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This article is part of our special report The coming revolution: Europe’s digital transition in a post-covid world.
EU member states will renew their commitment to bridging the gap across Europe’s connectivity divides on Tuesday (9 June), as certain territories on the continent continue to be isolated from more developed parts of the bloc.
However, previous EU attempts to bridge such connectivity gaps have hit a series of obstacles as part of the coronavirus crisis in Europe, including delays to 5G spectrum auctions in countries including Spain, Austria, Portugal, and the Czech Republic.
This led the EU’s digital czar, Margrethe Vestager to put pressure on EU telecoms ministers in May, telling them to “limit as much as possible” any delays to their 5G spectrum assignments.
On Tuesday, as part of an agreement on new Council conclusions on the bloc’s digital future, the “need for fast and ubiquitous connectivity” will be cited as an area which has provided resilience to more modernised areas of Europe, while at the same time exposing the digital shortfalls in less developed areas.
In order to gain a broader picture of the issue at hand here, the European Commission aims to analyse the technological clout of member states with the publication of its 2020 Digital Economy and Society Index, due for publication before the end of June.
The ‘Connectivity’ banner of the 2019 edition analysed the demand and the supply side of fixed and mobile broadband – assessing the availability as well as the take-up of basic, fast, and ultrafast broadband. Mobile broadband examination included the availability of 4G in member states, as well as a 5G ‘readiness index.’
As part of the assessment on fixed broadband, the Netherlands and Luxembourg are the best performing EU member states, while Greece, Poland and Croatia all fall towards the bottom. For mobile broadband, meanwhile, Finland, Denmark, Latvia and Italy all perform well, while Romania and Hungary came in with the lowest scores.
The 2020 edition of the index is likely to reveal widening gaps in Europe’s connectivity, as some of the more advanced nations begin to pull away from those unable to build up their next-generation telecommunications infrastructure.
This week, Finland, with its reputable standing in technological development, has made gains on lesser developed member states, after the country’s Ministry of Transport and Communications announced the granting of 5G licences, while Nokia announced a surge in demand for their broadband services amid the uptake in digital tools during the coronavirus lockdown period.
While some EU member states storm ahead with the deployment of next-generation connectivity, it is Europe’s rural areas that are likely to suffer the most. The 2019 DESI index revealed that 13% of rural homes are not covered by any fixed network and 48% by any ‘fast’ broadband connections. And while mobile broadband has slightly increased across rural areas, it is still widely regarded as a ‘complementary’ technology rather than a like-for-like substitute.
This is a political issue; a lack of connectivity across such areas results in a lack of jobs, industrial development, less advanced public services, and lower importance of digital skills and education.
As part of the 2019 DESI report on digital inclusion and skills in Europe, the lowest ranking country overall was Bulgaria. 25% of the country’s workforce has no digital skills whatsoever, while 51% of the population have no software-related skills and 47% of internet users used computers or computerised equipment at work.
And for some in Brussels, ensuring that such lesser developed regions of Europe do not miss out on the digital transition is vital.
Prominent Bulgarian EPP MEP Eva Maydell believes this needs to change. She is co-founder of Education Bulgaria 2030, a platform that aims to analyse and respond to the challenges the education system faces in the country.
“The latest project we are involved in is with the Ministry of Education, on developing Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) environment at schools,” she told EURACTIV.
“We see a great interest from teachers and headmasters to get on board and be active, because they saw just how easy it is to implement remote online learning.”
Maydell also believes that the wider benefits of the EU single market, such as the freedom to live and work in any member state, are dependent on the uptake of digital solutions at an equal rate across the continent.
“Bridging the digital divide for me means making sure that every company or organisation has access to digital solutions and can participate in the digital economy,” she said.
“The broader benefit of this would be to empower Europeans to work and live wherever they want and that citizens will not have to leave their hometowns due to lack of opportunities,” she continued, adding that the coronavirus lockdown period has demonstrated that many businesses are agile enough to run their firms remotely, “if they have the right infrastructure, processes and skills.”
In order to make these gains and ensure a more digitally connected Europe, EURACTIV has recently learnt that the executive aims to launch a review of its state aid policy with regards to the public financing of broadband networks across EU member states, resulting in a relaxing of the 2013 Broadband Guidelines, which could allow for more pubic investment into high capacity networks.
The 2013 guidelines currently apply strict conditions to the public funding of broadband networks, in order to foster a competition-friendly environment. The Commission is currently preparing the groundwork for a public consultation and a study on the guidelines.
Moreover, the Commission’s digital strategy communication, adopted in February this year, also notes the importance of updating the Broadband Cost Reduction Directive, which aims to make broadband network deployment more cost-efficient.
And in the European Council’s Shaping Europe’s Digital Future paper set to be adopted this week, EU member states renew calls for the EU “to reduce the costs of network deployment and facilitate the roll-out of very high capacity infrastructures,” as well as support “emerging network deployment needs by the end of 2021, including the Broadband Cost Reduction Directive.”
On the revision of the broadband guidelines, member states want the Commission to introduce more flexibility “as soon as possible, in order to facilitate the necessary public financing, including for the deployment of very high capacity connectivity in rural and remote areas.”
On 5G, EU member states continue to follow divergent paths towards Commission objectives of launching 5G services in all EU member states by the end of 2020 and a ‘rapid build-up’ that will ensure “uninterrupted 5G coverage in urban areas and along main transport paths by 2025,” as outlined in the 2016 5G Action Plan for Europe.
In this context, EU ministers want a new Action Plan for 5G and 6G, “supported with adequate financing measures, based on funds both from the Multi-annual Financial Framework and the EU recovery fund,” which will take into account the delays in deployment across certain member states.
The €750 billion recovery fund recently put forward by the Commission will ultimately be at the behest of EU member states themselves, but the Commission has previously suggested ‘connectivity’ could be a ‘major winner’ in the new outlay.
So, while the bloc continues to wrestle with how best to chart its path out from the coronavirus outbreak, ‘connectivity’ is widely being touted as an area that could bring multiple benefits to many of Europe’s less developed regions, and could be an opportunity for them to finally mobilise resources to accelerate themselves into Europe’s digital transition. | https://www.euractiv.com/section/digital/news/connecting-europes-forgotten-regions/ |
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Amazing things can happen with ICT & partnerships, including the impact that TECH4ALL projects are having on environmental conversation & inclusive education in various parts of the world. [Video]
Ensuring that all schools & clinics are connected requires a mix of technology, digital skills training, and business models that ensures ROI for operators. Here’s how that can be achieved.
Explore the progress we made in building a sustainable future in 2019 in green technology, digital inclusion & cybersecurity. [Video]
Education is a basic right. But not everyone has equal access to education resources or to the digital infrastructure that’s increasingly powering the learning environment. We think it’s time that changed. [Video]
Guest post by Close the Gap explaining their work in bridging the digital divide with initiatives like DigiTruck. | https://blog.huawei.com/tag/digitruck/ |
Themed “Resilient Internet for a shared, sustainable, and common future”, the 17th Internet Governance Forumwas held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia from November 28 to December 2. The forum aimed to call for collective actionand shared responsibility, strengthen connectivity, protect human rights and look for measures to “digital poverty”, manage data and protect privacy rights, and promote advanced digital technologies. Under-Secretary-General for Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations (UN) Li Junhua, stressed that the “collective duty” in Addis Ababa is to unleash the power and potential of theresilient internet, for a sustainable and common future.
The event was held amid increasing warnings about the implications of digital inequality. According to the UN’s statistics, 2.7 billion people around the world, most of whom are women and in developing countries, have not had access to the internet. The UN Deputy Secretary-General and Chair of the UN Sustainable Development Group Amina Mohammed once warned that if the international community does not take decisive action, the gap in digital technology will become the “new face of inequality”.
With the right policies, it is clear that digital technology can provide an unprecedented boost to sustainable development, especially in the poorest countries. Discussions are underway at many levels, to promote political commitments on narrowing the increasing digital divide, especially in the context that the world is striving to overcome consequences caused by COVID-19 and achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by the end of the decade. However, the deeper digital divide between developed and developing countries has made global discussions on digital technology lack comprehensiveness.
Both resources and capacity for digital transformation, even in developed economies, are not equal. The result of a survey, which was funded by the UK Government, showed that more than 50% of public servants, said public agencies in the country still lack the technological tools, resources and skills needed, to drive digital transformation in public services. About 63% of civil servants working in digital transformation cited those old technologies are barriers, meanwhile, 61% blamed lack of funding and 50% mentioned the inability to recruit high-quality personnel. More than 75% of respondents saidinnovation is the key to improving the quality of public services, while more than 75% wished to receive more training in digital skills.
The UN has regularly stressed the role of the SDGs as a guide in the recovery process following the COVID-19 pandemic. The goal of leaving no one behind means ensuring connectivity for everyone in the digital environment. Achieving global connectivity cannot depend solely on individual actions of governments or technology companies, but requires a joint effort, with cooperation among central and local governments, the private sector, multilateral organisations and people.
The UN Secretary-General proposed a global Digital Compact, focusing on a human-centred digital space with the protection of privacy, as well as the safe and responsible use of data. The Compact outlined common principles for an open, free and secure digital future for all. | https://en.nhandan.vn/efforts-to-reduce-digital-inequality-post120490.html |
Through this behavior arise personal values, familial values, cultural values, intellectual values, religious values, aesthetic values, architectural values, gastronomic values-the list is endless. Human existence is value-laden. Ethics studies moral and ethical values.
Impartiality Our experiences and perspectives are valuable assets to our journalism. We enjoy the right to robust personal lives, yet we accept some unique professional obligations and limitations.
We have opinions, like all people. But the public deserves factual reporting and informed analysis without our opinions influencing what they hear or see. So we strive to report and produce stories that transcend our biases and treat all views fairly. We aggressively challenge our own perspectives and pursue a diverse range of others, aiming always to present the truth as completely as we can tell it.
We are sensitive to the perception of bias. So we inform our supervisors and work with them to avoid even the appearance of conflicts of interest.
Guideline Overall, civic, cultural and community activities are fine. However, it is always wise to anticipate ahead of time what political or partisan issues or causes might emerge within a civic or cultural event to avoid ethical problems.
And we let our supervisors know about any such civic and cultural organizations we do actively engage with, so that any potential conflicts of interest can be headed off.
We can sit on community advisory boards, act as trustees at educational institutions and serve on the boards of religious organizations and nonprofit groups — so long as those organizations do not engage in significant lobbying or other political activity.
We tell our supervisors about such activities and understand that NPR may revoke its approval if there are actual or perceived conflicts of interest. We have the same right to practice religion — or not — as other Americans.
But we do not let our religious or personal beliefs distort our coverage of events or other faiths. We work extraordinarily hard to prove ourselves worthy of the trust the public places in us.
Our reputation as rigorous and impartial pursuers of truth is fundamental to protecting and strengthening that trust. As journalists and representatives of NPR, furthermore, we are in the public eye.
We hold dear our right to have personal lives — to root for our favorite teams, to live according to our faith, to form deep personal relationships. Yet as journalists, like those in many other professions, we abide by some clear limitations on our private conduct.
Those are some of the easy examples. But when it comes to protecting our impartiality, the limitations are often more nuanced than clear. Our cars may not be canvases for political expression, but how about those of our spouses? How do we respond when the conversation at a dinner party turns political?
And what about when the deepest aspects of our lives — how we worship, whom we marry — become fodder for societal controversy? Impartiality as citizens and public figures Speaking appearances Guideline Honor impartiality in speaking appearances and outside work.
We do not express personal opinions in public appearances outside NPR — just as we would not on our own broadcasts. If we are part of a panel discussion or a current events roundup and are asked what we think about an issue, what we think a politician should do or what is likely to happen next, we give answers that are based on solid reporting, not opinion.
Frame your answers around what your reporting tells you, what polls are saying or what history shows is likely to happen. We avoid speaking to groups where the appearance itself might put in question our impartiality. This includes situations where our appearance may seem to endorse the agenda of a group or organization, as well as participation in some political debates and forums where the sponsoring groups or other participants are identified with a particular perspective on an issue.
Case studies The evolution of our guidance on marches, rallies and public events. It read, in its entirety: The comedians would use the occasion to extend critiques they often make on their shows, criticisms of our political system, media, and culture. The memos and the decisions they reflected offered plenty of fodder for the ensuing news cycle, and touched off a flurry of sharp, wide-ranging questions, including: If being a witness to world events is one of the essential components of journalism, should journalists be prevented from observing an event of significant public interest, even if the event has no direct bearing on their beat or coverage?
But we highlight the shift to underscore two broader themes that should play into all our thinking:Jul 18, · Hollywood & Entertainment Media Real Estate those results and questioned the ethical and legal implications of the DNA analysis.
is about archaeological and contemporary ethics. Although. Dec 11, · The new research removes transparency from the more nebulous realm of "ethics" and shows the positive role it plays in maintaining an engaged, motivated work force. "If I . Health Care Ethics is a comprehensive study of significant issues affecting health care and the ethics of health care from the perspective of Catholic theology.
It aims to help Christian, and especially Catholic, health care professionals solve concrete problems in terms of principles rooted in scripture and tested by individual experience; however, its basis in real medical experience makes.
Ethics and Internal Controls: A Case of Entertainment Expenses Case Solution,Ethics and Internal Controls: A Case of Entertainment Expenses Case Analysis, Ethics and Internal Controls: A Case of Entertainment Expenses Case Study Solution, A Case of Entertainment Expenses Question 1 Ethical practice is a set of principles that .
the North American entertainment media (often rather simplistically referred to as “Hollywood”) or its global counterparts would ever actually adopt a code of ethics in the current media context. ethical analysis As a philosophical discipline whose purpose is to explore and explicate moral and ethical values, ethics is a critical enterprise.
To realize this critical purpose, ethics (whether metaethics or normative ethics) . | https://vifopap.ashio-midori.com/an-analysis-of-ethics-in-entertainment-47132bf.html |
What You Need to Know When Writing About Controversy
In a contentious composition, you argue for one side and not try to accommodate opposing sides. Instead, use opposing views to build on your argument by countering them. Your report ought to maintain a firm but well-reasoned out tone. You must strive for an academic tone that results from well-grounded reasoning and logical debate.
How to Write a Controversial Essay
Working on a contentious topic can be challenging because you have to convince your reader to agree with your viewpoint. Excellent argumentative and persuasive skills are, therefore, very essential when putting down this kind of paper. The best strategy to employ when writing a controversial essay is to put together your opinions and the facts and then persuade your reader to concur with your perspective.
While most essays on contentious topics are generally argumentative, it is essential to note that not all are. Some disagree or agree with specific issues that are not very contestable. They can also be expository. Remember that the success of your composition is dependent on your ability to confidently affirm your viewpoint on a contentious topic without fear of criticism. Here’s how to write your controversial essay explained.
How to Start a Controversial Essay
It is crucial that you answer the question ‘what is a controversial essay?’ before getting started on one. It is simply one in which the writer takes a stand on a highly contestable subject. The first step of any paper is choosing a topic. Pick an issue that you can argue for or against comfortably. You should be able to back it up with a valid argument and evidence.
The next step is conducting your research. Facts, analysis, statistics are crucial in a paper on a controversial issue. Proper research puts you in a better position to present your perspective on the subject. It is critical that you know all involved sides, possible arguments, and all angles.
How to Write a Controversial Essay Step by Step
Now that you have understood how to begin a controversial essay, you need to be able to structure and write it effortlessly. Here is the basic structure of a controversial essay
- The introduction
First, create a hook. This does not mean that you use shallow sentences to draw the attention of the reader. Instead, layout issues of importance. Do not include irrelevant information. Let the introduction be straight forward and introduce the topic you intend to discuss. The thesis should also be part of your introduction. The thesis is your argument and not a fact but an arguable claim that forms the main idea for your paper.
- The body
It contains your points organized in several paragraphs. Good organization is crucial; therefore, each section should focus on a specific point well explained and adequately backed up. State your arguments clearly. Take a single stance and support it using concrete evidence, facts, and various examples all the way. Do not deviate. Do not shy away from affirming your position boldly. You can use the compare and contrast method by showing the similarities and differences in your points.
Avoid logical fallacies because they misinform. Such misconceptions include hasty generalization where you create an assumption that if something is right for a particular case, then it must be so for other different cases. The either/or fallacy also falls here. In this case, one insists that there are just two views on a particular issue, yet there are many. Also, avoid red herrings that divert you from an argument.
- Conclusion
In your conclusion, restate your thesis or argument. Summarize your perspective and appeal to your readers once more. Please note that your ending paragraph is not just a summary of your but an opportunity to provide validity of your argument and its relevance. Now you know how to write a controversial essay.
Tips for Writing a Controversial Essay
With all the above information, you can now comfortably prepare a composition on a disputable topic. There are, however, a few additional tips on how to write a good controversial essay.
- Use reliable sources
Use only credible sources as you are working to convince your reader to agree with your perspective. A journal written by a university such as Yale is more reliable than a random website with scanty information. Academic sources add credibility to your writing as they go through thorough review processes before publication. Using reputable sources is vital so that you avoid factual errors. Ensure that you do not use an outdated sourced from the 19th century. Instead, refer to recent papers and studies. If a source is a bias one, you may also want to avoid it.
- Establish trust with your reader
First, imagine the type of readers your work will be relevant to including those that may disagree with your point of view. By taking into account this, you will be able to establish credibility with a wide variety of people. It is crucial that your work is purely a healthy debate and not preaching. Provide facts and persuasive arguments that are well supported.
- Avoid plagiarism
Plagiarism is merely copying someone else’s work and passing it as your own. Be creative. Write your work from scratch instead of lifting another person’s. Plagiarism discredits you as an author, and as a result, the reader will have no interest in looking at your work. In the case that you use direct quotes, then use direct quotation marks.
- Proofread your work
You have probably heard this phrase over and over, but it remains very critical. After you are done, revise your work and polish it. Get rid of all the spelling mistakes, grammatical errors, and tautology.
Preparing a composition on a disputable topic may have seemed very challenging, but with all these tips, you will realize that it is not so hard. You now know how to make a controversial essay that is sure to appeal to your reader. If you experience challenges at any stage of this process, reach out to a professional writer who is well-versed with academic assignments. We have a team of able writers ready to work on all your papers and deliver them just in time to meet your deadline. Do not postpone and call us today to get a last-minute essay writing service. | https://kissmyessay.org/how-to-write-a-controversial-essay |
When conducting interviews, Feedinfo reporters reserve the right to:
- Send questions in advance at their own discretion
- Ask relevant follow-up questions during or after the interview
- Create an audio/video recording of the interview (for the journalist’s use only) and take notes
Interviews are always considered ‘on the record’ unless a reporter specifically agrees to go off the record or use information purely for background purposes.
Feedinfo reserves the right to include current or historical price data and/or Delphi plant capacity data in its interview pieces. When included, Feedinfo will be explicitly mentioned as the source of the data.
Reporters are not permitted to share copy with interview subjects prior to publication. However, we may sometimes check specific information (such as quotes) with sources for purposes of accuracy. This will be entirely at the reporter’s discretion and all editorial decisions remain with the reporter/editor.
Reporters will write and edit an article(s) based on the interview in line with Feedinfo’s editorial standards, which are based on accuracy, integrity, impartiality and independence of reporting and publishing. Feedinfo has been providing business critical information to its readership for more than 20 years. During this time we have developed a close understanding of information which is timely and relevant for our readers in the industry.
Clarifications and Corrections Policy
In cases where interviewees seek a clarification, we recognise that a statement can be ambiguous, or interpreted by the reader in multiple ways, without being factually incorrect. In such cases, Feedinfo may rewrite, add to, or delete elements of the text to clarify its meaning. An explanatory note may be added to the report to highlight and explain the change.
Feedinfo will issue a formal correction only if a statement published in an article is determined to be erroneous. Feedinfo may amend typographical or grammatical errors or insert missing words without issuing a correction, but only if the amendment does not have a material impact on the meaning or the reader's likely interpretation of the statement. A decision may be taken not to issue a correction if the erroneous content is deemed to be too old or insignificant to make a correction worthwhile.
As a matter of editorial policy, we do not grant take-down (unpublish) requests.
Formal Complaints Policy
Feedinfo defines a formal complaint as a written expression of dissatisfaction with the standard of our service or products that has been submitted in line with this complaints policy.
All complaints should be submitted in writing to [email protected] and should clearly state that the complaint is in line with the Feedinfo complaints process. Communications should include as much relevant information as possible, in particular:
- Name(s) of the party or parties involved and their contact information;
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Feedinfo will acknowledge receipt of any complaint within two working days and will provide the contact details of the person responsible for investigating the complaint.
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We encourage complainants to provide as much information as possible in order to avoid delays while we request any further information needed to progress the complaint.
Complaints will be investigated fairly, promptly and confidentially. In all cases, investigations will be conducted independently of any personnel who may be the subject of the complaint.
Feedinfo policy is not to disclose sources of information without the agreement of those sources or disclose information passed to reporters in confidence. This includes any such information that may be the subject of a formal complaint.
When a complaint about an article is upheld, a correction will be issued in line with our corrections procedure. Corrections are issued only in cases when Feedinfo finds that a factual or typographical error has been made by its staff.
Ethical Conduct for the Feedinfo Newsroom
We are committed to:
Seeking Truth and Reporting It
Journalists should:
- Reflect and encourage understanding of the diverse segments of the agricultural value chain.
- Take responsibility for the accuracy of their work. Verify information before releasing it. Use original sources whenever possible.
- Remember that neither speed nor format excuses inaccuracy.
- Provide context. Take special care not to misrepresent or oversimplify in promoting, previewing or summarising a story.
- Gather, update and correct information throughout the life of a news story.
- Identify sources clearly when possible. Readers are entitled to as much information as possible to judge the reliability and motivations of sources.
- Remain impartial; strive to include all sides relevant to a story and not take sides in news coverage.
- Never deliberately distort facts or context, including visual information.
- Never plagiarise. Always attribute.
Minimising Harm
Journalists should:
- Balance the public’s need for information against potential harm or discomfort.
- Show compassion for those who may be affected by news coverage. Consider cultural differences in approach and treatment.
- Treat people with dignity, respect and compassion.
Acting Independently
Journalists should:
- Refuse gifts, favours, fees, free travel and special treatment, and avoid political and other outside activities that may compromise integrity or impartiality or may damage credibility of story reporting.
- Be wary of sources offering information for favours or money. Identify content provided by outside sources, whether paid or not.
- Deny favoured treatment to advertisers, donors or any other special interests, and resist internal and external pressure to influence coverage.
- Distinguish news from advertising. Prominently label sponsored content.
Being Accountable and Transparent
Journalists should:
- Respond quickly to questions about accuracy, clarity and fairness.
- Acknowledge mistakes and correct them promptly and prominently. Explain corrections and clarifications carefully and clearly.
- Abide by the same high standards they expect of others.
- Never lie, misstate identities or intentions; never fabricate. | https://www.feedinfo.com/editorial-policy-and-ethics/ |
In order to maintain credibility, student reporters and editors should strive to be transparent in all aspects of their reporting. This includes revealing within the text of a story how interviews were obtained (if anything other than an in-person interview is used), giving proper attribution to direct quotes, as well as using indirect quotes to give attribution to ideas and details that come from sources.
Reporters should also be transparent in how secondary source information was obtained (i.e. through a public records request, etc.).
Question:
Why is transparency important in student reporting? How can students be transparent in their reporting?
Stance:
Student reporters should strive for transparency within their writing and student editors should confirm where information came from as part of their routine fact-checking duties before publication.
Key points/action:
- Teach students that during the reporting process they should take thorough notes so they know where information comes from
- Teach students how to attribute information using both direct and indirect quotes
- Require student editors to do a “transparency check” before publication. While editing stories, if they are not sure where a piece of information came from they should discuss with the reporter the need to be transparent
Reasoning/suggestions:
Transparency is important in student media because it establishes credibility and combats the illusion of “fake news.” If readers or viewers know where the information came from, they are less likely to question its accuracy or claim falsities in the publication.
Bottom line: Be clear where information comes from so no one can question the validity of that information (or if they do they can take those questions to the source and not the publication/reporter).
Resources:
- Why Journalists Should Use Transparency as a Tool to Deepen Engagement
- Is Transparency the New Objectivity in Journalism?
Related:Attribution & Objectivity
Read More
User-generated content
Ethical guidelines
Journalists should treat user-generated content the same as any content they create in terms of accuracy, verification, credibility, reliability and usability.
Given its growing use by various forms of media, student journalists should develop guidelines on how, when and why it should be used.
Staff manual process
Student journalists should establish a plan to vet all information and images before publishing them. All journalists should be trained in the use of this plan.
Suggestions
Before your students publish information or images from anyone outside the staff:
• Independently verify and validate it
• Positively identify sources
• Verify sources what sources say with other trusted sources
• Check for copyright infringement
• Verify the location
Resources
How is User-generated Content Used in TV News, Neiman Lab
Guardian Launches Platform for User-generated Content, The Guardian
How Journalists Verify User-generated Content, Information on Social Media, The Poynter Institute
Ethics Guide: User-generated content (UGC) and Comments, Gatehouse Media (GHNewsroom.com)
Tools for Verifying and Assessing the Validity of Social Media and User-generated Content, Journalist’s Resource
How Storyful is Shaking Up News Reporting With User-generated Content, The Content Strategist
Accuracy and Accountability Checklist for Social Media, Mandy Jenkins at Zombie Journalism
‘Put up’ guidelines
Ethical guidelines
Having a set of standards to follow before posting online or print content might help avoid material that causes someone to send a takedown demand.
Whether students post mainly online or to a combination of print and online, student staffs should develop authentication procedures before publishing striving to avoid Takedown Demand hassles.
Staff manual process
Student journalists should establish a plan to vet all information and images before publishing them. All journalists should be trained in the use of this plan before using it.
Suggestions
• Independently confirm information to be used for accuracy, context, perspective, truth and coherence
• Determine whether sources used are credible and representative of diverse and knowledgeable viewpoints
• Clearly attribute all information as needed for clarity and authority
• Avoid anonymous sources except in situations where they are the best and perhaps only source and where identities need protection
• Determine whether sources used have conflicts of interest
• Ensure your information has gone through a vetting process with editors
• If using teens or young people as sources for sensitive topics, realize interviewing their parents could add more credibility and context while also ensuring the parents are not surprised by a story they did not expect.
• If using social media sources, be sure information is attributed, accurate, in context and used legally and ethically
• Train and background reporters in legal and ethical issues
• If using crowd generated content, clearly indicate the source and ensure its credibility
• Be skeptical of any information you cannot verify
Resources
5 Ways News Organizations Respond to ‘Unpublishing’ Requests, The Poynter Institute
Takedown Demands: Here is a Roadmap of Choices, Rationale, JEA Scholastic Press Rights Committee
Respond to Takedown Demands, Student Press Law Center
Setting Criteria Before the Requests Come, JEA Scholastic Press Rights Committee
10 Steps to a Put-Up Policy, JEA Scholastic Press Rights Committee
Audio: Takedown Requests, JEA Scholastic Press Rights Committee, Press Rights Minute
Noteworthy information 4
For a lighter way to emphasize a serious topic – attribution and news credibility – check out Warning Labels by Tom Scott.
Scott lists himself as a “geek comedian” but his warning labels speak eloquently to a serious issue: how to get journalism students – and even more importantly – their audiences to recognize sloppy and inadequate reporting.
With a little adaptation, creative thought and news literacy modification, his project could lead to some serious learning done in a fun way. | https://jeasprc.org/tag/attribution/ |
I’m delighted to confirm that ONO will be holding its next “shop talk” discussion for members on October 8th via Zoom, and we will be joined for the discussion by the American author, journalist, press critic and Executive Director of the American Press Institute, Tom Rosenstiel.
Tom is one of the most distinguished, experienced and insightful writers and thinkers on journalism today.
As well as being a former media critic for the Los Angeles Times and a chief congressional correspondent for Newsweek, Tom has written a number of important and influential books about the practice and the ethics of journalism. Among them are The Elements of Journalism with Bill Kovach, which has been described as a ‘modern classic’ and ‘one of the five best’ books about journalism ever published, and The New Ethics of Journalism edited with ONO member Kelly McBride, which contains a new code of ethics for journalists and contributions from 14 different writers on journalism.
We have asked Tom to join us and share his thoughts because the topic for this shop talk will be IMPARTIALITY and its ongoing relevance and practical application in editorial standards.
The importance of impartiality in journalism has been strongly debated recently following a number of developments around the world, but particularly in the US. The Black Lives Matter protests, the running of a controversial op-ed in the New York Times and a range of other issues has led to many journalists – particularly younger ones, challenging what impartiality is and whether it is important or necessary.
One of the strongest and most challenging pieces came in this article in the New York Times by Pulitzer Prize winning reporter Wesley Lowery.
One of the most interesting responses to that article came via a series of tweets from Tom Rosenstiel, which I have reproduced in full below.
Tom both reinforced the central and crucial importance of objectivity while at the same time identifying some of the challenges to our thinking about it.
All of which makes him an ideal person to join our conversation and contribute a few thoughts.
At the same time, I am sure many of you will have your own experiences and thoughts to contribute to this vital discussion, so we are looking forward to a lively and worthwhile discussion.
As was the case last time, Bjarne Schilling will be sharing a Zoom link on the day with you all, but for now please enter the time and date in your diaries.
It would be helpful to confirm your plans to join in by emailing Alan Sunderland at [email protected] and also let us know if you have some particular thoughts or examples you would like to share.
Look forward to seeing and hearing from you all soon.
Tom Rosenstiel Twitter comments
I’m not avid on Twitter, but at others’ urging I want to offer a thread in response to @wesleylowery’s powerful essay in the @nytimes on objectivity, which I liked. But the call for “moral clarity” I believe could use more clarity.
When the concept of objectivity migrated to journalism in the ‘20s, it was not intended to suggest journalists were without bias. Actually it was just the opposite.
The idea migrated from the sciences to journalism as a sophisticated response to the discovery of unconscious bias in reporting (in particular of Russia).
The idea was that journalists needed to employ objective, observable, repeatable methods of verification in their reporting–precisely because they could never be personally objective. Their methods of reporting had to be objective because they never could be.
That meaning is so misunderstood by journalists it has almost been turned on its head. That is a residue of many sins, the field’s stubborn anti-intellectualism and resistance to theory and a journalism education system built too much around the apprenticeship model.
To understand objectivity’s true meaning, think of transparency of method and discipline of verification. Objectivity is not neutrality or disinterestedness. Those notions invite unconscious bias–the very problem the objective method or process was meant to combat.
Lippman talked about “a more scientific spirit” in journalism. Bylines and datelines were early examples of objectivity. Objectivity replaced “realism” as the dominant concept, which was if you made it seem real people would believe it. It invited pure fiction.
This notion of objectivity never was meant to (be as) simplistic as balance, or “he said he said” reporting. Journalism was always aimed at truth–not mere accuracy. The Hutchins Commission 1947 warned against accounts that were “factually accurate but substantially untrue.”
It cited stories that failed to cover minority communities (as) lacking context, noting race gratuitously and reinforcing stereotypes. “It is no longer enough to report the fact truthfully. It is now necessary to report the truth about the fact.” (This was) 70 years ago.
For generations the best journalists like David Halberstam, Homer Bigart, George Orwell and many more were warning about the difference between political stenography and journalism and the risk of being a mouthpiece for establishment authorities.
Passionate independent inquiry does not mean mindlessly giving both sides equal treatment, thinking there are just two sides to a story, or using balance as an excuse for not doing the work of finding the truth.
Far from denying personal background, this kind of inquiry recognizes that people’s background always enriches their journalism, be it WASP or Buddhist, White, Black, Jew, Latina or Latino, male or female. This is the way to recognize bias and avoid unconscious slant.
There can be no default culture in journalism. That is a terrible, alienating, unconscious bias. These ideas have thrived and battled in journalism for as long as journalists have tried to rise above mere partisanship.
I loved Wes’ essay and thanks for the mention of the book Elements, where Bill Kovach and I make these points. But I fear a new misunderstanding is taking root in newsrooms today, one (that) could destroy the already weakened system of journalism on which democracy depends. That misunderstanding is the idea that if we adopt subjectivity to replace a misunderstood concept of objectivity, we will have magically arrived at truth–that anything I am passionate about and believe deeply is a kind of real truth.
Wes suggested the term moral clarity as a guiding principle. If that invites people to think that simply opining is some kind of truer or more moral form of reporting, they would be wrong and the effect would be tragic.
If journalists replace a flawed understanding of objectivity by taking refuge in subjectivity and think their opinions have more moral integrity than genuine inquiry, journalism will be lost.
Point of view journalism is the highest form of work. But as one alternative newspaper editor put it long ago, no reporter should assume a point of view until they have tried to understand all the other points of view. And let those advocates to make their best case.
If we reduce objectivity to a stereotype and a strawman—and abandon the aspiration of deeply reported open minded inquiry—then the points of view we arrive at as journalists will be shallow and unhelpful and just another form of advocacy.
If we mistake subjectivity for truth, we will have wounded an already weakened profession at a critical time. If we lose the ability to understand other points of view we will have allowed our passions to overwhelm the purpose democratic society requires of its press. I don’t believe this was Wes’ intention. But if his fine essay is not clearly understood, it could be an unintended effect. | https://www.newsombudsmen.org/ono-newsletter-september-2020/ |
Journalists should safeguard their credibility and impartiality when deciding if they want to appear at protests and watching what they post online, Medill Prof. Mei-Ling Hopgood and lecturer Jazmin Beltran said in a talk about advocacy and journalism on Wednesday.
About 25 people attended the event in the McCormick Foundation Center — sponsored by the Asian American Student Journalists and the National Association of Hispanic Journalists — which focused on the intersection of advocacy and journalism.
Beltran, a Univision reporter, said she covers at least one protest per week but would never attend one personally if she wasn’t on assignment because her attendance may show a political leaning or opinion.
“I go to all of (the protests) because I cover them,” Beltran said. “I am everywhere, and I cover everything, but I would never go on my own, even the Women’s March … That doesn’t mean that I don’t care about women. Obviously I care, you know, I am one.”
But Hopgood said she went to the Women’s March in January after weighing the reasons why she should and should not go. She said this was the first year she participated in a national march since becoming a professor.
Hopgood, a former Washington correspondent, said she felt that she could attend the march because she doesn’t cover politics anymore and instead is a freelance journalist.
She added that journalists should make conscious decisions about whether they want to attend protests based on what they can “live with professionally and personally” and their company’s policies.
“I made a decision that I thought I can live with, and I wanted my daughters to be a part of it. I wanted them to see it,” Hopgood said, in reference to the Women’s March. “It is so hard during this time to stay neutral.”
Beltran said she doesn’t donate to any political campaigns or give money to organizations because she covers a wide range of topics and wants to avoid any conflicts of interest. She said a journalist can never be too careful to remain neutral — she said she doesn’t even text about politics.
But Beltran said journalism can be a form of activism by informing people with compelling stories to empower them.
“In telling the story and being informed and doing a really, really good job and asking the questions that you’re supposed to ask, you are doing that,” Beltran said. “I don’t feel like I’m silent about every topic.”
Medill sophomore Michelle Baik, one of the moderators of the event, told The Daily that hearing from the professors was important to her as a student journalist.
Baik said she liked their emphasis on journalists’ humanity in relation to sources. | https://dailynorthwestern.com/2017/05/11/campus/medill-faculty-talk-about-activism-in-journalism-staying-neutral/ |
Tags: Problem Solution Essay 4th GradeResearch Proposal Summary ExampleDescriptive Essay Graphic OrganizerPossible Ap Us History Essay Questions 2012Forensic Science Paper IdeasEssays Online To ReadReading And Critical Thinking Pearson
Many people are alarmed about the state of journalism.Polls have been indicating more and more that the audience is wondering how honest and fair journalists are.They cannot express personal feelings, likes or dislikes to color news stories.
They must avoid profanity and they cannot invade the privacy of others or glorify bad behavior. Everyone in the audience has an equal right to expect to be treated fairly, regardless of race, color, philosophy, religion, gender, age, or economic status.
They should never apply different standards to different people or groups.
Basic terms go undefined and more complex concepts continue to spawn debate and even ideological chaos.
For some, the message is the match that ignites the flames of progressive social discourse and, in many cases, of communal discord.
For one thing, the subjectivity of the persons involved in the story (the reporter and the one being reported on)is part of the “objective” reality of the story-and not reporter, even with the help of a psychiatrist, can ever come close to doing justice to that. In theory, at least in traditional idealistic press theory, news reports should be (1) information needed by an audience, (2) reporting that avoids harm to the society, and (3) factual, accurate, balanced, relevant and complete. I would agree with those who say that journalist is one who works for an institutionalized medium in capacity relating to the getting, writing, editing and commenting of the news.
But, nine-tenths of the news today is not needed by its audience…. Ok, that is related to the word “journalist”, but what about the word “professional”.It has evolved into infotainment, into personality profiles, and into soft and slushy stories, somewhere between news features and entertainment, between polemic and propaganda.Objective is one of the most misunderstood terms in journalism, Many (like most postmodernists of today) call it naïve empiricism; others refer to it as an unachievable ideal; others maintain that it should not be used at all. It is always incomplete, although its facts may be accurate. Many journalists consider them professionals and journalism as a profession. Being a “professional journalist” for example, to many, simply implies being a hard-working, efficient, quality journalist-doing well the task assumed.Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher who has been a leader in inter-subjective postmodernism, has argued that interpretation is part of reality.Increasingly, however, journalists are beginning to recognize the impossibility (and the weakness) of so-called objectivity.Accuracy is the highest of the principles of the ethical journalist, and it means that every bit of information printed has to be exact; spelling, facts, names, places, quotes, etc.Even the smallest mistake cuts into the journalist's credibility.And, of course, historically, news has been considered, despite semantic difficulties, the core substance of journalism.But, from a realistic perspective, news today has lost its primary status.Basic public communication concepts such as news, objectivity, truth, journalism, reporter, magazine, newspaper, social media, bias, propaganda, mass, public opinion, profession, media (all kind) and media ethics-these and many others wait meaningful definitions.One of the most troublesome of the concepts is “the news”. Journalists generally claims they know the news when they see it.
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Can journalism be objective? - University Media Studies. | https://vintage-expo.ru/objectivity-in-journalism-essay-41.html |
Professional journalism is the conduct of media affairs (coverage and activities) in a manner that upholds high ethical standard, accountability, legality and credibility, while exercising rights such as freedom of expression and information. An important element in media practice is the degree of professionalism and the experience of journalists and other media practitioners.
As far as Nigeria is concerned, media persons cannot be said to lack the experience nor the wherewithal to demonstrate the best standard practices. I can, therefore, state here unequivocally that journalism practice has placed the country on the world map, where high standard of professionalism is practised. It is expected that journalists in a country that emerged roughly two decades ago from a highly restrictive political system, should lack some of the skills and capabilities of their counterparts in countries with a long history of independent media practice. Let me point out explicitly that journalism experience in an authoritarian regime may not be entirely negative. In many cases, courageous and assertive journalism has played an important part in pressuring dictatorships to open up the political space. Media practitioners who have successfully investigated and published sensitive stories would have developed professional skills that are unmatched by their colleagues in friendlier circumstances. In the context of an election, the professional challenge will be to bring these skills to bear on a new and unfamiliar set of stories to be reported. Most of the ethical and professional issues that journalists encounter in covering elections are variants of what they confront in their daily reportage/coverage of events. However, these issues and the dilemma they constitute may present themselves in particular and unique ways during elections.Such professional dilemma might include:
Evaluation of newsworthiness versus balanced and thorough coverage
News coverage is typically driven by consideration of what is unique or remarkable and, therefore, of particular interest in an event. Yet electors require fair and balanced presentation of the manifestoes and agendas of the different parties (which may be far from distinct or interesting).
The question, therefore, is how can the media reconcile their news function with their public service function?
Transparency versus integrity of the electoral process:
One of the reasons why the role of the media is critical in democracies especially emerging ones, is that they are able to scrutinise and expose malpractices in elections. However, proper administration of an election requires consideration for security and confidentiality. Balancing these two elements, i.e., media access (or should I say freedom?) and security/confidentiality is an issue for lawmakers and those responsible for drawing up electoral regulations.
Journalists, as critical stakeholders, are equally challenged by the need to combine security of the exercise with the ethos of their profession, viz: objectivity, probity and high ethical standards.
*Reporting inflammatory speeches*
Politicians are more likely to express extreme and inflammatory sentiments during election campaigns – with the intention of impacting large audiences. Yet, it is perhaps paradoxical that while election campaigns are often accompanied by fiery rhetoric and sentiments that sometimes generate negative consequences, election periods/campaigns are also occasions when freedom to express differing political views is of utmost importance. The implication of this is that a dilemma has been created which policymakers must resolve. For journalists, the challenge is to report inflammatory political speech in a manner that is both accurate and least likely to provoke violence or generate backlash.
*Resourcing elections coverage*
In the developing world, media organisations often operate with meagre resources, and journalists are often poorly paid. This creates a number of ethical problems for editors. For example, what should a media outlet do if there are not enough journalists (or supporting communication equipment and funding) to cover an election? For some, one answer has been to allow journalists to receive per diem or honoraria or other material reward for covering an event, sometimes from a candidate or contestant, a practice which, although widespread, is, in fact, tantamount to bribery and is equally detrimental to independent reporting.
At this juncture, consideration must given to the followings in the discharge of the coverage:
*Codes of conduct, Legal issues in election reporting, Accuracy in election reporting, Impartiality in election reporting, Responsibility in election reporting*
As the organiser – NPC has deemed it right to refresh the memory of Journalists on standard electoral reportage and retooling by exposing media practitioners to requisite training in readiness for the next general elections – we shall be looking at how to adhere strictly to the tenets of the entire electoral processes. This ensures that trainees are able to fully acquire and deployed effectively a variety of tools and consequently, (are properly) equipped to overcome challenges unique to each phase. There are a number of questions to be addressed when institutions or organisations plan trainings, seminars or courses looking into various ways through which elections can be imparted to get better results with new reporting skills.
*Election Coverage*
Effective coverage of an election is one that is planned. Whether planning entails complex deployment of resources or skilful maximising of scarce ones, election coverage will not work properly without it. An effective election coverage plan addresses the following questions:
*What resources are available? Is there a special budget for election coverage, or will it have to be met out of the normal editorial budget? What staff are available – is there a budget to hire additional staff or freelancers?
*What is the timetable of the election? When are the crucial phases and to what extent will it be possible to prepare coverage for these phases in advance?
*What are the particular issues in this election and how far will these issues influence the way in which a particular media outlet organises its coverage? Will the security/political environment allow journalists to put their new elections-reporting skills to practice?
What innovations in coverage will the media outlet need to make? What will be the distinct features of its coverage? What are the interests and needs of the media outlet’s audiences and other key stakeholders, vis-a-vis election coverage?
The answers to these questions will differ enormously depending on whether the media outlet concerned is, say, a television network or a local newspaper. The scale of operations will also vary. However, planning issues remain essentially the same. The following checklist highlights issues that editors will need to address before the start of an election campaign._ (This list is adapted from the International Federation of Journalists’ Election Reporting Handbook.)_ In this case, the campaign has already started.
* Key dates of the election process: voter registration, candidate nomination, campaign period, voting day, announcement of results, etc. Regulations and laws affecting election coverage during each of these periods. Budgets for election coverage and identification of more costly election phases;
* Teams who will cover the election – as well as political staff, other specialised reporters tend to cover particular aspects of the campaign; Election coverage management– senior editors who will decide on sensitive matters that emerge in the course of the campaign. Technical and operational arrangements*
Any additional personnel?
* Resources such as election experts and pundits, who can advise on election matters, training material, or photo and video libraries; Reputable companies to run opinion surveys; Angles, focuses and priorities that are appropriate to our media organisations and audience; Reporting formats, particularly when a media outlet is multi-media; Emergency and journalist-safety planning.
As indicated in the checklist, journalists covering an election require different knowledge and tool sets for each of the electoral phases or periods of the election. Not only will content of coverage differ, but there will also be variations in rules and regulations applicable to each period. Common electoral phases or periods that journalists will need to contend with are: Voter registration, Candidate nomination and pre-campaign, Campaign, Voting, Counting and Results.
In conclusion there’s no doubting the fact that Media or Journalism is key to successful election/ stable polity if the media industry and the indeed the stakeholders would give it what it takes giving necessary attention to the sustainable development the industry and practitioners. The prisms that says to whom much is given, much is expected, Journalists should rise from this seminar to rededicate themselves to the total commitment to the profession ethos and defend the ethics. | https://penpushing.com.ng/topic-objective-reporting-as-a-requisite-for-successful-election-2023/ |
The Syndicato Nacional de Journalistas (SNJ) in Mozambique, in collaboration with the International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) held a two – day workshop on “Reporting Climate Change" from 7 – 8 June, 2017 in Maputo, Mozambique. The two day- workshop, which was held under the UTU Project 2017, brought together 20 journalists from all sectors of the media and regions in Mozambique, to build their capacities in reporting climate change in order to enhance the media’s role in the fight against climate change.
Speaking at the opening ceremony, the Head of the Climate Change Unit at the Ministry of the environment and Lands, Francisco Sambo, who was also the lead trainer at the workshop, said that it is important that we continue to highlight the issues of climate change, since it remains a threat not only to Africa but the entire world. “Journalists” he said, “should have no doubt at the devastating consequences of climate change and must be able to report accurately on these consequences most especially with regards to adaptation, mitigation and resilience."
The President of SNJ, Eduardo Constantino, said that the workshop has a peculiar significance to journalists and the media and well as the country in general since, Mozambique is prone to cyclones and floods. The workshop, he added, will expose journalists to the techniques of reporting climate change which is crucial if we are to make any headway in the fight against climate change.
The Senior Programme Officer of the IFJ Africa Office, Pa Louis Thomasi in his discuss pointed out that the African media has without doubt seriously under reported the issues of climate change, despite the colossal damage that the consequences of climate change had heaped on the continent most especially in the agricultural sector. He called on African journalists to report more effectively on the issues of climate change; to form opinions; as well as setting the agenda and leading the discussions that are aimed at creating awareness and enhancing public understanding of climate change while at the same triggering governments to respond to the issues of climate change.
The workshop deliberated on a crucial climate change topics, including the definition of the major concepts of climate change, causes and impact of climate change, adaptation, mitigation and resilience the gender dimension of climate change and the seven things that every journalists should know about climate change. | https://www.ifj.org/media-centre/news/detail/category/press-releases/article/snj-ifj-hold-workshop-on-reporting-climate-change.html |
TORONTO – Last month, Justice Todd Ducharme of the Ontario Superior Court of Justice acted as the judge in a mock trial called The Trial of David Suzuki.
Justice Ducharme’s high profile participation in this intensely political media stunt seems to be a breach of several guidelines in the Ethical Principles for Judges document published by the Canadian Judicial Council.
For example, “Judges should avoid any activity or association that could reflect adversely on their impartiality or interfere with the performance of judicial duties” (p. 28) and “Judges should refrain from attendance at political gatherings…taking part publicly in controversial political discussions” (p. 28-29).
The highly political nature of The Trial of David Suzuki is obvious. The event was paid for by the Cape Farewell Foundation, which is devoted to “[instigating] a cultural response to climate change”, and supported by the registered lobby group, the David Suzuki Foundation.
Given Suzuki’s public denunciations and activism against current governments, the “trial” was a highly politicized “faux trial”, organized by those with a very particular and controversial political agenda, which they were trying to advance.
The organizers made it clear that this was part of a campaign of persuasion.
The independence of the judiciary must be upheld. The dignity of the office must be defended and preserved. We oppose Justice Ducharme’s violation of the neutrality and independence of the courts for the sake of a partisan campaign, no matter the political or ideological agenda.
We have filed a complaint to the Judicial Conduct Committee of the Canadian Judicial Council in order to respectfully request an evaluation of Justice Ducharme’s conduct.
For more information, please contact: | https://fivefeetoffury.com/2013/12/13/ethical-oil-files-formal-complaint-about-suzuki-trial-mock-judge/ |
I live (most of my time) in the UK, a country where the media interest in so-called alternative medicine (SCAM) is considerable. Years ago, the UK press used to be very much in favour of SCAM. In 2000, we showed that the level of interest was huge and the reporting was biased. Here is our short BMJ paper on the subject:
The media strongly influences the public’s view of medical matters.1 Thus, we sought to determine the frequency and tone of reporting on medical topics in daily newspapers in the United Kingdom and Germany. The following eight newspapers were scanned for medical articles on eight randomly chosen working days in the summer of 1999: the Times, the Independent, the Daily Telegraph, and the Guardian in the United Kingdom, and Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Süddeutsche Zeitung, Frankfurter Rundschau, and Die Welt in Germany. All articles relating to medical topics were extracted and categorised according to subject, length, and tone of article (critical, positive, or neutral).
A total of 256 newspaper articles were evaluated. The results of our analysis are summarised in the table. We identified 80 articles in the German newspapers and 176 in the British; thus, British newspapers seem to report on medical topics more than twice as often as German broadsheets. Articles in German papers are on average considerably longer and take a positive attitude more often than British ones. Drug treatment was the medical topic most frequently discussed in both countries (51 articles (64%) in German newspapers and 97 (55%) in British). Surgery was the second most commonly discussed medical topic in the UK newspapers (32 articles; 18%). In Germany professional politics was the second most commonly discussed topic (11 articles; 14%); this category included articles about the standing of the medical profession, health care, and social and economic systems—that is, issues not strictly about treating patients.
Because our particular interest is in complementary medicine, we also calculated the number of articles on this subject. We identified four articles in the German newspapers and 26 in the UK newspapers. In the United Kingdom the tone of these articles was unanimously positive (100%) whereas most (3; 75%) of the German articles on complementary medicine were critical.
This analysis is, of course, limited by its small sample size, the short observation period, and the subjectivity of some of the end points. Yet it does suggest that, compared with German newspapers, British newspapers report more frequently on medical matters and generally have a more critical attitude (table). German newspapers frequently discuss medical professional politics, a subject that is almost totally absent from newspapers in the United Kingdom.
The proportion of articles about complementary medicine seems to be considerably larger in the United Kingdom (15% v 5%), and, in contrast to articles on medical matters in general, reporting on complementary medicine in the United Kingdom is overwhelmingly positive. In view of the fact that both healthcare professionals and the general public gain their knowledge of complementary medicine predominantly from the media, these findings may be important.2,3
Table
Reporting on medical topics by daily newspapers in the United Kingdom and Germany, 1999
|
|
Country
|United Kingdom (n=176)||Germany (n=80)|
|Mean No articles/day||5.5||2.5|
|Mean (SD) No words/article||130 (26)||325 (41)|
|Ratio of positive articles to critical articles*||1.0||3.2|
Even though I have no new data on this, my impression is that things have since changed. It seems that the UK press has become more objective and are now reporting more critical comments on SCAM. While this is most welcome, of course, one feature is still deplorable, in my view: journalists’ obsession with ‘balance’.
A recent example might explain this best. The ‘i’ newspaper published an article about homeopathy which was well-written and thoroughly researched. It explained the current best evidence on the subject and made it quite clear why homeopathy is not a reasonable therapy for any condition. But then, towards the end of the article, the journalist added this section:
Dr Lise Hansen, a veterinary homeopath based in London and author of a forthcoming book, The Complete Book of Cat and Dog Health, argues that scientists have shown how homeopathy works. She cites a paper by Luc Montagnier, the French virologist who won a Nobel Prize in 2008 for his role in discovering HIV. The following year, he published evidence of his discovery of “electromagnet signals that are produced by nanostructures derived from bacterial DNA at high aqueous dilutions”. “Mainstream medicine is about chemistry, homeopathy is physics and scientists have only recently begun to study these nanostructures,” Hansen says.
Basically, the reader is left with the impression that homeopathy might be fine after all, and that science will soon be able to catch up with it. In the interest of balance, the journalist thus confused her readers and misled the public.
Why?
Journalists are obviously taught to always cover ‘both sides’ of their stories, and they adhere to this dogma no matter what. In most instances, this works out well, because in most cases there are two sides.
But not always!
When there is a strong consensus supported by facts, science and reproducible findings, the other side ceases to have a reasonable point. There simply is no reasonable ‘other side’ when we consider global warming, evolution, the Holocaust, and many other subjects. Of course, one can always find some loon who claims the earth is flat, or that cancer is a Jewish plot against public health. But these arguments lack reason and integrity – to dish them out without anything remotely resembling a ‘fact check’ is not just annoying but harmful.
Journalists should, in my view, be more responsible, check the facts, and avoid false balance. I know this will often entail much more work, but they owe it to their readers and to the reputation of their profession.
6 Responses to “Scientists have shown how homeopathy works” – journalists’ obsession with ‘balance’
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You are not alone to think this Prof. From Wipedia:
“The fairness doctrine of the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC), introduced in 1949, was a policy that required the holders of broadcast licenses both to present controversial issues of public importance and to do so in a manner that was—in the FCC’s view—honest, equitable, and balanced. The FCC eliminated the policy in 1987 and removed the rule that implemented the policy from the Federal Register in August 2011.
The fairness doctrine had two basic elements: It required broadcasters to devote some of their airtime to discussing controversial matters of public interest, and to air contrasting views regarding those matters. Stations were given wide latitude as to how to provide contrasting views: It could be done through news segments, public affairs shows, or editorials. The doctrine did not require equal time for opposing views but required that contrasting viewpoints be presented. The demise of this FCC rule has been considered by some to be a contributing factor for the rising level of party polarization in the United States.
The main agenda for the doctrine was to ensure that viewers were exposed to a diversity of viewpoints. In 1969 the United States Supreme Court, in Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC, upheld the FCC’s general right to enforce the fairness doctrine where channels were limited. However, the Court did not rule that the FCC was obliged to do so.The courts reasoned that the scarcity of the broadcast spectrum, which limited the opportunity for access to the airwaves, created a need for the doctrine.
The fairness doctrine is not the same as the equal-time rule. The fairness doctrine deals with discussion of controversial issues, while the equal-time rule deals only with political candidates.”
I have no problem with “some scientists say…”, as long as it is clearly stated that (for example) “most other scientists think that group of scientists are very wrong and foolish.”
That is the only way to be fair.
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The author has written an equally facile article on herbalism. Such articles serve no useful social purpose. They merely “inform” readers that science says something the public is either ignorant of or ignores; generally the latter.
One or two science deniers trott out their false beliefs and “arguments”. One or two scientifically informed people trott out the facts and the article grinds to an inconclusive conclusion.
Money for old rope for the writer. Great result for ignorance: granted equal time, space and respect as science.
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I agree! Lets censor any dissenting opinions. We cant let people know that Nobel Prize winning scientists disagree with the consensus. It would be dangerous to let people hear these different views. They might start thinking for themselves. Fortunately we now have the Silicon Valley & Chinese tech giants doing our thinking for us. So there wont be any danger of original or deviant thought being allowed on the internet.
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People are, of course, entitled to their own opinions, Roger. What they are not entitled to are their own facts. Your argumentum ab auctoritate is as irrelevant as your belief in the powers of magical shaken water. | https://edzardernst.com/2019/09/scientists-have-shown-how-homeopathy-works-the-annoying-problem-of-false-balance/?replytocom=117831 |
English is one of the most expressive and flexible languages in the world. Its immense vocabulary provides for the persuasive and precise communication of ideas.
News sources, numbers and the ‘so what’ factor
Journalists covering news should always be considering what might happen next and thinking through the consequences of the events they are reporting on.
Journalists and bloggers – stop stealing pictures
Copying images from the web and using them to illustrate news articles without permission is a global problem. Some think it's okay to use images without permission; it isn't and there's a better way.
The essence of style
Style differs from sentence construction (syntax) in that it cannot be quantified; it has no precise rules. This is inevitable because style is concerned not so much with the mechanics of English as with the manner in which the writer uses language to play on the sensations of the reader.
Word power
Words and phrases are the nuts and bolts which hold the communications bridge together. The writer must, therefore, learn to recognise the exact words and phrases they needs to convey their meaning to the reader.
From our EDITORIAL ETHICS section
Photojournalism and ethics
Media Helping Media has produced a set of suggested ethical guidelines for video and photojournalists in order to try to help those in the field navigate everyday editorial issues.
Impartiality in journalism
Being impartial means not being prejudiced towards or against any particular side. All journalists have their own views, however they must learn to leave aside their own personal perspectives.
Integrity and journalism
Without integrity your journalism is untrustworthy and suspect. Integrity is essential if a journalist wants to investigate issues, shine a light in dark places, and to dig where others don't.
Is your journalism ethical?
If the content you produce pushes an agenda, spins a line, favours a sector of society, is manipulated by subjective values, you are probably producing PR copy or even propaganda.
Accuracy in journalism
A media organisation will be judged on the accuracy and reliability of its journalism, which must be well-sourced, supported by strong evidence, examined and tested, clear and unambiguous. Verified facts must form the basis of all news, not rumour or speculation.
Offence and journalism
Journalists must ensure that the material they use in coverage has a clear editorial purpose. Where that material is likely to offend, there need to be clear warnings of what is coming up.
From our ADVANCED JOURNALISM section
Snacking on rumour, feeding on facts
The good news for mainstream media is that the social networking audience still wants facts, but those producing the facts need to rethink how they create and disseminate those facts.
Information disorder – how to recognise the forms
Four free-to-download high-resolution graphics created by First Draft News to help explain the different categories, types, elements, and phases of information disorder. They are available for use in publications and presentations.
How to spot errors in your writing
Most journalists need a second pair of eyes to check their copy in order to spot any factual, grammatical or spelling mistakes. This is because it's often difficult to see your own errors.
Updating an online news item
The site was asked by the editor of a newspaper in Zimbabwe to set out how an interactive news story should develop online and what elements should be added and when.
Confronting editorial bias in election coverage
Allegations of bias in the news media happen all the time, but they are most evident at election time. When deadlines are tight and pressures are greatest, the weighing of these factors may be less thorough.
The challenges facing journalists covering elections
The challenge of objectivity, impartiality in journalism is faced daily by journalists, but there is no test of professionalism greater than the heat and pressure of a bitterly-fought political election.
Media Helping Media Facebook Page
Media Helping Media offers free training resources covering basic, advanced and investigative journalism, editorial ethics, media management and strategy, and staff training. We also have scenarios to test journalistic instincts. The site is supported by Fojo Media Institute.
20 ways a suspect can help a journalist
Sources are one of the most valuable resources for a journalist. Without sourced information, the reports produced may end up being padded with rumour and personal opinion.
Avoiding the pitfalls of investigative journalism
Producing a piece of investigative journalism to international standards can be a daunting prospect. This guide is to help journalists avoid some of the pitfalls and problems often encountered.
Why would anyone want to talk to a journalist?
There may be many reasons why someone will agree to open up to a reporter, and some will be beyond their control. It's worth taking time to try to figure out the motives before interviewing them.
Creating a journalism content weighting system
Introducing a story weighting system helps prioritises effort on the stories that are of most value to the target audience, it saves time, speeds up production, and helps avoid wasted effort.
Newsgathering tips for producing great content
The newsgathering process involves sourcing ideas, planning coverage, assigning teams, structuring packages, monitoring the web, working in the field - and coming back alive and well.
Prioritising production with the content value matrix
How to prioritise newsroom effort There are many demands on a newsroom. There is the routine flow of news releases and stage-managed events that need to...
Vision, accountability and transparency
A media organisation must be clear about what it stands for. If your audience puts its trust in the news you produce, then you need to set out your editorial values and be ready to be judged.
Setting up a media business – four essential steps
A media business is like a table with four legs. These are the media organisation's target audience, the core editorial proposition that it offers to that audience, the values that the business holds dear, and the market that sustains the business. Each leg has to be strong and firm. If one leg is weak, the table wobbles. A shaky media organisation is not good.
The uneasy but essential evolution of news
The audience, empowered with tools to choose, create, enrich and share, is the new superuser offering alternative sources and channels of information to those of mainstream providers.
Photo journalism – scenario
Scenario: You arrive at a border crossing and see a child sitting by the roadside crying. You think it's been abandoned and take a picture. You alert the newsdesk. But it transpires it's just lost its mother and stops crying when the mother arrives. What should you do?
Emotional assumptions – scenario
Try our scenario on how to remain objective when reporting from a live event. It's about how to avoid 'heat of the moment' language and stick to facts.
Accuracy – scenario
Scenario: There has been a strike at a steel works. The union claims all its 100,000 members were out on strike, but the employer says 50% turned up for work and defied the picket line. You were reporting from the main gates of the steel plant all day and you didn't see anyone crossing the picket line. What do you report?
How media assistance could improve
Trainers have as much to learn as they have to give. That’s the message to those offering media assistance in transition and post-conflict countries from some of those on the receiving end.
Basic rules for delivering training
One of the first steps in delivering training is to articulate the ground rules. Participants need to know what to expect, what is expected of them and how you intend to schedule course elements.
Maximising the impact of media training
Thorough research is the essential if you are to deliver high-impact media training. Never accept a brief from media managers without question - they could be wrong and often are. | https://mediahelpingmedia.org/ |
These three principles are inter-related and mutually reinforcing:
- Consent of the parties
- Impartiality
- Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate
1. Consent of the parties
UN peacekeeping operations are deployed with the consent of the main parties to the conflict. This requires a commitment by the parties to a political process. Their acceptance of a peacekeeping operation provides the UN with the necessary freedom of action, both political and physical, to carry out its mandated tasks.
In the absence of such consent, a peacekeeping operation risks becoming a party to the conflict; and being drawn towards enforcement action, and away from its fundamental role of keeping the peace.
The fact that the main parties have given their consent to the deployment of a United Nations peacekeeping operation does not necessarily imply or guarantee that there will also be consent at the local level, particularly if the main parties are internally divided or have weak command and control systems. Universality of consent becomes even less probable in volatile settings, characterized by the presence of armed groups not under the control of any of the parties, or by the presence of other spoilers.
2. Impartiality
Impartiality is crucial to maintaining the consent and cooperation of the main parties, but should not be confused with neutrality or inactivity. United Nations peacekeepers should be impartial in their dealings with the parties to the conflict, but not neutral in the execution of their mandate.
Just as a good referee is impartial, but will penalize infractions, so a peacekeeping operation should not condone actions by the parties that violate the undertakings of the peace process or the international norms and principles that a United Nations peacekeeping operation upholds.
Notwithstanding the need to establish and maintain good relations with the parties, a peacekeeping operation must scrupulously avoid activities that might compromise its image of impartiality. A mission should not shy away from a rigorous application of the principle of impartiality for fear of misinterpretation or retaliation.
Failure to do so may undermine the peacekeeping operation’s credibility and legitimacy, and may lead to a withdrawal of consent for its presence by one or more of the parties.
3. Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate
UN peacekeeping operations are not an enforcement tool. However, they may use force at the tactical level, with the authorization of the Security Council, if acting in self-defence and defence of the mandate.
In certain volatile situations, the Security Council has given UN peacekeeping operations “robust” mandates authorizing them to “use all necessary means” to deter forceful attempts to disrupt the political process, protect civilians under imminent threat of physical attack, and/or assist the national authorities in maintaining law and order.
Although on the ground they may sometimes appear similar, robust peacekeeping should not be confused with peace enforcement, as envisaged under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter.
- Robust peacekeeping involves the use of force at the tactical level with the authorization of the Security Council and consent of the host nation and/or the main parties to the conflict.
- By contrast, peace enforcement does not require the consent of the main parties and may involve the use of military force at the strategic or international level, which is normally prohibited for Member States under Article 2(4) of the Charter, unless authorized by the Security Council.
A UN peacekeeping operation should only use force as a measure of last resort. It should always be calibrated in a precise, proportional and appropriate manner, within the principle of the minimum force necessary to achieve the desired effect, while sustaining consent for the mission and its mandate. The use of force by a UN peacekeeping operation always has political implications and can often give rise to unforeseen circumstances.
Judgments concerning its use need to be made at the appropriate level within a mission, based on a combination of factors including mission capability; public perceptions; humanitarian impact; force protection; safety and security of personnel; and, most importantly, the effect that such action will have on national and local consent for the mission. | https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/principles-of-peacekeeping |
How do you approach a controversial topic?
Some suggestions include the following:
- Listen respectfully, without interrupting.
