have gone very deep into a language and culture or imagine doing so, which is after all harder to do without reading.
I'd be interested in Old French, though for me, think it would be easier from French than English. If I go ahead and try Latin, when I make my own Anki flashcard deck I'll use a Latin-French dictionary, then I have more continuity between the three. Medievalists have a lot of use for these languages.
My thoughts exactly! I am fed up with this "usefulness" argument, that's why I addressed it in the original post :)
(in re Latin-French dictionaries, see this lexilogos page. Actually, there is a HUGE amount of material online in French concerning Latin, and even a classic Assimil course available. At the link above, click on "Dictionnaire" on the upper right, and you'll find materials from many languages from French, including grec ancien.
I would like to see hieroglyphic on duo...it would be so nice even though if it didn't have a lot to learn...just the basics will be nice!
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You can learn some basics in David Silverman's free course here: https://www.coursera.org/learn/wonders-ancient-egypt/
I'd love Ancient Greek to come to Duolingo. I learnt it with the Open University, and Duo would be a great opportunity to brush up on my skills and keep them up to scratch.
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A good place to start with ancient, dead or classical languages would be languages that are still used in liturgical and/or religious contexts. Sanskrit, Pali, Koine, Hebrew, Old Church Slavonic, and Classical Arabic all have people who are knowledge about them and would be available to work on the courses.
We have Klingon...WHY THEN IS A QUESTION? YES to Ancient Greek. It's my major right now at FSU and I really wish it were an option, but again, we have Klingon, so yay.
Could they also add the Cornish language as well because the Cornish Council are trying to revive the language by teaching it in their schools!! It sad that not many of them speak their own language anymore!!
That would be great! I read something earlier that Cornish is officially no longer a dead language though. (I'm not sure if that makes it a zombie language... :P )
Cornish is used and you'll find it in regional anthems. This is a good one because the subtitles are in Cornish and English simultaneously. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M0I9_mTX0lg
I would love for this to happen. I have interest in widely spoken languages like Spanish, Japanese, French but i also have interest in small languages like Xhosa and Navajo, and i have interest in Latin. I'd love to see more endangered and dead languages on Duo (although i'm guessing not many people are interested in dead languages other than Latin and Ancient greek)
I would also be very interested in Ainu! :3 I love the fact that Latin is getting released in maybe half a year or so, as Latin and Ancient Greek are both languages which dominated developments and all the other things in Europe for centuries.
I would also like some old Germanic languages and further on I definitely support your suggestion!
Norse and Anglo-English would also be great to see. It would be interesting to see the commons between those languages and German.
Overall you can say that I am a language lover and nearly love any language, the old ones a little more than the modern ones, if the modern are too different from the old ones. I am a History-Geek and therefor just crazy about anything in between.
As a dyed-in-the-wool religious scriptures nerd, I would love to see courses in biblical Hebrew, Koine Greek, and Pali.
There is a Hebrew course! And I would love those languages as well, especially koine Greek.
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"There is a Hebrew course"
Yes, but modern Hebrew, which does differ a bit from Biblical Hebrew.
Yes. I'd truly welcome dead languages in DL. It's just another part of our cultural heritage.
Plenty of them: Ancient Greek, Sumerian, Akkadian, Ancient Egyptian, Sanskrit, Classical Nahuatl, Classical Maya, Etruscan, Lydian, Hittite, Old Norse, Old Prussian, Old English, Dalmatian... So many actually...
The high number of upvotes, comments and awarded lingots answer the general title question resoundly in the affirmative!
For what qualified answers contribute to the overall discussion, I think that besides Latin, other major "zombie" languages, to name dead but still-used ones, including Sanskrit, should be taught on DL, given their historical and cultural significance.
However, let's not forget the need for nearly dead major languages to be taught by the Owl. Can I get witnesses for Aramaic in particular?
I was going to make a case for the fairly recently departed Chagatai here, but it ended up being so long that I decided to make it a separate title post instead. Alas, wouldn't you know, after pouring so much time and energy into the pitch, it's been downvoted multiple times already for God knows whatever uncommented reasons! :-( If I may provide the link and ask any readers thumbing down there (or here) to explain their reasons: https://forum.duolingo.com/comment/33830644
In an case, thank you, HawwahResurgam, for giving so much food for thought! I agree with the point that an excessive focus on “usefulness” or mundane practicality in language study (or any other endeavor, for that matter) limits one's horizons and worldview.
I also read it and upvoted it.
Why is it downvoted? I guess it is the usual mix of cherised but misplaced and mostly useless control by DL believing the downvoting system fights trolls and other monsters and general ignorance/tiredness experienced by a tiny bunch of Duolingers who have been honoured with the sacred power to bury anything they don't like or approve of whatever that might be.
Thanks so much for your interesting post on Chagatai.
It would be really interesting to see more ancient languages be implemented into Duolingo. I have always wanted to know what old languages might have looked and/or sounded like.
Yes!! Latin, Ancient Greek, Old Norse, Old English, Old and Medieval Welsh, Sanskrit, Aramaic....
How fab :o)
Aramaic is not a completely dead language. It is still used by the Byzantine catholic church. So it's not completely dead.
And in a few small areas in the Middle East, though some people might argue that it has changed enough there that it is no longer the same language.
Yeah, I think if you consider modern day Aramaic as the same language used at the time of Alexander the Great, the same thing should be applied to Ancient and Modern Greek...
The chances of it happening are less than one in a million, but I'd be over the moon if a Classical Mongolian course was added, script and all. That being said, I'm always happy for any new addition to the Incubator.
Yes, but I think it will be harder to get to beta than the other official languages. Other than nerds (I'm sorry) and like history experts, nobody will be able to help.
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Ancient Greek would be awesome! Occitan would be neat, too. I don't know if it's considered a "dead" language, though, since there's a small number of people who still speak it.
There's already Catalon from Spanish here. That'll probably get you more than 90% of where you'd want to go with Occitan, at least for reading purposes.
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Actually, I think that if you know French you are able to understand a lot, certainly if you read the text. I've got a record with songs in Occitan and I find I get most of it.
"Latin is a language as dead as dead could be. First it killed the Romans, and now it's killing me!"
I down voted myself i hate this so much! but it was graffiti-ed in every single textbook at my school. I couldn't resist putting it here!
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It doesn't really interest me, but since they're adding Latin it would make sense to have others such as Ancient Greek, and Sanskrit.
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I am looking forward to the Latin course. Ancient Greek would be great. I had not thought of an Old English course before - but that would be useful. The literature of these languages is very much alive in translation. It would be good to have a bit of the original languare. Latin is a good place to start.
I would be glad to see a course on Ancient Greek added to Duolingo, and one on Sanskrit as well... Perhaps even more ancient Asian languages such as Classical Chinese, Old Korean, and Old Japanese? I am currently learning Latin, Ancient Greek and Anglo-Saxon in college and would like to dabble in antique languages that belong to other parts of the world.
Sounds interesting, but i wouldn't make it a top priority. Main focus should be on continuing to improve the widely spoken languages.
I'd love to learn Polabian, but I can see how it would be difficult to put a course together for that. ;)
I'd also be interested in Old English, Gothic, old German, Sanskrit, reconstructed proto-Indo-European, Akkadian and Sumerian.
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It's hard to say that there's any language they "shouldn't" add, especially if we assume that adding one language isn't at the expense of adding others. How "valuable" a language is has more to do with the desires of the prospective student than even the characteristics of the language itself. Everyone has different languages they want to see added, and different languages are valuable for different reasons. So while I might not find dead languages particularly practical or useful, especially given the speculatory nature of many reconstructions, I'd be reluctant to say they shouldn't be on Duolingo (assuming, of course, that their presence doesn't stifle out the presence of other languages).
Yes! First of all, it would be so cool to know how to speak Ancient Greek! Even if no one speaks it, just being able to show off that you can would be awesome. Secondly, knowing dead languages would give you an appreciation of other languages, and you would see where words in English come from. I think it would be an amazing thing to learn because it would bring us back to our roots.
I would like to see Nüshu (women's script), its a dead Chinese language where only women knew it. Doubt they would put it here tho xd
Yes I think it would be very great to have latin and even greek on duolingo. I am a latin teacher. And we teach this langage in my school as a living tongue. Duolingo would provide a big help to children.
The benefit of learning latin as a living tongue is that it is easier to learn because it follows the natural way of learning. The appropriation of words, grammatical strutures is much easier.
Plurimas ergo gratias ago his de rebus. Valeteque !
There was a reason we used to teach the Classics in schools, and it wasn't so we'd be able to order a latte in the Vatican twenty years later. Anyone that stuffily asks what the point is of learning a "dead" language is going to have a hecking surprise when they see two made-up languages sitting proudly in the middle of the list with more Duolingo learners than half the real ones XD
Every language would be welcomed edition , if you have the time, spirit and willingness to learn it. The main question is how? With whom? Making lists is great just bring your powers to make it happen.
I know a little bit of Latin already, but I don't really know anything that would help me speak Latin except for salve, frater, soror, mater, and pater (Hello, brother, sister, mother, and father). I do want to learn more Latin and also I want to learn Old Norse. I think adding older languages could help people learn other more modern languages. Latin can help you learn all the Romance Languages.
Omg I would love that! I'm already learning Latin and Ancient Greek in school, but I think it would be easier if I can learn it here as well
Except for moderately mainstream dead languages, like Latin, the body of people who fluently read and understand them will probably be limited to faculty at universities. They'll probably be associate, non-tenured staff because these aren't prestige positions for most schools these days. Low pay, lots of teaching hours, and a desperate desire to get tenure.
The language develop process on Duo is solely volunteer, correct? I mean, they don't receive any compensation for their efforts. Like, none. The process involves spending a substantial amount of their free time for months on end developing and maintaining the language.
There are people that have that kind of motivation to do a lot of work for free, for the fulfillment of it, but they're relatively few.
As many as they can roll out. I used to only know a bit of German as my mom and dad were stationed in Germany, but have come to love piecing together multiple languages and how they relate to each other. I am highly anticipating have a butt-load of fun learning Latin and hope to see Old German, Old English, Old Norse, Old yadda yadda and so forth and see how they were pronounced. I understand you can only do so much at a time, but let's get this party started!
While I'm not interested in most dead languages like Latin or Greek, it's a good idea for thios intrested in so. Plus, a lot of root words from English in all of its forms are from Ancient greek and Latin. That would be nice to learn. Then, it's too early to assume
I'd love to see more languages both dead/extinct and made-up. It doesn't matter if it's not "useful." It's fun and it keeps your brain in good shape.
I would like to see Latin, Norse, and also some little known languages on Duolingo, like Busuu or possibly even Magati Ke.
Absolutely. Learning Latin, Greek, ancient Hebrew and Sanskrit would open the doors to understanding many other modern-day languages.
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I think that it is a great idea to look at adding languages that are either extinct or in danger of going extinct. Latin and Ancient Greek are two obvious candidates, for which there are lots of resources. But there are currently 7000 languages spoken and many of them are in danger of becoming extinct. It might make sense to try to preserve these languages in a resource such as Duolingo for posterity, including the written and spoken word(s) as well as the grammar.
I agree. That's the sad reality.
And sadly again, most of the available information on, about and of endangered languages is horribly difficult to access due to the usual socio-economical momentum that acts like a persistent brake/break. The internet has the potential to greatly help both scientifically and socially with this but when almost everything is business, reality, apparently, disolves... Only a paradigm change about our own perception would make possible to successfully salvage an important chunk of the flotsam of the worldwide cultural wreckage we are becoming.
Latin would be a useful language to add. Especially for Medical and life sciences students. To gain familiarity with the subject. Since a lot of nomenclature in Anatomy & Natural sciences are in Latin.
There are a lot of Greek root words used in medicine as well; my degree is in the medical field.
For sure! I'm study Languages at University and I've been having Ancient Greek classes since April. It's really challenging and I wouldn't imagine myself studying it on my own, as resources out there aren't really well suited for my learning style. I enjoy Duolingo system very much and I would be so happy to see it included here, so I could boost my studies while having a lot of fun reading some Ancient Greek literature!
I am interested in learning Latin so I can understand the scientific names for animals and plants better.
I would absolutely love a koine greek course, I learned a bit for college and loved it. I would love to know more and be able to read ancient texts. I'm sure those who study ancient cultures or religious texts would appreciate it too.
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I'm so excited for Latin, I can't even tell you! Ancient Greek would be amazing! Not only does it allow new generations to help preserve these beautiful languages, it creates a lasting online library for them as well. Love you Duolingo!
I would like to see Latin, Ancient Greek and Biblical Hebrew on Duolingo. Though there might have to be a different learning structure for these languages, maybe Latin will provide a template that other ancient languages will be able to follow. I'm not against any other ancient languages, but in practical terms you need a dedicated team of people to set up a language on Duolingo. In order to have a realistic chance of offering a language you need people who know that language to be active on Duolingo. At the moment Duolingo is still a strongly English based learning platform. If more people from other languages and cultures become more involved in the decision making, people who do not speak English, then it will become a more global learning platform, and as well as being more open to all it will benefit from the huge reserves of knowledge and scholarship in the rest of the world. In terms of popularity, the number of people studying a language is not the only factor. How many people complete their tree in a particular language? How many study for several hours a week? How many are still using Duolingo on a regular basis? I am sure some of the Duolingo bosses could answer these questions, but they would not be seen as positive statistics... I think there should be a Hebrew course, also a Biblical Hebrew course, for French speakers. Why? Because there is a hugeJewish population in France and a huge and growing Christian population in Sub-Saharan Africa who are mainly French speaking. The demand there for Hebrew instruction is immense. A final thought about the 'usefulness' of learning a language which is significantly different from your own. Language changes perception. Learning them builds bridges and keeps you forever young...well at least it reduces the risk of Alzheimers in later life... ; )
I agree that learning a language opens your mind to new ways of thinking and a better understanding of the others' culture. I was listening to The Public Philosopher on BBC Radio 4 this week (26 Aug 2019) and he asked the students at LSE if they would want the technological equivalent of a Babelfish...the room was split 50:50, but none of the against cited understanding a new culture and thinking in a new way as a reason not to use one.
Yes please! The first languages i looked for were biblical hebrew, Ancient Greek, and latin.
Since someone already threw old and middle welsh out there then I would like to suggest Varangian (preferably the earlier Kievan Rus' instead of the later more Byzantine influenced version)... or just old Norse!
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Old Norse, Old and/or Middle English, Classical Japanese, and Sanskrit are the one's that I would like to learn that are more possible (when compared to languages like Ancient Egyptian, Mayan, Old Chinese or Sumerian)
I tried to Greek on my own back in the 70's when I was preparing to go off to college. It seemed insurmountable. But I would love to be able to read ancient Greek! Middle and Old English too -
I agree with you!! I've wanted to learn cuneiform for some time, because I'm half Persian and it would be interesting to see how the Achaemenids of the Ancient Persian Empire communicated.
Of course, cuneiform isn't really that popular of a language, even for an ancient language, and I don't think it's going to appear on Duolingo, but I would still love to learn maybe just a little of it. It might not be useful, but it's the language of my ancestors.
I'm also very excited for Latin. Learning an ancient language is another step into understanding the culture where it was used, and Latin influenced so many other languages we use today.
I think the Latin course'll be fun. I hope so!
Oooh yes! Anything that acts as a repository for a currently dead language has got to be a good thing.
PLEASE.
My own personal motivation is that I'm a chronically ill student majoring in Classical Languages. I went in it for the Latin, realized I needed Ancient Greek for grad school as well. And I've made it through 202 (for Ancient Greek), but I've had A LOT of absences, had to retake 102, and was barely around for the 200 levels.
As for other dead languages... I'm very interested in learning languages as old as, or even much older than ancient Greek and Latin. I love love love seeing the evolution of and the connections between languages. It's so cool!
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Yes, I would love to revisit Ancient Greek having studied it many years ago
Which one? There are as many sign languagues as there are spoken languages.
Interesting programme on the subject on BBC Radio 4 yesterday 27 August 2019: search Fry's English Delight. A really good insight into the grammar and logic of the various forms of sign language
Love to see several languages, both living and dead. Sanskrit, Tocharian A and B, Persian, Farsi, Tajik, Old Church Slavonic, Armenian, Lithuanian, Gothic and/or Hittite for starters.
I agree with you. I am interested in learning Semitic languages and now I am trying to learn self-study Hebrew and Arabic. The Semitic languages, previously also named Syro-Arabian languages, are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family originating in the Middle East that are spoken by more than 330 million people across much of Western Asia, North Africa and the Horn of Africa, as well as in often large immigrant and expatriate communities in North America, Europe and Australia. The terminology was first used in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen School of History, who derived the name from Shem, one of the three sons of Noah in the Book of Genesis. My mother tongue and native language is Persian that in ancient times known as Pahlavi. These languages are the oldest surviving languages of antiquity and the era of the prophets, and all sacred books in various religions have been written in these languages. It is very exciting for me to learn the language that God has spoken to humankind in the land of divine revelation (middle east; Where I was born and live).
I find it strange that not many people have mentioned Sumerian (the first language thoroughly ever recorded). :?
:D
Yes to all the ancient languages! Classical Greek first, for me. How unutterably wonderful to be in the (virtual) company of people who don't think it's weird to want to learn hieroglyphics or Phoenician or old Norse. Hello to all
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Most modern languages have their roots in ancient languages it’s always valuable to learn things like origins. I agree I’d love more ancient languages and tbh even more modern ones.
Yes Please! And then pleas add the sumeric, old hebrwe and hieroglyphes too :D. I always wanted to learn those ancient languages!
Agree with Ancient Greek, Sanskrit, Old English. How about Middle English? In some ways very similar to Modern English, but spelling/pronunciation and vocabulary can be quite different.
A language in extreme flux. Which version do you choose? Just taking the 14th century, try Chaucer vs the Pearl Poet.
I would be more than happy if they add Ancient Greek, it is a beautiful language where you end up finding that they made made major contributions to philosophy, science, literature, theatre.. Not to forget that some words (mainly in Romance Languages) come from the Greek and therefore from the Latin. And nowadays we still make neologisms with greek words.
I hope they add Ancient Greek, at least there is a Latin course coming soon :)
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Sure if there is a market for it, I don't see why Duo won't at least consider adding a dead language. I personally prefer living languages and think that makes the most sense to focus on but it wouldn't bother me all that much if Duo wanted to add more dead languages.
Yes. We could add Old English and even Old Church Slavonic and other ancient languages. I love the idea.
Yes, that's a totally awesome idea! Try holding a poll or something on this Forum, and maybe Duolingo will see it and try adding some new languages ! Not that they havn't worked really hard to make all the cool languages we use, but still... Plus, I saw someone use a poll on here and it's making a difference. I forget what the user's nickname was but it was a poll on this really cool thing called Chatbots. Check it out and vote! (-:
I think it would be a great idea but I think there need to be stories for more of the languages, they have really helped me with my spanish and french. I would love to learn Celtic
Totally should bring them back!! Some of those older languages would be so cool to learn.
I think it would be great if old languages were added! Have a lingot;)
If you read the thread, many people have been suggesting other old languages...welcome to the list :o)
I would like to see Ancient Greek and Norse/Old Norse (is there a difference?) as options. I'd love to reread the Odyssey and other Greek myths in the original language. It'd also be fun to be able to read Norse runes... I think they might be called Furthark from reading Harry Potter fanfiction stories, though I could be wrong.
Yes, I would support Duolingo having as many of the ancient and or dying languages as possible, but I think it should be on its own site. Insert ancient and or dying language here, and I would support it! I wouldn't have the time to learn most of them. I even want to see Dwarven, Quenyan (spelling?) and Sindarin (probably saying this wrong , but I mean the Tolkien languages. I've just not been able to look at this in over a year due to family.)
Why separate site? It would just be easier to sort and maintain. Those who want living could come here, and those who want the other languages could go there.
TUYUCA. We should Tuyuca. There's not much on it but it exists but is threatened. It's ISO code is tue. You can't find much about it on the web. But only 1,000 people still speak it. Learn a little more here. https://forum.duolingo.com/comment/35932995
I started learning Greek. But the problem was translating english to Greek, in a question. I would constantly have to look at a sheet to tell me which letter makes what sound. So I gave up. Now ancient greek is a different story. Ancient greek would be a very useful language to learn. It is the root of a lot of other english words, especially scientific words. As for dead languages. I personally don't know any. I would prefer it if they brought in more fictional languages. Like the Inhertiance ancient language, or the Lord of The Rings elven language.
Good point. I just love the Inheritance books, and the lord of the rings. I have a few friends that would love to learn that language. So i thought I might mention it. :)
Star trek is awesome enough that it is justified, GoTs or the high varnarian... makes me cringe just to see an reminder that it exists during loading times in the app. There is no point because its a POS tv show, I don't even watch tv,
there is on one ancient greek but there are several changing in time we also learned that the very beginning of greek do not have consonants only vocals, you learn a lot at the time that the famous authors were writing their poems, stories and the time that the new bible was written differs. So good luck with it, because you also have to combine it with the stories poems etc.
it will help students in understanding these ancient languages. It will be useful for grammar schools.
I think it will be great to learn dead languages such as Latin, ancient Greek, Sanskrit, etc. Actually, these languages are not dead, they are in the core of many spoken languages and therefore, this will provide a valuable insight into other languages.
Latin is not a dead language. Many English words are directly derived from Latin or Greek. Knowing more about the words we use on a daily basis reveals a lot. Boosting our esoteric knowledge was never so important as today. The here so called "dead languag" is the bridge or tool for a better understanding. Besides the old languages, it would be nice to learn quantum grammar, as given to us by David Wynn Miler. To stop the greedy corruption as much as possible. Duolingo is full of esoteric knowledge. Like the little owl logo, it is representing our spheroid bone in our skull. Shaped like an owl spreading it's wings. These are slowly flapping, pumping our brain fluids around. Stand up with your eyes closed. You will notice that you move back and forwards. We are the "owl", if we are awake.....
So, old and forgotten languages YES. Brand new grammar YES. Shine a light Duo.
Evidently you both fail to understand what "dead language means" and suffer from delusions
I very much believe that language shapes our thoughts. If there are nuances of language in Latin or Greek that could possibly influence how we think, then it is worth preserving.
I know it's not a one-to-one comparison, but many times I think of learning a human language as equivalent to learning a programming language. To express an idea, I often have to think "in the language" rather than trying to convert code from one programming language to another. And oddly enough, when going from a more advanced language to a simpler one (e.g., Python/Golang to Bash), I find myself thinking more about how I structure the code rather than the pure syntax of the language. This helps me be a better programmer.
So, yes, I think there are benefits to learning ancient and dead languages because it potentially opens new (forgotten) ways of thinking, and will improve my skill in my native language.
That's the Whorfian hypothesis. Popular before the mid 20th century among linguists, not so much these days. The old "inuits have 30 words for snow" gave way to yeah, the Inuit language is polysynthetic, but there are probably more ways to describe snow in English. It kinda survives in a weak variety these days.
Now, computer languages, to me, feel more like religious systems than human languages. If I have to write something complex in Bash, I'm going to spend most of the time cursing whatever cruel and uncaring gods put me in this situation, where I have to spend most of my time writing multiple arbitrary invocations to handle exceptions or unexpected input, and then furthermore I'll be worried furthermore about local heresies depending on what OS or distribution I happen to be writing for.
What I'm getting at is a bit more simplistic than this (I had to Google 'Whorfian hypothesis' before memories of a freshman philosophy class clawed itself back into memory). For me, even the act of learning a new word opens up areas of thought that though they would be possible without the new word, would follow circuitous and meandering path.
There's also the opposite sense in that the limits of (my ability with) a language, at least practically, influences the thoughts I have in that language. It's not that when I'm trying to write German I forget concepts, but that I cannot communicate them. My four years of Latin in high school has allowed me to relate a story about a soldiers meeting a farmer on a road and chatting about frogs in a clay pot. I'd be hard-pressed to discuss finance or film theory in Latin, however.
To the programming example, Latin would be akin to using C after growing up with Python. Heck, it's like C on pre-PC hardware because spaces were optional, there was only upper-case, and it feels like everything etched in stone has been #DEFINEd to something else entirely.
When I took a C programming class in college, it was the first time the instructor had taught it. She said something like, now compared to the languages you've seen before, this is going to look like Swahili. A Very British voice came from somewhere in the back: "But Swahili is not very hard!"
Heh.. that gave me a laugh.. It's funny how relative things are. I've been hacking around with Arduino recently and was so overjoyed at how familiar it was, because it was C. Hand-coding a bounce function was relaxing!
What's the point? Dead languages are nearly useless to know (classics degree btw)
That said, if people want it, then why not? Learning languages is it's own reward after all
I'd like to learn old English, and British English (Though British English is very similar to USA English)
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In Greek's description on the languages page, it says that one will be able to read the Oddyssey (written approx 2700 years ago, in the oldest form of Ancient Greek we know) in the original language with that course. If that's true, there's no need for any Ancient Greek course. I have my doubts though...
its probably true, for the most part, There is a difference between ancient greek and attic greek is there not? Please correct me if i am wrong, but attic greek is the one that is really hard. For example its not difficult for native english speakers to understand or pickup quickly old english verses of shakespear. I really wish they would add attic greek. But i guess inorder to add ancient greek they would have to add both attic and ionic?
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The Oddyssey is written in a composite dialect that was probably only used in poetry at the time, called 'Epic Greek' (after the poetic genre) or 'Homeric Greek' (after Homer). It has some fewer irregularities than the later Attic Greek, but remember that we are talking about going 2700 years back in time here. It is not comparable to Shakespeare, who wrote in Early Modern English, not Old English, around 400 years ago. And the Shakespeare we read today has also been modernised a lot in terms of spelling.
From what I have heard, Homeric Greek is utterly incomprehensible to someone who only knows modern Greek. That's why I think it is quite bold and misleading to put that in the description for Greek on the languages page.
If they were to add ancient greek, there would probably be lots of discussions about which variant to add. Homeric, Attic and Koine would the obvious alternatives.
I hope to take a course in Ancient Greek after Spanish because I want to know what was originally written in the New Testament of the Bible.
Latin is the only dead language that I'm aware of that I would like to learn. And really mostly for bragging rights. I know a bit of Latin. How classy is that?
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I had a friend who studied biblical Hebrew at our University and thought that sounded pretty cool, but I didn't have time for it...
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I would do Latin, but I'm not sure if I'd do any other dead languages. You mentioned how usefulness isn't the only reason to learn, which I agree with, but I'd much rather see something like Tagalog, Thai, Afrikaans, Finnish, Icelandic, important languages that are alive and well but are missing from Duolingo.
I’d absolutely love to learn latin and other ancient languages here, Awesome!
As a Greek, I regard Greek language one unity, as more languages of the world. So i do not separate Greek in Old and Modern Greek. Moreover, i have noticed that Greek are missing Duolingo. I would like to see my mother tongue to be taught as well in Duolingo. I am curious to see, how one could learn Greek today by using Duolingo because this may sound as my progress to learn a language which i regard very difficult, as it is for example Chinese. I believe that Modern Greek would be also an asset since one could use them to communicate with Greeks or Greek literature nowadays.
Calling Latin a 'dead' language makes no sense. It evolved into French, Italian, Spanish, Romanian and many other languages. If it evolved into other forms how can it be exinct? Also Ancient Greek evolved into modern Greek and added thousands of words and ideas to many languages throughout the world. When people speak of democracy, atoms, geography they are using words that were given meaning by people in Greece 2300 years ago. Is the word atom dead or extinct. Lazy thinking...
Wow! I never thought of that. I guess I might want it, but it would be hard for duolingo, since it's extinct! I mean, how would they know what the words are and what the mean?!
I would very much like to study Homeric Greek, Sanskrit, and maybe even Latin, yes. This is a great idea!
In truth I would love to see Duolingo branch out to other kinds of learning than language, as appropriate. I'd like to see a whole section on alphabets or scripts of the world, since I find those especially fascinating. Plus that's the first step to learning a language, so why not make it its own thing? Include runes, alphabets, tengwar, deseret alphabet, hieroglyphics and other glyphs. The more the better!
Another whole new area of learning could be music theory. I'd love to be more familiar with all the concepts there, and learn everything there is to know about it.
That's something that would not comport with the Duolingo model at all. It could be gamified pretty successfully, I think, but it'd take a lot of work.
Though a musician all my life, I never studied it in college. This book helped me tremendously: https://www.amazon.com/Modal-Counterpoint-Renaissance-Peter-Schubert/dp/019533194X
Also, I took a couple community college classes in my 40s.
It's really hard for us non-singing instrumentalists! One of my motivations for learning Italian is to read Vincenzo Galilei in the original!
Yes! Besides all those mentioned, it would also be nice to have literature-oriented languages, like the Italian of Dante, the Old English of Beowulf, the Russian of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, etc.
The Italian of Dante is mostly the Italian of today! The dialetto toscano of the trecento became the literary model for Italian when printing arrived in Venice in the second half of the quattrocento. See Pietro Bembo's earnest efforts to make Dante & Petrarca & Boccaccio the standard in the early 1500s. A good comparison of Dante to English would be to early modern Elizabethan. A light glossary of antique terminology is all that's needed to understand Shakespeare.
What we call Italian didn't become a living language again until well into the 20th century!
Absolutely! I've loved dead languages all my life and have always wanted to learn them.
I think that would be a great idea. I study Latin for school, and I can tell you that learning a dead language is very fun. Cheers!
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I'd love to learn Ancient Greek and Biblical Hebrew in order to understand the original manuscripts of the Bible and other ancient literature. And I'm sure, many students of Theology and related studies would love it, too!
Old Norse or Old English would be cool :D
I don't think dead languages would be beneficial at all - especially since languages have developed and evolved. I think it would be nice to compare dead languages to new languages though.
I Think it would be great. I read old testament greek for example and get a lot out of it. I would like to see them try to have the ancient pronunciation as close as possible like I learned it though, not dumbed down.
This in addition to Latin would be great for any aspiring time travelers
Being a classics major, as much as I'd love to see this, since I feel like so many other courses are neglected, we should probably focus on those first. We only have stories for a hand full of languages and a podcast for only Spanish and French.
It would be great to add Ancient Greek into here. I am very interested into that, and hope so that it happens quite soon!
I would feel alright with adding more, but if Duo is going to make a habit of adding lots of Conlangs and Dead Langs I kind of hope/wish they would segregate them into tabs when selecting a language. Like when you go to add a new language you have the choice of browsing through "Living Languages, Constructed Languages, and Historical Languages" While they are all indeed languages, I do feel like their target markets hit pretty different groups (Although there can be overlap among the biggest of language nerds) and when I look for other languages throughout the ever growing selection, I would prefer just to see living languages for me personally.
Yes!!! I'm super excited for Latin but Ancient Greek would be cool too!
It indeed is posible to make a course for Ancient Greek. Currently there's a book for Ancient Greek learners called Athenaze, and it aims to teach you Ancient Greek naturally as if it's not a dead language, so why not expanding this language to Duolingo as well? I would like to see it!
I was pretty dissappointed when I found out that modern Greek and ancient Greek are pretty distinct from each other. The only Greek I'd like to learn is the ancient one so I can read. I mean, isn't that a big group of the Greek learning community... Those who love Greek history? I'd love Ancient Greek and Old English! I would drop everything right now for Old English if I could only pick one language. I love seeing any dead language on here, though. Welsh and Hebrew both have seen dramatic rise in speakers... perhaps the right cirucmstances will come about so that another dead language is used... for why I am not sure. ^_^
Actually, Modern Greek and Koine and Classical Greek aren't all that different once you get used to a few differences in the grammar. I had learned Koine first, then Classical, and when I turned to Modern I found it wasn't that difficult to adapt to.
maybe, but honestly i think the priority should be languages that are still around but are also not spoken by many, since the big languages that a lot of people speak are already out of the way. i, for one, would like to learn scottish gaelic from english.
I wish to see Gothic here. It's in a revival process now so there are people who know this language. The goal with the revival is it will be a spoken language again by those who want to speak it. The revival movement are not based on ethnicity. I have seen people from around the world to be interested in Gothic that have no known connection to the Gothic people.
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I would love to see Ancient Greek on here, however I would like Duolingo to focus on improving Latin and other newer langauges for now.
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Middle English (Chaucer), Old English, Gothic, Ancient Greek, Sanskrit, Coptic, Ancient Egyptian
i mean... guess i can't disagree with that last paragraph. probably progress from the most to least practical, though. latin arguably is THE most practical "dead language" due to it's continued use in science, other scholarly subjects and plenty of worldwide coverage in other fields (esp. literature!), you know. but it seems like demand snowballs down... but it's kind of the incubator's choice, not to put anyone down! it's cool to know klingon and high valyrian, some navajo for sure!
or if it could be done in reverse chronological order? it should have at least some logic behind it. thinking in particular of the traditional Mongolian script which diminished only 73 years ago after the introduction of Cyrillic... it certainly still spans quite a while and is found in enough places. though not even Cyrillic Mongolian is taught yet so idk, probably makes sense to put older versions of existing languages i.e. old norse, biblical greek, maybe old/middle english gosh im just rambling at this point. thoughhhhh most of these have to be learned at a college offering regional history or something at this point so it'd probably be the most costly courses duolingo has to do... that's. hm
tl;dr it's a fun party trick/useful for studying heritage, as mentioned. why not? if you have some serious drive don't treat the incubator like nothin'
If they understood that 100% of all Jews in Israel learn Hebrew WITH the vowel points before they learn them without the vowel points, they could then add Biblical Hebrew and have both Biblical and Modern Hebrew to be done both ways - 1. with vowel points and 2. without vowel points! If duolingo is going to stay pathetically thick headed in this regard - and blatantly lie about how natives learn their own language, then they might as well skip it! I mostly quit evil Duolingo anyway because they are so discriminatory! I do intend to come back, but not sure when I will have the time too. I hope in 2021. I highly doubt they would have changed by then! Yes, I have never forgave them for this. 100% of all goyim teach Modern Hebrew without vowel points! I will have to go to the natives in Israel to learn it the proper way!
Clearly need Ancient Greek in here, as I study it in the university and it would be nice to have it as an easy way to revise stuff I studied in class.
I would immediately start learning Ancient Greek! PLEASE ADD IT! Thank you!
we were forced to learn Afrikaans in school and it seems to be a pretty dead language unless you are in South Africa... think it would help anyone who is genuinely trying to learn it, even if it is dead
You sure you know what "dead language" means? Something like Afrikaans that has millions of native speakers doesn't qualify.