- Listen actively and with an ear to understanding others’ views. …
- Criticize ideas, not individuals.
- Commit to learning, not debating. …
- Avoid blame, speculation, and inflammatory language.
- Allow everyone the chance to speak.
What are some controversial opinions?
Most Controversial Topics List
- Gun Control.
- Abortion.
- Religious Freedom.
- Animal Rights.
- Vaccines.
- Privacy Rights.
- Free-Market Capitalism.
- Global Climate Change.
What makes a topic controversial?
Topics typically become controversial when students have competing values and interests; when they strongly disagree about statements, assertions, or actions; when the subject touches on some particular sensitivity (e.g. political or religious); or when they arouse an emotional reaction.
How do you solve controversy?
Eleven tips to managing a crisis or controversy on social media
- Make a plan. …
- Keep your ears to the ground. …
- Evaluate whether you’re really in crisis. …
- Address negative comments head-on. …
- Respond quickly. …
- 6. … …
- Ask yourself what the negative commenter needs. …
- Take the conversation offline.
Why is it important to learn about controversial issues?
By teaching about controversial issues, students learn about topics relevant to their lives, deepen their understanding of complex issues, and explore diverse perspectives. Students also gain opportunities to share ideas, listen carefully to their peers, and practice being open to and respectful of others’ viewpoints.
How do you discuss an issue?
1) Set Clear Ground Rules at the Outset.
- Listen to understand; don’t listen to plan a comeback. (Remember the goal is not to debate.)
- When we point out problems we observe, focus on the idea, not on a person or group of people.
- Assume that everyone involved in the discussion has the best intentions.
How do you avoid controversial topics?
Give brief responses.
If you know a certain response will lead to the other person bringing up a certain topic, keep it short. This will deter most people from making any more comments that could lead to the topic. If someone’s comments seem to be trying to goad you into a certain reaction, say “mmhm” or “okay” or nod.
Should controversial topics be discussed?
Teaching about issues that are controversial is a responsible and appropriate way for students to learn about values and to study value conflicts. It is also a responsible and appropriate way to teach students to prize certain values and behave in ways that reflect these values.
How do you teach controversial issues in social studies?
7 Tips for Tackling Controversial Topics in Social Studies
- Communicate with parents. …
- Communicate with your administrators. …
- Inform without bias. …
- Make corroborating news a part of the assignment. …
- If showing biased information, keep it balanced. …
- Avoid heavily biased news unless it is part of the lesson.
Should teachers express their views on controversial topics in class?
“It’s important that teachers don’t express their opinion as a fact on a controversial issue, but learning about different opinions is an integral part of education,” said junior Harpreet Chohan.
Is it appropriate for teachers to share their positions on controversial issues with students why or why not?
“If a teacher strongly shares their opinion, students with opposing opinions may feel like they can not share their point of view. Although teachers should be allowed to share their political views, they should still make sure that their classroom is a safe space for all opinions” Beckles said.
Can teachers express political views?
Teachers, school employees have the right to express to each other their respective political viewpoints on school property. Although, like the court in Tinker, the court in L.A.
Should teachers give their opinions?
Teachers should remember to be sensitive and cautious when discussing their personal beliefs with students. Teachers also need to be able to instill a comfortable environment for students to express their personal opinions, while also learning to respect the opinions, ideas, and thoughts of their peers and teachers.
Can teachers be neutral?
An example of effective neutrality is when an educator facilitates a discussion between students so both sides of an argument can be represented. And that is what schools should be about: learning to engage in constructive dialogue and hear different points of view.
Are teachers allowed to talk about religion?
Although the Constitution forbids public school officials from directing or favoring prayer in their official capacities, students and teachers do not “shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate.” The Supreme Court has made clear that “private religious speech, far from …
Can teachers post whatever they want on social media?
To answer the question above, “can teachers be fired for social media posts?” The short answer is yes. Every employer has their own rules and if you agree to work there, must be aware of them and respect each of those policies.
Can teachers Snapchat students?
Snapchat can be used safely by teachers and schools.
And with 100 million daily users watching more than 7 billion videos per day, there’s a great chance that teenage students — and their family members — are there.
Can teachers post pictures with alcohol?
Keep your profile pictures clean. Your profile picture should never show alcohol, drugs, or anything that can be misconstrued as a gang sign (remember, administrators in central offices often lack a sense of humor). | https://goodmancoaching.nl/how-to-find-a-stance-towards-a-controversial-topic/ |
Impartial or point-of-view
A fundamental question for journalists is whether their reporting will follow the “impartial” — or “objective” — model, seeking to be impartial toward any political or social beliefs, or the “point-of- view” model, where their journalism proceeds from certain core beliefs.
Why choose impartial journalism?
Since World War II, the more traditional journalistic approach has been objectivity or impartiality. Supporters of this tradition feel it is the most honest form of reporting, attempting to lay out all sides of the issue fairly so that readers can make their own decisions. Reporters and editors following an objective model generally conceal their personal political beliefs and their opinions on controversial issues.
Objective journalism does not require so-called “he said, she said” reporting that just cites the arguments or each side without seeking to draw any conclusions. Objective reporters can judge the weight of evidence on various sides of a dispute and tailor accordingly the amount of space they give various opinions. There is no need to provide “false equivalence” — treating every opinion equally.
News media following the objective model may express opinions in clearly labeled editorials, commentaries and cartoons, but those views should not affect the organization’s news reports.
Why choose point-of-view journalism?
Opponents of the objective model say no one can be totally objective, and that journalists do no favor for their audiences by trying to hide their opinions. The opinions come out anyhow, they say, either “between the lines” or in the very selection of stories to cover.
The most popular alternative to the objective journalism model is often known as point-of-view. It holds that journalists may have and express a point of view, and seek to inspire action or change. With that in mind, they must be transparent with the reader about what they believe and why, and disclose links they may have to organizations and individuals with similar points of view.
Some issues to consider
There is still a line, however, between point-of-view journalism on one hand and outright advocacy and propaganda on the other. Even a point-of-view journalist should honestly report facts and opinions at variance with her point of view. Often the biggest distinction between an impartial and point-of-view journalist is in the subjects each writes about. Impartial journalists adhere to an idea of “newsworthiness” that covers a wide range of topics; point-of-view journalists often choose stories that serve to validate their own interests or perspectives.
In some countries or cultures, point-of-view journalism may extend to a belief that a journalist’s job is to advance the interests of a nation, ethnic group, religion or social cause. Journalists can still report honestly, but they proceed from the position that the cause they favor should be encouraged and respected.
Your answer as to whether you want to be “impartial” or “point-of-view” will heavily influence your ethics code. Among other matters, it will help determine how you address issues such as:
- how far news reporting can lean toward endorsing a certain point of view
- whether news reporters can also write opinion pieces and editorials
- whether staff members can express their personal views on social networks
One size will not fit all on these points. Even if a journalist has a particular point of view, he may still not want to overtly back a specific party or candidate, or to influence the outcome of every issue. The key thing is to clearly define what your policies will be and be public about them.
The ethical choices for deciding between impartial and point-of-view journalism are in the related post “What is the Nature of Your Journalism?”
This essay was written by Tom Kent. | https://ethics.journalists.org/what-is-the-nature-of-your-journalism/impartial-or-point-of-view/ |
Australian employees and journalists who expose organisational corruption are in danger of criminal charges under severe and complex national security laws, according to University of Queensland academics.
UQ Law School’s Dr Rebecca Ananian-Welsh and journalism academic Professor Peter Greste said the new laws would have made criminals of many whistleblowers who took their stories to the media in the past.
“Aside from Covid-19, the key stories from recent times have been about misconduct and abuse of power – by governments, banks, the Australian Defence Force, even parliamentary staffers,” Ananian-Welsh said.
Exposing misconduct depends on whistleblowers
“All of those stories depended on whistleblowers; on people who’ve seen things go wrong inside government and businesses and then went to the press as a whistle of last resort,” she said.
“Whistleblowers are absolutely crucial in addressing misconduct and maintaining accountability and integrity, but they need protection from reprisal. This includes the ability to remain anonymous.”
The pair has called for change while launching their research on whistleblowing legislation as it affects journalism. The latest research, published on Friday, is the third paper in their ‘Press Freedom Policy Papers’ series.
Their study found the extensive laws created confusion for journalists and whistleblowers about whether or not they were entitled to the all-important protections provided by whistleblower laws.
Public interest law should be urgently amended
Ananian-Welsh’s ‘Whistleblowing to the Media’ policy paper recommends The Public Interest Disclosure Act 2013 be urgently amended to better protect press freedom and those who blow the whistle on misconduct in government.
“The law should recognise that whistleblowing to journalists is a legitimate form of protected disclosure,” she said.
“Sometimes democracy requires public disclosure of government misconduct because solving the problem internally may not be good enough.
“The other urgent reforms are around whistleblower protections, in particular in the intelligence sector, which has been demonstrated in the controversial case of Witness K and Bernard Collaery.”
The laws have become tighter in recent years
Greste said whistleblowers and journalists were always vulnerable under the law, but the laws themselves had become tighter in recent years.
“There’s a general trend now for journalists to err on the side of caution when it comes to whistleblowers – it’s too risky and potentially too expensive even though there is clear public interest in the story,” he said.
“One of the key pillars of our democratic system has been a free, independent and sometimes rabid press. | https://www.australiantimes.co.uk/news/whistleblowers-could-be-in-more-trouble-than-those-they-expose/ |
It has been 3 decades that researches have started investigating the ways in which interaction can benefit second language acquisition. This approach to second language acquisition views conversational interaction as an important component for second language learning. Studies in interactionist approach invesitigate how second language learners receive input during interaction which can be modified in ways to make it more comprehensible to them (Loewen and Reinders, 2011).
In the 1970s, researchers became increasingly interested in the types of discourse patterns found in native speaker and second language learners’ conversations. In particular, the researchers studied the way in which native speakers modifies their speech so as to make it more comprehensible for the learners (Mackey, Abbuhl & Gass, 2012). The focus on comprehensibility during interaction could also be found in another strand of research that influenced the development of interactionist approach: Krashen’s Input hypothesis (Krashen, 1977, 1980) According to this hypothesis, input that was comprehensible was the driving force behind second language acquisition.
However, from the late 1970s researchers began to accord more emphasis to interaction itself. Drawing upon work of Krashen’s hypothesis, Long (1980, 1981 cited in Mackey, Abbuhl & Gass, 2012) claimed in his Interaction hypothesis that comprehensible input and second language development stemmed from modifications that occurred when native speaker and second language learners worked to resolve a communication difficulty (Mackey, Abbuhl & Gass, 2012). In the most recent version of interactionist approach, Gass and Mackey (2007) note that, “it is now commonly accepted within the SLA literature that there is a robust connection between interaction and learning” (p. 176).
Drawing upon the interactionist approach, there have been a number of research which investigate the role of interaction in relation to support English acquisition among ELLs (Aukrust, 2007; Brierley, 2003; Collins, 2010). Brierley (2003) examined ways to increase opportunities for ELLs to have interactions with children and teachers. A child whom had limited English proficiency was chosen to participate in Brierley’s (2003) study. Over the three weeks of the study, Brieley (2003) was able to initiate daily interactions with the case study child on a one-one basis, or as part of a larger group. The findings revealed that a lot of groundwork needed to be done in order to create an environment where children are accepting of others and proactive in initiating interactions with other children (Brierley, 2003). Besides that, Brierley (2003) found that it is important to follow the ELLs’ interest in order to engage in interaction and thus create more natural opportunities for interactions. In addition, Brierley’s (2003) findings also note the preference of ELLs to initiate interactions with the teacher more than with peers. | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Term-Paper-529535.html |
there are two independent systems of Second Language performance 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The acquired system or acquisition is the product of a subconscious process. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language-natural communication-in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. The learned system or learning is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge about the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen learning is less important than acquisition.
The Monitor Hypothesis
The monitor acts in planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness and he/she knows the rule. There is individual variation among language learners with regard to monitor use. He distinguishes those learners that use the monitor all the time (over-users), those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the monitor appropriately (optimal users). Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the monitor.
The Natural Order Hypothesis
The acquisition of grammatical structures follows a natural order which is predictable according to Krashen. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learner's age, L1 background, conditions of exposure and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition.
The Input Hypothesis
explains how the learner acquires a second language. It is only concerned with acquisition and not learning. The learner improves and progresses along the natural order when he/she receives second language input that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For instance, if a learner is at a stage 'I' then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to comprehensible input that belongs to level 'I + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'I + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis
a number of affective variables play a facilitative but non-casual, role in second language acquisition. These variables include; motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence and good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem and a debilitating anxiety can combine to raise the affective filter and form a mental block that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is up it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.
Krashen Views on Grammar
the study and teaching of the structure of the language (grammar) is language appreciation or linguistics and not language teaching. The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition and proficiency is when the students are interested in the subject and the target language is used as a medium of instruction.
Krashen Views on a Foundation for Learning
during the stage of language acquisition the natural language that results from the communicative act itself, that is, from the input, the feedback, the responses, the non-verbal communication, and the affect that results as a consequence of establishing a communicative relationship are the key to establishing a foundation for further learning.
Krashen View on Natural Versus Learned Language
the acquisition of natural language is more important in terms of relevance than the instructional language learned in school. For once, people are constantly and consistently engaged in some sort of communication during school hours, socialization, work, and home. Language comes as a need to enter the immediate environment, and to establish connections among speakers. Learned language is the teaching of the proper use of language according to the accepted grammatical rules of the culture: The way to use it, tense agreement, subject and verb agreement, the use of articles and the proper use of adverbs, and every other regulation that makes it general and for formal usage, for deferential purposes, and for specific reasons. The manner in which he defines the preponderance of natural versus learned language lays in his Monitor hypothesis of language acquisition.
Krashen View on Student Motivation
a student becomes more motivated through free-based learning, free-based web surfing, and free-based reading. This reflects a vestige of Chomsky theory, since Chomsky also rejects that language could be learned without a context. In fact, as previously analyzed, Chomsky advocates for the integration of language as a natural acquisition to all humans. Therefore, Krashen's view on language to be learned without boundaries, in a natural environment, and with relevance, blends both theories together.
Evolution of Language
The sociolinguist Fishman studied how languages evolved and changed over time. His work on various languages studied closely the evolution of languages. Languages such a Gaelic, Welsh and Yiddish survive but with fewer speakers and literate adults. This work brought him to topics such as the forces in society that help such languages survive and the identity of the language users.Language is linked to ethnicity, religion, and nationalism. As such language within its history and belief systems works towards preserving languages as a link to history and ethnicity. Language is representational of a history and culture. If the language dies, so does the culture.
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills
is the day to day language needed to interact socially with other people. ELL's employ BIC skills when they are on the playground, in the lunch room, on the school bus, at parties, playing sports and talking on the telephone. Social interactions are usually context embedded. They occur in a meaningful social context. They are not very demanding cognitively. The language required is not specialized. These language skills usually develop within six months to two years after arrival in the U.S.
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
CALP refers to formal academic learning. This includes listening, speaking, reading and writing about subject area content material. This level of language learning is essential for students to succeed in school. Students need time and support to become proficient in academic areas. This usually takes from five to seven years. Recent research has shown that if a child has no prior schooling or has no support in native language development, it may take seven to ten years for ELLs to catch up to peers. Academic language acquisition isn't just the understanding of content area vocabulary. It includes skills such as comparing, classifying, synthesizing, evaluating and inferring. Academic language tasks are context reduced. Information is read from a textbook or presented by the teacher. As a student gets older the context of academic tasks becomes more and more reduced. The language also becomes more cognitively demanding.
Additive Bilingualism Versus Subtractive Bilingualism
Cummins draws the distinction between additive bilingualism in which the first language continues to be developed and the first culture to be valued while the second language is added; and subtractive bilingualism in which the second language is added at the expense of the first language and culture, which diminish as a consequence. Cummins (1994) quotes research which suggests students working in an additive bilingual environment succeed to a greater extent than those whose first language and culture are devalued by their schools and by the wider society.
Vygotsky's view of Language Acquisition
the interactionists view of language acquisition (social constructivism). According to Vygotsky, all fundamental cognitive activities take shape in a matrix of social history and form the products of socio-historical development. That is, cognitive skills and patterns of thinking are not primarily determined by innate factors, but are the products of the activities practiced in the social institutions of the culture in which the individual grows up.
"Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals
Zone of Proximal Development
(I + 1) the zone of proximal development includes all the functions and activities that a learner can perform only with the assistance of someone else. The person in this scaffolding process, providing non-intrusive intervention, could be an adult, or another peer who has already mastered that particular function. Therefore, when it comes to language learning, the authenticity of the environment and the affinity between its participants are essential elements to make the learner feel part of this environment. Mentoring, collaboration, and peer relations are the key factors to make this happen.
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Language acquisition is one of the best examples of the necessity of a multidisciplinary approach to the study of human language as it is represented by cognitive sciences. Social, cognitive and motor skills accompanying the development of linguistic systems and the development of a particular language by children cannot be considered independent from one another. The reflection on the development of linguistic categories in the child first grammar raises important issues which can be summarized as follows:
a. Do children grammars differ from adult grammar models? If they do, in what do they differ?
b. What the evolution of such grammars into adult grammars consists of?
c. What is present, in the child’s mind, when the acquisition process begins?
d. Which mechanisms are used in the course of the acquisition process ?
e. What type of input drives the learning system from the initial phases to the more advanced ones?
g. Is it reasonable to assume that different processes are in place during acquisition (Bloom, 1994), for vocabulary, syntax, morphology, and that they are somehow related to each other?
Over the past fifty years different theoretical approaches have emerged in the study of child language, and they have been in opposition to the trend of nativist linguistic acquisitional studies. They start off from different premises as they focus on the variety of aspects characterizing the development of language. The theories that have come out of the chomskian revolution can be divided in two big groups: inside-out and out-side in theories (Hirsh-Pasek and Golingoff, 1999). They mainly differ in the role they assign to the environment to which the child is exposed and to the cognitive structures involved in the learning process. According to the first group of theories, the complexity and specificity of language cannot be accounted for without an assumption of innate constraints on the language faculty. On the other hand, the second group of theories begins with the premise that the child would apply general cognitive principles to the acquisitional task, following a bottom up approach. Therefore linguistic categories are not given to a child a priori but they are gradually constructed on the basis of an exchange between general predispositions and the stimulus connected to the linguistic input. These approaches assign to the child the so called ‘domain-general’ linguistic competence giving much emphasis to the process of grammar construction rather than to its discovery.
When the matter is to establish what there is in a child’s mind when the acquisition process starts, both theories consider the child sensitive and competent in detecting a number of linguistic units (nouns, verbs, phrases) and their potential distribution. Nevertheless, the problem faced by some of the theories belonging to both approaches (in the inside-out theories there is a problem of finding a correlation between local and universal structures), is to explain how the child passes from a kind of linguistic system based on social and cognitive categories (semantic categories) to an adult linguistic system based on abstract syntactic categories. We are still left then with the problem of discontinuity between cognitive and linguistic structures.
This problematic aspect of discontinuity leads some theories, i.e. functionalist theories, to assume that the mechanisms used during the acquisition process are in some way related to pure linguistic constraints such as “look at the flexional morphemes” or to more general mechanisms as “pay attention to word order” (Slobin, 1985). Therefore any possible linguistic, semantic, syntactic, prosodic clue and their interaction contribute to boost the child linguistic system forward to a gradual development. For this reason, it is plausible to assume that formal concepts can develop from more general cognitive notions.
The array of different theories illustrated so far are polarized in terms of precise dichotomies: innate/acquired, prerequisites of a structural/cognitive and social kind, acquisition process domain-specific/general, oriented to the process/structure. Nevertheless, as Hirsh-Pasek and Golingoff suggest, there seems to be a sort of continuity in the proposed dichotomies and the difference seems to lie in the degree of such continuity rather than in the nature of the positions claimed by the different approaches.
The review on language acquisition will focus on the most general questions as well as on the following topics:
Language and cognition
Language and theories of mind
Ontogenesis and phylogenesis
Acquisition of linguistic systems and subsystems
Language acquisition and sign language
Language acquisition and language disorders
Experimental methodologies for data elicitation and analysis
Language acquisition and linguistic theories
Second language acquisition
Bilingual acquisition
Bloom, P. (1984), Language Acquisition, MIT Press, Cambridge Mass.
De Marco A. (2005), Acquisire secondo natura. Lo sviluppo della morfologia in italiano, Franco Angeli.
Hirsh-Pasek K. e Michnick Golingoff R. (1996), The origins of grammar,Evidence from Early Language Comprehension, MIT Press, Cambridge Mass.
Pinker, S. (1995) Why the child holded the baby rabbits: A case study in language acquisition. In L. Gleitman, & M. Liberman (Eds.),Invitation to Cognitive Science, 2nd Edition. Volume 1: Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Slobin, D. I. (1985), “Crosslinguistic evidence for the language-making capacity”, in Slobin, D. I. (ed.). The Crosslinguistic Study of Language Acquisition, Vol. 2. Theoretical Issues. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1157–1256.
Tomasello, M. (2005), Constructing a language, Harvard University Press
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Historical. Speaking of linguistic theory is to refer directly to Noam Chomsky who through his book syntactic structures (1957) introduced the theory of transformational generative grammar as opposed to the current prevailing behaviorist learning time. The language could not be explained in a simplistic way to recognize its complexity. Everything indicates that the speakers managed a remarkable theoretical formulation and that children are born (nature) with a genetic predisposition to structure the language through the handling of data and assumptions. Chomsky's theory revolutionized the study of language behavior at that time and began to study not only the transformation rules, but the biological basis of language. Most areas of knowledge wanted to use Chomsky's postulates and apply them to their own disciplines.
The '60s were the glory years of transformational generative grammar. However, Chomsky postulates did not produce the desired results in other disciplines and in the 70 falls into disrepute. Takes up the ideas of Piaget that language acquisition was the result of the interaction between general cognitive abilities and external environmental stimuli. The rejection of nativism expressed by Chomsky, was because of the time psycholinguists concluded that language processing is not based on formal grammar but no grammatical factors. However, slowly has been reaffirming the theory of transformational generative grammar form the basis of a realistic model of human language. Over the years much evidence has accumulated about the idea of an autonomous linguistic competence, ie apart from other human abilities or powers of a comprehensive and participatory language processing with general or external factors. Some arguments for an independent and participatory grammatical competence in language processing.
1. Relationship between form grammatical and communicative function: an important aspect of grammatical competence, it is impossible to predict the shape of a linguistic structure from its communicative function, ie, a communicative function can be represented by a variety of grammatical forms. This suggests that language is governed by principles that are not derived from external aspects of language. 2. Dissociation of language skills of other cognitive abilities: There are cases of children with appropriate syntactic skills but a poor use of those skills in the communicative act. 3. The study of speech errors in children: Errors committed by children during language acquisition is far from being random, there are clear and well defined stages in all languages and even expressive manifest errors in drafting rules. 4. Competence and processing grammatical sentence: It has been shown that poorly constructed sentences take longer to process than those well-formed, which reaffirms the use of grammatical competence in language processing. Are you interested in this item? Download here: Visit: | http://www.respondingtobrac.com/linguistic-theory-reflections/ |
Language acquisition occurs via two main mechanisms; the native language, first language acquisition (FLA) or a foreign language in addition to L1. In this case it is called second/foreign language acquisition (SLA). Both processes are achieved through different means, but the main focus in this paper is on the latter; SLA. Krashen (1981) thinks that speaking the foreign language promotes acquisition, and conversation in which the acquirer has some sort of control over the topic and in which the other participants exert an effort to make themselves understood provide valuable intake.
Krashen believes that the best activities for the classroom are those that are natural, interesting and comprehensible. He claims that if the teaching programme can provide these characteristics then the classroom may be the best place for L2 acquisition, up to the intermediate level. Similarly, Littlewood (1984, 59) considers “the ideal input for acquiring a second language is similar to the input received by the child, comprehensible, relevant to their immediate interests, not too complex, but not strictly graded either”. Krashen (1982) presents a set of requirements that should be met by any activity aiming at subconscious language acquisition. In this respect, he considers comprehensible input the most important factor for language acquisition, and he regards incomprehensible input as a factor that hinders L2 acquisition. According to him, this explains why educational T.V. programmes fail to teach foreign languages unless the acquirer speaks “a very closely related language”. These factors have led Krashen to define the good language teacher as “someone who can make input comprehensible to a non-native speaker, regardless of his or her level of competence in the target language” (ibid,64).
Krashen (1982) also strongly believes that the best input is so interesting, natural and relevant that the acquirer (the learner) may even “forget” that the message is encoded in a foreign language. In addition, optimal input is not grammatically structured. When we focus on grammatical considerations, there will be less genuinely interesting input. He maintains that optimal input must be in sufficient quantity. It seems clear to him, however, that much time should be devoted to supplying comprehensible input, and that would stimulate more rapid second language acquisition in that the acquirer can get more of the target language (Hasan, 208).
2. Language Acquisition
Bylanguage acquisition, we mean the process of learning and development of a person’s language (Fletcher, 1985). It is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences in order to communicate. The learning of a native or first language (L1) is called first language acquisition(FLA), while the term second language acquisition (SLA) is used to refer to the learning of a second or foreign language (L2) (Mansoor, 2014:137-138).
It is important to make a distinction between acquisition and learning. Byacquisition,we meanthe gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally and subconsciously in communicative situations with those who know and speak the language. Learning, on the other hand, refers to a more conscious process ofstudying a language, usually in an institutional setting (through instruction). Thus, the first term refers to L1, while the second refers to L2 (ibid).
2.1 Second Language Acquisition
SLAis a term used to refer to the processes by which people develop proficiency in a second or foreign language. Historically, SLA began as an interdisciplinary field(Gass and Selinker, 2008: 1). However, the early beginning of this field goes backto Corder’s(1967) essay The Significance of Learners’ Errors, and Selinker’s (1972) article Interlanguage(VanPatten & Benati, 2010: 2-5).In the 1970s the general trend in SLA was for research exploring the ideas of Corder and Selinker, and refuting behavioristtheories of language acquisition.
By the 1980s, the theories of Stephen Krashen had become the prominent paradigm in SLA. In his theory, known as the Input Hypothesis, Krashen suggested that language acquisition is basically achieved by what he called comprehensible input; language input that learners can understand. Krashen’s model was influential in the field of SLA and also had a large influence on language teaching, but it left some important processes in SLA unexplained. Research in the 1980s was characterized by the attempt to fill in these gaps. Some approaches included White’s descriptions of learner competence, and Pienemann’s use of speech processing models and lexical functional grammar to explain learner output (ibid).
The 1990s witnessed the introduction of sociocultural theory, an approach to explain second-language acquisition in terms of the social environment of the learner.In the 2000s research was split into two main camps of linguistic and psychological approaches. VanPatten and Benati do not see this state of affairs as changing in the near future, pointing to the support both areas of research have in the wider fields of linguistics and psychology, respectively (ibid, cited in wikipedia, 2018).
3.Krashen’s Theory of SLA
Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses (Krashen, 1982: 10-32). These include:
3.1 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen’s theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners. According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: ‘the acquired system’ and ‘the learned system’. The ‘acquired system’ or ‘acquisition’ is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their L1. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language, natural communication, in which speakers concentrate not on the form of their utterances, but on the communicative act.
The “learned system” or “learning” is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge about the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen learning is less important than acquisition (ibid).
3.2 The Monitor Hypothesis
The Monitor Hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the ‘monitor’ or the ‘editor’. The monitor acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and he/she knows the rule.
It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is or should be minor, being used only to correct deviations from normal speech and to give speech a more polished appearance.Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language learners with regard to monitor use. He distinguishes those learners that use the monitor all the time (over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the monitor appropriately (optimal users) (ibid).
3.3 The Natural Order Hypothesis
The Natural Order Hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1982) which suggest that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a natural order which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners’ age, L1 background and conditions of exposure. Although the agreement between individual acquirers was not alwaysdefinitivein the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen; however, points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.
3.4 The Input Hypothesis
The InputHypothesis is Krashen’s attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language andhow second language acquisition takes place. He puts it in this way:”The important question is: How do we acquire language?”(Krashen, 1982: 20).The Input hypothesis is only concerned with acquisition, not learning. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the natural order when he/she receives second language input that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage ‘i'(where i represents current competence), then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to ‘Comprehensible Input’ that belongs to level ‘i + 1’ (where I represents the next level)since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time.
Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some ‘i + 1’ input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence (ibid).
3.5 The Affective Filter Hypothesis
According to Krashen there are a number of affective variablesthat play a facilitative, but non-causal role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety (Krashen, 1981). Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem and greatanxiety can combine to raise the affective filter and form a mental block that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is up it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place(www.sk.com).
4. The Role of Input
In normal conditions, infants are helped in their language acquisition by the typical behaviour of older children and adults in the home environment who provide language samples or input for the child. This input is usually a simplified speech style given by someone who spends a lot of time interacting with the child (like parents or caregivers). This speech which is addressed to young children by the adults or older children who are looking after them is called motherese or caregiver speech(Snow & Ferguson, 1977; Richards, et al, 1993:45; Yule, 2010:171).
This kind of speech is also referred to as comprehensible inputthat can be understood by listeners although they do not understand all the words and structures in it. According to Krashen(1982, 62), giving learners this kind of input helps them acquire language naturally, rather than learn it consciously.
4.1Characteristics of Optimal Input
Krashen (1982) defined that optimal input should be comprehensible, be interesting and/or relevant, not be grammatically sequenced and be in sufficient quantity. If the leaner can be exposed to input having these characteristic features, it is considered that acquisition is more likely to occur at its best possible levels.
4.1.1Comprehensible
Krashen (1982, 63) consider this as the most important input characteristic. To him, when the acquirer does not understand the message, there will be no acquisition. This means that incomprehensible input is merely noise which doesn’t help in the process of SLA. According to information processing theory concerning comprehension and production, if the learner cannot keep up with the rate of exposure and the input content is far beyond his linguistic competence, he/she will fail to comprehend and therefore, to acquire(Carroll,1990, cited in Wang, 2010). Therefore, the teacher must ensure that the material he/she chooses is not so demanding on the student.A “defining characteristic of a good teacher is someone who can make input comprehensible to a non-native speaker, regardless of his or her level of competence in the target language” (Krashen, 1982: 64). Krashen maintains that the main function of all teachers is to try to help make input comprehensible (both linguistically and non-linguistically); to do for the adult learner what the outside world cannot or will not do (ibid).
Linguistically,studies have shown that many things can be done to make the speech more comprehensible to less competent speakers. Hatch, 1979 (cited in Krashen, 1982: 64) has summarized the linguistic aspects of simplified input which appear to promote comprehension as follows:
1.Slower rate and clearer articulation, which helps acquirers to identify word
boundaries more easily, and allows more processing time.
2. More use of high frequency vocabulary, less slang, fewer idioms.
3. Syntactic simplification, shorter sentences.
Non-linguistically, providing extra-linguistic support in the form of realia (real objects) and pictures for beginning classes have proved to be helpful devices to encourage SLA. Good teachers also take advantage of the student’s knowledge of the world in helping comprehension by discussing topics that are familiar to the student. Discussing or reading about a topic that is totally unknown to the learner will make the message harder to understand, and consequently hinders acquisition. | https://michigansciencecenter.net/language-acquisition-occurs-via-two-main-mechanisms/ |
The term psycholinguistics is a combination of psychology and linguistics, both of which are branches of sciences. Psychology covers the systematic study of human experience and behavour (Knight & Hilgert in Ahmadi, 1992), whereas linguistic scientifically Studies language including everything it is constituted of and related to. Hence, psycholinguistics is, to be oversimplified, concerned with the study of language with relation of psychology including human experience and behavour.
Psycholinguistics appears to be interdisciplinary in nature, and is studied by people in a variety of fields such as psychology, congenetive science, linguistics and so on. It as a separate branch of study emerged in the late 1950s and 1960s as a result of the Chomskyan revolution. The ideas presented by Chomsky became so important that they quickly gained a lot of publicity and had a big impact on a large number of contemporary views on language and language acquisition.
As a consequence psycholinguistics also started investigating such matter as the processing of deep and surface structures of sentences. In the early years of development of psycholinguistics, special experiments were designed in order to examine whether the focus of the processing the deep syntactic structure only. On the bases of transformation of sentences, it was initially discovered that that case of processing was connected with syntactic complexity. However, it later became clear that only syntactic complexity adds to the difficulty of processing, but also a semantic factors have a strong impact upon it.
Further, psycholinguistics investigate how a child acquires his/her mother tongue. While Skinner (1957) considered language learning as a linguistic habit formation through the mechanism of stimulus, response and reinforcement (the behaviorist theory) , Chomsky (1957, 1968) uncovered the language acquisition device (LAD) responsible for language learning (the innate theory) , Lenneberg (1966, 1967, 1969) claimed a close correspondence between physical maturity and the stages of language development (the biological theory) , Piaget (1954, 1969) advocated the active mental processes and functioning of intelligence causing language acquisition (the cognitive theory) , and Halliday (1975) maintained language develops since a child has to interact with others of his /her environment (the sociolinguistics theory) . Besides , psycholinguistics studies how a child develops ability in his/her first language or mother tongue by going through several stages from the pre-linguistic stage to the adult stage.
Furthermore, psycholinguistics studies the nature and process of second language learning through concepts of the monitor (Krashen, 1977, 1981) , interlanguage (Spelunker, 1972), Acculturation (Schumann, 1978, 1990), Universal Grammar (Chomsky, 1980) and so forth. Moreover, it covers the study of second language (L2) learner factors such a aptitude, attitudes, motivation , age , intelligence, cognitive styles, personality and others affecting the rate of learning or achievement.
Thus , psycholinguistics , a branch of linguistics , encompasses the scientific study especially of child language acquisition, explanation of first and second language (L1 &L2) learning/acquisition, learner factors impacting upon second language (L2) learning and so forth. | https://www.freenote1.com/2018/09/a-essay-on-psycholinguistics.html |
Universal grammar can be simply defined as a set of universal innate principles of grammar shared by all languages.That a child will not be able to learn its mother tongue without a set of innate principles ,because the linguistic data it is exposed to are too poor is the central point of the UG.The theory given by the American linguist Chomsky, attempts to explain language acquisition in general, not describe specific languages.The key features of the UG are given below.
UG consists of different kinds of universals.Chomsky identifies two types:substantive and formal.Substantive universals consist of fixed features such as the distinctive phonetic features of which sounds are made or syntactic categories such as noun,verb,and object.Formal universals are more abstract.They are statements about what grammatical rules are possible in languages.
Formal and substantive universals are constrains and therefore delimit the options by setting parameters which must then be fixed according to the particular input data that the child obtains.
So,the principles and parameters which can be defined as a framework in human brain make UG possible. UG holds a set of principles and parameters arranged into modules such as Binding Theory and it is a computation system that ranges from the component of Phonological Form to the component of Logical Form ,that is ,from ’sound’ to ’meaning’.
The rules the child learns can be unmarked or marked.The universals that the child learns form the core grammar and the distinctive features are termed as peripheral.
To sum up, there are some innate universal principles without which a child cannot master his mother tongue.But the input data are also a must as the input triggers the LAD.
Effects of UG parameters on L2A
There are certain principles of UG that vary from language to language. The variation is built into UG in the form of parameters with different settings. Parameter settings between the L1 and the L2 may be both identical and different. If identical, L2 learners need not result it: but if different they have to reset it. Again when a particular parameter is not available in the L1, the learners have to activate it newly in their L2. Thus on these issues the UG hypothesis makes a number of important observations that best explain L2A. For instance, as White(1989) points out, though UG is available in L2A, it cannot necessarily interact immediately with the L2 input. The initial hypothesis that works in the mind of the learners is that L1 parameter value applies to it. As a result L2 learners initially use L1 parameter value to organize the L2 data that causes transfer effects in the interlanguae. However, finally L2 learners become able to reset the parameter setting appropriate to the L2. Towell and Hawkins(1994) also express the same view. According to them this transfer of L1 parameter setting can have two effects. If the setting in the L2 happens to be the same as the setting in the L1, then the learner should get grammatical properties of the L2 which are dependent on that parameter setting right from the very beginning of acquisition. Where the settings differ between the L1 and the L2 the learner would initially be expected to get wrong grammatical properties in the L2 dependent on that parameter setting.
Some of the empirical studies done on the use of parameter setting also show positive evidence for the UG hypothesis. White refers to three pro-drop parameter studies, one carried out by herself and the other two by Phinncy(1987) and Hilles(1986) each of which clearly suggests that Spanish learners of English become finally able to avoid omission of subject-nouns and free subject-verb inversion in English, though at the initial stage L1 interference occurs. Towell and Hawkins (1994) mention the study by Hulk (1991) that investigated the acquisition of French word order by a group of Dutch speaking subjects. Hulk’s finding also reveal that in spite of the presence of L1 value at early stages, Dutch learners gradually become able to reset the parameter setting and acquire French word order. Another grammatically judgment task by White 1988cited in White1989, p.113) on Subjacency violation suggests that native speakers of French are able to recognize “S” as a bounding node for Subjacency in English, though in French “S” is not a bounding node.
Markedness
The concept of markedness is one more important issue to be discussed here. Researchers have used this as a source of explanation and prediction in L2A. According to Ellis markedness theory can help to explain why some differences between the native and the target language lead to learning difficulty, while other differences do not.” Markedness refers to those aspects of a language that are unnatural and complex. If a parameter has more than one value, one of them is said to be more natural than the other. So, the natural one is unmarked and the other is marked. According to UG, “unmarked aspects of grammar are those that are directly related to Universal Grammar and form the “core”: marked aspects are less directly related to Universal Grammar and form the “peripheral grammar”. Therefore, from markedness study one prediction can logically be deducted that L2 learners will find unmarked aspects of the L2 much easier to learn than marked ones, because unmarked aspects are directly related to UG. Moreover, since unmarked aspects are easier to learn, if can also be assumed that unmarked settings will occur in interlanguage before marked settings. Furthermore, the masrkedess concept offers a good explanation of L1 interference in the L2 grammars. The concept suggests that L2 learners will always tend to transfer unmarked values of the L1 to their interlanguage. The study by Mazurkewich 1984 shows that French learners of English find unmarked “pied-piping” sentences like
3.a To whom did John give the book
easier than marked “preposition-stranding” sentences like
3.a Who did John give the book to
Thus markedness study demonstrates further evidence that UG is effective and plays a vital role in explaining L2A.
3. Counter Arguments
So far an attempt has been made to consider the evidence that has led some of the researchers to assume that UG plays a crucial role in L2A. But there are many researchers who hold contrary views. According to them UG is not accessible to L2 learners, and hence cannot play any role in L2A. They also differ with some of the basic assumptions made by the UG based researchers. Besides, a number of empirical studies also strengthen their position against the UG hypothesis some of which are mentioned below.
Larsen-Freeman and Long claim that the input is not degenerate because “both caretaker speech and language addressed to non-native speakers have been found to be well-formed.” As cited in Melaughlin, Schachter has pointed out that “phenomena such as confirmation checks, clarification requests, and failures to understand quality as negative input.” Thus the poverty of the stimulus argument has been under attack. The argument of Structure-dependence is also refuted by Parker 1989(mentioned in Larsn-Freeman and Long 1991). Parker argues that the rule of structure-dependence can be gathered from the input, it does not require any innate knowledge. She also raises questions about Subjaccency effects. She illustrates that Subjaccency effects “can be accounted for without recourse to innate linguistic knowledge: through the assumption in a theory of learning of a preference for continuity.” In another grammatically judgment task by Schatcher as White reports Korean and Indonesian learners failed to reject Subjaccency violations. The theory of markedness also causes much debate. Various definitions have been used. As a result, same aspects are classified as unmarked by one researcher and marked by another. It is not true either that L2 learners always acquire or transfer unmarked form. In a related study, White 1983 finds that sometimes learners carry over marked constructions from the L1 to the L2.
Conclusion
As mentioned, it is clear that no uniform view can be established about the role of UG in L2A. There are both arguments and counter-arguments on the issue. Empirical studies have done so far also reveal mixed findings. But the research in the domain is still in its initial stage and has been restricted to a very limited area. Until the research is carried out in other untrodden area of L2A no final judgment on the issue is possible. However, on the basis of findings revealed so far against and for the hypothesis, it becomes evident that researchers tend to use UG as a source of hypothesis about L2A. In this case at least, it is to be admitted that UG can be used very effectively. It helps in a great deal to explain many of the problems of L2A that could otherwise have been left unresolved. It helps to make some important predictions particularly about interlanguage and transfer effects of the L.1.Therefore, it can be affirmed that Universal Grammar plays a crucial role in second language acquisition and more research on the issue might explore new dimensions. | http://www.literary-articles.com/2012/01/define-chomskys-ug-how-can-it-be.html |
5 Questions to Guide the Purchase of Textbooks
Teachers of all grades turn to textbooks as a reliable source of information that has been fact-checked and critically reviewed by panels of educators and field experts. Even with these review processes in place, however, there are significant differences in the content, ideologies, and goals of published textbooks. Administrators hoping to purchase updated science manuals for students must consider several factors during the decision process.
1. How Well Does Content Align With School Goals And Learning Objectives?
The goals for any particular course as described as aspects of behavior that put knowledge and/or skills to use. Learning objectives describe the specific and separate bits of knowledge that educators want students to learn within a brief and specific timeframe. Bentham Science, a large publisher with international connections and membership with COPE, a standard-establishing organization, is a leader in this area, drawing from ongoing research and undergoing peer-review and multi-faceted approval processes to present a variety of materials for educators to consider.
Many schools in the United States incorporate national or state-level curriculum goals in their own learning outcome objectives. However, private schools, charter schools, and homeschools may have additional goals. Science textbooks could present accepted facts with a liberal or conservative bent that aligns with one school better than another school.
2. Does The Textbook Invite The Intended Student To Engage In Learning?
Educators may judge a sample text based on whether the content is interesting or has good graphics. The professional may review the content to be sure it is current and accurate. Many public high school students have come across “facts” that have since been reevaluated in outdated science books, prompting school administrators to invest in new materials. Many textbook publishers, such as Bentham Science publishing, offer access to websites, social media, and interactive examples of their work.
3. Is The Curriculum Relevant To The Intended Students?
The approach to this factor consists of considerations such as the age of the student, the intended timeframe to cover the subject matter, and the materials that come with a set of textbooks. An elementary school administrator may find a textbook with an appropriate match to the school’s learning objectives, but also note that the content was written for older students. The teacher of a class requiring audio text supplements may pass over a curriculum that doesn’t include those supplements. Institute administrators may prefer one set of textbooks over another because of technology integration.
4. How Are Evaluation Tools Used Throughout The Books?
Some textbook authors put questions at the end of chapters, and some publishers include worksheets and tests as supplementary materials. Administrators generally review the content of quizzes, tests, worksheets, and labs as well as the material within the textbooks, considering the adequacy of test questions and the depth of learning measured by evaluations.
5. How Well Does The Content Align With Practical Applications?
Science texts and materials for other subjects must support and encourage hands-on exploration, lab work, online activities, and physical activities. Some textbooks, for example, offer suggestions about projects students could work through on their own or may link to online tests, exercises, or additional information. In today’s modern environment, this link with technology can truly expand the potential for learning. Print materials face new challenges as they compete with digital media, textbook publishers must rise to the challenge with engaging material, visuals, and other content that are hard to share in an online format. This new level of expectation and the potential for connecting to online content leads to improved content from some publishers.
Educators review lesson materials from many perspectives, so administrators must carefully consider their selections of textbooks. Using established learning objectives, the potential for student engagement, curriculum relevance, evaluation techniques, and alignment with practical applications, administrators and educators can determine the materials that are best suited to their learning environment. | http://www.educationviews.org/5-questions-to-guide-the-purchase-of-textbooks/ |
Provide leadership in the administration of the Health Sciences and Human Services division of the college, including personnel management, in accordance with laws, regulations, District policy and collective bargaining agreements; direct and evaluate the programs and departments assigned to Health Sciences & Human Services, which currently include: the Nursing Department (Registered Nurse (RN)), Emergency Medical Services (Emergency Medical Technician (EMT) and Paramedic), American Sign Language / Interpreting, Clinical Laboratory Technologies (Phlebotomy and Medical Laboratory Technician (MLT)), Medical Assisting Department (Medical Assisting, M A Administrative Certificate, M A Clinical, M A Comprehensive (both Administrative & Clinical)), Billing & Coding Skills Award, Health Information Technology (HIT), and four Human Services certificates, including Human Services Generalist, Alcohol & Drug Studies, Mental Health Worker, Criminal Justice (change title officially in Fall 2012 catalog to Community- Based Corrections due to recent CSU Criminal Justice articulation agreements).
Analyze, interpret and monitor the student success rates of assigned programs and student preparedness and recommend change as needed.
Participate in the development of the College’s strategic plan, communicating the needs, goals, plans and overall role of areas of assignment.
Lead, direct and approve the planning, development, organizing, scheduling, direction, performance and evaluation of the curriculum, instructional or student services programs and services of assigned division.
Lead assigned division in planning, program development and performance of the mission and in carrying out the College’s mission, goals and objectives.
Formulate and develop long and short-range goals and strategic plans, including staffing, facilities, curriculum and educational philosophy; assure consistency of plans with other college and District plans; prepare long-range plans and statements of goals and objectives.
Communicate with College, District, State, and federal personnel to coordinate instructional needs, programs, services and activities; resolve conflicts and issues and develop new and effective certificate and degree programs; provide leadership in delivery of courses, certificates, and degrees for assigned instructional division.
Develop, prepare, submit, administer, monitor and review annual program budgets for assigned division, including annual budget requests for equipment, supplies and personnel; direct the acquisition, maintenance and use of both instructional and non-instructional equipment; and maintain an equipment-replacement plan; direct the maintenance of adequate records and controls to assure instructional division expenditures and operations remain within established budget limitations; monitor and approve purchase requisitions and prepare agenda items for Board approval as needed.
Direct fundraising and financial development for assigned instructional or student services division; disseminate information about the availability of external funding; communicate with faculty members and administrators regarding grants relevant to their academic field; provide information concerning specific funding sources; coordinate timelines and protocol for grants.
Direct the preparation and maintenance of detailed and comprehensive reports, records and files regarding instructional division personnel, facilities, and activities.
Train, supervise and evaluate the performance of assigned probationary and tenured academic and classified staff in keeping with the policies of the Board of Trustees and administrative procedures; visit classroom/work sites and observe and evaluate methods and effectiveness.
Participate in the selection of new faculty and classified staff and temporary professional staff in accordance with District policies and legal requirements.
Interface with the community and external agencies in all matters of community relations and academic affairs associated with the division of instruction.
Organize, attend or chair a variety of administrative and staff meetings related to strategic planning, budget, curriculum, advisory committees and other activities; participate in collegial consultation, shared governance and appropriate advisory committee meetings and provide in-service and workshops for employees.
Supervise the planning, organization and arranging of appropriate staff development programs and activities for faculty and staff; orient new employees and direct the implementation of flex time procedures.
Direct and approve curriculum development; direct the acquisition, maintenance, and use of instructional equipment; and maintain an equipment and technology replacement plan.
Identify facility needs and help direct planning for the movement, creation or elimination of facilities for programs.
Promote and coordinate a variety of programs and services and arrange for the development of promotional materials and college publications; manage assigned facilities and approve all assigned facilities usage.
Attend workshops, professional conferences, and trade shows for program planning and development; serve on a variety of campus, District, community, and State committees; and meet with representatives of business, industry, and local government.
Maintain current knowledge of instructional methods and new technologies pertinent to assigned division; monitor legislation, new State Education Code regulations and other State guidelines to determine instructional program impact.
Provide leadership and advocacy to enhance innovation and participation in issues related to areas of assignment to ensure student success; communicate the changing expectations, trends and needs of educational preparation effectively to College personnel.
Assist assigned Vice President in the resolution of student and faculty concerns related to area of assignment.
Create a positive campus climate that fosters innovation in curriculum development for instruction and services in assigned divisions; work with the community, business, industry and other educational institutions to promote assigned divisions of instruction; contribute to the development and implementation of a coordinated outreach, marketing and public relations process and plan for assigned instructional programs and services.
Provide direction for the development of new programs, including contribution to the development or redesign of curriculum, and coordinate program approvals as appropriate.
Work collaboratively and develop partnerships/agreements with advisory boards, professional associations, K-12 and transfer institutions, business and industry; cultivate and promote positive and substantive relationships with local business and industry; serve as a leader of/and advocate for the College within the business community.
Demonstrate sensitivity to and understanding of the diverse academic, socioeconomic, cultural, disability and ethnic backgrounds of students.
Perform related duties as assigned.
Please mention you saw this ad on BlacksinAcademia.com
Copyright © 2010 BlacksInAcademia.com - All Rights Reserved. | https://www.blacksinacademia.com/jobdetail-199024-Dean%20of%20Health%20Sciences%20and%20Human%20Services |
Brunswick Believes… In Professional Excellence!
The goals of our New Teacher Induction program align with our strategic framework’s vision, and mission and include assuring that all new teachers and professional staff members have the information, resources, support, and inspiration to successfully begin a long, productive, and joyful career as part of our team! Induction also supports our new educators in identifying and pursuing personally and professionally relevant experiences, developing and strengthening their individual and collective voice as public school ambassadors, and in maintaining job satisfaction. Levels of support are tiered and customized to honor individual educators’ strengths, needs, and interests.
Orientation: All new professional staff members attend an orientation prior to the start of the school year. District orientation includes: a general welcome to Brunswick School Department; an overview of our strategic plan; introductions to the district administrators; information about the induction process and what to expect in the first days/weeks of school; information about accessing professional development opportunities and committee/other leadership opportunities in our district. Site-based orientation includes: a tour of the school; introductions to staff members; logistical information and resources (keys, codes, access to technology systems, curriculum information, school calendar, etc); required trainings – including our Comprehensive Emergency Management Plan, suicide awareness/prevention, health and safety trainings, supervision/evaluation process, and critical policies including affirmative action, bullying, and harassment/sexual harassment policies. | http://www.brunswick.k12.me.us/new-teacher-induction/ |
An Official Website of the Commonwealth of Kentucky
Learn what precautions you can take about the coronavirus.
Call the KY Department for Public Health’s COVID-19 hotline at (800)
722-5725 or visit its COVID-19 webpage.
More
information also is available on KDE’s COVID-19 webpage.
Standards/Content Areas
This video series offers guidance on next steps for how educators can plan and prepare for addressing knowledge gaps due to extended remote learning as a result of the COVID-19 emergency. Stage one addresses drafting and adjusted curriculum and was released in the spring of 2020 and stage two addresses meeting learners' academic needs and was released in the summer of 2020.
Each different part outlined in the COVID-19 Considerations for Reopening Schools Academic Re-entry, Stage One: Drafting an Adjusted Curriculum document is discussed in a webcast.
Each different part outlined in the COVID-19 Considerations for Reopening Schools - Academic Re-entry, Stage Two: Meeting Learners' Academic Needs document is discussed in an accompanying video.
The following non-traditional instruction (NTI) program guidance includes information and essential questions concerning instruction that can guide thinking as districts leaders, administrators and teachers address the needs of students.
Considerations for Instruction
Schools and districts are currently being provided increased access to digital resources. To ensure our students continue to have access to high-quality, standards-aligned instruction, schools and districts can use
Instructional Resource Alignment Rubrics and
Assignment Review Protocols to evaluate how well online instructional resources align to the Kentucky Academic Standards.
Instructional Resource Alignment Rubrics are meant to evaluate curriculum and are available for reading and writing, mathematics, social studies, science, health education and physical education, and visual and performing arts.
Assignment Review Protocols are meant to evaluate individual assignments and are available for reading and writing, mathematics and social studies.
This video provides guidance for using the Assignment Review Protocol.
Now is a great time for schools and districts to share the Standards Family Guides with families.
Here is a sample message you can use to share this resource with families:
Want to Learn More About Grade Level Expectations? Check out the Standards Family Guides!
The
Kentucky Academic Standards (KAS) Family Guideswere developed by the Kentucky Department of Education to help families familiarize themselves with the content of each grade level’s standards. Each grade level guide contains a standards overview for reading and writing, mathematics, science and social studies that includes suggestions for ways you can incorporate learning into your daily activities. Now more than ever, the Standards Family Guides are a great resource to help you meet your child’s learning needs!
In order to provide equitable learning environments for all students, it is important for schools and districts to translate the Kentucky Academic Standards into a guaranteed and viable curriculum.
The "Curriculum Design and Implementation Guidance Leadership Session" focuses on building an understanding of the role of standards, curriculum and instructional resources, as well as the components of a curriculum development process outlined in the revised Model Curriculum Framework. The session also provides an overview of resources available to support schools and districts as they develop and revise standards-aligned curriculum at the local level.
To participate, view the "Curriculum Design and Implementation Guidance" session video and use the accompanying materials in the
March 2020 Leadership Meeting materials folder. EILA credit is available for this opportunity.
Many of Kentucky’s education partners have generously created lists of online instructional resources to assist educators and families during this time of extended remote learning. The Online Professional Learning and Instructional Resources document contains links for both instructional support and professional growth and will be updated regularly. These resources have not all been vetted by the Kentucky Department of Education (KDE), nor should this be considered an endorsement. Educators should be mindful of digital resources that require teachers or students to create online accounts. Please check with district policies and consider HIPPA, FERPA, and COPPA laws with regards to student privacy BEFORE implementing any of these resources.
Please email the Standards team if you have any questions. | https://education.ky.gov/curriculum/Pages/COVID-19-Updates-Ongoing-Guidance-and-Support.aspx |
Our Academic Expectations:
Sioux Falls Catholic Schools have a longstanding reputation for traditional, academic rigor. Our academic excellence is rooted in our Faith and our Mission… “to form a community of faith and learning by promoting a Catholic way of life through Gospel values and academic excellence. “ This Mission is also why we attract dedicated and experienced educators who set high expectations for their students and care about their personal success.
The strength of our academic programs is in our ability to meet the needs of all learners. We have rigorous expectations in instruction with a curriculum that addresses faith development in addition to our traditional academic curriculum. Our students receive instruction in the areas of religion, language arts, math, science and social studies. In addition to these main content areas, students receive instruction in physical education, visual arts, vocal and instrumental music and technology.
We are proud to share the details of the curriculum for your child’s grade level! We’ve provided our SFCS curriculum brochures below, which are designed to provide you with an overview of SFCS instructional goals and expectations.
Sioux Falls Catholic Schools’ plan for assessment and elementary math instruction for the 2015-16 school-year:
The Sioux Falls Catholic School administrators along with staff and curriculum teams have again chosen to opt out of the Smarter Balanced assessment scheduled for next spring (2016).
All students in grades 3, 4, 6, and 8 will continue to take the SAT10 and OLSAT tests, as they have in the past. 7th graders will also continue to take the pre-ACT test now known as the ACT Aspire test (updated version of the ACT EXPLORE), and 10th graders will continue to take the pre-ACT test now known as the ACT Aspire (updated version of the ACT PLAN). SFCS 7th and 10th grade students have taken these pre-ACT tests for many years.
SFCS students have consistently outperformed other students in math at both the state and national levels. SFCS faculty and administrators work diligently to balance the teaching of foundational math skills with the teaching of higher level thinking and processing skills.The math curriculum committee has aligned these expectations with curriculum maps, resources, and assessments. This process included specifically detailing the standard materials that will be used for instruction involving foundation skills and the additional resources that will be used for incorporating higher level thinking and processing skills.
For the 2015-2016 school year the SFCS elementary math materials and resources will be:
- Preschool and Kindergarten – “MyMath” (McGraw Hill)
- Grades 1-5 – “Harcourt (Houghton Mifflin) Math” as main student textbook and practice book and “Everyday Math” (McGraw Hill) resources as supplementary
- Grade 6 – Middle School Math (Holt)
- Student reference/resource books
- Practice masters/black line masters including additional materials that address specific student ability and skill levels
- Online supplemental resources for all grade levels
- Parent communication letters
- Auxiliary foundation skill reinforcement resources (e.g. Rocket Math, Superduper.com, etc.)
- Updated SFCS Elementary Math Curriculum Consensus Maps
Ongoing professional development will provide staff support. New staff will have opportunities for being mentored and partnered with grade level experienced peers. As with all curriculum processes, SFCS staff will continue to critically review the materials and resources and augment instructional practices to insure the continued academic success of all students. | http://elementary.sfcss.org/sfcs-academic-expectations-2013-2014 |
The University of Cincinnati is home to a number of different committees who work around the clock to ensure that the university remains an inclusive, top-quality education and research institution that can guarantee the success of its many students and faculty.
The Office of the Provost leads a number of these committees, whose responsibilities range from developing academic policies and procedures , managing the university’s budget, supporting IT initiatives, overseeing enrollment , leading undergraduate education and maintaining eCurriculum.
The Academic Committee (AC) is the university-level governance committee charged to review and recommend newly proposed academic policies, procedures, and issues of academic quality, need, and cross-unit coordination to the Provost. The committee is also responsible for making recommendations to the Provost regarding program assessment, and support of ongoing re-accreditation by the Higher Learning Commission (HLC). The AC makes recommendations on:
- New degree programs (for graduate programs, in partnership with the Graduate Council)
- New certificates (for graduate programs, in partnership with the Graduate Council)
- Referred cases, i.e. new substantial tracks or modifications to existing academic programs
- Review and approval of program assessment plans
- Review and approval of policy changes, new policies, academic related issues, etc.
- Review and approval of general education related changes, revisions, etc.
- Ensuring efficient and mission alignment while encouraging cross college collaboration and inter-disciplinary programs
The Academic Committee is comprised of the following:
- Chair: Vice Provost of Undergraduate Affairs (ex-offico)
- Co-Chair: Vice Provost for Academic Programs
- One undergraduate student selected by the Undergraduate Student Government
- Two Faculty Senate representatives, from different colleges, designated by the Faculty Senate in accordance by their internal governance procedures
- Faculty Senate Chair
- Faculty Senate Chair of Academic Affairs
- Associate Dean of the Graduate School
- Each College/Division offering undergraduate programs will have one representative. This representative will be selected for a 3-year term and may come from the college’s curriculum committee, undergraduate council, or be the Associate Dean
- Vice Provost of International Affairs (as needed)
- Director of CET&L (when assessment is discussed)
- Director of Honors (when issues related to Honors are discussed)
- The University Registrar (as needed)
- UC Online (for online requests)
|Name||College/Office|
|Gigi Escoe||Provost (Chair)|
|Chris Lewis||Co-Chair|
|Charity Accurso||CAHS|
|Allen Arthur||CEAS|
|Chris Carter
||A&S
|
|Jacob Cogan
||Law
|
|Donna Green||Nursing|
|Ann Latham
||Registrar's Office
|
|Greg Loving
||Faculty Senate Chair
|
|James Mack
||Graduate School
|
|Lisa Mahle-Grisez
||UC Clermont
|
|Anil Menon||Medicine|
|Tamika Odum||UCBA, Chair of Acadmic Affairs Committee, Faculty Senate|
|Ann Black||DAAP|
|Laura Dell||CECH|
|Stephanie Schlagel||CCM
|
|Sarah Cummins-Sebree||UCBA
|
|Steve Slezak||LCB|
|Ric Stackpole
||UC Clermont
|
|Daniel Goodman||Faculty Senate Representative, Clermont|
Strategic Enrollment Management (SEM) is a comprehensive process designed to:
- Develop strategies to maximize optimum student recruitment, enrollment, retention, persistence, graduation and alumni participation within the context of institutional mission
- Assist campus leadership in reaching critical decisions about faculty and staff employment planning, academic and student program development, construction and operational needs
- Aid in the coordination of services that ensures a seamless process of recruitment, enrollment, retention, student services, graduation and alumni relations
- Incorporate integrated enrollment and financial planning
At UC, this process is facilitated through a carefully designed structure led by the SEM Policy Council and supported through a Management Team and Working Groups for targeted enrollment enhancement/support initiatives. Membership is designed to achieve full campus participation in the evolution and implementation of UC’s enrollment goals.
SEM Groups & Committees
SEM Policy Council
Chair: Kristi Nelson, Senior Vice President for Academic Affairs and Provost
- Set overall goals for SEM
- Approve enrollment related policy
- Approve enrollment goals for admission, retention and graduation
- Evaluate efforts
- Consult with Council of Deans, College Liaison Committee, Faculty Senate and other governance groups
- Optimize use of resources
- Link financial planning and SEM
SEM Management Team
- Develop SEM enrollment plans
- Review and recommend policies from the SEM working groups for approval by SEM Policy Council
- Develop strategies for achieving specific enrollment objectives
- Facilitate implementation of plans
- Communicate with University community and other governance groups
- Evaluate effectiveness of strategies and tactics
SEM New Student Enrollment Network
- Review issues and programming critical to undergraduate new student recruitment and enrollment
- Share admissions and enrollment data to support strategies and long-range planning
- Increase number of prospective students and applicants who visit campus
- Report findings and make recommendations to the SEM Management Team
The University Budget Committee (BC) is the university-level governance committee charged to review and recommend budgetary and fiscal plans, policies, and procedures that impact the university’s teaching, research, and service mission as well as its overall financial health. Provide oversight of the budget planning process and support the Provost, President and Board of Trustees on fiscal matters that impact the university’s mission. The committee works with and seeks input from the Fiscal Coordinating Committee when appropriate.
The BC is comprised of the following:
- Chair, Sr. VP for Finance and Administration
- Vice President for Finance
- Sr. Associate VP for Finance and Administration
- Senior Vice Provost for Academic Planning
- Senior Vice Provost for Academic Finance and Administration
- Associate Dean, Medical Operations and Finance
The IT Council is the university-wide governance body for IT at University of Cincinnati.
The IT@UC Governance Structure consists of the IT Council and five topical committees — Core Services & Shared Infrastructure, eLearning, Information Security & Compliance, IT Managers and Research & Development.
These committees report to the IT Council, which feeds into the university's Integrated Decision Making process and to the Senior Vice Presidents.
More than 350 student, faculty and staff representatives attend monthly meetings and serve as part of university-wide IT Governance.
Drawing from the university's 17 deans, the Council of Deans meets monthly to provide guidance on UC's policies, initiatives and large-scale projects. | https://www.uc.edu/about/provost/about/committees.html |
For many teachers, censorship is not just something that appears in textbooks' discussions of the First Amendment. It is a very real, and sometimes frightening, problem. Consider what happened last year to a teacher in a small rural community in Georgia when she assigned Arthur Miller's classic play, Death of a Salesman, to her 9th grade honors English class.
Anticipating that some parents might not approve of some of the language, the teacher notified the parents that alternative assignments were available. When no one requested one, she began to teach the play. But complaints about the Miller work began to filter in to the district superintendent's office. He asked the teacher to repeat her offer of alternative assignments. She did so, again no one responded, and she continued to teach the play.
Several days later, the superintendent summoned the teacher to his office, told her he had received still more complaints, and—without using the formal review procedures set up to handle controversial material—asked her to withdraw the book. His action set off a controversy that eventually involved local churches, conflicting groups of parents, and the local school board. It was marked by bitter attacks on teachers, who at one point were called “communists” for their support of the Miller play. For now, Death of a Salesman remains banned pending an oft-delayed final decision by the school board.
The Georgia teacher's experience has been repeated all too often in the 1980's. Since 1982, there have been more than 600 censorship attempts in the schools, with the number growing each year. During the 1988-89 school year, censorship incidents occurred in 42 states and in every region: in big cities, small towns, and rural areas. Nearly half of the challenges resulted in the banning or restriction of the material under attack. Among the books most frequently attacked were The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Of Mice and Men, and The Catcher in the Rye.
As we move into the 1990's, censorship attempts are almost certain to increase because such controversial issues as drugs and AIDS are making their way into the classroom. Moreover, the problem is likely to become more complicated as educators encourage greater parental involvement in schools while fighting off the attempts of some parents and others to ban books.
What can teachers do about censorship?
First, it's important for teachers and administrators to keep clearly in mind the distinction between the concerns of parents legitimately trying to exert an influence on their children's education, and censorship. When parents want to prevent their child from reading a certain book or discussing a certain subject, that's parental involvement—however educationally misguided it may sometimes seem to a teacher.
Public schools are, in fact, increasingly trying to accommodate parents' wishes to have a say in their children's education. Many English teachers, for example, routinely send notices home to parents when they plan to teach a novel that might be controversial. Districts often solicit parents' reactions when they are choosing new textbooks, or adopting new programs or curricula. As more and more school systems respond to the AIDS crisis by adopting family-life and sex-education programs, they invite considerable community involvement. Recognizing that such programs touch upon strong personal values and beliefs, many districts are also allowing students to “opt out” of the entire program, specific lessons or topics, or specific assigned readings.
But when parents want to forbid every student in the school from reading a book by having it removed from a class or library, that is censorship, plain and simple. And that's when teachers should take a stand.
Second, teachers and school officials should develop sound procedures for reviewing books and other classroom materials. If followed scrupulously, good review procedures make censorship far less likely. Such procedures should have several important characteristics. They should presume that a book is innocent until proven guilty; that is, challenged materials should remain in the schools during the review process. Only a formal, written complaint should trigger the review process, and those filing it should be encouraged to read the entire work and evaluate their objections in context. The procedures should encourage resolution of the complaint at the lowest organizational level—starting with the classroom teacher, then the principal, and so forth, through the district hierarchy. The local school board should be the court of last resort.
Teachers and administrators should clearly describe to parents and others the steps in the procedure, the people responsible at each stage, the key decision points, and any avenues of appeal. Teachers must be a part of review committees; the committees should also include administrators, parents, community representatives, and, where appropriate, students. The committees should focus their evaluation on the educational merit of the challenged material. In short, teachers should try to find ways to involve parents constructively in the selection of educational materials and programs, so they don't feel that book banning is their only recourse when they are dissatisfied.
Free inquiry and exploration should be the watchwords of education. Children can learn this explicitly, through careful, thoughtful instruction, and they can learn it implicitly, by observing how those around them react to controversy and pressure. When censorship challenges arise, all members of the education community—teachers, parents, administrators, and school board members—need to ensure that the lesson students learn is not to fear ideas, avoid controversy, and subvert the democratic principles that guide our behavior in the school, in the community, and in the larger society.
Vol. 01, Issue 04, Pages 78-79
We encourage lively debate, but please be respectful of others. Profanity and personal attacks are prohibited. By commenting, you are agreeing to abide by our user agreement.
All comments are public. | https://www.edweek.org/tm/articles/1990/01/01/taking-on-the-book-banners.html |
Every year since 1983, through our annual Missouri Arts Awards, the Missouri Arts Council has honored our state’s arts heroes—people, organizations, and communities who have made profound contributions to the culture of Missouri. Here are our 2021 heroes!
Who will be our 2022 honorees? From public nominations, honorees are selected by independent panel representing Missouri’s arts community throughout the state. The panel’s choices are approved at the Missouri Arts Council board meeting in late October and announced in November.
Nominations for 2022 are open through noon on Monday, August 23.
Categories
Arts Education | Individual or organization that has made significant contributions to arts education either through enhancing the education curriculum within the school system or through creating educational opportunities in the arts outside the school setting
Arts Organization | Outstanding organization actively producing, presenting, or serving the arts
Creative Community | Community (municipality, village or town, business district, tax district, neighborhood association, etc.) that uses the arts to promote economic growth and/or attract tourism, businesses, or residents
Individual Artist | Outstanding artist creating traditional/folk art, electronic media, literary, visual, or performing arts
Leadership in the Arts | Individual who has significantly influenced the arts as a leader
Philanthropy | Individual, organization, foundation, or business that has made significant donations to the arts
Laura Shultz, 2020 Leadership in the Arts honoree | executive director of Kansas City’s Northeast Community Center from 2008 to her retirement on July 1, 2021; architect of the Center’s Harmony Project KC, the local iteration of a revolutionary Los Angeles-born music program that through intensive education and mentoring helps the community‘s most vulnerable children and their families
Criteria
The total contribution or body of work of the nominee and the effect this effort has produced on the cultural climate of the city, region and/or state of Missouri are the primary criteria utilized in the selection of the award recipients.
Arts Education | Consider how the nominee is involved the arts in education, how they impact their students, how they influenced education in their area. Include relevant curriculum, programs, and projects. Demonstrate this with statements from educators, parents, students, administrators, and school board members.
Arts Organization | Consider the artistic quality of their work, how they achieve their artistic mission, how they influenced others in the field, how they collaborate with others, and advocate for the arts. Include examples of exhibitions or performances, statements from the field, and examples of community impact. Demonstrate artistic quality with documentation of their work, formal recognitions, or awards.
Creative Community | Consider the type of community including the nature of the community, size, governance, demographics, character, and market. Describe cultural assets, programs, initiatives, how the community utilizes the arts, how the community supports the arts, and how the arts support the community.
Individual Artist | Consider the artistic quality of their work, the scope of their work, and how they influenced others. Include examples of their work, critical reviews, testimonies, and formal recognition or awards. Demonstrate artistic quality with documentation of their work, its depth and complexity, recognitions or awards.
Leadership in the Arts | Consider the impact of their leadership, how the community benefited, and where they influenced the arts (whether on policies, issues, or growth). Include testimonies, documentation of their leadership, programs, initiatives, statements, and recognitions.
Philanthropy | Consider what arts disciplines they support, the impact of their support on the arts community, and the legacy of their philanthropy. Demonstrate this with examples of philanthropic support and statements.
Eligibility
Nominees must be current Missouri residents or a Missouri-based organization or community. Nominees in the Philanthropic category may be a non-Missouri residents but their philanthropy being honored must benefit a nonprofit Missouri arts organization. We welcome self-nominations.
Past Missouri Arts Awards recipients are not eligible to be nominated. Review the list of prior award recipients to make sure your nominee hasn’t already been honored. (Missouri Arts Council board members and staff and the selection committee and their families are also not eligible.)
Submitting a Nomination
Nominations and support materials are submitted online.
Information Required
1. Contact information for both nominee and nominator (including name, address, city, state, zip, email and phone number).
2. The category in which they are nominated.
3. The significance and/or magnitude of the nominee’s contribution to the arts. The populations served and recognition brought by virtue of the nominee’s achievements.
4. The length of time and/or intensity of the activity dedicated to the arts.
Support Materials
Nominators may include additional materials, for example, resume, support letters, and news clippings, to illustrate the nominee’s contribution to the arts. All supplemental materials must be submitted as PDF files. The maximum length is 14 pages (which equals seven double-sided sheets).
Multiple Nominations
Nominators may submit multiple nominations. In case of multiple categories for the same nominee, please submit a separate nomination form, narrative, and supplemental materials for each category. Ensure that the narrative and supplemental materials are tailored for each category.
Selection Process
The honorees are selected by an independent panel of distinguished representatives of Missouri’s arts community. The selection of the panel members ensures statewide representation. The designated panel reserves the right to close an award category if nominations do not meet specified criteria.
For More Information
Contact Virginia Sanders, Missouri Arts Awards coordinator, at 314-340-6851, TDD 800-735-2966, or [email protected].
Tips for a great nomination
Anyone can submit a nomination for an artist, arts educator, leader, organization, philanthropist, and creative community for the annual Missouri Arts Awards. People can even nominate themselves or their own organization.
Creating a compelling case is not difficult. Here are how-to tips from Virginia Sanders, our Missouri Arts Awards coordinator. | https://www.missouriartscouncil.org/how-to-nominate/ |
Plan, direct, or coordinate the academic, administrative, or auxiliary activities of public or private elementary or secondary level schools.
Tasks
Enforce discipline and attendance rules.
Confer with parents and staff to discuss educational activities, policies, and student behavioral or learning problems.
Observe teaching methods and examine learning materials to evaluate and standardize curricula and teaching techniques, and to determine areas where improvement is needed.
Collaborate with teachers to develop and maintain curriculum standards, develop mission statements, and set performance goals and objectives.
Recruit, hire, train, and evaluate primary and supplemental staff.
Evaluate curricula, teaching methods, and programs to determine their effectiveness, efficiency, and utilization, and to ensure that school activities comply with federal, state, and local regulations.
Counsel and provide guidance to students regarding personal, academic, vocational, or behavioral issues.
Establish, coordinate, and oversee particular programs across school districts, such as programs to evaluate student academic achievement.
Set educational standards and goals, and help establish policies and procedures to carry them out.
Plan and lead professional development activities for teachers, administrators, and support staff.
Determine allocations of funds for staff, supplies, materials, and equipment, and authorize purchases.
Prepare and submit budget requests and recommendations, or grant proposals to solicit program funding.
Determine the scope of educational program offerings, and prepare drafts of course schedules and descriptions to estimate staffing and facility requirements.
Prepare, maintain, or oversee the preparation and maintenance of attendance, activity, planning, or personnel reports and records.
Review and approve new programs, or recommend modifications to existing programs, submitting program proposals for school board approval as necessary.
Recommend personnel actions related to programs and services.
Direct and coordinate activities of teachers, administrators, and support staff at schools, public agencies, and institutions.
Participate in special education-related activities such as attending meetings and providing support to special educators throughout the district.
Organize and direct committees of specialists, volunteers, and staff to provide technical and advisory assistance for programs.
Direct and coordinate school maintenance services and the use of school facilities.
Advocate for new schools to be built, or for existing facilities to be repaired or remodeled.
Plan and develop instructional methods and content for educational, vocational, or student activity programs.
Develop partnerships with businesses, communities, and other organizations to help meet identified educational needs and to provide school-to-work programs.
Meet with federal, state, and local agencies to keep updated on policies and to discuss improvements for education programs.
Plan, coordinate, and oversee school logistics programs such as bus and food services.
Review and interpret government codes, and develop programs to ensure adherence to codes and facility safety, security, and maintenance.
Collect and analyze survey data, regulatory information, and data on demographic and employment trends to forecast enrollment patterns and curriculum change needs.
Coordinate and direct extracurricular activities and programs such as after-school events and athletic contests.
Mentor and support administrative staff members such as superintendents and principals.
Teach classes or courses to students.
Write articles, manuals, and other publications, and assist in the distribution of promotional literature about facilities and programs.
Knowledge
Physics
Knowledge and prediction of physical principles, laws, their interrelationships, and applications to understanding fluid, material, and atmospheric dynamics, and mechanical, electrical, atomic and sub- atomic structures and processes.
Food Production
Knowledge of techniques and equipment for planting, growing, and harvesting food products (both plant and animal) for consumption, including storage/handling techniques.
Skills
Equipment Selection
Determining the kind of tools and equipment needed to do a job.
Operation and Control
Controlling operations of equipment or systems.
Installation
Installing equipment, machines, wiring, or programs to meet specifications.
Equipment Maintenance
Performing routine maintenance on equipment and determining when and what kind of maintenance is needed.
Repairing
Repairing machines or systems using the needed tools.
Abilities
Manual Dexterity
The ability to quickly move your hand, your hand together with your arm, or your two hands to grasp, manipulate, or assemble objects.
Wrist-Finger Speed
The ability to make fast, simple, repeated movements of the fingers, hands, and wrists.
Speed of Limb Movement
The ability to quickly move the arms and legs.
Dynamic Flexibility
The ability to quickly and repeatedly bend, stretch, twist, or reach out with your body, arms, and/or legs.
Spatial Orientation
The ability to know your location in relation to the environment or to know where other objects are in relation to you.
Control Precision
The ability to quickly and repeatedly adjust the controls of a machine or a vehicle to exact positions.
Rate Control
The ability to time your movements or the movement of a piece of equipment in anticipation of changes in the speed and/or direction of a moving object or scene.
Night Vision
The ability to see under low light conditions.
Peripheral Vision
The ability to see objects or movement of objects to one's side when the eyes are looking ahead.
Glare Sensitivity
The ability to see objects in the presence of glare or bright lighting.
Work Activities
Repairing and Maintaining Mechanical Equipment
Servicing, repairing, adjusting, and testing machines, devices, moving parts, and equipment that operate primarily on the basis of mechanical (not electronic) principles.
Interests
Enterprising
Enterprising occupations frequently involve starting up and carrying out projects. These occupations can involve leading people and making many decisions. Sometimes they require risk taking and often deal with business.
Social
Social occupations frequently involve working with, communicating with, and teaching people. These occupations often involve helping or providing service to others.
Conventional
Conventional occupations frequently involve following set procedures and routines. These occupations can include working with data and details more than with ideas. Usually there is a clear line of authority to follow.
Artistic
Artistic occupations frequently involve working with forms, designs and patterns. They often require self-expression and the work can be done without following a clear set of rules.
Investigative
Investigative occupations frequently involve working with ideas, and require an extensive amount of thinking. These occupations can involve searching for facts and figuring out problems mentally.
Realistic
Realistic occupations frequently involve work activities that include practical, hands-on problems and solutions. They often deal with plants, animals, and real-world materials like wood, tools, and machinery. Many of the occupations require working outside, and do not involve a lot of paperwork or working closely with others.
Work Style
Leadership
Job requires a willingness to lead, take charge, and offer opinions and direction.
Dependability
Job requires being reliable, responsible, and dependable, and fulfilling obligations.
Cooperation
Job requires being pleasant with others on the job and displaying a good-natured, cooperative attitude.
Integrity
Job requires being honest and ethical.
Adaptability/Flexibility
Job requires being open to change (positive or negative) and to considerable variety in the workplace.
Stress Tolerance
Job requires accepting criticism and dealing calmly and effectively with high stress situations.
Concern for Others
Job requires being sensitive to others' needs and feelings and being understanding and helpful on the job.
Self Control
Job requires maintaining composure, keeping emotions in check, controlling anger, and avoiding aggressive behavior, even in very difficult situations.
Initiative
Job requires a willingness to take on responsibilities and challenges.
Persistence
Job requires persistence in the face of obstacles.
Work Values
Relationships
Occupations that satisfy this work value allow employees to provide service to others and work with co-workers in a friendly non-competitive environment. Corresponding needs are Co-workers, Moral Values and Social Service.
Independence
Occupations that satisfy this work value allow employees to work on their own and make decisions. Corresponding needs are Creativity, Responsibility and Autonomy.
Working Conditions
Occupations that satisfy this work value offer job security and good working conditions. Corresponding needs are Activity, Compensation, Independence, Security, Variety and Working Conditions.
Achievement
Occupations that satisfy this work value are results oriented and allow employees to use their strongest abilities, giving them a feeling of accomplishment. Corresponding needs are Ability Utilization and Achievement.
Recognition
Occupations that satisfy this work value offer advancement, potential for leadership, and are often considered prestigious. Corresponding needs are Advancement, Authority, Recognition and Social Status.
Support
Occupations that satisfy this work value offer supportive management that stands behind employees. Corresponding needs are Company Policies, Supervision: Human Relations and Supervision: Technical.
Related Occupations
Education Administrators, Postsecondary
Medical and Health Services Managers
Social and Community Service Managers
Management Analysts
Instructional Coordinators
First-Line Supervisors of Office and Administrative Support Workers
Lay Titles
Administrative Assistant
Art Coordinator
Assessment Coordinator
Assistant Principal
Athletic Coordinator
Athletic Director
Attendance and Discipline Vice Principal
Commission for the Blind Director
Curriculum and Instruction Assistant Superintendent
Curriculum Assistant Principal
Curriculum Director
Dean of Boys
Dean of Girls
Director of Admissions
Director of Athletics
Director of Physical Education
Director of Pupil Personnel Program
Director of Special Services
Director of Testing
Early Childhood Services Coordinator
Education Supervisor
Educational Administrator
Educational Program Director
Elementary Principal
Elementary School Principal
Headmaster
High School Principal
Home-School Coordinator
Instruction Assistant Principal
Instructional Supervisor
Instructional Support Services Director
Junior High School Principal
K-12 Principal
K-8 School Principal
Middle School Principal
Mother Superior
Principal
Program Coordinator
Pupil Personnel Services Director
School Administrator
School Business Manager
School Coordinator
School Principal
School Superintendent
Secondary School Principal
Site Administrator
Special Education Administrator
Special Education Coordinator
Special Education Director
Special Education Superintendent
Special Education Supervisor
Special Programs Director
Special Services Director
Student Dean
Student Services Director
Sub Master
Superintendent
Teacher
Team Coordinator
Testing Coordinator
Title I Director
Transition Specialist
Vice Principal
Vocational Training Director
Vocational-Technical Education Director
National Wages and Employment Info
Median Wages (2008):
$0.0 hourly, $87,760 annual.
Employment (2008):
225,970 employees
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The purpose of the HECAT is to provide state, regional and local education agencies with a common set of tools to assist with the selection or development of health education curricula. The HECAT contains guidance, analysis tools, scoring rubrics, and resources for carrying out a clear, complete, and consistent examination of health education curricula. The HECAT results can help schools select or develop appropriate and effective health education curricula, strengthen the delivery of health education, and improve the ability of health educators to influence healthy behaviors and healthy outcomes among school-age youth. The HECAT is customizable to meet local community needs and conform to the curriculum requirements of a state or school district. HECAT modules address the following curricula:
- Alcohol and Other Drugs
- Healthy Eating
- Mental and Emotional Health
- Personal Health and Wellness
- Physical Activity
- Safety
- Sexual Health
- Tobacco
- Violence Prevention
- Comprehensive Health Education
The HECAT is designed to be used by state, regional and local education agency staff and others responsible for selecting, supervising, developing or using health education curricula in schools. For example,
- Curriculum committees or educators at school districts, schools, or community-based organizations that work with schools can use the HECAT, in conjunction with the state standards and health education frameworks or other locally determined requirements, to
- Develop new or improved courses of study, frameworks, learning objectives, or curricula
- Guide the selection of curricula available for purchase
- Examine curricula currently in use
- State or regional educational agency staff can use the HECAT to inform the development or review of
- State health education standards or frameworks
- Recommendations for conducting state or local curriculum review
- State-recommended health education curricula
- Developers of nationally disseminated and packaged curricula, such as nongovernmental organizations and for-profit curriculum development companies, can use the HECAT to design health education curricula that best meet the needs of schools and the young people they serve.
- Institutions of higher education teacher preparation programs can use the HECAT to improve their students’ understanding of health education, curriculum analysis, and development of instructional skills.
The HECAT includes all the needed guidance and appraisal tools for carrying out a thorough and systematic assessment of a health education curriculum. Information, materials, processes and tools are included in the chapters, appendices, and glossary. The HECAT includes
- Essential background information and instructions for using the HECAT to review and improve locally developed curricula
- Templates to record important descriptive information about a curriculum for use in the curriculum review process
- Preliminary curriculum considerations, such as accuracy, acceptability, feasibility, and affordability analyses
- Curriculum fundamentals, such as teacher materials, instructional design, and instructional strategies and materials
- Customizable templates for state or local use
- Specific health-topic concept and skills analyses
No. The HECAT is not required as a condition for receiving funding from CDC or any other federal agency. CDC developed the HECAT to help improve health education curriculum selection and development. Its use is entirely voluntary.
No. To determine reliability of HECAT analysis and analysis processes and items and inform improvements, CDC conducted pilot reviews of a limited number of commercial curricula. No curriculum names were documented and scores were not retained after improvements were incorporated into the HECAT. CDC does not conduct systematic reviews of curricula using the HECAT; does not retain or disseminate HECAT curriculum scores from others who have used the HECAT; and does not endorse HECAT-based curriculum analysis scores distributed by other organizations or companies.
To use the HECAT, follow these steps:
- Print a copy of HECAT from the HECAT home page.
- Read the entire HECAT to become familiar with its contents and how it can meet your curriculum analysis, development, or selection needs.
- Review the OverviewCdc-pdf and Chapter 1, General InstructionsCdc-pdf. Chapter 1 will provide you with essential background information and instructions for conducting a health education curriculum review.
- Read all remaining chapters, follow the steps from Chapter 1 to review the curriculum, and complete the forms to finalize the HECAT.
- Complete the HECAT Training Tools for Schools to make sure you have a basic understanding of what the HECAT can do and how you might best use it to guide curriculum review processes and decisions.
Benefits of Using the HECAT
Using the HECAT can
- Help ensure a complete, thorough, and consistent review of a health education curriculum
- Help clarify what should be included in a health education curriculum
- Help ensure that the curriculum is aligned with research-based practices, the National Health Education Standards, and CDC’s Characteristics of an Effective Health Education Curriculum
- Help identify instructional strategies that improve teaching and student learning
- Inform your selection of a high-quality curriculum that is affordable and feasible to implement in your schools
- Provide sound and defensible justification for curriculum decisions to parents, school board members, and others interested in health education in your community or state
The HECAT can help ensure that your current health education curriculum selection or development process is systematic, consistent, and thorough and reflects current research and practice, which will strengthen your own curriculum selection or development processes.
Using the HECAT
No. The HECAT provides knowledge and skill expectations deemed appropriate for grade groups (pre-K–2; 3–5; 6–8; 9–12). It does not identify the individual grade at which these might be most appropriate.
State boards of education, local school boards, school district administrators, or curriculum coordinators determine curriculum priorities, and curriculum requirements for all relevant health education topics, including the grades at which specific concepts and skills should be addressed. The HECAT can inform priorities and decisions about grade-level requirements. However, the HECAT is most useful in determining which commercially packaged curriculum best aligns with established requirements or what should be included in a locally developed curriculum to better meet these requirements. You can rearrange the HECAT knowledge and skill expectations if their current placement does not match your local requirements.
No. The HECAT does not assess research findings related to a particular curriculum’s effectiveness. Instead, it measures the extent to which a curriculum incorporates effective practices. The HECAT is based on CDC’s Characteristics of Effective Health Education Curricula and National Health Education Standards. However, the HECAT does include questions that ask whether or not the curriculum under review is included on federal lists that identify research-based, effective curricula.
Various federal agencies have identified youth-related programs considered to be worthy of recommendation based on a review of research evidence (see Registries of Programs Effective in Reducing Youth Risk Behavior). Identification by these agencies should augment, not replace, your use of the HECAT to determine the best health education curriculum for your school and community.
Yes. However, you should go through your own thorough process to develop your health education framework and scope-and-sequence that reflect the needs of your students and the interests and priorities of others in your school community.
The HECAT provides valuable information to assist you in the scope-and-sequence or framework development process. The HECAT articulates the National Health Education Standards, identifies the expected outcomes (Healthy Behavioral Outcomes) of a topic-specific or comprehensive health education curriculum, and identifies the essential knowledge and skill expectations that are directly related to each topic by grade group. This information can help expedite the development of a health education scope-and-sequence or health education framework.
More information about using the HECAT to design a scope-and-sequence for health education can be found in Appendix 4Cdc-pdf and Developing a Scope and Sequence for Sexual Health EducationCdc-pdf.
A textbook is not typically considered a complete health education curriculum. The HECAT is designed to analyze an entire curriculum, including all the resources, such as textbooks that will be used with the curriculum. We do not recommend that you use the HECAT to analyze a single resource, such as a textbook, independent of the curriculum in which it will be used, because it will require a more extensive review than would normally be necessary for such a single resource.
We recognize that schools and school districts might use a separate review process to select a textbook that will become part of an existing health education curriculum. The HECAT can help you consider what to include in a separate textbook review process. Guidance for considering how the HECAT can be useful in the review of health education resource materials, such as textbooks, is provided in Appendix 2Cdc-pdf.
The HECAT is designed to support analysis of many health education curricula, some that focus on health outcomes related to a single topic (e.g., violence prevention) and some that address a comprehensive set of health outcomes across multiple health topics. You can choose the module(s) that best matches your needs and the focus of the curriculum under review:
- If a curriculum clearly focuses on a single topic, such as violence prevention, use the module that addresses that topic.
- If a curriculum focuses on outcomes related to only two or three topics and it is clear that the curriculum is intentionally limited only to those topics (e.g., only nutrition and physical activity; or only mental and emotional health, sexual health, and violence prevention), use the two or three topic-specific modules that address these topics.
- If a curriculum addresses numerous health problems, issues, or topics, focuses on more than one grade level, and includes a wide range of learning activities to address multiple health outcomes, use the comprehensive health education curriculum module.
It is not necessary, but all categories and items can be useful for selecting or developing a curriculum. You can determine which items in the HECAT are useful and important to include in your curriculum analysis and in the selection or development process.
You also have the choice of determining how you want to use the HECAT items in your review process. For example, some curriculum review teams have used Chapter 2, General Curriculum Information to collect general descriptive information about the curriculum, developer and the year of development, topic areas, and grade levels; Chapter 4, Preliminary Curriculum Considerations, to determine curriculum accuracy, acceptability, feasibility, and affordability; and Chapter 5, Curriculum Fundamentals, to appraise the learning objectives, teacher materials, curriculum design, instructional strategies and materials, promotion of norms that value positive health behaviors, and promotion of skills that reinforce positive health behaviors of a health education curriculum, to make initial decisions and shorten the list of curricula to be seriously considered. The remainder of the HECAT (i.e., Chapter 6 Overview of Modules to appraise specific health-topic curricula) is then used to review the curricula under serious consideration.
Conducting a HECAT Curriculum Review
No. The review of curricula using the HECAT should be conducted by a team — an individual should not do it alone. A HECAT committee, working together, should complete the HECAT.
Yes. Some chapters and sections of the HECAT can be completed by one person, who then provides information to other review committee members. For example, Chapter 2, General Curriculum Information, captures general descriptive information needed to understand and review any health education curriculum and to make a final curriculum selection. One person who is very familiar with the curriculum, usually the curriculum coordinator, can complete the General Curriculum Information and provide the results to other review committee team members.
It is not advisable, however, to assign one person to review sections that would benefit from multiple perspectives and expertise. For example, acceptability of a curriculum typically varies within a community. It is critical that multiple reviewers complete the Acceptability Analysis together to ensure that the Acceptability Score reflects community perspectives, rather than only one individual’s point of view.
No. The curriculum review team also should include parents and other people from the community at-large. A suggested list of review committee members is provided in Chapter 1. All review team members should be stakeholders with an investment in the health and education needs and interests of the students in your school district or school.
No. But it is important that the most knowledgeable person(s) complete each section of the HECAT. The curriculum review team must have a broad range of expertise, and each of the team members should review only the HECAT components for which he or she is most qualified. For example, parents are invaluable in completing the Acceptability Analysis and, perhaps, less able to review the Skill Application. Chapter 1Cdc-pdf of the HECAT provides a list of the persons who might be appropriate to serve on the curriculum review team and who have the expertise needed to complete some or all of the HECAT.
Even though it is not necessary for all curriculum review committee members to complete all sections of the HECAT, all members should receive the results of the entire HECAT analysis prior to making curriculum recommendations. Chapter 1 provides guidance for using the HECAT results to make curriculum recommendations.
It is important to select review committee members who have the necessary expertise to complete the HECAT. Chapter 1 provides a list of persons who should be considered on your review committee for completing specific parts of the HECAT. For the Accuracy Analysis, for example, you should use persons who have research expertise (e.g., a university researcher), scientific expertise in the content area under review (e.g., a dietician for the topic “healthy eating”), and expertise in instructional delivery (e.g., a certified health educator or curriculum director). You should identify these experts prior to beginning the curriculum review. If desired, you can limit their assignments to cover only the parts of the HECAT for which they have expertise.
No. It is often helpful to talk with the curriculum developers in order to thoroughly complete Chapter 2, General Curriculum Information. You might also want to invite them to showcase their curricular materials (e.g., scope and sequence, charts showing alignment with the National Health Education Standards) before you begin your review. However, curriculum developers should not be included in the analysis or scoring process, nor should they be allowed to unduly influence review committee members’ analyses. Most developers of commercially packaged curricula have a primary interest in marketing their products.
Pilot curriculum reviews using the HECAT have taken from 4 to 16 hours per curriculum. The time required for a curriculum review will depend on several factors:
- The HECAT items you decide to use for the review of curricula.
- Each reviewer’s understanding of health education and relevant health topics.
- Each reviewer’s familiarity with the HECAT.
- Each reviewer’s familiarity with the curriculum being reviewed.
- The breadth and scope of the curriculum under review. For example, a multi-grade curriculum will require more time than a single-grade curriculum and a comprehensive curriculum will require more time than a single-topic curriculum.
- The amount of curricular material. For example, more time will be required for a curriculum that includes multiple parts, such as videos, workbooks, and separate guides for teachers, than will a single-package curriculum with no extra materials.
- The orderliness of a curriculum. For example, more time will be required for a curriculum that is disorganized, fragmented, or incomplete than one that is well organized.
- The extent to which curriculum materials are easily available for all reviewers. For example, the process will take longer if the reviewers have to share the curriculum materials than if they each have their own complete package of materials.
The HECAT requires sufficient time to prepare for and complete the analysis. Typically, a curriculum review will not be completed in one session. Separate sessions might be necessary to prepare the review committee to use the HECAT, determine local performance benchmarks, shorten the list of curricula that might be acceptable for complete analysis, and conduct the complete analysis on the remaining curricula.
You should also allow time for the curriculum review committee to review curriculum analysis scores and reach a consensus on curriculum recommendations. Chapter 1 of the HECAT provides guidance for coordinating and organizing your curriculum review and helps you determine the time you need to complete your curriculum review and selection process.
There are many possible resources available to assist you with your health education and curriculum planning. First, contact the school health education consultant or coordinated school health program director in your state education or state health agency. Although the state consultant or director might not be able to assist you directly, he or she can refer or link you to state resource centers and other experts, including—
- Instructional staff from local or state university health education teacher preparation programs
- State-based professional health education organizations
- Knowledgeable health educators employed in other school districts
- Reputable consultants with expertise in health education curricula
Many school health educators are members of national professional associations that represent school health educators, including the following:
- American School Health Association
- Society for Public Health Education
The national officers in these organizations can help answer questions and link you to knowledgeable members who might be available to provide more direct assistance.
You can direct your questions regarding health education or HECAT to CDC’s Division of Adolescent and School Health at the following e-mail address: Contact CDC-INFO or phone 1-800-CDC-INFO. CDC/DASH grantees can contact their Project Officer to discuss how to best use the HECAT.
CDC provides support for HECAT Workshops. This support is limited and provided on a case-by-case basis. For more information, see Training Tools for Healthy Schools.
Revising the HECAT
Yes. CDC recognizes that school curricula are typically selected at the local level and must meet local school and community needs and conform to state or school district curriculum requirements. You are encouraged to review the HECAT items before analyzing curricula and, if necessary, add, delete, or revise items to meet local needs and curriculum requirements. You can also shorten the HECAT. Ultimately, its length and content should reflect what you want to analyze.
In making revisions, you should remember that the items included in the HECAT were developed through a rigorous process guided by research evidence and expert opinion on the types of information and learning experiences that help young people adopt and maintain health-enhancing behaviors. Revisions that significantly change the content or length of the HECAT could diminish the value the HECAT brings to your curriculum analysis, selection, or development process.
The topics used in the HECAT reflect the health issues that CDC considers to be important for children and adolescents. These topics may not match those used by other organizations or curriculum developers or the terminology used in your state, school district, or school. You should review the HECAT to find health topic modules that most complement your curriculum requirements and terminology. You can change the terminology and content of the modules to best meet your needs. If you do not find a match within a single module, it might be necessary to select items from multiple modules and design a new HECAT topic module to meet your needs.
Yes, but this will be more burdensome when analyzing multiple curricula. You can revise the tool as needed when reviewing a single curriculum. When using the HECAT for the review of multiple curricula, it will be important to analyze them all consistently to ensure fair comparisons. This requires that you use the same scoring and comparison criteria for all curricula. We recommend that you determine the items to be included in your analysis before you start the review process and, when reviewing multiple curricula, use the same items for the review of all curricula. If you make changes to the HECAT during the curriculum review process, you should re-review any curricula that were analyzed and scored prior to these changes. | https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/hecat/faq.htm |
We work with leaders at districts and county offices of education around the state that reflect the diversity of California’s geography and student population to support them in the process of integrating environmental literacy into their goals. These partnerships foster and demonstrate models set up for success and sustainability that are relevant to local communities and places.
School districts and county offices of education throughout California are engaged in environmental literacy planning and implementation, infusing standards- and environment-based learning as a foundational component of students’ K–12 educational experiences in science, history–social science, health, and other subjects. This first-wave group offers models for others across the state who are interested in how environmental literacy can support their own educational goals.
We engage with a wide array of community-based organizations, including museums, outdoor educators, water districts, local businesses, and government agencies. These organizations are important partners in creating opportunities for classroom, campus, community, and field-based experiences that support successful districtwide environmental literacy. CAELI regional support organization partners include Lawrence Hall of Science, State Education and Environment Roundtable, Inside the Outdoors, and Youth Outside.
Districts with environmental literacy programs:
- Alameda
- Anaheim
- Bonny Doon
- Encinitas
- Evergreen
- Fontana
- Happy Valley
- Live Oak
- Montebello
- Mountain
- Newark
- Oak Park
- Orinda
- Pacific
- Pajaro
- Petaluma
- Rialto
- San Francisco
- San Lorenzo
- Santa Cruz
- Scotts Valley
Counties with environmental literacy programs:
- Alameda
- Contra Costa
- Fresno
- Humboldt
- Orange
- Plumas
- San Bernardino
- San Diego
- San Joaquin
- San Mateo
- Santa Clara
- Santa Cruz
- Shasta
- Yolo
CAELI’s work with school districts and county offices of education is focused on balancing the development of common strategies and resources that can be used to meet the particular needs of students and local communities.
Often, field and community-based experiences serve as the focal point for expanding environmental literacy experiences into classrooms and across content areas. Whether initiated by administrators or championed at first by teachers, educators across California are able to articulate more clearly each school year how academic curriculum, socio-emotional learning, student wellness, and school operations work together to create environmentally literate students empowered to create more sustainable and just communities.
CAELI works with partners to build the capacity of school districts working toward achieving environmental literacy for their students. District leadership teams are making strong headway on their environmental literacy implementation plans.
- Pajaro Valley and Alameda Unified School Districts are hosting environmental literacy professional learning for teacher leaders. All elementary schools in both districts now have teacher leaders committed to environmental literacy.
- San Francisco Unified School District has integrated environmental literacy into its curriculum and instruction priorities. They are collecting and analyzing data to determine who in the district has access to environmental literacy opportunities and who does not to ensure equity goals are met.
- Petaluma City Schools is adopting instructional materials and creating opportunities for local partners to learn about the curricula options, provide feedback, and start planning for programming that builds from the adopted materials.
- Santa Cruz County Office of Education developed a countywide vision for science that includes the importance and relevance of environmental literacy. They also hosted a countywide professional learning institute for teachers and community-based partners.
- In Rialto, the STEM Cares team includes educational services, facilities and operations leaders, and local business partners. Winning the 2019 U.S. Department of Education’s Green Ribbon School District Sustainability Award has furthered their momentum in developing a spectrum of programs from elementary outdoor classrooms and green schoolyards to robust career–technical education (CTE) pathways with local community partners.
- In Montebello, dedicated cross-campus grade-level teacher teams are designing and piloting outdoor inquiry units. As a result of their commitment, the school board is expected to approve science funding in the LCAP for the first time ever, and plans to invest in more professional learning to build the capacity of these teachers to mentor their peers.
- In Fontana, teachers on the Science Leadership Committee designed grade-level “Common Experiences” to ensure equitable access to high-quality science learning across the district. They have increased the district’s commitment to science professional learning through funding and by moving teacher collaboration sessions to full days with substitute teacher support included. Fontana’s district leadership team includes elementary and secondary specialists: At the K–5 level, the ELA program will integrate environmental literacy units, and at the secondary level, a high school has been selected to pilot an innovative expansion of its project-based learning approach to integrate both science and social studies.
- All 10 districts in Santa Cruz County are working together with the county office of education and the Lawrence Hall of Science to develop comprehensive districtwide plans for implementing NGSS with an environmental literacy lens. | https://ca-eli.org/projects/pilot-programs/ |
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Job Description
Plan, direct, or coordinate the academic, administrative, or auxiliary activities of public or private elementary or secondary level schools.
Job Details
- The SOC (Standard Occupational Classification) code is 11-9032.00
- The Mean Annual Wage in the U.S. is $ 95,390.00
- The Mean Hourly Wage is $ 0.00
- Currently, there are 242,970 people on this job
☝️ Information based on the reference occupation “Education Administrators, Elementary and Secondary School”.
Also Known As…
- Education Administrators, Elementary and Secondary School
- Superintendent
- Special Education Director
- School Superintendent
- School Administrator
- Principal
- Middle School Principal
- High School Principal
- Elementary Principal
- Athletic Director
- Assistant Principal
- Vocational-Technical Education Director
- Vocational Training Director
- Vice Principal
- Transition Specialist
- Title I Director
- Testing Coordinator
- Team Coordinator
- Teacher
- Superintendent of Schools
- Sub Master
- Student Services Director
- Student Dean
- Special Services Director
- Special Programs Director
- Special Education Supervisor
- Special Education Superintendent
- Special Education Coordinator
- Special Education Administrator
- Site Administrator
- Secondary School Principal
- School Principal
- School Coordinator
- School Business Manager
- Pupil Personnel Services Director
- Program Coordinator
- Mother Superior
- K-8 School Principal
- K-12 School Principal
- K-12 Principal
- Junior High School Principal
- Instructional Support Services Director
- Instructional Supervisor
- Instruction Assistant Principal
- House Principal
- Home-School Coordinator
- High School Vice Principal
- High School Assistant Principal
- Headmaster
- Elementary School Principal
- Educational Program Director
- Educational Administrator
- Education Supervisor
- Early Childhood Services Coordinator
- Director of Testing
- Director of Special Services
- Director of Special Education
- Director of Pupil Personnel Program
- Director of Physical Education
- Director of Athletics
- Director of Admissions
- Dean of Girls
- Dean of Boys
- Curriculum Director
- Curriculum Assistant Principal
- Curriculum and Instruction Assistant Superintendent
- Commission for the Blind Director
- Building Principal
- Attendance and Discipline Vice Principal
- Athletic Coordinator
- Assistant Superintendent
- Assessment Coordinator
- Art Coordinator
- Administrative Assistant
Tasks for “Elementary Assistant Principal”
- Direct and coordinate school maintenance services and the use of school facilities.
- Set educational standards and goals, and help establish policies and procedures to carry them out.
- Counsel and provide guidance to students regarding personal, academic, vocational, or behavioral issues.
- Collaborate with teachers to develop and maintain curriculum standards, develop mission statements, and set performance goals and objectives.
- Mentor and support administrative staff members, such as superintendents and principals.
- Organize and direct committees of specialists, volunteers, and staff to provide technical and advisory assistance for programs.
- Determine the scope of educational program offerings, and prepare drafts of course schedules and descriptions to estimate staffing and facility requirements.
- Meet with federal, state, and local agencies to keep updated on policies and to discuss improvements for education programs.
- Confer with parents and staff to discuss educational activities, policies, and student behavioral or learning problems.
- Enforce discipline and attendance rules.
- Plan and lead professional development activities for teachers, administrators, and support staff.
- Participate in special education-related activities, such as attending meetings and providing support to special educators throughout the district.
- Establish, coordinate, and oversee particular programs across school districts, such as programs to evaluate student academic achievement.
- Coordinate and direct extracurricular activities and programs, such as after-school events and athletic contests.
- Review and approve new programs, or recommend modifications to existing programs, submitting program proposals for school board approval as necessary.
- Prepare, maintain, or oversee the preparation and maintenance of attendance, activity, planning, or personnel reports and records.
- Evaluate curricula, teaching methods, and programs to determine their effectiveness, efficiency, and use, and to ensure that school activities comply with federal, state, and local regulations.
- Advocate for new schools to be built, or for existing facilities to be repaired or remodeled.
- Direct and coordinate activities of teachers, administrators, and support staff at schools, public agencies, and institutions.
- Recruit, hire, train, and evaluate primary and supplemental staff.
- Plan and develop instructional methods and content for educational, vocational, or student activity programs.
- Recommend personnel actions related to programs and services.
- Develop partnerships with businesses, communities, and other organizations to help meet identified educational needs and to provide school-to-work programs.
- Prepare and submit budget requests and recommendations, or grant proposals to solicit program funding.
- Collect and analyze survey data, regulatory information, and data on demographic and employment trends to forecast enrollment patterns and curriculum change needs.
- Plan, coordinate, and oversee school logistics programs, such as bus and food services.
- Teach classes or courses to students.
- Write articles, manuals, and other publications, and assist in the distribution of promotional literature about facilities and programs.
- Observe teaching methods and examine learning materials to evaluate and standardize curricula and teaching techniques, and to determine areas where improvement is needed.
- Review and interpret government codes, and develop programs to ensure adherence to codes and facility safety, security, and maintenance.
- Determine allocations of funds for staff, supplies, materials, and equipment, and authorize purchases. | https://www.replacedbyrobot.info/1502/elementary-assistant-principal |
Mission: Inspiring all learners to reach their highest potential as responsible, productive citizens.
Vision: All students will achieve at high levels.
About Kissimmee Middle School
KMS welcomes students from many different backgrounds gives students multiple opportunities to learn about other cultures as well as to share their culture with others. Our faculty is diverse as well and strives to make students feel valued.
Our Library Media Center’s Mission
It is the mission of the Kissimmee Middle School Library Media Center to promote an environment where students and staff are empowered users of ideas and information. Our collection will reflect the needs of our patrons with materials relevant to the curriculum and their interests. Our patrons will be encouraged to reach their highest potential as responsible productive citizens with a lifelong pursuit and appreciation of reading. Our Library will provide a setting where students can develop the skills necessary to locate, analyze, evaluate, interpret, and communicate information in an effective manner.
Goals of Collection Development
1. Build and maintain a collection that serves all learners and content areas.
2. Supplements curriculum as well as fulfills the pursuit of individual interests.
3. Elicits input from stakeholders within our school’s community to ensure that a variety of resources are available to support learning and interests.
4. Provide materials that
a. Will encourage readers from diverse backgrounds, interest and Lexile levels.
b. Will facilitate and broaden reading skills.
Goals and Objectives of the Library Media Center
1. Provide and maintain a collection that is diverse in content.
2. Provide a collection that supports and enhances the curriculum as well as the pursuit of individual interests.
3. Collaborate with teachers, administrators, and others to ensure that a variety of resources are available.
4. Provide materials that will encourage an appreciation for diversity and various worldly perspectives.
5. Provide materials in various levels of difficulty.
Collection Development Procedures
1. Collection guidelines will be based on multiple factors:
o Reader interest
o Support curriculum
o Academic needs of student and faculty members
o Knowledge of existing collection
o School mission and philosophy
Procedures for Selection
In selecting materials, the school Librarian will evaluate available resources and will consult reputable, professionally recognized reviewing periodicals, standard catalogs, and other selection tools. Recommendations for purchase are encouraged from administrators, teachers, students, district personnel, and community persons, as appropriate. Gift materials will be judged by the selection criteria and shall be accepted or rejected by those criteria. Selection is an ongoing process that should include removing materials no longer appropriate and replacing lost and worn items still of educational value.
2. Repair and replacement
o Damaged, lost, or worn books are not automatically replaced. The Librarian will determine which materials to replace based on multiple factors including, but not limited to age, number of recent circulations, number of duplicate copies, and patron demand.
3. Weeding
Weeding will be done on a regular basis by the Librarian. Books will be weeded based on, but not limited to the following criteria:
The following policy shall be followed when the appropriateness of District adopted books or materials is questioned:
A. School-community citizens may register their concerns with the Superintendent or principal of the school where material is being challenged.
B. All concerns shall be presented in writing on a printed form that is available in each school office, the Superintendent’s office, or on the District website. The written objection must be filed within thirty (30) calendar days of the adoption of the material. A complainant who does not complete and return the form within the required time shall receive no consideration.
C. Within thirty (30) days after the initial thirty-day period has expired, the School Board shall conduct at least one public hearing on all petitions received during the thirty-day time period. The petitioner(s) shall be notified in writing of the date and time of the hearing at least seven (7) days prior to the hearing.
D. The contested material shall be made available to the public online at least seven (7) days before the hearing.
E. The decision of the School Board, after convening a hearing, shall be final and not subject to further review or petition. Procedures to be followed when the appropriateness of books or materials is questioned are delineated in the District’s Media Specialist Handbook. This procedure is also available from the Superintendent’s office, the school principal, and on the District’s Media and Instructional Technology Department website.
2018-2019 Collection Plan
This year the main focus is to increase three areas of the collection and decrease the aged titles in the non-fiction section of the library. | https://kmms.osceolaschools.net/media_center/collection_development_policy |
How can elementary schools start kindergartners on a path to success? The backgrounds and experiences of these entering students vary greatly. The standards and expectations for these children continue to increase. The emotions of the children, families, and teachers run high at this transition point. Helping schools address these challenges was the focus of an initiative called Ohio Ready Schools (ORS). The lessons learned in the ORS initiative may assist LiNK sites in accomplishing their goals.
The Ohio Ready School Initiative began in 2006 with the intent to go beyond “low impact” transition and family connection activities like home mailings and open houses. The ORS Initiative aimed to develop “enduring ties” among early childhood educators, care givers, and public school districts “that will lead to cohesive educational programs.” Elementary schools in the Initiative worked to be ready to nurture all children’s learning – birth to Grade 3 – through partnering with feeder early childcare providers and practitioners (e.g. educators and care givers) as well as local service agencies and families. The partnering institutions and families combined their resources to
a) Improve linkages with the early learning community (birth to age 5);
b) Align standards, curriculum and assessment (pre-K to Grade 3);
c) Improve services and communication with families and community organizations;
d) Enhance teacher instruction; and
e) Evaluate the initiative.
This blog is part one of a two-part series where Sharon Dorsey, the evaluator for the ORS initiative, shares the experience of the schools as they worked to build capacity in the area of family and community engagement in their schools. Part one, describes the 11 lessons learned by the ORS sites through almost a decade of successful implementation of family and community initiatives. The intent is to offer LiNK participants a list, which they can skim to locate the content most pertinent and helpful to their sites. Part two spotlights nine specific, field-tested ORS activities, which Kansas LiNK schools can replicate for similar success.
Lessons Learned
The ORS initiative was piloted for 2 years in Ohio in 32 schools and then implemented for 7 years in over 55 schools many of which were urban or rural. Eleven “lessons” were identified in the pilot through:
• Thirty-four interviews of site stakeholders by the project evaluator;
• Three to five online surveys completed by each site and follow-up clarification conference calls with the project evaluator; and
• Continuous discussions with Ready School teams and observation of Ready School activities made by coaches and the project evaluator.
These lessons were confirmed during the subsequent implementation years.
Lesson #1: Perceptions and Attitudes Matter– Perceptions/attitudes of stakeholders appear to play a significant role in creating a cultural shift to make a school more ready to receive all children and truly become a Ready School. During the first pilot year, three kinds of perceptions/attitudes were shifted or reaffirmed – (1)principals’ personal perspectives on the schools’ roles and responsibilities in regards to transitioning students and partnering with early childhood; (2) families’ positive perception of schools; and, (3) pre-school or early childhood educators’ perceptions. The perceptions of the early childhood educator interviewees were significant and require attention if the program is to be instituted at sites. The early childhood educators, who were always in the minority on the Ready School Teams, revealed their hesitancy to push their ideas and publicly note the major differences/similarities between early childhood education and public kindergarten. The early childhood educators were hopeful about the Ready School program, but feared that their philosophy and educational strategies were not understood nor valued by the K-3 public educators. They expressed a desire for public school teachers to visit the early childhood centers and, hopefully, demonstrate an openness and appreciation for what was being done. It is also significant to note that at least one primary elementary teacher in an ORS site admitted that in the past she had used or even looked at the information on students sent by a feeder pre-school. Structured sharing of the student information from pre-schools to kindergarten teachers proved useful.
Lesson #2: Team Composition, Vision, & Leadership Matter – Ready School Site Leadership Teams need to be strong and cohesive with time to develop the team process, goals, rules, and norms. The teams need a strong leader and should develop a shared vision. For at least one site, all day, off-site, once-a-month team meetings were key to creating in-depth concentration, collaboration across the range of stakeholders, deeper discussion, and more opportunities for sharing perspectives.
Lesson #3:Communication Matters –Communication with the range of stakeholders was cited as necessary to avoid animosity among district schools, gain support, foster collaboration, and sustain the program. Interviewees identified six groups with whom communication should be fostered – the community, local government, schools across the district, the district administration and the board of education, early childhood educators, and families of enrolled children and yet-to-be enrolled children.
Lesson #4: Relationships Matter– Building relationships and connections is at the heart of achieving a smooth transition and school start for children. The involvement of the stakeholders required gathering, listening, and trying to understand each other’s viewpoints and then integrating their suggestions into the activities. Building and maintaining productive relationships with stakeholder groups required continued rethinking and adjustment to previous procedures and processes. Interviewees reported building positive relationships with 1) families especially those of pre- kindergarten and kindergarten children, 2) daycares and pre-schools, and 3) community and government agencies such as the Council on Rural Services, Job and Family Services, and City Council. Broader connections between the whole school district and the early childhood community were identified as desirable by both community agencies and the early childhood interviewees. Successful strategies employed by the Ready School sites to involve early childhood educators included 1) having two or more representatives of private pre-schools on a Ready School Team, 2) having a pre-school representative on each sub-committee organized around an activity, (3) having a recognized leader in the early childhood community serve on the Ready School Leadership Team and act as a liaison with the broader early childhood community, and (4) establishing district-wide periodic meetings among feeder pre-schools/daycares and the district kindergarten teachers to collaboratively plan transition activities.
Lesson #5: Creating Feasible Action Plans Matters – Feasible action planswere cited as a lesson learned by half of the sites as well as the coaches and project evaluator. The sites learned to 1) align their goals, indicators, and activities to better monitor progress; 2) narrow their selection of goals and indicators; 3) tweak proven past activities to address Ready School indicators; 4) be efficient with their time in planning, implementing, and evaluating activities; 5) combine activities to make one “powerful” activity that accomplished several goals or indicators; 6) plan all facets of activities in detail as much as possible – communication, agendas, responsibilities, evaluation; and 7) make certain that all stakeholders are knowledgeable of, in favor of, and supporting the Action Plan.
Lesson #6: Shared Leadership Matters – Teacher leadershipwas necessary to accomplish the Ready School goals. The principal cannot coordinate and support the project alone. In more than a third of the sites, a teacher was selected to act as a Ready School Coordinator who monitored the planning and implementation of activities in the Action Plan. In addition, some sites created teacher-chaired committees around each of their identified activities. The teacher chairpersons were responsible for recruiting appropriate stakeholder groups as needed to implement a successful activity.
Lesson#7: Evaluation, Assessment & Data Matter – Evaluation/ assessment lessons were identified by more than a third of the sites. The sites indicated that 1) a significant amount of time was necessary to adequately administer and tally the Ready School self-assessments; 2) the use of surveys to provide feedback, although never previously considered, provided worthwhile information for planning and making decisions; and 3) Ready School activities might improve student achievement and, ultimately, impact the school’s state achievement scores.
Lesson #8: Linkage to Early Childhood Community Matters– To build a seamless systemthat links the early childhood community to the public K-12 world, four practices were identified as helpful. They were 1) conducting ongoing district-wide meetings with the feeder preschools/daycare, led by district administrators, and aimed at consistent and systemic transition; 2) identifying appropriate individuals in an organization to call to handle specific questions or situations; 3) completion of a consistent district-wide (or county) transfer form by feeder preschools/daycare for incoming kindergartners; and 4) gaining permission from the families of incoming kindergartners to view data collected by pre-schools.
Lesson #9:Structured Resources Matter – Structured resourcesare neededin addition to the Ready School Resource Guide to provide a framework for sites as they begin the planning and implementation process. Such resources would provide discussion starters for the Ready School Teams, foster development of a common language within and across sites, provide guidance in aligning the components of the Action Plan, and offer examples of activities that address specific needs.
Lesson #10:A Shared Vision Matters– Development of a shared vision of a Ready School emerged as a requirement for achieving the selected goals, sustaining the program, and continuing productive relationships with stakeholder groups. The development of this shared understanding among all stakeholders of “what a Ready School is” was not fully accomplished by the pilot sites. While a shared vision seems to lie at the heart of creating and sustaining a fully actualized Ready School, in reality, the sites are only at the initial stages of realizing the “need” for a shared vision. One pathway to developing this necessary component emerged in the form of the collaborative planning and building of a mutually beneficial product. One school held a Building Bridges Evening Event that required the Early Childhood Community and the public school personnel to work in heterogeneous groups to identify a list of power indicators for incoming kindergarten students. The product and the process moved both communities toward a shared vision. The process honored the knowledge of both communities and allowed the participants to review the indicators and guidelines at both levels. The resulting product was jointly accepted as a useful tool.
It is significant to note that a school staff cannot develop the vision in isolation. In order to be a workable and “shared” vision, it must be collaboratively developed and revised with all the significant stakeholders. The recognition of the need for a shared vision and sufficient time to collaboratively build the vision were identified as necessary, but challenging for sites.
Lesson #11:Systemic District Support Matters – Systemic district support is needed to ensure the ongoing success and sustainability of the Ohio Ready Schools Program in a site. From the Superintendent’s Office through the Board of Education and the Curriculum and Instruction Division to the Early Childhood Department and the Special Education Division, all district structures need to be not only informed, but also strategically involved in the planning, implementation, and development from the outset of the program. Some promising strategies for gaining district support include:
• Providing on-going updates on the program’s progress to the key district personnel;
• Placing strategic district personnel on the school’s Ready School Team;
• Presenting the program and perhaps the Action Plan at a Board meeting;
• Inviting Board members and district administrators to Ready School events;
• Inviting other district elementary schools to participate in appropriate Ready School events that would be mutually beneficial; and
• Making apparent links to district and state requirements as well as existing programs and initiatives.
Conclusion
LiNK schools in Kansas, just like those in Ohio, are searching for the best ways to support students and families. This list of lessons learned can be used as a guide for consideration as LiNK stakeholders meet with family engagement partners including community members, educators, daycare providers, parents and so on. Schools that start early to work with families of birth to 5-year-olds and the organizations that support them and continue that work through the primary years of schooling accomplish significant goals. Such outreach activities smooth the transition to school and build the all-important positive bonds between families and the schools. Late spring and summer is an opportune time to consider how well outreach programs are performing and to determine areas of need and change for the coming school year. Part 2 of this Family and Community Engagement blog series will offer specific sample activities from the Ohio Ready School initiative that can be replicated in Kansas to support literacy in the home.
About the Ohio Ready School Project
Ohio Ready School (ORS) Initiative was the result of a statewide partnership formed among the Ohio Department of Education’s (ODE) Office of Early Learning and School Readiness, the Sisters of Charity Foundation of Canton, and the Ohio Association of Elementary School Administrators (OAESA). For the entire 9-years of the initiative, OAESA, which is headed by Executive Director Julie Davis, provided administrative services, supported sites in their local work, and fostered the dissemination and sharing of lessons learned across sites, throughout the state, and at national meetings. The W.K. Kellogg Foundation provided funding for the 2 pilot years of the initiative with the subsequent 7 implementation years funded by the Martha Holden Jennings Foundation. The Project Manager was Zana Vincent.
Resource Guide for ORS:
Ohio Department of Education, Ohio Association of Elementary School Administrators. (2006). Strong Beginnings, Smooth Transitions, Continuous Learning: A Ready School Resource Guide for Elementary School Leadership. The guide is located on the Ohio Department of Education’s website here.
References
Center for the Developing Child at Harvard University, short video on building adult capabilities.
Fitch, Linda. (2019). “Research Roundup: Alignment Produces Achievement: A selection of recent reports on alignment and student transitions.” 98(3).
Grindal, T.; Bonnes Bowne, J.; Yoshikawa, H.; Schindler, H.; Duncan, G.; Magnuson, K.; Shonkoff, J. (2013) “The Added Impact of Parenting Education in Early Childhood Education Programs: A Meta-Analysis”. Presentation at the Forum on Early Childhood Policy and Programs.
Harrell, James H. (2019) “Parents & School: Parents as Partners” Principal. 98 (3).
Regional Educational Laboratory Midwest. (2017). “How to Equip Parents to Support Kindergarten Readiness.” REL Webinar on May 17, 2017.
Schulting, Amy; Malone, Patrick S.; Dodge, Kenneth A. (2005). The Effect of School-Based Kindergarten Transition Policies and Practices on Child Academic Outcomes. Dev Psychol. 41(6): 860-871. | https://www.litnetks.org/link-blog/2019/2/26/family-and-community-engagement-part-111-lessons-learned-in-ohio |
Click here to see a list of participating High Schools and Approved Instructors.
Which Schools and Instructors are Eligible?
Any public or private educational institution that awards high school diplomas and which offers ASL coursework the equivalent to 1.0 high school credits. Support centers for home-schooled children can also participate.
How to Become an Approved High School and Instructor
1 - Attend an SCC Curriculum / Articulation Process Orientation:
Prior to signing the Articulation Agreement, the participating high school faculty will be obligated to attend an orientation session provided by SCC faculty. The one-morning, four-hour orientation will include:
- an overview of the SCC ASL curriculum including textbooks, materials, instructional techniques, and skills assessment techniques.
- an overview of the articulation process to ensure that participants are fully aware of the roles and responsibilities of the faculty, students and institutions.
- an opportunity for faculty from both institutions to discuss language instruction and language assessment in order to develop mutual respect and trust.
Orientations will be provided during the year as needed.
There will be a fee for each faculty member participating in the orientation. The fee includes payment for the faculty providing the orientation and for articulation packets (brochures, competency profiles, curriculum materials, etc.) Contact the ASL Consortium Coordinator for information about the next scheduled orientation session.
Any high school ASL faculty member hired after the signing of the agreement will need to complete the SCC ASL orientation and be approved by SCC faculty prior to completing a Competency Profile sheet for any student.
2 - Provide Curriculum Materials and Student Samples
For each level of ASL you are planning to articulate provide a copy THAT WE CAN KEEP of the following materials. Your materials must be clearly explained or described so that the readers know what they are and how they are used. Please clearly label your materials so that we know for which course the materials are used.
Here is a list of materials we will need to receive from you at the orientation meeting or as soon afterwards as possible.
ASL Structures:
- Provide a list of textbooks and videotexts that you use to teach ASL grammatical and functional structures.
- Identify which units, chapters, or portions you use and how you use them (vocabulary, grammar, all activities, etc.).
- Also provide 2 or 3 examples of instructional materials that you have developed yourself. Be sure these materials relate to the instruction of ASL structures (grammar, or function - do not include practice materials, assessment materials or materials related to numbers, fingerspelling, or classifiers unless some grammatical aspect of the language is involved.
- OPTIONAL: DVD/Unlisted YouTube (15 to 20 minutes maximum length of recorded material). Contents to include:
- Explain the typical setting(s) in which you teach ASL and how your course syllabus (goals/objectives/activities/evaluation procedures) address the particular needs of your instructional setting.
- Describe your primary methodology for teaching, including books and/or materials you typically use and how you use them.
- Demonstrate your teaching strategies.
Deaf Culture and Deaf Community:
- Provide a list of textbooks and video texts and activities that you use to present information related to the Deaf community and to Deaf culture;
- Provide 2 or 3 examples of materials that you have developed yourself (articles, handouts, directions for activities, quizzes on reading or viewing assignments, etc.)
Evaluation of Skills:
- Provide 2-3 examples of evaluation materials for expressive skills and 2-3 examples for receptive skills. Do not provide only a blank evaluation form please include the assignment directions and assessment rubric as well.
Videotape of yourself as an ASL Instructor:
- Introduce yourself, your ASL background, your ASL teachings, and your current high school.
Videotaped sample of student work:
- Provide a videotape of one or more of your students signing a passage at least one minute in length.
- Select a student for whom you have given or expect to give a grade between a "B" and "A" We would like to see an example of one of your above-average students, but NOT one of your exceptional students.
- Please provide an explanation of what we are viewing; include information about when during the course the assignment was given, the length of rehearsal time, and a sample of the evaluation form (if available).
3 - Comparison of Curriculum Materials and Assessment of Instructor's Language Competency
SCC faculty will compare the high school curriculum with SCC's curriculum to determine whether they are comparable in content and to determine if students achieve similar language competencies. Applicants will receive a report of the curriculum review. It is likely that there will be follow-up questions or requests for additional information.
SCC reserves the right to limit the articulation agreement to only those faculty that are capable of modeling the language and assessing the student's language skills at a level comparable to that of the SCC faculty. Educational degrees, certificates, endorsements, etc. may be considered, but they are not necessary. Language skills and knowledge carry the greater weight.
Participating in the Articulation
Once the faculty and curricula of a high school ASL program has been approved by SCC faculty, the high school will be invited to participate in the articulation process.
1 - Sign the Articulation Agreement
Faculty and administrators of SCC and the high school will sign an Articulation Agreement.
The State Legislature has determined that 5 college quarter credits is equivalent to 1 high school credit. Generally a 1-credit high school world language course requires a year of study. High schools vary in the structure of their ASL offerings therefore SCC will draft an articulation agreement unique to each high school and which clearly identifies the high school courses that will articulate to SCC courses.
Note: The awarding of college-level credits is based upon demonstration of competencies and not strictly upon the completion of credits or credit hours.
2 - Participate in the ASL Consortium
To participate in the articulation agreement, each high school will need to be a contributing member of the ASL Consortium. Participating high schools will contribute matching funds to support the consortium activities.
The purpose of the consortium is to ensure a healthy, efficient, and beneficial articulation agreement. The consortium will provide for the needs of ASL programs at the community college and the high schools including:
- A part-time coordinator to supervise and plan all consortium activities;
- Professional development activities to improve or maintain the instructional quality of the programs. The goal being to have every ASL instructor at every participating high school be approved to evaluate their students for college credit;
- A centralized advisory board for vocational programs who find it difficult to maintain a viable board with active members;
- An articulation review committee to keep communication open between SCC and the high schools. The committee will meet twice a year to review, adjust and maintain the articulation agreement (competencies, faculty orientation, skills assessment procedures, publicity, etc.);
- Brochures, forms and materials to advertise the agreement to parents and students, to apply for SCC credit, to assist the faculty with student evaluations, etc.
3 - Publicize the Agreement
Articulation is best implemented with the support and active participation of principals, guidance counselors, curriculum directors, college deans, faculty, parents, and students. SCC and high school counselors will cooperate toward developing, disseminating, and presenting information regarding the articulation agreement to students within the secondary school systems.
4 - Faculty Representative on an Articulation Review Committee
At least one faculty representative from each participating institution must attend Articulation Review Committee meetings. Regional committees will be established determined by the geographical locations of participating high schools. The committees will meet no less than twice a year. If appropriate, vocational directors and other administrators will be invited to participate. During these meetings, members will review the articulation agreement procedures and address any issues related to the agreement process including marketing strategies, instructional improvement, technical assistance, student tracking, competency levels, enrollment levels, and articulation with advisory boards. | https://seattlecentral.edu/asl-consortium/resources/becoming-approved-high-school-and-instructor |
A. Since Adam and Eve, people have paired off for love, companionship, and family. Over the ages, society has defined what it means to be married and how marriages end.
Suppose two people go through a traditional marriage ceremony and exchange vows. Most wedding ceremonies instruct the couples that their unions are "for better, for worse, for richer, for poorer, in sickness, in health," until death parts them.
Marriage is a contract between two people. Both parties exchange promises of enduring love and support. Often, at the ceremony's end, the wedding official announces, "What God joins together, let no one put asunder."
Yet, life does not always work out that way. Civil law honors the institution of marriage but recognizes that not all marriages last. An annulment sets aside an invalid marriage, and a divorce ends a valid one.
Let's consider the most infamous annulment in history. King Henry VIII wanted another son, and he didn't think his wife, Catherine of Aragon, could bear a spare-heir. The Catholic Church disapproved of divorce, so Henry VIII asked it for an annulment. When Rome refused, he founded the Anglican Church and granted himself an annulment. To quote Mel Brooks, "it's good to be king!"
Now, let's contrast actions for annulment and divorce under Florida law. Generally, annulment actions allege either a lack of capacity or a lack of consent to wed.
Annulment
Common grounds contesting capacity to wed are bigamy, incest, and being under the age of consent. You can't marry someone who is already married. The law doesn't allow close relatives to wed. And depending on the state, if you are too young to buy a car, you may be too young to marry.
Common grounds contesting a lack of consent to wed are coercion, sham, and mental incapacity. Coercion deprives the innocent party of free will. Sham marriages happen when the parties do not intend to be bound by their vows or accept their rights and duties as spouses.