A dead language is specifically a language with no native speakers. Afrikaans is about 7.2 million speakers away from being a dead language.
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What's the point to it? I mean do you read ancient codex or interpret something similar? And of course there always have been the squabble that you learn a language for the sake of personal interest but at the end, you don't know how to use this.
I already wrote about this issue in the original post. I don't think "usefulness" is the most important criterion when it comes to learning foreign languages.
Personally, I am learning languages to be able to read books. That's my main goal in every language I'm learning. Being an introvert, I'm not really into socializing with other people, at least not irl :)
So it's the right thing for you. (Sorry, it's the problem of long posts that you don't take your time to read to the bottom:)
Mmm, I totally agree with HawwahResurgam; "usefulness" is not always the top priority for everybody.
Anyway, I'd love to be able to read Sumerian clay tablets or Mayan stellae by myself! It'd be like directly listening to somebody who had lived millennia or centuries before me! :3
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I, too, am looking forward to the Latin course (hope it rolls out soon!), and I would also welcome Classical Greek.
Not relevant to this thread but I'll put it out there while I'm here - I would also really like to see Spanish Spanish rather than the bastardised Latin American Spanish :-)
I really dislike this kind of language bashing. Latin American Spanish isn't "bastardized" in any way. American English isn't either. It's OK to have preferences but denigrating other languages is a completely different issue.
You are right. Completely irrelevant. So much so you should erase that part and read about how languages diverge, what are dialects and about the several languages spoken in Spain itself. Read, so you can rid yourself of ignorance.
Tbh, few people care about Greek, so it wouldn't be wise to add ancient Greek or any other dead languages. Latin is a different story, because it is taught at many schools around the world + forms the basis for the Romance languages and a lot of loanwords in e.g. English and German. But, that's just my opinion. Personally I don't have any interest in dead languages besides Latin.
Thanks for dismissing my interest in Ancient Greek (quite a few words from which made their way into Latin, since the languages were actually quite close).
Volgav vitsenanieff nivya kevach varatsach. | https://forum.duolingo.com/comment/33775190?_pxhc=1575840991984 |
The history of italics for emphasis?
Asked by: Frank Beckwith
Italic type was first used by Aldus Manutius and his press in Venice in 1500. Manutius intended his italic type to be used not for emphasis but for the text of small, easily carried editions of popular books (often poetry), replicating the style of handwritten manuscripts of the period.
When did italics start being used for emphasis?
1500
Modern “Roman” type was developed around the 1470s, while italic type was developed around 1500 and was commonly used for emphasis by the early 17th century.
What is the origin of italic?
Italicize and italics come from the Latin word for “Italian,” italicus. This print style was named in honor of the Italian printer credited as the first to use it.
What purpose does italics serve?
Italics are used primarily to denote titles and names of particular works or objects in order to allow that title or name to stand out from the surrounding sentence. Italics may also be used for emphasis in writing, but only rarely.
Does italics have anything to do with Italy?
Yes. Italic was originally just an adjective meaning “of or relating to Italy”, like Icelandic or Antarctic. Italian was used for people and the language. Italic type was just a font similar to what we use now as opposed to Gothic type.
Who invented italics?
Aldus Manutius
Italic type was first used by Aldus Manutius and his press in Venice in 1500. Manutius intended his italic type to be used not for emphasis but for the text of small, easily carried editions of popular books (often poetry), replicating the style of handwritten manuscripts of the period.
When was italic first used in the English language?
It is generally believed that those 1st millennium Italic languages descend from Indo-European languages brought by migrants to the peninsula sometime in the 2nd millennium BC. However, the source of those migrations and the history of the languages in the peninsula are still a matter of debate among historians.
Where is italic spoken?
southern Italy
The Italic languages are a group of cognate languages spoken throughout middle and southern Italy before the predominance of Rome. With the exception of Latin, they are known mainly from epigraphic sources ranging from the late 7th to the early 1st century BCE.
Are Greeks Italic?
Historically, Greek typefaces would not include both upright and slanted italic characters like Roman faces do, instead choosing generally either an entirely upright face or an entirely slanted one.
Is French an Italic language?
From Latin are derived the Romance languages, which in turn comprise the second (or medieval and modern) group of the Italic subfamily; they include Catalan, Sardinian, French, Italian, Portuguese, Occitan, Rhaeto-Romanic, Romanian, and Spanish.
Are Italic and Celtic related?
Both Italic and Celtic have a subjunctive descended from an earlier optative in -ā-. Such an optative is not known from other languages, but the suffix occurs in Balto-Slavic and Tocharian past tense formations, and possibly in Hittite -ahh-.
Did English originate Latin?
Although English is a Germanic language, it has Latin influences. Its grammar and core vocabulary are inherited from Proto-Germanic, but a significant portion of the English vocabulary comes from Romance and Latinate sources.
Why is Latin a dead language?
Conversely, although many modern languages were heavily influenced by Latin, it is not spoken today as any nation’s official language. Nonetheless, Latin is all around us. Similar to Sanskrit or Ancient Greek, Latin does not have native speakers, which qualifies it as a “Dead Language”.
What language did the Jesus speak?
Aramaic
Most religious scholars and historians agree with Pope Francis that the historical Jesus principally spoke a Galilean dialect of Aramaic. Through trade, invasions and conquest, the Aramaic language had spread far afield by the 7th century B.C., and would become the lingua franca in much of the Middle East.
What is the most forgotten language?
(Almost) Forgotten Languages
- Latin. Many of us know Latin as the godmother of romance languages, which include Italian, Spanish, French, and English (half of it, anyway). …
- Gaelic. …
- Navajo. …
- Hawaiian. …
- Australian Aboriginal. …
- Aramaic.
Why do Greeks not speak Latin?
They still maintain large amounts of vocabulary from Imperial times. Greek is not descended from Latin. In fact, the Latin alphabet was based off of that of Greece! The languages are completely different (different vocab, different alphabet) and so cannot be called a Romance language.
Is Greek older than Latin?
As the extant evidence of an historical culture, the ancient Greek language is centuries older than Latin. A recognizable form of Greek was spoken and written in the era of the Mycenaean Bronze Age, some 1500 years before the birth of Christ and the rule of Augustus Caesar.
Did Romans learn Greek?
Latin was the official language of the Roman Empire, but other languages were regionally important, such as Greek. Latin was the original language of the Romans and remained the language of imperial administration, legislation, and the military throughout the classical period.
What was the first language?
As far as the world knew, Sanskrit stood as the first spoken language because it dated as back as 5000 BC. New information indicates that although Sanskrit is among the oldest spoken languages, Tamil dates back further.
What language did Adam and Eve speak?
The Adamic language
The Adamic language, according to Jewish tradition (as recorded in the midrashim) and some Christians, is the language spoken by Adam (and possibly Eve) in the Garden of Eden.
What is the mother of all languages?
Sanskrit
Sanskrit is the Holy and Divine language of India, written in Devanagari script which is also known for its clarity and beauty. Sanskrit belongs to the Indo-European languages family.
Why did Jesus speak Aramaic and not Hebrew?
There’s scholarly consensus that the historical Jesus principally spoke Aramaic, the ancient Semitic language which was the everyday tongue in the lands of the Levant and Mesopotamia. Hebrew was more the preserve of clerics and religious scholars, a written language for holy scriptures.
Who was killed for translating the Bible into English? | https://deertales.blog/the-history-of-italics-for-emphasis/ |
By Sudhakar Raje
In South-East Asia the influence of Sanskrit was so strong that it can be seen not only in old inscriptions but also in Sanskrit names for people and places that are still in use, such as in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Burma. In the Middle-East, the present homeland of fundamentalist Islam Sanskrit had an undeniable presence.
Once upon a time, millenniums ago, the whole world was Hindu. As the mist of antiquity are dispelled, layer by layer, by unceasing research in such diverse disciplines as Archaeology, Mythology, Cosmology, Geology, Linguistics and so on, the truth emerges that from the very dawn of human civilization Arya/Hindu influence pervaded the world from East to West.
Worldwide Hindu Civilization
The most obvious evidence of this global Hindu history is of course the idols and icons of various deities of the Hindu pantheon that have been found almost all over the world. Some Hindu deities, like Ganesha, Shiva, Vishnu and Durga, have a truly global presence. The worship of the Vedic Sun God was a popular religion in the Roman Empire, Egypt, and all over the Middle-East. As for the western hemisphere, the history of Hindu culture in the Americas is both hoary and extensive.
Worldwide Sanskrit
For this worldwide spread of Hindu religion and culture, Hindu philosophy and science, the one vehicle was the Sanskrit language. Prof Avinash Chandra writes in his book Rigvedic India, that emigrants from India settled in various parts of Asia and Europe in ancient times. This resulted in Sanskrit influence on local languages. Arnold Toynbee'sbook Mankind and Mother Earth contains a map showing Sanskrit speaking nomads to the south-east of the Caspian Sea. When even nomads moving between Asia and Europe spoke Sanskrit, it is certain that the language was used by householders and educational institutions of Asia and Europe in those times.
In South-East Asia the influence of Sanskrit was so strong that it can be seen not only in old inscriptions but also in Sanskrit names for people and places that are still in use, such as in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Burma. In the Middle-East, the present homeland of fundamentalist Islam that stretches from Afghanistan to Arabia and extends to Egypt, Sanskrit had an undeniable presence. Sanskrit used to be spoken in the Hindu kingdom of Kabul, and a thousand years ago there was a Sanskrit university here. In Iran, the Zoroastrian scripture is written in the Avestan language, which is just a phonetic variation of Sanskrit.
Vedic Ancestry
As for Europe, in his monumental work The Story of Civilization Will Durant calls Sanskrit ?the mother of Indo-European languages?. In the light of recent research by Indian scholars it would be nearer the truth to say that Sanskrit is not only the mother of Indian languages but the mother of European languages as well. In fact, this research strongly suggests that they have Vedic ancestry.
The Rig Veda contains the description of a great battle called Dasharajnya, the ?Battle of Ten Kings?, which is the world'soldest recorded battle. It was fought between the Tritsu King Sudasa on the one hand and a confederacy of ten peoples or clans on the other. These ten peoples were Pakhta, Bhalana, Alina, Shiva, Vishanin, Simyu, Bhrigu, Prithu and Parshu. Collectively they had two group names?Anu and Druhyu. The Druhyu king defeated in this battle was named Angara,. His successor, King Gandhara, migrated to the North-West with his clan and gave his name to the Gandhara country. The Puranas, which are the historical companion texts of the Rig Veda, clearly state that major sections of these Druhyus emigrated to distant lands to the North. Those among them who spread to Europe came to be known as Celts, and the language they spoke came to be called Celtic. During the last some centuries before the Christian era Celtic was spoken over a wide area of Europe from Spain to Britain. These ancient Celts were originally the Druids, who in turn were identifiable with the Druhyus.
The languages the peoples that fought the Dasharajnya war spoke had split into two broad groups, called Satem and Kentum, in the original Vedic/Indian homeland itself, the Anu speaking the Satem dialects and the Druhyu the Kentum ones, With the westward spread of the Druhyus the latter evolved into proto-proto-Indo-European languages, some of which became extinct, like Latin, while others developed into extant, spoken languages, including English.
This is borne out by a study of the etymology of English words. For instance, the words in the Concise Oxford Dictionary (COD) are stated to have generally Latin roots and frequently Greek roots. As a matter of fact, in numerous such cases the evolved English word or the Latin/Greek root has such a striking resemblance to a Sanskrit word, both phonetically and in respect of meaning, as to clearly suggest that the root of the given root is Sanskrit. This writer has identified hundreds of such words in COD. In addition, there are at least a thousand words in this dictionary where the prefix or suffix is derived from Sanskrit. COD also lists about 70 purely Sanskrit words as part of the English vocabulary.
Dr N.R.Waradpande is currently engaged in compiling a full-fledged dictionary of Sanskrit-based English words, and he is confident of identifying 10,000 such words. What is remarkable, Webster?s, the world'sbiggest (18-volume) English dictionary, is said to have as many as 40,000 words described as ?akin to Sanskrit?. In fact, says Warandpande, one-fourth of the total English vocabulary is Sanskritic.
Interesting Background
Some English words not only have a Sanskrit etymology but also a Hindu history. A few such examples are given here:
Abba: This word has not only a Sanskrit origin but also a Hindu history. Abba means ?father?, and is derived from Sanskrit Appa?ap, ?water? + pa, ?to drink?. There is a Hindu ritual to offer water to the father after his death, which he is supposed to drink. So Appa, ?drinker of water?, means ?father?.
Allopathy: Allopathy is an allied development as a branch of ancient Indian medicine, which prevailed in Europe and other parts of the world till about the end of the 18th century. Allo means ?a learned borrowing? from the Greek word allos, meaning ?other?. So ?Allo-pathy? is borrowed from ?the other?, that is from the ancient Indian system of medicine, Ayurveda.
Bane: The English word ?bane?, meaning ?a curse?, has an interesting Hindu mythological background. Ancient king Prithu-Vainya was considered the original Arya king, because he started the practice of agriculture. He is thus honoured as the founder of the Arya (?agricultural?) civilization. ?Vainya? means ?son of Vena?. King Vena, however, was a tyrant, and was described as a curse on Dharma. So ?bane?, derived from ?Vena?, means a curse.
Brahmin: A curious example of how not only a Sanskrit term but even the Hindu concept underlying it has become established in the English language is provided by the word ?Brahmin?. In his magnum opus Kane and Abel best-selling British novelist William Archer frequently uses this term to denote a particular class of people or its style of speech or accent. According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary ?Brahmin? means ?a socially or culturally superior person?.
Elephant: The word ?elephant? is an interesting combination of Sanskrit and Arabic roots. It has three components, al-ibha-danta. Al is Arabic for ?the?, while ibha and danta are Sanskrit, meaning ?elephant? and ?tooth?. The English word ?ivory?, meaning ?elephant'stusk?, has a related etymology. The Hebrew word ?habbin? is derived from ?ibha?, as also the Egyptian word ?abu?. This becomes ?ebut? in Etruscan and ?eboreum? in Latin, finally becoming ?ivory? in English.
Indigo: The English word ?Indigo? is derived from the Greek word ?Indikon?, which means ?from India?. Proof exists that Indigo was made and used to dye cloth in ancient India.
Non: The English (and also French and Latin) prefix ?non? is derived from the Sanskrit word na/no, meaning ?no?. Navneet Advanced Dictionary (English-English-Marathi) has given about 550 English words using this Sanskrit-derived prefix. Concise Oxford Dictionary says the number of English words using this prefix is ?unlimited?.
Over: The English prefix ?over-? is derived from the Sanskrit term upari, meaning ?above?/ ?upon?, excessive?/ ?extra?. Navneet Advanced Dictionary has given a list of about 170 words using it. Concise Oxford Dictionary contains about 270 English words formed with this prefix. | https://organiser.org/2006/02/19/31326/general/r32b65008/ |
# Alpha privative
An alpha privative or, rarely, privative a (from Latin alpha prīvātīvum, from Ancient Greek α στερητικόν) is the prefix a- or an- (before vowels) that is used in Indo-European languages such as Sanskrit and Greek and in words borrowed therefrom to express negation or absence, for example the English words of greek origin atypical, anesthetic, and analgesic.
It is derived from a Proto-Indo-European syllabic nasal *n̥-, the zero ablaut grade of the negation *ne, i.e. /n/ used as a vowel. For this reason, it usually appears as an- before vowels (e.g. an-alphabetism, an-esthesia, an-archy). It shares the same root with the Greek prefix nē- or ne-, in Greek νη- or νε-, that is also privative (e.g. ne-penthe).
It is not to be confused with, among other things, an alpha copulative (e.g. a-delphi) or the prepositional component an- (i.e. the preposition ana with ecthlipsis or elision of its final vowel before a following vowel; e.g. an-ode).
## Cognates
### Sanskrit
The same prefix appears in Sanskrit, also as अ- a- before consonants; and अन्- an- before vowels.
### Latin
In Latin, the cognate prefix is in-. The prepositional prefix in- is unrelated.
### Germanic languages
In English and other West Germanic languages, the cognate is un- (or on-).
In North Germanic languages, the -n- has disappeared and Old Norse has ú- (e.g. ú-dáins-akr), Danish and Norwegian have u-, whereas Swedish uses o- (pronounced ), and Icelandic and Faroese use the related ó-.
## Homonym
The prefix ἁ- ha- (also ἀ- a- from psilosis), copulative a, is nearly homonymous with privative a, but originates from Proto-Indo-European *sm̥. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_privative |
seventh or last day of the week, Old English sæterdæg, sæternesdæg, literally "day of the planet Saturn," from Sæternes (genitive of Sætern; see Saturn) + Old English dæg (see day). Partial loan-translation of Latin Saturni dies "Saturn's day" (compare Dutch Zaterdag, Old Frisian Saterdi, Middle Low German Satersdach; Irish dia Sathuirn, Welsh dydd Sadwrn). The Latin word itself is a loan-translation of Greek kronou hēmera, literally "the day of Cronus."
German Samstag (Old High German sambaztag) appears to be from a Greek *sambaton, a nasalized colloquial form of sabbaton "sabbath" (see Sabbath), which also yielded Old Church Slavonic sabota, Polish sobota, Russian subbota, Hungarian szombat, French samedi.
Unlike other English day names there was no Germanic substitution, perhaps because the northern European pantheon lacks a match to Roman Saturn. A homely ancient Nordic custom seems to be preserved in Old Norse day names laugardagr, Danish lørdag, Swedish lördag "Saturday," literally "bath day" (Old Norse laug "bath").
Saturday night has been figurative of revelry and especially "drunkenness and looseness in relations between the young men and young women" ["Clara Hopwood"] at least since 1847. Saturday-night special "cheap, low-caliber handgun" is American English, attested from 1976 (earlier Saturday-night pistol, 1929).
c. 1600, as a term in classical history, from Latin Arianus, Ariana, from Greek Aria, Areia, names applied in classical times to the eastern part of ancient Persia and to its inhabitants. Ancient Persians used the name in reference to themselves (Old Persian ariya-), hence Iran. Ultimately from Sanskrit arya- "compatriot;" in later language "noble, of good family."
Also the name Sanskrit-speaking invaders of India gave themselves in the ancient texts. Thus it was the word early 19c. European philologists (Friedrich Schlegel, 1819, who linked it with German Ehre "honor") applied to the ancient people we now call Indo-Europeans, suspecting that this is what they called themselves. This use is attested in English from 1851. In German from 1845 it was specifically contrasted to Semitic (Lassen).
German philologist Max Müller (1823-1900) popularized Aryan in his writings on comparative linguistics, recommending it as the name (replacing Indo-European, Indo-Germanic, Caucasian, Japhetic) for the group of related, inflected languages connected with these peoples, mostly found in Europe but also including Sanskrit and Persian. The spelling Arian was used in this sense from 1839 (and is more philologically correct), but it caused confusion with Arian, the term in ecclesiastical history.
The terms for God, for house, for father, mother, son, daughter, for dog and cow, for heart and tears, for axe and tree, identical in all the Indo-European idioms, are like the watchwords of soldiers. We challenge the seeming stranger; and whether he answer with the lips of a Greek, a German, or an Indian, we recognize him as one of ourselves. [Müller, "History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature," 1859]
Aryan was gradually replaced in comparative linguistics c. 1900 by Indo-European, except when used to distinguish Indo-European languages of India from non-Indo-European ones. From the 1920s Aryan began to be used in Nazi ideology to mean "member of a Caucasian Gentile race of Nordic type." As an ethnic designation, however, it is properly limited to Indo-Iranians (most justly to the latter) and has fallen from general academic use since the Nazis adopted it. | https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=nordic&type=1 |
Over six decades back the colonial language English gave a tough fight to Hindi to become a parallel official language in India. Today several foreign languages are edging out regional Indian languages in the race to become the third language academically. The issue of preference given to a foreign language over Indian regional languages, which was so far a debate in private school system, has now entered the largest government school education system of the country — Central Board of Secondary Education.
The interesting question that arises in the controversy over Sanskrit vs German is whether state patronage should be behind an indigenous language to make it relevant in times of globalisation or should a foreign language, gaining ground, be given further push?
“Making Sanskrit compulsory is too much. We live in a world of globalisation and youths should be allowed to opt for the language they want but not at the cost Indian languages,’ said Shaswati Mazumdar, professor of German language in Delhi University. “I completely support the three language formula approved by Parliament and I personally feel if anybody is interested in any foreign language he can learn it as fourth language or after schooling,” she argued. Mazumdar further contended that it’s wrong to say Indian languages are being marginalised as several companies are forced to give advertisements in Hindi and regional languages to promote their products. “It’s a peculiar problem with India that we have so many languages but not a national language,” she argued.
Interestingly, the German language is compulsory in Germany by virtue of being the country’s national language. And the most interesting point is that a certificate in Latin, which is now considered ‘dead language’ by academicians, is compulsory to apply for at the university level in most. It is due to this that 30-40 per cent students opt for Latin as an optional language at Gymnasium (pre-university) level from a range of choices of Latin, Spanish and Russian among others. Latin is the official language only in Vatican City, the smallest country of the world with a population of 798 persons and area of 44 ha. Even today Latin is compulsory in one way or the other in nine western countries and offered as an elective in 20 other countries just to connect the new generations with their cultural roots by studying ancient literature and researches in their original form even though translated versions of all of them are available. The other ancient language, Greek, is the official language of Greece and also one of the two official languages of Cyprus. Both these languages are widely offered as an elective in European countries and are among 23 official languages of European Union (EU).
“Sanskrit is the mother of all the Indo-Aryan languages (Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Marathi, Gujarati, Bhojpuri, Oriya, Sindhi, Sinhala, Nepali and Assamese) Dravadian languages (Tamil, Telegu, Malyalam and Kannada). If you want to coin new word in Hindi or any Indian language you will have to go to Sanskrit which is also necessary to understand these languages in depth as most of the words are derived from Sanskrit,” argued RC Bhardwaj, head of Sanskrit department in Delhi University.
He aggressively criticises previous governments and foreign education policy makers for demoralizing those teaching and learning Sanskrit and other Indian languages by inserting foreign languages as an option for the third language by ‘imposing’ them on Indian students at nascent stage. He draws a parallel from Latin and Greek and says, “Like Greek and Latin are the main source to coin new words for English in western countries, Sanskrit is the language to coin new words for Indian languages.” He further added that besides some exceptions like naming missiles as Prithvi, Tirshool, Agni, some warships, building and roads neither government nor academicians or researchers never promoted but demoralised coining of new words from Indian regional languages or Sanskrit. Contrary to that the practice of coining new words from Greek and Latin is popular and hailed in western countries.
“A language can’t be imposed. Whenever governments in India interfere in any issue they go to extreme ends. The government interferes with the help of rules and in the course of time mere obeying of rules becomes the goal of government machinery. The development of a language occurs in social group and is a group activity. It flourishes through people’s impulse and sensitivities,’ said Dev Shankar Navin, Centre of Indian Languages, Jawaharlal Nehru University. “Unless the scope of employment is increased the entire discussion on promotion of any language would be just a formality,” he added blaming everyone from government to academicians to bureaucracy to researchers for not giving due promotion to Indian and regional languages.
Is India the only country in the world with a multi-lingual society? A little research on interest waters down the argument. Cyprus with an area of just 9,251 sqkm and population of 11.17 lakh, smaller than an average district of India in both size and population, has two official languages — Latin and Turkish, two recognised minority and four ethnic languages. The combined area and population of all the 28 member countries of the European Union which has 24 official languages is 4.38 lakh sq km, 50.74 crore respectively. The member countries have their own regional languages besides minority and tribal languages at state level therein.
In comparison to EU, India accommodates over 125 crore people on 3.29 lakh sq km area and has just two official languages at national level — Hindi and English (assisting language). ?However, there are 22 Indian languages in eight schedule of the constitution including Sanskrit, Urdu, South Indian languages. The list also includes Nepali and Sindhi which are not regional languages but adjusted to accommodate culture of linguistic minorities besides two tribal languages- Bodo and Santhali. The Maithili language which was recently included in the list is still considered a dialect of Hindi by many linguistics like Haryanavi, Bhojpuri and Avadhi.
“I don’t understand why people of Indian states feel proud in studying, speaking or using English words while those of other countries talk in their own languages in at least informal communication,” said Sushma Jain, professor of Japanese in JNU. She strongly opposes the teaching of English at primary level and emphasised that no foreign language but only mother tongue should be the medium of instruction at this level. “Sanskrit is the most scientific language and I am of the view that any person who wants to pursue his career in any foreign or Indian language must study Sanskrit,” argued Jain. “It’s a vague logic that the effort to learn Indian languages is wasted. Delhi Public School group offers Japanese as third language but the efforts of all students who become doctors and engineers is of no use as hardly any of them go to Japan but work either in India or western countries,” she contended.
Professor of Persian language Chandra Shekhar in Delhi University said, “Besides normal conversation, a language communicates culture and connects new the generation with its cultural past.” He further added “Besides cultural significance Persian is the official language in several West Asian countries and our students are recruited there on high salaries,". The professors of all the languages (Indian and foreign) admitted that the students are mostly employed in teaching or translation jobs.
“Introducing foreign language as third language is highly condemnable. It can be introduced at 10+2 level or university level,” said Ashok Gangopadhyay, an eminent Bengali scholar.
HOW WEST PRESERVES LATIN AND GREEK
Greece
Latin is compulsory for high school students who wish to study law, social and political sciences and humanities. It is one of the six subjects tested during examinations in Greece for entry into university-level courses in these fields.
Italy
In Italy, Latin is compulsory in secondary schools. In Liceo classico, ancient Greek is also a compulsory subject. About one-third of Italian certificated (18-year-olds) have studied Latin for five years.
Poland
Latin is a compulsory subject for students of law, medicine, veterinary and language studies.
Spain
Latin is a compulsory subject for all those who study humanities (students can select from three sorts of study: sciences, humanities or a mix) in grades 11 and 12.
Venezuela
Latin is taught as compulsory subject in the branch of humanities at high school for two years. In majority of the universities, Latin is a compulsory subject in history, language and select humanities disciplines.
Germany
Germany follows two language system. German is compulsory at school level, one more language is compulsory at the gymnasium (pre-university level) from Latin, Spanish, Russian etc. Nearly 30-40% students opt for Latin as a Latin certificate is compulsory requirement to apply for various university courses.
United States
There is a growing classical education movement consisting of private schools and home schools that are teaching Latin at the elementary, or grammar school level. Latin is often taught and is sometimes compulsory at Catholic secondary schools. More than 149,000 students took the 2007 National Latin Exam.
Latin is Offered as Optional:
Australia, Ireland, Switzerland, United Kingdom (England), Denmark, Sweden, Iceland, Austria, Republic of Macedonia, Netherlands, Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Portugal, Finland, Canada, France.
Sanskrit in Modern India
1791: Government Sanskrit College, Varanasi was the first educational institute opened by East India Company in Indian sub-continent. Jonathan Duncan, resident of East India Company proposed the idea to Governor General Lord Cornwallis who sanctioned an annual budget of Rs 20,000 per annum with J Myor was its first principal. The college was practically doing all the jobs of a university from affiliation to structuring course to awarding degrees but Britishers used it as a tool to translate almost all the important Sanskrit texts into English.
Ganganath Jha was the first Indian principal from 2, December 1872 to 9 November, 1941. The college in presently Sampoornanand Sanskrit University having over 1,000 Sanskrit colleges across Indian states and Nepal. This is the only Indian university to give affiliations across states.
Presently, India has at least three Central Sanskrit medium Universities and total 15 Sanskrit medium universities are in the country. | http://www.millenniumpost.in/war-of-tongues-48262 |
More than 7,000 languages are spoken in the world today. Papua New Guinea holds the record for most languages in one country, with an estimated 840. Even the United States, a country not known for its multilingualism, is home to over 350 languages.
But languages, much like animals, can become extinct. You probably won’t encounter someone speaking Coptic (an Ancient Egyptian language) at your local coffee shop. And though Latin is still used and even occasionally spoken, it is no longer the native tongue of any community of speakers.
Still, some languages are survivors; many of those spoken today have been around a very long time. Here are a few of the world’s oldest known languages and where you can hear them.
Hebrew
Hebrew is an example of a language that was almost lost, then revived. It’s at least 3,000 years old, but for about two centuries the only people who spoke Hebrew were scholars and religious leaders. The language died out as a spoken language during the first few centuries of the Common Era but was revived in the 19th century with the rise of Zionism. Today, Hebrew is the official language of Israel and the mother tongue of more than five million people — with nine million speakers around the world.
Tamil
Unlike Hebrew, Tamil has an unbroken record of at least 2,500 years in both literature and everyday life. Today, more than 80 million people speak the ancient language. It is used mostly in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore, though there are populations of Tamil speakers in Guyana, Fiji, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago as well. And more recently, immigrants have taken the language to Australia, Europe, Canada and the United States.
Sanskrit
Sanskrit has been called “the language of the gods,” not only because it’s the language of the Vedas (the scriptures of Hinduism), but because of its beauty and intricacy. It emerged around 2000 BCE and was at one time widely spoken in Central, South and Southeast Asia. Sadly, there are only an estimated two million Sanskrit speakers in India today. Because Sanskrit is the root of many Indian languages, such as Hindi and Bengali, knowing Sanskrit can help one understand these languages as well.
Greek
The Greek language dates to around 1300 BCE. Ancient Greek survives not only in the language spoken throughout Greece, the Greek Isles, Turkey and Cyprus today, but in other western languages as well. According to classics professor Tamara M. Green in The Greek and Latin Roots of English, 60 percent of English words have Greek or Latin roots. If you’re talking about specialized science vocabulary, that rises to 90 percent. While Latin is no longer anyone’s native language, it lives on in the modern Romance languages. Greek, however, is spoken by 12 million people today.
Chinese
With more than one billion speakers, Chinese is the most widely spoken language in the world — and it’s one of the oldest. Chinese characters have been found on ox bones and turtle shells dating back to the Shang Dynasty, which means the language is at least 3,000 years old, and possibly older. There are many different variations of Chinese, though Mandarin is the most common. These variations are popularly called “dialects,” but they sound quite different from one another and are often categorized as separate languages by scholars. Because the dialects share the same orthography (the prominent characters you may be familiar with), however, speakers of different dialects can communicate easily through writing even if they can’t understand one another when speaking.
Arabic
Arabic originated on the Arabian Peninsula in the early Common Era, then spread to Africa and throughout the Middle East. Between the eighth and twelfth centuries it was the lingua franca of philosophy and science. Arabic, the language of Islam and the Qur’an, is spoken by 420 million people today and is the official language of 24 countries.
Euskara (also known as Basque)
The origins of Euskara, the oldest European language, are a mystery. It’s related to no other known language family and is the only remaining language of the tongues spoken in southwestern Europe before the Romans colonized the area beginning in the second century. Although there are few statistics available, at least 750,000 people speak the language today in parts of Spain and France.
Nahuatl
This language is one of the most common indigenous languages in North America. It has been spoken in central Mexico since the seventh century and was once the language of the Aztec Empire. Today, somewhere between 1.5 and two million people speak some form of the Nahuatl language. Despite this, the language is endangered because it’s no longer taught to younger generations. Many common English words — tomato, chocolate, avocado, chipotle and coyote, for example — come from Nahuatl. | https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/eight-ancient-languages-still-spoken-today |
Is Greek the oldest language in the world?
The earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the world’s oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages.
Is Sanskrit the oldest language on earth?
World’s oldest language is Sanskrit. … It is believed that all the languages of the world have originated from Sanskrit somewhere. The Sanskrit language has been spoken since 5,000 years before Christ. Sanskrit is still the official language of India.
Does Greek come from Sanskrit?
Greek and Latin are derived from Sanskrit. Sanskrit is called as the mother language for a reason and the reason is that it is the oldest language that has given birth to almost all of the other languages (not just Indo-European).
What came before Greek language?
Modern Greek is a descendant of Proto-Greek, the ancestor of the ancient Greek dialects that were spoken in different areas of Greece before the 4th century BC and which were gradually replaced by a variety of Greek called Common Greek or Koine (κοινή) based on the Attic dialect spoken around Athens.
Is Greek older than Latin?
Greek is older than either Latin or Chinese. Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic (c. 9th–6th centuries BC), Classical (c. … 3rd century BC – 6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world.
Is Sanskrit still spoken?
Sanskrit is a language which belongs to the Indo-Aryan group and is the root of many, but not all Indian languages. … But Sanskrit is now spoken by less than 1% of Indians and is mostly used by Hindu priests during religious ceremonies.
Is Sanskrit God’s language?
Sanskrit is an ancient language, from 300 B.C. It is not a language of Gods. It was used for liturgical purposes ie as a worship language by Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. So people tended to think Sanskrit as a language of Gods.
Which is the 2nd oldest language in India?
Sanskrit – 1500 BC
With its oldest texts dating back to around 1500 BCE, Sanskrit is probably the second oldest language in the world still being used today.
What is the oldest language still in use?
1. Tamil (5000 years old) – Oldest Living Language of the World. Source Spoken by 78 million people and official language in Sri Lanka and Singapore, Tamil is the oldest language in the world. It is the only ancient language that has survived all the way to the modern world.
Is Greek and Sanskrit same?
But soon linguists discovered that their interrelation went far beyond these superficial similarities and deep into the core mechanisms of declension and conjugation; in the process revealing that ancient Greek and Sanskrit really are two phonologically different realisations of one and the same language and its …
Is Sanskrit similar to Greek?
Interrelated Languages
Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Latin, and languages of that kind are similar and have sprung from something that was ancestral to all of them that probably does not exist anymore. The affinity is not only in having roots in common but also in the grammar of those languages.
Who discovered Greek language?
There are several theories about the origins of the Greek language. One theory suggests that it originated with a migration of proto-Greek speakers into the Greek peninsula, which is dated to any period between 3000 BC and 1700 BC.
Where did Greek come from?
The traditional Greek homelands have been the Greek peninsula and the Aegean Sea, Southern Italy (Magna Graecia), the Black Sea, the Ionian coasts of Asia Minor and the islands of Cyprus and Sicily.
Who invented Greek language?
In the 8th century at the latest but probably much earlier, the Greeks borrowed their alphabet from the Phoenicians in the framework of their commercial contacts. The Phoenician alphabet had separate signs for the Semitic consonants, but the vowels were left unexpressed.