Moreover, parties can't marry unless both understand the marriage contract and obligations it creates. If you were so drunk during the wedding ceremony that you didn't understand the consequences of saying "I do," you might be a candidate for an annulment.
An affirmative defense to an annulment is consent to the marriage. Usually, one cannot annul a marriage after accepting its benefits. For example, claiming you were "too drunk to marry" might not work if you live with your spouse after sobering up. Failing to consummate the marriage alone is not grounds for an annulment.
Divorce
In contrast, a divorce ends a valid marriage when one spouse claims and provides proof of irreconcilable differences.
Never miss a story: Subscribe to the Tallahassee Democrat using the link at the top of the page. | https://www.tallahassee.com/story/life/2021/05/22/judge-smith-validity-marriage-question-annulment/5202850001/ |
Following the typology introduced by Kenneth Boulding (1989) there are three sorts of power that can be used to end conflict:
-
Threat powww ;
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Exchange powww;
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Integrative powww.
Threat power is, unsurprisingly, associated with hard power and is often part of violent conflict; within mediation/negotiation it would be the use of coercion (the threat of military action) to achieve an agreement (Boulding, Three faces of power, 1989).
The other two types of power are more relevant in this section, being forms of soft power that can be used in negotiation. Exchange power is to do with a bargaining approach whilst integrative power is about transformation and long-term solutions, created in concord rather than through a win-lose approach.
Military victories are one end of the spectrum of how conflicts end, with one party taking power and being able to impose its power on the other. Due to the balance of power achieved in this context conflict is less likely to recur in the case of a military victory than a negotiated settlement, but widespread killing is more likely (Ramsbotham, Woodhouse & Miall, Contemporary Conflict Resolution, 2005, 160).
Negotiations
Negotiations are the process in which conflict parties engage in order to try and settle or resolve the conflict in which they are engaged. Once a conflict is ‘ripe’ for change the next step towards a peace process is to bring the different parties to the negotiating table, which can be understandably difficult in the aftermath of protracted violent conflict.
The involvement of a third party in this process is called mediation.
Making first contact so that the process of negotiation begins, can be difficult: leaders may worry about losing their support if they are seen to be negotiating with the enemy, and of loss of face and credibility should any potential agreement fail.
At this stage third parties can play an important role initiating contact between the conflict parties, in providing neutral places for meetings to take place, and in mediating negotiations. As well as such practical considerations, in the course of a violent conflict the adversary will have been dehumanized and a third party can help to ease the tensions of the first contacts.
Mediation by a third party is important to move from a willingness to start a peace process, and actual face-to-face contact by opening the political space to present their positions, and consider the different options before making any commitment to negotiations.
Types of mediation
Mediation can go from ‘soft’ to ‘hard’ (in the same sense as in the terms soft and hard diplomacy). At the soft end is ‘pure’ mediation, acting as a conciliatory go-between; whilst the harder end includes peace-keeping and imposed agreements. Another distinction within types of mediation is partial and impartial mediation. Mediation is often characterized as by a neutral third party, who can be trusted by both parties as having no vested interest in the outcome of the negotiations; this would be an impartial third party. However it is possible that a conflict party is more likely to trust someone to represent their interests who they know is for their cause, an ‘insider-partial’ third party. In this case more than one third party may need to be involved in successful mediation.
Who are mediators? A range of different actors can act as mediators:
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NGOs;
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International Organizations;
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Individuals;
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Governments.
A mediator does not as such need ‘power’ to be able to carry out the role effectively; rather this role can be carried out by persuading cooperation and gaining the trust of the conflict parties. Of course at the ‘harder’ end of mediation that we already mentioned, coercion and pressure can be employed to get participation in a peace process; in these cases the mediator can be acting as a trigger to change the dynamic of the conflict. The danger in this last scenario is that a powerful mediator of this kind can end up taking a part in the conflict.
An example of a powerful figure in a conflict also acting as a mediator is Charles Taylor, the Liberian rebel leader and President and his role in the Sierra Leonean conflict. His offers to act as mediator were not welcomed by the international community due to his influence over the Sierra Leonean rebel group the RUF, and the view that he controlled violence in the region (from the testimony of Stephen Ellis at the « trial of Taylor » charlestaylortrial.org/2008/01/17/dr-ellis-details-the-history-of-conflict-in-liberia-united-states-influence-in-liberian-politics-described/)
An advantage of NGO action is that they can go where a government representative may fear to tread, as well as being more flexible, therefore able to adapt their methods to local needs. As well as this governments are often reluctant to become involved where it does not serve their national interests.
Despite some now notorious failures (Rwanda, Bosnia) the UN still has a significant role to play through out a peace process, in peace-keeping, preparing elections and security sector reform, as well being able to exert pressure as the spokesperson for international opinion.
Who should be at the negotiating table?
Though at first glance it may seem self-evident that all parties to a conflict should be included in negotiations, this can be complicated as the recognition of a party as a negotiating partner means accepting them as an equal, and recognizing their aims to a certain extent.
This problem is more acute when there are both state and non-state parties involved in the conflict. Belligerents in an armed conflict hold equal status in international law (giving them the same rights; as well as duties towards prisoners and non-combatants) whether they are state or non-state parties. The result of this is that sometimes a state will refuse to recognize the other party in the conflict as anything other than a terrorist organization. An example of this is the refusal up until recently of the Israeli government to recognize Hamas as a legitimate representative of the Palestinian people, or consider it as anything other than a terrorist group; this has had a huge impact on the peace process as the result has been that the Israelis refused to negotiate with the elected government of the Occupied Territories. The problems that can result from the exclusion of a significant party to the conflict are illustrated in the case study on Afghanistan. Mohamed Adan Mohamed illustrates some of the less obvious impacts of negotiations and brings to light the impact the international actors presence in or sponsorship of a peace process.
Notes
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1. The file is based on Modus Operandi’s analysis on the political transformation of conflicts. More extensive analysis can be found in French.
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2. Authors of the file are Claske Dijkema, Karine Gatelier and Alexia Stainer. | https://www.irenees.net/bdf_fiche-notions-205_fr.html |
The downside of all this attention is that sometimes people can be overzealous in their crusade against abuse, targeting innocent individuals and/or cutting corners to make sure “bad” people face consequences.
Because of this, if you are charged with child abuse, you need to understand the laws and penalties that govern these types of crimes. We’re going to detail those in this post, as well as letting you know how you can fight back against your charges.
In Texas, the child abuse laws prohibit the emotional, physical, or sexual abuse of minors.
If a child is injured due to disciplinary actions, the actions will be measured against what is reasonable discipline in the eyes of the judge and jury. Reasonable discipline factors include the child’s age, the severity level of the offender’s actions, the level of harm or potential harm the child experienced, and the individuals’ cultural backgrounds.
Sexual abuse is harshly punished in Texas. Minors are not able to provide consent, and the laws always work in a minor’s favor. Importantly, sexual abuse does not always involve force. Coercion may also result in a conviction.
Neglect is another form of abuse. Acts of neglect include failure to provide shelter, medical care, and/or emotional support. The age of the child will factor into a charge of neglect. The judge will also consider the socioeconomic class of the parent and whether that factored into the case.
Texas courts look at each accusation of child abuse on a case-by-case basis. These factors will be used to determine whether the charges can be prosecuted.
If you are accused of child abuse, it’s important to contact a knowledgeable Texas defense attorney as soon as possible to start building a defense.
If you are convicted of child abuse in Texas, you can expect to receive stiff penalties depending on the child’s injuries. These are the possible charges and penalties for child abuse offenses.
If you are accused of reckless actions that caused bodily injury to a child, this charge will apply. You could spend between 180 days and 2 years in jail and be required to pay a fine of up to $10,000 if convicted.
This charge is issued if you act with intent or knowledge and cause bodily injury to a child. You may face between two and 10 years in prison and a fine of up to $10,000.
You may receive this charge if you are accused of acting recklessly and causing serious mental or bodily injury to a child. Your prison sentence will vary between two and 20 years, and you will be required to pay a fine of up to $10,000 if convicted.
If you knowingly or intentionally caused serious mental or bodily injury to a child, this charge will apply. The sentence if convicted is 5 to 99 years in prison and a fine of up to $10,000.
You could also be subject to civil penalties if the victim’s family presses charges against you.
Since a conviction for child abuse will result in serious fines and incarceration, it’s essential that you begin working on your defense as soon as possible. It is not hyperbole to say that a conviction can ruin your life and destroy your reputation, forever branding you in a certain way.
There are things you can do to protect yourself and your loved ones, but the earlier you begin, the better your chance at the best possible outcome. | https://www.hamptonlegalgroup.com/your-guide-to-child-abuse-offenses-in-texas/ |
Data Breach Response Plan
Our data breach response plan consists of the following steps:
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Detection and analysis.
Key participants: CTO and DevOps team.
The first signs of a breach are typically seen via suspicious activity, which could include increased traffic to sensitive endpoints, increased error rates, and unexpected usage patterns. Suspicious activity can be related to customer information, accounts and related services.
Discretion needs to be applied to determine whether suspicious activity is indeed occurring (for example, increased traffic to an authentication endpoint may be due to normal user activity). The overall objective is to determine if a breach has indeed occurred, and to assess the potential impact. The CTO should be notified if any suspicious activity is detected. The breach should be logged in the data breach register and should be updated as the remaining steps are completed.
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Engagement of third parties for forensic analysis and legal counsel
Key participants: CTO and DevOps team.
We engage third parties for analysing the scope of the breach from a customer impact, legal, and infrastructure point of view. Even if it is not yet certain that the activity is indeed suspicious, it is worthwhile to engage third parties early for independent input and counsel. A Non-Disclosure Agreement should be utilised to ensure the confidentiality of discussions with third parties.
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Containment
Key participants: CTO and DevOps team, Customer support and communications.
The objective of this step is to prevent continued access to breached endpoints, systems, and databases. It is important to take action quickly. Taking action could involve stopping unauthorised access, recovering records, or shutting down the system that was breached. If this is not practical, then revoke or change access privileges or address weaknesses in physical or electronic security.
The following questions from the OAIC are useful to determine containment activities:
- How did the data breach occur?
- Is the personal information still being shared, disclosed, or lost without authorisation?
- Who has access to the personal information?
- What can be done to secure the information, or stop the unauthorised access or disclosure, and reduce the risk of harm to affected individuals?
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Assessment
Key participants: CTO and DevOps team, Legal Counsel, forensic analysis partner.
In order to complete forensic analysis, the forensic analysis partner will require copies of access logs, web proxy logs, and application logs. The purpose of the analysis is to independently confirm suspicious activity, and the scope and extent of the breach.
The output of this activity is a report that can typically be shared with privacy agencies.
In the assessment of the breach, consider:
- the type or types of personal information involved in the data breach
- the circumstances of the data breach, including its cause and extent
- the nature of the harm to affected individuals, and if this harm can be removed through remedial action
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Notification
Key participants: CTO, Legal counsel, Partnership managers.
A non-exhaustive list of the important agencies and typical timeframes for notification include: the ICO (UK, within 72 hours), the OAIC (Australia, within 30 days).
Based on the assessment in the previous step, and information about the scope of the breach (such as the number of affected users in each country), legal counsel will advise which jurisdictions are affected, and which agencies need to be notified. Different jurisdictions have different criteria about when breach notifications are deemed to be compulsory. Some jurisdictions require notifications for all breaches, while others have thresholds for notification based on the number of affected customers. We err on the side of transparency and notify agencies if there’s any room for doubt. Legal counsel will help draft responses to agencies for internal feedback before they are submitted.
Partners are also notified about the nature and the impact of the breach. Partners may request to review draft versions of filings to agencies before they are submitted.
Affected customers are notified about the breach, and any steps that need to be taken. During containment, for example, passwords may have been reset, and customers should receive instructions about what actions they would need to take.
Based on the assessment, scope, and scale of the breach, law enforcement in the relevant jurisdictions may need to be notified.
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Review
Key participants: CTO, DevOps team, development team.
Based on the findings of the forensic analysis, the objective of a review is to:
- Identify any temporary or permanent mitigation that may be required
- Updates to, or the creation of new policies related to the breach
- Evaluate the need for the introduction of new tools to prevent future attacks
- Evaluate the need for training and personnel
- Schedule periodic audits to ensure that the underlying issue is addressed
- Review the root cause of the breach
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Complete responses to agencies
Key participants: CTO, DevOps team, Legal counsel
If the previous steps are completed appropriately, notified agencies may or may not require further action. If further action is required, these requests will need to be addressed to the satisfaction of the agency. Legal counsel will assist with further responses. Once all actions are completed, the case can be marked as closed in the data breach registry.
For more nformation, please contact us by sending an email to [email protected]. | https://readingeggs.com/data-breach-plan |
In 2016, more than 171,000 Florida residents filed legal petitions with the state’s Circuit Civil Division. If you or a loved one has been injured or has suffered significant property damage through the careless actions of a third party, a personal injury law firm Hillsborough County may be able to help you protect your rights in the civil courts and get the compensation you deserve.
What Is a Civil Action?
Civil law is a body of laws that offers legal remedies for disputes between private individuals. Often such disputes arise over claims that one party was derelict or negligent in the duty of care he or she owed to the other party. A civil action is not a criminal prosecution.
Florida has adopted a pure comparative fault standard, which means that if the negligence of two parties caused injuries or property damage, liability is apportioned between those two parties. This is true even when one of the two parties is the plaintiff bringing the civil action. If your own reckless behavior was responsible for 60 percent of an accident, you may still be able to recover 40 percent of your damages from the other party, but you will not be able to recover more than 40 percent.
What Types of Civil Actions May Be Brought in Florida?
Florida’s Circuit Civil Division handles the following types of cases:
• Professional malpractice and product liability: Malpractice occurs when the incompetence of a professional causes injury to a client.
• Motor vehicle accidents and other types of negligence. This category also includes environmental torts in which plaintiffs allege injuries precipitated by air pollution or water contamination.
• Contracts and indebtedness. One party’s failure to carry out the terms of a contract is referred to as a “breach.”
• Other business disputes: Business disputes that do not arise from contract breaches per se include disputes over intellectual property, antitrust actions and disagreements over indemnification.
• Other: This category is small and exists as a catchall for civil torts that don’t fit neatly into the preceding four categories. A dispute over eminent domain, for example, might be classified within this category. | https://tankionlineaz.com/civil-law-in-florida.html |
What's new in the updated offer?
- Go to document flow using EDS.
- We have outlined in more detail some unacceptable situations in which we have the right to refuse to provide services to the Client (fraudulent and other illegal actions that threaten the safety of other clients of the company and the safety of the company), identified responsibility for violators of the law.
- We tried to concretize and clarify some of the terms found in the Agreement, which we use when communicating with our Clients.
- According to the requirements of the .UA domain zone registry operator, we have implemented procedures for registrants of second-level domain names in the .UA domain zone. "Of the Uniform Domain Name Dispute Resolution Policy in the .UA Domain" (the possibility of resolving disputes under the UDRP procedure) and undertook to comply with the decisions of the bodies authorized to consider disputes regarding the registration of the use of domain names under the UDRP procedure.
- Clarified the obligations of the Subscriber to the Contractor when receiving requests from third parties.
- We determined the rights of the Contractor at its discretion to determine the content of the materials of the sites for compliance with the legislation of Ukraine.
- Clarified the amount of the Contractor's responsibility to the Subscriber.
- Established liability for harm caused by illegal use of the domain name to third parties.
- We settled some provisions regarding the procedure for considering claims and disputes.
- We have clarified the terms of the Subscriber to the answer to the administrative request of the Contractor.
The contract in the form of a public offer comes into force on 12.08.2019. | https://hosting.xyz/wiki/lawyer/new_oferta/ |
Fellow Taxpayers and Activists:
As the newly formed TEA Parties have done a great job in grabbing the attention and displeasure of many taxpayers across the country, we have seen results in some Congressmen responding and making themselves more attentive to our national concerns.
However, our State Legislature is currently in session, and during these times, it is critical that we watch closely and get involved in actions just down the road in Baton Rouge.
Therefore, thanks to the great mind of fellow activist and communications professional, Leslie Alexander, we are forming a group called Legislative Action Watch (LAW). We are NOT seeking to step on the role of the local/state TEA Parties, but rather, provide an avenue for many of the same patriots to become more informed on the actions of our state government, which also has serious consequences for our lives.
The mission of this group is to:
- Engage participants wishing to be active promoting needed reforms in Baton Rouge;
- Be on the lookout for bad legislation that could harm the state and our citizens, such as legislation that diminishes individual rights, or unnecessarily increase our tax burdens;
- Keep legislators, no matter what their political affiliation, accountable to the people for their actions;
- Identify and honor those legislators who are truly serving the people.
Our State Legislature typically meets for only three months out of each year, but during that time, we need to be just as alert, if not more, to the actions taking place as we are with Congress and Washington, D.C. Some might even say the best way to make real change in Washington is to first put your local legislators and Governor on alert that the people are now paying attention.
The first meeting will be at the Lafayette Southside Library (on Johnston just South of the mall) on Thursday, April 29 from 5:30-6:30pm.
- Introducing what we hope to accomplish through LAW
- Provide information on three pieces of proposed legislation that could eat away at the rights of victims of violent crime.
- Specific action steps to address these concerns.
We will have as a guest speaker, Catalene Theriot. Mrs. Theriot is the Victims Assistance Coordinator for the 16th Judicial District, covering Iberia, St. Martin and St. Mary Parishes. She is also the director of V.O.I.C.E. (Voices Of Innocent Citizens Empowered). She has a unique insight into the terrible effects of violent crime on individuals and society, and will enlighten us about what we can do to protect our rights.
Nick Bouterie: (337) 280-7984
Leslie Alexander: (337) 636-4104
As we progress, we hope a few more people will step forward and help contribute to informing Louisiana citizens of the actions of our state government. Let’s shine the light on the actions of our legislators, and keep them accountable.
Thank you for your time and consideration. | https://thehayride.com/2010/04/legislative-action-watch-group-forms/ |
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4.2. Wizfee will not sell or rent Your personal information without Your written permission.
4.3. To the extent required by law and when expressly requested by You, We will provide You with (i) reasonable access to the personally identifiable information You provide to Us, and (ii) the ability to review, correct and delete such personally identifiable information.
5.2. User cannot, and may not cause or permit others to: (a) use the Services to harass any person; cause damage or injury to any person or property; publish any material that is false, defamatory, harassing or obscene; violate privacy rights; promote bigotry, racism, hatred or harm; send unsolicited bulk e-mail, junk mail, spam or chain letters; infringe property rights; or otherwise violate applicable laws, ordinances or regulations; (b) perform or disclose any benchmarking, availability or performance testing of the Services; (c) perform or disclose network discovery, port and service identification, vulnerability scanning, password cracking, remote access or penetration testing of the Services, or (d)directly or indirectly send, transmit, handle, distribute or deliver unlicensed or otherwise unauthorized third-parties intellectual property (nor assist in any such action, nor engage or enlist another to do so).
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5.5. User shall use the Services as contemplated by the Customer Agreement and shall not: (i) willfully tamper with the security of the Service or tamper with other customer accounts of Wizfee; (ii) access data on the Systems not intended for the User; (iii) log into a server or account on the Systems that the User is not authorized to access; (iv) attempt to probe, scan or test the vulnerability of any Systems or to breach the security or authentication measures without proper authorization; (v) willfully render any part of the Systems unusable; (vi) lease, distribute, license, sell or otherwise commercially exploit the Services or make the Services available to a third party other than as contemplated in the Customer Agreement; (vii) use the Services for timesharing or service bureau purposes or otherwise for the benefit of a third party; or (viii) provide to third parties any evaluation version of the Services without Wizfee's prior written consent. | https://www.wizfee.com/en/privacy-policy.html |
However, there’s also been a certain amount of consternation at some of the other content of the report. While I don’t get the impression that Cory Doctorow (for BoingBoing) was actually expecting too much from this report, I don’t know if he expected it to advocate the legal sanctioning and use of something very like ransomware against pirates and intellectual property infringers. In fact, I’d say it’s a slight exaggeration to say that the document ‘[demands] that Congress legalize an extortion tool invented by criminals’. But it does suggest that valuable data could be protected by software that takes ‘a range of actions’ against people who try to access it without authorization.
For example, the file could be rendered inaccessible and the unauthorized user’s computer could be locked down, with instructions on how to contact law enforcement to get the password needed to unlock the account.
Let’s be clear: the Commission isn’t proposing this model (low-grade data used as a lure to enable extortion) as a template for ‘threat-based deterrence systems’ – at least, I hope it isn’t – and it is aware that the ‘actively retrieving stolen information, altering it within the intruder’s networks, or even destroying the information within an unauthorized network’ is ‘not currently permitted under U.S. law’. And, I have to say, in a great many other jurisdictions: for example the UK’s Computer Misuse Act very specifically addresses unauthorized access and unauthorized modification, and similar legislation can be found in many other parts of Europe and the rest of the world.
In fact, it’s probably nearer to the idea of the ‘good virus’: not exactly policeware, but something to keep the blackhats’ wheels spinning till the cops arrive. Except that the squad cars travel a lot more slowly when they have to cross international borders and even circle the globe.
Retrieving, modifying or destroying stolen information ‘within the intruder’s networks, or even destroying the information within an unauthorized network’.
Using the attacker’s system’s camera to get a photo.
Disabling or trashing the attacker’s system(s).
The report suggests that ‘bias’ against ‘offensive cyber’ in current legal frameworks is influenced by the risk of collateral damage to innocent parties – I guess this would cover legitimate systems compromised and misused by an attacker, and false positives (action taken inappropriately because of misdiagnosis) – and the complexities introduced by attacks that cross national borders, and therefore doesn’t recommend specific legal changes. Clearly, though, the Commission believes that laws and policing aren’t keeping up with the nature of hacking. This is undeniable, though you might wonder whether it’s really the task of lawmakers to try to address every specific attack type and technology. Isn’t it often more practical to tweak existing law where necessary so that it’s clearer how longstanding principles apply to new contexts?
I appreciate the frustration that comes from the bad guys having all the freedom of action while law enforcement and victims are hampered by legal and ethical restraints, but that’s what makes the difference between us and them. The cost/benefit ratio of defensive measures doesn’t automatically outweigh the rights of non-corporate individuals – not just criminals, but innocent third parties.
The group calls for discussion on “whether corporations and individuals should be legally able to conduct threat-based deterrence operations against network intrusion, without doing undue harm to an attacker or to innocent third parties…” Giving corporates similar legal powers to law enforcement (and there’s no discussion here of how applying those powers might be regulated) is pretty close to vigilantism. When law enforcement agencies act against cybercriminals, they are often acting in concert with the security community. More often than not, that combined training and expertise is to the benefit of innocent third parties. If it becomes the norm for similar action to be carried out by corporations with a direct financial stake in the IP under threat and no particular specialism in security, there will inevitably be concerns as to whether that aim of ‘without doing undue harm’ will be achieved consistently. | https://www.welivesecurity.com/2013/05/29/intellectual-property-protection-and-good-badware/ |
1. The present terms and conditions expressly regulate the relations arising between 001TECH SL, hereinafter LABSMOBILE, and the users of their services, hereinafter THE CUSTOMER, notwithstanding any prior agreement that may exist between the parties.
2. The first access to the services implies the acceptance of all these conditions.
Clauses relating to the status of customer
1. For the purposes of this agreement, CUSTOMER is a physical person or legal entity, with a computing structure appropriate contracts with LABSMOBILE the use of the messaging services.
2. The condition of the subscriber is personal and not transferable, and may not be transferred to third parties without the prior and express consent of LABSMOBILE.
3. In the case of use of the service by third persons expressly authorized by LABSMOBILE, THE CUSTOMER must teach them properly about their use. In addition, THE CUSTOMER shall bear the costs of use, responding directly in front of LABSMOBILE of the improper use of the services.
Rights and obligations of the client
1. THE CUSTOMER shall have the right to the use of the services that expressly contracted through LABSMOBILE.
2. THE CUSTOMER is obligated to make the agreed payments according to the current rates with the corresponding VAT and within the agreed timeframes.
3. THE CLIENT agrees to the maintenance of your computer support necessary for the access to the services.
4. THE CUSTOMER is responsible for the proper use of the services, you expressly undertake to avoid any action that may cause harm to systems, equipment, or services accessible directly or indirectly through LABSMOBILE, including the congestion intentional links or systems, and in accordance with the rules contained in the present general conditions.
Recruitment procedure
The hiring of the services of LABSMOBILE using the website (http://www.labsmobile.com) is supplemented with the following procedures:
1. Introduction of the identification data and CLIENT billing. In the event that the CUSTOMER is already pre-given high and the data displayed are not correct, you will have the possibility of contacting the Customer service for the correction of the same.
2nd. Payment for the services. It will activate a payment gateway (POS) using a credit card to make the payment of the credits to be desired.
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4. Dispatch of the invoice. The first working day of the month following the purchase will be posted to the invoice in a file in pdf format.
Duration of the contract
1. This contract has a term of a minimum duration of ONE MONTH. Also will be automatically renewed for periods of the same time in the absence of written complaint with the advance of a month from any of the parties.
2. LABSMOBILE reserves the right to terminate this contract prior to its expiration for good cause, by giving notice prior to the subscriber with the minimum of ONE MONTH provided in the preceding paragraph. However, it shall not be necessary that advance communication in those cases in which, under these conditions, proceed in the automatic termination of this agreement.
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8. The services contracted by the CLIENT are valid for 18 months from the date of the invoice. From this date it is LABSMOBILE's decision to revoke the rights derived from the expired transaction.
1. THE CUSTOMER shall have the right to use the services strictly hired, he is responsible for the content of the information transferred through the same.
2. LABSMOBILE grants the user a non-exclusive license to use its applications for personal use and own internal business purposes. The user may not commercially distribute, sublicense, resell or otherwise transfer in any case without the prior written consent of LABSMOBILE, or play with these purposes, the programs, or any modification or derivation thereof, either alone or in conjunction with any other product or program. In addition, the user may not modify the programs except for your personal use and own internal business purposes.
3. E-commerce law.- THE CUSTOMER agrees, in accordance with the provisions of articles 21 and 22 of the LAW OF SERVICES OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY AND ELECTRONIC COMMERCE (LSSICE (Law nº 34/2002, of July 11 - published in official state gazette July 12, 2002) that may not use the services for sending bulk messages (SPAM, advertising messages, promotional or commercial) without the consent or authorization of each of your recipients, except that the coincidence of exceptions stipulated by law, as well as the sending of messages by its purpose or content can be considered to be contrary to law, morals, good customs or constituent of a crime or offence, and those that may damage the rights or the image of LABSMOBILE or third parties.
5. THE CUSTOMER must keep secret access codes and change them, if there is the assumption that third parties have known or know unduly the same. In this last case, LABSMOBILE is fully entitled to change these codes of access to the request OF the CLIENT.
6. If THE CLIENT fails to meet any of the conditions of use or your obligations. LABSMOBILE reserves the right to terminate your service immediately upon notice to the user that will be required to correct the cause of the defect so that the service can be restored. If THE CUSTOMER does not correct the defect within a period of 15 days, LABSMOBILE could be considered as cause for termination of the contract, with the obligation for the user to compensate for with the payment of the damages caused as a result of such defect.
7. It is prohibited to the redistribution of the services to any third party without the prior express written consent of LABSMOBILE.
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10. The CLIENT must be the holder of an explicit consent (opt-in) of the recipients in any case. LABSMOBILE may require verification of this point and a signed statement in the case of communications of a commercial, political, religious, etc.
11. LABSMOBILE and the necessary third parties (telecommunciation operators) reserve the right to block or reject any communication or account that does not comply with these conditions or precepts.
Services provided
1. LABSMOBILE will take care of the maintenance of the facilities necessary for the operation of the services with a technical team and suitable software.
Limitations of liability
1. THE CLIENT will be directly and personally responsible for any use of the application LabsMobile, under any circumstances, be considered 001TECH responsible for the use by CUSTOMER of the application.
2. LABSMOBILE is not responsible for the infringements of the legislation in force as a result of the improper use of the service to commit THE CLIENT. If LABSMOBILE detect the existence of any irregularity in the use of the service may terminate the contract without prior notice to the subscriber.
3. LABSMOBILE will not be responsible or liable, expressed or implied, of the suitability of the services it provides to the real needs of the CUSTOMER. Its inadequacy may not be a cause of termination or return of payment.
4. LABSMOBILE is not responsible for the interruption of service due to time constraints derived from the type of service subscribed to.
5. The responsibility of LABSMOBILE in any of the cases of non-compliance attributable to it will be limited to the amount of services rendered the subject of a complaint.
6. Given that LABSMOBILE depends on the services of third parties for the proper provision of her own LABSMOBILE declines all responsibility for damage or injury caused by the fault of those, accepting only those caused by a mismatch of the electronic means of support or to the negligent actions of its own employees, duly accredited.
7. Given that most of the facilities necessary for the proper functioning of the network depend on third-party companies, LABSMOBILE will not be responsible for the outcome of the service. This includes errors of routing, loss of information or data, delivery delays or interruptions of the services are not planned.
8. LABSMOBILE declines all responsibility regarding the quality, accuracy, reliability, correctness of the data, programs and information of any kind running on their networks. The content of such information is solely the responsibility of the subject to the exchange (sender and recipients).
9. LABSMOBILE not liable in the event of unauthorized use by a third party of the service.
10. LABSMOBILE will not be liable for damages or claims caused by the use of the platform LabsMobile both the CLIENT and third parties, including loss of profits or interruption of business or any other. 001TECH reserves the right to take any legal actions in respect of compensation and damages that THE CUSTOMER may be caused by a use of the application contrary to the existing legislation and the present General terms and Conditions.
Final clauses
1. Each provision of this agreement is valid in itself and shall not invalidate the rest. The invalid or incomplete may be replaced by other equivalent and valid by agreement of the parties.
2. For the settlement of any disputes arising from this contract, the parties submit to arbitration institutional Arbitration Court of Barcelona, which is charged with the designated arbitrator or arbitrators and the administration of the arbitration, agreeing now to comply with the arbitration decision. | https://www.labsmobile.com/en/terms-of-service |
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Murder suspect may walk without trial because of prosecutors' 'egregious' snooping
The Delaware Supreme Court will decide whether a murder suspect should remain free because prosecutors ordered the raid of his prison cell and reviewed confidential correspondence with his attorney.
Prosecutors have asked the state's highest court to overturn the dismissal of murder charges against Jacquez Robinson, 23, who was indicted for a host of felonies in the 2014 shooting death of 19-year-old Malik Watson in New Castle and the nonfatal shooting of an 18-year-old in Wilmington.
New Castle County Superior Court Judge Andrea L. Rocanelli dismissed the murder and assault indictment earlier this year after prosecutors ordered the seizure and review of documents that included privileged attorney-client information from his cell days before trial — an "egregious" violation of Robinson's constitutional rights, the judge wrote.
In their Supreme Court appeal, Delaware Department of Justice prosecutors argue that Rocanelli incorrectly concluded the review violated Robinson's Sixth Amendment rights to the assistance of legal counsel. Even if that determination was sound, Robinson can't show the state's actions caused irreparable harm to his ability to get a fair trial, prosecutors argue.
"Dismissal is not warranted, even if the state’s conduct was improper," reads the briefing signed by Deputy Attorney General Elizabeth R. McFarlan.
Defense attorney Patrick Collins, writing on behalf of Robinson, has argued that an intrusion that exposed confidential attorney-client communication to the Department of Justice can only be fixed by tossing the charges.
"No lesser sanction than dismissal was appropriate for the protection of Mr. Robinson's rights," Collins said. "Moreover, it was proper exercise of the judge's authority to dismiss this case as a deterrent to future improper conduct by the state."
Defense Attorney Natalie Woloshin represented Robinson up to the raid of his cell and handed off the effort to dismiss the charges to Collins because she could be called as a witness in any court proceedings.
In an interview, she said prosecutors' actions, subsequent denials of wrongdoing and argument that there should be no consequences "flies in the face of their obligation to do justice."
She said the right to effective representation is "sacrosanct," noting that defendants' communication with attorneys must be protected to ensure they get a fair trial. Tactics like those employed in Robinsons' case impede that communication, she said.
"If you don't have that right, why would you tell your attorney anything?" Woloshin said. "How could your attorney be effective if they can't rely on the information their client is telling them is protected?"
Robinson was arrested for the murder in December 2014. He spent nearly four years in jail awaiting trial before being released on bail last month, she said.
'Mickey Mouse'
His road to freedom began in Spring 2017.
He was in jail at Sussex Correctional Institution and facing the prospect of two separate, major trials: one for the non-fatal shooting and Watson's murder and another for participation in Wilmington's Touch Money Gang, a group accused by police of at least six killings.
A judge had ordered witness statements, interviews and identifying witness information in the gang case be kept secret from Robinson and others, a common step used to protect witnesses ahead of trial.
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Woloshin had confirmed with prosecutors that she was allowed to "send summaries" of reports and transcripts so long as names and identifying information were kept secret.
In May 2017, an informant inmate wrote prosecutors saying he had information about Robinson's murder case. Deputy Attorneys General John Downs and Mark Denney, who were prosecuting Robinson's cases, interviewed him.
The informant told them Woloshin had showed Robinson documents he was not supposed to see. Prosecutors subpoenaed Robinson's phone calls and eventually received transcripts in which he tells someone that Woloshin showed him documents he was not supposed to see as a test of trust.
In the phone conversations, Robinson refers to seeing "Mickey Mouse," a slang term for a snitch or rat, in the documents.
He did not say identities had been shared and other court documents show him unsuccessfully seeking witness names from Woloshin's office. Names of the witnesses had not been shared with Woloshin by prosecutors.
Before this, there were instances of witness intimidation in the murder trial of Touch Money Gang member John Brisco, also known as Bin Laden, earlier that spring. Prosecutors were concerned that Woloshin had shared too much, endangering witnesses that may testify against Robinson, prosecutors said in court documents.
New Castle County Chief Prosecutor Joseph Grubb launched an investigation and coordinated the seizure of documents and notes from Robinson's prison cell. Prosecutors said the purpose was to investigate whether Woloshin had violated the judge's order limiting what information could be shared.
Prosecutors did not ask for a search warrant, court order or talk to Woloshin about what she had provided Robinson before DOJ investigators took control of hundred of papers from Robinson's cell. It was 11 days before the scheduled start of his murder trial.
The seized materials included correspondence between Robinson and Woloshin as well as hand-written notes and what the court later determined qualified as defense strategy.
After a cursory review at the jail, investigators brought a smaller trove of documents back to DOJ offices in Wilmington for further inspection.
There, under the order of Grubb, DOJ paralegal Jaime Prater reviewed the documents. Prater was assigned to Robinson's murder case, working closely with prosecutors on discovery, scheduling and witness coordination.
She found nothing that would violate the court's protective order and a week after the materials were seized, they were returned to Robinson. Some two weeks after her review of Robinson's material, Prater was taken off the murder case.
Woloshin found out about the search from Robinson. After prodding by the court, prosecutors admitted to ordering the search.
Woloshin filed the motion to dismiss, Robinson's trial was delayed, and after multiple hearings, Rocanelli dismissed the murder charges. His gang participation charges were put on hold.
A constitutional violation?
In her written opinion, Rocanelli said prosecutors' violated Robinson's constitutional right to the assistance of counsel and dismissal was the only solution.
"Any lesser sanction would unduly depreciate the seriousness of the state’s actions and the extent to which the state’s actions put at risk the most fundamental constitutional protections," Rocanelli wrote.
The now complete Supreme Court briefings on the issue are essentially arguments over how the court should apply previous decisions in similar cases to the question of whether prosecutors' actions amount to a sixth amendment violation.
In briefs, prosecutors said Rocanelli erred in finding a sixth amendment violation because Robinson can't show that the state's actions actually harmed his chances of a fair trial
DOJ officials reason that no prosecutor involved in Robinson's murder case reviewed the documents and sworn testimony illustrates that Prater did not communicate any substance of Robinson's legal strategy to prosecutors.
Further, the documents were seized before trial, which was delayed, so no harm occurred, prosecutors argue.
"Because the trial prosecutors were shielded from learning any details of Robinson’s trial strategy and Robinson’s cases have never been tried, there is no threat that the state could have used confidential information to Robinson’s detriment," prosecutors wrote.
Collins, writing on behalf of Robinson, noted that Prater remained on Robinson's murder case for a period after her review of Robinson's documents, meaning any effort to shield the prosecution team from the privileged info she reviewed was insufficient.
He argues Robinson does not have to establish harm in order to make a sixth amendment claim. Further, since Robinson has not gone to trial, he'd have to speculate on exactly how the government would have used any knowledge of the privileged material against him.
Harm, he argues, is established simply by the government intentionally and successfully scooping-up material that includes defense strategy.
"The state's egregious actions epitomize intentional, deliberate intrusion into the attorney-client relationship," Collins wrote. "At every turn, the state had opportunities to take more measured and legally appropriate action and chose intrusion every time."
The state argues its actions did not amount to a purposeful intrusion for a trial advantage, rather they were acting to investigate the potential breach of the judge's order concealing witness information.
“This distinction compels a different result,” prosecutors argue.
Attorneys for the Delaware Chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union wrote the Supreme Court in favor of upholding the dismissal of the charges. Their brief states that a defendant's ability to communicate freely and confidentially with counsel is a guaranteed right that is chilled by such intrusions.
"Regardless of what prosecutors may later testify about what was done with such information, reasonable clients in such circumstances will doubt whether free and honest communication with counsel is wise and may not continue to openly share information," the brief states.
'Things could have been done better'
In her opinion dismissing the indictment, Rocanelli said prosecutors' actions fell short of the standard expected.
The state's Office off Disciplinary Counsel investigates instances of prosecutorial and other attorney misconduct. None of the prosecutors involved have been disciplined. An attorney for the office said she couldn't comment on whether an investigation is or was ever opened in this case.
The DOJ investigator involved in taking the documents from Robinson's cell testified that he had previously conducted at least one similar search targeting defendants' legal documents.
In its brief, the ACLU notes that state prosecutors were warned by a judge in a 2011 decision that "failure to have instituted some process" to insulate prosecutors from attorney-client communications would be considered a sixth amendment violation.
Woloshin, who was a prosecutor for a decade before beginning work in criminal defense, said it is "pretty unprecedented" that Grubb, as a supervisor of prosecutors, would "unilaterally decide without any court approval" to have Robinson's legal communication reviewed.
"They trounced on my client's constitutional rights and moreover maligned me and claimed I had done something that was criminal and still to this day refused to accept any responsibility," Woloshin said. "I think the Department of Justice should be better and hopefully will be better."
In court filings, prosecutors state "things could have been done better."
Carl Kanefsky, a DOJ spokesman, said the office has since "clarified a procedure" for inmate cell searches and will not conduct such searches without permission of the court through a warrant moving forward.
Further, the DOJ has "clarified" a process to deploy a "filter team" in such situations to "prevent the dissemination of legally privileged information or certain compelled statements to a prosecution team," he said.
The Supreme Court will soon announce whether it will decide the appeal on the briefs or order an oral argument for spring. If the court upholds Rocanelli's decision dismissing the charges, they cannot be brought against Robinson again.
Contact Xerxes Wilson at (302) 324-2787 or [email protected]. Follow @Ber_Xerxes on Twitter.
DELAWARE NEWS: | https://www.delawareonline.com/story/news/2018/12/17/murder-suspect-may-walk-without-trial-because-prosecutors-snooping/2160060002/ |
1 What is your country’s primary competition authority?
The National Commission on Markets and Competition (CNMC) is currently the primary Spanish competition authority.
Regional competition authorities (RCA) also exist, although not in all Spanish regions, and they only have jurisdiction when anticompetitive conducts affect the region in which they are established. The Catalan competition authority and the Basque competition authority have been particularly active in recent years.
2 Does your competition authority have investigatory power? Can it bring criminal proceedings based on competition violations?
The CNMC (and also the RCA) has investigatory powers and can carry out unannounced inspections of business premises. This means that the CNMC can enter business premises, review and seize documents that relate to the scope of the inspection (regardless of the medium on which they are stored and including documents or information stored on the cloud or on third-party owned servers), take hard or electronic copies of or extracts from any document that relates to the inspection and ask company representatives for explanations in relation to matters falling within the scope of an inspection order issued by the CNMC. The CNMC could ultimately also enter the homes of directors, managers and other members of the staff of the undertakings. To enter premises, the CNMC requires the consent of the affected party or, failing that, judicial authorisation.
The CNMC cannot bring criminal proceedings based on competition violations; the sanctions are only administrative (e.g., fines against companies and directors, and prohibitions on participation in public contracts). However, some conducts can both infringe competition law and constitute criminal activity, for example, alteration of prices or bid rigging (Articles 262 and 284, Spanish Criminal Code). Criminal proceedings arising from anticompetitive conduct can be brought by any affected party or by the public prosecutor.
3 Can private antitrust claims proceed parallel to investigations and proceedings brought by competition authorities and criminal prosecutors and appeals from them?
Yes. Since the derogation of the former Competition Act 16/1989 in 2007 in the case of Spanish competition law, and at least since the implementation of Council Regulation (EC) No. 1/2003 in the case of EU competition law, there is no need for a claimant to await a final decision from the relevant competition authority to bring civil claims (in other words, stand-alone claims are allowed).
If criminal proceedings are initiated, civil claims will be suspended if (1) the parties’ pleas are based on one or more grounds that are being investigated as a criminal matter, and (2) the decision of the criminal court may have a decisive influence on the civil case.
4 Is there any mechanism for staying a stand-alone private claim while a related public investigation or proceeding (or an appeal) is pending?
Under the Spanish Code of Civil Procedure (LEC), the time limit for issuing a judgment following trial may be suspended in proceedings dealing with the application of Articles 101 and 102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) or Articles 1 and 2 of the Spanish Competition Act (LDC), when the court is aware of related administrative proceedings being conducted by the European Commission (EC), the CNMC or any of the RCA, and when the administrative decision is relevant to the claim. According to case law, the same rule will apply by analogy to decisions of the relevant competition authority that are pending appeal.
5 Are the findings of competition authorities and court decisions binding or persuasive in follow-on private antitrust cases? Do they have an evidentiary value or create a rebuttable presumption that the competition laws were violated? Are foreign enforcers’ decisions taken into account? Can decisions by sector-specific regulators be used by private claimants?
Prior to the new regime pursuant to Directive 2014/104, implemented in Spain by Royal Decree-Law 9/2017 of 26 May, decisions of the CNMC and RCA were not to be granted legally binding effect in civil proceedings; the res judicata principle was not applicable. However, findings of fact in administrative proceedings were to be granted effect by civil courts and courts should only deviate from the legal interpretation applied to these findings by the relevant competition authority when the civil court’s interpretation was adequately reasoned.
Only decisions issued by the EC had (and currently have) binding effect according to Article 16 of Council Regulation (EC) No. 1/2003.
Royal Decree-law 9/2017 has introduced a new Title VI to the LDC on compensation for damages, which provides (Article 75.1, LDC) that the finding of a competition law infringement in a final decision of the CNMC (or RCA) or a Spanish review court is to be considered as binding in civil proceedings. Final decisions by competition authorities and courts of other EU Member States create a rebuttable presumption.
Sector-specific regulators have no power to find competition law infringements. However, their decisions can be used as evidence of facts that a claimant may use to support its case.
6 Do immunity or leniency applicants in competition investigations receive any beneficial treatment in follow-on private antitrust cases?
Under pre-existing rules, leniency applicants received no specific beneficial treatment in the context of follow-on claims. Pursuant to Royal Decree-law 9/2017 (Article 73.4, LDC), immunity recipients are only jointly and severally liable with respect to their direct or indirect purchasers or providers – except if full compensation cannot be obtained from co-infringers. Equally, the amount an immunity recipient can be liable to pay in contribution cannot exceed the amount of the harm it caused to its own direct or indirect purchasers or providers and, in relation to harm caused to parties buying from (or selling to) non-infringing parties, its relative responsibility for that harm.
7 Can plaintiffs obtain access to competition authority or prosecutors’ files or the documents the authorities collected during their investigations? How accessible is information prepared for or during public proceedings by the authority or commissioned by third parties?
If the claimant is recognised as an ‘interested party’, it can participate in the CNMC’s administrative proceedings and in subsequent appeals to the judicial review courts if the decision is appealed. An interested party may then gain access to the non-confidential version of the CNMC’s file (or the RCA’s file).
In a follow-on damages claim, claimants can ask the court to request a copy of the administrative file from the CNMC (or RCA), subject to several exceptions. Royal Decree-law 9/2017 (which introduced new disclosure rules for competition claims to Article 283 bis, LEC) provides that the following information can be disclosed only after the CNMC has closed its administrative proceedings: (1) information specifically prepared by natural or legal persons in the context of proceedings before the CNMC; (2) information prepared by the CNMC that has been sent to the parties during the course of the proceedings; and (3) settlement submissions that have been withdrawn. Leniency statements and settlement submissions that have not been withdrawn can never be disclosed (see below).
8 Is information submitted by leniency applicants shielded from subsequent disclosure to private claimants?
The other parties to CNMC (or RCA) proceedings (i.e., other than the leniency applicant) can have sight (but cannot make copies) of the non-confidential version of the leniency statement, and can take copies of documents filed therewith to reply to the statement of objections. However, it would be unusual for private claimants to be involved in this stage of the proceedings. Leniency statements, and any confidential parts or sections of accompanying documents and information, are treated as strictly confidential and are physically separated by the CNMC and the judicial review courts from the other materials within the administrative file. These documents are not provided to parties involved in civil litigation.
9 Is information submitted in a cartel settlement protected from disclosure?
The CNMC does not currently operate a settlement regime. Royal Decree-law 9/2017 provides, however, that civil courts cannot order the disclosure of settlement submissions, unless these have been withdrawn and the corresponding procedure closed.
10 How is confidential information or commercially sensitive information submitted by third parties in an investigation treated in private antitrust damages claims?
The CNMC protects confidential information and prepares a non-confidential version of the file for interested parties (see questions 7 and 8). Under the new Article 283 bis of the LEC, civil courts also have the power to protect confidential or commercially sensitive information that is to be the object of disclosure (see further discussion in question 27).
Commencing a private antitrust action
11 On what grounds does a private antitrust cause of action arise?
Competition law actions can arise in contract or tort. In contract, a claim may be brought on the basis of the provisions on nullity of contracts under the Spanish Civil Code (CC). In tort, claimants may base actions on the general Spanish provision for tort liability (Article 1902, CC) or the Unfair Competition Act (LCD).
The new Articles 71 and 72 of the LDC introduced by Royal Decree-law 9/2017 specifically establish the liability of competition infringers and the rights of claimants to damages.
12 What forms of monetary relief may private claimants seek?
Damages actions under Spanish law are compensatory in nature. Those who have suffered harm can claim compensation for the damage actually suffered, which may encompass (1) direct damage, (2) lost profits and (3) interest. Punitive damages (overcompensation) are not allowed under Spanish law.
13 What forms of non-monetary relief may private claimants seek?
A claimant can seek declaratory or injunctive relief (or both) under either the LEC or the LCD. Indeed, claimants may request to the relevant courts the (1) nullity (total or partial) of an agreement or clause that infringes competition law, and (2) the return of the payment made under it.
In addition, claimants may request the relevant courts to order an undertaking that infringes competition law to refrain from carrying out a specific conduct (for instance, a company affected by an abusive conduct may request the judge to force the infringer to stop such conduct) or to adopt a specific conduct.
14 Who has standing to bring claims?
Any natural or legal person who has suffered harm caused by the anticompetitive conduct.
15 In what forums can private antitrust claims be brought in your country?
Commercial courts have been attributed exclusive competence in actions applying competition law by the Judiciary Act (LOPJ). Ancillary competition claims (e.g., exceptions of nullity raised in a defence) can also be brought before the general first instance civil courts.
16 What are the jurisdictional rules? If more than one forum has jurisdiction, what is the process for determining where the claims are heard?
In general, if the defendant is domiciled in the European Union, the rules of international jurisdiction provided in Regulation (EU) No. 1215/2012 (Brussels I Regulation recast) apply. In particular: Article 4 (General Provision) providing for the jurisdiction of the courts of the defendant’s domicile and Article 7.2 providing for the jurisdiction of the courts of the place where the harmful event occurred or may occur. It is also possible for the courts of a Member State to declare themselves competent by application of other rules of international jurisdiction (i.e., in case of several defendants, in the courts for the place where any one of them is domiciled, Article 8).
Recently, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) has established that Article 7.2 of the Brussels I Regulation recast ‘confers directly and immediately both international and territorial jurisdiction on the courts for the place where the damage occurred’ (C-30/20). For the purposes of determining international jurisdiction under the Brussels I Regulation recast in application of Article 7.2 in matters related to damages based on collusive arrangements contrary to Article 101 TFUE, the criteria laid down by the Court in the following cases must be considered: CDC (C-352/13), Flylal (C-27/17) and Volvo (C-30/20).
If the defendant is not domiciled in the European Union or the claims are purely domestic in nature, Spanish procedural law applies. Common rules on international jurisdiction are regulated by the Organic Law of the Judiciary and establish that a person may be sued in Spain if: (1) that person, or any other co-infringer, is domiciled in Spain; or (2) Spain is the place where the harmful event occurred. With respect to territorial jurisdiction within Spain for tort claims, the general rule is that a defendant may be sued in its domicile. An undertaking may also be sued in the place where the situation or legal relation in dispute arose or is to produce its effects, as long as the undertaking has either an establishment open to the public or a representative who is authorised to act on behalf of the undertaking in that place.
17 Can claims be brought based on foreign law? If so, how does the court determine what law applies to the claim?
Yes. If the claims are based on a law of a Member State of the European Union and the events giving rise to damage occurred after 11 January 2009, the court will determine the applicable law on the basis of Regulation (EC) No. 864/2007 on the law applicable to non-contractual obligations (Rome II). In this context, the applicable law will be that provided for in Article 6 of the Regulation. However, in application of Article 14 (freedom of choice), parties may agree to submit non-contractual obligations to the law of their choice.
If the claims are based on a different (i.e., non-EU) foreign law, or if the events giving rise to damage predate 11 January 2009, the court will apply the applicable law of the country where the wrongful conduct occurred.
18 Give details of any preliminary requirement for starting a claim. Must plaintiffs post security or pay a filing fee? How is service of claim affected?
Corporate claimants are subject to a small filing fee. Service is generally performed by the courts’ administrative services. If the defendant is domiciled in an EU Member State other than Spain, Regulation (EC) No. 1393/2007 on the service of documents applies.
19 What is the limitation period for private antitrust claims?
For tort claims, which are not subject to the new regime of Royal Decree-law 9/2017, the limitation period is one year (in Catalonia, a three-year limitation period applies). Under the new regime, the period is five years (Article 74.1, LDC). For claims under the LCD, the period can be up to three years.
Because contracts (or specific clauses) contrary to competition law are null and void, and cannot be rectified under Spanish law, actions for nullity are not subject to any time limit. The passing of time may be an obstacle to claiming damages, however, as a result of contractual nullity if a defendant can prove that the claimant has benefited from the restriction of competition contained in the contract (i.e., unclean hands doctrine).
20 Are those time limits procedural or part of the substantive law? What is the effect of their expiry?
Limitation is considered a substantive issue under Spanish law. As such, it can only be dealt with by courts in final judgment (i.e., there is no way of trying limitation as a preliminary issue). If the relevant time limit has expired, claims will be considered time-barred and be rejected.
21 When does the limitation period start to run?
In tort, the limitation period starts when the claimant has knowledge of all the elements necessary to file its claim, in particular of the alleged harm. In cases of ongoing harm, the limitation period does not start to run until a claimant is in a position to quantify its harm. For claims where Royal Decree-law 9/2017 is applicable, the limitation periods starts to run when the infringement ceases and the claimant has knowledge or could reasonably have had knowledge of (1) the conduct and the fact that the conduct constitutes an competition infringement, (2) the damage suffered and (3) the identity of the infringer (Article 74.2, LDC).
22 What, if anything, can suspend the running of the limitation period?
Limitation periods are suspended from the moment a mediator, or mediation institution, receives a request for mediation.
Claimants can also interrupt limitation by making an extrajudicial claim or filing for conciliation proceedings. Interrupting limitation has the practical effect that the limitation period starts to run anew from the date on which the claimant interrupted. Limitation can also be interrupted by filing a claim before the courts.
Where Royal Decree-law 9/2017 applies, the limitation period is interrupted if a competition authority initiates an investigation or sanctioning proceedings in respect of an infringement of competition law to which the action for damages relates (Article 74.3, LDC). Any such interruption will end one year after the infringement decision becomes final or after the proceedings are otherwise terminated. In addition, if any consensual dispute resolution process is initiated, the limitation period will be also suspended (Article 74.4, LDC).
23 What pleading standards must the plaintiff meet to start a stand-alone or follow-on claim?
To start a claim, it is sufficient that a claimant identifies the parties to the dispute and their domiciles, states in a clear and orderly manner both the facts (identifying the corresponding evidence on which it relies) and the legal grounds of the claim (including why the court has jurisdiction, why the claimant is entitled to make its claim and its legal basis), setting out what rulings (remedies) are requested from the court. Although it is theoretically possible for a court to dismiss a claim if these standards are not met, courts generally, if not always, admit claims and tend to solve such issues at a later stage, either during the preliminary hearing (if the issues are procedural in nature) or in their final rulings (if they are substantive in nature). Importantly, a claimant must plead all the factual and legal arguments on which its claim relies since the LEC precludes any party from raising new facts and allegations at a later stage in the proceedings, except in limited circumstances. Also, as a general rule, the documents supporting the alleged facts and the expert report quantifying damages must be produced with the claim.
24 Is interim relief available? What must plaintiffs show for the court to grant interim relief?
Claimants must prove three elements to obtain interim measures:
- fumus boni iuris (i.e., awarding the interim relief would make, on the face of it, good law): claimants must submit the arguments and documentary evidence that, without prejudging the merits of the case, justify a provisional judgment in their favour;
- periculum in mora (i.e., failure to award the interim relief would prevent or hinder the effectiveness of a future affirmative judgment): claimants must prove that there is an objective situation of risk, which may potentially hinder the effectiveness of a future judgment if the interim relief is not awarded. No periculum in mora exists where an applicant has acquiesced to a situation for a prolonged period, unless there are reasons that justify that the interim measures were not requested earlier; and
- bond: claimants must post security that is sufficient to compensate, in a speedy and effective manner, the damages that the adoption of the injunction may cause to the estate of the defendant. The court determines the level of security, taking into account the nature and contents of the claims and the existence and extent of the fumus boni iuris and periculum in mora.
Generally, Spanish courts have tended to be rather restrictive in granting interim measures. Furthermore, the above requisites could prove difficult to be met in an antitrust damages case.
25 What options does the defendant have in responding to the claims and seeking early resolution of the case?
A Spanish court may declare a claim inadmissible only if it is manifestly abusive or entails a procedural error (e.g., wrongful joinder) or legal fraud. Such decisions are quite rare in practice.
There are no other procedural mechanisms that allow courts to dispose of a case at an early stage (other than if it considers itself as lacking jurisdiction either of its own motion or as a result of a challenge brought by the defendant).
Defendants may challenge claims by filing a defence or a defence and counterclaim. Defendants may also seek to dismiss the action on the basis of procedural grounds during the preliminary hearing (e.g., because of lack of procedural standing, undue joinder of claims, lack of the necessary parties, res judicata or undue selection of proceedings by reason of its matter).
Disclosure or discovery
26 What types of disclosure or discovery are available? Describe any limitations and the courts’ usual practice in ordering disclosure or discovery.
Pursuant to the new Article 283 bis of the LEC, which provides for a new disclosure regime targeted specifically to antitrust damages claims, a litigant may seek disclosure of evidence from the other party or a third party. Disclosure requests may be made before a claim has been filed or at any moment during the proceedings. The court may order the disclosure of specific evidence or relevant categories of evidence, subject to the requirement that the party seeking disclosure submits a reasoned justification for the request for documents, and defines the requested document or category of documents as precisely and as narrowly as possible based on reasonably available facts. Disclosure can also cover evidence filed by the relevant competition authority, subject to certain restrictions (see question 7). In making an order, the court will seek to limit disclosure to what is proportionate, considering the legitimate interests of the parties concerned and of any third parties. The party requesting disclosure is liable to cover the costs (and any damages) occasioned by that disclosure and may be required to make a deposit in advance.
Disclosure requests can also rely on other general provisions of the LEC: Article 328 (which refers to the disclosure of documents among the parties to the proceedings) and Article 330 (which refers to the disclosure of documents from third parties).
27 How do the courts treat confidential information that might be required to be disclosed or that is responsive to a discovery proceeding? Is such information treated differently for trial?
Courts can adopt certain measures to protect confidential information when they consider it appropriate. These measures include redactions, conducting closed-doors hearings or restricting access to such hearings, restricting the persons allowed to see evidence, and instructing experts to produce summaries of information in an aggregated or otherwise non-confidential form (see Article 283 bis (b), LEC). Some courts have also acceded to implementing a data room to provide controlled access by one party to data and calculations used in the preparation of another party’s expert report.
28 What protection, if any, do your courts grant attorney–client communications or attorney materials? Are any other forms of privilege recognised?
Professional conduct rules on professional secrecy govern privilege in Spain. Professional secrecy extends to documents received by lawyers from the counterparty or its lawyers. Based on certain constitutional rights, it is generally understood that such materials cannot be admitted or taken into account as evidence in civil proceedings without the relevant individual’s consent. Article 283 bis (b) of the LEC provides that courts are to ensure that applicable attorney–client privilege rules, as well as rules on secrecy, are given full effect when ordering disclosure.
Trial
29 Describe the trial process.
During the trial, the parties produce evidence and make their conclusions orally.
The trial starts by taking the evidence that has been admitted at the preliminary hearing. However, if fundamental rights are alleged to have been violated in the taking of any of the evidence, the judge must decide on those matters first. Likewise, if any facts or evidence have come to light following the preliminary hearing, the proposal and admission of such new evidence must be carried out before the evidence can be given at trial.
Oral examinations will then take place in the following order: parties, witnesses, experts from each side. There is no jury: judges decide on the facts before them and based on the law.
If some evidence cannot be taken at trial (e.g., because an important witness does not appear), the court may order an additional hearing. Once evidence has been taken, the parties state orally their conclusions on the facts at issue, giving a brief summary of the relevant evidence and the legal arguments grounding their pleas.
30 How is evidence given or admitted at trial?
Evidence is proposed orally by the parties at the preliminary hearing, although the parties are also obliged to provide details in writing of evidence proposed for admission. If the court deems that the evidence put forward by the parties could turn out to be insufficient to clarify the facts at issue, the judge will inform the parties of the facts that, in his or her opinion, could be affected by such evidential gaps. The court will admit the evidence that it considers relevant and useful.
As regards how evidence is given at trial, see questions 29 and 31.
31 Are experts used in private antitrust litigation in your country? If so, what types of experts, how are they used, and by whom are they chosen or appointed?
Experts are frequently used in Spanish proceedings. As claimants have the burden of quantifying their claims at the time of filing, it is common practice for parties to file an expert report quantifying the damage suffered, typically prepared by an economist, accountant or industry expert. Each party has the right to appoint its own expert. The court may also appoint a judicial expert upon a party’s request.
32 What must private claimants prove to obtain a final judgment in their favour?
Claimants must prove the infringement, fault, harm suffered and causal link between the harm and the defendant’s anticompetitive conduct. They also must quantify damages.
In follow-on actions, the proof of the violation will be provided by the administrative decision, while in stand-alone actions the claimant will have to prove it (see question 5 on the binding effect of final decisions adopted by the relevant competition authorities to prove the existence of the violation).
As regards the harm, Royal Decree-law 9/2017 has introduced a new provision that establishes a rebuttable presumption that cartels cause damage (Article 76.3, LDC).
33 Are there any defences unique to private antitrust litigation? If so, which party bears the burden of proving these defences?
The Supreme Court has expressly accepted the passing-on defence (in a judgment predating Directive 2014/104/EU on actions for damages for infringements of competition law (the Damages Directive) relating to the Spanish Sugar cartel). In that case, the Supreme Court held that, for the defence to succeed, the defendant must prove both that the claimant passed on the overcharge down the supply chain to its customers and that the overcharge did not result in the claimant’s sales volume being reduced.
The new provisions of the LDC explicitly recognise that the defendant in an action for damages can invoke as a defence against a claim for damages the fact that the claimant passed on the whole or part of the overcharge resulting from the infringement of competition law. The burden of proving that the overcharge was passed on is on the defendant, who may reasonably require disclosure from the claimant or from third parties (Article 78.3, LDC).
34 How long do private antitrust cases usually last (not counting appeals)?
There are no specific statistics for damages claims in antitrust cases. On average, proceedings before first instance courts in relation to antitrust damages claims can take 16 months to get to trial and a year and a half until the first instance judgment is issued. However, this depends largely on the specific court and the complexity of the matter.
35 Who is the decision-maker at trial?
The judge.
Damages, costs and funding
36 What is the evidentiary burden on plaintiffs to quantify the damages?
Plaintiffs must prove that the damage is certain and can be demonstrated. The Supreme Court has stated (Sugar cartel case) that the basic requirement for a claimant (or its expert) is to provide a reasonable and technically founded hypothesis based on contrasted and reliable data. Where there is an administrative decision that has established that an infringement caused harm, the Supreme Court has held that it is not sufficient for the defendant’s expert merely to criticise the plaintiff’s quantification – a more robust alternative quantification is required of the defendant.
As already indicated, Royal Decree-law 9/2017 provides for a presumption that cartel infringements cause harm. It has also empowered courts to estimate the amount of harm if it is established that a claimant suffered harm, but it proves to be practically impossible or excessively difficult to precisely quantify the harm suffered (see Article 76, paragraphs 2 and 3, LDC).
37 How are damages calculated?
Typically, each party will produce an expert report containing an estimation of the damages and the court decides on the basis of its evaluation of those reports and the experts’ defence of the same at trial. Experts tend to use the methods included in the ‘Practical Guide on the Quantification of Harm in Actions for Damages Based on Breaches of Articles 101 or 102 TFEU’. The Supreme Court has confirmed that the ‘but for’ analysis, such as a comparator-based before-and-after model, is appropriate to assess the quantum.
38 Does your country recognise joint and several liabilities for private antitrust claims?
In tort, the Supreme Court’s case law states that, when damages are the result of the conduct of several offenders and it is not possible to determine the degree of liability of each one, the offenders will be held jointly and severally liable to the victim. Accordingly, it is generally assumed that co-infringers of competition law will be jointly and severally liable. The rule in contract is joint liability; joint and several liability is the exception.
The new regime under Royal Decree-law 9/2017 specifically establishes that each of the undertakings that has jointly infringed competition law is jointly and severally liable for the harm caused. In line with the Damages Directive, an exception is provided for small and medium-sized enterprises and for immunity recipients (see question 6 and Article 73, LDC).
39 Can a defendant seek contribution or indemnity from other defendants, including leniency applicants, or third parties? Does the law make a clear distinction between contribution and indemnity in antitrust cases?
If a joint and several defendant has paid a debt (i.e., damages to the claimant), it has the right to claim reimbursement from its co-debtors for the relative part corresponding to each of them. Subject to certain specificities, that right also covers contribution from the immunity recipient (see question 6).
40 Can prevailing parties recover attorneys’ and court fees and other costs? How are costs calculated?
Yes, the ‘loser-pays’ principle applies thus, as a general rule, litigation costs are imposed on the party that has all its pleas materially rejected (Article 394, LEC). Nevertheless, if the court considers that the case involved reasonable doubts of fact or law, costs may be imposed on none of the parties. According to the same provision, if the court partially upholds the claim, each party must pay its own litigation costs. This rule has been the object of a recent request for a preliminary ruling submitted by the Commercial Court No. 3 of Valencia in which the CJEU has been requested to decide if such rule is compatible with the right to obtain full compensation (C-312/21). Courts may also impose costs when a party is deemed to have litigated recklessly or frivolously.
Recoverable costs include attorney fees, expert fees, court agents (procuradores) and court fees. Costs are calculated by the court clerk and may only be challenged if they are undue or excessive. If challenged on the ground of being excessive, the court clerk will refer the assessment to the relevant bar association so that it can issue an opinion.
41 Are there circumstances where a party’s liability to pay costs or ability to recover costs may be limited?
The amount paid by the losing party cannot exceed one-third of the value of the claim and, in practice, does not generally exceed in a material way the parameters applied by the bar associations (although it should be noted that these parameters have been the subject of CNMC investigations). Costs for tariff-regulated services (such as court agents) are, however, always recoverable, and thus not subject to this limitation. This limitation does not apply if a party is deemed to have litigated recklessly. If the value of the claim is unquantified, costs are calculated by reference to a hypothetical claim value of €18,000, unless the court decides otherwise.
42 May attorneys act for claimants on a contingency or conditional fee basis? How are such fees calculated?
Yes. The arrangements between lawyer and client are not restricted and can include conditional or contingency fee models as agreed between the parties.
43 Is litigation funding lawful in your country? May plaintiffs sell their claims to third parties?
Litigation funding is lawful in Spain. In addition, claimants may assign or sell their claims to third parties. However, if the claim rights are sold while litigation is ongoing (and after the filing of the statement of defence), the defendant has the right to cancel the ‘credit’ and to bring proceedings to an end by paying the third party the amount it paid to the original claimant plus any costs paid, as well as the interest accrued from the date the claim was sold.
44 May defendants insure themselves against the risk of private antitrust claims? Is after-the-event insurance available for antitrust claims?
Yes, claimants and defendants may insure themselves against the risk of antitrust claims, including purchasing after-the-event insurance. Given the relatively low-cost exposure resulting from litigation in Spain, currently this type of insurance is not commonly used.
Appeal
45 Is there a right to appeal or is permission required?
Any party is entitled to appeal a judgment or final order that is contrary to its interests. No permission is required, although deadlines for filing the appeal must be met.
46 Who hears appeals? Is further appeal possible?
An appeal will be heard at the court of appeal of the jurisdictional region where the court that heard the case at first instance is based. The corresponding court of appeal is entitled to perform a full review of the case. Extraordinary appeals on procedural (reip) and material (cassation appeal) matters can be elevated to the Supreme Court depending on the nature of the legal questions raised or the value of the case (over €600,000). No permission is required. However, the Supreme Court strictly controls fulfilment of procedural requirements and has a broad discretion to admit appeals – it may, and frequently does, reject appeals.
47 What are the grounds for appeal against a decision of a private enforcement action?
No special grounds for appeal apply to private enforcement actions. Appeals must be supported by the general grounds for appeal, such as breach of procedural rules, error in law or error in assessment of evidence, taking into account the specific requirements of appeals to the Supreme Court.
Collective, representative and class actions
48 Does your country have a collective, representative or class action process in private antitrust cases? How common are they?
Yes, apart from the general rules on joinder of parties, which, if met, allow several claimants to file their claims in a single lawsuit, the LEC provides for a collective action regime that may be used not only in private antitrust cases but in any case in which a group of persons (consumers) have been affected by the same harmful conduct. They are not common in private antitrust cases (i.e., only one action has been brought in Spain so far, by Ausbanc against Teléfonica, being dismissed on procedural grounds).
49 Who can bring these claims? Can consumer associations bring claims on behalf of consumers? Can trade or professional associations bring claims on behalf of their members?
Spanish law distinguishes between collective actions for the protection of collective or diffuse interests.
In the case of collective interest actions, the law confers standing to:
- consumer and user associations;
- representative associations legally incorporated for the defence of consumer or user rights;
- national (or a regional) consumer institutes;
- the attorney general; and
- ad hoc associations of affected individuals.
Ad hoc associations must demonstrate that they represent the majority of victims affected by the wrongful conduct.
In the case of diffuse interest actions, Spanish law confers standing exclusively to consumer and user associations regarded as representative, and the attorney general.
These procedural mechanisms have only been used to date by consumer groups or associations. However, it cannot be ruled out that corporate claimants may attempt to make use of these mechanisms in the future.
Finally, individuals can join collective action proceedings as a party with their own legal representation and have the right to the resolution of their own particular claim.
50 What is the standard for establishing a class or group?
The first requirement is to evidence that a class of individuals has been affected by the same harmful event. In the case of collective interest actions, claimants or representatives will need to prove further that all members of the class are determinable or may be easily determinable. In the case of diffuse interest actions, claimants or representatives will need to prove that the class of individuals affected by the conduct is difficult, or impossible, to determine.
51 Are there any other threshold criteria that have to be met?
Yes, in the case of collective interest actions, claimants will need to have communicated to each of the individuals affected by the conduct their intention to file a claim. In the case of diffuse interest actions, the court clerk will suspend the proceedings for a period of time (not exceeding two months) to inform, generally by constructive notice (e.g., publication in a newspaper), all potentially affected individuals so that they have the opportunity to join the proceedings.
52 How are damages assessed in these types of actions?
Only one private enforcement collective action has to date, and to our knowledge, been brought in Spain: the above-mentioned action brought by Ausbanc against Teléfonica, and this case was dismissed on procedural grounds (the claimant association lacked sufficient representative status). As such, there is no legal precedent regarding the distribution of damages or settlements.
In relation to consumer collective actions brought in other contexts, courts have awarded sample damages to a class of individuals, each of whom is then able to claim damages by filing an application for execution of the sample damages judgment before any competent court.
53 Describe the process for settling these claims, including how damages or settlement amounts are apportioned and distributed.
There is no specific procedure to settle collective actions under the LEC. In the absence of a specific procedure, the general rule for settling individual claims would apply in principle. Under this procedure, parties must file the settlement agreement with the court so that it can be properly certified. Agreements are certified unless they are contrary to the law or they affect the rights of third parties. The collective action settlement would have the same effect as a collective action judgment, and hence, individuals who can qualify as beneficiaries of the settlement may file an application for execution before the competent court to seek their compensation in accordance with the terms of the settlement agreement.
54 Does your country recognise any form of collective settlement in the absence of such claims being made? If so, how are such settlements given force and can such arrangements cover parties from outside the jurisdiction?
No.
55 Can a competition authority impose mandatory redress schemes or allow voluntary redress schemes?
No, but the CNMC may reduce the amount of an administrative fine imposed if an infringer has adopted measures to redress the harm caused (see Article 64.3(c), LDC).
Arbitration and ADR
56 Are private antitrust disputes arbitrable under the laws of your country?
Yes. The Spanish Arbitration Act provides that disputes on matters that are within the free disposition of the parties can be submitted to arbitration. This includes antitrust disputes. Moreover, given that competition rules are mandatory, the arbitrator seated in Spain must apply the competition rules in any arbitration proceedings, irrespective of the law governing the contract.
57 Will courts generally enforce an agreement to arbitrate an antitrust dispute? What are the exceptions?
Subject to the formal and material validity of the arbitration clause, Spanish courts will generally enforce a clause providing for arbitration of disputes, including in relation to antitrust issues. However, Spanish courts may refuse to enforce an arbitration agreement if the clause is too narrowly drafted to include antitrust claims relating to the underlying contract.
58 Will courts compel or recommend mediation or other forms of alternative dispute resolution before proceeding with a trial? What role do courts have in ADR procedures?
Under Spanish law, mediation prior to filing a claim is not mandatory, unless the parties have signed a mediation agreement, in which case the parties are compelled to initiate mediation but not to finalise it. When the court summons the parties for the preliminary hearing, it will inform them of the possibility of resorting to negotiation, including mediation, in an effort to resolve the dispute. The preliminary hearing will then start with the judge asking the parties whether they have reached an agreement or are willing to do so immediately. At that time, the parties may also jointly request a stay of the proceedings to submit to mediation. If the parties do not so request, mediation does not stay court proceedings (subject to any specific rule).
Advocacy
59 Describe any notable attempts by policy-makers to increase knowledge of private competition law and to facilitate the pursuit of private antitrust claims?
By far the most notable development has been the implementation of the Damages Directive in May 2017.
Notes
1 María Pérez Carrillo and Esther de Félix Parrondo are partners, and María Martínez Fuentes is an associate at Cuatrecasas. | https://globalcompetitionreview.com/guide/private-litigation-guide/third-edition/article/spain-qa |
The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) requested that the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (I/A Court H.R.) grant provisional measures to protect the rights to life, personal integrity, and health of members of the Yanomami, Ye`kwana, and Munduruku indigenous peoples, who are in an extremely serious and urgent situation of irreparable harm to their rights in Brazil due to the presence of unauthorized individuals who illegally exploit natural resources in their territories.
The Yanomami and Ye`kwana peoples are composed of 26,000 indigenous people, who inhabit the Yanomami territory, while in the Munduruku people there are 14,000 indigenous people in seven lands: Munduruku, Sai Cinza, Kayabi, Praia do Indio, and Praia do Mangue reserves, Sawre Muybu, and Sawre Bapin. In 2020, the Inter-American Commission granted them precautionary measures, in accordance with Article 25 of the IACHR Rules of Procedure, due to the serious and urgent risk they faced in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.
During the time the precautionary measures have been in force, the IACHR received information about the exponential increase in the presence of unauthorized third parties on their lands, who mainly carried out mining and logging activities. In this context, it was observed that the Yanomami, Ye`kwana, and Munduruku Indigenous peoples are exposed to murders, threats, violent attacks, sexual rape, and health effects because of the spread of diseases such as malaria and COVID-19, in a context of poor medical care and alleged mercury contamination, which derives from mining.
The information provided indicates that acts of violence, killings, and threats continue in indigenous communities, and even worsen. In this scenario, the IACHR observed the following:
A high level of reported violence.
Frequent use of firearms and armed attacks.
Possible retaliatory events.
Death threats against Indigenous Peoples.
The materialization of irreparable harm, with injuries and death of Indigenous Peoples.
Effects on the lives and integrity of indigenous children, as well as women and girls who have been victims of sexual violence.
The Brazilian State sent information on the protection measures adopted, such as the preparation of projects and action plans; sending of medical supplies; withdrawal operations of third parties and mining; among others.
The Commission appreciates the measures implemented by the State, while noting that, given the worsening of the reported threatening events, these are insufficient. After almost two years that the precautionary measures have been in force, there is no information that the actions taken by the State effectively protect the Indigenous Peoples proposed as beneficiaries.
In addition, the Commission took into account the internal judicial decisions, such as that of the Supreme Federal Court, the highest judicial instance of Brazil, through the Argument of Breach of Fundamental Precept 709 (ADP 709), which determines the protection of indigenous peoples, and notes the risk posed by the presence of unauthorized third parties in the territories.
Despite the follow-up carried out by the IACHR for the effective implementation of protection measures for the Yanomami, Ye`kwana, and Munduruku Indigenous Peoples, such as the request for information from the parties, the holding of a working meeting and a public hearing in the 178th and 180th Sessions, respectively, the situation presenting a risk has worsened and triggered serious acts of violence, which continue over time.
In these circumstances, the Commission considers that the rights of the members of the Yanomami, Ye`kwana, and Munduruku Indigenous Peoples are at extreme and urgent risk of irreparable harm. Based on this and in accordance with Article 63(2) of the American Convention and Article 27 of the Rules of Procedure of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the IACHR requests that the IACHR grant provisional measures and order that the State of Brazil protect the proposed beneficiaries.
In particular, the Commission urges the Court to request that the State of Brazil:
The necessary measures to protect the rights to life, personal integrity, and health of the members of the Yanomami, Ye'kwana, and Munduruku Indigenous Peoples identified in this request, from a culturally appropriate perspective, in light of a gender perspective and age approach, implementing effective measures against threats, harassment, and acts of violence, including those measures that are necessary in the face of the ongoing, illegal and polluting activities in the indigenous territories, as assessed by the competent internal authorities.
Adopt culturally appropriate measures to prevent the spread of diseases and to mitigate contagion and pollution, providing them with adequate medical care under conditions of availability, accessibility, acceptability and quality, in accordance with applicable international standards.
Consult and agree upon the measures to be adopted with the beneficiaries and their representatives.
Report on the actions taken in order to investigate the facts that gave rise to this request for provisional measures, so as to prevent such events from reoccurring.
Moreover, the Inter-American Commission requests that the Court carry out an on-site visit in order to verify the situation of these Indigenous Peoples.
The Inter-American Court orders provisional measures in cases of extreme gravity and urgency to avoid irreparable damage to persons. These measures are enforced upon the States, and the decisions therein require that States adopt specific actions to protect the rights and/or ensure the lives of threatened individuals or groups.
A principal, autonomous body of the Organization of American States (OAS), the IACHR derives its mandate from the OAS Charter and the American Convention on Human Rights. The Inter-American Commission has a mandate to promote the observance and defense of human rights in the region and acts as a consultative body to the OAS in this area. The Commission is composed of seven independent members who are elected in an individual capacity by the OAS General Assembly and who do not represent their countries of origin or residence. | https://en.pueblosaislados.org/post/iachr-requests-precautionary-measures-to-thei-a-court-h-r-for-the-yanomami-ye-kwana-and-munduruk |
The overall goal of my research is to understand how neurons generate their complex morphology and form proper circuitries during development and how neurons regenerate to restore connections after brain or spinal cord injuries.
Current projects:
1. Epigenetic regulation of neuronal morphogenesis during development and regeneration
Regulation of gene expression is important for almost every biological process, including neuronal morphogenesis, such as neuronal migration and axon/dendrite growth during development and axon regeneration after injuries. Epigenetic regulation independent of changes in DNA sequences is emerging to be a key cellular mechanism to control gene expression. There are three major epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation, histone modification, and non-conding RNAs. In this project we will explore how these epigenetic modifications control neuronal morphogenesis, in particularly during neural regeneration. One of the great mysteries in the history of medicine is the failure of the regeneration of damaged axons in the mature mammalian central nervous system (CNS). Recent studies have revealed that the diminished intrinsic axon growth ability of neurons in the mature mammalian CNS is the major reason that they do not regenerate their axons after the injury. We hypothesize that a specific epigenetic code controls gene expression that determines the intrinsic axon growth ability of mature mammalian neurons. To test this hypothesis, we are now examining the roles of several epigenetic pathways in mediating mammalian PNS axon regeneration, and explore if manipulation these epigenetic pathways is able to promote mammalian CNS axon regeneration. In this study, mouse genetics (e.g. in vivo electroporation, Cre-LoxP system), deep sequencing (e.g. RNA-seq, ChIP-seq), and several in vivo axon regeneration models (e.g. sensory axon regeneration, spinal cord regeneration, and optic nerve regeneration) are used. By using similar approaches in developing neurons, we are also examining if they regulate neuronal morphogenesis (e.g. neuronal migration, axon growth/guidance, and dendrite development) during brain development and if mis-regulation of them during development have any effect on cognitive functions.
2. Targeting neuronal cytoskeleton to promoting axon regeneration
The failure of axon regeneration in the mammalian CNS is also due to the hostile environment of adult CNS contributed by inhibitory molecules, such as myelin based inhibitors and inhibitory chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs). Growth cones are highly motile structures at the tips of growing axons that drive axon extension by integrating axon growth regulatory signals. Axon elongation is achieved by the assembly of membrane and the cytoskeleton elements at the growth cone. In the mature mammalian CNS the inhibitory molecules are thought to act primarily at the growth cone machinery to shut down axon assembly. Therefore, the goal of the project is to manipulate the nerve growth cone, which is not only the machinery that drives axon growth but also the final target of inhibitory molecules, and determine if it can promote axon regeneration in an inhibitory environment. In this study, genetic mouse models and high-resolution live cell imaging (in vitro and in vivo) approaches are used.
3. GSK3 signaling in neural development and regeneration
Changes in glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) activity have been associated with many psychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, schizophrenia, and autism spectrum disorders. Many of the genes associated with these disorders encode proteins involved in GSK3 signaling, such as Disrupted-In-Schizophrenia 1 (DISC1), Neuregulin 1, PTEN, serotonin, tuberous sclerosis complex 1/2 (TSC1/2), and adenomatous polyposis coli (APC). Recent evidence suggests that GSK3s and their upstream and downstream regulators have key roles in many fundamental processes during neural development, including neurogenesis, neuronal polarization, and axon outgrowth. Therefore, a better understanding of the role of GSK3 in brain development could provide insight into the etiology of these disorders and possibly open up the potential of a new library of therapeutic targets. Our recent studies have also demonstrated important roles of GSK3 signaling in regulation of axon regeneration. Based on our studies, we think that GSK3 signaling regulates neuronal morphogenesis during development and regeneration via coordinating neuronal microtubules locally in axons/dendrites and gene expression in cell soma. In this study, we are using mouse genetics and high-resolution imaging of microtubule dynamics in neurons to dissect the roles of GSK3 signaling in neural development and regeneration. We are also using high throughput-based protein chip technology to identify isoform specific substrates of GSK3a and GSK3b, which we think will help future development of isoform specific inhibitors of GSK3. | http://neuroscience.jhu.edu/research/faculty/107 |
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Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, et al., editors. Neuroscience. 2nd edition. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2001.
Neuroscience. 2nd edition.Show details
It has long been known that mature, differentiated neurons do not divide (see Chapter 22). It does not follow, however, that all the neurons that make up the adult brain are produced during embryonic development, even though this interpretation has generally been assumed. The merits of this assumption were questioned in the 1980s, when Fernando Nottebohm and colleagues at Rockefeller University demonstrated the production of new neurons in the brains of adult songbirds. They showed that labeled DNA precursors injected into adult birds could be found subsequently in fully differentiated neurons, indicating that the neurons had undergone their final round of cell division after the labeled precursor was injected. Moreover, the new neurons were able to extend dendrites and project long axons to establish appropriate connections with other brain nuclei. Production of new neurons was apparent in many parts of the birds' brains, but was especially prominent in areas involved in song production (see Box B in Chapter 24). These observations showed that the adult brain can generate at least some new nerve cells and incorporate them into neural circuits (see also Chapter 15).
The production of new neurons in the adult brain has now been examined in mice, rats, monkeys and, finally, humans. In all cases, however, the new nerve cells in the mammalian CNS have been restricted to just two regions of the brain: (1) The granule cell layer of the olfactory bulb; and (2) the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. Furthermore, the new nerve cells are primarily local circuit neurons or interneurons. New neurons with long distance projections have not been seen. Each of these populations in the olfactory bulb and hippocampus is apparently generated from nearby sites near the surface of the lateral ventricle. As in bird brains, the newborn nerve cells extend axons and dendrites and become integrated into functional synaptic circuits. Evidently, a limited production of new neurons occurs continually in a few specific loci.
If neurons cannot divide (see Chapter 22), how does the adult brain generate these nerve cells? The answer emerged with the discovery that the sub-ventricular zone that produces neurons during development retains some neural stem cells in the adult. The term “stem cells” refers to a population of cells that are self-renewing—each cell can divide symmetrically to give rise to more cells like itself, but also can divide asymmetrically, giving rise to a new stem cell plus one or more differentiated cells. Over the past decade, several research groups have isolated stem cells from the adult brain that can reproduce in large numbers in cell culture. Such cells can then be induced to differentiate into neurons and glial cells, when exposed to appropriate signals. Many of these same signals mediate neuronal differentiation in normal development. Adult stem cells can be isolated not only from the anterior subventricular zone (near the olfactory bulb) and dentate gyrus, but from many other parts of the forebrain, cerebellum, midbrain, and spinal cord, although they do not apparently produce any new neurons in these sites. Inhibitory signals in these regions may prevent stem cells from generating neurons.
Why the generation of neurons is so limited in the adult brain is not known. This peculiar limitation is presumably related to the reasons discussed in Box D. Nevertheless, the fact that new neurons can be generated in a few regions of the adult brain suggests that this phenomenon can occur throughout the adult CNS. The ability of newly generated neurons to integrate into at least some synaptic circuits adds to the mechanisms available for plasticity in the adult brain. Thus, many investigators have begun to explore the potential applications of stem cell technology for the repair of circuits damaged by traumatic injury or degenerative disease.
- Generation of Neurons in the Adult Brain - NeuroscienceGeneration of Neurons in the Adult Brain - Neuroscience
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Quantitative Biology > Neurons and Cognition
Title: Frequency selectivity of neural circuits with heterogeneous transmission delays
(Submitted on 19 Sep 2020)
Abstract: Neurons are connected to other neurons by axons and dendrites that conduct signals with finite velocities, resulting in delays between the firing of a neuron and the arrival of the resultant impulse at other neurons. Since delays greatly complicate the analytical treatment and interpretation of models, they are usually neglected or taken to be uniform, leading to a lack in the comprehension of the effects of delays in neural systems. This paper shows that heterogeneous transmission delays make small groups of neurons respond selectively to inputs with differing frequency spectra. By studying a single integrate-and-fire neuron receiving correlated time-shifted inputs, it is shown how the frequency response is linked to both the strengths and delay times of the afferent connections. The results show that incorporating delays alters the functioning of neural networks, and changes the effect that neural connections and synaptic strengths have.
Submission historyFrom: Akke Mats Houben [view email]
[v1] Sat, 19 Sep 2020 15:09:41 GMT (8448kb,D)
Link back to: arXiv, form interface, contact. | http://export.arxiv.org/abs/2009.09250 |
You might also be thinking, How do axon guidance molecules direct axons to their targets?
Axon guidance occurs when external stimuli impact the rate of development, causing it to increase or decrease. The growing cone, in instance, contains a number of “fingers” that extend from its tip. 31.03.2016
Similarly, How do axons reach their target areas?
Mechanisms. The growth cone is a highly motile structure at the developing tip of axons that reacts to signals from the extracellular environment that tell the axon which way to grow. These signals, known as guiding cues, may be fixed or diffuse, attracting or repelling axons.
But then this question also arises, Why is axon guidance important?
Axons that must create long-distance connections break down their pathfinding into manageable segments, using intermediate targets along the route to the ultimate destination. By supplying guiding signals, these intermediate targets, also known as choice points, are critical for axonal navigation. 25.01.2017
How is a growing axon directed?
The growth cone is a highly motile structure at the developing tip of axons that reacts to signals from the extracellular environment that tell the axon which way to grow. These signals, known as guiding cues, may be fixed or diffuse, attracting or repelling axons.
Related Questions and Answers
What is axon guidance and neuronal migration?
Substrate-Derived Attractants for Axon Guidance and Collective Cell Migration To reach and innervate their target cells, neurons have developed specific growth structures. Specific receptor molecules are produced in these growth cones, which detect environmental stimuli and convert them into steering choices. 06.06.2019
How are axons and neurons able to find their approximate targets?
Dendrites develop by extending growth cones at their tips, similar to axons. One of the most fascinating aspects of the nervous system’s development is how the sprouting axons identify their target cells, which are typically millimetres or centimetres distant (a vast distance on this scale).
What is a guidance cue?
At the appropriate time and location, guidance signals are secreted or produced. Growth cone navigational mistakes are caused by the lack of the factor or alterations in its receptors. The guiding cue’s secretion or expression is sufficient to attract or repel the filopodium/growth cone (reviewed in ).
What is axon guidance and growth cone?
Growth cones combine information from receptors to multiple guidance signals, resulting in cytoskeleton alterations related with axon navigation. Axon pathfinding is a complicated and multifactorial process because to the cell-cell and cell-substrate interactions involved. 15.05.2015
How do growth cones extend?
Growth cones are highly mobile structures that examine the extracellular environment, decide the growth direction, and then lead the axon extension in that direction. The fundamental morphological feature of a growth cone is a lamellapodium, which is a sheetlike extension of the developing axon near its tip.
How long is the longest axon?
just one meter
How long can a neuron axon be?
Axons vary in length depending on the kind of neuron; some are just a millimetre long, while the longest ones, such as those that go from the brain to the spinal cord, may be over a metre long. 18.03.2021
Why are axons so long?
Axons must be lengthy in order to reach every region of your body from the brain and spine’s core regulatory areas. Assume you’d want to move your big toe. Your brain will transmit a message all the way down to the end of your spinal cord through a chain of nerve cells. 30.07.2016
What is axon and dendrite growth?
During development, one postmitotic neuron’s neurite is designated as the axon, while the other neurites are designated as dendrites. Following that, the growing dendrites and axons take different pathways to establish two compartments that are structurally and functionally unique.
Which neuron typically accounts for 90% of neurons?
In the CNS, association neurons (interneurons) carry impulses from sensory neurons to motor neurons. Association neurons make up more than 90% of all neurons in the body.
What are oligodendrocytes for?
oligodendrocyte, a kind of neuroglia present in the central nervous systems of invertebrates and vertebrates that produces myelin, a protective coating around nerve fibre axons.
How long does a synapse last?
New synapses are produced, with a one-year lifespan. These new synapses are functional; if light activates retinal neurons, postsynaptic neurons in the colliculus react (they also respond to direct electrical stimulation of retinal neurons).
How is the growth cone linked to sensory function?
Growth cones’ extremely dynamic nature enables them to react to their surroundings by swiftly altering direction and branching in response to a variety of stimuli. Axon outgrowth is divided into three stages: protrusion, engorgement, and consolidation.
What is neurogenesis in the brain?
The formation of new neurons in the brain is known as neurogenesis. Neurogenesis is critical throughout the development of an embryo, but it also occurs in some brain areas after birth and throughout our lives. 23.04.2021
When Sperry cut a newt’s optic nerve?
Sperry gave the newts two days to recuperate before beginning the second phase of the treatment. He cut a gash in the sheath enclosing the optic nerve, which sends information from the eyes to the brain, then chopped through the roof of each newt’s mouth. 16.05.2011
At what age does myelination of nerve fibers end?
Myelination (the coating or wrapping of axons with myelin) starts around the time of birth and is most fast in the first two years, although it may last up to 30 years. 24.05.2014
How long does it take for a synapse to form?
The network pathways are formed by the way they link individual neurons. The 100 trillion synapses in the human brain generate at a pace of 10,000 every 15 minutes throughout development! 18.08.2020
Conclusion
The “axon guidance molecules” is a long and thin molecule that is used in neurons to control the flow of electrical impulses. The axon guidance molecules are typically about 1-2 microns in length.
Watch This Video:
The “axon guidance disorders” is a condition that causes the brain to misfire electrical signals. The axons are the long wires that carry messages from one neuron to another, and when they misfire, it can cause problems with movement or sensation. | https://greentravelguides.tv/axon-guidance-how-far-do-they-travel-mm/ |
How neurons acquire a diverse repertoire of structural and functional properties in order to establish working neural circuits remains poorly understood. To address this question, we use the T4/T5 neurons of the Drosophila visual system as a model because of their genetic accessibility and the extensive knowledge we have about their morphology and physiology. The dendrites of T4 and T5 neurons represent the first processing stage in the fly visual system in which the direction of image motion is encoded. While T4 neurons respond to motion of brightness increments, T5 neurons detect motion of brightness decrements (Maisak et al., 2013). This specialization results from their dendrites arborizing in different neuropil regions (T4 dendrites in the medulla, T5 dendrites in the lobula) and therefore receiving synaptic input from different neuronal types. A common attribute of T4 and T5 neurons is the layer-specific innervation displayed by their dendrites and axons (Figure 1) (Fischbach and Dittrich, 1989), which is thought to support precise synaptic connectivity. We have found that SoxN and Sox102F, two members of the SOX family of transcription factors, are required in all T4 and T5 neurons during their maturation in order to restrict their dendrites and axons into single synaptic layers. When this process fails, some postsynaptic partners of T4/T5 neurons also exhibit aberrant morphologies, which affects the proper functioning of the fly motion sensing circuits (Figure 2) (Schilling et al., 2019).
Both T4 and T5 neurons can be further subdivided into four subtypes (a,b,c,d), each innervating only one of the four lobula plate layers (Figure 1) (Fischbach and Dittrich, 1989). Furthermore, each T4/T5 subtype responds exclusively to motion in one of the four cardinal directions (Maisak et al., 2013). Differences between T4/T5 neuron subtypes in directional tuning are thought to result from differences in the spatial organization of synapses they receive from an identical set of input neurons (Serbe et al., 2016; Arenz et al., 2017; Takemura et al., 2017; Shinomiya et al., 2019). How do these differences emerge during development? Interestingly, neurons of each T4/T5 subtype orient their dendrites in a subtype-specific manner (Takemura et al., 2017; Shinomiya et al., 2019). Therefore, dendrite orientation appears strictly linked to directional tuning. Our working hypothesis is that the direction in which a T4/T5 dendrite grows during development determines the arrangement of its synaptic inputs, and thus its direction selectivity. We are currently attempting to understand the cellular rules and underlying molecular mechanisms by which the four T4/T5 neuron subtypes acquire their distinctly oriented dendritic arbors.
In a recent study, we investigated when and how the dendrites of the four T4/T5 subtypes acquire their specific orientations, and characterized the transcriptomes of all T4/T5 neurons during this process (Hoermann et al., 2020). We identified a simple and stable code of transcription factors defining the four T4/T5 subtypes during dendrite development. To test whether different sets of transcription factors specify distinct dendrite orientations, we manipulated them in specific T4/T5 subtypes. We found that Grain acts together with different transcription factors in subtypes b and c to coordinate dendrite and axon morphogenesis in order to differentiate their morphologies from those of subtypes a and d, respectively (Figure 3). Our study also revealed many cell-membrane proteins with subtype-specific expression patterns during dendrite growth, whose roles in dendrite morphogenesis are being investigated by loss and gain of function approaches. Elucidating how the four T4/T5 subtypes acquire their specific dendrite morphologies will further help to understand better (1) the strategies that differentiate neuron subtypes across different neuronal populations and species, and (2) the developmental programs generating structural specializations that underlie functional specializations. Furthermore, we envision that this work will provide us with tools for manipulating specific neuronal structural properties to reveal their role in neuronal computation.
References
Arenz A, Drews MS, Richter FG, Ammer G, Borst A (2017) The Temporal Tuning of the Drosophila Motion Detectors Is Determined by the Dynamics of Their Input Elements. Current biology : CB 27:929-944. DOI
Fischbach K-F, Dittrich APM (1989) The optic lobe of Drosophila melanogaster. I. A Golgi analysis of wild-type structure. Cell and Tissue Research 258:441-475.
Hoermann N, Schilling T, Haji Ali A, Serbe E, Mayer C, Borst A, Pujol Martí J (2020) A combinatorial code of transcription factors specifies subtypes of visual motion-sensing neurons in Drosophila. Development, online 3. April 2020. DOI. | https://www.bi.mpg.de/borst/dendritedevelopment |
A team of investigators from MIT identified three proteins from the same family that appear to be responsible for the formation of axons and dendrites, as well as neurites (precursors to axons and dendrites), within the neurons of the brain:
The team, led by MIT biology professor Frank Gertler, found that a certain family of proteins is necessary to direct the formation of axons and dendrites, the cellular extensions that facilitate communication between neurons.
The work focuses on cellular outgrowths called neurites, which are the precursors to axons and dendrites. Understanding how neurites form could eventually lead to therapies involving stimulation of neurite growth, said Gertler.
“You could use these insights to help repair injuries to the top of the spinal column, or treat brain injuries or neurodegenerative disorders,” he said.
The researchers developed the first model that allows for study of the effects of this protein family, known as the Ena/VASP proteins. The team reported aspects of their work in the Nov. 11 issue of Neuron and the Nov. 18 online edition of Nature Cell Biology.
The majority of neurons in the cerebral cortex have a single axon–a long, thin extension that relays information to other cells–and many shorter dendrites, which receive messages from other cells. The interconnection of these axons and dendrites is essential to create a functional neural circuit.
In their study, the researchers found that mice without the three Ena/VASP proteins did produce brain cells, but those neurons were unable to extend any axons or dendrites. | https://www.medgadget.com/2007/11/mit_ids_proteins_key_to_brain_function.html |
- Published:
Development of dendrite polarity in Drosophila neurons
Neural Development volume 7, Article number: 34 (2012)
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Abstract
Background
Drosophila neurons have dendrites that contain minus-end-out microtubules. This microtubule arrangement is different from that of cultured mammalian neurons, which have mixed polarity microtubules in dendrites.
Results
To determine whether Drosophila and mammalian dendrites have a common microtubule organization during development, we analyzed microtubule polarity in Drosophila dendritic arborization neuron dendrites at different stages of outgrowth from the cell body in vivo. As dendrites initially extended, they contained mixed polarity microtubules, like mammalian neurons developing in culture. Over a period of several days this mixed microtubule array gradually matured to a minus-end-out array. To determine whether features characteristic of dendrites were localized before uniform polarity was attained, we analyzed dendritic markers as dendrites developed. In all cases the markers took on their characteristic distribution while dendrites had mixed polarity. An axonal marker was also quite well excluded from dendrites throughout development, although this was perhaps more efficient in mature neurons. To confirm that dendrite character could be acquired in Drosophila while microtubules were mixed, we genetically disrupted uniform dendritic microtubule organization. Dendritic markers also localized correctly in this case.
Conclusions
We conclude that developing Drosophila dendrites initially have mixed microtubule polarity. Over time they mature to uniform microtubule polarity. Dendrite identity is established before the mature microtubule arrangement is attained, during the period of mixed microtubule polarity.
Background
Many neurons are specialized to receive information through dendrites and send signals through axons. In order to establish and maintain functionally distinct compartments, different proteins must accumulate in axons and dendrites. Most neuronal protein synthesis takes place in the cell body, and so proteins must be moved to their place of function after synthesis. This long-distance transport is primarily microtubule-based[2–4], and so the arrangement of microtubules has the potential to control directional trafficking and neuronal polarity.
In primary cultures of mammalian neurons, microtubules in axons and dendrites have different arrangements. In axons, all microtubules have their plus ends directed away from the cell body (plus-end-out), and thus only plus end-directed kinesins can carry cargo into axons[1, 5]. In contrast, dendritic microtubules have mixed polarity[6, 7], and so any motor protein could carry cargo into dendrites.
In addition to the fundamental observation that microtubules have different arrangements in axons and dendrites, there are several studies that indicate a strong link between microtubule organization and dendrite identity. In cultured hippocampal neurons four to five unspecified neurites initially extend from the soma; all of these processes have plus-end-out microtubules. One of the processes then begins a rapid growth phase, and this process becomes the axon. Later, the remaining processes initiate growth as dendrites. The time at which many dendritic features are acquired and dendrites start their major outgrowth coincides with the time at which minus-end-out microtubules are added to the initial population of plus-end-out microtubules. Further evidence for the link between minus-end-out microtubules and dendrite identity was provided by phenotypic analysis of neurons in which levels of MKLP1 were reduced. In these neurons the number of minus-end-out microtubules in dendrites went down after antisense RNA treatment to reduce MKLP1, and at the same time dendritic shape and contents, including ribosomes, were lost. Thus there seems to be a strong link between mixed dendrite microtubule polarity and dendrite identity in cultured mammalian neurons.
However, the dendrites in which microtubules have been studied most extensively in vivo do not have mixed polarity. Drosophila neurons have axons and dendrites with polarized structure and function similar to mammalian neurons. Like mammalian neurons, Drosophila neurons have axons with uniform plus-end-out microtubules. However, dendrites of Drosophila larval sensory neurons[11–13], motor neurons, and interneurons have close to uniform minus-end-out polarity. Motor neuron dendrites in C. elegans neurons share this minus-end-out organization. This discrepancy in microtubule organization between cultured mammalian neurons and Drosophila and C. elegans neurons raises a number of questions, including whether polarized trafficking in invertebrate and mammalian neurons is fundamentally different, and whether a uniform minus-end-out neurite is capable of outgrowth. To begin to answer these questions we have analyzed the development of microtubule polarity in Drosophila neurons in vivo. We find that, as in mammalian neurons, Drosophila dendrites have mixed polarity early in their outgrowth. In fact it takes several days after dendrites are specified to attain uniform minus-end-out polarity. We also find that, as in mammalian neurons, major features of dendrite identity are established when dendritic microtubules are mixed.
Results
Strategies for live imaging of neuronal microtubule polarity during embryonic and larval development
To determine how microtubule polarity is established in dendrites of Drosophila neurons, we first needed to develop imaging conditions that would allow us to assay microtubule growth at all stages of dendrite development. Growing, but not shrinking, microtubules can be labeled with end-binding (EB) protein family members tagged with fluorescent proteins. The direction of movement of EB protein comets seems to give a reliable readout of microtubule polarity, and has been used to monitor polarity in mammalian, C. elegans, and Drosophila neurons[5, 7, 11, 14]. In Drosophila, microtubule dynamics are most easily assayed in larval dendritic arborization neurons[11–13, 15]. These are sensory neurons that extend dendrites under the cuticle and epidermal cells and act as proprioceptors and nociceptors[16, 17]. Their cell bodies are located in the periphery at the center of their often elaborate dendritic arbors and their axons extend to the central nervous system. As their dendrites are very close to the surface of the animal, they are well-suited for live imaging. We therefore used these neurons for our analysis. One of the simplest of these neurons, ddaE, is visible from early developmental stages (Figure1), and was used for much of the analysis. In particular, it extends a dendrite that resembles a comb, and localization studies were performed in this dendrite.
In Drosophila, EB1-GFP can be expressed in neurons or subsets of neurons using the Gal4-UAS system. Most Gal4 drivers we tried did not, however, drive sufficient levels of EB1-GFP to detect comets in neurons at early stages of dendrite development. We did, however, find that 1407-Gal4 could be used to express EB1-GFP at early stages of dendrite outgrowth in Drosophila embryos (Figure1, stage 1). For analysis of later stages of dendrite development we used the pan-neuronal elav-Gal4 driver (Figure1).
For imaging microtubule dynamics in early stages of dendrite outgrowth before embryos were motile, we used a very simple mounting and imaging strategy. Dechorionated embryos under a thin layer of halocarbon oil were imaged on open coverslips suspended on the stage of an upright confocal microscope. This technique allowed us to image dendrites of neurons expressing EB1-GFP until late in embryonic development when embryos start to move inside the vitelline membrane. To image late-stage embryos, corresponding to stage 5 of dendrite development, we developed a strategy to immobilize living embryos.
To reduce mobility of late-stage embryos, we crossed a temperature-sensitive paralytic mutation (Shits1) into a genetic background that contained elav-Gal4 and UAS-EB1-GFP transgenes. Embryos with two copies of Shits1 and one copy of each of the transgenes were mounted for imaging, and were then warmed on the microscope stage with an objective heater. This allowed us to image EB1-GFP dynamics in paralyzed embryos that had developed up until imaging with normal neuronal function.
Imaging young larvae also presented a challenge as they are much more fragile than the second and third instar larvae we previously analyzed. We therefore used the Shits1 line for very young larvae as well and mounted these between an air-permeable membrane and cover slip. We were thus able to perform live imaging of microtubule dynamics throughout dendrite development (Figure1).
Microtubule polarity progresses from mixed to uniform as dendrites mature
To analyze microtubule polarity throughout dendrite development, we acquired time series of EB1-GFP at the stages indicated in Figures1 and2. At all stages we analyzed neurons in at least 10 different animals. Example frames from these movies are shown (Figure2 and Additional files1,2,3,4,5,6,7). Growing microtubules appear as bright spots that can be tracked through multiple frames of the movie. The direction of comet movement was determined from the movies, and percent of minus-end-out microtubules in each movie were calculated. The averages and standard deviations were calculated from the movies taken for each stage (Figure2C). During early stages of dendrite outgrowth, from stage 1 when dendrites extended from the cell body as a single unbranched process, to the establishment of much more branched dendrites in stage 4, 40% to 50% of microtubules had minus-end-out polarity. At these time points there were some dendrites in which comets moved primarily in one direction, and this could be either plus-end-out or minus-end-out, and there were also many dendrites which were mixed, with comets moving in opposite directions (see Additional files2 and3). Generally variability and mixing characterized these early stages. At late embryonic and early larval stages the percentage of minus-end-out microtubules increased to about 70%. Again, individual dendrites with comets moving in both directions were observed (see Additional file5). The mature almost uniform and very consistent minus-end-out polarity was attained by 2 days after larval hatching. Thus the transition from mixed polarity to uniform minus-end-out microtubules in dendrites was gradual and was not complete until well after dendrites were highly branched and the animal had been living as a functional larva.
Ribosomes localize to dendrites while microtubules are mixed
The late stage in dendrite development at which uniform polarity was acquired suggested that dendrite identity was established while microtubule polarity was mixed. Ribosomes localize predominantly to the cell body and dendrites in mammalian neurons, and very few are present in axons under normal circumstances. As ribosomes can therefore be used as markers of dendrites, we wished to determine whether ribosomes localized to Drosophila dendrites before or after they acquired uniform microtubule polarity.
To label ribosomes, we expressed the ribosomal subunit L10 tagged with YFP in neurons. This tagged protein was previously shown to have a similar localization pattern to other components of the protein synthetic machinery in Drosophila brains, highly concentrated in the cell body and absent from axons. In da neurons most L10-YFP was seen in cell bodies (Figure3A). We also observed distinct spots of L10-YFP at dendrite branch points (Figure3A). To determine whether these were likely to represent dendritic ribosomes, we performed fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments. If L10-YFP was not incorporated into ribosomes, it would be expected to diffuse very rapidly and recover quickly after photobleaching. If the tagged protein was attached to a ribosome it would be expected not to recover much as these are large structures that diffuse little in neurons. When spots of L10-YFP at dendrite branch points were bleached, very little recovery was observed in 2 min after bleaching (Figure3C and D). In contrast the membrane marker mCD8-RFP, which was bleached at the same time, recovered rapidly (Figure3C and D). L10-YFP therefore is likely to represent ribosome distribution. To gain further support for the validity of L10-YFP as a marker of ribosomal localization, we compared its distribution to that of an independently generated tagged ribosomal subunit. L10a is a ribosomal protein that has no sequence similarity to L10. Mouse L10a, which is about 80% identical to the fly L10a protein, was tagged with EGFP and expressed in da neurons. Like L10-YFP, EGFP-L10A was localized to the cytoplasm in the cell body and many dendrite branch points (average branch point occupancy 61%, standard deviation 17.2% in 17 larvae examined; example images are shown in Additional file8: Figure S1). Bright spots were also seen in many nuclei; these are probably nucleoli. Thus both ribosomal markers examined localized to dendrite branch points, and so we determined when in development they took up this position.
When we examined the pattern of L10-YFP fluorescence during dendrite development, we could observe spots at branch points as soon as they were formed (Figure3A and B). Initially L10-YFP was primarily at branch points along main trunks of dendrites that emerged from cell bodies. Two days after larval hatching spots of fluorescence were also seen at more distal branch points (Figure3 A and B). This increase in distal L10-YFP could either reflect increased concentrations of L10-YFP that make all ribosome populations easier to visualize, or it could reflect an outward transport of ribosomes as uniform polarity in dendrites is achieved. In either case, L10-YFP was capable of localizing to major dendrite branch points at the time when microtubule polarity was mixed. We thus conclude that ribosome targeting to dendrites occurs during mixed microtubule polarity, and does not require uniform minus-end-out polarity.
Mitochondria and the dendritic protein Apc2 can localize to dendrite branch points before microtubules attain uniform polarity
To confirm that uniform microtubule polarity was not a prerequisite for localization of organelles or proteins to specific regions of dendrites, we tracked mitochondria and Apc2-GFP (adenomatous polyposis coli 2) during dendrite development. Mitochondria are distributed throughout axons and dendrites, and in dendrites often seem to be associated with branch points (Figure4A and C). While the proportion of branch points occupied by mitochondria increases slightly 2 days after larval hatching, around 40% of branch points are occupied from the time they are formed (Figure4A and C). The most obvious change in mitochondria during dendrite development was a change in shape. When dendrites initially extended from the cell body most mitochondria had an extended linear shape. As development proceeded, mitochondria become shorter (Figure4A and C). This change, however, is more likely to be related to altered mitochondrial fission than organization of microtubules. Mitochondria took on their specific position within dendrites early in development, but we also wanted to test another marker that was polarized to dendrites and not found in axons.
Apc2-GFP is localized to cell bodies, dendrites, and some proximal axons, but not distal axons, in Drosophila central neurons and dendritic arborization neurons. It is one of the most polarized markers we have found that distinguishes Drosophila dendrites from axons. Within dendrites it is very specifically localized to dendrite branch points where Apc2 plays a role in controlling microtubule polarity. Apc2-GFP localized strongly to dendrites from very early stages (Figure4B and C). It also localized to nascent branches as they were forming, from the stage when new branches resemble filopodia. As the branches developed, Apc2-GFP became more distinctly localized to the branch point itself. Thus localization of Apc2-GFP in dendrites, and association with branches, was a very early developmental event that preceded uniform microtubule polarity.
Mitochondria and Apc2-GFP distribute normally in dendrites with mixed microtubule polarity
As ribosomes, mitochondria and Apc2-GFP took their characteristic positions in dendrites before uniform microtubule polarity was established, we hypothesized that mixed microtubule polarity was sufficient to determine dendrite identity. To test whether uniform microtubule polarity was required for localization of organelles or proteins within dendrites, we compared marker distribution in control neurons and neurons with reduced levels of Kap3. Kap3 is an accessory subunit of the kinesin-2 motor[22, 23]. When levels of Kap3 or either of the two motor subunits of kinesin-2 are reduced, dendrite microtubule polarity is non-uniform. In the main trunk of the class I dendritic arborization neuron ddaE microtubule polarity changes from less than 5% plus-end-out to greater than 30% plus-end-out when Kap3 is targeted by RNAi. Dendrite shape is unchanged under these conditions. We therefore compared mitochondria and Apc2-GFP distribution in control and Kap3 RNAi ddaE neurons.
The overall distribution of mitochondria in control RNAi and Kap3 RNAi neurons appeared similar (Figure5A). To quantitatively compare the mitochondrial pattern in the comb dendrite of ddaE in these two genotypes we used two measures. We counted the number of mitochondria per unit length of dendrite, and found that in control and Kap3 RNAi dendrites about five mitochondria were present per 100 microns of dendrite (Figure5B). We also counted the percent of branches along the main comb dendrite of ddaE that were occupied by mitochondria. In both genotypes 80% to 90% of these branch points contained mitochondria (Figure5). These numbers are likely higher than those for developing dendrites (Figure4C) for two reasons: (1) only branch points along the main dendrite trunk of ddaE were counted here, compared to all visible branch points in developing dendrites; and (2) the images in Figure5 were acquired later in development than the last data point in Figure4.
Similar experiments were performed to determine whether Apc2-GFP localized differently in mature neurons with uniform or mixed polarity (Figure5B). In control RNAi neurons more than 90% of branch points along the main trunk of the ddaE comb dendrite contained Apc2-GFP punctae. Similar numbers of branch points were occupied when Kap3 levels were reduced by RNAi (Figure5C). Thus two different markers were able to occupy their normal positions in dendrites that cannot acquire uniform microtubule polarity. This result is consistent with the experiments in embryos that showed Apc2-GFP and mitochondria localized to dendrites early in their development, before uniform microtubule polarity was established.
Few ANF-GFP vesicles are found in dendrites, even when microtubules have mixed polarity
As dendritic components localized to dendrites early in development and did not seem to require uniform polarity microtubules to establish their characteristic distributions, we also wished to determine whether axonal components could be excluded from axons while dendritic microtubules were mixed. EGFP-tagged Atrial Natriurietic Factor (ANF-GFP) has been used to perform detailed tracking of dense core vesicles (DCVs) in Drosophila neurons. When this marker is expressed in dendritic arborization neurons punctae are abundant in the cell body and axons of larvae, but are rare in dendrites (Figure6B). To determine when this polarized distribution is established we analyzed ANF-GFP localization in embryonic da neurons. Individual punctae only became bright enough to score consistently in neurons with branched dendrites (stage 3–4). At this time punctae were visible in the cell body, and could also be seen in some dendrites (Figure6A). In stage 5 neurons, most ddaE neurons had at least three punctae of ANF-GFP in the comb dendrites (Figure6A). Although the dendrite arbors of 2-day larvae were much longer than those in embryos, the number of punctae did not increase, and in fact was slightly lower (Figure6A). We therefore considered the possibility that the establishment of uniform microtubule polarity might help to exclude axonal cargoes from dendrites.
To test the link between uniform microtubule polarity and exclusion of DCVs from dendrites, we tested whether the number of ANF-GFP punctae would increase in neurons in which Kap3 levels were reduced and dendrite microtubule polarity was mixed. In both Kap3 and control RNAi neurons in 3-day-old larvae, ANF-GFP punctae were frequently found in dendrites up to the first branch point. However, only a few punctae were typically found beyond this point in either genotype (Figure6B), and no significant difference between genotypes was observed. Note that the number of punctae in larvae in Figure6B is higher than in 6A, probably because a stronger Gal4 driver was used in the RNAi experiment. We conclude that DCVs may be more slightly efficiently excluded from dendrites in mature neurons, but this does not seem to be due to the more uniform microtubule polarity.
Discussion
This study is the first to examine how microtubule polarity develops in dendrites in vivo. In Drosophila dendritic arborization neurons, microtubule polarity was mixed during the major period of dendrite outgrowth during embryogenesis. Towards the end of embryogenesis and the beginning of larval life, the number of minus-end-out microtubules gradually exceeded that of plus-end-out microtubules, until 2 days into the larval period more than 90% of microtubules were minus-end-out. In mammalian cultured neurons, microtubules also have mixed polarity in dendrites as they grow out from the cell body. Thus microtubule polarity is similar in fly and mammalian dendrites during their development. This similarity suggests that conserved mechanisms could establish the basic layout of neuronal microtubules from flies to mammals.
To determine whether the change from mixed to uniform polarity in Drosophila dendrites affects localization of organelles or proteins, we analyzed a variety of markers during dendrite development. All were able to acquire their characteristic localization patterns in developing dendrites with mixed polarity. Again, this suggests similarity with mammalian neurons in culture, which can develop polarized dendrites with mixed microtubule orientation. Moreover specific cargoes can be delivered directly to mixed orientation dendrites in culture by polarized transport. Thus mixed microtubule polarity is sufficient to allow targeting of dendritic cargoes in both systems.
For analysis of axonal targeting we used ANF-GFP as it labels discrete neuropeptide vesicles that can be targeted relatively specifically to axons in da neurons (see Figure6B). During embryonic dendrite development some of these vesicles could be seen in dendrite arbors, and when the marker was expressed at relatively low levels with elav-Gal4 (Figure6A) very few were seen in larval dendrites. Thus DCVs may be slightly more efficiently excluded from dendrites in more mature neurons. To probe whether efficient exclusion of DCVs from dendrites might be related to acquisition of uniform microtubule polarity we compared the number of punctae in dendrites with mixed and uniform polarity microtubules. In both cases occasional punctae were seen in dendrites, but there was not a difference between the two sets. The lack of DCV escape into dendrites with mixed polarity is consistent with a recent study of DCV targeting to C. elegans dendrites, which also found that factors other than microtubule polarity were likely to control polarized targeting of these vesicles. It is possible, however, that microtubule polarity may contribute to efficient exclusion of other types of axonal cargoes from dendrites.
Two major models of polarized transport have been proposed to account for differential accumulation of proteins and organelles in axons and dendrites. One relies on plus end-directed kinesins to transport cargo into both axons and dendrites. In this model either different sets of motors, or different motor-cargo combinations are directed specifically to axons or dendrites[2, 3]. This type of kinesin-based model could account for trafficking in developing dendrites of flies and mammals, but becomes difficult to rationalize in mature Drosophila dendrites. The alternate model is that the major minus end-directed motor, dynein, plays a key role in transport from the cell body into dendrites. Indeed there is phenotypic evidence for a role for dynein in anterograde dendrite transport in Drosophila[12, 13], and dynein can also transport cargo into mammalian dendrites. It will be interesting to determine the relative contributions of kinesins and dynein to dendrite trafficking in future studies.
The finding that dendrite identity is established in flies and mammals when microtubules have mixed polarity raises the question of why Drosophila dendrites switch to minus-end-out polarity. The only current answers to this question are speculative. Having opposite polarity microtubules in axons and dendrites should increase efficiency of polarized transport and reduce targeting errors. So far we have not been able to detect differences in Drosophila dendrites with mixed and uniform polarity, but these may exist.
It is not yet clear whether mammalian dendrites ever have uniform minus-end-out polarity. One intriguing study has raised the possibility that very mature mammalian neurons in vivo may have regions of dendrites near the cell body that have uniform microtubule polarity. However, the second harmonic generation microscopy technique used could not distinguish between uniform polarity plus-end-out or minus-end-out microtubules, so it remains to be resolved whether mammalian dendrites can have minus-end-out polarity. It is clear, however, that developing Drosophila and mammalian neurons share a similar organization of microtubules, and that in both cases roughly equal numbers of plus and minus-end-out microtubules are present as dendrites grow.
Conclusions
We have analyzed microtubule polarity and marker distribution during development of dendrites in Drosophila neurons in vivo. We conclude that as they grow out from the cell body, dendrites initially have mixed microtubule polarity. This organization gradually changes to minus-end-out over the next two days. The dendritic and axonal markers examined were able to localize correctly before the final microtubule polarity was achieved.
Methods
Fly stocks and genetics
Flies were kept at room temperature in standard media. Most transgenic lines have been previously described (see). Many of the lines were received from the Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center. RNAi lines were from the Vienna Drosophila RNAi Center (VDRC). A UAS-ANF-GFP insertion on the third chromosome was generously provided by David Deitcher.
The only line not previously described was the ribosomal marker UAS-EGFP-L10a. As a basis for this line, a plasmid containing an inframe fusion of EGFP and the mouse L10a ribosomal protein was obtained from Joshua Ainsley (Tufts University School of Medicine). The EGFP-L10a coding segment was subcloned into the pUAST transformation vector, and transgenic strains were generated using standard methods by Genetic Services, Inc.
In order to visualize microtubule polarity several different genetic backgrounds were used. For early stages of dendrite outgrowth 1407 Gal4 was used to drive expression of UAS-EB1-GFP. For older embryos and larvae, progeny from a cross between males of genotype shits1/Y; elav- Gal4, UAS-EB1-GFP and females of genotype shits1/shits1 were used. In order to visualize ribosomes in the da neurons, males with UAS-mcD8-RFP on chromosome II were crossed with females of the line UAS-L10-YFP, elavGal4/TM6 and non-tubby progeny were imaged. To visualize mitochondria, larvae from the line UAS-dicer, UAS-mcD8-RFP/CyO; elav-Gal4, UAS-mitoGFP/TM6 were used. Lastly, to visualize Apc2-GFP, males with an elav-Gal4 transgene were crossed to females from the line UAS-mCD8-RFP, UAS-dicer2; 221-Gal4, UAS-Apc2-GFP. This Apc2-GFP line was also used as a tester line for RNAi experiments, and progeny from this line crossed to a control RNAi targeting Rtnl2 (VDRC 33320) or an experimental RNAi targeting Kap3 (VDRC 45400) were analyzed. For analysis of mitochondria localization in conjunction with RNAi the UAS-dicer, UAS-mcD8-RFP/CyO; elav-Gal4, UAS-mitoGFP/TM6 line was crossed to the same pair of RNAi lines and progeny were analyzed. For analysis of ANF-GFP localization a tester line of genotype UAS-dicer, UAS-mcD8-RFP/CyO; 221-Gal4, UAS-ANF-GFP/TM6 was generated. It was crossed to RNAi lines targeting either Rtnl2 as a control or Kap3. For RNAi analysis embryos were collected overnight on either a yeasted apple cap or a cap containing standard Drosophila media, then aged for 3 days at 25°C.
Embryo and larval preparation and microscopy
Embryos were collected overnight on apple caps with yeast paste. The chorion was dissolved with 50% bleach solution for 2 min. After thorough rinsing with water, embryos were collected in heptane and transferred to a coverslip. Immediately after the heptane evaporated, embryos were covered in a thin layer of halocarbon oil 27 (Sigma). The coverslip was suspended with embryos open underneath it on the microscope stage. For EB1-GFP imaging in late stage embryos, an objective heater (BiOptechs) set to 36°C was used to warm the embryos as they were being imaged.
Young larvae were collected from apple caps within 2 h after hatching. They were then placed on air-permeable membrane supported on a metal slide and a coverslip was placed on top. An objective heater was used as for embryos.
For ‘2 day’ larvae imaging, embryos were collected overnight on a food cap. The food cap was then removed to a petri dish and larvae were aged for two days at 25°C before imaging. Larvae were then rinsed in Schneider’s media and transferred onto dried agarose pad on microscope slides. Larvae were then carefully rotated to dorsal side up and covered with glass coverslips taped onto the slide.
An Olympus FV1000 confocal microscope was used for all imaging. Timeseries were acquired using a 60× 1.4 NA objective.
Analysis of EB1-GFP, mitoGFP, L10-YFP, and Apc2-GFP
For each embryo or larva, neurons in only one hemisegment were analyzed. All analysis was performed in ImageJ. For EB1-GFP dynamics, comets were only counted if seen in three consecutive frames. Each dendrite branch was watched independently for comets. Dendrites were categorized as those emerging directly from the cell body and those branching from another dendrite. For mito-GFP and Apc2-GFP, spots on branch points were counted as well as total number of branch points in the dendrites. These values were used to determine percentage of branch points occupied. For mito-GFP spot length was also recorded for every spot visible in the dendrites. The ImageJ measure function was used to determine length.
FRAP analysis
Photobleaching of L10-YFP was performed with the 488 nm laser on an Olympus FV1000 confocal microscope. Both L10-YFP and mCD8-RFP were bleached simultaneously with this laser at 100% power. Images of both channels were acquired every 3.3 s after bleaching. Analysis of recovery was performed in ImageJ. Small regions of interest within the bleach area, and also a background area without a fluorescent cell, were defined and the average intensity of the area was measured in the time series. The background value was subtracted from the value in the bleach area. The value of the area of interest was set to 100 before bleaching and 0 immediately after bleaching. Remaining values were normalized to this scale. Averages of these normalized values are plotted in the graph. Error bars represent the standard deviation at each timepoint.
RNAi and analysis of Apc2-GFP and mitoGFP
Progeny of the analysis lines for Apc2-GFP and mitoGFP (see section on fly stocks and genetics) crossed to RNA hairpin lines were collected overnight on food caps. Caps were then transferred to a petri dish and aged for 3 days at 25°C. Larvae were mounted for live imaging on slides with dried agarose pads, and coverslips were taped on top of the larvae to restrain them. Images were acquired with an Olympus FV1000 confocal microscope. The localization of Apc2-GFP and mitoGFP was analyzed in the ddaE neuron. One ddaE neuron per animal was imaged and analyzed. Branch point occupancy was calculated along the primary branch of the dorsal comb-like dendrite. Mitochondria per unit length was also calculated in this part of the neuron. Measurements were performed using ImageJ.
Analysis of ANF-GFP
For developmental analysis ANF-GFP was expressed together with mCD8-RFP using the pan-neuronal elav-Gal4 driver. Images were acquired as for other markers. For RNAi analysis the tester line UAS-mCD8-RFP, UAS-dicer2; UAS-ANF-GFP, 221-Gal4 was crossed to either Rtnl2 (VDRC 33320) or Kap3 (VDRC 45400) RNAi lines. Larvae were aged as for other RNAi experiments, and GFP punctae beyond the first branch point of the ddaE comb dendrite were counted in images acquired on a Zeiss LSM510 microscope.
Abbreviations
- Apc:
-
Adenomatous polyposis coli
- EB:
-
End-binding
- FRAP:
-
Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching.
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to all members of the Rolls lab for technical help and ideas. The Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center and Vienna Drosophila RNAi Center are great resources, and we are indebted to them for many useful fly stocks. We are also grateful to David Deitcher for the ANF-GFP flies. This work was supported by an American Heart Association Scientist Development Grant, by March of Dimes Grant-in-Aid 1-FY10-359, and by R01 GM085115. MMR is a Pew Scholar in the Biomedical Sciences. FRJ and YH were supported by NIH R01 NS065900 and a NARSAD award from the Brain Research Foundation.
Additional information
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ contributions
SEH carried out experiments on development of dendrite polarity and analyzed these results. MP, KWG, and MAG carried out RNAi experiments with Kap3 and analyzed these results. YH and FRJ designed, made, and validated the GFP-L10a ribosome marker. MMR designed experiments, prepared the figures, and wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Electronic supplementary material
13064_2012_223_MOESM1_ESM.mov
Additional file 1: Movie 1. EB1-GFP in embryos: stage 1. EB1-GFP was expressed in embryos with 1407-Gal4. Movies were acquired with a confocal microscope. Cell bodies (CB) are near the bottom of the frame, and the dendrites extend dorsally. Examples of comets are labeled with stars in the movie. (MOV 5 MB)
13064_2012_223_MOESM2_ESM.mov
Additional file 2: Movie 2. EB1-GFP in embryos: stage 2. EB1-GFP comets can be seen in dendrites extending from the cell bodies in this cell that is late stage 1/stage 2. Several examples are labeled with stars. Cell bodies (CB) are at bottom left. (MOV 7 MB)
13064_2012_223_MOESM3_ESM.mov
Additional file 3: Movie 3. EB1-GFP in embryos: stage 3. EB1-GFP was expressed in neurons with elav-Gal4. An example of neurons as they are extending side branches from dendrites is shown. Several comets are marked with stars. (MOV 6 MB)
13064_2012_223_MOESM4_ESM.mov
Additional file 4: Movie 4. EB1-GFP in embryos: stage 4. EB1-GFP was expressed with elav-Gal4. Several examples of comets are indicated with stars. Many of the bright cells down the middle of the group of cells are neurons with ciliated dendrites, not branched dendrites as in the dendritic arborization neurons we analyzed. (MOV 8 MB)
13064_2012_223_MOESM5_ESM.mov
Additional file 5: Movie 5. EB1-GFP in embryos: stage 5. EB1-GFP was expressed in all neurons with elav-Gal4. Again, central bright cells are ciliated sensory neurons that do not extend branched dendrites. Examples of comets in dendritic arborization neuron dendrites are indicated with stars. Ripples in the movie are from muscle contractions; although the animals had a temperature sensitive paralytic allele, they were not completely immobilized under the imaging conditions. (MOV 6 MB)
13064_2012_223_MOESM6_ESM.mov
Additional file 6: Movie 6. EB1-GFP in a newly hatched larva. EB1-GFP expressed by elav-Gal4 was imaged in animals less than 2 h after hatching. The overall shape of the neurons is very similar to late stage embryos. Several comets are labeled with stars. (MOV 7 MB)
13064_2012_223_MOESM7_ESM.mov
Additional file 7: Movie 7. EB1-GFP in a larva 2 days after hatching. Dendrites from a single neuron expressing EB1-GFP are visible in this movie. The cell body is at top right, so comets moving up are at the tips of minus-end-out microtubules. Examples of comets are labeled with stars. (MOV 2 MB)
13064_2012_223_MOESM8_ESM.pdf
Additional file 8: Figure S1. EGFP-L10a localizes to the cell body and dendrite branch points of da neurons. EGFP-L10a and mCD8-RFP were expressed in all neurons with elav-Gal4. Images of da neurons 2-day-old larvae were acquired and two examples are shown. EGFP-L10a concentrations localized at dendrite branch points are indicated with arrowheads. (PDF 2 MB)
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Hill, S.E., Parmar, M., Gheres, K.W. et al. Development of dendrite polarity in Drosophila neurons. Neural Dev 7, 34 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1186/1749-8104-7-34
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In both insects and mammals, olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) expressing specific olfactory receptors converge their axons onto specific glomeruli,creating a spatial map in the brain. We have previously shown that second order projection neurons (PNs) in Drosophila are prespecified by lineage and birth order to send their dendrites to one of ∼50 glomeruli in the antennal lobe. How can a given class of ORN axons match up with a given class of PN dendrites? Here, we examine the cellular and developmental events that lead to this wiring specificity. We find that, before ORN axon arrival,PN dendrites have already created a prototypic map that resembles the adult glomerular map, by virtue of their selective dendritic localization. Positional cues that create this prototypic dendritic map do not appear to be either from the residual larval olfactory system or from glial processes within the antennal lobe. We propose instead that this prototypic map might originate from both patterning information external to the developing antennal lobe and interactions among PN dendrites.