…
History and development. | https://picturesfrombulgaria.com/balkan-peninsula/which-is-the-oldest-language-greek-or-sanskrit.html |
The Life of Languages
Skiv posted an excellent response to my post about languages. I thought I would share it and my response.
It’s one thing to say that “the life and death of languages is much like the change of the seasons: timeless and irrevocable.” I don’t think that makes a good case for letting it happen, however. Letting some languages die because they don’t fit our present framework denies that there may be some future framework in which they are more relevant.
I don’t know if there is a good case or a bad case for letting it happen. I’ve pondered the nature of languages and know one ancient language, speak two modern languages fluently and have dabbled in others. I’ve tried to learn agglutinative languages, Turkish and Korean. I’ve tried to learn at least one analytical language, as well: Chinese. I do hope to one day learn Chinese and also Turkish. But that’s by the by.
The languages I have been most successful with are obviously declensional, Russian, Latin and English, although English has very, very little in the way of declensions any longer. Clearly my mind is ordered such that a languages of declensions is easier for me to ‘get.’ Alas, my attempt at Sanskrit was, well, the synonymity inbuilt in the language is just too difficult for me. At least at the current time. Although I may try again. I think there is something to be said for an educated person to understand the basics of the ancient trifecta of languages. But then, I’m a classicist in that sense.
I suppose that’s my current framework. As for future frameworks where such languages may be more relevant? I can’t speak to that, although there is a clear analogy to be made with preserving all of the species of animals on the planet. But I’m not really sure that analogy is applicable.
At the same time, I can agree that a language never exists in a vacuum; those who speak it, as with the use of any tool of any sort, do so because it serves a need. Even a completely constructed language, as Esperanto, Elvish or Klingon, does things for its speakers that another language does not. Obviate the need and the tool becomes obsolete to all but the antiquarian and the hobbyist.
I can’t really say the need is obviated, even when a language is dead. I’ll give you an example. Nat has written many times about how the decline in learning the classics, Roman (Latin) and Greek, has led to the decline in civics in America. I agree. If a language is the window into the soul of a culture, then a dead language can teach us things, help us to plot the path of success and avoid the potholes that other cultures lost wheels and axels to.
What’s pivotal to me is the cultural context of the language. Not just how we order a double-shot half-caff skinny dry vente in Urdu, but the shape and depth of the culture from which any language grows. Languages contain and express the subject positions of their speakers. The old saws about the Inuit having 44 words for “snow” and the Hawai’ians having 20 words for “lava” are illustrative. They fill a need to differentiate.
I couldn’t agree more with the larger point. I guess that is why I find linguistics—at least the comparative version of it, so fascinating. And it’s also why I always make it a point to learn the rudiments of the local language when I travel.
The writer and traveler Richard Burton reportedly spoke and read a great number of languages, including Sanskrit and Babylonian. The historian and Masonic philosopher Albert Pike read and integrated many ancient source documents into his text “Morals and Dogma.” At one time, being at least moderately familiar with ancient languages — at least Latin and Greek — as well as more than one modern language, was the mark of an educated person. Books from the turn of the last century often cite aphorisms and quotations in their original languages, the assumption being that even if the reader does not speak that language, they are at least educated enough to recognize the meaning of a famous phrase. Learn and understand the phrase, down to the subatomic level of understanding the subject position from which it was spoken, and you have the culture in the palm of your hand.
Again, this is an excellent point. It’s also why I learned Latin. Now, when I attended a private, parochial elementary school I studied Latin. But that was required. After receiving my bachelors I took to studying Latin and Ancient Greek, post-bacc. I made it through Latin and can functionally read it—and most of the Latin inscriptions I have come across in Europe and the Levant. Greek? Not so much. The aorist was terrible. And the third declension, what my professor kindly called, ‘the garbage dump of ancient Greek,’ was just as dreadful. I personally love seeing old Greek and Latin quotes in books and scholarly papers. I love translating them literally. I think my favorite it ‘sine qua non.’ It literally translates as “without which nothing.” Of course that’s the spirit of the modern translation: an essential condition or element; an indispensable thing. And yet, the literal is quite a bit more powerful in my book.
And yet we applaud the “diffusion” of English. It’s a useful tool, but I wonder that maybe we’re reshaping all our problems to fit the tool, instead of honouring the diversity of tools to address unique problems. “When you have a hammer, suddenly everything looks like a nail.” Not so many years ago, the Northern High Plains of the U.S. became a mecca for “call centres.” There’s a mixed cultural metaphor for you!
A cultural catachresis? I like it!
I’ve lately been turning this over in idle moments. The ability to travel anywhere at will has diffused English very widely. Cultures in isolation develop their own languages, from New Guinea to the Appalachians. As our globalized oil-and-debt-supported infrastructure contracts, I think we’ll see increasing divergence of local dialects again. Which leads me around full-circle to the realization that the diffusion of English also carries the markers of a culture and a worldview that may need to adapt to changing circumstances.
Agreed.
Though that means ultimately that communication across regions will require learning more languages (or at least allowing for regionalisms), I also think it restores the flexibility of language diversity to reflect and facilitate the development of robust localized cultures.
And this, in turn, I might add, will hasten the decline of some languages and speed up the growth of others. Timeless, and irrevocable, indeed. | http://www.seanpaulkelley.com/?m=200912&paged=2 |
"I tried to get Latin canceled for five years," says an exasperated Max Fischer, protagonist of Wes Anderson's Rushmore, when he hears of his school's decision to scrap Latin classes. "'It's a dead language,' I'd always say." Many have made a similarly blunt case against the study of Latin. But as we all remember, Max's educational philosophy overturns just as soon as he meets Miss Cross and brings up the cancellation to make conversation. "That's a shame because all the Romance languages were based on Latin," she says, articulating a standard defense. "Nihilo sanctum estne?" Max's reply, after Miss Cross clarifies that what she said is Latin for "Is nothing sacred?": "Sic transit gloria."
From ad hoc and bona fide to status quo and vice versa, all of us know a little bit of Latin, even the "dead language's" most outspoken opponents. But do any of us have a reason to build deliberately on that inherited knowledge? The video at the top of the post offers not just one but "Three Reasons to Study Latin (for Normal People, Not Language Geeks)."
As its host admits, "I could tell you that studying Latin will set you up to learn the Romance languages or give you a base of knowledge for fine arts and literature. I can tell you that you'll be able to read Latin on old buildings, hymns, state mottoes, or that reading Cicero and Virgil in the original is divinely beautiful." But the number one reason to study Latin, he says, is that it will improve your language acquisition skills.
And language acquisition isn't just the skill of learning languages, but "the skill of learning other skills." It teaches us that "thoughts themselves are formed differently in different languages," and learning even a single foreign word "is the act of learning to think in a new way." Study a foreign language and you enter a community, just as you do "every time you learn a new profession, learn a new hobby," or when you "interact with historians or philosophers, interact with the writers of cookbooks, or gardening books, or even writers of software." Latin in particular will also make you better at speaking English, especially if you already speak it natively. Not only are you "unavoidably blind to the weaknesses and strengths of your native meaning carrying system — your language — until you test drive a new one," the more complex, abstract half of the English vocabulary comes from Latin in the first place.
Above all, Latin promises wisdom. Not only can it "train you to conceptualize one thing in the context of many things and to see the connections between all of them," it can, by the time you're understanding meaning as well as form, "grow you in big-picture and small-picture thinking and give you the dexterity to move back and forth between both." Just as you are what you eat, "your mind becomes like what you spend your time thinking about," and the rigorously structured Latin language can imbue it with "logic, order, discipline, structure, precision." In the TED Talk above, Latin teacher Ryan Sellers builds on this idea, calling the study of Latin "one of the most effective ways of building strong fundamentals in students and preparing them for the future." Among the timeless benefits of the "eternal language" Sellers includes its ability to increase English "word power," its "mathematical" nature, and the connections it makes between the ancient world and the modern one.
Latin used to be more a part of the average school curriculum than it is now, but the debates about its usefulness have been going on for generations. Why Study Latin?, the 1951 classroom film above, covers a wide swath of them in ten minutes, from reading classics in the original to understanding scientific and medical terminology to becoming a sharper writer in English to tracing modern Western governmental and societal principles back to their Roman roots. And as the School of Life video below tells us, some things are still best expressed in Latin, an economical language that can pack a great deal of meaning into relatively few words: Veni, vidi, vici. Carpe diem. Homo sum: humani nil a me alienum puto. And of course, Latin makes every expression sound weightier — it gives a certain gravitas, we might say.
If all these arguments have sold you on the benefits of Latin, or at least got you intrigued enough to learn more, watch "How Latin Works" for a brief overview of the history and mechanics of the language, as well as an explanation of what it has given to and how it differs from English and the other European languages we use today. You might then proceed to the free Latin lessons available at the the University of Texas’ Linguistics Research Center, previously featured here on Open Culture. The more Latin you acquire, the more you'll see and hear it everywhere. You might even ask the same question Max Fischer poses to the assembled administrators of Rushmore Academy: "Is Latin dead?" His motivations have more to do with romance than Romance, but there are no bad reasons to learn a language, living or otherwise.
Related Content:
Learn Latin, Old English, Sanskrit, Classical Greek & Other Ancient Languages in 10 Lessons
What Ancient Latin Sounded Like, And How We Know It
Hip 1960s Latin Teacher Translated Beatles Songs into Latin for His Students: Read Lyrics for “O Teneum Manum,” “Diei Duri Nox” & More
Why Should We Read Virgil’s Aeneid? An Animated Video Makes the Case
The Tree of Languages Illustrated in a Big, Beautiful Infographic
Based in Seoul, Colin Marshall writes and broadcasts on cities, language, and culture. His projects include the book The Stateless City: a Walk through 21st-Century Los Angeles and the video series The City in Cinema. Follow him on Twitter at @colinmarshall or on Facebook. | http://www.openculture.com/2019/09/why-learn-latin.html |
To speak another language is to possess another soul.
Charlemagne
I have to confess: I love learning languages! I have always considered language lessons the purest form of cross-cultural communication, because you not only learn new ways to communicate with others, you also learn so much about that speaker’s culture. You get an insight into how respect is shown, how formal or informal the language is, what kind of idioms exist, what is considered important – all by making small talk. It’s probably fitting, then, that I ended up at the Institute of Modern Languages Research. But what exactly are Modern Languages?
Living Languages
Based on many university departments, you could get the idea that Modern Languages only encompass German, French, Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese, but nothing could be further from the truth. Not only is this a very Eurocentric approach, it also neglects the majority of languages in the world. A modern language is defined as any language which is spoken by at least one person as a first language. These are considered “living languages” as they are in active use. There are currently 7,139 languages spoken in the world, but roughly 40% of them are endangered.
When you have living languages, it follows that there are dead languages as well. These are considered extinct, as there are no native speakers left, even though a number of these dead languages can still be studied. Perhaps the best-known dead languages are Latin, Ancient Greek, Ancient Hebrew, Sanskrit, and Coptic. But languages like Old English and Middle English are classed as dead as well. 573 languages – that we know of – are considered extinct.
Studying Modern Languages
For many of us, our first encounters with modern languages happen either at home or at school. Some of us are raised bilingually or even multilingually with two or more languages spoken at home or in our the community. Others have foreign languages as compulsory school subjects. While there are over 7,000 languages, most schools focus on a combination of 23 languages, which are considered global languages. These are the most spoken languages and are taught to increase career and business opportunities. Next to English, they include Mandarin Chinese, Russian, Arabic, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Hindi, Urdu, Japanese, and Turkish, among others. Which languages are offered at school largely depends on geographic location, and business or political ties. The European Union language education norm is considered “M+2” – mother tongue and two languages from (neighbouring) countries. This is certainly true for the SASiety committee: four of us are native speakers of a language other than English (or consider ourselves bilingual native speakers), and between us we’re able to hold conversations in English, German, French, Spanish, Greek, Italian, and Polish, and read some Latin, if necessary.
Take my own language education as an example: I was raised in Germany and I’m a native German speaker, but as I attended a bilingual German-English school, English is my second native language. At school we were offered the choice between Latin and French. I chose French, because I want to be able to speak the languages I learn. A few years later, we had electives in Spanish, Russian, and Hebrew. I chose Spanish.
Now, English is a compulsory subject in Germany anyway. But French was offered because we lived within one and a half hours driving distance of the Belgian border. In northern Germany, we may have been offered Dutch or Danish instead, in eastern Germany Russian or Polish as a nod to Soviet times, while the south might focus more on Italian due to its proximity to the Alps.
When I’m not studying for my PhD, I work as a language teacher for English and German. And the one thing I’ve noticed is how many people choose to learn another language later in life. Some of my students have realised that they need English for their job, especially concerning business and technical applications. Some are new in Germany and want to be able to talk to the neighbours and go to the shops by themselves. Others just want to brush up their language skills for an upcoming holiday. Whenever I travel, I try to at least learn how to say hello, goodbye, yes, no, please, and thank you in the host language. Making the effort to use the language – even for such a basic exchange – can open a lot of doors.
Modern Languages at University
Modern Language Studies at universities are often not as straight-forward as simply offering language courses from beginner to advanced level. Rather, it is expected that students already possess a certain proficiency in their chosen language. Many modern languages departments offer either a linguistic or literature focus for their students.
Linguistics is the scientific study of language, and includes phonetics, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Linguists can focus on such fields as grammar, how a language changed over time, differences in usage, or how we acquire or translate languages, to name just a few.
Modern language studies with a literature focus are often more concerned with literary and/or cultural aspects. This is the case at the Institute of Modern Languages Research at SAS, where my research is based. Someone who knows French might study cultural aspects in francophone literature, for example, or how cultural memory is reflected in a country’s literature. We focus on such subjects as women’s writing, exile literature, translation, or film and culture studies, instead of studying the ins and outs of the language itself.
Which languages are offered depends on the university itself. There has been an increase in various Indigenous (Language) Studies courses, especially in Northern America, which is a promising trend. In Europe, the focus is often still on European languages – with renewed focus on Latin America and the Caribbean for Spanish, Portuguese and French Studies – although expansion into Asian languages is increasing, especially where studies with a specific geographic focus are offered.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Written by Conny Kaufmann, IMLR PhD Candidate
Check out the other A-Z Challenge participants as well! | https://sasiety.co.uk/a-z-challenge-m-modern-languages/ |
Questions tagged [greek]
A Hellenic language principally spoken in Greece.
136 questions
9
votes
3answers
671 views
Why are there words meaning both “breath” and “life/spirit” in so many languages?
In Ancient Greek, πνεῦμα (pneuma) can mean "breath" as in "a breath of air" (literal) or "divine breath of inspiration" (figurative); it can also mean "life", "spirit", and "vitality" as demonstrated ...
1
vote
1answer
72 views
Resemblance Between Turkish Ablative and Locative, Ancient Greek Ablative, Allative
I was studying some Ancient Greek, and found out that the declination of some irregular nouns are very similar. I started wondering if there is actually a language that is mother of Altaic languages ...
7
votes
3answers
308 views
Why do Spanish and Greek have such a similar phonology?
Is it just a matter of coincidence or did the two language influence each other in some way?
15
votes
5answers
12k views
Why are many ancient languages so complicated compared to many modern languages?
Many ancient languages have a structure that is more complex than that of the "respective" modern languages. Modern languages like English have simpler structure, without case, gender or declination, ...
3
votes
1answer
8k views
What is the history of the word “addict”? [closed]
Usually the origins of the word "addict" are referred to Latin. Once I read somewhere that such word could have greek roots, from "diké", justice, rights. Something like "adiktoi" could mean "those ...
4
votes
2answers
199 views
*h₁éḱwos > ἵππος, (Aeolian) ἴκκος
(in short) What's the epigraphical support to the Aeolian word ἴκκος ? I can't find it in the (very limited) data I can consult. (full story) The history of the Greek word ἵππος ("horse") can be ...
2
votes
1answer
91 views
Derivation of Greek οὐρά (backside) from PIE *h₁ers (flow)
I'm trying to understand how the Greek word for backside/rear could be derived from the PIE word for 'to flow'. There is a Sanskrit word arsati which means 'to pierce', so the meaning of the PIE root ...
13
votes
3answers
1k views
Is there a relationship between Arabic ka'b and Greek kybos?
This is a complete layman's question. Online etymology dictionary says about kaaba: 1734, Caaba, cube-shaped building in the Great Mosque of Mecca, containing the Black Stone, the most sacred site ...
2
votes
1answer
147 views
Purists and attempt to Purify Languages [closed]
Greek has been notorious for trying to Purify the Language. People tried to conserve the Attic Dialect( which evolved to Katharevousa, named blatantly as an attempt to conserve and purify) and ...
1
vote
1answer
157 views
Etymology/meaning of (Mount) Kyllene
My unabridged Liddell/Scott does not have any indication of what the name of the Greek Mount "Kyllene" means. Robert Graves in "The Greek Myths" says it means "Twisted Queen." I have seen where he ...
3
votes
1answer
331 views
Etymology of “Talo” (Finnish for “house”). Can it be a cognate of Thalamus?
The word Talo in Finnish means house. According to the wiktionary, it might be etymologically related to talas (boat-shelter). I was wondering if the word might have a common etymology with Greek ...
1
vote
1answer
332 views
Pre-Greek θάλασσα “thalassa” and Turkish talaz
Talaz is a word that means "wave, tornado" in Turkish dialects. dalga means "wave" in Turkish. You can use the following two links to look up the word's attestations throughout history: https://www....
0
votes
1answer
147 views
Is it accurate to say that the Spanish language has no connection whatsoever with the Greek language?
Is it accurate to say that the Spanish language has no connection whatsoever with the Greek language? If not, and if possible, about how much can we safely say there is?
10
votes
4answers
2k views
How does the initial consonant in “Jupiter” and “Zeus” come from the “d” in PIE “*dyew-”?
Jupiter, is from Proto-Indo-European *dyew- (“sky”) (whence also Latin diēs). Cognate with Ancient Greek Ζεύς (Zeus), Hittite 𒅆𒍑 (sius), Sanskrit द्यु (dyú). The nominative Iuppiter comes from ...
4
votes
0answers
97 views
Relation between keltoi and galatai?
The ancient Greeks used both words and appeared to have originated both. The first form appears first in 517BC by Hecateus of Milietus. The word is still known in the 12th century AD where it's used ...
4
votes
2answers
338 views
from ekwos to ippo : transition from kw to p in greek
I can't understand how the transition from kappa-digamma to pi-pi happened in the transition from ekwos (same etymology as latin equus) to ippo. I mean how did the prononciation change ? Because is ...
3
votes
0answers
50 views
Resources on Middle Eastern Common Greek in the First Century?
QUESTION: I would like to ask if anyone knows any decent resources on how native middle easterners, particularly in Judea, might have pronounced greek koine in the first century. GOAL: My primary ...
3
votes
2answers
269 views
original sens of ἑκηβόλος, an epiklesis of Apollon
I was very surprised to learn (in LSJ s.v. ἑκηβόλος) that ἑκηβόλος originally meant "attaining his aim" and not "far-shooter" as I always thought. If the Liddell-Scott-Jones recalls the later ...
8
votes
2answers
250 views
Why are the scripts of Crete known as “Linear”?
Two famous, apparently related scripts now known as Linear A (which encoded an as-yet undeciphered language) and Linear B (used to write Greek) were discovered on the island of Crete. Why are these ...
8
votes
2answers
302 views
Why is Greek alphabet left-to-right?
The Greek alphabet and all of its child systems such as Roman, Cyrillic, and Gothic are conventionally left-to-right writting systems. But why is that, considering it comes from the Phoenician ...
1
vote
2answers
2k views
How did Ancient Greek 'πυρ' become English 'fire?'
fire is derived from the Ancient Greek πυρ. My question is: how did the plosive become a fricative? I believe pyre is also derived from πυρ; why is it that pyre didn't also undergo this "...
1
vote
1answer
51 views
Is there any commentary on the etymology of the Tocharian word empreṃ?
The Tocharian word empreṃ 'truth' is often marked as being of unknown etymology. I cannot find a lot of commentary on it except from that it could be a middle Iranian word meaning 'confidence'. So, ...
3
votes
1answer
409 views
Gemination in languages not supposed to have gemination? (especially Greek)
I have been listening to the song "Dinata Dinata" by Antique, and I noticed something. You see, I'm a Native Hungarian speaker, and my native language contains gemination. So what did I notice? In ...
5
votes
1answer
231 views
Which came first in Greek: λήθη, or Λήθη the proper noun?
i.e. λήθη: a noun meaning oblivion or concealment, and Λήθη: a proper noun referring to a river in Greek myth. My question is this: is this noun a reference to the mythological river, or was the name ...
24
votes
4answers
24k views
What are the historical origins of terms for north, south, east and west?
In the course of researching the etymology of the word "Australia", I was trying to find the Latin words for north and south (the cardinal directions). I found some websites that translate north as "...
5
votes
3answers
1k views
Why is “Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani” transliterated with a Chi in Matthew and Mark?
In Matthew 27:46 (Mark 15:34), Jesus says "Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani (σαβαχθανί)", which is translated "My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?". Why is this supposedly Aramaic word ...
9
votes
1answer
251 views
Quantitative metathesis in other languages than Ancient Greek?
The Attic-Ionic dialects of Ancient Greek underwent a sound change whereby, in a sequence of a long vowel followed by a short vowel, the quantities were switched: -V:V- became -VV:-, e.g. -e:o- > -eo:-...
2
votes
3answers
653 views
Etymology of the Biblical Greek words “sigao” and “sige”
Does anyone have any leads as to the etymology of the greek words sigao (strongs # 4601) and sige (strongs # sige) which are translated silence and silent respectively in the new testament?
2
votes
2answers
375 views
connection between Castor (one of the Διόσκουροι) and the animal (beaver)?
The history of the Ancient Greek word κάστωρ (beaver) is unclear. It may be : a foreign loan-word (? Sanskrit कस्तूरी kastūrī, “musk”) a Greek word meaning "shining (animal)" from καίνυμαι (perfect ...
1
vote
1answer
671 views
Schools of Greeks and Romans linguistics [closed]
Which arguments can prove that the Greeks and Romans did not practice linguistics in its modern meaning?
14
votes
1answer
2k views
Why does Greek “ναι” mean “yes” while it comes from a PIE root meaning “no”?
According to Wiktionary, the Greek word ναι comes from Ancient Greek ναί, which is a variation of νή, which comes from Proto-Indo-European ne, which means no. Why can a word have the opposite ...
1
vote
2answers
172 views
What is the etimology of the ancient greek word “εὑρίσκω”
I can't seem to find and Indo European root for this word. I'm not even sure if it has indo european origins.
10
votes
3answers
30k views
Why is “Aurora Borealis” from Greek, but “Aurora Australis” from Latin?
In astronomy we have the Aurora Australis in the south and the Aurora Borealis in the north. According to Wikipedia, auster is in fact the Latin equivalent of the Greek νότος, or southern wind. ...
-1
votes
1answer
77 views
Does “tetrahedrization” make sense?
I am deciding on a spelling of "tessellation composed of tetrahedra" to use in my thesis. There are four choices I know of Tetrahedralization with 3,530 results on Google Scholar and 25,800 on ...
5
votes
0answers
115 views
Do we have to revise what we know about Thracian?
I have been reading the latest paper on Thracian by C. Brixhe (on the latest Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics) and I am really baffled by the conclusion. In the 6th ...
4
votes
2answers
97 views
How did Gk. ταινία “band, ribbon” come from PIE *tn̥-yā- < *ten- “to stretch”?
AHD-IER (Watkin, 2011) P93 gives PIE *tn̥-yā- for Gk. ταινία: Suffixed zero-grade form *tn̥-yā‑. taenia; polytene, from Greek tainiā, band, ribbon. while EDG (Robert Beekes, 2010) P1444: ...
4
votes
2answers
213 views
Meaning of suffix -tai in Greek
In Ptolemy's Geography, two people are mentioned by the name of Thamyditai (6.7.4, pg 402 of this book) and Oaditae (6.7.21, pg 406 of this book) Here's the scanned mention of Thamyditai Here's the ...
2
votes
0answers
56 views
Pattern to Prefixes and Suffixes in English
I've come across a list of English prefixes and remember learning in school about Latin and Greek being helpful for learning words in English based on prefixes/suffixes. I'm wondering though if there ...
1
vote
1answer
151 views
Voiced aspirated alveolar trill
Was there voiced aspirated alveolar trill in Ancient Greek? It was written in some sites in Russian that all Ancient Greek words which began with "rho" pronounced with the sound [rʰ], but it was ...
5
votes
2answers
139 views
Why do some languages distinguish between “identical” and “indistinguishable”, and others don't?
In some languages, there's a very prevalent distinction between different meanings of the English word "same" as in "These two items are the same". For example German: dasselbe / das gleiche Greek: ...
4
votes
1answer
305 views
On the etymology of Ankara / Phrygian Ἄγκυρα
I am wondering whether the Phrygian city "Ankara" (today capital of Turkey) meant really "anchor" in Phrygian? We know it means anchor in Greek, a sibling language to Phrygian with many isoglosses, ...
20
votes
2answers
994 views
Why did some Hebrew words beginning with Yod become transliterated into Latin as “hi?”
This is something I noticed when reading some different older English bibles. Often times, it seems there was originally & traditionally a digraph (I guess) ⟨Hi⟩ where now the more proper letter ⟨...
8
votes
2answers
8k views
How many of Latin words have Greek roots?
I was wondering how many of Latin (both Classical and Medieval varieties) words have Greek roots. Is Greek the common root of most IE languages?
5
votes
2answers
252 views
Boustrophedonism effects
From the looks of it Boustrophedon texts should be more efficient to read. However, I can't find any modern day research regarding its effects and reasons why it would have fallen out of use in ...
2
votes
3answers
993 views
What is the etymology of the Greek word “σαββατισμός” (sabbatismos)?
This is connected to a question on BH-SE. I have found a little in regard to the etymology of this word. For example, the root is obviously Sabbath. What significance does the greek ending "-ισμός" (-...
3
votes
1answer
76 views
How did 'litotes' evolve from 'plain, simple'?
litotes (n.) rhetorical figure in which an affirmative is expressed by the negative of its opposite, from Greek litotes, literally "plainness, simplicity," from litos "smooth, plain, small, ...
2
votes
1answer
338 views
Online Modern Greek dictionary that puts imperfective and (“dependent”) perfective verb stems together?
Does anyone know of a good online Modern Greek dictionary that puts imperfective and perfective (also called "dependent") verb stems together? For instance, the present perfective of βλέπω /'vlepo/ "...
2
votes
1answer
263 views
Greek prefix for zero - any examples?
Wikipedia states that the greek prefixes for zero are meden- ouden- Any examples in a modern language? (preferably spanish)
6
votes
2answers
375 views
The accentual (Tone) system of Ancient Greek
This question is presented with the help of the sources from Wikipedia. The Greek diacritics were introduced by Aristophanes of Byzantium, which became standard in the Middle Ages. My question is: ...
1
vote
2answers
264 views
Rules to constructing a proper compound noun in Ancient Greek
I am currently in the process of translating a text from one language into another, and the original uses a compound noun that can either be translated into English as "fly-eating" (losing the ... | https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/questions/tagged/greek?sort=active |
47 relations: Albanian language, Allophone, Alphabet, Ancient Greek, Anglo-Saxon runes, Anthony (given name), Aspirated consonant, Digraph (orthography), Dutch language, Eth, French language, German language, German orthography, Hiatus (linguistics), High German consonant shift, Interlingua, Irish language, Javanese language, Javanese script, Jèrriais, Koine Greek, Late antiquity, Latin, Latin script, Lenition, Middle English, Middle Irish, Norman language, Old English Latin alphabet, Old High German, Old Irish, Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩, Royal Thai General System of Transcription, Scottish Gaelic, Southern Bantu languages, T, Thai language, Theta, Thomas (name), Thorn (letter), Transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages, Tswana language, U, Voiced dental fricative, Voiceless retroflex stop, Welsh language, Zulu language.
Albanian (shqip, or gjuha shqipe) is a language of the Indo-European family, in which it occupies an independent branch.
An alphabet is a standard set of letters (basic written symbols or graphemes) that is used to write one or more languages based upon the general principle that the letters represent phonemes (basic significant sounds) of the spoken language.
Anglo-Saxon runes are runes used by the early Anglo-Saxons as an alphabet in their writing.
Anthony or Antony is a masculine given name, derived from the Antonii, a gens (Roman family name) to which Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius) belonged.
In phonology, hiatus or diaeresis refers to two vowel sounds occurring in adjacent syllables, with no intervening consonant.
Interlingua (ISO 639 language codes ia, ina) is an Italic international auxiliary language (IAL), developed between 1937 and 1951 by the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA).
The Javanese script, natively known as Aksara Jawa (ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦗꦮaksarajawa) and Hanacaraka (ꦲꦤꦕꦫꦏhanacaraka), is an abugida developed by the Javanese people to write several Austronesian languages spoken in Indonesia, primarily the Javanese language and an early form of Javanese called Kawi, as well as Sanskrit, an Indo-Aryan language used as a sacred language throughout Asia.
Jèrriais is the form of the Norman language spoken in Jersey, one of the Channel Islands off the coast of France.
Late antiquity is a periodization used by historians to describe the time of transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages in mainland Europe, the Mediterranean world, and the Near East.
Middle Irish (sometimes called Middle Gaelic, An Mheán-Ghaeilge) is the Goidelic language which was spoken in Ireland, most of Scotland and the Isle of Man from circa 900-1200 AD; it is therefore a contemporary of late Old English and early Middle English.
The Old English Latin alphabet—though it had no standard orthography—generally consisted of 24 letters, and was used for writing Old English from the 9th to the 12th centuries.
Old Irish (Goídelc; Sean-Ghaeilge; Seann Ghàidhlig; Shenn Yernish; sometimes called Old Gaelic) is the name given to the oldest form of the Goidelic languages for which extensive written texts are extant.
In English, the digraph th represents in most cases one of two different phonemes: the voiced dental fricative (as in this) and the voiceless dental fricative (thing).
The Royal Thai General System of Transcription (RTGS) is the official system for rendering Thai words in the Latin alphabet.
The Southern Bantu languages are a large group of Bantu languages, largely validated in Janson (1991/92).
T (named tee) is the 20th letter in the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet.
Thomas is recorded in the Greek New Testament as the name of Thomas the Apostle (one of the twelve apostles of Jesus).
Prior to the arrival of Europeans, Australian Aboriginal languages had been purely spoken languages, and had no writing system.
U (named u, plural ues) is the 21st letter and the fifth vowel in the ISO basic Latin alphabet.
The voiceless retroflex stop is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages.
Zulu (Zulu: isiZulu) is the language of the Zulu people, with about 10 million speakers, the vast majority (over 95%) of whom live in South Africa.
English th, Th (Letter), Th (letter), Th sound. | https://en.unionpedia.org/Th_(digraph) |
Can society function without the poor
No, it probably cannot.
If there’s a finite amount of any resource, including wealth, then there will be some with a great deal and some without.
Those without will live in poverty..
Who is affected by poverty
THE DYNAMICS OF POVERTY Children, lone parents, disabled people and people in households in which no one works are more likely to experience poverty, to remain in poverty for longer and to experience deeper poverty, than others.
What are 3 harmful effects of poverty on one’s personal health
Poor children are at greater risk of adverse behaviors, attention – seeking and ADHD, impulsiveness, and misbehavior. While other children manifest feelings of anxiety, depression, and low self – esteem. In addition to this, stress is said to be one of the most apparent effect of poverty.
How is homelessness functional for society
Overall, functionalism suggests that homelessness is a social problem, but not necessarily reflecting the faults in the structure of the society. … Despite how it undermines the societal structure and institutions, homelessness serves essential latent functions within a society.
What is a functionalist perspective example
According to the functionalist perspective of sociology, each aspect of society is interdependent and contributes to society’s stability and functioning as a whole. For example, the government provides education for the children of the family, which in turn pays taxes on which the state depends to keep itself running.
What is a positive function of poverty
In America, poverty functions to provide a low-wage labor pool that is willing-or, rather, unable to be unwilling-to perform dirty work at low cost.
What are the signs of poverty
11 top causes of global povertyInequality and marginalization. … Conflict. … Hunger, malnutrition, and stunting. … Poor healthcare systems — especially for mothers and children. … Little or no access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene. … Climate change. … Lack of education. … Poor public works and infrastructure.More items…•Mar 4, 2020
What poverty causes
According to the United Nations Social Policy and Development Division, “inequalities in income distribution and access to productive resources, basic social services, opportunities, markets, and information have been on the rise worldwide, often causing and exacerbating poverty.” The U.N. and many aid groups also …
What are the impacts of poverty
Poverty has negative impacts on children’s health, social, emotional and cognitive development, behaviour and educational outcomes. Children born into poverty are more likely to experience a wide range of health problems, including poor nutrition, chronic disease and mental health problems.
What is functionalist theory
Functionalism, in social sciences, theory based on the premise that all aspects of a society—institutions, roles, norms, etc. —serve a purpose and that all are indispensable for the long-term survival of the society.
How does poverty help society
Poverty helps with the recycling of goods and incompetent professionals. … A population of poor helps uphold conventional norms. The poor more often get ‘caught’ in criminal activity, and most studies deal with crimes committed by the poor.
What is the functionalist perspective on poverty
structural-functionalist approach: A sociological approach to poverty that maintains that all parts of society (even poverty) contribute in some way or another to the larger system’s stability.
What are 5 effects of poverty
Poverty is linked with negative conditions such as substandard housing, homelessness, inadequate nutrition and food insecurity, inadequate child care, lack of access to health care, unsafe neighborhoods, and underresourced schools which adversely impact our nation’s children.
Does any country have zero poverty
Some of the 15 countries (China, Kyrgyz Republic, Moldova, Vietnam) effectively eliminated extreme poverty by 2015. In others (e.g. India), low rates of extreme poverty in 2015 still translated to millions of people living in deprivation.
What are the effects of poverty on an individual
The effects of poverty can follow a child into adulthood, leading to chronic illness and lack of education or the ability to work. The effects of poverty are more than just missing a meal. Families struggle with chronic food insecurity, hunger, and malnutrition.
Is poverty a social fact
Poverty is an important social fact in virtually every society.
Why is poverty so important
Poverty is associated with a host of health risks, including elevated rates of heart disease, diabetes, hypertension, cancer, infant mortality, mental illness, undernutrition, lead poisoning, asthma, and dental problems. …
Why is poverty a reflection of society
This request is reflective of the fact that many Americans believe that poverty is, by and large, the result of laziness, immorality and irresponsibility. In fact, poverty and other social miseries are in large part due to social structure, which is how society functions at a macro level.
Is Poverty good for the economy
It makes sense that poverty rates are related to the overall health of the economy. As the economy grows, so do opportunities for employment and income growth. Stronger labor markets and higher income levels tend to help those families living in poverty move above the poverty threshold.
What could be the functional alternatives to poverty
For one thing, poverty has many more dysfunctions that functions; for another, it is possible to suggest functional alternatives. For example, society’s dirty work could be done without poverty, either by automation or by paying “dirty workers” decent wages.
What is the meaning of poverty
Essentially, poverty refers to lacking enough resources to provide the necessities of life—food, clean water, shelter and clothing. … In government circles, poverty is often further defined as “absolute poverty” and “relative poverty” (more on that below). | https://societylifeanddevelopment.com/qa/can-poverty-be-functional-for-society.html |
Last but not least, I would like to give examples and give my point of view on the word sociology, such as what does it mean to me! First, I would like to define and explain what sociology means to me! Sociology explores people and society. It examines our social institutions; our families, the state and social relationships like gender and ethnicity, to help make sense of how we both see and interpret our rapidly changing world. Sociology examines how our behavior individually and in groups is influenced by social processes and what that means.
Do classical approaches to class remain relevant to contemporary societies? Your answer should refer to the work of Marx and/or Weber. ‘The word class has been used to describe broad and diffuse groupings within a national population that are seen as forming a set of layers or strata in a hierarchy, as in the terms ‘upper’, ‘middle’ and ‘lower’ class’. (Crompton and Scott, 2000, pg.1) Class has been a key subject in sociological debate. Recently however the debate has shifted from the classical questions that Marx and Weber were asking over a century ago- How is class defined?
Functionalism is a macro theory, which looks at society as a whole rather than focuses on each individual. It is a theory that concentrates on the harmony between social institutions in society that is based on a consensus view rather than a conflict view as a Marxism theory. As a comparison to society as a whole, Functionalists use an organic analogy as an example. Each organ of the human body has a different job to do and if one part became ill or diseased, the rest could be contaminated or will produce changes in other parts. Similarly the operation of any society is dependent on its social institutions as they provide vital functions which maintain harmony, stability and solidarity within a society.
Susan Mckinley Compare and contrast the views of Goffman and Foucault on how social order is produced. The many theories of social order are fundamental in social science research. This essay will explore the creation of social order and why it is important. It will examine the similarities and differences between the perspectives of Erving Goffman and Michael Foucault on how social order is produced whilst reflecting on how these perspectives relate to studies of social disorder. As a human, each one of us is an individual being with feelings, thoughts and experiences, living within our own physical body, but we are also social beings who need contact, support and interaction.
Structural theories such as functionalism and Marxism are macro (large scale), and deterministic: they see society as a real thing existing over and above us, shaping our ideas and behaviour – individuals are like puppets, manipulated by society. Social action theorists use qualitative research methods to gather an in-depth understanding of human behaviour and the reasons behind such behaviour. This method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where and when, for example, covert or overt participant observations and unstructured interviews. Structural approaches use methods that are scientific, as they want quantitative data (e.g. questionnaires and surveys).
In addition there are many disciplines that make use of the term culture such as history, sociology, anthropology and archaeology. This makes it challenging for one common definition of the term culture to be known, however common themes within these disciplines can be seen. The notion of a high and low culture then comes under the idea of judgment based on the hierarchy of society, these ideas of high culture and low culture then lead to the discussion of the value of culture (Barker, C 2007, p. 48). The term culture started to be used in critical theory during the time of Karl Marx, him and many theorists influenced by him such as Edward said and Antonio Gramsci, first used their theories to justify the concept of the word culture. These theorists used the term to describe the social formation in their studies of anthropology (Patterson, T, C 2009, p 91).
White in Why the Gasoline Engine isn’t going away anytime soon; argue in a perspective that these issues are viewed at by society wrong. Although society presents energy independence as a must, Bryce explains how it is not desirable to become energy independent nor is it even possible. White explains that the gasoline engine is far from its last day. These two experts argue that the ignorance of society is keeping the reality of these issues absent. Bryce and White also touch on how the cost of these issues will keep them from succeeding anytime soon.
He studied the characteristics of societies and how they affect the relationships or social bonds between individuals. However, he became concerned about the shift from the traditional society to the modern society and its effects on the society, social order and the individual. He begins by explaining the characteristic of a social fact. A social fact “is a way of acting, whether fixed or not that is able to cast an external constraint on an individual and it exists outside the individual” (Edles and Applerouth 2010 87) Durkheim defines society which is a social fact as “an ideal phenomenon with its own distinctive consciousness over and above its material location in space and time. It is a consciousness that is emergent from but irreducible to the individual consciousness which comprise it”.
Abstract In the discipline of Sociology, Structural Functionalism, often referred to as functionalism, centres on the structure and functioning of society. Functionalist theorists view society as constructed of interdependent structures that work together for the benefit of society as a whole. The structural functionalist approach has its detractors, but it still remains the most effective framework for characterising the art of living together in a community. Introduction Structural functionalism has its origins in history with many theorists making significant and often controversial contributions. In this article an attempt is made to define the theory focusing on the structure of society as it has originally been equated to the human body.
Social Policy is driven by ideology. Discuss. Ideology is usually defined as a body of ideas reflecting the social needs and aspirations of an individual, group, class, or culture. –Louis Giannetti In this essay I will explain and show how social policy is in fact driven by ideology. I will explain the different ideologies that exist in societies such as Left Wing, Right Wing, Centre, Feminism, and Greenism and how they have each in their own way transform our societies. | https://www.antiessays.com/free-essays/Asses-The-Contribution-Of-Functionalist-Theory-80609.html |
The essay will critically analyse theoretical accounts of society, in particular how useful they are in understanding how death is viewed socially in the West. It will be argued that all different theoretical models of society can be useful, but that the model ‘society as an organism’, which emphasises symbolic interactionism, is often more useful than structural functionalism on its own. My analysis will start with a look a critique of structural functionalism, using Durkheim’s analysis of suicide (1953) as an example. I then look at ‘society as an organism’ in the thought of Rousseau (1913), before turning to consider these models specifically in relation to the problem of death. I discuss our Western fear of death, and suggest, drawing on Eagleton (2003), that any solution must involve facing this fear on a social level.
There are sociological theories in which society is conceived of as a total structure made of functioning parts: this is structural functionalism. Rigney (2001: 17) describes structural functionalism as follows: “society is a system of independent parts working together to produce a vital functioning whole”. For example, as there are many roles played in society, good and bad, it can be likened to a theatre, in which our life is one big stage with many different parts being and acted out (Goffman, 1969). Yet it could be argued that this approach is too simplistic because it does not take into account when people and events go outside the norms and values of society, for example in crime and disorder. In short, we might say structural functionalism cannot explain where structure is ‘dysfunctional’. It may highlight dysfunction and disorder, but it does not easily account for them. To make an example of this, we can look at Durkheim’s structural functionalist analysis of the problem of suicide, where he describes suicide in rational, structural and functional terms, but not the irrational which must also be a factor in at least many if not most suicides.
Is military force becoming less useful as an instrument of policy?
Can a definition of “Religion” be academically useful? Pick yes or no, and provide an argument as to why or why not?
Is Femininity as Much of a Threat in "Paradise Lost" as It Is in "The Aeneid"?
Culture As A Personality Or An Organism?
How Useful Is The Bayeux Tapestry As A Source For The Events Surrounding The Norman Invasion Of England? | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/just-how-useful-is-structural-functionalism-or-society-as-a-system-as-theoretical-frameworks-in-thinking-about-the-problem-of-death-as-a-sociological |
This essay will compare and contrast and contrast two leading sociological theories: Marxism and Functionalism. Marxists predominantly believe that within society inequality and prejudice are rife, whereas Functionalists live under the impression that society operates in a state of social equilibrium wherein class and social status are necessities which we allow to transpire. This essay will explore the different viewpoints each theories take on subjects such as religion, community, family and education.
Marxism is a conflict theory founded by German Philosopher and Sociologist Karl Marx in the 19th Century. It brings forth the idea that society is imbalanced and biased. ‘ Marx maintained that, with the possible exception of the societies of prehistory, all historical societies contain basic contradictions, which means that they cannot survive forever in their existing forms. These contradictions involve the exploitation of one social group by another: in feudal society, lords exploit their serfs; in capitalist society, employers exploit their employees.
This creates a fundamental conflict of interest between social groups, since one gains at the expense of another. This conflict of interest must ultimately be resolved, since a social system containing such contradictions cannot survive unchanged. ’ (Haralambos & Holborn 2013 – Page 11) Marxists believe that two opposing classes are at the heart of the conflict within society; the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie in Marxist, and general sociological terms, defines a person of wealth and capitalistic means whose concern would typically be wealth, production and capital.
The proletariat population conversely would be the general wage earners. The proletariats only noteworthy asset is that of their ability to work, they are usually industrial workers, selling their labour for the best price they can get in a stereotypical capitalist society. Functionalism, or structural functionalism, in stark contrast to Marxism, is a theoretical perspective which promotes the idea of societal stability and order through many complex processes taking place, all of which can be observed an analyzed scientifically. Haralambos & Holborn says of Functionalism that: ‘ Various parts of society are seen to be interrelated and, taken together, they form a complete system. To understand any part of society, such as the family or religion, the part must be seen in relation to society as a whole’ (Haralambos & Holborn 2013 – page 10) A common analogy coined by Herbert Spencer, a prominent English sociologist, is to label important parts of society such as norms, traditions and family as ‘ organs’, contributing to the overall wellbeing and health of the ‘ body’.
Many of the key ideas found in Functionalism can be traced back to renowned sociologist Emile Durkheim from the 19th century. Durkheim was a pioneer of sociology in all aspects, fighting for its acceptance as a recognized science long into his academic career along with being one of the first sociologists to introduce scientific and statistical data into his theories. Emile Durkheim also believed that sociology should be a purely holistic study, that it should be an analytical study of the entirety of society and not just individual components, data should be of a quantitative nature rather than qualitative.
This is a rare example of where the two theories opinions align: Marxism also generally trusts in quantitative studies, believing a study of the masses is the only way to truly gauge social effects. Both methods have their merits in equal right. Quantitative data allows for much better averages to be taken, given that the research base is so much broader. However Qualitative methodology allows the researcher to delve into a certain subject in far greater detail and perhaps glean something that could be overlooked when taking a Quantitative approach.
Both Sociological theories take very different viewpoints on most general societal subjects such as family for instance. At its most basic platform Marxists see the stereotypical nuclear family as a tool for the ruling class. Early on Marx realized the ability to pass down property through generations was a brilliantly useful mechanism for controlling wealth and capital. Marxists see the family as a potential assembly line of workers: the head of the household being the proprietor and ‘ CEO’ whilst the children are being prepared to receive their inheritance and maintain their family’s wealth and capital status.
Functionalists, however, take a much more harmonious approach. They believe: ‘ The family performs important tasks that contribute to society’s basic needs and helps perpetuate social order. ’ (Anthony Giddens 2006 – Page 238) Functionalists believe a family’s paramount purpose is to raise and support their children within society. ‘ According to the American sociologist Talcott Parsons, the family’s two main functions are primary socialization and personality stabilization.
Primary socialization is the process by which children lean the cultural norms of the society into which they are born. Because this happens during the early years of childhood, the family is the most important arena for the development of the human personality. Personality stabilization refers to the role that the family plays in assisting adult family members emotionally. Marriage between adult men and women is the arrangement through which adult personalities are supported and kept healthy. ’
Religion is another topic rife with controversy where Marxists and Functionalists are concerned. Functionalists once again take a more practical view in the sense that they believe religion must fill some sort of societal need otherwise it wouldn’t exist within society. In ‘ The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life’ (1912) Emile Durkheim offered what is probably the most influential Functionalist view on religion today. An extract from Haralambos & Holborn tells us: ‘ Durkheim argued that all societies divide the world into two categories: the sacred and the profane (the non-sacred).
Religion is based upon this division. It is ‘ a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, that is to say things set apart and forbidden. ’ (Haralambos & Holborn 2013 – Page 432) Durkheim also emphasized the importance of collective worship, he believed one of the main purposes of religion was to organize and unite society with a common goal. Karl Marx also believed religion was an essential part of societal life; however he disagreed with the majority of sociologists, such as Durkheim, who believed religion to be a generally constructive force.
Marx called religion the ‘ opiate of the people,’ he was of the opinion that religion lulled people into a dull acceptance of the situation around them, that instead of challenging supposedly unjust things people may revert to praying or relying on their faith to help them through tough times. Although religion was a minor issue compared to what Marx called ‘ The means of production. ’ ‘ Marx believed that understanding society was fundamentally about understanding power, and that power was fundamentally tied to what he called ‘ the means of production.’
If I own the field that you need to grow food, or the machinery you need to build a home, or the company you need to work at to earn money, I have power over you. It doesn’t particularly matter what you believe about the situation; what matters is the material reality of the situation, which is that you will starve unless you do as I want. ’ (Jay Gabler 2010 – Page 176) Ultimately Marx thought that religion was a tool in favour of the oppressors rather than the oppressed.
If you believe that in the hereafter you will receive divine justice for all the maltreatment and suffering in your present life, you will not fight tooth and nail for fair treatment in the present. Once again both Functionalists and Marxists take very different stances on the subject of education. Functionalists generally believe that education plays a vital role in the upbringing and socialization of children. Durkheim was of the opinion that through the teaching of subjects such as history children came to understand common values within society and learn accepted behavior.
He thought that a form of critical social solidarity stemmed from a young populace being forced into the same circumstances. However not all sociologists within the same theory had the same academic approach. Talcott Parsons was a Functionalist who argued that the main purpose of education ‘ was to instill the value of individual achievement in a child. ’ (Anthony Giddens 2006 – Page 686), Arguing the opposite to Durkheim’s belief of group focus rather than individuality. Marxism, conversely, teaches that education is just another means of control enforced by the ruling class.
Louis Althusser, a French Marxist Philosopher, believed that education was essentially a conveyor belt, another cog in the great proletariat machine, a machine built and operated by the bourgeoisie. Althusser thought that in school children are taught that capitalism is righteous and just, that it is natural to submit to a chain of command. This prepares students to become future employees in a capitalist workplace, to take orders from a boss, to submit to authority because it is the natural order of things.
Ultimately Marxists believe that education is a breeding ground for future capitalist proletariats, a place where a mind can be potentially molded into believing that it is natural to obey without question and that if you work hard enough you can rise to the top of the pile on the back of your own hard work. This highlights the stark contrast between the opinions of Functionalists and Marxists on this subject: Functionalists see education as a vital part of socialization and solidarity for children, whereas Marxists believe it is nothing more than another device to prepare the proletariat to yield to authority in a capitalist society.
To conclude, both theories have many applicable qualities to them and it is easy to understand the attraction to both veins of thought. Functionalism is appealing to an extent because of the generally positivity it provides, believing that society operates in the way it does because it must, because we, as societies inhabitants, allow it. However a general pitfall in the functionalist theory is: if the belief exists that society is shaped for the best naturally, and that we as people shape it, why strive to make anything better?
If every living person helps mould the skeletal structure of society, does that condone injustice like poverty and starvation? Do those people that suffer also have a place in society? Many people argue Functionalism is too naive, however many people believe it is generally correct and that naturally society is shaped to meet the needs of the many; although there will always be the few, who suffer as a result. Marxism, in conclusion, is a much more controversial theory than Functionalism, a conflict theory; it predominantly focuses on the belief that society is unjust.
Many countries and politically movements in the past have embraced chief concepts endorsed by Marxism, even famous political figures such as Fidel Castro are self-confessed Marxists. It is a very appealing ideal to someone setting forth in a fight against conceived injustice, however so far all attempts at large scale communism and Marxist societies in practice have been unsuccessful, the redistribution of wealth and all men being equal is a noble idyllic but whether or not it is achievable in the real world remains to be seen.
However the credibility of the theory itself isn’t called into question at all. Ultimately it falls to what each individual believes based upon what they have seen and are influenced by in their own lifetime. What is undisputable is that both theories have been founded and developed by intellectual behemoths years ahead of their times and that, without a doubt, together they have birthed a new breed of modern social science.
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In this assignment, an education institution would be tackled in depth to as the form of social institution; education would be viewed under the functionalism and symbolism theory. The assignment would go a notch higher and expound on how the society has been able to shape the institution so as to feed their respective needs.
The meanings and definitions of the keywords, that is, education, functionalism and symbolism would form part of the basis for the discussion. Moving forward, analyzing of how these theoretical perspectives of sociology affect the education institution would be taken into consideration.
The methodologies used by the individuals in the society to sharpen the institution would be the major criteria for evaluating the basis of the whole discussion.
Education Institution: Explained under Functionalism and Symbolism
Functionalism was basically developed under two common aspects of the society that acted interdependently to contribute towards the society’s role. In an education system, the state or rather the Government offers education for the children of the society involved. Families in return pay taxes to the Government that it solely uses in maintaining its operations. In this scenario, families are dependent upon the education system to assist their children in growing up and have good jobs that would aid them in raising and supporting their own families while the Government depends upon household taxes. The process commences when the children actually grow up to become law-abiding citizens that pay taxes, just like their parents, to support the state. Evidently, in functionalism theory, both parties’ acts towards assisting the other and in the process, stability, peace and high levels of productivity are reached.
In symbolism, people attach implications to symbols to represent certain features that they can identify with and it includes face to face interactions to assist the use of symbols. In the education system, symbols include: books, teachers, classrooms and uniforms. Books are symbols for gaining knowledge while teachers represent the medium through which knowledge is conveyed. In countries where uniforms are worn to schools, they symbolize the levels of education attained while others may perceive uniforms as symbols for beauty and harmony within an education environment. The major setback with this theory is that people attach different meaning and there is no uniform way of representation.
The society however fights so hard to make sure schools serve to fulfill the intended purpose for which they were created. Families will make sure that they pay taxes to facilitate the smooth running of the institution while expecting the Government to continue offering education system. | https://marvelousessays.com/essays/education/education-institution-explained-under.html |
Microsoft on Wednesday detailed a previously undiscovered technique put to use by the TrickBot malware that involves using compromised Internet of Things (IoT) devices as a go-between for establishing communications with the command-and-control (C2) servers.
“By using MikroTik routers as proxy servers for its C2 servers and redirecting the traffic through non-standard ports, TrickBot adds another persistence layer that helps malicious IPs evade detection by standard security systems,” Microsoft’s Defender for IoT Research Team and Threat Intelligence Centre (MSTIC) said.
TrickBot, which emerged as a banking trojan in 2016, has evolved into a sophisticated and persistent threat, with its modular architecture enabling it to adapt its tactics to suit different networks, environments, and devices as well as offer access-as-a-service for next-stage payloads like Conti ransomware.
The expansion to TrickBot’s capabilities comes amid reports of its infrastructure going offline, even as the botnet has continually refined its features to make its attack framework durable, evade reverse engineering, and maintain the stability of its C2 servers. | https://news.cyberfreakz.com/trickbot-malware-abusing-mikrotik-routers-as-proxies-for-command-and-control/ |
For the past 19 months, I have been in charge of the Incident Management (IM) team for FishNet Security, handling digital investigations and proactive services relating to the same. Most investigations the team is involved with center around incident response activities.
It should be no surprise to anyone at this point that there has been an escalating trend of successful hacks at companies of all types and sizes across the United States. After all, the who’s who of large enterprises, retailers and government entities have all suffered catastrophic breaches in the last few years, and nobody seems immune to it.
But, the trends and statistics are not nearly as interesting as what lurks beneath the surface of most networks in the esoteric world of malware and espionage and the details of the digital war we are currently embroiled in.
What is often a surprise to affected parties is the sophistication and timeline of attacks and how long targeted environments have actually been exposed vs. knowing they were exposed and the depth of penetration and persistence attackers have within the computing infrastructure. Often times the date of breach and date of detection have a differential of months to years.
It is not uncommon to identify that the bad guys have gained admin access to an affected environment, installed backdoors and rootkits and have been quietly snooping around, gathering intel, mapping out networks and applications, understanding data flows and siphoning off sensitive information long before their activities are detected.
Possibly the longest case I have encountered was a 5 ½ year window between compromise and detection of a company’s employee/customer database, involving PII for all parties. During this time, the attacker milked the system for new data and defended it from other attackers. If not for another attacker successfully compromising the system and using it noisily to attack other systems on the Internet, it might still be undetected today.
What’s worse, even if organizations have the technology available to them to detect the malicious activity, it often does not provide value for a variety of reasons:
- It is usually not properly configured or fine-tuned enough to filter out the noise to facilitate detection.
- Security personnel lack the necessary training and strategy to successfully identify and respond to current and evolving threats.
- Detection systems are simply not monitored at all.
In fact, most often, malicious activity is reported by outsiders, such as card brands, law enforcement entities, complaining customers or other businesses being attacked by computing resources within the affected environment. Since companies generally are not in the business of being hacked or conducting incident response investigations, they seldom have the proficiency in house to be able to adequately respond.
Quite simply put, the ability of bad guys to hack environments and establish persistence mechanisms has far outpaced most organizations’ abilities to detect and respond to the same.
Contributing to the problems, security applications (such as antivirus and IDS/IPS) intended to protect computing environments from these types of threats have been outmatched at their own game by the evolution of attacks and often provide little to no value. There is a digital arms race that is occurring and the aggressors are clearly winning.
This should be no surprise, considering the volume of money behind the attackers in what has been deemed the largest transfer of wealth in human history. There is no shortage of funding for the attackers to develop new and innovative approaches to compromise and maintain persistence within target organizations. And, as new defensive tools and methodologies are pioneered and rolled out on a large scale, the attacks quickly evolve to stay ahead of them and avoid detection.
However, in most cases, exotic evasion techniques are not needed. Attackers can generally run undetected in most environments using commoditized, high-grade malware that has become available for free or at nominal cost over the last few years.
Generally speaking, off-the-shelf malware is sufficient to evade most detection mechanisms, because of several factors outlined below, some of which have been observed by FishNet Security across scores of customer environments within the last year:
- Waterhole or spearphishing attacks employing multi-layered, automated attack strategies targeting dozens of commonly installed applications in turn in an attempt to exploit vulnerable apps, often delivered from legitimate sites over SSL and frustrating detection from IDS/IPS and network malware monitoring solutions.
- Polymorphic malware per machine changing most aspects of its footprint (hash, size, name, path) and evading AV signatures.
- Fragmented applications where no single part seems particularly malicious or ranks high in a threat score, but when functioning as a whole provide comprehensive backdoor capabilities and evade AV and host based IDS/IPS.
- Creation of hundreds or thousands of unique and randomly generated domain names for command and control, bypassing reputation blocking methods and IDS/IPS.
- Encrypted command and control communication streams evading IDS/IPS signatures and network malware monitoring solutions.
- Timestamp modification masking malware file install dates to look like legitimate operating system install date or patch install dates, frustrating basic forensic analysis.
- Sophisticated crimeware suites with remote administration capabilities permitting updates, rolling out of new modules, and holistic changes to installed code and communication channels inside and outside of the target environment allowing for rapid deployment of desired changes and complicating detection using any method.
- Memory resident, non-persistent binaries leaving no footprint on the target file system and only operational for random periods of time, complicating forensic analysis.
Over the last year, some security vendors have recognized significant gaps in these areas and have devised various solutions that have begun to address portions of them. However, there currently is no solution that addresses all of the gaps. Manual methodologies must be continually employed to identify malicious behavior, especially newly evolving threats.
To facilitate successful investigations in the evolving threat landscape across diverse customer environments, our IM team employs investigative techniques that combine numerous solutions from various vendors (as needed per the customer environment) combined with an adaptive methodology that is geared toward identifying the latest and greatest penetration and persistence methodologies.
First we take a high-level look at the entire evidence universe - file systems, system memory, process behavior, log data, network communications, etc. - using the Breach Discovery methodology. Data is monitored and collected using non-intrusive means and correlated with threat intelligence sources from years of consulting engagements in order to identify the breadth and depth of an intrusion.
Not only is this typically the first phase of any breach investigation, but often provided on its own in a proactive manner to identify if a customer has suffered a breach, what nodes may be involved and what data is potentially being exfiltrated from their environment. Further, most (if not all) of this first phase can be completed remotely, using cloud-based forensics and targeted log/network traffic collections.
Note: To date, utilizing the Breach Discovery methodology, NO network of significant size has been identified free of malware intrusion. All investigated networks contain some level of malicious command and control in varying degrees.
Once the initial scope of intrusion and the associated hosts have been identified, the IM team is ready to take a deeper dive. This can be done in a non-invasive way by utilizing a combination of network, local, and cloud-based forensics, log correlation and network traffic analysis. This allows the team to identify the timeline of events, including exploitation methods, malicious applications, backdoors, persistence mechanisms and data that has been exfiltrated from the customer environment. We’ve even been able to identify and respond to malware on nodes on remote sites and roaming users’ laptops through cloud-based forensics technology as long as the end user or IT staff installs the appropriate agent.
In conjunction with the in-depth forensic process, it is vital to perform containment and surgical remediation of affected systems, while continuing to monitor for new infections to prevent further spread of malware and persistence mechanisms throughout the environment, until a more permanent remediation process can begin.
In general this is performed using a variety of mechanisms, including:
- Host-based agents capable of blocking known malicious processes and derivatives from executing and/or making network connections.
- Host-based agents capable of killing malicious processes and associated files and persistence mechanisms.
- Network based restrictions, including segmenting affected hosts and security appliances capable or configurable to stop identified malicious network signatures and remote hosts.
- Active directory restrictions to prevent the spread of malware via network shares.
- Custom antivirus signatures to eliminate known variants within an organization.
By utilizing surgical remediation and live containment methodologies, it is possible to allow a partially contaminated network to function and facilitate semi-normal business processes while the investigation and cleanup runs in tandem. However, it is always recommended that a complete remediation be performed on all affected nodes as soon as possible, involving reimaging affected machines or rebuilding from install media, depending on the situation.
Employing a combination of best-of-breed tools and proactive methodologies, it is possible to identify and root out next-generation threats that may lurk silently und go undetected for months or years, prior to bursting forth into the headlines as the next large and embarrassing attack affecting millions of customers.
We’ve seen examples in the headlines lately of large companies with deep pockets come under attack. The ultimate cost and impact of these breaches is incalculable. But taking a proactive approach to incident response rather than waiting to find out the hard way that you’ve been breached, can minimize the associated costs and impact. | https://www.optiv.com/blog/what-lurks-your-network-finding-combating-undetected-malware |
With growing popularity of Android, it's attack surface has also increased. Prevalence of third party android marketplaces gives attackers an opportunity to plant their malicious apps in the mobile eco-system. To evade signature based detection, attackers often transform their malware, for instance, by introducing code level changes. In this paper we propose a lightweight static Permission Flow Graph (PFG) based approach to detect malware even when they have been transformed (obfuscated). A number of techniques based on behavioral analysis have also been proposed in the past; how-ever our interest lies in leveraging the permission framework alone to detect malware variants and transformations without considering behavioral aspects of a malware. Our proposed approach constructs Permission Flow Graph (PFG) for an Android App. Transformations performed at code level, often result in changing control flow, however, most of the time, the permission flow remains invariant. As a consequences, PFGs of transformed malware and non-transformed malware remain structurally similar as shown in this paper using state-of-the-art graph similarity algorithm. Furthermore, we propose graph based similarity metrics at both edge level and vertex level in order to bring forth the structural similarity of the two PFGs being compared. We validate our proposed methodology through machine learning algorithms. Results prove that our approach is successfully able to group together Android malware and its variants (transformations) together in the same cluster. Further, we demonstrate that our proposed approach is able to detect transformed malware with a detection accuracy of 98.26%, thereby ensuring that malicious Apps can be detected even after transformations. | https://cps-vo.org/node/54537 |
More than half of all web servers on the Internet use Apache, so when we discovered a malicious Apache module in the wild last month, we were understandably concerned.
[Update: David Harley has published a blog post here with additional information about this malware.]
More than half of all web servers on the Internet use Apache, so when we discovered a malicious Apache module in the wild last month, being used to inject malicious content into web pages displayed by compromised web servers, we were understandably concerned. Our concern deepened when we discovered that this malware was being used in a scheme to steal banking credentials.
At first, we wondered if this code might be related to the Linux/Snasko.A rootkit reported to the Full-Disclosure mailing list and then analyzed by CrowdStrike and Kaspersky but it turns out this is a completely different beast.
Although the module can serve any type of content, in this specific case the final payload, achieved via the iframe injection, was installation of a variant of Win32/Zbot, which is commonly used to steal banking information from infected systems.
We also found that this module has a couple of interesting capabilities designed to reduce its chances of being spotted by system administrators. In addition to analyzing the malicious Apache module, we were able to analyze the malicious content it was serving.
In this analysis, we will present the characteristics of Linux/Chapro.A. We will also give an overview of the exploit kit used to install malware, and the final Win32/Zbot payload.
Linux/Chapro.A Characteristics
The Linux/Chapro.A malicious Apache module is an x64 Linux binary. This malware makes use of only one obfuscation technique. It uses an XOR loop with a 12 byte long key to encode most of the strings.
The program has many capabilities to evade detection by system administrators. Before serving malicious content to a visitor, multiple checks will be performed.
First, Linux/Chapro.A checks the web browser’s user agent for known bots as well as web browsers that are not likely to be vulnerable to the exploits used to infect the target system. If the web browser visiting the page has a user agent string that contains keywords known to be used by web crawlers, the malware will not be served the malicious content. The following figure shows some of the keywords used by the bot.
Linux/Chapro.A will also inspect all active SSH sessions on the Linux system on which it is running to determine the IP addresses being used by them. If a visitor browses a page using any of the same IPs involved in a SSH connection, it will not be served the malicious content. This helps hide the malicious content from system administrators, web developers and others who might be working on the web server
Before injecting the malicious iframe into the web content sent by the server, Linux/Chapro.A sets a cookie in the visiting web browser. Malicious content will not be served if the visiting browser already had that cookie set. This helps ensure that visitors will not receive malicious content over and over again, making it more difficult to determine how a system was infected.
Finally, Linux/Chapro.A maintains a list of IP addresses that have been served malicious content. If a user visits an infected website twice from the same IP address; it will only receive the malicious content once. This provides a second, additional method to make the path of infection more difficult to determine.
Injected Content
The main purpose of Linux/Chapro.A is to inject iframes into webpages served by the Apache webserver to which it is attached. To do so, the malware sends an HTTP POST request to its command and control server every 10 minutes. The following figure shows one such HTTP POST request.
At the time of our analysis, the malicious command and control server was being hosted in Germany. It has recently gone offline.
The request is simple; it only includes the version of the malware and the operating system it is running on. The command and control server will respond to the query with the iframe to be injected by the malicious apache module. The iframe is encoded using base64 and XOR. If a visitor does not fall into any of the blacklists detailed in the previous section, it is served the iframe downloaded from the command and control server.
The figure below shows the HTML code for an iframe sent by Linux/Chapro.A. The iframe is positioned outside of the usual browser display area in order to avoid being seen by the user.
Exploit Kit
Based on our analysis and descriptions from this article, we are confident the iframe injected by Linux/Chapro.A points to a “Sweet Orange” exploit pack landing page. At the time of our analysis, the exploit pack was being hosted in Lithuania. The pack tries to exploit the following vulnerabilities found in modern web browsers and plugins:
- CVE-2012-5076: Java JAX-WS Class Handling
- CVE-2012-4681: Java getField Method Class Invocation Privilege Escalation
- CVE-2006-0003: Internet Explorer MDAC
- CVE-2010-0188: Adobe Reader LibTiff Integer Overflow
If the exploit pack is able to exploit one of the vulnerabilities it has exploits for, the final payload is executed.
Attack Payload
The final purpose of the attack we have investigated is to install a variant of Win32/Zbot, also known as ZeuS, which has been widely used for years to steal banking-related information. In this case, the Win32/Zbot variant targets European and Russian banking institutions. The screenshot below shows a form used by a bank to give customers online access to account information.
Apparently this bank is aware that it has been targeted by criminals attempting to obtain customer PIN code and CVC/CVV code information. Indeed, a specific warning is shown on its customer login form. However, when the login page is visited from a compromised host, this warning is removed by the malware, as you can see below.
Once the user has logged into his account, the malware will inject a pop-up asking for the CVV code for his card, which is exactly the behavior outlined in the warning on the original login form. The malware will then try to send the user credentials, along with the CVV, to the botnet operator.
Conclusions
The Linux/Chapro.A attack has not been publicly documented in the past. Our telemetry systems did not report other installation of this malicious Apache module in the wild. While the intent of injecting iframes into served webpages is the same as the rootkit analyzed by Crowdstrike and Kaspersky, we confirm this is not the same malware family. On the other hand, this malware has many similarities to something discussed on Russian underground forums as exposed by Dancho Danchev.
While we have not witnessed any other installations of Linux/Chapro.A in the wild, we have observed thousands of users accessing the Sweet Orange exploit pack before we blocked access to this server in our products. ESET blocked the exploit attempts through generic detection, even before additional protection was added with URL blocking.
The attack described in the present analysis shows the increased complexity of malware attacks. This complicated case spreads across three different countries, targeting users from a fourth one, making it very hard for law enforcement agencies to investigate and mitigate. It is not clear at this point in time if the same group of people are behind the whole operation, or if multiple gangs collaborated, perhaps with one to drive traffic to the exploit pack and sell the infected computers to another gang operating a botnet based on Win32/Zbot.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the following researchers for their contribution in this research:Jean-Ian Boutin, François Chagnon, Sébastien Duquette, Aleksander Matrosov.
Analyzed Files
The following listing provides the MD5 hashes for the files involved in our research: | https://www.welivesecurity.com/2012/12/18/malicious-apache-module-used-for-content-injection-linuxchapro-a/ |
What is Command and Control
Malicious network attacks have been on the rise in the last decade. One of the most damaging attacks, often executed over DNS, is accomplished through command and control, also known as C2 (or C&C). Since command-and-control attacks can compromise an entire network, it’s important to understand what they are and how they work.