Introduction
Neural maps are a key feature of brain organization. For example, many areas of the visual system maintain a retinotopic organisation corresponding to a two-dimensional projection of visual space onto the retina. The developmental origins of these maps have been extensively studied in the projection of retinal ganglion cells to the optic tectum / superior colliculus. Retinal ganglion cells initially overshoot their correct termination zone but then show site-specific collateral branching and pruning to the correct location of the developing tectum according to their position of origin in the retinal map (Simon and O'Leary, 1992; Yates et al.,2001). Gradients of axon guidance cues of the ephrin and Eph receptor families are believed to regulate both initial extension and the subsequent refinement. Final refinement of these maps seems to rely on activity-dependent mechanisms; spatially correlated firing in an input field might cause spatially correlated synaptic strengthening in the target field,leading to a smoothly graded map (reviewed in Katz and Shatz, 1996). However not all maps show the same graded organization – the map in the first olfactory processing area (the olfactory bulb in vertebrates) shows a discontinuous, punctate organization consisting of individual functional units, called glomeruli. Each glomerulus is the site of convergence for axons of olfactory receptor neurons expressing a specific seven-transmembrane-span olfactory receptor. Odorants typically bind multiple olfactory receptors, so the representation of olfactory stimuli is believed to be combinatorial: the activation of distinct groups of glomeruli signifies the presence in the external world of different odorants (reviewed in Axel, 1995; Buck, 2000).
The developmental origins of this punctate olfactory map remain somewhat mysterious. Experiments in mice have demonstrated an apparent role for the olfactory receptors in this process (Wang et al., 1998; Vassalli et al.,2002) but showed no substantial role for activity in the establishment of the map (Lin et al.,2000; Zheng et al.,2000). Recent studies in Drosophila(Gao et al., 2000; Vosshall et al., 2000) have highlighted the organizational similarities of vertebrate and insect olfactory systems (reviewed in Strausfeld and Hildebrand, 1999), opening up another model system to address the developmental origins of the olfactory map.
The antennal lobe (AL) is the first olfactory centre in the Drosophila brain (Fig. 1A). Structurally it is a flattened sphere of maximum diameter∼80 μm subdivided into about 50 glomeruli(Laissue et al., 1999; Kondoh et al., 2003), which are the functional units of the olfactory map. In cellular terms, it consists of the cytoplasmic processes (but not cell bodies) of four major cell types:the axonal terminals of olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) and the dendrites of second-order projection neurons (PNs) (both of which usually invade single glomeruli), local interneurons (LNs) [whose processes ramify through large areas of the lobe, synapsing in many glomeruli(Stocker et al., 1990)] and,finally, glial processes ensheathing the glomeruli(Jhaveri et al., 2000).
In Drosophila, the connectivity of the second-order neurons (i.e. PNs) has been well studied in comparison to vertebrate mitral/tufted cells. In particular, it has been possible to show that individual PNs are prespecified by lineage and birth order to form synaptic connections only with one specific class of incoming ORNs (Jefferis et al.,2001). How can the axons of one class of ORNs synapse specifically with one class of PNs? There are approximately 50 classes each of these pre-and postsynaptic neurons, so this represents a significant challenge in cell recognition. One can present three basic hypotheses as to how the eventual wiring specificity is achieved (Fig. 1B). (1) Presynaptic ORN axons are the first to pattern the developing AL and act as targets for partner dendrites. (2) Postsynaptic PN dendrites are the first to pattern the developing AL and act as targets for ORN axon guidance. (3) Patterning is created by coincident targeting of ORN axons and PN dendrites, presumably reacting to some common positional cues. It is important to realize that, in these three models, it is the order of spatial patterning rather than arrival time of ORN axons or PN dendrites that is most significant. Neuronal processes could initially be unpatterned and broadly distributed through the developing AL before their eventual restriction to a particular region (for an example, see Fig. 1C, which is a variant of the Model 1 in Fig. 1B).
Here, we present a systematic study of the development of PNs down to single-cell resolution. We find that specific connectivity in the AL develops in three phases. First, PN dendrites show active targeting to specific regions of the developing AL before the arrival of their partner ORN axons; a prototypic map resembling the adult AL therefore forms before any physical contact with ORN axons. Second, glomerular development proceeds rapidly after the arrival of ORNs and a largely mature glomerular organisation is reached before significant glial ingrowth. Finally, glomeruli increase uniformly in size and are wrapped by glia. These studies reveal two previously unexpected findings, which might be of general significance in neural development. First,PN dendrites are capable of autonomous growth and pattern formation in the absence of their future presynaptic partners. Second, our analysis does not support the existence of a third-party guidepost cells or processes within the developing AL that serve as origins of pattern formation; instead, we propose that the olfactory map originates both from patterning information external to the developing AL and from interactions among PN dendrites.
Materials and methods
Fly stocks
Labelling of ORNs in Fig. 2was achieved by generating MARCM (Lee and Luo, 1999) clones in the antennal and eye discs/optic lobe with ey-FLP (Hummel et al.,2003). The genotype was GAL4-C155 ey-FLP/+; FRTG13tubP-GAL80/FRTG13 UAS:mCD8-GFP.
In Figs 3 and 4, PN MARCM clones were induced by 1-2 hour, 37°C heat shocks at approximately 0-4 hours after larval hatching unless otherwise specified; single cell PN clones generated at this time are from the anterodorsal lineage and will always send their dendrites to dorsolateral glomerulus 1 (DL1). For the initial time series experiments,flies were of the genotype y w hs-FLP UAS-mCD8-GFP/+ or Y;FRTG13 tubP-GAL80/FRTG13 GAL4-GH146 UAS-mCD8-GFP.
The enhancer trap GAL4-Mz19 was originally characterised by Ito et al. (Ito et al., 1998) and its PN expression was characterized by K. Tanaka (unpublished). A recombinant chromosome was generated to produce flies of the genotype y w; GAL4-Mz19 UAS-mCD8-GFP.
Immunochemistry
Fixation, immunochemistry and imaging were carried out as described(Jefferis et al., 2001). Additional antibodies used in this study were: the mouse monoclonal 9F8A9 and the rat monoclonal 7E8A10 against Elav, both at1:20 dilution; the mouse monoclonal 8D12 against Repo at 1:10 dilution (all DSHB, University of Iowa);rat monoclonal anti-N-cadherin extracellular domain, at 1:40 dilution (T. Uemura, Kyoto University); rabbit polyclonal antibody against green fluorescent protein (GFP), 1:800 (Molecular Probes); Cy5-conjugated goat anti-rat/mouse IgG at 1:400 dilution (Jackson). General nuclear staining was with TOTO-3 for 30 minutes at 1:1000 of the stock concentration (Molecular Probes).
Defining the border of the developing AL
N-Cadherin staining was used as the reference for defining the extent of the developing AL. When N-cadherin was not used, anti-fasciclin-II (FasII)antibody and/or TOTO-3 staining (for nuclei) were used to trace the outline of the lobe. In the case of TOTO-3, this generated a clear if slightly less accurate border. In the case of FasII, three axon tract branch points were used as fiducial points in conjunction with weak FasII staining in the core of the developing AL; this allowed the lobe outline to be estimated reliably. This approach was validated by blind labelling of the AL outline using the FasII channel in confocal stacks of brains triple labelled for GH146,N-cadherin and FasII.
Results
The adult AL develops during pupal stages. However, there is a larval AL(Cobb, 1999; Python and Stocker, 2002)composed of embryonically born ORNs and PNs; although these ORNs (hereafter called larva-specific ORNs) degenerate during metamorphosis, the PNs(hereafter called persistent PNs) actually persist through metamorphosis(G.S.X.E.J. and E. C. Marin, unpublished) and are integrated into the adult olfactory system (Fig. 1D). Thus, the adult AL, which is the focus of this paper, is composed of adult-specific ORNs born in early pupal stages, adult-specific PNs born in larval stages, and persistent PNs born in the embryo, which function both in the larva and the adult. Although this study focuses on the development of adult-specific PNs, we first describe the sequence of adult-specific ORN axon development because the precise timing of axon arrival is crucial to our study.
Timing of ORN axon development
Adult-specific ORNs (hereafter referred to simply as ORNs) are born during early pupal development and send their axons towards the AL shortly thereafter. Two previous studies (Tissot et al., 1997; Jhaveri et al.,2000) have described the timing of ORN axon arrival at the developing AL using several enhancer-trap lines expressed in subsets of ORNs. Jhaveri et al. (Jhaveri et al.,2000) observed that pioneering ORN axons begin to contact the lobe 18 hours after puparium formation (APF) and start to invade the lobe 20 hours APF. Besides confirming that developmental staging was consistent between laboratories, we felt that a re-examination of the time of ORN axon arrival was important for two reasons. First, we have found that N-cadherin labels the developing AL (H. Zhu, personal communication), providing an objective criterion to define this structure that was not available in earlier studies. Second, we examined contributions from all ORNs to exclude the possibility that some particularly precocious ORNs would not be labelled by the enhancer trap lines used in earlier studies.
In order to label ORN axons of all types, we used GAL4-C155, an enhancer trap of the elav locus expressed in all post-mitotic neurons as soon as they are born (Robinow and White, 1988). However, because we did not wish to label neurons within the brain, we combined this with the MARCM strategy(Lee and Luo, 1999) and the eyeless-FLP element (Newsome et al., 2000); in addition to the eye disc, ey-FLP drives mitotic recombination in the antennal disc and maxillary palp where ORN cell bodies reside (Hummel et al.,2003) (Fig. 2A). This strategy results in random labelling of up to half of the ORNs in any particular antennal disc (Fig. 2B2). Because GAL4-C155 shows pan-neural expression and clone generation is random, by examining several samples we can be assured of studying all classes of ORN axons.
We found at 14 hours APF that there is already a thin axon bundle exiting the third antennal segment, where ORN cell bodies are located. Over the next 4 hours, the axon bundle becomes much thicker as more ORNs differentiate (data not shown). When do these axons reach their target? At 14 hours APF, ORN axons(Fig. 2C-H green) have not yet contacted the developing AL (outlined by N-cadherin, Fig. 2C-E, red) (six hemispheres examined). By 16 hours APF, they have just reached the AL in most cases examined (10/14 hemispheres) and, at 18 hours APF, we observe contact of ORN axons with the ventral edge of the developing AL in all samples examined(12/12). This finding is consistent with those of Jhaveri et al.(Jhaveri et al., 2000). At 18 hours APF, ORN axons circumscribe the developing AL extending towards the midline; by 20 hours APF, axons reach the midline as they project to the contralateral AL. Significant ORN axon invasion of the AL is evident at 26 hours APF (Fig. 2F-H). As late as 26 hours APF, there is no evidence for the arrival of maxillary palp ORN axons, which should be distinguishable from antennal ORNs because they enter the lobe from a more ventral location. In summary, ORN axons reach the periphery of the lobe 16-18 hours APF and do not invade the lobe until 24-26 hours APF.
PNs extend axons and then dendrites
The enhancer trap GAL4-GH146(Stocker et al., 1997) labels∼90 of the estimated 150 PNs; the lineage(Jefferis et al., 2001), and mature organization (Marin et al.,2002; Wong et al.,2002) of GH146-positive PNs have been extensively characterized. To study a subset of these GH146 PNs, we used the MARCM system (Lee and Luo,1999) to generate labelled clones of two types: single cells(products of terminal division after heat-shock-induced mitotic recombination)and neuroblast clones (containing all the remaining cells within a neuroblast lineage after the time of heat shock). Earlier studies have identified two major PN lineages, each derived from a single neuroblast, and 2 corresponding groups of neurons with cell bodies anterodorsal and lateral to the mature AL(adPNs and lPNs, respectively) (Jefferis et al., 2001). Extensive studies of the adPN lineage demonstrated that different classes of PNs are born sequentially; for example, single cell clones generated within the first 24 hours of larval hatching always send their dendrites to the glomerulus DL1. This observation is of significant technical value because we can follow the development of these DL1 PNs long before any glomeruli are evident. In addition, it should be emphasized that neuroblast clones generated at this stage or later are exclusively composed of adult-specific PNs.
After their birth, these adult-specific PNs extend axons towards higher olfactory centres in the larval brain. At 72 hours after larval hatching,axons do not seem to have reached these structures but, by the wandering third instar stage, axons have extended to the mushroom body calyx and a presumptive lateral horn area (data not shown). At this stage, PNs have no dendritic or axonal terminal arborizations. In short, although adult-specific PNs might use the existing axonal tracts of persistent PNs for axon guidance, they are not integrated into the larval olfactory system.
The first signs of dendritic growth can be observed at the wandering third instar stage (Fig. 3A) and growth is evident by the time of puparium formation(Fig. 3B). At this point,dendrites appear as a swelling, grow radially outwards from the axonal bundle and lack any obvious organisation. Intriguingly, this growth is at a novel site outside the existing larval AL: there is a lack of overlap between the synaptic marker nc82, which stains the larval AL(Fig. 3B, dotted outline), and the new dendritic growth (Fig. 3B, arrowheads). In short, it appears that PN dendrites are generating a new structure rather than invading an existing one. By comparing single cell and neuroblast clones at this time, it appears that the single cell dendrites are diffuse but might extend through a large fraction of the volume occupied by an ∼30 cell neuroblast clone(Fig. 3B1,B3). This observation applies both to DL1 PNs (Fig. 3B3)and to other classes of PNs labelled by later heat shocks (data not shown). Thus, at this stage, dendrites are not restricted into separate regions.
PN dendrites rapidly restrict into discrete areas of the developing AL
By 6 hours APF, there has been significant dendritic growth, so that the volume occupied by adPN dendrites is now similar to that occupied by the larval lobe (Fig. 3C1). However, inspection of single cells does not show a large increase in the volume through which their dendrites extend(Fig. 3B3,C3). A possible explanation is that the dendrites of individual neurons are starting to sort into individual regions,reducing their degree of overlap; a group of neurons would therefore occupy more space even though individual dendritic arbours might not change in extent. Evidence for this is provided by the appearance of lPNs at this time(6 hours APF) (Fig. 3C2). These are less homogeneous than adPN dendrites,showing discrete areas of extension and other uninnervated areas. This impression is strengthened by examining lPN dendrites at 12 hours APF(Fig. 3D2). Dendrites accumulate only at certain regions of the developing lobe, whereas large areas are almost devoid of lPN dendrites (e.g. asterisk in Fig. 3D2). In fact,it can be seen that this central unoccupied area in Fig. 3D2 corresponds roughly with the zone of innervation of adNb dendrites in Fig. 3D1. These reproducible patterns of innervation suggest that the dendrites of these two different groups already only innervate specific regions of the lobe. Significantly, this is not just because dendritic growth is restricted to a region immediately adjacent to the cell bodies of these two classes of projection neurons – the arrowhead in Fig. 3D2 indicates a group of dendrites some distance from the lPN cell bodies. These observations suggest active targeting of dendrites to regions of the developing AL.
Dendritic patterning before ORN axon arrival
From the data presented so far, it is clear that, by 12 hours APF, PN dendrites occupy restricted regions of the developing lobe. Furthermore,the gross innervation patterns of adPNs and lPNs, two specific sets of ∼30 neurons, show signs of localizing to specific regions of the lobe. This touches on a key question: do the dendrites of any particular neuron occupy a restricted, specific portion of the lobe?Fig. 4 addresses this question at 18 hours APF, up to which point PN development is independent of ORN axons(Fig. 2).
As described earlier, MARCM clones generated within the first 24 hours after larval hatching always innervate the glomerulus DL1. We can therefore test whether, at this early stage in development, when no glomeruli can be discerned, these DL1 PNs target a specific region of the developing lobe.
Fig. 4A shows a single optical section through the middle of a pair of ALs in a rare brain with DL1 single cell clones in both hemispheres. The margin of the lobe can be traced out by the border of cell nuclei stained with TOTO-3 (blue); orientation is also provided by staining for the FasII marker, which dynamically stains axon tracts during the first third of pupal development along with some weak staining of processes within the AL. It can be seen that the dendritic arbours of both DL1 neurons are specifically localized in the dorsolateral corner of the lobe – this is consistent with the eventual position of DL1(Laissue et al., 1999)(Fig. 3J3). We analysed the position of 20 such single cell clones and found that this location was consistent among all samples examined.
DL1 dendrites occupy a specific portion of the dorsal AL. However, this is relatively close to their cell bodies, so there is one trivial explanation that must be excluded – that these dendrites are localized because they have not yet been able to grow further into the AL. For comparison, therefore,a pair of anterodorsal neuroblast clones is presented in Fig. 4B, imaged at the same depth in the AL. The dendrites of these two neuroblast clones extend through a large area at this level of the lobe. This indicates that the DL1 dendrites in Fig. 4A are not just in a specific part of the AL because of a very restricted distribution of all adPN dendrites; DL1 dendrites actively target a distinct region of the AL compared with other neurons of this lineage.
Do all individual projection neurons behave in the same way as DL1 PNs?This is technically difficult to answer with precision, because DL1 PNs are the only class that we can unambiguously identify by their birth-date. Nevertheless, we generated a distinct set of clones by heat-shocking larvae at 72 hours after larval hatching and dissecting them at 18 hours APF; none of these clones will be DL1 PNs (Jefferis et al., 2001). All clones had spatially restricted dendrites in different parts of the AL, as exemplified by Fig. 4F from a brain in which two single cells were labelled. In fact, the other 27 single cell clones that we generated could be classified into three main classes, according to their dendritic location. 19/27 cells (Fig. 4C, Class I) had dendrites on the lateral aspect of the lobe; 5/27 cells (Fig. 4D, Class II)innervated the dorsomedial corner of the AL; 3/27 cells(Fig. 4E, Class III) actually had two branches. These observations are consistent with the notion that individual PNs occupy a restricted, specific portion of the AL. This is further supported by the mirror symmetry of neuroblast clones that occupy specific regions of the AL (e.g. Fig. 4B, arrowheads).
Maturation of the glomerular map after ORN axon invasion
From 18-40 hours APF, there is a progressive refinement of the projection pattern of PN dendrites, although no glomeruli can be detected by the nc82 synaptic marker. In fact, even in neuroblast clones at 18 hours APF, tentative assignments can even be made for some dendritic foci – for example, the arrowheads in Fig. 4B are probably an accumulation of dendrites from VA1d and VA1lm PNs. Similarly,glomerulus VA3, which is a ventral glomerulus well separated from other adPN glomeruli (e.g. arrow in Fig. 3I1), is the probable target of the ventromedial accumulation of dendrites that can be seen in the left hemisphere in Fig. 4B (arrow). By 40 hours APF, nearly all dendritic accumulations can be identified in confocal stacks(compare, for example, Fig. 3H1 with Fig. 3J1).
During the first 18 hours of pupal development, the intensity of nc82 staining diminishes rapidly so that, by 18 hours, it is no longer detectable;this reflects the degeneration of the larval AL (see below). At 30 hours and 40 hours, there are signs of a reappearance of specific nc82 staining;however, distinct glomeruli are only detectable using this marker by 50 hours APF. At this time, the dendritic organization is essentially mature. In Fig. 3I1, for example, all of the major adNb glomeruli can be matched to their adult counterparts in Fig. 3J1; in this z projection, however, it is hard to get an idea of how well contained dendrites are within a single glomerulus. Fig. 3I2 is a single optical section through a lateral neuroblast clone. All four glomeruli (DA1,VA5, VA7m, DA2 clockwise from top right) are clearly identifiable and innervated without any obvious dendritic spill-over to neighbouring glomeruli. These results are corroborated by the appearance of single cell DL1 clones,which also have a compact dendritic tree restricted to a single glomerulus that can be identified by nc82 staining alone.
The major change from 50 hours APF to adult appears to be a large increase in the size of the AL. The increase is about 50% in linear dimensions or fourfold in volume. A large proportion of this increase results from local increases in the density of existing neuronal processes, with additional contribution from ingrowth of glial processes (see later).
Following PN development using a subtype-specific PN marker
Our initial studies make use of GH146, which labels a large subset of PNs. Although we were able to focus on small numbers of GH146-positive neurons using the MARCM system, we sought to complement these studies by identifying enhancer trap lines labelling specific subsets of PNs. After testing a panel of GAL4 enhancer trap lines (Hayashi et al., 2002), we chose to focus particularly on the line GAL4-Mz19; in adults, it specifically labels PNs that innervate two large glomeruli, VA1d and DA1, on the anterior surface of the AL, along with a less distinct and more posterior glomerulus DC3(Fig. 5F). We can then ask when specific innervation of these glomeruli can be observed during development.
We found that Mz19-driven marker expression could be detected as early as 18 hours APF (Fig. 5A). Because ORNs have only just reached the AL periphery at this time, it seems that PN subtypes show distinct patterns of gene expression before contact with their ORN partners; this complements the results presented above showing that they are morphologically distinct at this time. At 24 hours APF, marker expression is strong enough to see two overlapping dendritic arbours corresponding to the two major protoglomeruli, VA1d and DA1. Because VA1d and DA1 are directly adjacent, we could also ask when adjacent proto-glomeruli become clearly resolved. At 30 hours APF, we saw that the VA1d and DA1 regions were clearly separable (Fig. 5C,arrowheads).
Development of axon terminal arborizations
In the adult fly, PNs of the same glomerular class have stereotyped axon terminal arborization patterns in a higher olfactory centre, the lateral horn(Marin et al., 2002; Wong et al., 2002). What is the relative timing of the development of specific dendritic targeting and specific axonal arborizations? Fig. 6 presents a time course of axonal development for single cell DL1 clones. At early pupal stages, axonal development appears to lag somewhat: at 0 hours and 6 hours APF, there is no sign of terminal extension in the mushroom body calyx or lateral horn. By 12 hours APF, however, there are signs of sprouting in these regions (Fig. 6C, blue and red asterisks). At 18 hours APF in the mushroom body,this early sprouting has resolved itself into several distinct collaterals(Fig. 6D, blue arrowhead). In the lateral horn, there is further extension of the main axon branch but no extension of the dorsal collateral, which is very characteristic of DL1 projection neurons (compare Fig. 6D and 6I). At 24 hours APF, however, there is the first sign of this dorsal collateral at this point, a stump of about 5 μm(Fig. 6E, red arrowhead). By 30 hours APF, this has become more substantial – about 15 μm in the example shown. It was possible to discern a clear collateral in 8/10 samples at this stage (Marin et al.,2002). In the 40 hours APF sample, there is actually a second dorsal collateral present; this is sometimes observed in pupal stages but never persists in the adult. There is also substantially enhanced terminal sprouting (Fig. 6G, green arrowhead). By 50 hours APF, the axon projection pattern is quite mature– mushroom body collaterals have formed a terminal ball, as observed in the adult, and the lateral horn dorsal collateral has reached almost its full extent. However, the terminal arborizations of the main branch in the lateral horn have not yet obtained their final form. This time point is significant because it is just before the earliest known expression of an olfactory receptor in Drosophila (Clyne et al., 1999) and before mature synapses have been detected in the lobe (Devaud et al., 2003). Patterned sensory activity is therefore unlikely to play an instructive role in development of either PN dendritic targeting or, at least for DL1 PNs, most aspects of axon terminal arborisation.
Cellular cues for PN dendritic development – larval neurons
We have characterized an early phase of PN dendritic development (0-18 hours APF), in which PN dendrites show very specific targeting in the absence of their presynaptic partner ORNs. This unexpected observation raises an intriguing question: what are the spatial cues that allow these dendrites to target specific regions of the developing lobe? We reasoned that, given the small space within which dendritic patterns have to be created (expanding from a dendritic swelling in the form of an ovoid of ∼20×10×10μm at 0 hours APF to a sphere of ∼30 μm diameter at 18 hours APF),these cues are more likely cell-surface bound than freely diffusible, and that at least some of these cues should be internal to the developing AL. Because we found that there are no cell nuclei within the lobe(Fig. 4A), any internal positional cues must be cytoplasmic processes of either neurons or glia. We first tested whether remnants of the degenerating larval AL could contribute to these positional cues.
We determined the time of degeneration of the larval lobe using nc82, a presumed synaptic marker, and N-cadherin, a marker enriched in the developing adult-specific lobe. In addition, we used GH146 directly, without generating MARCM clones, so both persistent and adult-specific PNs are labelled. At 0 hours APF (Fig. 7A), the larval lobe (dotted outline) is strongly stained by nc82 and also by N-cadherin; this is also where most GH146-positive dendrites are concentrated(Fig. 7A2). However,there is a second area (solid outline) dorsal and posterior to the larval lobe with a lower concentration of GH146-positive dendrites, higher levels of N-cadherin and no nc82. This area matches in position the location of newly developing dendrites described in the neuroblast and single cell clones in Fig. 3B. Thus, at this stage the intact larval lobe and newly developing adult lobes are clearly distinct.
This is also the case at 6 hours APF(Fig. 7B), when the adult lobe has expanded significantly in size. However, the relative intensity of GH146 staining is reversed – now the adult lobe shows stronger staining. This suggests that the dendrites of larval GH146-positive PNs have started to be pruned back – consistent with results obtained with clonal analysis of embryonically born PNs (E. C. Marin and L.L., unpublished). Staining with nc82 is also somewhat weaker at this point, suggesting disassembly of the larval structure.
By 12 hours APF, nc82 staining is very much reduced(Fig. 7C4) and the larval lobe is no longer clearly demarcated, although there is an area of nc82 and weaker N-cadherin staining along the ventrolateral margin of the lobe(dotted lines in Fig. 7C). There are some GH146-positive dendrites within this marginal zone that are continuous with those in the rest of lobe(Fig. 7C1-4,arrowhead), suggesting that the two structures might be effectively fused at this stage. This is consistent with the results in Fig. 3D, in which the dendrites of adPN and lPN clones showed some overlap with the remaining nc82-positive larval area. In summary, the larval lobe is intact at 0 hours APF, whereas an adjacent adult structure, posterior and dorsal to the larval lobe, starts to show dendritic elaboration; by 6 hours APF, larval dendrites have degenerated significantly whereas adult-specific dendrites have grown significantly; at 12 hours the adult lobe is largely continuous with what remains of the larval structure.
What is the status of the larval ORNs during this time? We examined this question using the enhancer trap line GAL4-MJ94(Joiner and Griffith, 1999),which labels all the receptor neurons of the larval olfactory and gustatory organs (R.F.S., unpublished); similar results (data not shown) were obtained with a second line GAL4-JFF-4551, which labels two-thirds of larval ORNs (Python and Stocker,2002). At 0 hours APF, larval ORNs densely innervate the nc82-positive larval lobe (dotted outline in Fig. 7D). MJ94 driven CD8-GFP can also be seen in the ORN axons in the antennal nerve, indicated by an asterisk as it reaches the lobe. At 6 hours APF(Fig. 7E), larval ORNs extend through a similar area but now showing fingers of innervation (which are coincident with weaker nc82 staining) separated by uninnervated areas. The zone of larval innervation is largely distinct from the N-cadherin-positive adult-specific lobe but there is some overlap along the anterior face of the ventral part of the new lobe. By 12 hours APF, ORN axons have mostly pruned back to a stump in the ventrolateral corner of the lobe. There are still,however, about 10-15 neurites, which are bare except for occasional blebs of up to 3 μm in diameter. Although these neurites extend in a few instances up to 20 μm, their position on the anterior surface of, rather than within,the adult-specific lobe indicates that they have limited contact with adult-specific structures.
In conclusion, the larval lobe degenerates over the period from 0-12 hours APF; growth of the developing adult lobe occurs at a site adjacent to but distinct from this degenerating structure as long as the larval lobe remains identifiable. The spatial information allowing early dendritic patterning within the adult structure must therefore derive from cellular constituents other than remnants of the larval olfactory system.
Cellular cues for PN dendritic development – constituents of the developing adult-specific lobe
We next investigated whether glia could provide positional cues for PN dendritic targeting using an enhancer trap line GAL4-M1B, in which GAL4 is under the control of the repo promoter and therefore expressed in all central nervous system glia(Xiong et al., 1994). We confirmed that, near the developing AL, all nuclei are either Elav positive (a pan-neural nuclear marker) or Repo positive (e.g. Fig. 8B5), and therefore all non-neuronal cells are Repo-positive glia. In addition, all Repo-positive nuclei are surrounded by strong membrane staining when GAL4-M1B is crossed to UAS-mCD8-GFP, a membrane marker;however, there is some additional weak background staining in most other cells in the brain. Therefore, mCD8-GFP driven from GAL4-M1Bshould strongly label all glial processes. As expected, in adults, glial processes can be seen wrapping individual glomeruli(Fig. 8A5). Are these processes present in the developing AL during the early phase of PN dendritic targeting?
Although the larval lobe did have intercalated processes at 0 hours APF(Fig. 8A1,B1), which persisted in reduced number up to 12 hours, there were no glial processes in the developing adult-specific lobe between 0 hours and 18 hours (Fig. 8A1-3). At 50 hours APF, the first signs of glial invasion could be observed (Fig. 8A4) but, by this stage, PN dendrites have reached an almost mature organization (Fig. 3). Similar results regarding the development of glial processes were obtained (data not shown) using staining with anti-Draper antibody, which is a glia-specific cytoplasmic protein(Freeman et al., 2003).
Despite the lack of glial processes within the developing adult-specific lobe, there are glial processes outside the lobe(Fig. 8A) and double labelling of GAL4-M1B-driven mCD8-GFP and anti-Repo antibody confirms that, during the period 0-18 hours APF, there are scattered Repo-positive nuclei surrounding the developing AL (Fig. 8B1-3). Glial processes could therefore contribute to PN dendritic patterning, but only from outside the AL. In contrast to the lack of glial processes, we found that mCD8-GFP driven by the pan-neural GAL4-C155 fills the developing AL between 0 hours and 18 hours APF(Fig. 8C). Because we have ruled out a significant contribution by larval ORNs(Fig. 7) and adult ORNs are yet to enter the lobe (Fig. 2), the remaining possibilities are LNs and PNs themselves. We could not conclusively determine the contribution of LNs owing to lack of appropriate reagents. Neither of the two LN GAL4 lines we have examined (GAL4-189Y and GAD1-GAL4) drives marker expression in the adult-specific AL between 0 hours and 12 hours APF, although both label the larval lobe (data not shown). However, GAL4-189Y only labels a few larval LNs(Python and Stocker, 2002) and GAD1-GAL4, which is derived from the promoter of the glutamic acid decarboxylase gene and should therefore label all GABAergic inhibitory neurons(Ng et al., 2002), might not turn on during early stages of LN development. Nevertheless, our inability to find LN processes in the developing adult-specific AL in early stages of pupal development is consistent with previous observations in moth that LN dendrites invade protoglomeruli later than PNs(Oland et al., 1990).
Thus, although we cannot rule out a contribution of LNs, the evidence accumulated so far suggests that PN dendrites are a major constituent of the developing AL. Indeed, when comparing GAL4-C155 and GAL4-GH146 (labelling ∼90 of an estimated 150 total PNs), in anterior sections GH146-positive PN processes appear to occupy most of the space labelled by GAL4-C155 (compare Fig. 8B4 with 8C4,5). We have argued that structures internal to the AL participate in patterning PN dendrites, and so we propose that PN-PN interactions contribute significantly to the initial patterning of the developing AL.
Discussion
The creation of an ordered spatial map for olfactory information processing in the vertebrate olfactory bulb and its insect equivalent, the AL, provides a striking example of wiring specificity in the developing nervous system. Although significant progress has been made since the discovery of convergent ORN axon projection in mammals and in flies(Ressler et al., 1994; Vassar et al., 1994; Mombaerts et al., 1996; Gao et al., 2000; Vosshall et al., 2000), a clear picture has yet to emerge concerning the logic that leads to connection specificity between ORN axons and the dendrites of second order neurons. In particular, the sequence of events in the assembly of the olfactory bulb or AL has not been described with sufficient temporal and spatial resolution to constrain possible models of pattern formation. In this paper, we performed a systematic developmental study to examine the sequence of events that lead to the assembly of the Drosophila AL.
Dendritic growth and patterning independent of presynaptic axons
A key finding in this study is that PN dendritic development is surprisingly independent of presynaptic ORN axons. It is generally thought that dendritic growth and maturation are coupled with presynaptic axon invasion and synapse formation, which might be significantly shaped by electrical activity (reviewed by Cline,2001). We found that, before ORN axons reach the developing AL, PN dendrites have undergone significant growth and branching. More strikingly,dendrites of different PN classes have created a pattern in the AL at 18 hours APF that resembles the adult glomerular map, in the complete absence of their presynaptic partners (Fig. 4). This observation is in contrast to the prevailing view of olfactory development (see below) and underlines a very significant dendritic contribution to the origins of wiring specificity.
It is important to realize that this finding is not a natural prediction of our previous findings that PNs are prespecified to synapse with a specific class of ORNs by lineage and birth order(Jefferis et al., 2001). For instance, all three models depicted in Fig. 1B are consistent with the prespecification data. Our current study clearly favours the second model, that PN dendrites are patterned first. It is probable that gradual invasion of ORN axons from 24 hours APF(Fig. 2) refines and consolidates this prototypic dendritic map (see below), allowing rapid development of the AL to essentially adult form by 50 hours APF.
Site selection of one synaptic partner before the other has also been described recently in Caenorhabditis elegans(Shen and Bargmann, 2003). Interestingly, in that case, the presynaptic partner selects the synaptic site in the absence of its postsynaptic partner by interacting with a third party guidepost cell.
Origin of patterning information
What positional cues allow dendritic patterning before ORN axon arrival?The first leading candidate to provide positional cues is the larval lobe because it is presumably patterned for larval olfaction, albeit in a form simpler than that of the adult AL (Tissot et al., 1997; Python and Stocker, 2002). However, we find that, at early pupal stages, the developing adult AL is clearly distinct from the larval lobe and is minimally invaded by remnants of the degenerating larval lobe. Glia are a second candidate and, indeed, glia have been suggested to play important roles in sorting ORN axons into individual classes in the moth (Rossler et al., 1999)and are the leading candidates in the mouse olfactory bulb to provide positional cues for ORN axon targeting(Bulfone et al., 1998). However, we did not find significant glial processes within the developing AL between 0 hours and 18 hours APF, the critical period for PN dendritic patterning. Although it is likely that glial cells and processes surrounding the AL contribute to PN dendritic patterning, it is difficult to imagine that the surrounding tissues could contribute all the positional cues that allow dendrites of a specific class to occupy specific regions of the AL, which is a three-dimensional sphere.
These analyses lead us to speculate that PN dendritedendrite interaction might contribute significantly to the eventual patterning of PN dendrites for the following reasons. First, PN dendrites appear to be a major constituent of the developing adult-specific AL, which is composed predominantly, if not exclusively, of neuronal processes (Fig. 8). Indeed, preliminary electron microscopic analysis using genetically encoded electron microscopy markers suggests that the developing AL is composed entirely of neuronal profiles and that GH146-positive PN dendritic profiles are clustered together without intermingling with other neuronal profiles (R. Watts and L.L., unpublished). Second, different classes of PNs are probably endowed with molecular differences because of their lineage and birth order (Jefferis et al.,2001; Komiyama et al.,2003), which could be used to create heterogeneities in the developing lobe. LN processes do remain a possible source of information that we could neither find positive evidence for nor rule out. However, it is more difficult to imagine how heterogeneity is created by LNs, because processes from each LN occupy a large proportion of the AL, rather than individual glomeruli (Stocker et al.,1990).
Based on these considerations, how do we envisage that PN patterning could occur in early pupa before ORN arrival? We propose a hierarchy of positional cues. Global cues, which could be diffusible or contact-mediated guidance molecules from outside the lobe, could allow dendrites to target to an approximate region of the developing lobe with respect to the body axes,causing, for example, glomerulus V to form ventrally and glomerulus D to form dorsally. Local dendritedendrite interactions would then allow PN dendrites of the same class to adhere tightly; dendrites destined to occupy neighbouring glomeruli would associate more weakly and/or be repelled. This hierarchy of cues seems to be essential for generating a structure that has global order and highly reproducible local spatial relationships among neighbouring PN classes. Our observations at 18 hours APF(Fig. 4) suggest that, although the global targeting of dendrites to specific regions of the AL is largely complete, the sorting process is not, because dendrites from neighbouring classes can still exhibit significant overlap. Continuing dendrite-dendrite interaction after 18 hours APF and interaction with ORN axons (see below)would further refine this prototypic dendritic map.
It is noteworthy that axon-axon interaction has already been shown to contribute to the specificity of connections between Drosophilaphotoreceptors and their targets (Clandinin and Zipursky, 2000). Although we are not aware of a proposal for such mutual dendrite sorting, the molecular mechanisms could be related to dendrite tiling (Wassle et al.,1981; Grueber et al.,2002; Grueber et al.,2003). In tiling, dendrites of the same neuronal class show homotypic repulsive interactions; we would propose that homotypic attraction and/or heterotypic repulsion from neighbouring dendritic classes could contribute to dendritic sorting in the developing AL.
Contributions of ORNs to the developing olfactory system
The observation that in Drosophila PN patterning precedes that of ORNs seems at odds with existing observations in insects and vertebrates,emphasizing the primary role of ORN axons in organising glomerular development(e.g. Oland et al., 1990; Valverde et al., 1992; Malun and Brunjes, 1996; Treloar et al., 1999). In all these studies, glomerular formation was first evident in the accumulation of ORN axons in protoglomeruli. This organizational function of ORNs is further supported by several perturbation experiments. For instance, in the moth Manduca sexta, developmental deantennation prevents normal glomerular formation (Boeckh and Tolbert,1993), whereas surgical removal of a subset of PNs still permits ORNs to form relatively normal glomerular terminations outlined by glial cells(Oland and Tolbert, 1998). Similarly, genetic ablation of most mitral or granule cells in mutant mice still permits axonal convergence of specific ORN classes, although the structure of the olfactory bulb is disorganized(Bulfone et al., 1998). In Drosophila, it was reported that in atonal mutants,formation of a proposed pioneer class of ORNs is disrupted, axonal targeting of other ORNs is delayed and glial processes are disturbed. It was further suggested that PN development must depend on ORNs because, in atonalmutants, PN patterning [as visualized by GH146 staining (labelling ∼90 PNs)] is disrupted (Jhaveri and Rodrigues,2002).
Many of these apparent contradictions can be resolved by treating spatial patterning and glomerular formation as two distinct processes. An important technical improvement of our study is that we are able to visualize the dendritic fields of identifiable PNs down to the single cell level with MARCM or small groups of cells with GAL4-Mz19. We can therefore describe much earlier developmental events with higher anatomical resolution,demonstrating the existence of spatial patterning well before glomeruli are morphologically distinct and, indeed, before one major component of the glomeruli – the ORN axons – is even present. For example, in Fig. 4A, we can see that dendrites of DL1 PNs occupy a discrete and specific location in the developing lobe. However, because their dendrites still overlap with other PN classes,this patterning is not that obvious when looking at larger numbers of neurons(e.g. Fig. 4B) and is scarcely apparent at all when more cells are visualized(Fig. 8B4). Indeed,some existing single cell labelling studies have shown that PNs in Manduca have restricted dendritic arborizations before any glomerular patterning is evident (Malun et al.,1994). However, without being able to label specific classes of PNs, such studies cannot determine whether PN dendrites are in a spatially appropriate location.
How do ORN axons come into register with the prototypic PN map when they reach the lobe? At one extreme, ORN patterning might be completely dependent on PN patterning. ORN axons could simply recognize specific classes of pre-patterned PN dendrites through receptor-ligand or homophilic interactions. Alternatively, PN patterning could generate a third-party map, which is recognized by ORNs. Although certainly consistent with the developmental studies described here, these models are not supported by experiments in other organisms such as the target neuron ablation experiments of Oland and Tolbert(Oland and Tolbert, 1998) in moth and Bulfone et al. (Bulfone et al.,1998) in mice. In addition, transplantation experiments in moth(Rossler et al., 1999) or the formation of a novel glomerulus upon expression of a rat olfactory receptor in mice(Belluscio et al., 2002),indicate that ORNs might have substantial autonomous patterning ability. At the other extreme, patterning of ORN axons could be completely independent of the prototypic map created by PN dendrites. In theory, ORN axons could recognize third-party cues previously used to pattern PN dendrites. However,we are unable to find such third-party cues within the developing AL. Of course, ORNs could still be patterned by PN independent cues external to the lobe and axon-axon interactions, in a manner directly analogous to our hypothesis for PN patterning. In the case of such strict independence, ORNs expressing a particular receptor would form specific connections with partner PNs, rather than inappropriate adjacent PNs, only because both sets of neurons target with great precision to exactly the same spatial location. This degree of independence seems both implausible and inefficient.
Instead, we propose that both ORN axons and PN dendrites have substantial autonomous patterning ability – for instance through PN-PN or ORN-ORN mutual interactions and interactions with cellular cues surrounding the developing AL – but that the two resultant proto-maps interact during development to generate the final mature glomerular organisation. This proposal is the most parsimonious explanation for the existing data supporting the organizational functions of ORNs as summarized above, our data described in this study and our preliminary observations that ORN axon targeting appears to be resistant to PN perturbation (T. Chihara, H. Zhu and L.L., unpublished). It also has the advantage of robustness – each map could reinforce and refine the other, resulting in a precise match between pre- and postsynaptic partners without the necessity for extreme targeting precision. Furthermore,although two maps might seem to be more complicated than one, they need not be molecularly more complex. Many of the molecules used for PN patterning could also be used for ORN patterning or for interactions between ORNs and PNs. Having described with great precision the cellular and developmental events that lead to the patterning of the AL, we are now in a good position to attack the molecular basis of wiring specificity in the Drosophila olfactory system.
Acknowledgements
We are most grateful to M. Freeman for fly stocks, and to E. Buchner, T. Uemura and the Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank (developed under the auspices of the NICHD and maintained by The University of Iowa) for antibodies. We thank H. Zhu, E. C. Marin and T. Chihara for discussions, and T. R. Clandinin, T. Awasaki and members of the Luo lab, especially E. C. Marin, for comments on the manuscript. G.S.X.E.J. is an HHMI predoctoral fellow. D.B. is supported by an EMBO long-term postdoctoral fellowship. This work was supported by NIH grants to L.L. | https://cob.silverchair.com/dev/article/131/1/117/64399/Developmental-origin-of-wiring-specificity-in-the?searchresult=1 |
Functional deficits resulting from disease or injury to the mature CNS can be mitigated by endogenous repair mechanisms. The degree of normal circuit function restored by these mechanisms is largely controlled by factors that permit and restrict regeneration and reinnervation of synapses (He and Jin, 2016). One way to improve functional outcomes is to develop strategies to overcome barriers that restrict regrowth of damaged axons. A complementary approach is to encourage spared axons to reorganize their connections to restore circuit function. This form of reorganization is induced not only after acute injuries, but also during neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, where subsets of neurons and synapses degenerate and unaffected neurons reorganize in an attempt to maintain normal connectivity (Schaefer et al., 2005; Guo et al., 2015). Although the therapeutic potential of such reorganization is considerable, relatively little is known about the dynamics of synaptic changes that occur as part of these processes. To improve functional outcomes, more detailed information regarding the nature of the synaptic reorganizations initiated by spared axons is required.
A recent study published in The Journal of Neuroscience provided an in-depth analysis of the local synaptic reorganizations that occur along Purkinje cell dendrites following cerebellar injury (Ichikawa et al., 2016b). Using fluorescence imaging and serial section EM, Ichikawa et al. (2016b) examined how the distribution of excitatory parallel fiber and climbing fiber synapses changed along the dendritic arbor of Purkinje cells following the removal of a subset of parallel fiber innervation.
Cerebellar granule cell axons ascend toward the surface of the cerebellum and send off orthogonal branches that innervate the distal dendrites of Purkinje cells, whereas climbing fibers form synapses along the proximal dendrites. Ichikawa et al. (2016b) took advantage of this distinct innervation pattern to overcome two major challenges to the study of synapse-specific reinnervation. The first concerns how to cut a subset of axons within the dense wiring of the mature brain. Ichikawa et al. (2016b) made two parallel cuts in the superficial aspect of the cerebellar cortex to remove >60% of parallel fiber inputs to Purkinje cells within a small patch of cerebellar cortex. Importantly, climbing fiber innervation to Purkinje cells within the denervated zone remained intact, and the severed parallel fiber axons did not regenerate across the legion site, meaning that any subsequent functional recovery would likely result from local reorganization initiated by uninjured axons. The second obstacle concerns how to assess whether reinnervated synapses exhibit target specificity. Because parallel fibers and climbing fibers innervate the distal and proximal domains of Purkinje cell dendrites, respectively, with a small overlapping domain, the authors could determine whether the reinnervation process reestablished these appropriate domains.
Ichikawa et al. (2016b) observed that spared parallel fibers ultimately reinnervated the appropriate Purkinje cell domain in a process that progressed through three anatomically defined phases. The first stage, the “degenerative phase,” occurred 1 d after parallel fiber transection and was characterized by the appearance of free spines (i.e., spines without a presynaptic partner). In addition to those vacated by degenerating parallel fiber axons, the authors speculate that some free spines appeared through de novo formation because they appeared deep into the climbing fiber domain (their Fig. 5G) without a change in the number of climbing fiber synapses (their Fig. 8E). Parallel fiber terminals innervated spines within the climbing fiber compartment, leading to an expansion in the parallel fiber/climbing fiber overlap domain. GABAergic presynaptic terminals were also found to ectopically innervate dendritic spines in both the parallel fiber and climbing fiber dendritic domains. The second stage, the “hypertrophic phase,” was observed 6 d later and was characterized by the enlargement of parallel fiber terminals and the recovery of synaptic innervation and parallel fiber/climbing fiber compartmentalization. The enlargement of parallel fiber terminals was associated with their innervation of multiple free spines, which doubled their terminal-to-spine contact ratio (their Fig. 2L). Finally, the “remodeling phase” occurred over the next few weeks and was characterized by the extension of parallel fiber collateral sprouts, the shrinkage of presynaptic axons and terminals back to normal size, and the complete elimination of GABAergic spine synapses. Synapse numbers and parallel fiber/climbing fiber compartmentalization were fully restored, reflecting a pruning process that eliminated all remaining ectopic parallel fiber and GABAergic spine synapses.
The expansion and contraction of the parallel fiber/climbing fiber overlap domain during the reinnervation process (their Fig. 5G) are similar to the developmental segregation of parallel fiber/climbing fiber domains (Ichikawa et al., 2016a). The developmental pruning of parallel fibers from Purkinje cell proximal dendrites requires metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (mGluR1) activity (Ichikawa et al., 2016a). mGluR signaling has also been implicated in homeostatic synaptic scaling in response to chronic activity perturbation (Hu et al., 2010), and the loss of mGluR1 activation in response to parallel fiber transection may underlie the early reorganization that is observed during the degenerative phase. Indeed, activity deprivation by chronic administration of tetrodoxin leads to the appearance of free spines, the expansion of the parallel fiber/climbing fiber overlapping domain, and the accumulation of the σ subunit of the glutamate receptor (GluD2) at parallel fiber and climbing fiber spines (Cesa et al., 2003). GluD2 is a potent synaptic organizing molecule (Matsuda et al., 2010; Uemura et al., 2010) that is normally only expressed along distal Purkinje cell dendrites at postsynaptic regions of the parallel fiber synapse to drive its formation and stability (Kurihara et al., 1997). The injury-induced loss of mGluR1 activity may therefore influence the accumulation of GluD2 at newly formed free spines and lead to their innervation by sprouting and enlarged parallel fiber terminals. Subsequent mGluR1 activity at these reinnervated synapses could then drive the pruning of ectopic parallel fiber synapses from the climbing fiber domain and lead to the reestablishment of pathway segregation.
GluD2 plays a major role in parallel fiber reinnervation, reflected by the absence of reinnervation after injury in GluD2 knock-out mice (Ichikawa et al., 2016b). Indeed, in unoperated GluD2-deficient mice, the state of Purkinje cell innervation by parallel fibers is remarkably similar to wild-type Purkinje cell innervation during the degenerative phase: there are fewer parallel fiber synapses, a corresponding increase in the number of free spines, and the parallel fiber/climbing fiber overlap domain is broadened. Transection of parallel fibers in GluD2-deficient mice resulted in an additional loss of parallel fiber innervation and an increase in free spines, but neither measure recovered at any point after the injury (their Figs. 2, 8).
Although it is clear that GluD2 is essential for the effective reinnervation of Purkinje cell dendrites by parallel fiber collateral axons, these observations raise questions regarding the relationship between the different phases of synaptic reorganizations. Is GluD2 generally required for synaptogenesis in both the hypertrophic and remodeling phases, or is it simply required for the transition between these phases? The transient appearance of GABAergic spine synapses is absent in GluD2 knock-out mice, suggesting that GluD2 also dictates the formation of these synapses. Do GABAergic synapses themselves play a role in regenerative phase transitions? A clear understanding of the relationship between each phase of reinnervation could inform the development of therapeutics that may promote the progression of similar phases in recovery-resistant systems.
A notable feature of the phase transitions described by Ichikawa et al. (2016b) is that parallel fiber collateral axons ultimately displace the enlarged parallel fiber synapses during the remodeling phase, even though both synaptic contact (their Fig. 2J) and parallel fiber/climbing fiber compartmentalization (their Fig. 5I) were reestablished during the preceding hypertrophic phase. Because the denervation surgery removed >60% of parallel fiber inputs, both the hypertrophic and remodeling phases require spared granule cell axons to more than double their complement of synapses. The hypertrophic phase accomplishes this by expanding the synaptic terminal itself, whereas the remodeling phase involves expansion of the axon arbor by collateral axon sprouting. Thus, the remodeling phase reestablishes a one-to-one relationship between the presynaptic terminal and the postsynaptic spine after the hypertrophic phase (their Fig. 2L). How this transition occurs is unknown, but it might involve calcium signals in Purkinje cell dendrites. Spines innervated by a common presynaptic terminal would likely be active simultaneously and may result in greater postsynaptic calcium elevation, which has been implicated in the development of synaptic connections in other brain regions (Lee et al., 2016). Presynaptic terminals that innervate multiple spines may be slightly weakened as a homeostatic response to heightened postsynaptic activity and could therefore be more sensitive to activity-dependent competitive displacement by reinnervating parallel fiber collateral sprouts during the remodeling phase.
Even after the three stages of recovery described by Ichikawa et al. (2016b) have occurred, cerebellar synaptic physiology might remain altered as a consequence of the degree of presynaptic expansion experienced by single granule cells. Because the synaptic vesicle cycle is a primary source of energy consumption during synaptic transmission (Rangaraju et al., 2014), doubling the number of output synapses could carry metabolic consequences that limit synaptic function. For instance, repetitive presynaptic activity might quickly deplete the energy stores of a neuron with an expanded terminal field, and information processing that relies on repetitive or tonic neurotransmission could be predominantly affected. Furthermore, evidence from peripheral systems suggests that the degree of presynaptic expansion is limited, possibly because single neurons are unable to maintain increasingly large numbers of synapses (Rafuse et al., 1992). These limitations would significantly constrain the potential for recovery following injury or during the progression of neurodegenerative disease.
This study by Ichikawa et al. (2016b) has contributed an important framework that deepens our understanding of the regenerative potential of the mature brain. We must continue to develop a clear understanding of how neural circuits reorganize in response to injury and disease to best harness the regenerative potential of neural systems and to most effectively improve their recovery.
Footnotes
Editor's Note: These short, critical reviews of recent papers in the Journal, written exclusively by graduate students or postdoctoral fellows, are intended to summarize the important findings of the paper and provide additional insight and commentary. For more information on the format and purpose of the Journal Club, please see http://www.jneurosci.org/misc/ifa_features.shtml.
P.H.C was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Postdoctoral Fellowship for Foreign Researchers. I thank Yumaine Chong for helpful comments on the manuscript.
The author declares no competing financial interests. | https://www.jneurosci.org/content/36/40/10239 |
Nervous Tissue Ectodermal in origin; Neurulation Formation of neural tube and neural crest. Cell Types: a) Neurons - CNS and PNS b) Ependyma - CNS c) Neuroglia - CNS d) Schwann Cells - PNS
Nerve Cell Origins A) Neural Tube: 1) Matrix Layer - matrix cells become ependymal -> neural tube lining cells 2) Mantle Layer – migrate from matrix a) Glioblasts Astroblasts -> Astrocytes Oligodendroblasts -> Oligodendrocytes b) Neuroblasts -> neurons 3) Marginal Layer - mantle neuron cell bodies form gray matter while their axons migrate out into an outer Marginal layer forming white matter of CNS.
Nerve Cell Origins B) CNS CT forms Microglia cells. • Neural Crest: - PNS and other structures 1) Chromaffin Cells 2) Schwann Cells 3) Melanocytes 4) Odontoblasts
Neurons Nerve cells are capable of depolarization (Excitable) Function in impulse formation, transfer, interpretation. Neurons form functional links (circuits) a) afferent = sensory neuron that respond to changes in environment (stimuli) b) interneurons = connector neurons c) efferent = motor neuron (response)
Neuron Cell Body with nucleus = Perikaryon Cell Body - cytoplasm has prominent numbers of basophilic granules (ribosomes and ER) = Nissl's Bodies Usually two kinds of fibrous processes - dendrite and axon. Dendrite a) non-myelinated, b) brings impulse to NCB, c) contains microtubules. Axon a) myelinated, b) takes impulse from NCB, c) contains microfilaments.
Neuron Morphology Several levels of neuron organization: a) apolar - modified neurons with no fibrous process, unique to Pineal gland and Adrenal medulla. b) unipolar (pseudounipolar) - one axon, no dendrite, PNS afferent. c) bipolar - one axon and one dendrite; special neuron types; retina of eye; olfactory neuron. d) multipolar; one axon and many dendrites; CNS efferent and afferent; PNS Efferents.
Fibrous Processes Axons Cylinder of cytoplasm = axoplasm; Up to 1 meter (40 inches) Plasma membrane = axolemma; Axons are encased in a sheath of cells; Schwann in the PNS, Oligodendrocytes in CNS.
Myelin Encasing cells have myelin (lipid) in membranes - produce a white appearance in living state. When the cell wraps many times = myelinated or medullated neuron with white outer cover; Serves to speed up impulse transfer Ends of Schwann Cells produce segmented nodes = Nodes of Ranvier
RF = reticular fibers P = perineurium (nucleus) S = Schwann Cell (nucleus)
Unmyelinated Neurons Present in CNS and PNS In PNS, axon in simple cleft in Schwann Cell, no wrapping, no Nodes of Ranvier. In CNS, totally unsheathed, many in number (3-4 x as many as myelinated.)
Ultrastructural features of myelinated (A) and unmyelinated (B) nerve fibers. • Nucleus and cytoplasm of a Schwann cell; • axon; • microtubule; • neurofilament; • myelin sheath; • mesaxon; • node of Ranvier; • interdigitating processes of Schwann cells at the node of Ranvier; • side view of an unmyelinated axon; • basal lamina.
Synaptic Communication Gap between adjacent neuron ends = synapse. Chemical Synapse: In the synapse, the axon terminal secretes chemical neurotransmitter (e.g. acetylcholine) which transfers impulse from one neuron to the next via a specific receptor on the post-synaptic cell. Common neurotransmitters include: Acetylcholine, Norepinephrine, Dopamine, Serotonin and Glutamate, and GABA Electrical Synapse: Gap junctions - cytoplasmic connections between adjacent cells. | https://www.slideserve.com/jana/nerve-tissue |
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Dendritic development of Drosophilahigh order visual system neurons is independent of sensory experience
BMC Neuroscience volume 4, Article number: 14 (2003)
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Abstract
Background
The complex and characteristic structures of dendrites are a crucial part of the neuronal architecture that underlies brain function, and as such, their development has been a focal point of recent research. It is generally believed that dendritic development is controlled by a combination of endogenous genetic mechanisms and activity-dependent mechanisms. Therefore, it is of interest to test the relative contributions of these two types of mechanisms towards the construction of specific dendritic trees. In this study, we make use of the highly complex Vertical System (VS) of motion sensing neurons in the lobula plate of the Drosophila visual system to gauge the importance of visual input and synaptic activity to dendritic development.
Results
We find that the dendrites of VS1 neurons are unchanged in dark-reared flies as compared to control flies raised on a 12 hour light, 12 hour dark cycle. The dendrites of these flies show no differences from control in dendrite complexity, spine number, spine density, or axon complexity. Flies with genetically ablated eyes show a slight but significant reduction in the complexity and overall length of VS1 dendrites, although this effect may be due to a reduction in the overall size of the dendritic field in these flies.
Conclusions
Overall, our results indicate no role for visual experience in the development of VS dendrites, while spontaneous activity from photoreceptors may play at most a subtle role in the formation of fully complex dendrites in these high-order visual processing neurons.
Background
The mechanisms that underlie the development of the nervous system are numerous and diverse. Over the past several decades, research has begun to give us a sense of the importance of both preprogrammed, invariant mechanisms for neural development, and also programs for development that depend on experience and the electrical activity of the developing neurons themselves. The fact that certain types of neurons develop their basic morphologies even when isolated in culture from other cells provides a simple but powerful argument for the importance of cell autonomous mechanisms in the establishment of neuronal structure [1, 2]. These and numerous other experiments have provided overwhelming evidence that neurons possess endogenous, activity independent programs that account for important aspects of their development.
On the other hand, neurons deprived of contact with or activity from their normal synaptic partners seldom attain a fully mature structure. For example, Purkinje cells deprived of their efferent projections in Weaver mice have dendritic arborizations that do not extend normally . Additionally, the structures of neurons can be affected by an absence of activity from their efferent partners, even if those partners are present. This phenomenon of activity dependent neuronal development has been studied particularly effectively in the visual systems of various model systems. For instance, Xenopus tectal neurons have simple dendrites until the axons of their efferent partners in the retina arrive to innervate them. At this time, the dendrites elaborate into their mature structures. A pharmacological block of certain activity from the efferent neurons prevents the elaboration of the tectal dendrites, indicating that activity plays a critical role in the processes by which these tectal neurons attain their mature morphology .
These and other studies have established a role for environmental input and synaptic activity in the development and maturation of dendrites, but the importance of these inputs varies among different types of neurons and different model systems (reviewed in [5–7]). Moreover, many of the mechanistic details of activity-dependent dendrite development remain elusive. Genetically advantageous model systems like Drosophila and C. elegans offer tools such as the genetic ablation of targeted cell types and temporally and spatially controlled blockades of neural activity. This line of research has been restricted by the fact that the best dendrites for study (those that are highly complex and stereotyped) have been described in vertebrates, which are not easily amenable to genetic manipulation. Neurons described in Drosophila and C. elegans have been simple, highly variable, or both. One exception is provided by the multiple dendrite (MD) neurons in the Drosophila embryonic peripheral nervous system. The dendrites of these neurons, which are fairly complex and highly stereotyped, have yielded important information about the genetic program controlling dendritic development [8, 9]. However, the MD neurons are primary sensory neurons, and as such, their dendrites are not postsynaptic to axonal input. This limits their usefulness in studies of synapse formation and activity-dependent dendritic development.
In an effort to facilitate dendritic studies, we have used the MARCM system to label individual neurons and have recently characterized the six neurons of the Vertical System (VS) in the lobula plate of the Drosophila optic lobe . As they serve as integrators of visual information from wide areas of the eye , VS neurons have highly complex dendritic trees that sweep over a large part of the lobula plate. In addition, their dendritic trees are highly stereotyped from animal to animal and are individually identifiable . They also exhibit easily distinguishable spine-like structures that have been shown in blowfly to be enriched for post-synaptic densities allowing for potential analogies to be drawn to dendritic spines in vertebrate neurons. Also like vertebrate dendritic spines, whose actin-mediated changes in morphology may be important for connective plasticity (reviewed in ), the spines in VS cells are rich in actin , supporting the idea that they could serve similar functions in the insect VS neurons as in numerous types of neurons in vertebrates.
Vertical System neurons' extraordinary dendritic complexity and consistent structure from animal to animal should make them well suited for quantitative analyses. In the current study, we test the role of activity in the development of one particular VS neuron, VS1. We use two approaches to interfere with input into VS1: dark rearing, and genetic ablation of the eyes, and compare the VS1 dendrites in these flies to wild type light reared flies.
Results and Discussion
The Vertical System and the VS1 Neuron
We have recently described the cells composing the Drosophila Vertical System in structural detail . Our conclusion was that there are six VS cells in each Drosophila lobula plate, and that they bear a close structural resemblance to the well characterized VS neurons in blowflies and house flies [14, 16–19]. Each cell has a complex elaboration of dendrites in the lobula plate with axons that travel medially and terminate near the esophagus.
Because different neurons of the Vertical System have different characteristic structures and levels of complexity , it was necessary to select a single type of VS neuron for quantitative analyses. We have restricted our quantitative analyses to the VS1 neuron because it is unambiguously recognizable, highly stereotyped, and has the most complex dendrites of any VS neuron . The VS1 dendrite is characterized by a main dendritic shaft that produces one or a few dorsally projecting branches before sweeping ventrally. As the main shaft extends ventrally, it continues to produce smaller branches that combine to form a narrow band covering the medial part of the lobula plate (Fig. 1A).
In order to define quantitatively some aspects of the dendrites' structure, we first obtained three-dimensional confocal images of VS1 dendritic trees, and then traced the dendrites to produce three-dimensional computer diagrams of the dendrites. From these tracings, we measured dendritic branching complexity based on the total number of branch points found in the dendrites of single VS1 cells. We also used the tracings to determine the combined length of all of the dendritic branches for each cell.
The Effect of Input Deprivation on VS1 Structure
Given the high stereotypy of VS1 dendrites, we used VS1 to study the effects that sensory experience may have on the development of dendrites in the Drosophila visual system. We compared the dendrites of flies raised on a 12 hours light, 12 hours dark cycle (12L:12D) to those flies raised in constant darkness (24D) from larvae to at least 48 hours after eclosion. This period of darkness spans from before the development of adult visual structures to after the critical period for visual system plasticity .
VS1 cells appeared to be unchanged by dark rearing. The overall shape of the dendrites and the field that they cover was the same as in 12L:12D animals (Fig 1A,1B) and the complexity of the dendritic trees was unchanged in dark-reared animals (Table 1). The finer structures of the dendrites were also grossly similar in the visually deprived flies (Fig 2A,2B) and there was no significant difference between the two groups for spine number or spine density (Table 1). Given no apparent effects of dark rearing on the dendrites of the VS1 neuron, we looked at the axons to see whether the output from these cells might be affected by a lack of visual experience. As for the dendrites, the axons appeared to be similar in visually deprived flies and normal flies (Fig 3A,3B). Quantitatively, there was no difference in axon complexity between the two groups (Table 1). These results showing no changes in axon or dendrite morphology are consistent with a recent study showing normal physiological function of these neurons in dark-reared blowflies .
Apart from the possibility that VS1 dendritic development is independent of synaptic activity, it is possible that spontaneous activity generated in visual circuits is sufficient to promote VS1 dendritic development. However, the neural elements that directly innervate VS dendrites are not fully characterized. To determine whether spontaneous activity from the eye plays a role in the normal formation of higher order visual dendrites, we made use of a GMR-hid transgene (the Glass Multimer Reporter driving expression of the head involution defective gene) that causes expression of a cell death protein specifically in the eye-imaginal disc as soon as photoreceptors are born. This system has been shown be efficient in killing photoreceptors at early stages of their development [22, 23]. Although covering a similar dendritic field (Fig. 1C), we found that dendritic trees of VS1 cells in GMR-hid flies showed a slight but significant decrease in dendritic length and branching complexity as compared to wild-type 12L:12D flies (Table 1). The dendritic structures of these VS1 cells were slightly abnormal in some cases (Fig 1C), but these defects were mild, and inconsistent. There were no significant differences seen in GMR-hid flies for any of the other parameters that we studied, including spine number, spine density (Fig 2C and Table 1). Further analyses revealed no significant changes in the average length of individual dendritic segments or in the branching order structure for VS1 dendrites in GMR-hid flies (data not shown).