Command and Control Definition
Command and control is defined as a technique used by threat actors to communicate with compromised devices over a network. C2 usually involves one or more covert channels, but depending on the attack, specific mechanisms can vary greatly. Attackers typically use these channels to deliver instructions to the compromised device in order to download additional malware, create botnets or exfiltrate data. According to the MITRE ATT&CK framework, there are over 16 different command-and-control techniques used by adversaries, including numerous subtechniques.
How C2 Works in Cybersecurity
An attacker will try to establish an initial foothold to infect the targeted machine. This can be done in a variety of ways, including:
Via a phishing email that tricks the user into following a link to a malicious website or opening an attachment that executes malicious code.
Through security holes in browser plugins or other malicious software.
Once the machine is successfully compromised, the threat actor will establish communication between the infected device and the malicious C2 server. It’s important to note that many attackers will try to blend C2 traffic with other types of legitimate traffic, such as HTTP/HTTPS or DNS, to avoid being detected.
Once communication is established, the infected machine sends a signal to the attacker’s server looking for further instructions. The attacker can then carry out a set of commands on the compromised device, including prompting the victim’s computer to search for vulnerabilities on other systems within the network. This allows the attacker to move laterally through the network and compromise the entire infrastructure, thereby creating a botnet – a network of infected machines to execute coordinated attacks.
Within the kill chain (coined by Lockheed Martin), also referred to as the attack lifecycle, command and control is one of the last stages, right before threat actors complete their objectives. This means that the attacker has already bypassed other security tools that may have been in place. Thus, it is critical for security professionals to quickly discover and prevent C2.
What Can Attackers Accomplish Through Command and Control?
- Malware delivery: With control of a compromised machine within a victim’s network, adversaries can trigger the download of additional malware.
- Data theft: Sensitive company data, such as financial documents, can be copied or transferred to an attacker’s server.
- Shutdown: An attacker can shut down one or several machines or even bring down a company’s network.
- Reboot: Infected computers may suddenly and repeatedly shut down and reboot, which can disrupt normal business operations.
- Defense evasion: Adversaries commonly attempt to mimic normal, expected traffic to avoid detection. Depending on the victim’s network structure and defenses, attackers will establish command and control with varying levels of stealth, evading security tools.
With the increase in the use of sophisticated automation tools traditionally used by enterprise security red teams, attackers are now able to customize and replicate the C2 malicious code, making it easier for bad actors to evade detection from security defenses. To learn more about stopping sophisticated attackers from establishing a C2 connection as well as other evasion techniques, read Palo Alto Networks Approach to Intrusion Prevention. | https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cyberpedia/what-is-command-and-control |
This report is a technical overview of the WhisperGate malware reported by Microsoft Threat Intelligence on January 15, 2022. It is intended for those looking for a high-level overview of the malware’s TTPs and mitigations.
Executive SummaryWhisperGate is a new malware family being used in an ongoing operation targeting multiple industries in Ukraine, including government, non-profit, and information technology organizations. The malware is a 3-stage master boot record (MBR) wiper designed to destroy a victim’s MBR and corrupt files on attached storage devices. Each stage of the malware has a discrete task: stage 1 overwrites the MBR with a ransom note and code to overwrite sections on each drive found, stage 2 downloads and executes stage 3, which is hosted on Discord’s CDN as a JPG attachment, and stage 3 corrupts any file that matches a list of 191 file extensions. The developers of the malware use obfuscation, particularly in stage 3, to evade detection and analysis. WhisperGate wipes and corrupts a Windows system to the point where files and drives are no longer recoverable or usable. Details around the motive for WhisperGate and the threat actor behind the attacks are still emerging. These attacks take place in the context of an escalating risk of a Russian invasion of Ukraine and the Ukrainian government website defacements that occurred on January 14, 2022.
Key Judgments
- As of this writing, the threat actor group deploying WhisperGate has not been attributed to any known threat groups, but other researchers suspect the group is state sponsored.
- The same precautions taken against ransomware with respect to data backups should be applied to mitigate the effects of WhisperGate’s data destruction capabilities.
- WhisperGate malware has not been observed in use as part of any other attacks outside of Ukraine, indicating it may have been developed specifically for this operation.
BackgroundOn January 15, 2022, Microsoft reported a destructive malware operation targeting multiple organizations in Ukraine. This activity has not been attributed to any existing threat actor group and is therefore being tracked using Microsoft's DEV-#### naming convention, which is used to track unknown emerging clusters of threat activity. This group has been given the designation DEV-0586 until it is eventually converted to a named actor or merged with an existing actor. Microsoft started seeing this malicious activity on January 13, 2022, which led to the investigation that uncovered a new malware family that is being tracked as WhisperGate.
WhisperGate Technical AnalysisThe WhisperGate malware has 3 stages, detailed below in Figure 1. All 3 stages must be executed prior to the machine rebooting for maximum effect. Stage 1 corrupts the MBR of the victim’s boot disk and upon reboot will corrupt other drives on the system. Stage 2 downloads stage 3, which is used to corrupt files on attached file systems and network drives. File damage will occur if even just one of either stage 1 or stage 2 executes successfully. In testing, we found that GUID Partition Table (GPT) disks are not irreparably destroyed by WhisperGate’s stage 1 malware and therefore are partially immune to that stage of the malware. We speculate that the inclusion of stage 2 and 3 may be a way to ensure that victims using GPT-style boot disks are affected by the malware too. However, stage 3 also targets remote network drives, which would cause further damage regardless of the partitioning scheme used by the victim’s boot disk.
Stage 1: Overwrite Master Boot Record (MBR)Stage 1 is compiled using the Minimalist GNU for Windows (MinGW) development environment, which supports GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) 6.3.0 on Windows. The binary’s primary objective is to overwrite the MBR of “\\\\.\\PhysicalDrive0” with a custom MBR whose effect won’t be seen until the machine reboots. At startup, the computer’s BIOS determines the disk order to use when looking for the MBR. Overwriting the MBR on PhysicalDrive0 is making an assumption that that disk is the first one in line to be checked by the BIOS, which is normally a reasonable assumption. Once the machine reboots and the custom MBR code executes, the user is presented with the ransom note displayed in Figure 2.
After displaying the ransom note, the MBR code overwrites sections of each drive, on 199-byte intervals, with the contents shown in Figure 3. The content written to each drive differs at the sixth byte, incrementing sequentially from 0x00.
The MBR code writes the content multiple times to each drive by making extended write function calls via interrupt 0x13, as shown in Figure 4.
In the event that a victim is using GPT-style partition tables on their boot disk, then stage 1 will not be effective. Upon reboot, Windows will not be able to boot; however, WhisperGate’s MBR code, which corrupts the disk drives, will not run. Since GPT disks maintain a backup copy of the GPT table at the end of a disk, victims can restore the GPT table by running a live Linux distribution and using the gdisk utility’s recovery command like shown in Figure 5.
Stage 2: DownloaderStage 2 is written in .NET, and its primary functionality is to download the third stage of the malware and execute it. It begins execution after 20 seconds, using the PowerShell command “powershell -enc UwB0AGEAcgB0AC0AUwBsAGUAZQBwACAALQBzACAAMQAwAA==”, which decodes to “Start-Sleep -s 10”. The 10-second delay is executed twice and is likely used to help the malware evade detection by AV engines. The malware retrieves the third stage from a Discord attachment hosted on https://cdn[.]discordapp[.]com, named Tbopbh.jpg. Stage 2 reverses the JPG file’s bytes, reflectively loads the JPG file as a .NET assembly, and then calls the exported function “Ylfwdwgmpilzyaph”.
Stage 3: File CorrupterStage 3 of the malware is written in .NET and obfuscated with eazfuscator. Upon execution, 2 embedded PE executable resources (AdvancedRun and Wagybg) are unpacked, decoded, and GZIP decompressed. Next, a .vbs script is written to “%AppData%\local\Temp\Nmddfrqqrbyjeygggda.vbs” and executed with Wscript.exe. The script, shown in Figure 6, is used to exclude the entire C drive from being scanned by Windows Defender.
AdvancedRun is then executed to stop the Windows Defender service and delete its program data folder. AdvancedRun is benign software developed by NirSoft and used to run programs under different settings. The author used AdvancedRun due to its ability to run programs with TrustedInstaller privileges, which are needed to execute the command that disables Windows Defender. Figures 7 and 8 show the command line arguments used to run AdvancedRun.exe. The use of the “/RunAs 8” argument instructs AdvancedRun to use the TrustedInstaller privileges.
Finally, Wagybg is run via process hollowing in an InstallUtil.exe process. A similar technique was used to load the Netwire trojan in 2019 as part of a phishing campaign. InstallUtil is a benign program produced by Microsoft and distributed as part of the .NET framework.
This stage of the malware is used to perform file corruption. It first gets a list of logical drives on the system by calling GetLogicalDrives(), then identifies those that are fixed media or network drives. The malware searches these drives for files ending in 1 of the 191 file extensions shown in Figure 9 below. It then corrupts matching files by overwriting the first 1 MiB of each file with 0xCC bytes.
After it finishes corrupting files, the corrupter sends 5 ping requests to 111.111.111[.]111 and then deletes itself as shown in Figure 10. While it is unclear exactly why the malware makes the ping requests, we speculate that it could be to add a time delay before deleting itself or to keep a record of infected hosts.
MitigationsWe recommend that organizations consider an offsite backup strategy to protect their data from the destruction capabilities of the WhisperGate malware.
- Network segmentation can prevent attackers and malware from gaining access to other parts of an organization's network. This solution involves splitting the larger network into smaller network segments and can be accomplished through firewalls, virtual local area networks, and other separation techniques.
- Consider keeping sensitive client information on systems that are disconnected from the internet or segmented from the rest of the corporate network. Since WhisperGate malware will tamper with files on a victim system, moving highly sensitive customer data to a system with no internet access or access to the rest of the network will minimize the access WhisperGate malware would have to those files.
- Configure your intrusion detection systems (IDS), intrusion prevention systems (IPS), or any network defense mechanisms in place to alert on — and, upon review, consider blocking connection attempts to and from — the external IP address mentioned.
- If remote access solutions are crucial to daily operations, all such remote access services and protocols, such as Citrix and RDP, should be implemented with two-factor or multi-factor authentication.
- Monitor for the creation of suspicious file modification activity, particularly large quantities of file modifications in user directories.
- Set the Execution Policy for PowerShell to require that scripts be signed in order to be executed. This will only be effective for scripts being run traditionally (for example by double-clicking) and will not protect against base64-encoded scripts executed on the command line as an argument to the PowerShell program (such as powershell.exe <command>).
- Use newer versions of PowerShell, such as version 5, which added some security-related improvements.
- Ensure logging of scripts and commands is enabled. These include: Module Logging (records pipeline execution of PowerShell scripts, including some portions of the script, some deobfuscated code and some data formatted for output), Script Block Logging (records execution, including full contents of scripts and commands that are executed), and Transcription (creates a unique record of each PowerShell session, including input and output). While logging will not necessarily prevent malicious PowerShell from executing, it could help with understanding what kind of malicious behavior or indicators were involved.
OutlookAs of this writing, it appears that DEV-0586 has only been using WhisperGate to target organizations in Ukraine. We expect more information about this threat actor, including attribution, will be published over the next few days or weeks. Now that WhisperGate has been publicly reported and security professionals have been alerted to the malware, it is possible that the developers of WhisperGate will alter the wiper to better evade detections. | https://www.recordedfuture.com/whispergate-malware-corrupts-computers-ukraine |
TOP VULNERABILITY THIS WEEK: The newly discovered W32/DistTrack malware emerged as one of the most destructive pieces of malicious code in years, spreading via SMB and intentionally killing machines within four hours of infection. Although targeted at the energy sector for the time being, any adaptation of this malware or code that emulated its behavior could cause major disruptions for any company infected with it. Security analysts and operations teams are urged to follow its progress closely and deploy all available detection methods against it immediately.
Special Webcast: Conducting a Legal Investigation in Social Media: How to Do; How Not to Do It - Featuring Benjamin Wright. Thursday, September 13, 2012 at 1:00 PM EDT.
Oct 3-5, Baltimore - featuring DHS and other government leaders providing a clear picture of the changes coming in federal cybersecurity - especially in cloud and continuous monitoring. Not to miss. We try never to promote conferences where SANS doesn't control the program, but is an exception because the DHS and NIST folks have done a great job!
Description: McAfee discovered last week an extremely destructive new piece of malware that they dubbed DistTrack. Within four hours of infection, the malware has not only overwritten critical system files with a portion of a JPEG image, it overwrites the Master Boot Record with zeroes and forces a reboot, effectively killing the machine, and requiring users to use forensics tools to recover data. The Sourcefire VRT has confirmed that this malware is in the wild, and is targeted towards energy companies specifically. While attacks thus far have been extremely targeted in nature, detection is very straightforward, and users are urged to stay vigilant, as the consequences of a successful attack would be devastating.
Description: A major Android malware outbreak was spotted over the weekend in China by security firm TrustGo. The malicious app, dubbed SMSZombie, steals information from the impacted user and forwards it via SMS to the creators of the malware; it also dials premium SMS numbers. The malware is distinct from previous apps in that generates no TCP/IP traffic to communicate with C&Cs, which hampers detection at the network level. Signatures for downloads of the malicious files are available, and mobile AV products should be used to spot and remediate infections as appropriate.
Description: Last week's Flash 0-day attacks, which were patched by Adobe as CVE-2012-1535, are continuing to spread in the wild. Live command and control servers have been spotted by researchers around the world, and targets outside of the initial military-industrial scope of the 0-day attacks have been confirmed hit by the Sourcefire VRT. Users are urged to patch their Flash installations to the most current release immediately, as this attack is likely to continue spreading over time, and will almost certainly make its way into exploit kits worldwide within the next several weeks.
Description: Exploit code exists for a major, trivially exploitable vulnerability against the Oracle FlashTunnelService. By hitting a directory traversal bug and making use of the built-in writeToFile function, users can drop arbitrary files on impacted systems, and then call a URL in order to execute code in those files. The entire process can be completed with no authentication. The Sourcefire VRT has observed exploitation in the field, which can be fully automated with ease. Users of Oracle systems are urged to patch immediately.
Description: Microsoft Windows Common Controls are ActiveX controls contained in the MSCOMCTL.OCX file. Windows Common Controls is prone to a remote code execution vulnerability. | https://www.sans.org/newsletters/at-risk/xii/34 |
Researchers have discovered a new version of the DNS Messenger attack which masquerades as the US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and hosts malware on compromised government servers.
On Wednesday, security researches from Cisco Talos revealed the results of an investigation into DNS Messenger, a fileless attack which uses DNS queries to push malicious PowerShell commands on compromised computers.
A new version of this attack, which the team say is "highly targeted in nature," now attempts to compromise victim systems by pretending to be the SEC Electronic Data Gathering Analysis, and Retrieval (EDGAR) system -- recently at the heart of a data breach related to financial fraud -- in specially crafted phishing email campaigns.
These spoofed emails made them seem legitimate, but should a victim open them and download a malicious attachment contained within, a "multi-stage infection process" begins.
The malicious attachments used in this campaign are Microsoft Word documents. However, rather than using macros or OLE objects to gain a foothold into a system, the threat actors used a less common method of infection, Dynamic Data Exchange (DDE), to perform code execution and install a remote access Trojan (RAT).
It is important to note that Microsoft says that DDE is not an exploitable issue, but rather a feature "by design," and will not be removed.
Talos disagrees, and claims that the team has witnessed DDE "actively being used by attackers in the wild, as demonstrated in this attack."
According to Talos, the latest malware campaign is similar to its last evolution. The infection process uses DNS TXT records to create a bidirectional command-and-control (C2) channel, in which attackers are able to interact with the Windows Command Processor using the contents of DNS TXT record queries and responses generated from the threat actor's DNS server.
When opened, users are asked to permit external links to be retrieved. Should they agree, the malicious document reaches out to an attacker-controlled command-and-control (C&C) server which executes the first malware infection.
This malware was initially hosted on a Louisiana state government website, "seemingly compromised and used for this purpose," according to the team.
Speaking to ZDNet, Craig Williams, Senior Technical Leader at Cisco Talos said that by the time the findings were made public, the files were removed from the server.
PowerShell commands then come into play. Code is retrieved, obfuscated, and then executed, which kicks off persistence on systems, registry rewrites, scheduled task creation, and DNS requests are made.
"In this particular case, the malware featured the capability to leverage WMI, ADS, scheduled tasks, as well as registry keys to obtain persistence," the researchers note. "The use of DNS as a conveyance for later stage code and C2 communications is also becoming more and more commonplace."
While the team was unable to obtain the next stage of PowerShell code from the C2 servers, Talos says it is likely that communications are restricted to prevent security researchers from being able to track the team and their techniques further, making it more likely that their DNS-based attacks can fly under the radar for longer periods.
However, according to researcher Anthony Yates, he was able to secure the final payload by analyzing some of the findings.
Yates says that the payload is typical C&C bot code, and includes information gathering commands -- suggesting the purpose of the DNS attack is for cyberespionage.
"Attackers often employ multiple layers of obfuscation in an attempt to make analysis more difficult, evade detection and prevention capabilities, and continue to operate under the radar by limiting their attacks to only the organizations that they are targeting," Talos says. "It is also important for organizations to be aware of some of the more interesting techniques that malware is using to execute malicious code on systems and gain persistence on systems once they are infected." | https://www.zdnet.com/article/sec-spoofed-malware-hosted-on-us-govt-servers-in-new-dns-attack/ |
In this week’s post, we take a look at “in-the-wild” phishing attacks and talk about how to counter them. Protecting yourself from phishing and malware attacks is not only important, it’s a fundamental Internet survival skill, made even more essential if you have a web presence you depend on. A compromised workstation could lead to compromised credentials, ultimately leading to complete control of your website by bad actors. We don’t want that.
We’re kicking off a new blog series here at SiteLock, to share some of the insight we gather every day removing malware from websites. This series will be geared toward folks interested in learning more about the web application security landscape. In this space, we’ll cover various topics each week – everything from CMS security to malware, to vulnerabilities and best security practices.
One of the interesting things about tracking malware campaigns is their changing behavior as the campaigns shift to different targets, employ new tactics to evade detection, and propagate new malware, based on the changing economics of the campaigns.
Below is an example we have seen take shape and evolve over the past few weeks that should give readers an example of how these changes occur and what is going on behind the scenes of a large-scale malware attack campaign.
Don’t you love the feeling of customer inquiries in your morning inbox? So much interest in your site! You look closer at the emails and find they’re all from Michael – Michael Jordan, Michael Kors, Michael Vuitton – well, Louis Vuitton, but you get the point. Somehow, spambots found your form and blindly barraged your inbox with handbag and sneaker spam, or worse, adult content. How do you, a busy business owner, stop the spam while allowing legitimate requests? The good news is that you have a couple options – one is easy and the other, even easier.
Transport Layer Security, or TLS, is the protocol commonly used in HTTPS connections. Logjam is the code name for a cryptographic weakness in the Diffie-Helman key exchange algorithm used by TLS. The Diffie-Helman Exchange (DHE) allows two parties – a browser and server in our case – to exchange prime numbers in a secure manner which are then used to create a shared secret used to encrypt a session.
A team of computer scientists and security researchers found that precomputing the prime number groups that DHE uses allows faster computation of the discrete logs used to find the shared secret. With academic-level resources, the researchers precomputed a 512-bit group used by 82% of vulnerable servers. The researchers posit that nation-state level resources could precompute 1024-bit Diffie-Helman groups, affecting even larger swaths of the internet.
Earlier this week a security researcher reported a cross site scripting vulnerability, also known as an XSS vulnerability, in the WordPress icon package, Genericons. Genericons is an icon package that was used with the default-installed WordPress theme, Twenty Fifteen. Genericons included an HTML file, named example.html, which actually had the cross site scripting flaw.
The XSS vulnerability was DOM, or document object model, based meaning it could potentially control how the browser handles a requested page. The victim would have to be coaxed into clicking a malicious link, reducing severity, though the exploit remains widely deployed all the same.
Recently, a security researcher released a zero-day stored XSS vulnerability in WordPress, meaning it was previously undisclosed and, at the time, unpatched. The vulnerability affected the latest versions of WordPress at release, including 4.2.
How Can The XSS Vulnerability Be Exploited?
The xss vulnerability involves how WordPress stores comments in its MySQL database. Comments are stored as text and the size of that text is limited to 64 kilobytes, or 64,000 characters. Given a previously approved comment, an attacker could create a malformed comment using approved HTML tags and tack on 64 kb of any character (perl -e ‘print “a” x 64000’). The 64 kb of junk is truncated and what’s left is a malicious comment in the database which will run whenever it’s viewed. And what can run is up to the attacker – creating backdoors, stealing credentials, malicious redirects and more.
Earlier this week, a remote code execution vulnerability against Magento, the eBay-owned free and paid eCommerce platform, was released. Security researchers chained together multiple smaller vulnerabilities to ultimately run arbitrary code on the server Magento is hosted on.
A cross-site scripting (XSS) vulnerability was recently revealed in the WordPress caching plugin, WP Super Cache.
What Does The WP Super Cache Plugin Do?
WP Super Cache converts dynamic WordPress pages into static HTML. This creates pages that are quicker to serve to visitors than a database-generated page. Great for high traffic sites, WP Super Cache’s popularity has garnered over a million downloads. | https://www.sitelock.com/blog/author/whenry/page/4/ |
The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center (NCCIC) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) are issuing this activity alert to inform computer network defenders about SamSam ransomware, also known as MSIL/Samas.A. Specifically, this product shares analysis of vulnerabilities that cyber actors exploited to deploy this ransomware. In addition, this report provides recommendations for prevention and mitigation.
Microsoft Operating Systems BlueKeep Vulnerability
Please note, a vulnerability, known as “BlueKeep,” that exists in the following Microsoft Windows Operating Systems (OSs), including both 32- and 64-bit versions, as well as all Service Pack versions:
Inventory of Authorized and Unauthorized Devices
How do attackers exploit the absence of this control?
Many criminal groups and nation-states deploy systems that continuously scan address spaces of target organizations, waiting for new and unprotected systems to be attached to the network. The attackers also look for laptops not up to date with patches because they are not frequently connected to the network. One common attack takes advantage of new hardware that is installed on the network one evening and not configured and patched with appropriate security updates until the following day.
Microsoft Ending Support for Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2
On January 14, 2020, Microsoft will end extended support for their Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 operating systems. After this date, these products will no longer receive free technical support, or software and security updates. Organizations that have regulatory obligations may find that they are unable to satisfy compliance requirements while running Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2.
Malware Defenses
How do attackers exploit the absence of this control?
Malicious software is an integral and dangerous aspect of Internet threats, targeting end-users and organizations via web browsing, e-mail attachments, mobile devices, the cloud, and other vectors. Malicious code may tamper with the system's contents, capture sensitive data, and spread to other systems. Modern malware aims to avoid signature-based and behavioral detection, and may disable anti-virus tools running on the targeted system. Anti-virus and anti-spyware software, collectively referred to as anti-malware tools, help defend against these threats by attempting to detect malware and block its execution. | http://ssnetworks.net/business-solutions-ft/8-securityadvisor |
GnatSpy is a mobile malware family used to target Android-powered devices. The malware is believed to be a new variant of the VAMP malware as the two share some C2 infrastructure. The APT threat group known as "Two-tailed Scorpion" or "APT-C-23" have targeted Android users using these malware variants via malicious apps in order to obtain images, text messages, contact information, call history, and other sensitive data from the infected devices. GnatSpy, however, is a more modular and sophisticated piece of malware, incorporating capabilities to capture additional information about the device's battery, memory and storage usage, and SIM card status. It contains several functions targeting newer Android operating system versions, such as Marshmallow and Nougat. To evade detection, the malicious app's code uses Java annotations and reflection methods and encodes its C2 server. However, a function call is in this code that provides a C2 URL that, when accessed, sends back the location of the actual C2 server. The C2 domains have been recently registered, suggesting the threat actors are still active despite reporting of their activities.
Trend Micro provides technical analysis on GnatSpy here. | https://www.cyber.nj.gov/threat-profiles/android-malware-variants/gnatspy |
Understanding what malware is, viruses, worms, Trojans and more
Malware is a collective term for viruses, worms, Trojans, and other harmful computer programs, and has existed since the early days of computing. Malware is constantly evolving, and hackers use it to destroy and steal sensitive information. Fighting malware is the main job of an information security expert on a daily basis.
Definition
of Malware Malware is an acronym for malicious software. As Microsoft describes it, it collectively refers to "any software designed to harm a single computer, server, or network of computers." In other words, malware is classified based on its intended use, rather than the specific technique or technology used to create it.
Types of
Malware For example, the question of what is the difference between malware and a virus misses the point. Viruses are a type of malware. So, all viruses are malware (but not all malware is viruses).
There are several ways to classify malicious code. The first is classification according to how the malicious software spreads. The terms virus, Trojan horse, and worm tend to be used interchangeably without distinction, but each has a slightly different method of infecting a target computer, as Symantec explains.
- A worm is malicious software that runs independently, which replicates itself and spreads to other computers.
- A virus is computer code that injects itself into the code of another independent program and then forces that program to act maliciously and spread itself.
- Trojan horses cannot self-replicate, but disguise themselves as something the user wants, and inflict damage and spread in a way that induces them to activate themselves.
An attacker could also install malware “directly” on a computer, either by gaining physical access to the computer or by using elevation of privilege to gain remote administrator access.
Another way to classify malware is based on the actions it performs after successfully infecting a computer. The attack techniques used for malware are quite diverse.
- Spyware: Webroot Cybersecurity defines spyware as "malware used for the purpose of secretly collecting data from unsuspecting users". Basically, spyware spies on data you send and receives from your computer, and their purpose is usually to send this information to third parties. A keylogger is a type of spyware that logs every keystroke of a user, and is used to steal passwords.
- Rootkit:TechTarget defines it as "a program, or, more commonly, a suite of software tools, that grants a threat actor remote access or control over a computer or other system". The name rootkit derives from its ability to steal root access (administrator-level control in Unix terms) of a target system and use it to hide its existence.
- Adware: Malware that forcibly sends browsers to web advertisements, and in many cases downloads more malicious software. As The New York Times pointed out, adware often hides in attractive "free" programs in the form of games or browser extensions.
- Ransomware: A type of malware used to encrypt files on a hard drive and then demand money (usually Bitcoin) in exchange for a decryption key. Ransomware is malware that has gained notoriety over the past few years, such as Petya. It is mathematically impossible for the victim to regain access to the file without the decryption key. Scareware is an imitative version of ransomware. They claim to have taken over the computer and demand a ransom, but in fact, they use tricks such as a browser redirect loop to exaggerate the extent of the damage than they actually are, and unlike ransomware, it can be released relatively easily.
Every kind of malware has a means of infection and a category of action. For example, WannaCry is a ransomware worm. In addition, certain malware can use various attack vectors and take various forms. For example, the Emotet banking malware was found in both forms: a Trojan horse and a worm.
The types of malware can be identified by looking at the top 10 malware attacks as of June 2018 by the Center for Internet Security. The most common infection vector is spam emails that trick users into activating malware or Trojan horses.
The malware that appears most frequently in this ranking is WannaCry and Emotet. However, there are many malware classified as remote access Trojans (RATs, rootkits that propagate in the same way as Trojans), including NanoCore and Gh0st. In addition, there are cryptocurrency malware such as CoinMiner.
How to block malware
Since the main routes for malware to infect computers are spam and phishing emails, the best way to prevent malware is to lock down your email system and educate users on how to recognize the risks.
It's a good idea to scrutinize the documents attached to emails and limit potentially dangerous user behavior. It should also inform users of common phishing scams so they can respond rationally.
A technical countermeasure involves several steps, including patching all systems and keeping them updated, maintaining an ongoing hardware inventory to determine what needs to be protected, and performing an ongoing vulnerability assessment of the infrastructure. In particular, one way to prepare for a ransomware attack is to always back up your files so that even if your hard drive is encrypted, you don't have to pay a ransom to get it back.
Anti- Malware
Protection One of the most popular products in the category of malware protection products is anti-virus software. Although the word "virus" is included in the name, most products respond to all forms of malware.
Although now considered a relic among top security professionals, antivirus software still plays a pivotal role in basic malware defenses. According to recent AV-TEST test results, the best antivirus software at the moment is software from Kaspersky Lab, Symantec and Trend Micro.
For corporate networks, endpoint security products can provide in-depth defense against malware. In addition to signature-based malware detection commonly used in antivirus, it provides anti-spyware, personal firewall, application control, and other host intrusion prevention features. Gartner's list of Best Products includes products from Cylance, CrowdStrike and Carbon Black.
How to detect malicious code
Even with thorough protection, there is always the possibility that the system will be infected with malicious code. How to make sure?
At the enterprise IT level, there are also more advanced tools that provide a broader perspective that can be used to understand the state of the network and detect malware infections. Most malware spreads using networks or sends information to masterminds, so network traffic includes signs of malware infection that administrators go unnoticed.
There are a variety of network monitoring tools in this area, with prices ranging from a few dollars to thousands of dollars. There are also SIEM tools that evolved from log management programs. The SIEM tool analyzes the logs of various computers and applications located in the infrastructure to catch signals of problems, including malware infections.
In the SIEM market, there are a variety of companies, from IT representatives such as IBM and HP Enterprise to small specialized companies such as Splunk and Alien Vault.
How to get rid of malware
How to remove malware after being infected with malware is the most important question. Removal of malicious code is a difficult task, and the method varies depending on the type of malicious code. CSOs have information on how to get rid of rootkits, ransomware, and cryptojacking, or how to recover after an attack. It also provides a guide for auditing the Windows registry.
If you're looking for a tool to clean your system, Tech Radar has a collection of useful free products. There are some familiar names in the antivirus space, and some start-ups like Malwarebytes.
Examples
of Malicious Codes I mentioned earlier about the current malicious code threats. However, the history of malware goes back to the days of infected floppy disks swapped out by individual Apple II users in the 1980s and the Morris worm that spread throughout Unix systems in 1988. Other major malware incidents are as follows.
- ILOVEYOU: A worm that spread violently in 2000, causing more than $15 billion in damage
- SQL Slammer: It started spreading in 2003 and stopped Internet traffic within minutes
- Conficker : A worm that takes advantage of Windows' unpatched flaws and exploits various attack vectors ranging from malicious code injection to phishing emails, ultimately breaking passwords and hijacking Windows devices as botnets.
- Zeus: A keylogger Trojan that appeared in the late 2000s, aiming for banking information
- CryptoLocker: The first widespread ransomware attack, and the code of CryptoLocker is continuously modified and used by similar malware projects Becoming
- Stuxnet: An extremely sophisticated worm that infects computers all over the world, but inflicts real damage to only one Iranian nuclear facility in Natanz. Stuxnet, created by US intelligence agencies, destroyed Iran's uranium-enriched centrifuge on its mission. | https://www.boudy-technology.tn/2022/06/understanding-what-malware%20.html |
Researchers have uncovered a complex malware campaign targeting organisations involved in this winter’s Pyeongchang Olympics in South Korea – disguised, ironically, as an email from the country’s national security services.
The campaign began on 22 December, with attackers quickly adopting newly released tools to help disguise their malicious code, said computer security firm McAfee.
The malware-infected email is spoofed so that it appears to come from [email protected], an address used by South Korea’s National Counter-Terrorism Center (NCTC).
“The timing is interesting because the NCTC was in the process of conducting physical antiterror drills in the region in preparation for the Olympic Games,” McAfee said in an advisory. “The spoofed source of this email suggests the message is legitimate and increases the chances that victims will treat it as such.”
Infected attachment
The real sender was an IP address in Singapore, McAfee said.
The email was initially sent to [email protected], with a number of other South Korean organisations listed in the BCC line, most involved either in providing infrastructure or support for the Olympics.
The email included an infected attachment with a Korean-language title that translates as
“Organised by Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and Pyeongchang Winter Olympics”.
Initially the attachers used a hypertext application (HTA) file to install malware on targets’ computers, but they quickly shifted to another method that involves hiding the malicious code in an image file, a technique called steganography.
To do so they used a tool released only days earlier, demonstrating their quick adoption of new techniques, McAfee said.
The attackers’ elaborate methods are designed to bypass security software that might otherwise detect and block the malicious code being downloaded and executed on users’ systems.
Disguised scripts
Techniques such as email spoofing and the use of the Korean language help make the malicious document appear legitimate, McAfee said.
The latest malicious attachment is a Word document written in Korean that asks users to enable content. If they do so, a Visual Basic macro launches a PowerShell script that downloads an image file from a remote server.
It then reads and executes another PowerShell script hidden in the image. This second script establishes a link to a server in the Czech Republic, which gives the attackers the ability to execute commands remotely on the target’s machine.
Both scripts are heavily disguised, McAfee said.
“The attacker’s objective is to make analysis difficult and to evade detection technologies that rely on pattern matching,” the researchers wrote.
To hide the code in the image the attackers used Invoke-PSImage, an open source tool only released on 20 December.
McAfee found that the Czech server belongs to a legitimate organisation, suggesting it was hacked for use in distributing malware.
The hackers’ efforts appear to have paid off, researchers said, since a log for the Czech control server indicated that IP addresses from South Korea were connecting to the URLs contained in the malware.
In-memory implant
“This indicates that the implant was active in South Korea and targets were likely being infected,” McAfee said.
The use of in-memory PowerShell implants is an increasingly common technique that doesn’t require files to be stored on the targets’ systems, with the malware running entirely in-memory.
McAfee said it was the first time the technique had been observed targeting South Korean organisations. In the past attackers have tended to target vulnerabilities in Hangul, a popular South Korean word-processing program.
“With the upcoming Olympics, we expect to see an increase in cyberattacks using Olympics-related themes,” McAfee said. “In similar past cases, the victims were targeted for their passwords and financial information.”
Do you know all about security? Try our quiz! | https://www.silicon.co.uk/security/stealth-malware-pyeongchang-olympics-226819 |
Tracking the malicious activities of the elusive Ke3chang APT group, ESET researchers have discovered new versions of malware families linked to the group, and a previously unreported backdoor
In this blogpost, we will sum up the findings published in full in our white paper “Okrum and Ketrican: An overview of recent Ke3chang group activity”.
The Ke3chang group, also known as APT15, is a threat group believed to be operating out of China. Its activities were traced back to 2010 in FireEye’s 2013 report on operation Ke3chang – a cyberespionage campaign directed at diplomatic organizations in Europe.