It is well known that in Drosophila the development of second order neurons is dependent on photoreceptor axon innervation (reviewed in ), and indeed we noted a reduction in the size of the lamina in GMR-hid flies (data not shown). One explanation for the reduction in VS1 dendrite length in GMR-hid flies is that the entire lobula plate may be smaller, as previously described for eye-ablated animals . If this were true then a VS1 cell could innervate its lobula plate normally, but would have less total dendritic length. To test this possibility, we measured the length of the dorsal-ventral axis on the dendritic trees for wild-type 12L:12D flies versus GMR-hid flies. We saw a slight decrease in the length of this axis from 112.7 μm in wild-type (n = 10) to 102.5 μm in GMR-hid flies (n = 5, t-test p = 0.111), indicating that the decrease in dendritic length may be due at least in part to a decrease in the size of the dendritic field in these animals potentially caused by reduction of lower order visual neurons. Further supporting the idea that these neurons are essentially normal is the fact that the axon termini in GMR-hid flies were unaltered in appearance and complexity as compared to control and dark-reared flies (Fig. 3C and Table 1).
Past work in cockroach has shown a more dramatic role for input in the structure of efferent dendrites. Mizrahi and Libersat deprived cockroach sensory giant interneurons of input through direct deafferentation, and observed an average reduction of 55% in a variety of measures of dendrite complexity . These more severe effects are likely due to the fact that the cockroach neurons were directly deprived of their presynaptic partners, while the VS1 neurons analyzed in this study were affected only indirectly. These combined results imply that the structural complexity of these large dendritic systems rests heavily on the presence of presynaptic partners, and less on input to the system on the whole or activity in upstream circuitry.
Conclusion
In conclusion, these experiments show no role for experience in the development of these complex high order visual processing neurons. Dark-reared and visually experienced flies possessed VS1 neurons with similar dendritic morphology, complexity, and spine structures, and similar axon morphology and complexity. Flies lacking photoreceptors showed similar neural structures, with only a slight reduction of dendritic branching complexity and overall dendritic length. Taken together, it seems likely that the dendritic morphogenesis of VS1 (and likely other VS neurons) is largely determined by internal genetic programs combined perhaps with the local environment in the lobula plate.
Methods
Drosophila melanogaster were grown on standard media at 25°C. During clonal analysis, larvae that hatched over a two-hour interval were moved to plastic vials containing approximately 10 ml of food. Larvae were kept at a concentration of 80 per vial. Mitotic recombination was induced via heat shock (40 min in a 37°C water bath, 30 min at room temperature, 40 min in 37°C water bath) at two and three days after hatching. Adult female flies between 2 and 5 days after eclosure were dissected, fixed, and stained as described . Genotypes used are hs-flp / + ; FRT G 13, tubP-GAL80 /FRT G 13, UAS-mCD8-GFP ; GAL4-3A / + or hs-flp, UAS-mCD8-GFP / + ; tubP-GAL80, FRT 2A/GAL4-3A, FRT 2Afor wild type flies (12L:12D and 24D), and hs-flp, UAS-mCD8-GFP / + ; GMR-hid / + ; tubP-GAL80, FRT 2A/GAL4-3A, FRT 2Afor flies with ablated eyes.
Dark-reared flies were moved to dark boxes at 25°C three days after larval hatching, before adult photoreceptors are born and before any connections are made. Adult heads were removed under a safelight and fixed prior to dissection.
A Bio-Rad MRC 1024 laser scanning confocal microscope and the Laser Sharp image collection program were used. Images were prepared using Adobe Photoshop. Three-dimensional traces of the dendrites were produced from confocal stacks using MicroBrightField Neurolucida software (as in ). Briefly, dendritic branches were traced such that turning points, branch points, and endpoints were specified in X, Y, and Z positions within the confocal stack. MicroBrightField NeuroExplorer software was then used to give quantitative measures. Branching complexity was measured as the total number of branch points in the dendritic tree, and total length for these traces was defined as the combined length of all of the branch segments (as in ). In quantifying spines, we included terminal segments from 1–3 μm long, since these were the structures with the most dense postsynaptic terminals as previously described using electron microscopy . Our efforts to develop a postsynaptic marker as a means of quantifying spines were unsuccessful. Structures longer than 3 μm were treated as dendritic branches.
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Acknowledgements
This work supported by National Institutes of Health grants R01-NS36623 (to L.L.) and TR32-HD07249 (to E.K.S.).
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Authors' Contributions
Concepts and experimental design were the combined work of E.K.S and L.L. Experimental work was performed by E.K.S. and J.E.R. Imaging was carried out be E.K.S. Writing was the work of E.K.S. with some contributions from L.L. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Scott, E.K., Reuter, J.E. & Luo, L. Dendritic development of Drosophilahigh order visual system neurons is independent of sensory experience. BMC Neurosci 4, 14 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-4-14
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During development of the nervous system, neurite outgrowth is necessary for the formation of connections between nerve cells. Neurons are highly polarized cells that send out distinct processes, axons, and dendrites; however, the molecular regulation of the differential growth of these processes remains incompletely understood. Primary cultures of rat hippocampal neurons have been used to study many aspects of neuronal cell biology, including neurite extension, establishment of polarity, biogenesis of synapses, and membrane trafficking. After attachment to the substrate, hippocampal neurons begin sending out multiple processes by approximately 12 h after plating. The axonal process is derived from one of these processes, and is evident after 48 h in culture. Complete polarity of axons and dendrites is established after 7 days in culture. The establishment of these cultures and the ability to transfect them with potential regulatory genes allows the researcher to dissect out the pathways relevant to neurite extension. To study the role of small GTPases in neurite extension and branching, we describe methods for culture of hippocampal neurons, for transfection of these cells, and assessment of neurite extension and branching. | https://arizona.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/functional-assay-of-arno-and-arf6-in-neurite-elongation-and-branc |
Neuronal polarity describes the spatial, morphological, structural, and functional differentiations that occur in neurons during early development that results in the formation of a single axon and multiple dendrites. Axons and dendrites are responsible for directional signaling in neurons - receiving, processing, and transmitting information from the postsynaptic dendrites to the axon of the postsynaptic neuron. The majority of excitatory inputs at the dendrites occur at dendritic spines. Polarization of the neuron begins with the loss of the symmetric shape of a round newborn neuron via formation of minor neurites1-4. Neuronal polarization depends upon: 1. the polarity of microtubules (MTs), one of the primary cytoskeletal polymers in cells, and 2. polarized cargo transport by kinesins and dynein along the MTs in axons and dendrites4,5.
MTs are intrinsically polar filaments composed of alpha/beta-tubulin heterodimers with an exposed beta-tubulin at the plus end and an exposed alpha-tubulin at the minus end5-7. MT polarity directs: 1. location of MT assembly/disassembly; 2. where MT-associated proteins (MAPs; e.g., +TIPs, motors) bind MTs in the cell; and 3. motor-driven traffic along MTs. Importantly, MTs are integral for nearly all normal neuronal functions and MT disruption underlies several neural pathologies7-10.
In axons, MTs are tightly bundled polymers with plus-ends uniformly oriented toward axon terminals (plus-ends distal to the cell body), while in dendrites, the MTs are of mixed polarities (non-uniformly oriented)11 (Fig. 1). The dynein motor protein transports MTs into axons, resulting in the plus-end distal orientation, whereas kinesin-6 transports MTs in the minus-end distal orientation into dendrites5. Mixed polarity MTs are mainly in proximal dendrites, while plus-end out MTs are in the distal part of dendrites. Within dendritic spines, dynamic MTs with a distal plus-end out orientation have a short-term presence and are reportedly involved in spine head morphology and synaptic plasticity and neurotransmission12,13. At the distal end of the extending axon is the growth cone which is composed of dynamic, plus-end distal, tyrosinated MTs14. Within the compartmentalized growth cone, MTs are present in the central (C) and peripheral (P) domains. The former contains stable MTs, while the latter contains dynamic MTs. Enhanced anterograde transport along MTs provides necessary molecules and organelles to the advancing axon growth cone4. During growth cone advancement, the number of MTs in the P-domain increases, possibly for the purpose of force generation to move the growth cone forward4. The polymerization, depolymerization, stabilization, and destabilization of MTs in the P-domain are subject to many regulatory forces, including the coupling of dynamic MTs with the actin cytoskeleton, Rac1-mediated activation of the oncoprotein 18/stathmin, and PI3K-mediated activation of assorted MAPs and +TIPs4. P-domain MTs are essential for membrane insertion, an important process in axon and dendrite growth. Through membrane insertion, tension on the expanding surface area of the existing membrane is reduced. Without this reduction in tension, membrane protrusion, advancement of the growth cone, and continued neuronal polarization could not occur. Stabilization of P-domain MTs allows transport of signaling molecules along these MTs and the required mechanical forces are generated in the growth cone. Stabilized P-domain MTs coordinate actin dynamics and actin-mediated force generation during membrane insertion and growth cone steering and growth4.
Figure 1: MT polarization in axons and dendrites. MT orientation is almost entirely plus-end out in axons, whereas there is mixed polarity in dendrites with proximal dendritic regions a mixture of plus- and minus-ends out vs a majority of plus-end out MTs in the distal parts of the dendrite. Motor-mediated transport along MTs is polarized. In axons, kinesin motors (e.g., KIF5) transport cargoes anterogradely, whereas dynein transports retrogradely. In the proximal part of dendrites with mixed polarity MTs, dynein transports cargoes bidirectionally. In the more distal part of dendrites with mainly plus-end out MTs, KIF17 transports cargoes away from the cell body.
MTs in axons vs dendrites are polarized in their post-translational modifications (PTMs). In dendrites, mixed polarity MTs are modified by tyrosination, acetylation, and short-chain glutamylation with the majority of minus-end out MTs stable and acetylated, whereas plus-end out MTs are tyrosinated and dynamic15. Axonal (plus-end out) MTs are modified by long-chain glutamylation, acetylation, polyamination, detyrosination, and Δ-2 tubulin14.
Within axons and dendrites, MTs are the tracks upon which cargoes are transported either anterogradely or retrogradely by kinesins and dynein motor proteins (Fig. 1). At least in the case of the kinesins, PTMs affect the binding preference of kinesins for specifically modified MTs. For example, kinesin-1 is a plus-end-directed motor, which means it interacts preferentially with acetylated MTs. This results in kinesin-1 exiting dendrites and entering axons. Conversely, kinesin-3 favors tyrosinated MTs, allowing this kinesin motor to function in both axons and dendrites15. Kinesin-mediated (e.g., kinesin-1/KIF5 and kinesin-2/KIF17) transport occurs along uniformly oriented, plus-end out MTs, while dynein mediates transport along mixed polarity MTs7,16,17. The mixed polarity MTs in proximal dendrites support bidirectional dynein-mediated cargo transport, while plus-end out MTs in the distal part of dendrites utilize KIF17-mediated transport17 (Fig. 1). KIF5 and KIF17 can transport cargo already localized to the dendrites; moreover, taxol-stabilized MTs enable KIF5-mediated cargo transport into dendrites17.
Neuronal polarity is essential for the proper development, growth, and physiology of neurons. Within neurons, MT and motor protein polarities are required for establishing and maintaining neuronal polarity. However, unanswered questions remain: 1. Why are some cytoplasmic molecules in axons but not dendrites; 2. How do MAPs become compartmentalized differently in each type of neurite; 3. Why does a neuron have a single axon but multiple dendrites?5. Scientists at Cytoskeleton, Inc. offer reagents to assist researchers in answering these questions, as well as many others regarding MT functions in the central nervous system. Useful reagents include Signal-Seeker Enrichment kits for quantifying levels of endogenous PTMs such as acetylation, tyrosine phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and SUMOylation, as well as purified cytoskeletal proteins (e.g., actins, tubulins, small GTPases, kinesin and dynein motors) and functional assay kits to measure the activities of these same proteins.
Caceres A. et al. 2012. Neuronal polarity: demarcation, growth and commitment. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 24, 547-553.
Kapitein L.C. and Hoogenraad C.C. 2011. Which way to go? Cytoskeletal organization and polarized transport in neurons. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 46, 9-20.
Kapitein L.C. and Hoogenraad C.C. 2015. Building the neuronal microtubule cytoskeleton. Neuron. 87, 492-506.
Schelski M. and Bradke F. 2017. Neuronal polarization: From spatiotemporal signaling to cytoskeletal dynamics. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 84, 11-28.
Baas P.W. and Lin S. 2011. Hooks and comets: The story of microtubule polarity orientation in the neuron. Dev. Neurobiol. 71, 403-418.
Voelzmann A. et al. 2016. A conceptual view at microtubule plus end dynamics in neuronal axons. Brain Res. Bull. 126, 226-237.
Chakraborti S. et al. 2016. The emerging role of the tubulin code: From the tubulin molecule to neuronal function and disease. Cytoskeleton. 73, 521-550.
Tischfield M.A. et al. 2011. Phenotypic spectrum of the tubulin-related disorders and functional implications of disease-causing mutations. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 21, 286-294.
Neumann B. and Hilliar M.A. 2014. Loss of MEC-17 leads to microtubule instability and axonal degeneration. Cell Rep. 6, 93-103.
Coles C.H. and Bradke F. 2015. Coordinating neuronal actin-microtubule dynamics. Curr. Biol. 25, R677-R691.
Hu X. et al. 2008. Activity-dependent dynamic microtubule invasion of dendritic spines. J. Neurosci. 28, 13094-13105.
Jaworski J. et al. 2009. Dynamic microtubules regulate dendritic spine morphology and synaptic plasticity. Neuron. 61, 85-100.
Park J.H. and Roll-Mecak A. 2018. The tubulin code in neuronal polarity. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 51, 95-102.
Tas R.P. et al. 2017. Differentiation between oppositely oriented microtubules controls polarized neuronal transport. Neuron. 96, 1264-1271.
Prokop A. 2013. The intricate relationship between microtubules and their associated motor proteins during axon growth and maintenance. Neural Dev. 8, 17.
Kapitein L.C. et al. 2010. Mixed microtubules steer dynein-driven cargo transport into dendrites. Curr. Biol. 20, 290-299. | https://www.cytoskeleton.com/microtubules-and-polarity-in-neurons |
|Alan Trounson, CIRM President|
Each month CIRM President Alan Trounson gives his perspective on recently published papers he thinks will be valuable in moving the field of stem cell research forward. This month’s report, along with an archive of past reports, is available on the CIRM website.
This month I want to focus my blog on a paper that I think is a major advance in spinal cord injury repair. A CIRM-funded UC San Diego team mixed stem cell science with some classic tissue engineering to achieve the greatest degree of spine repair in rats that I have ever seen reported (you can read a summary of their award here). They embedded neural stem cells in fibrin, a protein found in blood, and added several growth factors to this gel.
When you use neural stem cells is it is not good enough for them to just mature into neurons. Those neurons need to produce lengthy axons that can reach out and make connections with the existing neurons in the host. The UCSD team placed the gel at the site of complete spinal cord separations in rats and after six weeks found that the number of axons growing from the injury site exceeded what other teams had seen by 200-fold. Those axons also grew10 times the length seen in earlier studies.
They found this when they implanted rat neural stem cells as well as with two different human neural stem cell lines. One of those human lines is already approved for use in humans and is being tested in a clinical trial for ALS (Lou Gerhig’s disease). This could greatly reduce the time needed to move the UCSD process from animal testing to human trials.
My colleagues wrote about this work when it first appeared in the journal Cell here.
This month’s report also includes two articles showing that the field continues to make major strides in understanding and refining the process of reprogramming adult cells to become cells that behave like embryonic stem cells, that is iPS cells. We blogged about one of these papers here. My report also discusses a paper that firms up the role of cancer stem cells in leukemia.
My full report is available online, along with links to my reports from previous months.
A.T. | https://blog.cirm.ca.gov/2012/10/02/guest-blogger-alan-trounson-septembers-stem-cell-research-highlights-2/ |
Fragmentation in today’s world
Ladies and gentlemen, I would like to take some time this morning to offer a few of my observations on global developments and the impact of fragmentation on the financial system. While I do not profess to have solutions for the challenges that confront us, I hope that this will provide some perspectives in our conversations over the next two days.
The theme of this year’s Seminar is timely, as policymakers and regulators around the world respond to the impact of ongoing political and socioeconomic developments. In my view, there are several permutations to fragmentation that transcend economic, social and geographical boundaries.
Open and integrated financial markets are under threat from political and economic challenges stemming in part from growing backlash against globalization and calls for protectionism policies among many countries. The backlash stems partly from concerns of growing social fragmentation with growth not being evenly spread across the income spectrum, reflecting an increasingly widening inequality gap.
Today, we live in a world where the richest 1% is said to own more wealth than the rest of the world population . Globalization has also resulted in increased inequality within countries, which is particularly pronounced in some advanced economies of the world.
In contrast, one-third of all food produced for human consumption in the world (around 1.3 billion tons) is lost or wasted, with most wastage occurring in developed markets . In terms of climate change, the share of national GDP at risk from climate change is expected to exceed USD1.5 trillion in 301 major cities (expected to account for two-thirds of the world’s GDP) around the world by 2025 .
There are also structural implications arising from technological progress and innovation on employment and job displacement, which are very real. While automation has the potential to increase productivity and economic growth, it also raises concerns on implications to jobs, skills, and wages.
Such developments, if taken to extreme, may even fragment the existing social order. Despite recent geopolitical outcomes, the pivot away from globalization that we see is very much a symptom of deeper rooted socioeconomic imbalances, rather than a root cause of its own. It has also been aggravated by the challenging external environment of heightened uncertainty, low growth and high debt and growing inequality.
Ladies and gentlemen,
The second aspect of fragmentation relates to economic fragmentation. We have been observing a realignment of global markets, in terms of the presence and significance of emerging markets within the global financial landscape. Emerging economies contribute nearly 60% of global GDP, as compared to 10 years ago when they accounted for only about 30% of global GDP .
Global population, in turn, is expected to reach over 9 billion by 2050 with the majority of this growth driven by emerging markets . The significance of emerging markets was reinforced by the IMF Managing Director Christine Lagarde in a speech where she said – “Emerging and developing economies are home to 85% of the world’s population, and these 85% matter to the global economy more than ever, and they matter to you more than ever – because of strong linkages through trade, finance, economics, geopolitics, and personal connections that you experience every day” .
In shaping the global agenda, it is critical therefore to consider the heterogeneity of markets with varying economic and social dimensions, and are motivated by different needs. The agenda cannot be one that is premised on a one-size-fits-all model that is driven, and sometimes dictated, by advanced markets. Given the number and growing economic significance of emerging markets, there needs to be a more balanced debate on international regulatory reforms and better inclusion of these considerations in international policy formulation. Otherwise, we risk perpetuating this divide and fragmentation even further.
Ladies and gentlemen,
The third aspect of fragmentation relates to an area close to what I do and that is regulatory fragmentation. The world’s capital markets currently make up more than half of global financial assets. Further, a corollary of the narrowing of traditional financing channels as banks adopt a more conservative lending appetite (in line with more stringent prudential requirements) is the greater reliance on capital market-based financing. Prudential regulation and financial stability issues, however, continue to dominate global policy regulation and often is not reflective of the significant role of capital markets in the overall financial system.
For example, there are instances where prudential regulations are being expanded to reach capital market and non-bank entities which by their nature are different from banks. There is also greater focus on issues relating to market regulation, which have traditionally been within the realm of securities regulators further creating duplication and potential fragmentation in regulation.
To reflect the multiple dimensions of global financial regulation and to minimize these unintended consequences on capital markets, there needs to be concerted efforts to increase the representation of capital market regulators in international financial policy-making. Today capital market regulators (both from developed and emerging markets) are severely under-represented in the configuration of some international organizations at a time when market-based financing is increasingly growing.
New paradigms of globalization
The important question for policy makers, regulators, and market practitioners is not whether we should accept or reject globalization, but rather, how do we ensure that that global policy making and regulation leverage on each other and do not perpetuate fragmentation even further and impose undue costs and disruption to the market. As global finance interconnects us, there needs to be, as the Salzburg Global Forum in their efforts of Bridging Divides seeks to do, much greater emphasis placed on bridging the divides and creating greater links to financial development to minimize the risk of further polarization.
There is also a need to redefine the paradigms of globalization and re-orientate our development philosophy towards more inclusive access to opportunities that transcend geographical and socio-economic boundaries Growth must be sustainable across generations and be able to support optimal quality of life for those living within the ecosystem. This includes strengthening the safety nets to ensure sustainability of our retirement systems against the backdrop of an aging population. Are the needs of the aging population being catered to and do they have opportunities for wealth creation through effective savings and pensions structures?
To ensure a meaningful response to many of these issues I described earlier, it is clear that long-termism and sustainability must form the lynchpins of our economic philosophy. This is a central theme as we contend with not only finite but depleting resources, as the forces of globalization impact inclusivity and social inequalities.
Sustainable capitalism
Ladies and gentlemen,
A healthy financial system is vital for the well-functioning of the global economy. It is however observed that finance has also gained a momentum of its own and has become somewhat detached from the real world of industry, manufacturing, services, agriculture, thereby outpacing growth in the real economy and distorting public’s trust and confidence in the financial system along the way.
In order to make finance work for the real world, rapid financial proliferation should be balanced with a more democratized financial system to meet the needs of diversified stakeholders across different segments of society. It cannot be solely anchored on small but influential segments of the economy, whether they be the more advanced markets, the larger companies and institutions or the wealthy and elite individuals.
One clear example is the disconnect between the traditional financial system and the younger generation, where structural inadequacies within the system have helped catalyze new forms of alternative financing and investments enabled by technology (crowdfunding, mobile payments, and investments etc.).
With its ability to provide long-term financing to encourage and sustain business activity, innovation, and infrastructure development, it is critical to have deep and interconnected capital markets that can safely and efficiently allocate investments needed to achieve these outcomes. Global challenges, such as climate change, require significant investments, with the World Economic Forum estimating that an additional investment of US$700 billion per annum is needed to provide for clean energy infrastructure, sustainable transport, energy efficiency and forestry . Due to the sheer scale and duration of financing required, it is argued that capital markets have the appropriate mobilization and risk diversification capacity to fulfill this demand.
Further, Islamic finance, based on principles of equitable and participatory growth with emphasis on risk sharing, can also play an increasingly pivotal role in promoting sustainable finance. As Islamic finance transactions need to be supported by genuine economic activities, it is also therefore firmly linked to the real economy.
Conclusion
Ladies and gentlemen,
Globalization in its current form is not a viable option, nor is fragmentation or permutations of it, the solution to the challenges we face. What is required is a common set of minds to shift the global ecosystem to make the economy and financial system more inclusive and sustainable for all. A world which incentivizes short-term maximization at the individual level over long-term optimization at the aggregate level is not a world that produces sustainable outcomes for the present as well as the future generation.
We are at a critical juncture. As stewards of global finance, our actions - or even inaction - in the coming years will be a crucial determinant of the state of resilience and integrity of our economies.
I wish you a productive discussion in the days ahead. Thank you. | https://www.sc.com.my/resources/speeches/salzburg-global-seminar-long-termism-and-sustainability-must-form-the-lynchpins-of-our-economic-philosophy |
Class members gain an appreciation for the variety of issues facing today’s educators and the educational system and gain insight into how these issues impact our local education community (San Ramon Valley Unified School District). Members also have opportunities to observe student learning and school climate through classroom observations and shadowing the principal of a local school.
Day Chairs: Elizabeth Graswich (lead), Lisa Bobadilla, Kathy Chiverton, Andy Li, and Henry Perezalonso
This session begins at the San Ramon Valley Fire Protection District Board Room, where we will meet to pick up a “to-go” breakfast and review the day’s objectives. We will leave promptly at 8:20 am for a presentation at the City of Concord’s Council Chambers and a tour of the Concord ReUse Project (redevelopment of the Concord Naval Weapons Station) via bus. We will return to the SRVFPD Board Room for lunch and an afternoon of discussion and the group exercise.
Day Chairs: Lisa Bobadilla, David Behring, and Robert Combs
Successful communities require the stewardship of broad-minded, well-educated, forward-thinking individuals acting in unity to promote the cumulative interests of a greater goal. Because leadership starts at the individual level, the “Foundations of Leadership” day kicks off the program with understanding each participant’s strengths identified using the Clifton StrengthFinder assessment.
The day also includes an historical perspective of the San Ramon Valley and a review of the unified vision that was created by previous community leaders. Intermixed throughout the day are opportunities for developing relationships with other program participants and building the foundations for a strong sense of team and group identity.
Day Chairs: Kathy Chiverton, (Lead), David Behring, Henry Perezalonso
The retreat is an opportunity for class members to get to know one another on a more personal level and beyond the traditional boundaries of communication. Team building exercises focus on fundamental team development skills, empowerment, and the creation of synergy and trust among the class participants.
Participants should wear comfortable clothing and shoes.
Day Chairs: Henry Perezalonzo (lead), Randall Diamond, Christopher George
The goal of this session is to explore some of the serious issues facing families, children and the elderly in the San Ramon Valley. Through the fieldwork and class discussions, the program participants will discover what resources are available to address these issues, as well as identify how to access these resources. It is also a day in which volunteer opportunities with non-profit human services providers are discussed.
Day Chairs: Ann Lucena (lead), David Behring, Sumita Bhandari, and Kathy Chiverton
This session presents an overview of local government and its relationship to other governmental bodies. Students receive first-hand experience in civic leadership by campaigning and running for public office in a mock city council election. Opportunities are provided throughout the day to interact with current and former public office holders as well as public service administrators. One of the goals of the program, and this session, in particular, is to familiarize the class with methods of effecting change through the governmental process. The class also elects its class council members, mayor and vice mayor during this class. | https://leadershipsrv.org/calendar/action~agenda/page_offset~-1/time_limit~1641974400/cat_ids~7,8/request_format~html/ |
This paper is a reflection on the following question: In our age of globalization, what is the relevance of the three traditional theories of political economy? This subject will be explored in the following manner. First, there will be a brief examination of the meaning of political economy. Secondly, by looking at the political ideologies of capitalism, Marxism, and communism. Third, by examining the political economies of the three ideologies. Fourth, by examining how each ideology created a specific political economy in keeping with the ideology’s political framework. Finally, an examination of how these political economies work within a globalized world.
Definition: Political Economy
A political economy is the intersection of policy, polity, and politics. The assigned reading by Gilpin (2001) provided a detailed explanation of the evolution of the understanding of political economy as this developed in parallel with the study and understanding of economics, by “…historians, economists, and social scientists” (Gilpin, 2001, p. 25). What is of particular interest is that political economy affects all aspects of life, and the evolving definitions are also a reflection of the ages in which the definitions were developed. This is reflected in the attempts of various schools of economics to rationalize individual behaviour vs. rational-choice methodology in an attempt to explain how economic factors affect “…social institutions, public policy, and other forms of social activities” (Gilpin, 2001, p. 26), which is now regarded as having an impact on economic life. In 2017, some years after the global financial crisis, it is clear that there is a broader understanding of the intersectionality of economics and social institutions. As well, the recent political upheavals in Britain, with Brexit, and in the United States, with Trumpism, seems to be redefining our current understanding of just what political economy is. This is because both political events are trying to upend the liberal democratic understanding of capitalism from a position of global interdependency, to return to a world of protectionism in a world that cannot unravel global interdependence (The Economist (b), 2017).
The Three Traditional Ideologies
Capitalism
Capitalism was born of mercantilism at a time when the nation-state was developing and the power of the state was being expanded through the age of discovery. The fiscal power of a state ultimately determined its power. This is demonstrated in our own age by the creation of the European Union (EU) and the EU currency, the Euro. This trading block had essentially developed its own currency, minus the historical background of traditional currencies, and the EU is now a global power to reckon with (The Economist (a), 2008).
Marxism – Communism
Marxism was born of the Marxist theory of the relationship of the worker to the products of his/her labour. On a nationwide level, this was reflected in varying degrees by how socialist leaning states interpreted this relationship, that is, as a socialist state with some control of the economy remaining in government hands, or as a communist state with a centralized economy? In the instance of communist state economies, there are two main examples, the USSR and the Peoples Republic of China, prior to post-modern political world. Both economies were centrally controlled, but in each, the manner in which the particular ideology developed, diverged, became very strict, as in Stalin’s USSR and Mao’s China, and then changed to meet the reality of a globalized world. The USSR essentially collapsed, with the new Russian state’s economy going into free-fall and, presently, in a state of near collapse due to economic sanctions because of the political decisions of the Russian state. In China, on the other hand, there has been a liberalization of the economy but the state retains control over big spending on big infrastructure directed at future development of the state, for example, the Three Gorges Dam and the Mega-cities as regions of directed economic growth (The Economist (c), 2017).
The Intersection of the Political Economies & Ideologies of the Three Ideologies
In all three instances, it is clear that the political framework of each polity directs the political economy of each respective country. Each country’s economy has had to adapt to the changing world economic order, in order to survive. Countries that have remained isolated, for example, North Korea, find that they cannot compete in the global economic market and must rely on a benefactor nation; in this case, the North Koreans rely heavily upon of China and, to some extent, on Russia.
Political Economies Within a Globalized World
The global financial system is so integrated that isolation is no longer possible. As noted above, each ideology has had to adapt to external, international trends in their economic practices, in order to survive economically, politically and socially. Technology has integrated the world to such an extent that it is not possible for technological and industrial advancement without integration on a global level. In the noted instances of attempted isolation, Brexit and Trumpism, there is little indication that this will be possible without damaging the UK and US economies. In each case, new political attempts at isolation have created uncertainty and the economic impact has adversely affected the respective economies. This indicates that the relationship between politics, polities, and economies, still stands, and attempts to sever these links moves political economy into uncharted territory.
Conclusion
To conclude, the global economic order is well integrated and globalization is a part of the economic life of each country. Some countries have usually adapted to globalization, irrespective of the nature of the political ideology practiced domestically. Countries that have remained isolated face economic difficulty because of the inability to change political ideological beliefs to adapt to the evolving technological and industrial developments that are advancing at a rapid pace. The connection between politics, social institutions, and economic practice strongly impacts the development of a political economy. With technology, all these variables play a part in a very globalized world, where all actors are interconnected through political and social systems. As in the time of mercantilism, each nation-state is evolving and adapting to the changing economy of its polity. The factors of production now encompass global considerations and political economies must adapt or they will falter.
Bibliography
Gilpin, R. (2001). Global Political Economy: Understanding the International Economic Order. Princeton: Princeton University Press. | https://www.theunitutor.com/sample-essays/relevance-three-traditional-theories-political-economy/ |
As an economic and political program, neoliberalism promises that everyone will be able to gain from the benefits of globalization but in practice there is clearly great disparity. Discuss with the reference to the advantages and disadvantages of neoliberalism and globalization.
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Introduction
According to Klack (2000), neoliberalism and globalization are two common words used to mention the currently international trend of development in global scene. Globalization is now powerful at the worldwide level; however, this word is almost meaningless on its own (George 2007). George also indicates that “neoliberlism” is necessary to make the meaning of “globalization” is more clear. Basically, the purpose of this philosophy – neoliberalism is to liberate the capital accumulation process. Many international organizations and governments in the world consider neoliberlism as a prominent political force which is needed to be counted in their development plan and it is a driving factors of international economic operation (Braedly & Luxton 2010). There is a point of view that, neoliberalism, as an economic and political program, will bring benefit of globalization to everyone, especially developing countries. In other words, over the time, neoliberal globalization – the definition of globalizing process without being bounded by governments’ policies, contribute to decrease the level of inequality in the global context. Nevertheless, in another opinion of Lindio-McGovern and Wallimann (2009), neoliberal globalization is supposed to intensify not only domestic but also worldwide disparity. An example of the significant inequality is provided through this statistic: in 1995, 20% world population in richest nations has 82 times the income of the same amount poorest, but it was only 30 times in 1960. In fact, over thirty years in which globalization and neoliberalism had become more popular, the gap between developed and developing countries has been getting more serious. Thus, this report will discuss both concepts: globalization and neoliberlism in term of pros and cons of each and the connections between them in order to identify whether or not neoliberalism helps everyone able to gain from the benefits of globalization.
Discussion of Neoliberalism
Neoliberalism, in the explanation of Dean (2008), is a political and economic practice considers market exchange as a guide for all actions of human. By the accordance with economic expectation and criteria, the philosophy redefines ethical and social life proposes that human freedom can be best achieved through market operation. According to Harvey 2005 (p.22), neoliberalism is a theory indicating that human well-being is highly developed “by liberating individual entrepreneurial freedoms and skills within an institutional framework characterize by strong private property rights, free market and free trade”. The key role of state or government in neoliberalism concept is to create institutional framework suitable for the market, establish policies of rights and contract. In general, through neoliberalism, governments take part in operating market by producing conditions for and subjects of the market, protecting the market without interfere with the market.
In reality, neoliberalism is revealed both advantage and disadvantage. Dean (2008, p.54) said: “neoliberalism relies on the fantasy of free trade”. Fridell (2012) also points out that according the theory of “neoliberalism”, in the whole world, greatest social benefit can be gained from limiting governments’ interventions at international as well as national levels and removing trade barriers. Besides free trade, other benefits of neoliberalism shown Klack (2000) are less states’ intervention and greater market competition, privatisation to private investors and reducing public expenditure on and taxation.
However, although neoliberalism is expected to decrease difference between developed and developing countries, but it even creates a more serious situation (Klack 2000). In fact, because of a larger political power and greater influence in international negotiation, rich countries gain more benefit of free trade than the poor. Therefore, environment pollution, resources and labour exploitations are common issues due to big companies, which mostly come from rich nations, use their right negatively in developing countries while they have just derestricted their regulation after applying free trade.
Discussion of Globalization
According to Ritzer (2011), globalization is the most significant change in human history. It is a Trans planetary set of processes in which liquidity increases; multi-directional flows of information, people, places and objects grow; structures that people create and encounter. There is another term closely related to and imply characteristics of “globalization”, it is “transnationalism”. Transnationalism is explained by Ritzer (2011) that processes of interconnecting social groups or individual across particular geo-political boundaries. These two term “globalization” and “transnationalism” are interchangeable but in fact, processes happens in ““transnationalism” are clearly more delimited than ones in “globalization”. In globalization, interconnections between objects are not only to cross geo-political borders, but also a wider range of other trans-planetary processes. Globalization makes boundaries for goods, idea, music and even people transcended. By globalization, these factors are able to move freely with little limitations of traditional barriers which used to separate places, language, people, culture and currency (Torres 2008).
Metz (2013) discusses advantages and disadvantage of globalization. Firstly, globalization narrows the traditional division between the rich and the poor in the world. By removing barriers in term of tax, regulations and so on, nations, especially developing countries can attract foreign investments which go along with modern technology and employment. Trans-national organizations investing in setting plants and applying new technology providing jobs and working condition in high standard for local people. In return, these companies can exploit raw material and labor at a low cost. Furthermore, in a global and open market, products and natural resources are able to move across nations. Indeed, globalization always brings benefit to customers, they have chance to approach products from other countries. In this world widely intensive market, anyone can satisfy their demand with more competitive price than before.
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On the other hand, author – Klack shows some disadvantage of globalization. According to Klack (2000), benefit of globalization are concentrated in core countries while the “lagging” countries occupy the major proportion of the world. In fact, at the begging of 90s, 50% of foreign investment flow from developed countries to developing ones went to China, Mexico and Argentina. In another period, a group of twelve “lagging” countries achieve 89% of the whole world’s foreign investment and South Korea, Turkey, Portugal and Hungary are named in the list. Thus, there is other ways to interpret the globalization’s benefit, it benefit the highly selective countries which are already better than others. Moreover, even advantages mention above are revealed the reverse sides. Cheap labor are exploited in developing countries. There are cases that children and prisoners are detected working in heartless condition by oversea employers who deliberately ignore safety requirement to save manufacturing cost. Moreover, many international organizations take advantage of legal loophole in developing countries to avoid paying tax. Therefore, the rich become richer and poorer countries loose a significant revenue of tax Metz (2013).
Connection between globalization and neoliberalism – the effects
While globalization refers to international and interrelated trade as well as capital flow, core values of neoliberalism are free trade, privatization, deregulation and globalization. Both terms goes together embody a definition which is “capitalism without borders” (Klack 2000). Globalization is also explained that it is a simply international trend of movement from social-democratic interventions to market-oriented neoliberalism. In fact, there is evidence proving that: although growth of neoliberalism and globalization lead to lower barriers of trade and as a result, investment flow goes to poor countries in which the competition is less and rate of return is expected to higher, but capital mobility cannot narrow the gap between the rich and the poor. According to Lindio-McGovern and Wallimann (2009), after globalization and neoliberalism, the disparity between nations even increases. In the national scale, the income of people in developing countries which occupies 75% of population is now distributed more unequally than it was in the 90th decade. In the global view, there is a statistic showing that lifetime income per capital in Melbourne today is over 70 times of the income in developing countries while it was 11 times in last century and 30 times in 4 decade ago. In our world, there currently is a half of global’ population which is over 3 billion have less than 2 dollars per day to survive, 1 in 7 children cannot go to school, over 1 billion people cannot approach safe water and nearly 1 billion being malnourished. Whereas, property keeping going to richer countries. However, in developed countries as The U.S, the inequality between classes also happen. Because of the inflation, real wage of high-school educated workers decreases and price level increases. Over the recent 30 years, top 20 percent of American household achieve the majority of income growth in the countries and a huge amount within this income benefits top 1 percent of the population. In New Zealand and the United Kingdom, the similar disparity is also recorded (Lindio-McGovern & Wallimann 2009).
Conclusion
Although neoliberalism and globalism are well-known economic term in recent discussion, there is mixed opinions about their effect on the global situation. There is an idea that benefits of globalization to everyone are same by neoliberalism in which all countries have an equal to countries approach capital flow and economic improvement. However the reality has proved the opposite, some companies from the richer world are recognized take advantage of lower barriers and their power over others to exploit natural resource and labor in developing countries with a little performance of duty and responsibility to the local. Environment pollution, low working condition and tax evasion are common issue of neoliberalism and globalism indicated in recent reports.
References
- Braedly, S & Luxton, M 2010, ‘Neoliberalism’, McGill-Queen’s Press – MQUP
- Dean, J 2008, ‘Enjoying neoliberalism’ Cultural Politics, vol.4, no.1, pp.47-72.
- Fridell, G 2012, ‘Free trade and fair trade’ in Haslam, P., Schafer, J., Beaudet, P. (2012) ed. Introduction to International Development: Approaches, Actors and Issues. (2nd ed) Oxford: Oxford University Press: 279-294.
- George, S 2007, ‘Down the great financial drain: how debt and the Washington Consensus destroy development and create poverty’, Development, vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 4-11.
- Harvey, D 2005, A Brief History of Neoliberalism, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.
Lindio-McGovern, L & Wallimann, I 2009, Globalization and Third World Women: Exploitation, Coping and Resistance, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., Aldershot, United Kingdom
- Klack, T 2000, Globalization and Neoliberalism: The Caribbean Contex, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Maryland, The United State.
- Metz, F 2013, ‘Globalization. Advantages and Disadvantages, GRIN Verlag’, München.
- Ritzer, G 2011, Globalization: The Essentials, John Wiley & Sons, The United State.
- Torres, C 2008, Education and Neoliberal Globalization, Routledge Research in Education, Routledge
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The effects of globalization are felt all around the world. The increasingly interconnected global economic system is the most obvious manifestation of the worldwide compression of time and space. However, the consequences of globalization are not limited to the economy. Globalization has had an effect on political systems, religions, and societies in practically every corner of the world. What is globalization exactly? Often globalization and Westernization are used interchangeably, but this proves to be a rather one-sided perspective. Although all around us, globalization can be a tricky concept to pin down.
The Geneva Centre for Security Policy defines globalization as “a process that encompasses the causes, course, and consequences of transnational and transcultural integration of human and non-human activities”. The European Commission, on the other hand, sees globalization as “the combination of technological progress, lower transport costs and policy liberalization in the European Union and elsewhere” that “has led to increasing trade and financial flows between countries”.
Despite the different definitions, globalization is undoubtedly a global phenomenon, which means Europe is a part of it. But what are the implications of a globalizing world on Europe?
The history of global Europe
To understand what globalization means for Europe, it is important to look at the history of a globally interconnected Europe. Globalization is not a phenomenon of only the last three decades. Already in the 18th century the world was entangled in a global economic system. That said, in the new – and more widespread- wave of globalization, Europe may be one of the most prominent actors, and can even be seen as one of the instigators.
The European single market serves as an example of the globally interconnected economy where regulations and tariffs are gradually abandoned. However, Europe did not just arrive at the single market, a long process of integration preceded it. Just after the Second World War, Europe was in need of cooperation, cohesion, and funding for reconstruction. Subsequently, European integration set off with the inception of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) at the start of the 1950s. The 1960s were economically prosperous for the Community and were followed by the first expansion of the European Community in 1973, when Denmark, Ireland, and the UK joined.
The 1980s were of course marked by the fall of the Berlin Wall, which consequently ended the separation of Germany in October 1990. In the meanwhile, even more countries joined the European Community and in the last decade of the 20th century two important treaties were signed: Maastricht in 1992, followed by Amsterdam in 1997. The treaties underlined the intentions of the four freedoms in a European single market, and together with the Schengen Agreement made it easier for European citizens to travel abroad. Education, tourism, and information exchange all highly benefitted from these achievements.
The new millennium saw most EU member states adopt the common currency, and saw most former Communist satellite states of the USSR join the EU. The recent accomplishments of the EU should not be underestimated. The European Union can today boast 28 members (for at least another two years) and forms in itself an unprecedented political entity with a practically completely open market. Although the latest rounds of expansion have been especially controversial, the EU has brought together and integrated the economies of 28 nation-states that were sworn enemies not long before. The EU’s common market abetted trade liberalizations around the world, but what are the effects of globalization on Europe?
Global economy and Europe
The implications of a global economy are perceived differently by the common EU citizen, a small European business owner, or a big multinational corporation. Although political economist Matthew Watson argues that “employment has actually increased in the last 20 years and that offshoring accounts for a tiny portion of unemployment in Europe”, the European working classes see the influx of migrant workers and the migration of manufacturing jobs to mainly Asia as a threat to their livelihoods.
For small business owners, globalization is both an opportunity and a challenge. Although globalization benefited multinational companies the most and possibly threatens the existence of independent small entrepreneurs, globalization did allow the business owners to lower the price of manufacturing costs, and the influx of immigrants created a cheaper and younger workforce on the rapidly ageing European continent.
As stated above, for multinational companies, globalization has proven to be a very positive development. Most multinationals soon understood the benefits of moving factories to less developed countries where the corporations were able to influence policies and shape a favorable political climate.
Most authors writing on Europe in a globalizing world recognize that there is a need to be cautious about these developments, but that there is no need for pessimism. Often it is stated that the EU Member States have to accept the fact that there is no need to fight against, or resist, the globalization process. It is not going to slow down anytime soon. The Member States should embrace it instead, as a united coalition, and aim for a common goal.
Former EU Trade Commissioner Peter Mandelson also argues that caution about globalization is important, but nonetheless, “seven of the world’s ten most competitive economies are European”, and “Europe continues to dominate export markets across the entire range of manufactured goods and services”. Mandelson is confident that competition with the Asian markets will actually be profitable for Europe in the long-term.
Politics and Security in Global Europe
The EU is not only involved with other countries on an economical level, but also maintains diplomatic relations with most countries in the world. The main goals of the European Union in diplomacy are to preserve peace and strengthen international security, promote international cooperation, and to develop and consolidate democracy all around the world.
The decisions regarding foreign and security policy are taken by the European Council, throughout the High Representative assisted by the External Action Service (EEAS). The final decision is commonly taken after a unanimous deal among all the EU members. Although the foreign policy powers of the EU are limited, every year the European Council on Foreign Relations drafts a Foreign Policy Scorecard which “provides a systematic assessment of Europe’s foreign policy performance, analyzing the performance of the 28 member states and the EU institutions on 65 policy areas”.
Overall, the EU can be seen as successful political experiment that has proven capable of maintaining diplomatic ties to different countries around the world. As T.I. Burton argues, in a globalizing world the EU has shown that it is able to promote “security building in Europe” while at the same time act as a mediator in global conflicts.
Society, culture, and religion in Global Europe
The worldwide transnational and transcultural integration that marks the globalization process has also left its marks on European societies, cultures, and religions. The Schengen agreement can in itself be seen as a typical form of globalization legislation, and the effects of free travelling within the EU have diversified the European landscape. Globalization also sparked interest from outside Europe in the arts and cultures of European countries.
A more controversial consequence of globalization is the influx of migrants into Europe, for whom it is now relatively easy to travel into the EU, when compared to the era of multiple borders. The recent refugee crisis is exacerbating a historical prejudice against Islam and Islamic communities on the European continent, and the rise of far-right European parties has been seen as linked to the religious diversification of European societies. The EU has sought to address these problems through the founding of a common border service that aids the border services of the Member States and by trying to promote integration for migrants and toleration in citizens.
The advantages and dangers of a Global Europe
It is clear that globalization has changed Europe, but it is difficult to make a value-judgment. Is globalization a good thing for Europeans? Should it be feared? The complicated nature of the globalization processes that set off in the last decades of the 20th century have generated mixed responses in Europe. In the first years of the 2000s there was a general consensus within the EU that the European approach towards a global and inter-connected market was a favorable development. The protectionist methods that were at the same time adopted by the EU were enough to convince the majority of the population that their interests were being safeguarded. With the current refugee crisis and economic downturns this consensus seems to be under threat. Political parties that focus on nationalism and protectionism have been on the rise, and they only seem to gain momentum in the current political climate. The decision of the UK to leave the EU and the rise of Donald Trump in the US are seen by many as a result of a backlash against globalization, one that threatens the very foundations of Europe.
So where does Europe go from here? In 2011, ECB President Mario Draghi claimed that “people seek a justification for European integration, [and] they are always tempted to look backwards.” Author J.C. Trichet also states that European economies have changed significantly since the post-war decades. Contemporary times see new global actors and dynamics gathering economical and political power. Instead of relying on economic measures that proved to work in the years after World War II, but seem parochial now, Europe should therefore start looking forward, to find a “new type of institutional framework”. Globalization exacerbated the glaring socio-economic contrasts within Europe, but the wealth and opportunities that it provided show that a return to protectionism is not an option. Finding a way where globalization will be as beneficial to the average European worker as it is to the CEO of a multination, will prove vital for the future of Global Europe.
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Wilson's global studies program provides students with a critical skill for success in any field—the ability to communicate across cultural, racial, economic and gender differences.
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This interdisciplinary program allows students to foster a greater understanding of the challenges that we face as citizens of a complex, globalized and interconnected world.
When compared to other more traditional programs offered at institutions throughout the region, the global studies program at Wilson College is distinct. Unlike many programs that only focus on international relations, our program delves into the study of the complex forms of globalization that move outside the borders of nation-state actors.
The coursework in the global studies major encompasses multiple facets of global cultures. In addition, students explore diverse service-learning opportunities, fieldwork, internships and study abroad experiences.
Students gain proficiency in a world language other than English and graduate with strong public speaking and writing skills.
Global Studies is a cross-disciplinary program that seeks to foster understanding of the challenges that we face as citizens of an interconnected world. Students will acquire the knowledge, skills and perspectives necessary to develop cultural literacy and to comprehend complex global events and processes of globalization, as well as an ability to respond to them effectively.
Understanding processes of national and global change is both empowering and humbling, and having the skills to navigate these changes is crucial to work in the global economy. Global studies majors are exceptionally poised to enter the workforce in a vast array of fields, including: | https://www.wilson.edu/global-studies |
Being a chef is an exciting and highly challenging profession. Do you enjoy cooking, and think you would like to make a career of it in the state of Pennsylvania? If so, read on. This article is what you have been looking for.
Chefs carry out a variety of different tasks. The specific tasks that a chef will be responsible for depends on what type of chef he or she is. Examples of different chef job titles include head or executive chef (or chef de cuisine), who is at the very top of the kitchen hierarchy; sous chef, the chef working directly below the head chef; private household chef; chef de partie, a chef in charge of one station or specific area in the kitchen; commis, most often an inexperienced chef who may have just finished culinary school and who works under the supervision of a chef de partie; pastry chef; and saucier, a chef who specializes in sautéing food, and making appetizers, stews, and sauces (when a kitchen has a saucier, he or she is often given a rank only beneath the head chef and sous chefs).
If you want to be a chef, you probably hope to one day reach the level of head or executive chef. The head or executive chef is in charge of the entire kitchen and all staff working within it, and has many different duties. He or she is responsible for ensuring that all ingredients and food used in the kitchen are fresh, as well as create and develop recipes. It is up to the head chef to determine how dishes will be presented, and design and plan the menus of the establishment. The chef is responsible for making sure that the meals being produced are of good quality, and he or she must supervise cooks and other food preparation workers in the kitchen, coordinating their activities and tasks. The head chef is the person who selects and trains all of the kitchen’s cooks and food preparation workers, and who makes sure that the kitchen satisfies all proper safety and hygiene standards. He or she must also carry out inspections of the kitchen’s work areas, equipment, and supplies in order to ensure that everything is functional and clean. The head chef is also responsible for the food and supplies inventory, ensuring that information on the inventory is up to date and that necessary orders are made. You might need to use special purchasing and scheduling software in order to carry out any administrative tasks that might be required. As you can easily gather here, being a head chef is a very responsible job requiring high levels of knowledge and skill in the culinary arts and business.
All chefs must be able to successfully use many different kinds of cooking and kitchen equipment, such as grinders, meat slicers, step-in coolers, and knives of the best quality.
As a chef, you must be ready to work long hours. Additionally, you will likely often have to work late in the evening, early in the morning, on holidays, and on weekends. This is just one reason why dedication is a critically important factor in a successful career as a chef. No matter how technically proficient you might become in cooking, if you are not fully dedicated to your profession you will find it very difficult to achieve long-lasting success. In the culinary arts, you really have to truly enjoy and love what you do.
What Qualities and Characteristics Do I Need to Be a Successful Chef?
• A sharp sense of taste and smell: It is impossible to succeed as a chef without a well-developed and sophisticated sense of taste and smell. This is essential for you to be able to competently inspect the quality of the food the kitchen is producing, as well as design meals.
• Creativity: The successful chef needs a high level of creativity. This is necessary in order to successfully create and execute intriguing and delicious recipes. You need to be able to “think outside the box,” while always ensuring that your vast array of culinary knowledge is always brought into play.
• The ability to lead: As the person in charge of the entire kitchen, strong leadership skills are absolutely crucial for the head chef. The other people working in the kitchen must see you as the leader.
• Excellent communication skills: Strong communicational skills are necessary for chefs to be able to communicate with the kitchen staff with clarity and efficiency.
• Strong business skills: Sound business skills are especially important for head chefs and for chefs who are self-employed. The business skills required include, for example, worker management, the ability to set prices, and the ability to make appropriate supply budgets.
• Highly effective time management skills: Time management skills are absolutely crucial for a successful career as a chef.
• Physical stamina: The fact that chefs are very often required to spend huge amounts of time on their feet and work long shifts means that physical stamina is necessary in this career.
• Physical dexterity: Dexterity is very important for chefs. This is especially crucial when using knives for dicing, chopping, and cutting.
• Dedication: Being a chef is a career that requires a true love for the craft of cooking as well as the process of running a kitchen.
How Can I Become a Chef in the State of Pennsylvania?
To become a chef in Pennsylvania, you should first receive an education in the culinary arts. Not only will such an education make you far more employable than otherwise (for example, than if you only did an apprenticeship), it will also help to set you up for a successful career. It will also give you a competitive advantage when applying for jobs with high paying employers, and in metropolitan areas. Furthermore, having a formal culinary arts education will make you likely to be able to climb the kitchen hierarchy in your career much more quickly than otherwise. You will probably find employers willing to trust you with higher levels of responsibility more quickly than they would have done if you had lacked formal training.
An education in the culinary arts in Pennsylvania can be obtained at culinary schools, community colleges and technical schools, and even universities. Culinary arts programs range from around one to four years in duration. Culinary school, community college, and technical schools programs tend to be on the shorter end of the spectrum, while university programs are on the longer end. If you complete your education at a culinary school or technical school, you will likely earn a culinary certificate, while if you choose a community college you will earn an associate degree in the culinary arts. If you choose to do your culinary education at a university, you will earn a bachelor’s degree in culinary arts. Bachelor degree programs are particularly strong in teaching the administrative and management skills needed by executive chefs, as well as the finer points of table service.
It is advisable to get some experience working in a kitchen before making the decision to enter a culinary arts program, as it will give you a better idea of working in a kitchen is really the career for you. You will have to be prepared to start at the bottom, doing tasks that you will probably find quite uninspiring (such as washing the dishes). You will also need to make sure that you have your high school diploma (or GED), as most culinary schools, community colleges, and technical schools require this for entry to their programs. Another important consideration is that many employers will actually want you to have your high school diploma or equivalent, as well as your culinary education.
Your culinary education program should provide you with a large amount of time working and learning in the school’s kitchens. Also, it should provide the opportunity to complete an internship or apprenticeship in a real commercial kitchen, to give you invaluable experience as well as networking opportunities. You should ensure that your chosen school’s kitchen facilities are well-equipped, and that the institution provides job placement services and career guidance. It is also very beneficial to have instructors who are extremely experienced in the field.
Pennsylvania is a wonderful place to complete your culinary arts education, as it has such a vibrant food and restaurant scene. This is especially the case in the large metropolitan areas, such as Philadelphia. Pennsylvania has several chef competitions that culinary students can participate in, such as the Mid-Atlantic Young Chef Competition and the Pennsylvania “Taste of Elegance” competition. There are also many wonderful food events in the state, such as the Taste of Pennsylvania Wine and Food Show, Pittsburgh Wine Festival, Pittsburgh Farm to Table, and the Pennsylvania Food and Beverage Show.
While you are completing your education, think about getting a student membership in the American Culinary Federation or a similar association or organization. Having such a membership will give you many advantages, such as making contact with experienced people in the industry and having the opportunity to network.
Once you have finished your education and have started working as a chef, you have the option of getting chef’s certifications. These certifications are not required, but they are an excellent way of demonstrating your skill and making you more attractive to employers. There are 14 certification designations available from the American Culinary Federation (ACF). The American Culinary Federation (ACF) is the United States’ most extensive association of professional chefs and cooks, and has 200 chapters all over the country and in excess of 17,000 members. The 14 certification designations are organized into the five areas of Culinary Administrators; Culinary Educators; Baking and Pastry Professionals; Cooking Professionals; and Personal Cooking Professionals.
Chefs’ salaries vary widely and depend on factors such as employer, region, and the chef’s level of experience. It is common for the highest chef salaries to be found in upscale restaurants and hotels, especially in large cities and resort regions. The median annual salary for head chefs in the United States is $41,500 (or $19.95 per hour).
The average head chef salary in Pennsylvania is $43,090 per year. Average salary for head chefs varies quite a bit from city to city and town to town in Pennsylvania. For example, in Philadelphia, the average salary is $52,970 (which, as you can see, is substantially more than the national or Pennsylvania average), while in Johnstown it is $46,300 and in Erie it is $42,340. Pennsylvania is known for its vibrant restaurant and food service industry, and the state is full of exciting opportunities.
Job growth for chefs in the United States is faster than the average of other occupations. Chefs are becoming in progressively greater demand, and are being hired in many non-traditional venues as a result of general consumer demand for healthier foods. Examples of such non-traditional work venues include cafeterias and grocery stores. Chefs are sometimes employed in institutional settings such as health-care facilities and schools, as well as corporate centers.
The majority of chefs work on a full-time basis. Only about 5% of chefs are self-employed (for example, have their own restaurants or catering business). Having one’s own restaurant or catering business is a dream of many, but it is something that should only be ventured upon when a chef has a great deal of experience and business knowledge. It is also important to remember that chefs who own their own businesses often spend a great deal more than 40 hours working every week. | http://www.college-universities.com/culinary-arts-pennsylvania.php |
Remembering Chef David Beckwith, lecturer in the School of Hospitality, Events and Tourism.
By Lindsey Coulter
September 24, 2019
David Beckwith, chef and former lecturer in the School of Hospitality, Events and Tourism, died Sept. 17 at age 66. Beckwith, who is survived by his partner Richard Myroth, taught at Metropolitan State University of Denver from 2013-19. The dedicated and energetic educator will be remembered for his passion for food and for supporting students.
Those who would like to honor Beckwith’s life and contributions to the University community can attend a celebration of life Oct. 11 at 6 p.m. at Olinger Crown Hill Mortuary, 7777 W. 29th Ave. in Wheat Ridge.
During his time at MSU Denver, Beckwith taught courses in baking and pastry, international cooking, food science and fundamentals, and pairing food with beer and wine. However, his lifelong love of the culinary arts began in his youth with a failed homemade cherry chip chocolate cake. The unsuccessful confection stirred his curiosity about the science of baking, which grew as he cooked for his large family while growing up in Iowa.
After earning his bachelor’s degree in theatre from the University of Iowa, Beckwith found professional success in California. He served as the head chef at Fog City Diner in San Francisco as well as at the acclaimed Rio Grill in Carmel. He later became the chef-owner of Central 159 in Pacific Grove before becoming executive chef and partner at Il Fornaio. Over his 35-plus-year career, Beckwith also served as a menu developer for local restaurants, taught culinary courses at the Art Institute of Colorado and worked with renowned chefs such as Julia Child, Alice Waters and Jeremiah Tower.
These real-world experiences made him an ideal educator and mentor to MSU Denver students. As a Roadrunner, Beckwith was known for his collegiality and his ability to create engaging and well-attended events through partnerships with other courses and instructors. He made sure to recognize student success and herald achievements.
Aside from food, Beckwith filled his life with animals, art and activism. He was an avid collector of paintings, photography and sculpture, and was involved with local hunger organization We Don’t Waste. He annually supported the nonprofit’s Fill a Plate for Hunger fundraiser, and his contributions to live auctions in particular helped raise thousands of dollars for hunger alleviation. Those wishing to honor his memory may do so by making a donation to the organization. | https://www.msudenver.edu/early-bird/2019/09/24-beckwith.shtml |
During each module of this course, chefs reveal the secrets behind some of their most famous culinary creations — often right in their own restaurants. Inspired by such cooking mastery, the Harvard team will then explain the science behind the recipe.
Topics will include:
- How molecules influence flavor
- The role of heat in cooking
- Diffusion, revealed by the phenomenon of spherification, the culinary technique pioneered by Ferran Adrià.
You will also have the opportunity to become an experimental scientist in your very own laboratory — your kitchen. By following along with the engaging recipe of the week, taking precise measurements, and making skillful observations, you will learn to think like both a cook and a scientist. The lab is certainly one of the most unique components of this course — after all, in what other science course can you eat your experiments? | https://www.classcentral.com/course/edx-science-cooking-from-haute-cuisine-to-soft-matter-science-chemistry-811?utm_source=qz&utm_medium=web&utm_campaign=ivy_league_courses_2019 |
10 Optical Illusion Dishes
Have you ever been presented with a dish that looks like one thing and turns out to be another? How about a dish that you can't identify as food at all? Take for example a cake that appears to be a standard frosted layer cake, but when you're presented with a slice it turns out to be a cake made of meatloaf with mashed potatoes as frosting. Or maybe you'll be surprised by an everything bagel with cream cheese that turns out to be made of bagel-flavored ice cream.
Click here for the 10 Optical Illusion Dishes Slideshow.
Chefs have been disguising food for a long time, whether to amuse diners or demonstrate artistry. In fact, the fascination with studying the physical and chemical processes behind cooking is responsible for much of the experimental food that has driven the careers of such chefs as Ferran Adrià, Wylie Dufresne, Grant Achatz and José Andrés.
Because eating food is such a sensory experience, it can be jarring for some people to bite into a dish and taste something completely different from what they were expecting. On the other hand, the whimsical nature of these dishes can be exciting and fun for others.
From a deconstructed Caesar salad to a cupcake that looks like a plate of spaghetti and meatballs, we have rounded up a collection of truly inventive culinary creations to feast your eyes on. | https://www.thedailymeal.com/10-optical-illusion-dishes-2011 |
My Summer Reading List: Kitchen Confidential
Originally published on June 17, 2009.
Last time on My Summer Reading List I reviewed Ruth Reichl’s Tender at the Bone: Growing Up at the Table, the beautiful story of a little girl in love with food who grows up to be a renowned food writer. Tender is a romantic telling of a life spent in food. Kitchen Confidential is a whole other beast.
Semi-retired chef Anthony Bourdain shocked the world with his tome on the inside workings of the restaurant industry, Kitchen Confidential: Adventures in the Culinary Underbelly. As the story goes, Kitchen Confidential blew the lid of the industry upon it’s release in 2000 by revealing the drunken, drug-laden debauchery that exists in American professional kitchens. I question how many people were genuinely surprised by the revelations in Bourdain’s work, after all the restaurant industry employs more people than any other industry in the nation, save the Federal government, over 12 million jobs nationwide.
I believe that most of the hullabaloo was feigned. After all, of those in the media not currently employed in the Life (as Bourdain calls it) most at least used to be employed in it. To a lifer like myself the book was comfortable. It was like sitting down with an old friend over a bottle of Johnny Walker getting three sheets while reliving memories and swapping tales.
Bourdain paints a perfect picture of life in the kitchen, testosterone driven trash talking, seducing servers and drinking way too much. But what surprised me was the author’s love of food. Images sketched in words of his first raw oyster freshly plucked from the brine while only a lad to his experiences with the amazing creations of Scott Bryan, Eric Ripert and Ferran Adrià. Throughout the text I was constantly reminded of both Bourdain’s love affair with food and his sheer talent for the smithing of words.
The boy’s got chops. At the time of its publishing I don’t think Bourdain knew just how good a writer he was. The book was so explosive, so popular that it actually was made into a television series, all though it was a short lived one. Fast forward nearly a decade and Tony is no longer commanding the kitchen at Les Halles, no longer going on three-day coke benders (I hope) and no longer chasing tail. He has become what he loathed and found it’s a pretty nice gig, this celebrity chef thing.
I made sure to put Kitchen Confidential on my summer reading list because I knew how important a book it is. What I did not expect was how much I would learn from it. In fact, I have gotten a whole new reading list from it. Bourdain emphasizes how important it is for any chef to read the classics, if you will, of our profession.
In sports the greats of the game are known by just one name: Hank, Bo, and Michael. Sports fans know of whom I speak. The culinary world is no different and it is these chefs of which Bourdain speaks. Works of literature produced from chefs so revered that they are known by just one name, Escoffier and Bocuse. So thank you, Tony. Not only have you penned a great book, but you have also made my summer reading project a little longer.
Next: Heat by Bill Buford. | http://wannabetvchef.com/?tag=hank-aaron |
About this Research Topic
Gastronomic Science focuses upon an understanding of the physiological processes which underpin the engagement with and enjoyment of food. This is an area of social and scientific interest in a world in which a wide range of food cultures is increasingly available to all. This Research Topic integrates knowledge of sensory input from smell, taste and other sensory modalities with gastrointestinal and brain responses to food presentation, cognitive and neuro-endocrine regulation and the underlying influence of nutritional and metabolic states.
Published papers cover mechanistic insights into appetite, food seeking, food cues, food preference and reward as well as the neurohumoral control of gastrointestinal and brain function. Studies include a range of experimental approaches from molecular to cellular to whole organism physiology, including human subjects. The influence of the microbiome and of culinary methods of food preparation on organ and whole-body physiology are of interest. Finally, the psychological and cognitive influences on feeding patterns, food preferences and satisfaction with eating, provide an integrated view of this multidisciplinary field.
Keywords: Taste, Smell, Appetite, Gastrointestinal, Neurohumoral, Eating behavior, Food preference, Microbiome, Culinary, Agouti-related Protein, Pavlov, Thirst, Hunger, Pro-opiomelancortin, Ghrelin, Leptin, Hypothalamus, Taste receptors, Gourmet, Gourmand, Olfactory receptors, Food history
Important Note: All contributions to this Research Topic must be within the scope of the section and journal to which they are submitted, as defined in their mission statements. Frontiers reserves the right to guide an out-of-scope manuscript to a more suitable section or journal at any stage of peer review. | https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/8912/gastronomic-science |
# Riccardo De Pra
Riccardo De Pra is a Michelin Star Italian celebrity chef, and television personality.
## Biography
De Pra was born and raised in Alpago in the Province of Belluno to a De Pra family. He is the son of renowned Michelin-star chef Enzo De Pra and owner of the DOLADA group and restaurant, the oldest the oldest Michelin-star restaurants in Italy, located in Pieve D’Alpago, Veneto, Italy. Four generations of his family has run the Dolada for almost 100 years. Riccardo De Pra is known for his “Artistic Cuisine” that pairs classic ingredients with modern techniques.