We have been tracking the malicious activities related to this threat actor and discovered a previously undocumented malware family with strong links to the Ke3chang group – a backdoor we named Okrum. According to ESET telemetry, Okrum was first detected in December 2016, and targeted diplomatic missions in Slovakia, Belgium, Chile, Guatemala and Brazil throughout 2017.
Furthermore, from 2015 to 2019, we detected new versions of known malware families attributed to the Ke3chang group – BS2005 backdoors from operation Ke3chang and the RoyalDNS malware, reported by NCC Group in 2018.
Note: New versions of operation Ke3chang malware from 2015-2019 are detected by ESET systems as Win32/Ketrican and collectively referred to as Ketrican backdoors/samples, marked with the relevant year, across our white paper and this blogpost.
2015: Ketrican
In 2015, we identified new suspicious activities in European countries. The group behind the attacks seemed to have a particular interest in Slovakia, where a big portion of the discovered malware samples was detected; Croatia, the Czech Republic and other countries were also affected.
Our technical analysis of the malware used in these attacks showed close ties to BS2005 backdoors from operation Ke3chang, and to a related TidePool malware family discovered by Palo Alto Networks in 2016 that targeted Indian embassies across the globe.
2016-2017: Okrum
The story continued in late 2016, when we discovered a new, previously unknown backdoor that we named Okrum. The malicious actors behind the Okrum malware were focused on the same targets in Slovakia that were previously targeted by Ketrican 2015 backdoors.
2017: Ketrican and RoyalDNS
We started connecting the dots when we discovered that the Okrum backdoor was used to drop a Ketrican backdoor, freshly compiled in 2017.
In 2017, the same entities that were affected by the Okrum malware (and by the 2015 Ketrican backdoors) again became targets of the malicious actors. This time, the attackers used new versions of the RoyalDNS malware and a Ketrican 2017 backdoor.
2018: Ketrican
In 2018, we discovered a new version of the Ketrican backdoor that featured some code improvements.
2019: Ketrican
The group continues to be active in 2019 – in March 2019, we detected a new Ketrican sample that has evolved from the 2018 Ketrican backdoor. It attacked the same targets as the backdoor from 2018.
This timeline of events shows that the attackers were focused on the same type of targets but were using different malicious toolsets to compromise them. In the process, they exposed Okrum, a formerly unknown project. Figure 1 shows ESET detections related to our investigation in the context of previously documented Ke3chang activity.
Our research has shown that the Ketrican, Okrum, and RoyalDNS backdoors detected by ESET after 2015 are linked to previously documented Ke3chang group activity, and to each other, in a number of ways. These are the most important connections:
- Ketrican backdoors from 2015, 2017, 2018 and 2019 have all evolved from malware used in Operation Ke3chang
- The RoyalDNS backdoor detected by ESET in 2017 is similar to the RoyalDNS backdoor used in previously reported attacks
- Okrum is linked to Ketrican backdoors in that it was used to drop a Ketrican backdoor compiled in 2017
- Okrum, Ketrican and RoyalDNS target the same type of organizations; some of the entities affected by Okrum were also targeted with one or more of Ketrican/RoyalDNS backdoors
- Okrum has a similar modus operandi as previously documented Ke3chang malware – it is equipped with a basic set of backdoor commands and relies on manually typing shell commands and executing external tools for most of its malicious activity
Distribution and targets
According to our telemetry, Okrum was used to target diplomatic missions in Slovakia, Belgium, Chile, Guatemala, and Brazil, with the attackers showing a particular interest in Slovakia.
The operators of the malware tried to hide malicious traffic with its C&C server within regular network traffic by registering seemingly legitimate domain names. For example, the samples used against Slovak targets communicated with a domain name mimicking a Slovak map portal (support.slovakmaps[.]com). A similar masquerade was used in a sample detected in a Spanish speaking country in South America – the operators used a domain name that translates as “missions support” in Spanish (misiones.soportesisco[.]com).
How the Okrum malware was distributed to the targeted machines is a question that remains to be answered.
Technical details
The Okrum backdoor is a dynamic-link library that is installed and loaded by two earlier-stage components. During our investigation, the implementation of these two components was being changed frequently. Every few months, the authors actively changed implementation of the Okrum loader and installer components to avoid detection. By the time of publication, ESET systems have detected seven different versions of the loader component and two versions of the installer, although the functionality remained the same.
The payload of Okrum is hidden in a PNG file. When the file is viewed in an image viewer, a familiar image is displayed, as seen in Figure 2, but the Okrum loaders are able to locate an extra encrypted file that the user cannot see. This steganography technique is an attempt by the malicious actors to stay unnoticed and evade detection.
As for functionality, Okrum is only equipped with basic backdoor commands, such as downloading and uploading files, executing files and shell commands. Most of the malicious activity has to be performed by typing shell commands manually, or by executing other tools and software. This is a common practice of the Ke3chang group, which had also been pointed out previously in the Intezer and NCC Group reports monitoring Ke3chang group activity.
Indeed, we have detected various external tools being abused by Okrum, such as a keylogger, tools for dumping passwords, or enumerating network sessions. The Ketrican backdoors we detected from 2015 to 2019 used similar utilities. We can only guess why the Ke3chang actor uses this technique – maybe the combination of a simple backdoor and external tools fully accommodates their needs, while being easier to develop; but it may also be an attempt to evade behavioral detection.
The detection evasion techniques we observed in the Okrum malware include embedding the malicious payload within a legitimate PNG image, employing several anti-emulation and anti-sandbox tricks, as well as making frequent changes in implementation.
Our analysis of the links between previously documented Ke3chang malware and the newly discovered Okrum backdoor lets us claim with high confidence that Okrum is operated by the Ke3chang group. Having documented Ke3chang group activity from 2015 to 2019, we conclude that the group continues to be active and works on improving its code over time.
ESET detection names and other Indicators of Compromise for these campaigns can be found in the full white paper: “Okrum and Ketrican: An overview of recent Ke3chang group activity”.
|Tactic||ID||Name||Description|
|Execution||T1059||Command-Line Interface||Okrum’s backdoor uses cmd.exe to execute arbitrary commands.|
|T1064||Scripting||The backdoor uses batch scripts to update itself to a newer version.|
|T1035||Service Execution||The Stage 1 loader creates a new service named NtmsSvc to execute the payload.|
|Persistence||T1050||New Service||To establish persistence, Okrum installs itself as a new service named NtmSsvc.|
|T1060||Registry Run Keys / Startup Folder||Okrum establishes persistence by creating a .lnk shortcut to itself in the Startup folder.|
|T1053||Scheduled Task||The installer component tries to achieve persistence by creating a scheduled task.|
|T1023||Shortcut Modification||Okrum establishes persistence by creating a .lnk shortcut to itself in the Startup folder.|
|Privilege Escalation||T1134||Access Token Manipulation||Okrum can impersonate a logged on user’s security context using a call to the ImpersonateLoggedOnUser API.|
|Defense Evasion||T1140||Deobfuscate/Decode Files or Information||The Stage 1 loader decrypts the backdoor code, embedded within the loader or within a legitimate PNG file. A custom XOR cipher or RC4 is used for decryption.|
|T1107||File Deletion||Okrum’s backdoor deletes files after they have been successfully uploaded to C&C servers.|
|T1158||Hidden Files and Directories||Before exfiltration, Okrum’s backdoor uses hidden files to store logs and outputs from backdoor commands.|
|T1066||Indicator Removal from Tools||Okrum underwent regular technical improvements to evade antivirus detection.|
|T1036||Masquerading||Okrum establishes persistence by adding a new service NtmsSvc with the display name Removable Storage in an attempt to masquerade as a legitimate Removable Storage Manager.|
|T1027||Obfuscated Files or Information||Okrum’s payload is encrypted and embedded within the Stage 1 loader, or within a legitimate PNG file.|
|T1497||Virtualization/Sandbox Evasion||The Stage 1 loader performs several checks on the victim’s machine to avoid being emulated or executed in a sandbox.|
|Credential Access||T1003||Credential Dumping||Okrum was seen using MimikatzLite and modified Quarks PwDump to perform credential dumping.|
|Discovery||T1083||File and Directory Discovery||Okrum was seen using DriveLetterView to enumerate drive information.|
|T1082||System Information Discovery||Okrum collects computer name, locale information, and information about the OS and architecture.|
|T1016||System Network Configuration Discovery||Okrum collects network information, including host IP address, DNS and proxy information.|
|T1049||System Network Connections Discovery||Okrum used NetSess to discover NetBIOS sessions.|
|T1033||System Owner/User Discovery||Okrum collects the victim user name.|
|T1124||System Time Discovery||Okrum can obtain the date and time of the compromised system.|
|Collection||T1056||Input Capture||Okrum was seen using a keylogger tool to capture keystrokes.|
|Exfiltration||T1002||Data Compressed||Okrum was seen using a RAR archiver tool to compress data.|
|T1022||Data Encrypted||Okrum uses AES encryption and base64 encoding of files before exfiltration.|
|T1041||Exfiltration Over Command and Control Channel||Data exfiltration is done using the already opened channel with the C&C server.|
|Command And Control||T1043||Commonly Used Port||Okrum uses port 80 for C&C.|
|T1090||Connection Proxy||Okrum identifies a proxy server if it exists and uses it to make HTTP requests.|
|T1132||Data Encoding||The communication with the C&C server is base64 encoded.|
|T1001||Data Obfuscation||The communication with the C&C server is hidden in the Cookie and Set-Cookie headers of HTTP requests.|
|T1071||Standard Application Layer Protocol||Okrum uses HTTP for communication with its C&C.|
|T1032||Standard Cryptographic Protocol||Okrum uses AES to encrypt network traffic. The key can be hardcoded or negotiated with the C&C server in the registration phase.|
No tags for this post. | http://www.securityglobal24h.com/okrum-ke3chang-group-targets-diplomatic-missions-10/tranning-it-hacking/Information-Security-latest-Hacking-News-Cyber-Security-Network-Security |
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In the first article of this series -- Threats! What Threats? -- I mentioned that my colleague, Steve Patton, thought we at Stamus Networks weren’t doing enough to explain what we mean when we say “threats.” His reasoning was that we talk a lot about threats, but we never really explain what we mean.
In an effort to fix that we will dig deeper into a very prolific threat facing nearly every organization - Malware. We’ll look at what we mean by Malware and how Stamus Security Platform (SSP) can help.
What is malware and why is it bad?
Malware, otherwise known as malicious software, is essentially any type of software that is meant to bypass a system's intended operation. The goal of malware is to cause damage to a computer’s systems. It is important to note that not every software that causes damage to a system is malware, and sometimes certain programs just have bugs or are naturally corrupt. The difference between these types of programs and malware is that the latter intentionally seeks to harm a system or the organization and user the system belongs to.
There are many different types of malware which are often classified by the way it infects a system and the type of attack it seeks to carry out. While some malware types are more dangerous than others, without the proper defense systems they all pose a serious threat on any organization’s systems. Here are some of the more common types of malware and their basic functions:
- Viruses: Triggered by an action like opening an attachment or running a newly downloaded program, viruses drop a payload of code that rewrites or destroys critical files or implants other malicious software like trojans or ransomware.
- Worms: This type of malware can infect systems without any user contact, and then spread quickly to other uninfected systems. By using remote code execution, black hats that employ worms can install programs, create new users, and change network settings.
- Trojans: By pretending to be another type of non-malicious program like a PDF file, game, or browser extension, trojans can avoid detection while running malicious tasks in the background. Remote Access Trojans (RATs) are fairly common and allow adversaries to employ command and control servers to remotely gain backdoor access into your system through seemingly normal network traffic.
- Ransomware: This malware uses encryption to lock certain files or block access to a computer’s system until a ransom is paid. Check out this previous article for a closer look at what Ransomware is and how SSP can help.
- Spyware and Adware: These two types of malware tend to infect a computer’s web browsers. Spyware steals data whereas adware displays large amounts of ads which can often contain other malware programs.
Once Malware has infected a system, it might not necessarily act immediately. More sophisticated malware often functions as an Advanced Persistent Threat (APT) and will spend long periods of time attempting to remain undetected to gather more information, access different parts of a system, or wait for a specific trigger or user action to deploy a full payload.
How does Stamus Security Platform help with malware?
It is vital to the safety of an organization to malware is caught before extensive damage is done. By employing the use of a network-based detection and response system like the Stamus Security Platform (SSP), analysts can see threats before they have the opportunity to cause a full-blown data breach.
SSP uses thousands of different detection methods that are each suited for different types of malware infections. These methods help locate and identify various types of malware and then provide valuable context that not only helps security teams stop the threat, but also gives them the opportunity to create automation that can help detect those same threats even faster in the future.
Let’s take a look at one specific type of malware for an example:
Remote Access Trojans (RATs) use backdoor access to control a target machine with administrative privilege. This is typically done invisibly after a user downloads an infected program or file. Using a command and control server, a malicious adversary can send different commands over the network and receive sensitive data back in response.
The Stamus Security Platform is highly effective at catching RATs before they can do too much damage. This is because RATs communicate through the network, piggybacking off of other seemingly innocuous traffic. SSP is a network-based detection and response platform, which uses a number of different detection mechanisms to monitor network traffic.
Currently, SSP has the capability to detect 93 different known RATs using 2,795 different detection methods, although this number is updated daily and is always increasing. SSP goes beyond what other Network Detection and Response (NDR) systems are capable of because it also includes the traditional IDS and NSM threat hunting data. Unlike other security systems, such as end-point detection, SSP is better equipped to detect RATs because of its focus on the network. And because it passively monitors network traffic, SSP is not subject to bypass or direct attacks like an endpoint system might be.
Traditional intrusion detection (IDS) and network security monitoring (NSM) systems are reasonably effective at catching malware like RATs, but their biggest difference from SSP is in how those systems convey their results.
These traditional systems function like an “alert cannon”, blasting off thousands of alerts and leaving the security team with the task of sifting through data looking for meaningful signals of a breach. In contrast, SSP analyzes the alert traffic automatically with prioritization and detection algorithms, issues Declarations of Compromise™ to notify the analyst of only the most serious and imminent threats, and presents the information in an easy-to-understand incident timeline along with a substantial body of contextual evidence.
While RATs are only one example of the way Stamus Security Platform leverages network data, there are numerous other types of malware threats that can be detected anywhere along the kill chain. The threat research team at StamusLabs adds new threats and refines detection methods on a daily basis, and these updates are loaded onto each SSP daily.
More information on Stamus Security Platform
So, next time my colleague Steve asks “why don’t we ever mention the types of threats we’re talking about?” I can thank him and point him to this blog series.
If you’d like to get a live demonstration of Stamus Security Platform or discuss how it might help you detect and respond to threats in your network, please click on the button below to request a demo. | https://www.stamus-networks.com/blog/ssp-and-malware |
What is Malware?
Malware is an abbreviation for malicious computer software. Cybercriminals use viruses, worms, trojan horses, and other malicious computer programmes to gain unauthorised access to computer systems and data under the umbrella term “malicious computer programmes.”
Regardless of the technology used to create malicious software, malware is defined as any programme that causes damage to a computer, server, or network.
Key Takeaways
The term “malware” refers to any computer programme that is designed to exploit systems, gain unauthorised access, or steal data.
Malware is classified into several categories based on how it spreads, such as a worm, virus, or trojan horse.
There are several ways to classify malware based on their activities, such as spyware, adware, rootkits, and ransomware, among others.
Hackers can also manually install malware on a target’s computer by gaining physical access to the device.
Malware can be detected with the help of a signature-based tool such as SIEM.
Types of Malware?
Malware can be classified into several categories based on how the malicious software spreads and operates on the computer system.
The following are examples of common malware types, which are distinguished by the manner in which the malicious programme spreads:
- Worms: A worm is a malicious programme that is self-replicating and capable of moving from one target to another without being detected.
- Viruses: A virus is harmful software that infiltrates the code of a legitimate standalone programme and causes it to malfunction. A virus forces the standalone programme to perform malicious actions as a result of the virus.
- Trojan horses: A trojan horse is a piece of code that pretends to be something the victim wants and tricks them into clicking on a malicious link that causes them harm. A trojan, in contrast to a worm, is incapable of reproducing itself.
According to the way the programme operates, the second type of malware is classified as follows: We have the following types of people under this category:
Other Ways Cybercriminals Distribute Malware
- spyware: this type of malware collects information from unsuspecting users in a covert manner. A spyware programme monitors the behaviour of victims as they interact with their devices and exchange information. Spyware typically forwards logs to a third party for further investigation and action.
- Rootkit: A rootkit is a programme or a collection of software tools that allows hackers to gain remote access to and control over the systems and computers of their victims. A rootkit, as the name implies, allows an attacker to gain root access to a target system and exercise administrator-level control over it.
- Adware: This malicious programme forces users’ browsers to redirect to unsolicited web advertisements with download links, which are displayed on the screen of the computer.
- Ransomware is a type of malware that encrypts your computer files and then demands a payment in exchange for the decryption key to be released. Hackers demand a ransom in cryptocurrency in order to avoid being identified and traced back to them. Bitcoins provide anonymity because they do not require legal names or addresses for the purposes of converting money to the currency, sending it, or receiving it.
- The practise of cryptojacking involves malware infecting devices and using CPU resources to mine Bitcoin without the user’s permission. The malicious programme makes use of the computer’s processing power and memory to mine or steal cryptocurrency.
Other Ways Cybercriminals Distribute Malware
In order to spread malware, hackers use phishing emails to trick people into opening them. The attackers use this distribution method to trick victims into opening an attachment or visiting a malicious website link by sending them an email with a convincing subject line. By opening the malicious PDF, ZIP file, or Word doc, users risk having their entire data encrypted or the malware spreading to other computers on their network.
Remote Desktop Protocols: A hacker can also use the remote desktop protocol to gain access to computers that have unprotected ports open.
Websites that have been compromised: Bad actors can use compromised websites to distribute ransomware to victims through the use of vulnerable software downloads.
Manual Installation: Hackers can manually install malware on a target device if they have physical access to the computer where the malware is to be installed. In addition, attackers can use privilege escalation to gain access to a remote administrator’s computer or network.
Malware in Mobile Devices
Malicious programmes can target mobile devices, granting cybercriminals access to the device’s components, such as its files, camera, GPS, microphone, and contacts, as well as its location and other information. When a user downloads an unofficial application from the Google Playstore or a vendor’s website, their phones become infected with malware.
Through the use of a Wi-Fi or Bluetooth connection, attackers can also spread malware to mobile phones.
How to Detect Malware
You can use a variety of tools to scan and monitor the activity on your network. Installing a security information and event management (SIEM) system will allow you to collect, analyse, and provide insights from computer and application logs, among other things.
You can detect malware on your mobile device by looking for signs of increased data usage, calls, texts, or emails being sent to your contacts without your knowledge, and a rapidly dissipating battery, among other things.
How to Prevent Malware
Make sure you understand how to recognise spam and phishing emails, which are used by hackers to spread malware.
Install an antivirus, antispyware, or antimalware product to help detect and neutralise viruses, worms, and trojans before they cause damage.
Maintain the patching and updating of your systems.
Maintain an inventory of all of your information technology assets so that you can identify what you need to assess and protect.
In the event of a ransomware attack, make regular backups of your systems and files to ensure timely incident response and business continuity. | https://cyberspecial.net/can-hackers-use-ports-to-spread-malware/ |
Which one of the following is not an example of projectile?
Projectile motion is a natural phenomenon it is due to the gravity in earth surface .it doesn't need any external force .The flight seems to be same as an projectile motion but it differs as an external force is applied which is the aircraft engine which pulls the craft forward and hence oppose the force of gravity.
A battle ship simultaneously fires two shells at enemy ships. Both are fired with the same speed but with different directions as shown. If the shells follow the parabolic trajectories shown, which ship gets hit first?
Ship 2 gets hit first. The time of flight only depends on the y-component of motion, not the x-component. The higher you throw something up in the air, the more time it spends in the air. It can also be shown from equation-
y=v0y t – ½ g t2=0
v0y for projectile μ1 is greater than for μ2.
If an object is dropped through the window of a fast running train. Then
When an object is still held it is the part of a system in which the train is moving, once it is left it still has the same velocity as the train for a person from ground. Thus as the velocity is horizontal and acceleration is vertical, it would follow a parabolic trajectory.
Which statement is true for a ball thrown at 20 degrees with the horizontal, when it is at the highest point in its trajectory?
At the highest point in its trajectory, the acceleration (g) is acting in downward direction, whereas velocity of the projectile is only in the X (horizontal) direction.
How many directions are possible for the same horizontal range?
We know that the horizontal range for any projectile motion let say R = 2u2.sin 2a /g
Where u is initial speed, and a is the angle at which the particle is thrown, which is responsible for direction. So in between the possible range of a that is 0 - 90, there are maximum two equal values of sin 2a, thus the maximum number of directions for the same or equal range are 2.
A body is thrown with a velocity of 10m/s at an angle of 60 degrees with the horizontal. Its velocity at the highest point is:
At the highest point, its vertical velocity will become zero. Hence the only left velocity is horizontal which remains unchanged and is equal to 10 cos 60 = 5m/s
The quantity which remains unchanged during the flight of an oblique projectile is
As there is no horizontal acceleration is present in oblique projection horizontal component of velocity is constant
At the point of maximum height, the acceleration is:
At a point of maximum height, the derivative of displacement i.e. velocity is zero but as the gravitational acceleration is equal at all near points to the surface of earth, acceleration at maximum height is still equal to g.
At what angle should a projectile with initial velocity ‘v’ be thrown, so that it achieves its maximum range?
Sine of an angle has maximum value 1 when the angle is 90 degree Rmaxis obtained when 2ø = 90 degreeorø= 45 degree
When a projectile is thrown up at an angle θ to the ground, the time taken by it to rise and to fall are related as
The time of fall or rise for a projectile depends upon its vertical component of initial velocity and the vertical acceleration. As the acceleration does not change and the motion of path is identical for the rise phase and the fall phase, we can easily deduce that time taken is also the same. | https://edurev.in/course/quiz/attempt/592_Test-Projectile-Motion/745850c9-0ab7-487a-83b0-2bed92b893ea |
Dowload and install GeoGebra from the GeoGebra website.
In GeoGebra you can define the position of a point on a graph by an equation but first the variables in the equation must be defined. The variables are changed using a slider so click the slider control
then place the slider somewhere on the graph where it won't get in the way by clicking in that place.
This variable is going to be time so call it t and choose the range between 0 and 5.
Add a second slider for the variable, v for velocity.
To add a point to the graph click the New point button then place the point somewhere on the graph by clicking in that place
The coordinates of the point will be displayed in the algebra window on the left. It is listed as a free object since you haven't assigned any values to it yet.
The next stage is to write the equation that will define the position,s of the point at different times. We will take the velocity to be constant so s=vt. Write this equation in the input box at the bottom of the screen then enter (use * for multiply). s now appears as a dependent object. To make the position of the point vary with time replace the x coordinate with the letter s. The position will now change as you move the slider for t.
To animate the point choose the pointer then double click the slider. Choose the basic tab and tick a "animation on".
The point will now move back and forth as the time changes. To make it only go forwards choose the slider" tab and then"increasing" from the animation options. The whole process is shown in the screen cast below.
Part 2 projectile motion.
Projectile motion has rather more variables than simple one dimensional constant velocity so you first need to make a slider for each variable.
Time t
Angle α
Velocity v
Acceleration g
Now write the equations that relate the horizontal and vertical displacements in the input bar at the bottom.
(horizontal displacement) v*cos(α)*t
(vertical displacement) v*sin(α)*t + 0.5*g*t^2
These will be assigned the letters a and b after you click enter.
Place a point on the graph and replace the (x,y) coordinates with (a,b).
Start the animation and play with the variables as before. To leave a trace behind the projectile right click the point and click "trace on".
In my version of the simulation I added a cannon and ship, you'll have to work out how to do that yourself. | https://www.thinkib.net/physics/page/12066/projectiles-in-geogebra |
This carries on our exploration of projectile motion – this time we will explore what happens if gravity is not fixed, but is instead a function of time. (This idea was suggested by and worked through by fellow IB teachers Daniel Hwang and Ferenc Beleznay). In our universe we have a gravitational constant – i.e gravity is not dependent on time. If gravity changed with respect to time then the gravitational force exerted by the Sun on Earth would lessen (or increase) over time with all other factors remaining the same.
Interestingly time-dependent gravity was first explored by Dirac and some physicists have tried to incorporate time dependent gravity into cosmological models. As yet we have no proof that gravity is not constant, but let’s imagine a university where it is dependent on time.
Projectile motion when gravity is time dependent
We can start off with the standard parametric equations for projectile motion. Here v is the initial velocity, theta is the angle of launch, t can be a time parameter and g is the gravitational constant (9.81 on Earth). We can see that the value for the vertical acceleration is the negative of the gravitational constant. So the question to explore is, what if the gravitational constant was time dependent? Another way to think about this is that gravity varies with respect to time.
Linear relationship
If we have the simplest time dependent relationship we can say that:
where a is a constant. If a is greater than 0 then gravity linearly increases as time increases, if a is less than 0 than gravity linearly decreases as time increases. For matters of slight convenience I’ll define gravity (or the vertical acceleration) as -3at. The following can then be arrived at by integration:
This will produce the following graph when we fix v = 10, a = 2 and vary theta:
Now we can use the same method as in our Projectile Motion Investigation II to explore whether these maximum points lie in a curve. (You might wish to read that post first for a step by step approach to the method).
therefore we can substitute back into our original parametric equations for x and y to get:
We can plot this with theta as a parameter. If we fix v = 4 and a =2 we get the following graph:
Compare this to the graph from Projectile Motion Investigation II, where we did this with gravity constant (and with v fixed as 10):
The Projectile Motion Investigation II formed a perfect ellipse, but this time it’s more of a kind of egg shaped elliptical curve – with a flat base. But it’s interesting to see that even with time dependent gravity we still have a similar relationship to before!
Inverse relationship
Let’s also look at what would happen if gravity was inversely related to time. (This is what has been explored by some physicists).
In this case we get the following results when we launch projectiles (Notice here we had to use the integration by parts trick to integrate ln(t)). As the velocity function doesn’t exist when t = 0, we can define v and theta in this case as the velocity and theta value when t = 1.
Now we use the same trick as earlier to find when the gradient is 0:
Substituting this back into the parametric equations gives:
The ratio v/a will therefore have the greatest effect on the maximum points.
v/a ratio negative and close to zero:
v = 40, a = -2000, v/a = -0.02
This gives us close to a circle, radius v, centred at (0,a).
v = 1, a = -10, v/a = -0.1
Here we can also see that the boundary condition for the maximum horizontal distance thrown is given by x = v(e).
v/a ratio negative and large:
v = 40, a = -2, v/a = -20.
We can see that we get an egg shape back – but this time with a flatter bulge at the top and the point at the bottom. Also notice how quickly the scale of the shape has increased.
v/a ratio n/a (i.e a = 0)
Here there is no gravitational force, and so projectiles travel in linear motion – with no maximum.
Envelope of projectiles for the inverse relationship
This is just included for completeness, don’t worry if you don’t follow the maths behind this bit!
Therefore when we plot the parametric equations for x and y in terms of theta we get the envelope of projectile motion when we are in a universe where gravity varies inversely to time. The following graph is generated when we take v = 300 and a = -10. The red line is the envelope of projectiles.
A generalized power relationship
Lastly, let’s look at what happens when we have a general power relationship i.e gravity is related to (a)tn. Again for matters of slight convenience I’ll look at the similar relationship -0.5(n+1)(n+2)atn.
This gives (following the same method as above:
As we vary n we will find the plot of the maximum points. Let’s take the velocity as 4 and a as 2. Then we get the following:
When n = 0:
When n = 1:
When n =2:
When n = 10:
We can see the general elliptical shape remains at the top, but we have a flattening at the bottom of the curve.
When n approaches infinity:
We get this beautiful result when we let n tend towards infinity – now we will have all the maximum points bounded on a circle (with the radius the same as the value chosen as the initial velocity. In the graph above we have a radius of 4 as the initial velocity is 4. Notice too we have projectiles traveling in straight lines – and then seemingly “bouncing” off the boundary!
If we want to understand this, there is only going to be a very short window (t less than 1) when the particle can upwards – when t is between 0 and 1 the effect of gravity is effectively 0 and so the particle would travel in a straight line (i.e if the initial velocity is 5 m/s it will travel 5 meters. Then as soon as t = 1, the gravity becomes crushingly heavy and the particle falls effectively vertically down. | https://ibmathsresources.com/2020/05/20/projectiles-iv-time-dependent-gravity/ |
1) Derive an equation for the range of a projectile fired at an arbitrary launch angle and height.
2) Determine the launch speed of a projectile and its uncertainty by measuring how far it travels horizontally before landing on the floor (called the range) when launched horizontally from a known height.
3) Predict, then measure and compare the range of a projectile when the projectile is fired at an arbitrary angle with respect to the horizontal.
4) Predict the initial firing angle of the launcher for a prescribed range value. Then compare the range achieved with the desired range value.
Projectile Motion: Physics Lab Report Introduction
When objects undergo motion in two (or even three) dimensions rather than in just one, the over-all motion can be analyzed by looking at the motion in any two (or three) mutually perpendicular directions and then putting the motions “back together,” so to speak. In the case of projectiles the horizontal and vertical directions are usually chosen. Why is this choice made? Ignoring the effects of air resistance, an object moving vertically near the surface of the Earth experiences a constant acceleration. An object moving horizontally has zero acceleration. Any other choice of perpendicular directions would have different constant values of acceleration in both of the directions. When we write the descriptions of the motion in mathematical terms, the horizontal/vertical choice of directions results in the simplest forms of the equations.
Under what conditions can the effects of the air be ignored? One condition is that the speed is not too high, since the effect of the air increases with the speed. If two objects are the same size and shape, the lighter one of the two will experience the larger effect on its motion due to the air (for example, a ping-pong ball and a steel ball bearing of the same size). In this lab care has been taken to make these choices so that ignoring air resistance will have a very small effect on the trajectory of the projectile.
Projectile Motion Physics Lab Exercise 1: Mathematical Preliminaries
To accomplish the first two of our stated goals we need first to find a general mathematical relationship showing how the horizontal range of the projectile depends on the height, initial velocity, and the angle of launch. See Fig. 1..
You need to solve symbolically the appropriate kinematics equations for motion with constant acceleration in the horizontal and vertical directions simultaneously to do this. [Hint: Eliminate the time from the general horizontal and vertical position equations at the instant when the projectile strikes the floor! You can do this by solving one equation for time and substituting that expression in the other equation.]
Rather than writing the equations with the angle, θ, explicitly shown, it is suggested that you use the symbols vox and voy where vox = vo cosθ and voy = vo sinθ to simplify the algebraic manipulations. You need to solve for the range, R, in terms of vox, voy, h, and g. In your final expression, you can substitute vo and θ back in, since these will be measured directly later on.
The details of this derivation must be shown in your lab report. Check your final formula with your lab instructor before proceeding to Exercise 2.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2. Picture of Ball Launcher
Instructions and Precautions for Using the Ball Launcher:
Warning: Never look down the barrel of launchers. Wear safety glasses for the duration of the lab.
Step 1) Make sure that the launcher is attached securely to the table so it does not move when the launcher is fired. A C-clamp will secure the ring stand base to the table. Make sure the launcher is at the proper angle by using the built-in plumb bob located on the side of the launcher. Note that the angle measured by this plumb bob is actually the same as the angle between the “barrel” of the launcher and horizontal.
Step 2) Since the projectiles will be hitting the floor, use the additional plumb bob to locate and mark the position on the floor (masking tape helps) directly below the launch point of the projectile. This indicates the initial horizontal position of the ball at floor level so the range (horizontal distance traveled by the ball) can easily be measured later. You’ll have to measure the height to get the vertical distance. Be sure to show carefully on a diagram between which two points the height measurement is made. If you are unsure, please discuss it with your lab instructor.
Step 3) To launch the projectile, load the ball into the projectile launcher. Use the plunger rod to push the ball into the launch tube to one of the three preset launch positions (short, medium, or long range). You will hear a click as you reach each position. Notify others nearby and across the room before firing the ball. Stand out of the way and fire the launcher by pulling gently straight up (perpendicular to the launch tube actually) on the string attached to its trigger on the top.
Step 4) To record the position where the projectile strikes the floor, tape a provided white paper target to the thin hard board sheet (about 0.3 m x 0.5 m in size) at your lab station. Place the sheet and target at the approximate place where the ball lands. When you are ready to record some landing points, lay a piece of carbon paper (carbon side down) on top of the target. The ball will leave a dark smudge on the white paper as it bounces. If necessary you can tape the hard board sheet to the floor to keep it from moving, but please avoid the indiscriminate use of masking tape on the floors. If you do put tape on the floor, please remove it when you are finished.
Projectile Motion: Physics Lab Exercise 2: Determining the Initial Speed (“Muzzle Velocity”) of the Projectile
- Simplify the general equation that you found in Exercise 1 for the case when θ = 0 (horizontal launch). Then solve for vo in terms of R, h, and g.
- Set the launcher to fire horizontally, that is, a launch angle of zero degrees.
- Pick one of the range settings, and fire the projectile (using the four steps in the previous section) a couple of times noting where the projectile lands. Place the paper target centered as best you can where the ball will land. Now use the carbon paper to record permanently the landing position of four launches at the same initial conditions.
- From each data point on the range, R, determine the magnitude of the initial velocity of the ball. Calculate the average of these velocity values. speed of the ball as it was launched.
- Calculate the standard deviation of the measured speed values for the launcher setting you chose. This will represent your uncertainty in measuring the launch speed, which will be used in Exercise 5. (Refer to the Uncertainty/Graphical Analysis Supplement near the back of the lab manual and Exercise 5 for more details – or ask your lab instructor.)
Exercise 3: Predicting/Measuring the Landing Position at Angles Other Than Zero
- Choose a launch angle between 30 and 40 degrees. Using the values of the initial speed of the ball as determined in Exercise 2 and your general equation for R from Exercise 1, calculate the horizontal distance (range) from the launch point to where the ball should land at the range setting you chose in Exercise 2 for the initial launch angle that you have chosen.
- In turn place a paper target on the floor at each of the calculated positions and fire the projectile. If the projectile misses the target completely, check your calculations and/or discuss it with your lab instructor. If the projectile does hit the target, then repeat several times to get a good average experimental range value with its corresponding standard deviation to compare with your calculated range. Compare the predicted range values with the experimental ranges values within the uncertainties given by the respective standard deviations. Percent differences between the average experimental range values and the predicted values may also be useful.
Exercise 4: Predicting Launch Angle for a Desired Range
- Ask your lab instructor for an assigned value of horizontal distance (range) for your group.
- Your task is to calculate a suitable angle (or angles in some cases) at the range setting you used in Exercises 2 & 3. for launching the projectile to the target set at the assigned distance. The relationship giving the initial launch angle in terms of the other parameters is:
tan θ = v02/gR + [(v02/gR)2 – 1 + 2v02h/gR2]1/2
where v0 is the initial launch speed, R is the range, h is the initial launch height, and g is the acceleration of gravity. Show your calculations in your final report. You can earn up to 10 extra credit points by showing the details of the calculation to get this algebraic expression for tan θ. [Hint: Again you should start with the horizontal and vertical position equations.]
- Now set the target and do the experiment with your lab instructor present to observe. Were you able to hit the target? If you have trouble here, check your calculations. Is your calculator in radian or degree mode? Get assistance from your lab instructor, if necessary. As before compare your experimental range with appropriate uncertainties to the range value assigned by your lab instructor.
Exercise 5: Uncertainty Analysis Check List [Refer to the Uncertainty/Graphical Analysis Supplement at the back of the lab manual – or ask your lab instructor]
Projectile Motion: Physics Lab Exercise 2:
In Exercise 2, you measured the horizontal distance, or range, values over a few different trials. Since these distances did not all come out exactly the same for a given launch condition, some uncertainty is associated with the measurement. A rather obvious “best” distance value is simply the average, or mean, of the distances, but how do we get a numerical value for the uncertainty associated with it? The sample standard deviation, denoted by σx, is a way to do this for repeated values that we think should really be the same because we did not change any of the conditions. The ball is initially launched at some height above the floor, and this measurement also has some uncertainty determined by the measuring instrument and our measurement technique.
Both of these uncertainties contribute to the uncertainty in the initial speed of the ball. Thus we must “propagate” the uncertainty of both these measurements to get the uncertainty in the value of the initial speed. The “maximum-minimum” method is appropriate for PHYS 101, but the “partial derivative” method is appropriate for PHYS 201. Show your calculations clearly in your report.
Projectile Motion: Physics Lab Report Exercise 3:
In Exercise 3, you calculated theoretical values for the range of the projectile assuming that the initial speed, initial height, and the launch angle were known quantities. However, each of these quantities has some uncertainty associated with it. Thus, your prediction for R cannot be expected to be 100% accurate. As with the v0 value you calculated in Exercise 2, You will need to propagate the uncertainties in q, v0, and h, in order to find the uncertainty in your predicted range value: R ± dR.
The measured ranges are also “fuzzy” numbers, having uncertainty associated with them as you have previously calculated using the standard deviations. If the “fuzziness” of the calculated range values overlaps with the “fuzziness” (sR) of the experimental values, then you can claim they are the same within the uncertainty of the experiment. If not, then you must conclude that they did not agree, and you may wish to resort to a percent difference as a means of comparison.
Conclusion
Summarize all your results, preferably in a table where the quantities with their uncertainties and comparisons between predicted values and experimental values are clearly displayed. Are you convinced that the theoretical predictions made by separating the horizontal and vertical motions agree with experiment, at least within the calculated uncertainties of the experiment? Your answers need to be based on your experimental results and the calculated uncertainties of the quantities you are comparing. Please don’t make vague statements that are not directly supported by your calculations and measurements.
|Before you leave the lab|
Straighten up your lab station.
Make sure that the projectile ball is back in the plastic tray.
Report any problems or suggest improvements to your lab instructor. | https://myessaydoc.com/projectile-motion-physics-lab/ |
Schematic of the experimental setup. Six YIG/Pt nanowires (in red) integrated in the signal arm (S) are measured in parallel. A bias-T is utilized for simultaneous RF transmission and DC voltage detection by lock-in techniques. Credit: Jungfleisch et al., Nano Lett., 17, 8 (2017).
Computers process and transfer data through electrical currents passing through tiny circuits and wires. As these currents meet with resistance, they create heat that can undermine the efficiency and even the safety of these devices.
To minimize heat loss and optimize performance for low-power technology, researchers are exploring other ways to process information that could be more energy-efficient. One approach that researchers at the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Argonne National Laboratory are exploring involves manipulating the magnetic spin of electrons, a scientific field known as spintronics.
"In spintronics, you can think of information as a magnet pointing one way and another magnet pointing in the opposite direction," said Argonne materials scientist Axel Hoffman. "We're interested in how we can use magnetic excitation in applications because processing information this way expends less energy than carrying information through an electrical charge."
In a report published in Nano Letters, Hoffman and fellow researchers reveal new insights into the properties of a magnetic insulator that is a candidate for low-power device applications; their insights form early stepping-stones towards developing high-speed, low-power electronics that use electron spin rather than charge to carry information.
The material they studied, yttrium iron garnet (YIG), is a magnetic insulator that generates and transmits spin current efficiently and dissipates little energy. Because of its low dissipation, YIG has been used in microwave and radar technologies, but recent discoveries of spintronic effects associated with YIG have prompted researchers to explore potential spintronic applications.
In their report, Argonne researchers characterize the spin dynamics associated with a small-scale sample of YIG when that material is exposed to an electrical current.
"This is the first time for anyone to have measured spin dynamics on a sample size this small," said Benjamin Jungfleisch, an Argonne postdoctoral appointee and lead author of the report. "Understanding the behavior at a small size is crucial because these materials need to be small to ever have the potential to be successfully integrated in low-power devices."
Researchers attached the YIG sample to platinum nanowires using electric beam lithography, creating a micrometer-size YIG/platinum structure. They then sent an electrical current through the platinum to excite the YIG and drive spin dynamics. They then took electrical measurements to characterize the magnetization dynamics and measure how these dynamics changed by shrinking the YIG.
"When shrinking materials, they can behave in different ways, ways that could present a roadblock to identifying and actualizing potential new applications," Hoffman said. "What we've observed is that, although there are small details that change when YIG is made smaller, there doesn't appear to be a fundamental roadblock that prevents us from using the physical approaches we use for small electrical devices."
The report, titled "Insulating Nanomagnets Driven by Spin Torque," is published in Nano Letters. | https://phys.org/news/2017-05-insights-dynamics-material-candidate-low-power.html |
Researchers at Kyoto University’s Institute for Integrated Cell-Material Sciences (iCeMS) in Japan, recently reported a novel technique with potential therapeutic relevance for the management of pain. The study was recently published in the journal Angewandte Chemie International Edition and is entitled “Thermosensitive Ion Channel Activation in Single Neuronal Cells by Using Surface-Engineered Plasmonic Nanoparticles”.
Nanotechnology corresponds to the manipulation of matter at the molecular scale and it has allowed significant advances in medical diagnosis and treatment. The control of cellular functions using external photoresponsive nanomaterials has a huge potential for the development of cell-engineering technologies and therapies. Gold nanorods in particular, correspond to tiny rods that can absorb light in the near-infrared region generating heat when excited with infrared light; nanorods can also be used as light emitting devices.
In the study, the team developed a technique on which gold nanorods are used to target pain receptors. Researchers coated the gold nanorods with proteins that are able to transport fat within the body – lipoproteins. These particular nanorods where able to efficiently bind to intact neuronal cell membranes containing a thermosensitive pain receptor called TRPV1 (transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1). When these coated nanorods were then exposed to near-infrared light, they heated up, activating pain receptors and allowing an influx of calcium ions through the membrane. A prolonged activation of TRPV1 results in their desensitization, which leads to pain relief. One important aspect of this technique is that the heating of the gold nanorods allowed a safe activation of the TRPV1 pain receptors without having an effect on the membrane in which they are present.
“The gold nanorods can be retained in the body for a prolonged period,” explained the study’s senior author Dr. Tatsuya Murakami in a news release. “Local injection of our gold nanorods might enable repetitive and on-demand treatment for people experiencing intractable pain”
In conclusion, the research team developed a new technique based on lipoprotein-coated gold nanorods that are able to efficiently activate and desensitize pain receptors. This technique is especially relevant for the development of therapies for pain relief in individuals suffering from severe pain. This is often the case of patients with fibromyalgia, a medical disorder characterized by widespread chronic musculoskeletal pain, incapacitating fatigue and stiffness and numbness in certain parts of the body. Fibromyalgia can affect people’s ability to conduct simple daily tasks, compromising their quality of life. It is estimated that 5 to 15 million Americans are affected by this disorder, especially women. | https://fibromyalgianewstoday.com/2015/08/26/new-potential-therapeutic-strategy-severe-pain-based-nanorods/ |
Researchers say a bacterial process can help produce concrete that regenerates to repair cracks as they develop.
Scientists at The University of Waikato (Hamilton, New Zealand) are using nanobiotechnology and solid-state fermentation to produce concrete that regenerates to repair cracks as they develop.1
The researchers are employing a bio-based injection approach to produce calcium carbonate (CaCO3) that can seal cracks from within the concrete and thus protect it over time against chloride-induced corrosion and carbonation. While concrete is inherently porous, sealing cracks delays the eventual ingress of chlorides.
“We have engineered a process that makes [CaCO3] production very efficient, even in a harsh environment like concrete,” says Aydin Berenjian, a senior lecturer in chemical and biological engineering at the school.
The inherently high pH and alkalinity of concrete leads to the formation of a passive film on the surface of the steel reinforcement bars (rebar) to prevent or minimize corrosion. However, if the concrete cover protecting the steel is damaged via a crack and the bond between the concrete and rebar is broken, the steel’s passive layer can break down through carbonation or the ingress of chlorides. Carbonation results from carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolving in the concrete pore fluid. Once the passive layer breaks down, active corrosion of the steel begins. The rebar typically has a positive effect on limiting the width of cracks by controlling the shrinkage, but it does not prevent the original crack formation.
Various passive crack treatments have long been available for when cracks start to appear. For instance, the application of chemical and polymer sealers as external coating agents is one common approach, the researchers explain. But they warn that these treatments are associated with shortcomings such as poor weathering and low heat resistance, sensitivity to moisture and temperature, poor bonding with the concrete matrix, susceptibility to degradation, and delamination with age.
In recent years, the industry has increasingly focused on incorporating various self-healing agents into the concrete matrix. Upon the formation of a crack, the self-healing materials are activated and start to expand when triggered by water, moisture, or carbonation penetration—thus filling the crack.
According to Berenjian, prior studies have shown bacterially induced CaCO3 precipitation to be initially effective at filling cracks. However, the bacteria’s vulnerability to the highly alkaline and high pH levels often found in concrete, as well as the exerted shear forces on the cells during mixing and casting processes and gradual shrinkage of the concrete, eventually hurt the bacteria’s metabolic activity and its self-healing properties. As a result, Berenjian’s team sought to increase the bacteria’s stability.
The team’s strategy to address the bacterial shortcomings was to protect the bacterial cells through encapsulation or immobilization prior to concrete mixing.
To accomplish this, the team turned to magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles as a protective vehicle for the bacteria. Using a coprecipitation method for nanoparticle synthesis in an aqueous medium, the magnetic characteristics of the 12- to 18-nm nanoparticles allowed them to effectively attach themselves to the bacteria. Scanning electron microscopy images showed the “efficient adsorption of nanoparticles to the Bacillus cells,” the researchers explain.
“That is where the engineering came in,” Berenjian says.
After 28 days of curing, further microscopic observation found the concrete matrix with immobilized bacteria displayed significant crack healing properties, whereas the control specimen without the immobilized bacteria did not present healing characteristics. Analysis of the generated precipitates confirmed that the minerals induced into the cracks were CaCO3.
The precipitated CaCO3 crystals in bio-concrete specimens confirmed that the magnetic immobilization with iron oxide nanoparticles could successfully protect the cells from the concrete’s harsh environment without compromising the bacterial activity and biosynthesis, the researchers write. The concrete specimens supplemented with the immobilized bacteria also showed a higher resistance to water penetration. Relative to the control sample, the initial and secondary water absorption rates were 26% and 22% lower.
The bio-based, self-healing process also offers environmental benefits relative to traditional passive crack treatments, since the mechanisms to control the cracks are activated naturally and without the need for human intervention. Thus, the ecological footprint is lowered through reduced maintenance activities. The researchers believe the process has a wide range of future industry applications, including oil and gas, medicine, environmental remediation, and construction materials.
Although the researchers are optimistic about the success of the bio-concrete’s ability to self-heal due to the successful laboratory tests, they caution that several hurdles still need to be cleared before the process can be widely adopted. For example, they say the long-term efficiency and durability of the concrete with bacterially induced CaCO3 should be studied over a longer time period before industrial application.
The bacterially induced CaCO3 fabrication process is also more expensive than traditional manual crack-repair treatments. However, the researchers believe the cost issue can be mitigated if potential users consider the potential costs and resources saved in the long run.
“Fixing concrete manually also means cracks are sometimes missed, particularly if they are not visible,” Berenjian says. “The return comes with the longer-term strength.”
Source: The University of Waikato, www.waikato.ac.nz.
Reference
1 “A Revolutionary New Process for Self-Healing Concrete,” The University of Waikato News & Events, April 9, 2018, https://www.waikato.ac.nz/news-opinion/media/2018/a-revolutionary-new-process-for-self-healing-concrete (August 6, 2018). | https://www.materialsperformance.com/articles/material-selection-design/2018/09/new-bacterial-process-developed-to-heal-concrete |
Researchers have developed an algorithm for photochemistry, bringing the burgeoning field a step closer to the goal of using different colors of light like a switch to activate a range of different chemical reactions in one single material.
A QUT research team, consisting of Ph.D. student Jan Philipp Menzel, Professor Christopher Barner-Kowollik and Associate Professor James Blinco, along with Dr. Benjamin Noble of RMIT, have published their findings in the journal Nature Communications.
In their study, Predicting Wavelength-Dependent Photochemical Reactivity and Selectivity, the researchers have outlined a predictive tool so that scientists can predetermine how much light is needed to produce certain outcomes of photochemical reactions.
First author Mr Menzel conducted a series of experiments with a laser, working his way up the spectrum with nanometer precision to record the results.
“Our goal was to understand how the molecules work and how we can predict how much is going to react, when using different colors of light” Mr Menzel said.
Professor Blinco said the study set out to provide the sort of information the sort of information that researchers inducing reactions by adjusting temperature would have.
“With a normal reaction you probably would use heat—we do it with light,” Professor Blinco said.
“So instead of having to predict how much energy you need to put in through heat, it’s about predicting how much energy we need to put in through light.
“With chemical reactions that are driven by heat, if you heat it up more, then the reaction potentially goes faster. With light-induced reactions, we have the advantage that we can use all the colors of the rainbow, and photons with those different colors have different energies.
“So it means you’ve got a much finer tuning in being able to dial in the specifics of your reaction.”
Mr Menzel said ultraviolet light (photons with short wavelength) had enough energy to cause reactions that could, for example, lead to skin cancer, while visible light (photons with a longer wavelength) could not. Similarly, changing either the energy of photons and their intensity, like adjusting a dimmer switch, caused either a stronger reaction or no chemical reaction at all.
Australian Research Council (ARC) Laureate Fellow Professor Barner-Kowollik, a world-leading soft matter nanotechnologist whose career is focused on the power and possibilities of light in macromolecular chemistry, said the long-term goal was “surgical reaction selectivity”.
“One of the key questions in photochemistry is: How can you select colors of light so they impact differently on the materials present,” Professor Barner-Kowollik said.
“With which kind of light can I only activate reactant A, and what color of light will we have to use to activate reactant B without affecting reactant A.
“With our algorithm, scientists can use light to remote-control what material is being created, switching from one material to a completely different one by turning on and off each light source.
“The power of light transforms the way we manufacture next-generation materials for health, mobility and the digital world, exploiting its ubiquitous nature and the precision of lasers.”
While the researchers are currently focused on the molecular level, the big picture is how different colors (wavelengths) of light might be used in the future to create a series of reactions in one material.
Professor Barner-Kowollik says the fundamental science could be used in future generations of 3D printers creating very small structures.
“Imagine a printer that uses different colors of light to activate different elements for when it needs to print things—like intricate structures in biomedical fields—with different properties, such as hard or soft, or conductive or insulator,” Professor Barner-Kowollik said.
“The science fiction of it, is that the printer selects from 10 different colors of light, to print all properties. But for that you need to have selectivity.”
Professor Barner-Kowollik said one of the challenges he would like to overcome in the next five years would be to establish multi-color 3D laser lithography to allow 3D printing of disparate material properties using only one printing resin (ink).
“It would perhaps be the most critical challenge in 3D printing, which would require that chemical reactions can be wavelength selectively addressed by different colors of light in two-photon processes,” Professor Barner-Kowollik said.
“It’s science fiction at present, but with huge implications if successful.”
Forging molecular bonds with green light
Jan P. Menzel et al. Predicting wavelength-dependent photochemical reactivity and selectivity, Nature Communications (2021). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-21797-x
Citation:
Algorithms and lasers tame chemical reactivity (2021, March 16)
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Almost all injuries, even minor skin scratches, trigger an inflammatory response, which provides protection against invading microbes but also turns on regenerative signals needed for healing and injury repair -- a process that is generally understood but remains mysterious in its particulars.
Writing in the February 25 online issue of Nature, an international team of scientists, headed by researchers at the University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, report finding new links between inflammation and regeneration: signaling pathways that are activated by a receptor protein called gp130. "We found that gp130 is capable of activating several signaling pathways that turn on a number of transcription factors known to have a key role in stem cell biology," said the study's lead author, Koji Taniguchi, MD, PhD, assistant project scientist in the Department of Pharmacology at UC San Diego.
These transcription factors -- specifically STAT3, YAP and Notch -- stimulate the proliferation and survival of normal tissue stem cells, which lead to healing and repair, said senior author Michael Karin, PhD, Distinguished Professor Pharmacology and Pathology and head of UC San Diego's Laboratory of Gene Regulation and Signal Transduction.
"While the work was mainly conducted on a mouse model of intestinal injury, similar to the one that underlies human inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), we provide evidence that the same mechanism may control liver regeneration, which suggests a general role in tissue repair," said Karin.
In addition to explaining a key biomedical phenomenon, the researchers said the findings have important clinical implications for the treatment of IBD and colorectal cancer. The major signal sensed by gp130 is the inflammatory hormone (cytokine) IL-6 and closely related proteins. Expression of IL-6 has been found to be elevated in IBD, both in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, giving rise to the possibility that inhibition of IL-6 binding to its receptor -- a complex between gp130 and a specific IL-6 binding protein -- may ameliorate the pathology of IBD.
But just the opposite has been observed. Drugs that block the binding of IL-6 to its receptor complex actually increase the risk of intestinal perforation and bleeding, making them unsuitable for the treatment of IBD. The new work suggests that IL-6 and the signaling pathways it stimulates are not the cause of IBD, but are part of the natural protective reaction to the initial injury and inflammatory response associated with the onset of IBD.
The Taniguchi and Karin team say it is important that future treatments not interfere with the healing response triggered by IL-6 and gp130. Nonetheless, the same pathways involved in healing and regeneration can go awry and become chronically stimulated in colorectal cancer.
The new work defines several molecular targets suitable for development of new targeted therapies for this very common malignancy -- the third leading cause of cancer-related death, though Karin cautioned that "such treatments should not be combined with conventional and highly toxic anti-cancer drugs whose major side effect is damage and inflammation of the intestinal mucosa, a disease known as mucositis that will only be exacerbated by blocking the regenerative response triggered by IL-6."
The above story is based on materials provided by University of California, San Diego Health Sciences. The original article was written by Scott LaFee. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.
Baltimore, MD--As animals age, their immune systems gradually deteriorate, a process called immunosenescence. It is associated with systemic inflammation and chronic inflammatory disorders, as well as with many cancers. The causes underlying this age-associated inflammation, and how it leads to diseases, are poorly understood. New work in Carnegie's Yixian Zheng's lab sheds light on one protein's involvement in suppressing immune responses in aging fruit flies. It is published in Cell.
Insects have an immune organ called the fat body, which is roughly equivalent to the mammalian fat and liver. It is responsible for many immune functions. Zheng and her team--Carnegie's Haiyang Chen and Xiaobin Zheng--found that the fruit fly fat body experiences a great deal of inflammation in aged flies.
These inflamed fly fat bodies then secrete proteins that lead to a reduction in immune response of the gut. This reduction of the gut immune response causes the gut's stem cells to undergo excessive division and inappropriate differentiation, creating a condition called hyperplasia that shares features with the precancerous polyps found in human guts.
Zheng and her team found that the gradual reduction of a protein called lamin-B in the fat bodies of aging flies is the culprit behind fat body inflammation and the resulting hyperplastic gut, all of which falls under the umbrella of immunosenescence.
Lamin-B is part of the lamin family of proteins, which form the major structural component of the material that lines the inside of a cell's nucleus. Lamins have diverse functions, including suppressing gene expression, and they are found in an array of tissues and organs. In humans, diseases caused by mutations in lamins are called laminopathies and include premature aging.
B-type lamins have long been suspected to play a role in gene suppression by binding to segments of DNA. The team's work revealed that when the fruit fly fat body was depleted of lamin-B, the normal suppression of genes involved in the immune response is reversed, just as it would be in response to bacterial infection or injury, but in this case there is no apparent infection or injury. The un-suppressed immune response initiates the inflammation and resulting gut hyperplasia.
"Our findings have implications for mammals as well as for insects, as immune response genes in mammals also are known to have lamins present on them," Zheng explained. "We think that lamin-B might play an evolutionarily conserved role in suppressing inflammatory genes in immune organs in the absence of infection or injury and our work could provide insight into immunosenescence in humans."
Newswise People with autism spectrum disorder often experience a period of accelerated brain growth after birth. No one knows why, or whether the change is linked to any specific behavioral changes.
A new study by UCLA researchers demonstrates how, in pregnant mice, inflammation, a first line defense of the immune system, can trigger an excessive division of neural stem cells that can cause overgrowth in the offsprings brain.
We have now shown that one way maternal inflammation could result in larger brains and, ultimately, autistic behavior, is through the activation of the neural stem cells that reside in the brain of all developing and adult mammals, said Dr. Harley Kornblum, the papers senior author and a director of the Neural Stem Cell Research Center at UCLAs Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior.
In the study, the researchers mimicked environmental factors that could activate the immune system such as an infection or an autoimmune disorder by injecting a pregnant mouse with a very low dose of lipopolysaccharide, a toxin found in E. coli bacteria. The researchers discovered the toxin caused an excessive production of neural stem cells and enlarged the offsprings brains.
Kornblum, who also is a professor of psychiatry, pharmacology and pediatrics at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, said there are many environmental factors that can activate a pregnant womans immune system.
In the study, the researchers mimicked environmental factors that could activate the immune system such as an infection or an autoimmune disorder by injecting a pregnant mouse with a very low dose of lipopolysaccharide, a toxin found in E. coli bacteria. The researchers discovered the toxin caused an excessive production of neural stem cells and enlarged the offspring's' brains.
Brain inflammation can rapidly disrupt our ability to retrieve complex memories of similar but distinct experiences, according to UC Irvine neuroscientists Jennifer Czerniawski and John Guzowski.
Their study -- which appears today in The Journal of Neuroscience -- specifically identifies how immune system signaling molecules, called cytokines, impair communication among neurons in the hippocampus, an area of the brain critical for discrimination memory. The findings offer insight into why cognitive deficits occurs in people undergoing chemotherapy and those with autoimmune or neurodegenerative diseases.
Moreover, since cytokines are elevated in the brain in each of these conditions, the work suggests potential therapeutic targets to alleviate memory problems in these patients.
"Our research provides the first link among immune system activation, altered neural circuit function and impaired discrimination memory," said Guzowski, the James L. McGaugh Chair in the Neurobiology of Learning & Memory. "The implications may be beneficial for those who have chronic diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, in which memory loss occurs and even for cancer patients."
What he found interesting is that increased cytokine levels in the hippocampus only affected complex discrimination memory, the type that lets us differentiate among generally similar experiences -- what we did at work or ate at dinner, for example. A simpler form of memory processed by the hippocampus -- which would be akin to remembering where you work -- was not altered by brain inflammation.
In the study, Czerniawski, a UCI postdoctoral scholar, exposed rats to two similar but discernable environments over several days. They received a mild foot shock daily in one, making them apprehensive about entering that specific site. Once the rodents showed that they had learned the difference between the two environments, some were given a low dose of a bacterial agent to induce a neuroinflammatory response, leading to cytokine release in the brain. Those animals were then no longer able to distinguish between the two environments.
Afterward, the researchers explored the activity patterns of neurons -- the primary cell type for information processing -- in the rats' hippocampi using a gene-based cellular imaging method developed in the Guzowski lab. In the rodents that received the bacterial agent (and exhibited memory deterioration), the networks of neurons activated in the two environments were very similar, unlike those in the animals not given the agent (whose memories remained strong). This finding suggests that cytokines impaired recall by disrupting the function of these specific neuron circuits in the hippocampus.
"The cytokines caused the neural network to react as if no learning had taken place," said Guzowski, associate professor of neurobiology & behavior. "The neural circuit activity was back to the pattern seen before learning."
The work may also shed light on a chemotherapy-related mental phenomenon known as "chemo brain," in which cancer patients find it difficult to efficiently process information. UCI neuro-oncologists have found that chemotherapeutic agents destroy stem cells in the brain that would have become neurons for creating and storing memories.
Dr. Daniela Bota, who co-authored that study, is currently collaborating with Guzowski's research group to see if brain inflammation may be another of the underlying causes of "chemo brain" symptoms.
Like a line of falling dominos, a cascade of molecular events in the bone marrow produces high levels of inflammation that disrupt normal blood formation and lead to potentially deadly disorders including leukemia, an Indiana University-led research team has reported.
The discovery, published by the journal Cell Stem Cell, points the way to potential new strategies to treat the blood disorders and further illuminates the relationship between inflammation and cancer, said lead investigator Nadia Carlesso, M.D., Ph.D., associate professor of pediatrics at the Indiana University School of Medicine.
Bone marrow includes the cells that produce the body's red and white blood system cells in a process called hematopoiesis. The marrow also provides a support system and "home" for the blood-producing cells called the hematopoietic microenvironment. The new research demonstrates the importance of the hematopoietic microenvironment in the development of a group of potentially deadly diseases called myeloproliferative disorders.
"It has been known for years that there are links between inflammation and cancer, but these studies have been challenged by the lack of genetic models, especially for blood-based malignancies," said Dr. Carlesso, a member of the hematologic malignancy and stem cell biology program within the Wells Center for Pediatric Research at IU.
The researchers focused on what happens when there are abnormally low levels of a molecule called Notch, which plays an important role in the process of blood cell production. Using a genetically modified mouse, they found that the loss of Notch function in the microenvironment causes a chain of molecular events that result in excess production of inflammatory factors.
The high levels of inflammation in the bone marrow were associated with the development of a myeloproliferative disorder in the mice. Myeloproliferative diseases in humans can result in several illnesses caused by overproduction of myeloid cells, which are normally are used to fight infections. These diseases can put patients at risk for heart attack or stroke, and frequently progress into acute leukemia and bone marrow failure, which have fatal outcomes. Unfortunately, there are no effective therapies for the majority of myeloproliferative diseases.
When Dr. Carlesso's team blocked the activity of one of the molecules in this biochemical cascade, the myeloproliferative disorder in the mice was reversed. In addition, elevated levels of the blocked molecule were found in samples from human patients with myeloproliferative disease. These findings suggest that developing drugs that target this inflammatory reaction at different key points could be a promising strategy to limit the development of myeloproliferative disease in humans.
The molecular cascade leading to inflammation was not occurring directly in the bone marrow cells that produce blood cells, but in cells of the bone marrow microenvironment, especially in endothelial cells that line the capillaries -- tiny blood vessels -- inside the bone marrow. This was a key discovery, Dr. Carlesso said.
"This work indicates that we need to target not only the tumor cells, but also the inflammatory microenvironment that surrounds them and may contribute to their generation," she said.
"We believe that this combined strategy will be more effective in preventing myeloproliferative disease progression and transformation in acute leukemias."
Irvine, Calif., April 16, 2014 A class of drugs developed to treat immune-related conditions and cancer including one currently in clinical trials for glioblastoma and other tumors eliminates neural inflammation associated with dementia-linked diseases and brain injuries, according to UC Irvine researchers.
In their study, assistant professor of neurobiology & behavior Kim Green and colleagues discovered that the drugs, which can be delivered orally, eradicated microglia, the primary immune cells of the brain. These cells exacerbate many neural diseases, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, as well as brain injury.
"Because microglia are implicated in most brain disorders, we feel we've found a novel and broadly applicable therapeutic approach," Green said. "This study presents a new way to not just modulate inflammation in the brain but eliminate it completely, making this a breakthrough option for a range of neuroinflammatory diseases."
The researchers focused on the impact of a class of drugs called CSF1R inhibitors on microglial function. In mouse models, they learned that inhibition led to the removal of virtually all microglia from the adult central nervous system with no ill effects or deficits in behavior or cognition. Because these cells contribute to most brain diseases and can harm or kill neurons the ability to eradicate them is a powerful advance in the treatment of neuroinflammation-linked disorders.
Green said his group tested several selective CSF1R inhibitors that are under investigation as cancer treatments and immune system modulators. Of these compounds, they found the most effective to be a drug called PLX3397, created by Plexxikon Inc., a Berkeley, Calif.-based biotechnology company and member of the Daiichi Sankyo Group. PLX3397 is currently being evaluated in phase one and two clinical trials for multiple cancers, including glioblastoma, melanoma, breast cancer and leukemia.
Crucially, microglial elimination lasted only as long as treatment continued. Withdrawal of inhibitors produced a rapid repopulation of cells that then grew into new microglia, said Green, who's a member of UC Irvine's Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders.
This means that eradication of these immune cells is fully reversible, allowing researchers to bring microglia back when desired. Green added that this work is the first to describe a new progenitor/potential stem cell in the central nervous system outside of neurogenesis, a discovery that points to novel opportunities for manipulating microglial populations during disease.
A class of drugs developed to treat immune-related conditions and cancer -- including one currently in clinical trials for glioblastoma and other tumors -- eliminates neural inflammation associated with dementia-linked diseases and brain injuries, according to UC Irvine researchers.
The researchers focused on the impact of a class of drugs called CSF1R inhibitors on microglial function. In mouse models, they learned that inhibition led to the removal of virtually all microglia from the adult central nervous system with no ill effects or deficits in behavior or cognition. Because these cells contribute to most brain diseases -- and can harm or kill neurons -- the ability to eradicate them is a powerful advance in the treatment of neuroinflammation-linked disorders.
Study results appear in today's issue of Neuron.
The above story is based on materials provided by University of California - Irvine. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. | https://www.genetherapy.me/category/inflammation/page/2 |
Because of the high cost, scientists are harnessing the power of high-performance computing to tackle many of the challenges associated with reactor design and performance.
At the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Argonne National Laboratory, researchers are running a broad suite of computational codes on the laboratory’s supercomputers housed at the Argonne Leadership Computing Facility, a DOE Office of Science User Facility, leveraging resources available at only a few sites around the world to address some of the most complex and large-scale scientific challenges.
“We have a good understanding of the laws underpinning reactor physics and thermal hydraulics, so modeling and simulation tools give us the ability to analyze potential reactor designs virtually,” said Argonne nuclear engineer Emily Shemon.
Inside the model
The end goal of nuclear modeling and simulation efforts at Argonne and elsewhere in the DOE’s national laboratory complex is to remove some of the initial obstacles that the nuclear industry faces as it contemplates design, licensing and deployment of next-generation reactors. “The purpose of the labs’ modeling efforts is to fill in the knowledge gaps for industry,” Shemon said. “They may be able to use our codes and models to inform their design decisions if we can do some of the legwork.”
One major research effort at Argonne focuses on simulating the turbulent flow in sodium-cooled fast reactors. These reactors have intrigued scientists for decades because of their ability to use fuel efficiently, producing less waste than the existing fleet of light water-cooled reactors.
Sodium-cooled fast reactors also have a considerable inherent advantage: there are several built-in safety measures that kick in automatically even in cases when the reactor systems fail.
As coolant flows around a bundle of fuel pins in the reactor core, it carries heat away from the fuel assembly. Heated sodium tends to float on top of cooler sodium, creating a lava lamp-like circulation pattern that prevents any one area from getting too hot.
Visualizing the intricate movements of the whorls and eddies of hot and cold fluid requires high-performance computing, said Argonne computational engineer Aleksandr Obabko. “We try to model turbulence directly, as close to the needed resolution as possible, using supercomputers,” he said. “We need supercomputers because there are a lot of vortices to model, and because they all contribute to the process of mixing.”
Argonne researchers also use models to illustrate the geometric effects of the reactor or the fuel assembly on the heat transport and fluid flow.
To model the mixing and turbulence in a nuclear reactor, Obabko and his colleagues use a computational code called Nek5000 to solve questions related to computational fluid dynamics. Nek5000 is a general purpose fluid mechanics code used for modeling vascular flows, aerodynamics, and internal combustion engines as well as nuclear reactor environments.
Nek5000 provides a number of advantages over competing computational algorithms, but most notably it dramatically cuts the time and computational expense needed to resolve solutions. “By the time most other codes get to 80 percent of the solution, we’re at 90 percent, and that can make a big difference in terms of computing expense,” said Argonne computational scientist Paul Fischer, who designed Nek5000.
Validating the models and exploring new frontiers
By themselves, computer codes can shed only so much light on the inner workings of a nuclear reactor. To know how precisely the output of a computational model conforms to reality requires the ability to compare the results with the data from experiments, a process known as validation. For some advanced reactor types, such experimental data are limited and expensive to generate to cover all design variations. Therefore, modern modeling and simulation capabilities aim to achieve a higher level of predictiveness without relying so heavily on experiments.
“We still can’t fully trust our computational models without experimental data, but we can make use of whatever limited experimental data are available,” Shemon said. “So, what we have is an iterative process in which designers use our software to do the preliminary analysis, allowing them to narrow down design choices or make improvements to their systems, and validate their final design with more targeted tests.”
A truly useful model not only reproduces what scientists can see experimentally, but it can also complement known data and allow researchers to make predictions with more confidence. This is particularly important for advanced reactor designs with different kinds of coolant and fuel choices.
Because there are so many potential new designs that have been proposed — ranging from sodium-cooled fast reactors like those studied by Obabko to those cooled by gas or by molten salts — advanced computing represents the best avenue researchers have to assess the capabilities of their designs.
In most cases, computer codes must exchange information about the heat generation rates, temperatures, and stresses and strains because the neutronic, thermal and structural phenomena have an impact on each other. In this way, Argonne’s nuclear modeling program has two goals: First, to develop core reactor physics, thermal hydraulics, structure mechanics, and fuels and materials modeling tools; second, to create multiphysics analysis capabilities that capture the interdependence among all these fields.
Reaping the benefits
Even when researchers do not have the ability to directly validate their codes, developing higher-fidelity closer-to-first-principles models represents an improvement in many ways on the low-order codes that may have been validated in the past. For instance, higher-fidelity codes allow researchers to obtain a more precise understanding of quantities for which they previously only had an average value.
“Previous low-order codes were accurate, but they were, in a sense, blurry,” Shemon said. “These new high-fidelity codes give us the ability to be much more precise in terms of energy, space and time.”
One way in which the high-fidelity codes can improve the design and operation of a reactor is by reducing uncertainty in the tolerances — or temperature margins — required for safe and efficient reactor operation. In one example, Argonne researchers run models with best-case scenarios, in which fuel pins and their cladding are manufactured exactly to specifications. Then, they also run worst-case scenarios, in which these components differ from their ideal to account for uncertainties and tolerances, and compare the difference in how the reactor virtually behaves to evaluate the safety margins.
“Our main goal is to increase the availability of information for advanced reactor designs. We’re trying to enable safer, faster, more economical design through modeling and simulation.” – Emily Shemon, Argonne nuclear engineer
In Shemon’s view, this project and others at Argonne support a broader, overarching objective. “Our main goal is to increase the availability of information for advanced reactor designs,” she said. “We’re trying to enable safer, faster, more economical design through modeling and simulation. Everything we do is geared toward that.”
Funding
The work is funded by the Nuclear Energy Advanced Modeling and Simulation (NEAMS) Program within DOE’s Office of Nuclear Energy. The research is also supported by DOE’s Advanced Scientific Computing Research (ASCR) program and the Exascale Computing Project (ECP), a collaborative effort of the DOE Office of Science and the National Nuclear Security Administration, that seeks to provide breakthrough modeling and simulation solutions through exascale computing.
This research was supported by the Exascale Computing Project (17-SC-20-SC), a joint project of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Science and National Nuclear Security Administration, responsible for delivering a capable exascale ecosystem, including software, applications and hardware technology, to support the nation’s exascale computing imperative.
Established by Congress in 2000, the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) is a semi-autonomous agency within the U.S. Department of Energy responsible for enhancing national security through the military application of nuclear science. NNSA maintains and enhances the safety, security, and effectiveness of the U.S. nuclear weapons stockpile without nuclear explosive testing; works to reduce the global danger from weapons of mass destruction; provides the U.S. Navy with safe and effective nuclear propulsion; and responds to nuclear and radiological emergencies in the U.S. and abroad. Visit nnsa.energy.gov for more information.
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The U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States and is working to address some of the most pressing challenges of our time. For more information, visit https://energy.gov/science.
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Here, There and Everywhere: Large and Giant Viruses Abound Globally
In Nature, a team led by U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Joint Genome Institute (JGI) researchers uncovered a broad diversity of large and giant viruses that belong to the nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDV) supergroup, expanding virus diversity in this group 10-fold from just 205 genomes.
Chemistry finding could make solar energy more efficient
Scientists for the first time have developed a single molecule that can absorb sunlight efficiently and also act as a catalyst to transform solar energy into hydrogen, a clean alternative to fuel for things like gas-powered vehicles. This new molecule collects energy from the entire visible spectrum, and can harness more than 50% more solar energy than current solar cells can. The finding could help humans transition away from fossil fuels and toward energy sources that do not contribute to climate change.
New model helps pave the way to bringing clean fusion energy down to Earth
State-of-the-art simulation confirms a key source of heat and energy loss in spherical fusion facilities.
Rising global temperatures turn northern permafrost region into significant carbon source
A new study that incorporates datasets gathered from more than 100 sites by institutions including the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Argonne National Laboratory, suggests that decomposition of organic matter in permafrost soil is substantially larger than previously thought, demonstrating the significant impact that emissions from the permafrost soil could have on the greenhouse effect and global warming.
Transformative 'Green' Accelerator Achieves World's First 8-pass Full Energy Recovery
Scientists from Cornell University and Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) have successfully demonstrated the world's first capture and reuse of energy in a multi-turn particle accelerator, where electrons are accelerated and decelerated in multiple stages and transported at different energies through a single beamline.
First detailed electronic study of new nickelate superconductor finds 3D metallic state
It represents an entirely new type of ground state for transition metal oxides, and opens new directions for experiments and theoretical studies of how superconductivity arises and how it can be optimized in this system and possibly in other compounds.
What's MER? It's a Way to Measure Quantum Materials, and It's Telling US New and Interesting Things
Experimental physicists have combined several measurements of quantum materials into one in their ongoing quest to learn more about manipulating and controlling the behavior of them for possible applications. They even coined a term for it-- Magneto-elastoresistance, or MER.
Scientists pioneer new generation of semiconductor neutron detector
In a new study, scientists have developed a new type of semiconductor neutron detector that boosts detection rates by reducing the number of steps involved in neutron capture and transduction.
Connecting the dots in the sky could shed new light on dark matter
Astrophysicists have come a step closer to understanding the origin of a faint glow of gamma rays covering the night sky. They found that this light is brighter in regions that contain a lot of matter and dimmer where matter is sparser - a correlation that could help them narrow down the properties of exotic astrophysical objects and invisible dark matter.
Nano-objects of Desire: Assembling Ordered Nanostructures in 3-D
A new DNA-programmable nanofabrication platform organizes inorganic or biological nanocomponents in the same prescribed ways.
Lin Chen receives Award in Experimental Physical Chemistry
The Physical Chemistry Division of the American Chemical Society announces that Lin X. Chen has received the 2020 Award in Experimental Physical Chemistry. The award recognizes Chen for "fundamental contributions to the elucidation of excited state structures, dynamics and energetics of light harvesting systems.
Polymer expert Advincula named ORNL-UT Governor's Chair
Rigoberto "Gobet" Advincula has been named Governor's Chair of Advanced and Nanostructured Materials at the Department of Energy's Oak Ridge National Laboratory and the University of Tennessee.
Former PPPL intern honored for outstanding machine learning poster
The American Physical Society (APS) has recognized a former PPPL summer intern for producing an outstanding research poster at the world-wide APS Division of Plasma Physics (DPP) gathering last October. The student used machine learning to accelerate a leading PPPL computer code known as XGC.
Team led by PPPL wins major supercomputer time to help capture on Earth the fusion that powers the sun and stars
PPPL will use INCITE-award time on Summit and Theta supercomputers to develop predictions for the performance of ITER, the international experiment under construction to demonstrate the feasibility of fusion energy.
Department of Energy Announces $625 Million for New Quantum Centers
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) announced up to $625 million over the next five years to establish two to five multidisciplinary Quantum Information Science (QIS) Research Centers in support of the National Quantum Initiative.
Department of Energy to Provide $75 Million for Bioenergy Crops Research
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) announced a plan to provide up to $75 million over five years for research to develop sustainable bioenergy crops tolerant of environmental stress and resilient to changing environmental conditions.
Jefferson Lab to be Major Partner in Electron Ion Collider Project
The Department of Energy announced that it has taken the next step toward construction of an Electron Ion Collider (EIC) in the United States. DOE announced on Thursday that the collider will be sited at DOE's Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, N.Y. In addition, DOE's Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility will be a major partner in realizing the EIC, providing key support to build this next new collider, which will be the most advanced particle collider of its type ever built.
Department of Energy Selects Site for Electron-Ion Collider
UPTON, NY-- Yesterday, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) named Brookhaven National Laboratory on Long Island in New York as the site for building an Electron-Ion Collider (EIC), a one-of-a-kind nuclear physics research facility. This announcement, following DOE's approval of "mission need" (known as Critical Decision 0) on December 19, 2019, enables work to begin on R&D and the conceptual design for this next-generation collider at Brookhaven Lab.
Department of Energy Announces $32 Million for Small Business Research and Development Grants
U.S. Secretary of Energy Dan Brouillette announced that the Department of Energy (DOE) will award 158 grants totaling $32 million to 118 small businesses in 32 states. Funded through DOE's Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) and Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) programs, these selections are for Phase I research and development.
Summit Charts a Course to Uncover the Origins of Genetic Diseases
Gene mutations can interfere with how the body expresses genes and cause disease. To better understand this connection, researchers recently developed a model of the transcription preinitiation complex (PIC).
Harvesting Energy from Light using Bio-inspired Artificial Cells
Scientists designed and connected two different artificial cells to each other to produce molecules called ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
Engineering Living Scaffolds for Building Materials
Bone and mollusk shells are composite systems that combine living cells and inorganic components. This allows them to regenerate and change structure while also being very strong and durable. Borrowing from this amazing complexity, researchers have been exploring a new class of materials called engineered living materials (ELMs).
Excavating Quantum Information Buried in Noise
Researchers developed two new methods to assess and remove error in how scientists measure quantum systems. By reducing quantum "noise" - uncertainty inherent to quantum processes - these new methods improve accuracy and precision.
How Electrons Move in a Catastrophe
Lanthanum strontium manganite (LSMO) is a widely applicable material, from magnetic tunnel junctions to solid oxide fuel cells. However, when it gets thin, its behavior changes for the worse. The reason why was not known. Now, using two theoretical methods, a team determined what happens.
When Ions and Molecules Cluster
How an ion behaves when isolated within an analytical instrument can differ from how it behaves in the environment. Now, Xue-Bin Wang at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory devised a way to bring ions and molecules together in clusters to better discover their properties and predict their behavior.
Tune in to Tetrahedral Superstructures
Shape affects how the particles fit together and, in turn, the resulting material. For the first time, a team observed the self-assembly of nanoparticles with tetrahedral shapes.
Tracing Interstellar Dust Back to the Solar System's Formation
This study is the first to confirm dust particles pre-dating the formation of our solar system. Further study of these materials will enable a deeper understanding of the processes that formed and have since altered them.
Investigating Materials that Can Go the Distance in Fusion Reactors
Future fusion reactors will require materials that can withstand extreme operating conditions, including being bombarded by high-energy neutrons at high temperatures. Scientists recently irradiated titanium diboride (TiB2) in the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) to better understand the effects of fusion neutrons on performance.
Better 3-D Imaging of Tumors in the Breast with Less Radiation
In breast cancer screening, an imaging technique based on nuclear medicine is currently being used as a successful secondary screening tool alongside mammography to improve the accuracy of the diagnosis. Now, a team is hoping to improve this imaging technique.
Microbes are Metabolic Specialists
Scientists can use genetic information to measure if microbes in the environment can perform specific ecological roles. Researchers recently analyzed the genomes of over 6,000 microbial species. | https://www.newswise.com/doescience/?article_id=719139&returnurl=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubmV3c3dpc2UuY29tL2FydGljbGVzL2xpc3Q= |
Researchers at Linköping University, Sweden, have developed a new molecule, indium triazenide, that can be used to create high-quality indium nitride for use in high-frequency electronics.
The bandwidth we currently use for wireless data transfer will soon be full. If we are to continue transmitting ever-increasing amounts of data, the available bandwidth must be increased by bringing further frequencies into use. Since molecules in the atmosphere adsorb electromagnetic radiation at certain frequencies, new bandwidth can only be explored at very high frequencies. To create electromagnetic signals of such high frequencies, transistors where electrons can be set in motion at those frequencies are needed. Such transistors must be made of semiconductor materials, within which it is very easy for electrons to move. Indium nitride stands out as a semiconductor material highly suited for such high frequency transistors.
“Since electrons move through indium nitride extremely easily, it is possible to send electrons backwards and forwards through the material at very high speeds and create signals with extremely high frequencies. This means that indium nitride can be used in high-frequency electronics, where it can provide, for example, new frequencies for wireless data transfer,” says Henrik Pedersen, a professor of inorganic chemistry at the Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology at Linköping University. He has led a recent study on making very thin layers of indium nitride, which was recently published in Chemistry of Materials.
Indium nitride – CVD and ALD
Indium nitride is a chemical compound consisting of equal amounts of nitrogen and the metal indium. It is a semiconductor and can therefore be used to make transistors, the small electrical switches on which all electronic devices are based. To make a transistor, thin layers of materials with highly controlled electrical properties must be stacked on top of each other. The problem, however, is that it is difficult to produce thin films of indium nitride. Thin films of similar semiconductor materials are often produced using a well-established method known as chemical vapour deposition, or CVD, where vapours of precursor molecules containing the atoms needed for the material are allowed to react with each other and with the surface where the material is to be deposited. CVD of metal nitride semiconductors typically need temperatures between 800 and 1,000°C to activate the chemical reactions and to deposit high quality material. However, indium nitride breaks down into metallic indium and nitrogen gas when it is heated above 600°C.
The deposition chemistry in CVD has a gas phase and a surface component. The origin of the high temperatures employed in the CVD of nitrides is the slow gas phase decomposition chemistry of the ammonia molecule, which is used as the precursor molecule for nitrogen. In CVD processes, for indium nitride this has been compensated by a very high surplus of ammonia. The researchers at Linköping University speculated that if the surface chemical reactions between ammonia molecules and chemisorbed indium precursor molecules could be enhanced by a monolayer of indium precursors and stabilised by lower temperature, then the overall process temperature could be reduced. They therefore started experimenting with time-resolved CVD processes for indium nitride.
The researchers eventually started using the most well-known time-resolved form of CVD, known as ‘atomic layer deposition’, or ALD. ALD is an essential technique for all modern electronics fabrication and relies on sequential supplies of the precursor molecules, meaning that the precursor molecules for indium and nitrogen cannot react with each other here (as they do not meet in the gas phase), while they can on the surface as this is saturated with the opposite precursor molecules. ALD is also done at lower temperatures than traditional CVD, meaning that ALD is a very interesting option for indium nitride. The researchers hypothesised that the surface chemical reactions governing ALD will help the indium nitride films to grow at lower temperatures without lowering the material quality. While ALD of indium nitride has been shown before, the low temperature in ALD meant that large amounts of carbon, emanating from the indium precursor molecule, was trapped in the indium nitride film.
Indium triazenide
The researchers started exploring alternative precursor molecules for indium where the indium-carbon bonds in the traditional indium precursor are replaced by weaker indium–nitrogen bonds. Three such molecules had been reported in the scientific literature, all with indium-nitrogen bonds formed by six nitrogen atoms binding to one indium atom. The nitrogen atoms form pairs bridged by a carbon atom. The researchers tried all of them and discovered that the fewer atoms attached to that central carbon atom, the better quality on the deposited indium nitride. The best quality was obtained when a single hydrogen atom was bonded to the carbon.1
From this result, the scientists developed a new precursor molecule for indium, where the atomic bridge between the nitrogen atoms is replaced by a third nitrogen atom. This sort of molecule with three nitrogen atoms in a row is called a ‘triazenide’. Since nitrogen forms one less bond than carbon, no further atoms are needed to complete the bridge and the molecule thus became even smaller. No one had worked with such indium triazenides previously, and the researchers soon discovered that the triazenide molecule is an excellent starting material for the manufacture of indium nitride thin films.
Materials used in electronics must, typically, be produced by allowing the thin film to grow on a surface that controls the crystal structure of the electronic material. The process is known as epitaxial growth. The researchers discovered that it is possible to achieve epitaxial growth of indium nitride if silicon carbide is used as substrate, something that was not previously known. This is very interesting since silicon carbide is a highly suited material to use as the basis for high frequency electronics since it is a very good thermal conductor and can therefore dissipate excess heat generated when creating the high frequency signals. Furthermore, the indium nitride produced in the ALD process using the new indium triazenide molecule is very pure, and among the highest quality indium nitride reported in the world.
“The indium triazenide molecule that we have invented in combination with the ALD process that we have developed, makes it possible to seriously start thinking about using indium nitride in electronic devices. We have shown that it is possible to produce indium nitride in a manner that ensures that it is sufficiently pure to be described as a true electronic material,” Pedersen said.
The researchers discovered another surprising fact – it is generally accepted amongst those who use ALD that the precursor molecules should not be allowed to react or be broken down in any way in the gas phase. But when the researchers increased the temperature in the ALD process, they discovered that there is not just one, but two, temperature intervals at which the process was stable.2
Pedersen said: “We believe that the indium triazenide breaks down into a smaller indium alkyl amine in the gas phase, and this improves the ALD process since this molecule is smaller and occupies a smaller area on the surface. The indium alkyl amine cannot be used directly as it polymerises upon heating and can therefore not be heated to form the vapour needed for the ALD process. Using molecules that are not fully stable in the gas phase is a paradigm shift within ALD. We have shown that it is possible obtain a better indium nitride thin film if we allow the indium triazenide molecule to break down to a certain extent in the gas phase.”
The researchers have worked on the closely related semiconductor material gallium nitride, which is the basis for all blue light emitting diodes to develop a gallium triazenide precursor and a corresponding ALD process for gallium nitride. The continued research will focus on gathering experimental evidence for the suggested decomposition mechanism of the triazeinde molecules in the ALD reactor. The researchers are also examining similar triazenide molecules with metals other than indium and gallium for new ALD precursors. The researchers have found that several of the other metal triazenides also show promising properties, such as volatility, for use in ALD.
The study has been carried out together with researchers from the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences in Uppsala and Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada. It has received financial support from the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF) and the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation.
Atomic layer deposition (ALD)
The thin film of indium nitride is produced in a vacuum chamber by introducing vapours of a precursor molecule that contains indium into the chamber and allowing it to react with the surface on which the thin film is to form. This is followed by the introduction of a gas that contains nitrogen and that reacts with the surface to form a monolayer of indium nitride. By alternating between the two gases several hundred times, layers are added onto layers until the thin film is complete. Using this method, in combination with plasma discharges to make more reactive fragments of the nitrogen containing gas, the chemical reactions can take place at 300°C, which is much lower than the temperatures required during CVD, which can lie between 800 and 1,000°C.
References
- The Endocyclic Carbon Substituent of Guanidinate and Amidinate Precursors Controlling Atomic Layer Deposition of InN Films, Polla Rouf, Nathan J. O’Brien, Karl Rönnby, Rouzbeh Samii, Ivan G. Ivanov, Lars Ojamäe and Henrik Pedersen, Journal of Physical Chemistry C, published on 26 September 2019, doi: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.9b07005. Link: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jpcc.9b07005
- ‘In Situ Activation of an Indium(III) Triazenide Precursor for Epitaxial Growth of Indium Nitride by Atomic Layer Deposition’, Nathan J. O’Brien, Polla Rouf, Rouzbeh Samii, Karl Rönnby, Sydney C. Buttera, Chih-Wei Hsu, Ivan G. Ivanov, Vadim Kessler, Lars Ojamäe and Henrik Pedersen, Chemistry of Materials, published as an open access article on 24 April, doi: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.9b05171. Link: https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.9b05171
Henrik Pedersen
Professor
Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology (IFM)
Linköping University
+46 13 281385
[email protected]
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Please note, this article will also appear in the third edition of our new quarterly publication. | https://www.innovationnewsnetwork.com/chemistry-paves-the-way-for-improved-electronic-materials/6148/ |
Karl Berggren, the Emanuel E. Landsman Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering, has teamed with MIT Department of Materials Science and Engineering Professor Caroline Ross to create a more cost-effective way to use self-assembling techniques for microchip circuitry. Their work was reported yesterday in Nature Nanotechnology and today, March 16, 2010, in the MIT News Office by Larry Hardesty: "Self-assembling computer chips - Molecules that arrange themselves into predictable patterns on silicon chips could lead to microprocessors with much smaller circuit elements."
"The features on computer chips are getting so small that soon the process used to make them, which has hardly changed in the last 50 years, won’t work anymore. One of the alternatives that academic researchers have been exploring is to create tiny circuits using molecules that automatically arrange themselves into useful patterns. In a paper that appeared Monday in Nature Nanotechnology, MIT researchers have taken an important step toward making that approach practical.
Currently, chips are built up, layer by layer, through a process called photolithography. A layer of silicon, metal, or some other material is deposited on a chip and coated with a light-sensitive material, called a photoresist. Light shining through a kind of stencil — a “mask” — projects a detailed pattern onto the photoresist, which hardens where it’s exposed. The unhardened photoresist is washed away, and chemicals etch away the bare material underneath.
The problem is that chip features are now significantly smaller than the wavelength of the light used to make them. Manufacturers have developed various tricks to get light to produce patterns smaller than its own wavelength, but they won’t work at smaller scales." | https://www.eecs.mit.edu/news-events/media/berggren-teams-create-self-assembling-copolymer-circuits-microchips |
New material aids in neural stimulation using light
The ability to target and stimulate neurons brings a host of benefits including better understanding brain function and treating neurological diseases. Currently, state-of-the-art microelectrode arrays (MEAs) can stimulate neurons with high precision, but they lack cell-type specificity and require invasive implantation that can result in tissue damage think stimulators used to help patients with tremors. Professor of Materials Science and Engineering, and Biomedical Engineering, Tzahi Cohen-Karni, and his team have been exploring new materials to allow remote photostimulation, or the use of light to stimulate cells.
Cells can talk with one another by sending and receiving electrical signals. Inside a cell's membrane, a neuron in our brain, for example, there are tiny pores called ion channels that let ions move in and out of the cell. Under normal conditions, the fluxes of ions across the membrane dictate whether a cell will send an electrical signal to its neighbors. In recent years, researchers have shown that it is possible to use pulses of light to alter the cell membrane's properties and elicit an electrical signal that can control cellular communication. Cohen-Karni's team aims to identify materials effective at controlling cell activities without causing distress. They recognized that multi-dimensional graphene (fuzzy graphene) posed as a great candidate for cellular stimulation but found that some materials were difficult to produce and couldn't absorb enough light to efficiently transfer light to heat.
In his current research published by the American Chemical Society, Cohen-Karni focused on transition metal carbides/nitrides (MXenes) flakes, a unique two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterial discovered by Dr. Yury Gogotsi's team at Drexel University. MXenes have been demonstrated to exhibit outstanding mechanical properties, high electrical conductivity, excellent electrochemical properties, and importantly are easy and inexpensive to produce.
Rather than study the material for its bulk properties, Cohen-Karni's team measured the photothermal properties of the material at a single flake level. The team dispersed flakes on the surface of dorsal root ganglion (DRG), cells in the peripheral nervous system, and illuminated them with short pulses of light. By studying the interface between cells and materials, it became clear that flakes would not be absorbed by the cells and Cohen-Karni could accurately measure the amount of light required to create cellular change.
Cohen-Karni said, what is really unique about the materials that we are using in my lab is that we don't need to use high-energy pulses in order to get an effective stimulation. By shining short pulses of light on the DRG-MXene interface, we found that the electrophysiology of the cell was successfully altered.
So what does this mean for the future of neurology? With an increased understanding of how to achieve neural stimulation and the ease of MXene production, researchers can more efficiently practice remote photostimulation. For example, researchers could embed MXenes into artificial tissue-engineered in the form of a brain, and then use light to control the neural activity and further uncover the role of neurons in brain development. Eventually, this material could even be used as a non-invasive treatment for neural function disabilities, like tremors.
Other team members involved in the research included Materials Science and Engineering students Yingqaio Wang and Raghav Garg; Jane E. Hartung and Michael S. Gold from the University of Pittsburgh; Adam Goad and Dipna A. Patel from Drexel University; and Flavia Vitale from the University of Pennsylvania and the Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration, and Restoration. | https://www.followthistrendingworld.com/post/new-material-aids-in-neural-stimulation-using-light |
Breakthrough enables storage and release of mechanical waves without energy loss
Light and sound waves are at the basis of energy and signal transport and fundamental to some of our most basic technologies—from cell phones to engines. Scientists, however, have yet to devise a method that allows them to store a wave intact for an indefinite period of time and then direct it toward a desired location on demand. Such a development would greatly facilitate the ability to manipulate waves for a variety of desired uses, including energy harvesting, quantum computing, structural-integrity monitoring, information storage, and more.
In a newly published paper in Science Advances, a group of researchers led by Andrea Alù, founding director of the Photonics Initiative at the Advanced Science Research Center (ASRC) at The Graduate Center, CUNY, and by Massimo Ruzzene, professor of Aeronautics Engineering at Georgia Tech, have experimentally shown that it is possible to efficiently capture and store a wave intact then guide it towards a specific location.
"Our experiment proves that unconventional forms of excitation open new opportunities to gain control over wave propagation and scattering," said Alù. "By carefully tailoring the time dependence of the excitation, it is possible to trick the wave to be efficiently stored in a cavity, and then release it on demand towards the desired direction."
Methodology
To achieve their goal, the scientists had to devise a way for changing the basic interaction between waves and materials. When a light or sound wave hits an obstacle, it is either partially absorbed or reflected and scattered. The absorption process entails immediately converting of the wave into heat or other forms of energy. Materials that can't absorb waves only reflect and scatter them. The researchers' goal was to find a way to mimic the absorbtion process without converting the wave into other forms of energy and instead storing it in the material. This concept, introduced theoretically two years ago by the ASRC group, is known as coherent virtual absorption.
To prove their theory, the researchers reasoned that they needed to tailor the waves' time evolution so that when they came in contact with non-abosorbing materials, they wouldn't be reflected, scattered, or transmitted. This would prevent the wave impinging on the structure from escaping, and it would be efficiently trapped inside as if it were being absorbed. The stored wave could then be released on demand.
During their experiment, researchers propagated two mechanical waves traveling in opposite directions along a carbon steel waveguide bar that contained a cavity. The time variations of each wave were carefully controlled to ensure that the cavity would retain all of the impinging energy. Then, by stopping the excitation or detuning one of the waves, they were able to control the release of the stored energy and send it towards a desired direction on demand.
"While we ran our proof-of-concept experiment using elastic waves traveling in a solid material, our findings are also applicable to radiowaves and light, offering exciting prospects for efficient energy harvesting, wireless power transfer, low-energy photonics, and generally enhanced control over wave propagation," said Ruzzene. | https://phys.org/news/2019-08-breakthrough-enables-storage-mechanical-energy.html |
Posted on Oct 11, 2021, 4 p.m.
Researchers from the University of Tsukuba, in collaboration with the University of Bonn, Germany, identify a subpopulation of mesenchymal stem cells with enhanced fracture healing and differentiation abilities.
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are thought to have great potential in the field of regenerative medicine, which has the aim of restoring damaged tissues. However, not much was known about in vivo plasticity of them -- until now. Researchers have identified a subpopulation of MSCs that promote the healing of bone fractures and show an enhanced ability to differentiate into various cell types.
MSCs are found in bone marrow, and are "multipotent," meaning that they can both renew themselves and develop into a variety of specialized cell types, such as bone, fat, and cartilage cells. The researchers had previously developed a mouse line that uses green fluorescent protein to highlight cells expressing a particular molecule known as CD73. Studies of the bone marrow in this mouse revealed that a subpopulation of MSCs expressed CD73, as well as the sinusoidal endothelial cells (sECs) that are part of the vascular system of the bone marrow.
The CD73-positive MSCs could be seen to proliferate more than the CD73- negative MSCs, and to have a higher potential to differentiate into different cell types, indicating that this group of MSCs may be particularly effective for bone repair. The researchers therefore went on to study the functions of these CD73-positive MSCs in fracture healing.
As a fracture heals, it progresses through various stages. These include clotted blood forming at the fracture, which becomes replaced by a callus of fibrous tissues and cartilage, followed by formation of a hard bony callus. The bone is then remodeled, as regular bone replaces the hard callus and the bone returns to its usual shape.
"The generation of the callus is critically dependent on the recruitment of MSCs from the surrounding tissue and the bone marrow," explains lead author Assistant Professor Kenichi Kimura. "Therefore, fracture healing models are helpful for exploring the cellular dynamics of MSC migration and differentiation during tissue regeneration."
The team was able to observe the CD73-positive MSCs moving towards the site of the fracture and forming new cartilage and bone cells to heal the fracture. The CD73-positive sECs were also involved in the healing of the fracture, as they contributed to the process of "neovascularization," the formation of new blood vessels to support the healed bone.
Finally, they went on to graft CD73-positive MSCs into the area of a fracture, which markedly enhanced the healing process compared with when they grafted into CD73-negative MSCs.
Says Assistant Professor Kimura, "The identification of this subpopulation of MSCs could be of great benefit for regenerative medicine and the treatment of fractures."
As with anything you read on the internet, this article should not be construed as medical advice; please talk to your doctor or primary care provider before making any changes to your wellness routine.
Content may be edited for style and length.
Materials provided by: | https://www.worldhealth.net/news/stem-cell-population-identified-key-bone-regeneration/ |
The scientific application of particular wavelengths of light began in the 20th Century and benefits began to emerge in the use of lasers for their therapeutic effects when applied at low power intensity.
This type of laser treatment is often referred to Low Level Laser Therapy (LLLT) or cold lasers where the irradiation of tissue at low doses resulted in an increased rate of healing.
LLLT stimulates and optimises the body’s natural healing process through controlled application of specific wavelengths of light which have particular physiological effects. Used primarily for wound healing, pain relief and soft tissue repair, it is a drug-free, non-invasive treatment employed in public and private health care institutions worldwide.
Low Level Laser can be used in conjunction with acupuncture or as an alternative to needles and it is particularily effective in treating the following conditions:
Low Level Laser Therapy aims to stimulate the body on a biochemical level. LLLT does not heat and won’t damage living tissue. Low level laser therapy optimises the speed of repair in acute injuries but will also stimulate the body's repair processes in cases of non-healing or chronic conditions. Three distinct photobiological effects are known to occur when using Low Level Laser Therapy:
1. Healing growth factor response through:
2. Pain relief through:
3. Immune system support through: | http://www.acupuncture-rathfarnham.com/home/therapies/laser |
Federal and state officials will visit Argonne National Laboratory May 6 to participate in a cornerstone-laying ceremony for the Center for Nanoscale Materials (CNM).
The CNM, which is currently under construction, is a joint DOE-State of Illinois project to provide basic nanoscale research that will lead to industrial and commercial applications that can benefit Illinois and the country.
Image: Artist's conception of the Center for Nanoscale Materials now under construction at Argonne.
"Nano" refers to the scale used to measure these materials – a nanometer is 1 billionth of a meter, or about 70,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair. Materials at the nanoscale differ from conventional materials because traditional physics does not apply at this scale.
“Intentionally building materials at the nanoscale,” said CNM Director Eric Isaacs, “allows us to explore and develop entirely new ways to tailor a material's response to temperature, electrical or magnetic fields, or chemical environments. The basic research to be conducted at the CNM is critical so that novel, environmentally safe products and applications can be effectively developed based on nanomaterials.”
Industry will be able to use research revealed by CNM researchers to understand what can be expected from nanoscale materials. They will be able to create new products that will impact the fields of energy, medicine, information technology and homeland security, and to maintain the United States' leading role in science.
The center's mission includes supporting basic research and development of advanced instrumentation for creating novel materials that provide new insights at the nanoscale level. The challenges involve fabricating and exploring novel nanoscale materials and, ultimately, employing unique synthesis and characterization methods to control and tailor nanoscale phenomena.
The CNM will be open to academia, industry and other government laboratories through a peer-reviewed process.
CNM's research facilities
The facility is being built adjacent to the Advanced Photon Source, the most brilliant source of research X-rays in the Western Hemisphere. The 85,000-square foot CNM building will house research instruments, laboratories, clean rooms and work space to assist in fabricating and understanding these tiny materials.
CNM's first dedicated instrument will be the pioneering nanoprobe beam line now under construction. The nanoprobe will be a hard X-ray microscopy beamline with the highest spatial resolution in the world. With its combination of fluorescence, diffraction and transmission imaging at a spatial resolution of 30 nanometers or better in a single tool, the nanoprobe will be able to penetrate samples in situ and provide information about their internal structures.
An electron-beam lithography facility will provide fabrication support to CNM users, including a 100-kilovolt electron-beam lithography tool – one of a handful of such devices in the country. The center will also feature an Argonne-developed nanopositioning system for precision motion and measurement.
The CNM is a joint partnership between the Department of Energy and the State of Illinois. The State of Illinois is providing $36 million to construct the building, and DOE is providing an additional $36 million to develop and build the facility's advanced instrumentation.
Argonne's CNM is one of five centers being built at national laboratories across the country as part of DOE's Nanoscale Science Research Center program under the Office of Basic Energy Sciences.
The basic scientific research to be conducted at the CNM is predicted to lead to novel, environmentally safe products and applications that can be effectively developed based on nanomaterials. Research includes:
-- Nanomaterials that could lead to 400 percent improvement in the efficiency of direct conversion of heat to electricity, and conversely in thermoelectric cooling.
-- New materials to efficiently harvest light for energy generation, and for novel purposes such as selective chemical reactivity.
-- The means to synthesize and understand new nanostructured materials that are potentially stronger, lighter, harder, safer and self-repairing such as nanocarbon, which has led to coatings for implantable biomedical devices such as an artificial retina.
-- Developing advanced, adaptive biosensors, for instance, to monitor blood sugar levels and inject insulin directly into the blood stream.
-- Fundamental understanding and design of novel nanoscale materials and chemical processes capable of capturing, converting and storing energy as electrical or chemical equivalents. These developments could lead to using energy to manipulate biological materials in processes such as gene surgery or cell repair, and facilitating conversion of light energy into therapeutic processes.
-- New ways to manipulate photons and electrons, making possible a whole new class of devices, including those based on the spin of the electron.
-- Nanomagnetic and nanostructured ferroelectric materials for semiconductors will provide a path that goes beyond current technology for information processing and storage. New materials and devices will be developed at the CNM that are capable of much higher storage densities that use less power and dissipate less heat.
-- Nanophotonics research is poised to manipulate light at length scales much smaller than is possible using traditional optical elements, firmly placing light within the realm of the integrated circuit.
-- Sensors to detect the presence of biowarfare agents, such as anthrax, in real time. | https://aps.anl.gov/APS-News/2017/the-nano-revolution-continues-at-argonne |
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