## Career
He grew up in an environment rich in culinary influence, his grandfather is 3 Michelin-star and father is Michelin-star chef.
He started cooking at an early age and at 20 he moved to Japan to hone his cooking skills. In Japan he learned under the guidance of master chefs, Hirohisa Koyama and Hiroyuki Kanda, and got full hand at the Japanese cuisines. He has worked with master chefs such as Ferran Adrià, Albert Roux, Jean-Pierre Bruneau, and Gualtiero Marchesi during his career.
In his early twenties he worked for Roux Brothers in Britain.
He works as consultant for various food and table design companies and cultural institutions. He also works as lecturer at the University of Gastronomic Sciences in Pollenzo.
He is known as Italy's most expert in traditional cuisine and culture chef that is why he was chosen for the Clooney-Alamuddin wedding .
## Awards
Michelin star (Dolada Restaurant) Pieve D’Alpago, Veneto, Italy
## Media appearance and philanthropy work
In 2019 he signed with LA7 for high altitude food comedy. In 2015 he was part of the Michelin-starred Belluno chefs who united for a noble cause: to raise funds for the purchase of a defibrillator to be installed in Piazza Tiziano in Pieve di Cadore. He recently appeared in a commercial of Bergader Italia aired at LA7. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riccardo_De_Pra |
The 5 Titles series highlights books, music, and films in the library’s collection featuring topics related to diversity, equity, inclusion, and/or highlighting the work of authors from diverse backgrounds. Each post is intended to provide a brief sampling of titles rather than a comprehensive overview of the topic. This month, the five titles have been selected by Librarian for Chemistry and Statistical Science Jodi Psoter.
Food and flavor connect us to a place, telling a story of where we come from. For the south and ultimately the entire United States, the influence of enslaved Africans shaped the region’s food. Food and people continued their impact as different waves of immigration influenced the culinary history and culture of the United States. Learn about this significant impact with these five titles that celebrate American foodways. The titles explore food’s significance and its impact in a historic context on capitalism, in culture, on economics, and within gender studies.
The Routledge History of American Foodways, edited by Michael D. Wise and Jennifer Jensen Wallach (2016). A collection of essays from leading scholars, The Routledge History of American Foodways celebrates food’s journey to and within the Americas. Spanning the pre-colonial era to the present day, the writers combine history with research in food studies to tell food stories. These “twenty-five essays analyze not only how American foodways have changed over the last five centuries, but also how narratives about food in the past continue to shape our present-day food cultures and controversies.” A common theme unites each section of the work. The first section, “Cooking Times,” explores historic foodways during specific eras such as food’s journey during the precolonial period. Key ingredients such as grains and sugars, their arrival in the US, and their impact on how we eat today, are the theme of section two. Section three, “Recipes,” connects the food we eat to its presentation by discussing culture, holidays, tourism, and restaurants. Finally, “Appetites” looks at food in relation to immigration, race, gender, and regionalism. The textbook-style resource can be read cover to cover or on the individual chapter level.
High on the Hog: A Culinary Journey from Africa to America by Jessica B. Harris (2011; also available as an ebook). Professor and author of twelve cookbooks, Harris’s work focuses on foods “originating all over the African continent.” Her research and teaching make her an expert in African American foods, foodways, and their influence on how we eat in the United States. In High on the Hog, Harris shifts her writing style, “construct[ing] an elegant narrative history that connects the culinary experiences of the African and American continents to show how African Americans shaped the country around them.” Written chronologically in chapter form, each chapter is themed and written in three parts. The first part of each chapter is Harris telling a personal story. Part two is really the subject of the chapter: “a topical analysis of African American contributions to American society and culture.” Each chapter ends with a look at a specific food related to the chapter’s theme and time. In 2021, Jessica Harris appeared on Time 100 – the list of the one hundred most influential people in the world. Ten years after publication, Harris’s work continues to teach, now as a food docuseries available on Netflix. Interested in reading more? Search the TRLN libraries to borrow other books by Jessica B. Harris.
Edna Lewis: At the Table with an American Original, edited by Sara B. Franklin (2018). In this collection of stories, the reader meets Edna Lewis (1916-2006), dressmaker, chef, activist, and one of five chefs whose portrait was featured on a stamp in the US Postal Service’s 2014 “Celebrity Chef Series.” Lewis was also a female, an African American, and a cookbook writer who focused on regional cooking. She cooked seasonally and locally, writing stories to capture memories that describe her childhood and document where she came from. This book is a collection of essays about Lewis written by family, friends, and food world celebrities. They talk of meeting Lewis, their impressions of her, as well as her impact and legacy in food, culture, and women’s history. The resurgence of Edna Lewis as a chef began in 2017 when her cookbook was rereleased on what would have been her one-hundredth birthday, and the television show Top Chef featured a challenge to have the contestants cook a dish inspired by Lewis’ cooking. This tribute to Lewis, viewed by millions, introduced her to a new generation. Lewis’s 1976 cookbook, The Taste of Country Cooking, was published at the same time that another famous female culinary star, Alice Waters, was promoting the farm-to-table movement on the west coast. As you read Edna Lewis: At the Table with an American Original, look for Alice Waters’s “menu to celebrate the anniversary of Edna Lewis’s birth.”
The Cooking Gene: A Journey through African American Culinary History in the Old South by Michael W. Twitty (2017). Awarded the 2018 James Beard Foundation Book of the Year award, The Cooking Gene has been described as “a culinary Roots.” Twitty, a Black, gay, Jewish, culinary historian, seeks to know himself and his own history through the lens of food. This first person narrative focuses on African-American foodways and influence of slavery on southern cooking; an influence described in terms of the mixing of food traditions as cultures and genetics mix. To accomplish this, Twitty “traces [his] ancestry through food and genetic testing.” He writes that his genealogical research “…trace[s] my ancestry to Africa and follow[s] its lineages across the Southern map into the present day. Author of Afroculinaria, a food blog exploring the culinary traditions of Africa, African Americans, and the African diaspora, Twitty not only explores his heritages but also lives it by cooking in costume over a wood fire at historical plantation sites. He writes, “They call this a costume but it is my transformative historical drag; I wear a dusting of pot rust, red clay and the ghost smells of meals past.” Through his heritage, Twitty shines a new light on the traumatic and complicated history of foodways in the South.
Taste Makers: Seven Immigrant Women Who Revolutionized Food in America by Mayukh Sen (2022). Mayukh Sen, self-described as a queer person of color and a child of Bengali immigrants, chooses to write about women to give voices to people our “culture skews away from.” In this well-researched and well-documented text, Sen introduces the reader, through biographical chapters, to seven immigrant women whose cooking and writing have influenced the “food establishment.” Spanning the period of World War II to the present, the taste makers include: Chao Yang Buwei and her 1945 book How To Cook and Eat in Chinese, Elena Zeleyeta, a Mexican chef who continued to work after losing her eyesight, and French chef Madeleine Kamman, a contemporary of Julia Child. The second part of the book shares the stories of Italian immigrant Marcella Hazan, author of The Classic Italian Cook Book: The Art of Italian Cooking (1973), “The Indian Culinary Authority” in the United States, Julie Shani, Iran’s Najmieh Batmanglij, who writes cookbooks “adapting authentic Persian recipes to tastes and techniques in the West,” and Jamaican chef Norma Shirley. By describing their journey and that of the food of their homeland, Sen shows how the women “used food to construct an identity outside their own country.” As described in the NY Times Book Review, Taste Makers “…embeds these themes within intimate, individual stories as a way to unravel how his subjects’ achievements — and struggles — have contributed to what and how we eat in America today.”
5 Titles is directed by the Research & Instructional Services (RIS) Department at Duke University Libraries. | https://blogs.library.duke.edu/blog/2022/04/21/5-titles-american-foodways/ |
My second installment from Madrid Fusión covers three very different presentations from Day 2’s main stage. Swiss chef Stefan Weisner prepared a single dish, but did so by fashioning everything about it right on stage. Andoni Luis Aduriz and his crew cooked too, but shockingly, they cooked from cans. While Ferran Adriá was notably absent for the second year in a row, his brother Albert was not. Albert didn’t cook, but his presence on stage drew rapt attention from the audience during his conversation with Sergi Arola.
Stefan Weisner of Gasthof Rössli near Lucerne, Switzerland, was not someone of whom I was particularly familiar with before this Madrid Fusión, but his presentation was one of the most interesting of the Congress to me. Like many chefs today, Weisner style of cooking is based upon the natural habitat occurring in the Swiss countryside around his restaurant. Weisner seems prone to take his cooking to extremes and utilized a fully hands-on approach to his cooking.
His presentation commenced with a bit of wood-working as he fashioned a cooking vessel out of cherry wood for the dish that he and his crew would demonstrate. That dish, Swiss Cherry Salmon was offered as a culinary version of a Japanese Haiku poem.
Swiss cherry salmon
harmony with cherry tree
Japanese thinking
Weisner made the cherry tree, a significant metaphor of Japan, integral to his salmon dish in every way, beginning with fashioning a cooking/serving vessel out of cherry wood right on stage. He began his presentation as a woodworker, while his staff began working on the various products that would be integral to the dish.
A piece of Swiss salmon was placed in the wooden vessel and cooked in a special ultraviolet ray oven.
In the meantime, a number of components of the dish were prepared by Weisner’s assistants, including taking buds from cherry branches. Other cherry components for the dish included leaves, blossoms, distilled cherries, cherries, cherry charcoal, pits, wood ash and smoke.
Cherry smoke and perfume were utilized as olfactory adjuncts of the dish. In addition to the fillet, salmon roe and salmon oil were also used as components of Weisner’s dish. Radishes were also a component of his dish.
This was the salmon fillet out of the UV oven. Being landlocked, it’s color was markedly different than most ocean going salmon .
Swis Cherry Salmon from John Sconzo on Vimeo. The dish was plated by Weisner’s two assistants.Stefan Weisner’s finished dish.
Andoni Luis Aduriz is not just one of my favorite chefs. He is also one of my favorite people on the planet. He is creative, brilliant, friendly and very much a down to earth human being. I, along with many others, was therefore quite surprised to see his presentation on the main stage come off as an infomercial.
It’s not that what he presented – a series of aerosol cans for cooking different things – didn’t have any interest or application. It was that he did it on the main stage of what has been the premiere Chef’s Congress in the world over the previous 10 years. Aduriz consulted with a major Spanish grocery chain to come up with these aerosols with applicability for both home and restaurant use, especially in an era of cost controls, as the aerosols, under the trade name of “NewFoodSpray” have the potential to save on labor costs.
The first one was an aerosol with pancake batter, for which Aduriz and his team crafted some hors d’ouvres and sandwiches.
The second was a tempura batter, which of course was used to make tempura.
It was, however, also used to make other things including noodles or okonomiyaki type omelets.
A cheese spray also had a variety of applications, including, in its simplest state, as a topping for nachos.
I managed to have a taste of the fresh churros that were made from one of the sprays and that got passed through the audience. It was quite good, as I would expect from Aduriz.
There was also one for Pastry Cream that looked appealing. The sprays are currently available in over 100 locations throughout Spain. I have no doubt that these are excellent products and I have no problem with Aduriz being part of their production. I also have no problem with their intended market of home kitchens, where good quality, time saving products always have value. I am not particularly interested in visiting restaurants where these products might be used simply because they are more economical. I am also surprised that this the central presentation of such a great, creative chef. Nevertheless, Aduriz has always been one to push the bar and this presentation certainly got people talking.
The brothers Adriá are ever interesting and whatever they do or say is sufficient to draw rapt attention. Ferran was not at Madrid Fusión for the second straight year, but Albert is more than enough to on his own to carry a show. He sat down with Chef Sergi Arola and journalist Julia Perez to discuss what is going on in the world of the Adria’s today.
elBulli may be closed, but Ferran is busy working with the elBulli Foundation in the hopes of opening up in Cala Montjoi on or around schedule. Albert, on the other hand, has been busy making food and working on opening up restaurants.
Both Tickets and the ever-morphing 41˚ in Barcelona have been huge successes, but the Adria’s are never without ideas or drive. 41˚ has reworked itself from its initial concept as a cocktail bar to the current equivalent of elBulli in Barcelona. Changes will not stop there though. The Adrias have recently purchased the adjacent space and 41˚ will expand to two levels. The top level will continue the current iteration of 41˚ as an elBulli equivalent with multi-course tasting menus, while the lower level will revert back to the original concept of a cocktail bar.
Ever international in culinary scope, Albert and the Adriá team will be opening a Peruvian-Japanese restaurant in Barcelona next month. It will be called Pakta, is in the Paral-lel, quite close to Tickets and 41˚. This restaurant will feature cebiches, causas and plenty of seafood, which will be supplied by the Adrias’ partners from the noted Barcelona seafood restaurant, Rias de Galicia.
After having seen Albert’s presentation at the Mesamerica Congress in Mexico City this past summer, I am personally particularly excited by their upcoming Mexican restaurant, Yaguarcan, which will be a large restaurant located in the Raval section of Barcelona. I can’t wait! | http://docsconz.com/2013/02/highlights-of-madrid-fusion-2013-part-2-weisner-aduriz-and-albert-adria/ |
The Taste of Place: A Cultural Journey into Terroir.
By:Amy B. Trubek.
According to author Amy Trubek, the French term terroir is a word that is incredibly difficult to define outside of a French context; whether looked at in relation to geography, soil or locality, terroir is a vital keyword in the study of food, especially in France, where much of the nation’s ideology is firmly rooted in the image of a farmer. A professor in food sciences and formerly an instructor at a major culinary institute, Trubek strives to better understand the term terroir and its meaning to food both inside and outside of France; her book The Taste of Place: A Cultural Journey into Terroir does that while also giving us a better idea of the importance of taste, and the ways it is determined, within specific cultures.
In order to provide some historical and cultural context, Trubek uses the first chapter, “Place Matters,” to demonstrate how terroir reflects reality. Stressing that physical traits of a place, as opposed to those who cultivate the place, are the major factor in defining terroir, Trubek argues that French cuisine is a major definer of global notions of taste, and those who create it were among the first to regulate how food of a specific region must be defined. Trubek goes on to describe the role of the rural Frenchman as a major factor in the regulation of such cuisine, as well as how such notions of taste are not only ingrained at an early age, but also serve as a way for people to determine their roots and their identity. For those interested in notions of nostalgia and self-identification, this chapter is well-connected to such ideas as they are discussed within folklore.
Discussions regarding the local and the global, as well as the understanding (and, quite often, misinterpretation) of terroir are part of the second chapter “Wine is Dead! Long Live Wine!,” which discusses the above in relation to the controversial attempt by Robert Mondavi to develop a winery in the Languedoc. This chapter succeeds in demonstrating that scientific aspects of terroir are far from encompassing while emphasizing that local knowledge and understanding of a region and its people are also important to the notion of terroir. The same notions apply in the third chapter, “California Dreaming,” which looks comparatively at the role of terroir, as well as wine, within the state of California in order to demonstrate that such developments are affected by American ideas surrounding quality, taste, and experience. Trubek’s discussion of California wine, and the obsession with its more quantitative attributes, are related to issues of sustainability, class, and cultural myths surrounding a movement fixed on creating a better food world for Americans.
An example of a chef’s role in the latter- this time within the state of Wisconsin- is the core focus of the fourth chapter, “Tasting Wisconsin: A Chef’s Story.” Looking at Madison-based chef Odessa Piper’s role in the development of a regional cuisine, Trubek brings up the duality of the desire for agrarian utopia and the demand of a consumer market that, quite often, only has large supermarkets from which to acquire their food. Through collaboration with farmers and a slow (yet steady andyear-round) process of introducing people to the foods of their region, Piper’s inspiration is a solid example of how neither chefs nor growers are exclusively responsible for the creation of terroir.
This connection carries on seamlessly in Trubek’s fifth chapter, “Connecting Farmers and Chefs in Vermont,” which examines the role of the Vermont Fresh Network in developing farmer-chef dialogue while encouraging the consumption of local products. This chapter is heavily based on examples, focusing on the Fresh Network’s holistic approach to promoting Vermont food and emphasizing the importance of understanding the contexts of both farming and cooking. The chapter succeeds at displaying the importance of adopting ideas from larger food worlds into smaller-scale, more sustainable efforts, but it does seem to be somewhat of a repeat of the past chapter in terms of its points.
The final chapter, “The Next Phase: Taste of Place or Brand?,” discusses issues of commodification and market economics in relation to food, pointing out the concerns of lack of knowledge surrounding the food we eat while emphasizing the reality that pointing out terroir-rich food creates a brand image. Trubek emphasizes that such images create other images and often perpetuate utopian notions surrounding agriculture. This chapter is quite frank about the importance of commerce in the shaping of both food practice and terroir, and its basis in market realities makes the book seem a bit less utopian than other major food literature. Trubek discusses movements such as slow food in a fair and holistic manner. This results in a better understanding of the politics of terroir for the reader.
Such politics are important for this book’s intended audience. The Taste of Place will find a good audience with food scholars, chefs and anyone interested in the issues surrounding foodways. Regarding an everyday audience, however, the frequent use of untranslated French terminology and the advanced tone of some of the book’s writing might not appeal to everyone. If anything, this is a book for those already involved in the study and/or production of food, yet it has the potential to make a huge impact that, eventually, can be spread to other audiences through other means. | http://digest.champlain.edu/vol1/reviews1_1.html |
Fusing the best of east and west at mealtime
If you’ve ever had a California roll, a chili con carne or tried Electrolux resident chef’s unique smoked salmon in pie tee shells, you’ve enjoyed fusion cuisine. Fusion cuisine is a popular way to serve a dish with a difference, and many professional chefs have used it to make their mark.
But while fusion cooking is a way to add new life to classic dishes, there are times when these experiments have failed the taste test as well. Knowing which ingredients pair well together can be tricky, and require some understanding of the different cuisines and how the ingredient will influence the flavour of a dish.
That’s why professional chefs draw inspiration from their own travels and experiences with different cuisines, dining habits and cooking habits. Low, also known as Chef E, does exactly this by harmonising his experience with his knowledge of food science, flavour building and the compatibility of ingredients into new dishes. He shares more of his secrets for experimenting with your own culinary creations at home.
1. When do you feel the need to change your menus?
In my experience in private dining, menus change every day, guests do not. Planned menus may not necessarily be executed, as factors such as the condition of ingredients when they arrive, logistic difficulties and human preferences may call for last minute menu changes.
Weather changes also play a part as other activities may affect the dining mood of the individual, and expectations can change from wanting something new to a craving for simple comfort foods.
2. How do you figure out what ingredients go together with each other?
In every type of cuisine, there is a somewhat established list of ingredients which are “marriages made in heaven”. This knowledge can be found in many cookbooks and in learning from experts. Many of these ingredients overlap in different cuisines around the world.
However, this is only 50 per cent of the knowledge that most chefs have. What I’ve learnt from the food science dimension when I worked in R&D previously was that certain ingredients from different cuisines also have compatibility with one another from their own naturally occurring chemical components.
These components are what make up the flavour or aroma of each individual ingredient. Thus, with guidance from professional flavour food science specialists, I was able to learn many new combinations, such as bananas with rosemary, ginger with rosemary and chili with chocolates.
4. How do you come up with fusion cuisine combinations?
The danger of fusion cuisine is confusion itself. To attempt fusion cuisine, the fundamentals of traditional cuisines must be there first. This is where we draw inspiration as the first step.
Then we look for cross-cuisine ingredients with similar natures and apply the ideas from there. Most importantly, the chef must be able to explain where the inspiration for the new dish came from, the key fusion cooking ingredients and techniques, and how the dish was composed to achieve harmony and balance of taste.
5. Any other tips?
Guest must always be able to relate to the new dish and identify where the inspirational elements came from when they read the menus or taste it. Taste always leaves a stronger impression than fancy arrangements.
So keep everything simple and flavours clean. If there is complexity, it should show up on the guest palate as one significant combined flavour profile. | https://newsroom.electrolux.com/apac/2013/07/01/fusing-the-best-of-east-and-west-at-mealtime/ |
This piece is forthcoming in our TIMING issue, due out at the beginning of April. Pre-order your copy of the print or digital issue.
This past October, I was invited to participate in a competition for young chefs hosted by Ment’or BKB, an organization helmed by chefs Jérôme Bocuse, Thomas Keller, and Daniel Boulud. As “ambassadors of quality and excellence in the world of gastronomy,” we competitors were fêted and complimented, embraced and toasted by seasoned chefs at Bouchon Bistro in Beverly Hills, where the competition took place.[i] Altogether, the seven men who made up the panel of judges represented more than a century’s worth of experience, notwithstanding the storied French culinary traditions that they had helped bring into the present day. They told us that this was the start of something big and important for us and the industry, and it was hard not to believe them. And, as I stood onstage with them, dressed in a crisp white chef’s jacket and flashing a photo-friendly smile, all I could think was, “I am going to eat all of your livers.”
Months earlier, my chef had gathered the kitchen crew together after service (all of us younger than thirty-five), locked eyes with each of us, and told us to grow up, to take responsibility for our own educations and careers, and to respect our roles as craftspeople within the food industry. It all felt pretty standard as far as pep talks went, but then he said, “I want you to kill me and eat my liver.” We all laughed uneasily. I thought fleetingly about how eating the fatty, iron-rich liver could be both a mark of opulence as well as poverty, and I thought about the generations of cooks who learned through accident and hard work to transfigure unappealing organ meat into beautiful things like foie gras, pate, and boudin. Until that point, everything that I’d heard – both within the food industry and the greater world of creative work – adhered to the tenet that, in order to succeed, one had to pay one’s dues and lay at the feet of the masters before even attempting to put a word in edgewise. You can see this in the way the glassy-eyed apprentice in the documentary Jiro Dreams of Sushi recounts his experience of making tamagoyaki for months before being acknowledged as a cook by his master.[ii] I saw this in the crowd’s breathless, almost Beatlemaniacal fawning over Chef Keller as he walked through the palatial dining room of Bouchon Bistro. Just over a year ago, TIME Magazine’s food-centric issue lauded the “Gods of Food,” whose “otherworldly” influence over the industry was said to surpass the reach of mere mortals.[iii] The message of all this is plain to see: bow down, bitches.
Up until recently, that culture of hero worship was status quo for me: I had my own geeky list of chef gods and goddesses, and made a habit of flipping through their glossy cookbooks in the hopes that my fingertips could absorb some of their divinity. I would try to picture myself at high-end food festivals, doling out on-trend hors d’oeuvres while talking shop with the press. As a young woman of color in the food industry, I was all too eager to assimilate in order to further my career: I much preferred the idea of becoming a Stepford chef than an untidy “ethnic” cook. The contradictions of my position would quietly pull at me, especially as I began to learn more about the industry’s demons.
The culture of the modern food industry is a two-faced one. On one hand, we know and experience it as something centered on blue collar life, on a rough-and-tough lifestyle choice that comes through in images of comfortable machismo and veggie tattoos, in the foodie’s hunt for mom-and-pop authenticity in the barrios and ghettos of our cities. “We are artists, pirates,” says Colette, the only female chef de partie in Pixar’s Ratatouille, one of the more realistic depictions of kitchen life in film.[iv] Many of us who are still early in our careers are well aware of the realities of trading our daylight hours and weekends for what amounts to a modest wage, sore feet, and the occasional shift drink.
On the other hand, young cooks and chefs are increasingly being called upon to do more with ourselves: cooking alone won’t cut it if you’re serious about your passion. In 2011, the G9, the (all-male) advisory board of the Basque Culinary Institute that is chaired by Chef Ferran Adrià and whose membership rolls include the world’s most influential chefs, issued its “Open Letter to the Chefs of Tomorrow,” which called upon the next generation chef to be “socially engaged, conscious of and responsible for his or her contribution to a fair and sustainable society.”[v] The letter, signed by the definitive who’s who list of the culinary world, asks young chefs to seek out sustainable foods, contribute to our communities’ economic betterment, address public nutrition issues, and let our personal ethics lead us through our careers, among many other recommendations. Many chefs and industry personalities have answered the call, participating in, or fervently following, Chef René Redzepi’s international MAD symposium, writing informal essays and feature pieces for Eater.com and Lucky Peach, watching and discussing food documentary shows and films, and doing more research into their local food purveyors.
Within this uplifting and lifestyle-affirming context, it’s strange for me, line cook pond scum that I am, to even fathom the idea of besting veteran chefs in pan-to-pan combat and consuming their offal. But how could I not want to? If the G9 wants young chefs to wake up to real-world issues of environmental sustainability, labor rights, and the meaning of our place in human society, they should also be prepared for us to look inward, towards the industry they helped build. As it stands, their world of haute cuisine is everything that the chef of tomorrow shouldn’t aspire to: top-tier restaurants flaunt ingredients with hefty carbon footprints that must be flown across the world like bluefin tuna and truffles; for-profit culinary schools contribute to the impending and potentially catastrophic student loan bubble; and, most frustratingly, it is clear that for all of the bombastic calls for change from idealistic chefs, anything that trespasses against the restaurateur’s profit motive is off-limits. The conscious young chef of today – the millennial chef – might not look so kindly upon the world that the chef of yesterday built. Rather than depending on the old school’s sense of noblesse oblige to define our relationship to our craft, we owe it to ourselves and to the tremendous amount of faith placed in us to eat liver—that is, to pull the “Gods of Food” from their pedestals and decide that we can do more than flail at improving upon their model along the guidelines they’ve specified.
The chefs of tomorrow should be free to decide on their own what being a respectable chef looks like and will look like in the future. Are we happy with inheriting the traditional brick-and-mortar restaurants, the brigade system, the hotels, the cruise ships, the cults of personality, the resort town festivals, the culinary schools, the Syscos and Aramarks, the corporation-sponsored rankings and lists? Our mentors, the chefs of yesterday, deserve respect for their hard work, but it is young chefs’ obligation to do more than unquestioningly take up their mantles if we truly want to take ownership of our own ethics and our craft.
Soleil Ho is a “chef of tomorrow” who works in the intensive fine dining trenches in New Orleans, LA. Her nonfiction writing has appeared in Bitch, Interrupt Mag, the Atlas Review, Render, and more. Find more of her writing at http://soleilho.tumblr.com.
[i] Ment’or BKB, Our Mission, http://www.mentorbkb.org/about/ (Nov. 1, 2014).
[ii] Jiro Dreams of Sushi, directed by David Gelb (2011; New York, NY: Magnolia Pictures), Stream.
[iii] Howard Chua-Eoan, “The 13 Gods of Food,” Time, Nov. 17, 2013 (http://time100.time.com/2013/11/07/the-13-gods-of-food/).
[iv] Ratatouille, directed by Brad Bird (2007; Hollywood, CA: Disney), Stream.
[v] Luciana Bianchi, “Chefs' G9: the 'Lima Declaration,'” Fine Dining Lovers, https://www.finedininglovers.com/blog/news-trends/chefs-g9-lima-declaration/ (Nov. 1, 2014). | http://www.renderfoodmag.com/blog/2015/3/9/a-chef-of-tomorrow-on-eating-the-old-mentorship-and-its-discontents |
Turkmenistan is located in Central Asia and it borders Caspian Sea to west, Iran to south and southwest, Afghanistan to southeast, Uzbekistan to north and northeast and Kazakhstan to northwest. Turkmenistan was a part of Soviet Republic until 1991 when it has achieved its independency. Turkmenistan national cuisine is considerably dissimilar from the culinary traditions of other Central Asia countries. Meat is the most important ingredient in every Turkmenistan’s meal, while vegetarian dishes are mostly inexistent. The most common meat in Turkmenistan is sheep, camel, mountain goat, quail and pheasant. In Turkmenistan cuisine there are numerous dishes consisting of different herbs and spices, some with Lamb, the other with Beef, or with cheeses instead of meat. Spices such as cayenne and cumin are used to get a spicier dish. There are numerous Central Asian recipes in Turkmenistan cuisine cooked after local traditions and with changed or replaced main ingredients.
Cuisines of Turkmenistan Edit
Although numerous culinary stiles were introduced in Turkmenistan cuisine, traditional dishes remained the most popular. Pilav one of the most popular dish in Central Asian, has its own particularities in Turkmenistan, where is named Turkmenistan ash. Turkmenistan ash is made of Game Birds or pheasant meats unlike other countries in Central Asia were it is made of mutton or lamb. Turkmenistan pilav is served with sauce made of sour plum called tkemali, and pomegranate juice. Turkmenistan cuisine is recognized for the variety of dishes made from milk. The most popular milk is camel milk which is characterized as being sweet, rich in vitamin C and it is used for making yoghurt, butter and melted butter, while sheep’s milk is for making Teleme, a cheese low on salt. The traditional Turkmenistan cuisine is renowned for its dishes based on fish. The most popular types of fish used are catfish, grey mullet, zander and sturgeon. Fish is generally combined with rice, raisins, apricot and sesame.
Preparation Methods for Turkmen Cooking Edit
Turkmenistan cuisine uses elements from various cooking traditions borrowed from their neighbors and developed from their own traditional dishes. While there are no specific or unique preparation methods for Turkmenistan cooking, we should point out that attention to detail is important in the Turkmenistan cuisine. Using the right amount of spices for example is essential – either for spicing up the taste or for coloring the dish. The diversity of vegetables and cereals found in Turkmenistan is also noticed in the delicious dishes belonging to their cuisine. The visual attractiveness of the dish is also important, and a balance between colors and proportion differentiates. Each traditional dish has a special cooking method, which is more or less general in all of Turkmenistan ’s regions. Meat is one of the main elements of most Turkmenistan dishes and cured and smoked hams are often parts of delicious dishes.
Special Equipment for Turkmen Cooking Edit
Ranging from cake pans, can openers, colanders, egg rings, poachers and holders, food dishers and portioners, food pans and food containers to other kitchen utensils, such as food scales, food scoops and fryer baskets and accessories, the Turkmenistan cuisine needs a diverse cooking equipment set in order to produce the most sophisticated Turkmenistan dishes. You should consider insulated food carriers if you are transporting the food and a full set of kitchen linens and uniforms if you wish to look like a pro. Here are a few other items that will come handy while cooking Turkmenistan food: juicers, kitchen knives, kitchen slicers, kitchen thermometers, measuring cups and measuring spoons, miscellaneous utensils, mixing bowls and skimmers and strainers. Essential utensils like serving spoons, spatulas, forks, turners, scrapers and tongs should also be part of your cooking "arsenal".
Turkmen Food Traditions and Festivals Edit
In Turkmenistan there are held many festivals and national holidays such as National Day (October 27), Commemoration Day(January 12), Flag Day (February 19), Constitution Day (May 18), Christmas Day, Assumption Day, Ascension Day, All Saints’ Day, All Souls Day, Epiphany, Elevation of the Life-Giving Cross (September 27) and Paskha (April 27). The main dishes served on national holidays include gaynatma, dograma soup, Turkmenistan ash, chapad, ekmek which is flat bread fried in a very hot vegetable oil.
People in Turkmen Food Edit
- Are you into Turkmen Cooking and would like to be interviewed?
There are many chefs who creatively use the basic ingredients and cooking method for traditional Turkmenistan dishes and create original and delicious food variations. Turkmenistan chefs are passionate about their traditional dishes and they enjoy presenting them to foreigners who have never tasted them before. Whether they are cooking dishes that go back in time for centuries or brand new, modern dishes, Turkmenistan chefs take pride in what they do, and this is readily noticeable in the unforgettable taste of their cooking. | https://recipes.fandom.com/wiki/Turkmen_Cuisine |
The Henry Ford College Culinary Arts Program is a comprehensive culinary education program located in Dearborn, Michigan. The program is designed to provide students with the skills and knowledge needed to excel in the culinary industry. Students will learn from experienced chefs and instructors who bring real-world experience to the classroom. The program covers a wide range of culinary topics, including kitchen safety and sanitation, menu planning, kitchen math, and food preparation.
The program is designed to be hands-on and interactive, with students participating in lab and kitchen experiences to gain practical skills and experience. Students will learn the art of cooking, baking, and pastry making, as well as the science of food, food service management, and nutrition. They will also gain experience in cooking techniques and equipment, as well as food service operations.
The program also offers students the opportunity to participate in internships, where they can gain real-world experience working in a professional kitchen. This experience will help students to develop skills and gain confidence, which will be valuable as they enter the workforce.
In addition to the culinary arts program, Henry Ford College also offers a hospitality management program that covers aspects of the food service industry such as restaurant management, event planning, and food service operations. This program is designed for students who are interested in management positions in the food service industry.
Graduates of the Henry Ford College Culinary Arts program will be well-prepared for a wide range of careers in the culinary and food service industry, including positions as chefs, cooks, bakers, pastry chefs, and food service managers. The program also provides a solid foundation for those who wish to continue their education and pursue a bachelor’s degree in culinary arts or hospitality management. | https://culinaryschools.reviews/school/henry-ford-college-culinary-arts-program/ |
‘Without understanding its cultural capital, Polish cuisine will remain anonymous’. So, how do we make foodies from other countries fall in love with Polish cuisine? Professor Fabio Parasecoli explains all to Culture.pl’s Magdalena Kasprzyk-Chevriaux.
Fabio Parasecoli – culinary writer, editor of multi-volume analysis A Cultural History of Food, long-time associate of the Italian magazine Gambero Rosso and Professor of Food Studies at New York University. His research encompasses the connections between food, culture, politics and design. He is the author of the books Feasting Our Eyes: Food, Film and Cultural Citizenship in the US (2016, with Laura Lindenfeld) and Knowing Where It Comes From: Labelling Traditional Foods to Compete in a Global Market (2017).
Magdalena Kasprzyk-Chevriaux: For the last two years, you’ve often come to Poland. What’s caught your interest here?
Fabio Parasecoli: As a culinary scholar and writer, I’m interested in the globally increasing interest in food and the sources of this interest. There’s been a lot changing in Poland as well. Observing this phenomenon is extremely inspiring. I can see dynamics similar to what I remember from Italy 30 years ago.
MKC: In an interview I conducted with you some time ago for the cultural and culinary magazine Usta, you said that you see Polish cuisine’s potential to become more recognisable thanks to its history, tradition and unique products and techniques. Let’s begin this way: what is Polish cuisine for you?
FP: The history of Poland (similarly to Italy) is so complicated that I doubt a uniform national cuisine could exist there. Instead of unsuccessfully trying to define what it should be, I’d rather speak of the modern approach to different cuisines and traditions present in Poland. This is a more accurate approach, tied to the economy and various values. For similar reasons, I called one of my books The History of Food in Italy and not 'The History of Italian Food'. Nowadays, the attempts to define ‘national’ cuisines are outdated.
MKC: What interesting products have you discovered in Poland? What inspired you?
Nalewkas during the competition Polish Nalewka of the Year, photo: Marek Lapis/Forum
FP: First of all, the nalewkas. Before my visits, I had no idea that something like this existed. I tried many different ones and last year, during the Festival of Taste in Gruczno, I was part of a tasting panel and met experts of nalewka-making, such as Zbigniew Sierszuła or Karol Majewski. The underground idea of preparing homemade alcohol is very appealing to me. Not only for its slightly illegal character, but also because the preparation of nalewkas requires the use of the very varied gifts of nature. Secondly, I am interested in the still-practised forest gathering and the still-popular mushroom picking. It is amazing that so many Poles still cultivate this tradition. Last year, I was riding in a car with somebody who was able to spot a penny bun from a moving vehicle! They had to stop the car and pick the mushroom. This is a living tradition. Everybody knows somebody who still goes mushroom picking.
MKC: And fermentation?
FP: This is another marvellous characteristic of Polish cuisine. On the one hand, there is the tradition: sauerkraut and pickled cucumbers. On the other, the trend of the modern way of pickling. You can see it in the examples of some chefs who are fascinated with the process of fermentation, such as Aleksander Baron. Fermentation is also popular in other parts of the world and it can be used to stress the connections between Polish cuisine and global trends.
MKC: In Wysowa Zdrój in Southern Poland, they promote pickled saffron milk cups. At Stary Dom Zdrojowy there, you can eat a soup made of them. Is there anything apart from pickling that caught your interest?
FP: It’s also worth pointing out a local trend, one for goose or duck meat. Last year I visited Kujawy and Lubraniec where they have a festiwal of czernina [editor’s note: a soup made of goose blood]. The housewives prepared not only soup but also many other dishes made of ducks and geese. I like the way they use the entire bird. Also, you have a lot of fish products, especially smoked. One time, I visited Stawy Milickie and was surprised how well the centuries-old tradition of fish-breeding is cultivated there. There’s also the phenomenal Ojców trout.
MKC: You received a grant to study Polish culinary traditions. Could you say something more about it?
FP: It’s from the Polish National Science Centre. The money was granted for three years and the research project will be rather deep and multithreaded. Because I’ve only started to learn Polish, I work with a Polish scientist – Mateusz Halawa from the Institute of Philosophy and Sociology of the Polish Academy of Sciences.
MKC: What is the aim of this research project?
FP: The idea was born around a year and a half ago, when, thanks to my trips to Poland, I discovered the growing interest towards traditional, local and regional food. We want to analyse the reasons for this phenomenon: where did this interest come from and why now? Who are the major players in the market? What are the relationships between the consumers, producers and cultural mediators? To what extent can the interest in traditional food expand from a small group of foodies (who are prepared to spend a bit more on food) to the general public? We want to see if this interest in traditional food is a result of the Polish fascination with foreign cuisines, which used to be an expression of their feelings of affiliation with the cosmopolitan world.
MKC: Today, in the context of tradition, food is discovered anew in different parts of the world. It’s a global trend.
FP: Yes. Last year I wrote a book called Knowing Where It Comes From, in which I deal with this. After the globalisation period of the 1980s and the 1990s, people around the world became interested in food by discovering forgotten products. It’s started to happen in Poland as well. We want to understand the process and its causes and answer the question of what the cultural experience associated with it is, who’s involved, in what way do people speak of traditions and regional food, what importance does it have in the context of producers, and how does it influence the offerings of supermarkets. We are also interested in the design aspect, practices and customs associated with such food. We’ll study ways of consuming and connections with suppliers.
MKC: What will the final outcome be?
FP: A series of academic articles and a book published in English in an international publishing house.
MKC: During Terroir Warsaw, an international event involving Polish and foreign chefs which took place on 27th and 28th of May in Warsaw, there was talk of whether Poland could be a culinary paradise for tourists and a new, hot place for trendsetters to discover original tastes and products. How do you evaluate our potential in the context of international culinary tourism?
FP: There is potential and many unique products that could interest foreign foodies. But I see two issues in relation to Poland that would have to be looked at and solved. The first one involves infrastructure. You have amazing craft producers, but are they ready to accept guests? Are there guesthouses where the tourists could stay, are there tasting rooms in the vineyard, are there co-ordinators that could help the foreign tourist prepare their own travel plan? The role of such experts is extremely important, because people interested in culinary tourism do not usually pick large traditional agencies. On the contrary. They want to experience something intimate and unique and that’s why they inquire at companies that organise trips for groups of just a couple of people. Having a business network and working with the producers is indispensable here.
MKC: And the second issue?
FP: Transparency and communication. You need to talk about Polish cuisine in a way that would make sense for foodies from other countries. That’s why so-called cultural mediators are needed – people who not only have a great deal of knowledge about the culinary scene in Poland, but who also speak a language that is understandable to foodies. The way culinary services are presented in social media, movies and books is important.
MKC: Have you observed important changes in our culinary scene since your first visit to Poland?
FP: I could mention the growing interest in natural wines. A distributor I know told me that in the last year alone, the sales of such wines have tripled. I like the idea of collaborating in various culinary projects. For example: the Resto Bar Ogień in Pogorzany in Lesser Poland. Chefs from all around Poland head there. Together, they invent a menu and cook using products available on that day. This co-operation takes place in a very democratic way.
I also have to mention the idea of returning to old culinary techniques. In Resto Bar Ogień, which I visited recently, everything is cooked or roasted over an open fire. The relationship between cooks and scientists working on the history of cuisine, such as Professor Jarosław Dumanowski, are also very interesting. Many chefs are fascinated by old Polish cuisine and draw inspiration from it during the preparation of their own modern dishes. It’s an important phenomenon, but I haven’t studied its scope yet.
Another novelty worth mentioning is the so-called idea of food sovereignty, which says that local communities have the right to decide what to grow and how to do it. This involves the rediscovery of biodiversity thanks to the return to old varieties of local seeds, plants, vegetables and fruits and to the attempts to recreate, even partially, the local nutrition system. I noticed other trends even earlier, such as the interest in regional and traditional food. It’s becoming more visible now, because such products are more and more discussed and are beginning to appear on restaurant menus. I’d like to stress the successes of various food and taste festivals, during which there are discussions held about food: the European Festival of Taste in Lublin, the Festival of Taste in Poznań, or the Festival of Taste in Gruczno. This example shows how the interest in the local food transfers to the broader public, because every visitor can engage in direct contact with a producer.
MKC: What advice would you give the Polish gastronomy to become more noticeable abroad?
FP: The chefs and cooks won’t do much without the producers, distributors, media and people who consider food a part of culture. Without understanding its cultural capital, Polish cuisine will remain anonymous, even though many chefs have worked abroad and now run their own world-class restaurants that are not written about abroad. Thankfully, for the last few years, you have had the bilingual (Polish-English) Gault & Millau guide for Poland, but there remains a lot of work to be done. | https://culture.pl/en/article/eating-is-culture-an-interview-with-fabio-parasecoli |
Partnering with chefs for a sustainable culinary world
Chefs throughout the world are leaders in public opinion and the flagship of education and access to nutritional knowledge. Through gastronomy of taste, beauty and passion for food, they can promote consumption of healthy and sustainable foods as well as influence policy makers. The overarching goal of this project is to build a network of chefs run by chefs to promote sustainable nutrition in Israeli society.
We have partnered with leading chefs Israel Aharoni, Erez Komveroski and Yair Yosefi to promote changes on two levels:
a) a community based educational project (see our Education section)
b) transforming local restaurants to become sustainable and healthy. | https://english.ifsn.org.il/projects/chefs-for-change/ |
From the array of its traditional tapas to the daring preparations of its new generation of chefs, Spain has captivated the world with its gastronomic riches. In The Cuisines of Spain, Teresa Barrenechea showcases her heritage through more than 250 recipes culled from her extensive repertoire, and from friends and fellow chefs across Spain. The famed rice dishes of Valencia, the piquant mojos of the Canary Islands, the hearty stews and braised meats of the interior–all of the classics are here in definitive form, as are many lesser-known but equally important and intriguing regional dishes.
Barrenechea weaves a captivating narrative of Spain’s diverse peoples, landscapes, and ingredients, revealing how the forces of geography, culture, and politics gave rise to the food traditions that we honor today. More than 100 photographs from Barcelona-based photojournalist Jeffrey Koehler take readers to the fields, markets, wharves, and kitchens of the provinces, and the renowned work of Christopher Hirsheimer puts Barrenechea’s recipes on brilliant display.
A celebration of home cooks past and present, The Cuisines of Spain is an enduring and intimate portrait of a great folk food tradition from one of the country’s most talented culinary ambassadors.
Praise for The Cuisines of Spain from around the world:
“It’s rare to find a cookbook that distills the spirit of a people and immerses us in the context of a particular cuisine. To cook creatively, we must uncover the soul of a place so that what we prepare has an identity. Because Teresa Barrenechea allows us to truly grasp Spanish cooking, we come away with much more than a few recipes, but with the essence of her country’s vital respect for food in our hands and in our hearts. A winner.”
–James Peterson, author of Sauces
“In this beautifully illustrated, deliciously researched book, Teresa Barrenechea makes sense out of what outsiders might see as two bewildering paradoxes of Spanish food and indeed Spanish civilization. One is a proud embrace of regional loyalties, coupled with an inescapable overall Spanish identity. The other is a fierce attachment to incredibly old traditions, along with a spirit of defiant modernist invention and reinvention that is just as fierce. Through Teresa’s loving presentation of dishes culled from home cooks, remote rural areas, and sophisticated cities–including many recipes never before published in English–you will instinctively taste how vivid flavor and simple pleasure always have been and still are at the heart of the Spanish culinary ethos.”
–Maricel Presilla, author of The New Taste of Chocolate
“In an era of novelistic cookbooks and florid foodie memoirs, Teresa Barrenechea takes a refreshingly straightforward approach to her subject matter, which is nothing less than the many and varied cuisines of Spain. She sets the scene and adds useful asides, but her main mission is to tell us how to accurately cook a great deal of honest, not overly complicated, unfailingly delicious food, and at this she succeeds superbly.”
–Colman Andrews, author of Catalan Cuisine
“Teresa Barrenechea’s love of and expertise on Spain’s traditional food is beautifully executed in this exciting book, with charming photos and delightful stories of the people, places, and ingredients.”
–Rose Gray and Ruth Rogers, The River Cafe, London
“With her restaurants in New York and her participation in numerous cooking events around the world, Teresa Barrenechea has established herself as the most gifted teacher of our cuisine abroad. The Cuisines of Spain is the culmination of her work, and it is a book of great integrity and beauty.”
–Clara Mar’a Gonzalez de Amezœa, coauthor of From Spain with Olive Oil
From Spain's Michelin Three-star Chefs: | http://www.bookpassage.com/book/9781580088350 |
Jamie Simpson, executive chef at The Chef's Garden and The Culinary Vegetable Institute in Huron and Milan, Ohio, talks advocacy, sustainability and the role of restaurateurs.
Jamie Simpson, executive chef at The Chef’s Garden and The Culinary Vegetable Institute, in Huron and Milan, Ohio, came to cooking through rock and roll, in a fashion. After leaving his life as a punk musician and a job at a recording studio behind, he began working at The Charleston Grill, one of Charleston, South Carolina’s most acclaimed restaurants, and from there moved on to other culinary adventures. Today, he’s working with a variety of people in the food system to promote and grow the sustainable food movement. In March, Simpson joined more than a dozen other chefs for the Chefs Boot Camp in Avery Island, Louisiana, home of Tabasco sauce, where the group learned how to better advocate for their cause and ended the weekend by teaming up to cook a dinner for 60 people. Simpson took some time recently to answer a few questions for Modern Farmer.
Modern Farmer: What inspired you to become involved in issues related to sustainable agriculture?
Jamie Simpson: Two big moments in my life have inspired my involvement in sustainable agriculture. Long story short: A living legend I worked with at the Charleston Grill named Mickey Bakst created a project called Feed the Need. An article in a newspaper inspired him to create an organization that has now fed hundreds of thousands of people in need. He did this all while maintaining excellence both in and out of work. It blew my mind. Before that, making meaningful change seemed far from attainable. Fast forward six years and I’m at the Chef’s Garden, a sustainable (and yes, it’s small) family-owned farm, tucked away in the agricultural belt of the country. The Jones family farm has changed the game for agriculture around the world. Waste not. Every part of a plant’s life offers something new and unique to the plate. I’ve lived on the farm here as the chef for the past two years and it has changed my views on practically everything. “Why isn’t every carrot this delicious? And why don’t we eat the leaves? Or the seeds? And the blooms? Or the peels? Where do all of these items go in large scale methods of agriculture and why in the world are they grown in waterless California?”
MF: Do you feel that as a chef you have a greater responsibility to be an advocate for sustainable agriculture than people in other professions?
JS: I feel that as a chef I have a greater responsibility to advocate sustainability in our food system and our workplace. Every person that walks into your dining room provides an opportunity to teach and an opportunity to learn. We as consumers determine the future of food. Food is perhaps the most meaningful form of communication the human race has to experience. Chefs with a voice can speak on behalf of diners, farmers, purveyors and employees. Agriculture and service is by far the largest labor force by occupation in the world. By educating people on the power of sustainable farming, we’re not only doing ourselves a favor, but we’re doing our children’s children a favor. This is for the benefit of people and their health as well as the land and its health.
MF: Why did you choose to become a chef and what has the journey been like so far?
JS: I actually made a conscious decision to cook professionally and with purpose at a relatively young age… but I was going to be a rockstar when I grew up. Playing music in a band professionally allowed me the ability to travel and deliver a message. When I left the band and studio, I decided those were two things I would never lose. My experiences with cooking professionally and playing music professionally are actually incredibly similar. A great restaurant is an absolute symphony.
I’ve lived on the farm here as the chef for the past two years and it has changed my views on practically everything.
MF: What was your time at the Chefs Boot Camp like and what did you take away from the experience?
JS: The James Beard Foundation’s Chefs Boot Camp opens up a new world of opportunity. There are others in your industry who share the same issues as you. There are others who actively challenge every issue that they face. Some have successes to share and some do not, but either way, these are opportunities to learn. My takeaway from the experience is that positive change is incredibly accessible. There are resources and ways to go about affecting the world in which we affect the most.
MF: Do you have any advice for other chefs who might be thinking about becoming advocates for a cause?
JS: You are not alone, my friend. There are others who might be thinking, others who may be acting, and others who are certainly doing. Every year we host a conference called ROOTS. This is an opportunity to learn with people from all over the world who are not only talking about, but doing meaningful work in this industry. If you are thinking about becoming advocates for a cause, any cause, I encourage you to come out to the Chef’s Garden for ROOTS because it’s more than thinking, it’s taking action.
MF: Is there anything else you’d care to share that I haven’t touched on?
JS: Right here and now, along with maintaining a sustainable business, our focuses at the Culinary Vegetable Institute and the Chef’s Garden are education and collaboration within the world around our food system. Collaboration with chefs, farmers, educators, scientists, and diners from all over has brought us to where we are today. Here, sustainability is not a trend, it’s a way of life. A better connection with the water, soil, plants, and sun determines the appropriate future of our food system. It’s as if you were stepping back in time while respectfully embracing technology to produce a model that can and has been adapted by the networks we influence most. Agriculture is certainly at the heart of what we consume. Every meal begins with a farmer. Every farmer begins with a demand, and we as consumers determine collectively the future of food. Thus, education and collaboration. | https://modernfarmer.com/2015/08/chef-jamie-simpson-interview/ |
On October 19th, the European Union – Latin America and the Caribbean Foundation (EU-LAC Foundation) organized a workshop that brought together relevant actors from both regions in the framework of the EU-CELAC Joint Initiative on Research and Innovation (JIRI). EU-LAC RESINFRA was one of the initiatives presented in this workshop entitled “Exchange on progress made and opportunities for bi-regional cooperation in research and innovation – one year after agreement on the JIRI EU – LAC Strategic Road Map 2021-2023”. It was organized in close collaboration with the Pro-Tempore Presidency of CELAC, Mexico, the Directorate-General for Research and Innovation of the European Commission, and the Coordinator of the National Contact Points of LAC. The event was opened by Adrián Bonilla, Executive Director of the EU-LAC Foundation, who mentioned the importance of science as an essential area to strength the link between Europe and LAC. Adrián Bonilla stressed also that the JIRI is one of the most significant initiatives between the European Union and Latin America.
The concrete objective of this event was to follow up on the actions around the four pillars agreed at the Eighth Senior Officials Meeting on Science and Technology of the JIRI in October 2020: mobility of researchers, cooperation in research infrastructures, global challenges – particularly health, environmental aspects of sustainable development/green transition and digital transformation – and innovation. EU-LAC RESINFRA was presented by Inmaculada Figueroa, from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation and coordinator of the project, who exposed its main achievements and contributions for the development of the cooperation in research infrastructure’s pillar. Projects like EU LAC RESINFRA contribute to leverage and coordinate the existing scientific and academic networks, and to promote events capable of attracting people from both regions on relevant topics for the construction and concretization of a joint EU-LAC agenda.
The event was attended also by Claudia Romano, Coordinator of the National Contact Points Network for Latin America and the Caribbean of the Uruguayan Agency for International Cooperation, Adrián Bonilla, together with Martín Penny (Head of Unit, International Cooperation of the Directorate-General for Research and Innovation at the European Commission), Javier Dávila Torres (General Director of Cooperation Policy, Mexican Agency of International Development Cooperation) and Rogelio Granguillhome (Ambassador of Mexico to the Kingdom of Belgium and Luxembourg and Permanent Mission to the European Union), among others.
During the workshop, it was made clear that the pillar with the most significant progress was Research Infrastructures, which plays a fundamental role in advancing and coordinating with scientific and academic networks. EU-LAC RESINFRA’s work is of great importance for this pillar, considering that this project supports precisely this area in order to enhancing the cooperation and integration between the European Union and Latin America and the Caribbean.
This was a relevant event to understand the current state and implementation of the roadmap previously proposed for JIRI and to visualize future challenges and opportunities that may arise. One important conclusion was the importance of having more events like this one for the promotion of coordination and inter-regional joint work in a wide range of scientific areas, always emphasizing cooperation. | https://resinfra-eulac.eu/news/eu-lac-resinfra-was-presented-in-the-workshop-organized-by-eu-lac-foundation-on-research-and-innovation-bi-regional-cooperation/ |
Three celebrity chefs concluded a visit aboard USS Harry S. Truman (CVN 75) recently.
The three-day event, hosted by Navy Entertainment, included Blue Moon Café’s Sarah Simington, Salsa Brava’s Mike Conley, and Hodad’s Mike Hardin. The chefs, collectively known as the “Mess Lords,” have been featured on Food Network’s “Diners, Drive-ins and Dives.”
During the visit, the chefs trained Truman and USS Gettysburg (CG 64) Culinary Specialists (CS) in cooking techniques, and prepared specialty dishes for the crew.
While the purpose of their visit was primarily for the morale of the crew, the chefs also enjoyed themselves and appreciated the opportunity.
“It feels amazing to be here visiting and cooking for the Sailors and Marines on the Truman,” Simington said while on board. “It’s an honor and a privilege. Our armed forces give so much, so we should do something for them.”
“In a sense, I am serving the men and women serving my country when I do events like this,” she added. Simington said there might be hard times when away from home, so events like this are important for morale.
“I am sure service members get frustrated at times because they miss home and can’t see their loved ones, so things like this event are important,” she said. “We want to bring a taste of home to the ship and let them know we support them and can’t wait until they come home safely.”
Lt. Mike Sargent, Truman’s Principal Assistant for Services, said “the value of the visit could not be overstated. The amount of positive energy generated among the Food Service team and throughout the crew was simply amazing.”
The main event of the visit was a cook-off. Each chef led a team of Culinary Specialists as they competed against each other to create dishes from a pre-assigned list of ingredients-chicken, rice and carrots. Two of the teams were comprised of Truman Culinary Specialists, and a third team was comprised of Culinary Specialists from Gettysburg. The Gettysburg team, coached by John Conley, won the cook-off.
Truman’s Food Service Officer, CW04 Brian Armstrong, explained that “the crew was able to incorporate Hawaiian burgers and Navajo tacos into the Navy Standard Core Menu. It was a great hit for the entire crew to see various entrée items made in a slightly different way than the menu calls for.”
According to the CSs, they enjoyed the competition as well as the visit from the chefs. | https://scnewsltr.dodlive.mil/2014/03/07/celebrity-chefs-embark-truman-for-food-filled-visit-2/ |
a liquid outlet disposed within said housing, said liquid outlet including a valve that opens in response to a predetermined pressure differential between liquid in said outlet and liquid in said accumulator/separator chamber.
This invention relates to a rotary phase separator for separating liquid from gas in a zero or variable gravity environment.
Typically, the separation of gas from a liquid is accomplished by allowing entrapped gas to bubble upward out of the liquid under the influence of gravity. This method does not work in zero or variable gravity environment encountered by space vehicles. Typically, in such environments, a liquid/gas circulation system is used that includes a circulating pump; an accumulator to accommodate volume changes in the liquid/gas mixture and a separator to separate the liquid phase from the gas phase. Such systems are utilized to generate oxygen by electrolysis of water.
Current state of the art systems utilize bellows accumulators to accommodate volume changes due to variation in the amount of oxygen being delivered and a special membrane separator to remove generated gas from the liquid stream. When used in a zero gravity environment, a bellows accumulator can become gas bound, leading to reduced liquid capacity in the accumulator. The membrane separator must be replaced often because the membrane becomes contaminated.
To eliminate the need for a membrane separator, a rotary phase separator that uses centrifugal force to separate the liquid phase from the gas phase can be utilized. However, a typical rotary phase separator requires a liquid control system that vents accumulated gas as necessary to maintain a relatively constant liquid level. Further, in such systems it is of critical importance that the separated phases not be mixed upon exit of the separator such as may occur on start up before sufficient rotational speed has been attained to sufficiently separate the phases of the mixture.
For this reason it is desirable to develop a system that does not become contaminated during use, which does not require periodic replacement and which can accommodate liquid level fluctuations, thereby acting as an accumulator.
The invention is a rotary phase separator assembly including an accumulator and a liquid outlet valve for use in a closed loop recirculating system to separate the phases of a liquid/gas mixture at varying liquid levels.
The rotary phase separator has a separating chamber capable of accommodating different liquid levels and thereby acts as an accumulator for a closed loop gas/liquid-recirculating system. The rotary phase separator assembly includes an accumulator/separator chamber defined by an inlet housing and an outlet housing. The accumulator/separator chamber is cylindrically shaped about a longitudinal axis. An inlet port for the liquid/gas mixture opens tangentially into the accumulator/separator chamber such that incoming flow of the mixture initiates a spinning motion. The inlet port opens into a pre-swirl chamber that begins the separation of the liquid from the gas.
The liquid and gas continue to rotate about the axis and are driven by a plurality of disks and cylinders attached to a hollow shaft driven by a motor. Hydrodynamic bearings are provided to support the shaft such that the shaft will rotate on a cushion of liquid drawn from the accumulator/separator chamber. The hydrodynamic bearings substantially eliminate any mechanical friction to increase the reliability and life of the entire assembly. The disks and cylinders are in frictional contact with the liquid/gas mixture to create a centrifugal force that throws the liquid toward the outer diameter of the accumulator chamber. As the liquid is thrown to the outside of the accumulator chamber, the gas is displaced and migrates toward the axis about the hollow shaft.
The disks include a plurality of holes disposed near the axis to allow gas to flow through the disks along the shaft to an opening within the shaft leading to the hollow portion of the shaft. Gas within the hollow section of the shaft exits through a non-rotating gas outlet tube to a gas outlet port. The gas outlet tube includes a valve member actuated by a solenoid to seal the gas outlet tube shut when the shaft is not rotating and until sufficient gas has accumulated within the accumulator/separator chamber to facilitate phase separation.
The valve is required to prevent liquid from exiting through the gas outlet port. The inner walls of the hollow section of the shaft are tapered toward the opening in the shaft. With the shaft spinning, centrifugal force drives any liquid trapped within the hollow section along the tapered walls of the shaft and through to the opening to reenter the accumulator/separator chamber.
Liquid rotating along the outer diameter of the accumulator/separator chamber exits through a liquid outlet valve. The liquid outlet valve includes a valve seal biased closed against inner and outer seats by a plurality of control springs equally positioned about the outer diameter of the accumulator/separator chamber. The control springs exert sufficient load on the valve seal to remain closed until a predetermined pressure differential is reached between liquid in the liquid outlet and liquid in the accumulator/separator chamber. Control of the liquid outlet is required to prevent gas from exiting along with the liquid through the liquid outlet during system start up.
The subject invention includes an accumulator chamber to accommodate varying levels of liquid such that a separate liquid control system is not required, and gas and liquid outlet control valves that remain closed until the rotary phase separator attains optimal separation conditions to prevent mixing of phases between the liquid and gas outlet ports.
The various features and advantages of this invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description of the currently preferred embodiment. The drawings that accompany the detailed description can be briefly described as follows:
Referring to the Figures, wherein like numerals indicate like or corresponding parts throughout the several views, the subject invention is a rotary phase separator assembly for separating a liquid from a gas contained in a liquid/gas mixture and is generally shown at
The rotary phase separator
A motor
Bearing assemblies
The shaft
Preferably there are seven disks
The last disk
The disks
The hollow section
Preferably, a gas outlet tube
Referring to
The control springs
Referring back to
In operation, the liquid/gas mixture enters the accumulator/separator chamber
The motor
Gas flows through the openings
Liquid from the liquid ring exits the accumulator/separator chamber
The foregoing description is exemplary and not just a material specification. The invention has been described in an illustrative manner, and should be understood that the terminology used is intended to be in the nature of words of description rather than of limitation. Many modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. The preferred embodiments of this invention have been disclosed, however, one of ordinary skill in the art would recognize that certain modifications are within the scope of this invention. It is understood that within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described. For that reason the following claims should be studied to determine the true scope and content of this invention. | http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6547862.html |
Welcome to the Getting Started Guide for the Simulator. The Simulator is part of the WDCDB.exe tool within the WDCTools. For this guide, we will focus on working with the W65C02S microprocessor and W65C22S VIA within a software simulation environment and not with any specific board. This is a great start to exploring 65xx technology. These simple steps will guide you through connecting your board to your computer and running your first program. Please see the Simulator/Debugger (WDCDB) User Guide for more details of the features of the Simulator.
Step 1: Download and Install WDCTools
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Download WDCTools Install WDCTools and set update preferences with the installer
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WDC Programming Manual – This is a fantastic programming reference for 65xx microprocessors.
The WDCTools is NOT for resale or reverse engineering of our technology in any form and is NOT provided for the development of commercial products that use non–WDC 65xx processors in Core or Chip form without a license.
Step 2: Work through an included Simulator example project
We will explore the Simulator using a simple program to work with the 8 LEDs that are on the board. The project file is located at C:\wdc\65C02Simulator\8LED_CCAH\ASM. This project has a batch file that will assemble and link the project. It will then launch WDCDB.exe. The WDCDB.ini has an option to switch between the software simulator and hardware debugger and is currently set for simulation.
There are two ways to launch the project:
1.) Double click on the mk265_QBX8LEDS.bat file to execute the batch file.
2.) Click on the Start Menu option for “6502Simulator” under the WDCTools Start Menu folder. This was created when you install WDCTools.
Choose the method that works best for you. Once the batch file is run, a windows Command window appears. It will stay on the screen until you close it. It should be the same as below if everything ran correctly.
Back in your Windows Explorer window, you will see several new files were created. These include the .OBJ (Object) file that is used by the linker to make the .BIN (WDC Binary Format output). A listing file (.LST) file is also created. You can view that file in any text editor and see both your code and the corresponding assembled addresses, opcodes, etc.
The last command ran is to open the WDCDB.exe Simulator window. Below is a screenshot of the configuration of the Simulator. This is just an example of how you can set up your windows. There is a window that shows the representation of 8 LEDs and the values of the W65C22S (VIA) registers. The “Status” windows letting know where data is loaded, etc. The “Registers” windows show the current values within each of the W65C02S microprocessor registers. The “File” window displays the code used for the program. It also highlights the line of code that is located at the current location of the microprocessors program counter (upon loading, the program will start at $2000). For this example, we have two “Data” windows open. One is showing data at $2000 and the other at $3000. The data at $2000 is the program that we wrote. The data window at $3000 is where the user can change those values directly in the window and as the program is stepped through, the values will be read from those memory locations and written to the W65C22S Output Data Register B, which is connected to the 8 LEDs within the Simulator.
Now that we are familiar with the windows within the Simulator, let’s use it to run our example. We will start by looking at the code for the example. Note that a semicolon before the text is seen as a comment in the assembler.
;Example code to control 8 LEDs driven from the W65C22 VIA Port B
org $2000 ;Our program code will be at $2000 START: sei cld ldx #$ff ; Initialize the stack pointer txs
The “org” statement tells the Linker tool that the next instructions will be linked at $2000. The next 4 instructions are important instructions that you can use in almost any of your programs to start. The SEI (Set Interrupt Disable Flag) instruction does just as it says; it will set the Interrupt Disable Flag to a “1” which will disable interrupts on the microprocessor. We do not need to use any interrupts for this simple example. The CLD (Clear Decimal Mode Flag) instruction shifts the processor back into binary mode from decimal mode. Note that in the Register window you can see the status of these flags. The Simulator has he Decimal Mode Flag cleared and Interrupt Disable Flag set by default, but this is just a good habit to handle these flags when you are working with the hardware. The next two instructions are used to setup the Stack for the processor. This will ensure that the process is ready to run program instructions and will not get lost. LDX immediate will load the X Register with the value declared which is 0xFF (FF in hexadecimal). TXS will transfer the value of the X Register onto the stack.
Let’s now single-step through these first 4 instructions. Press the “F7” key on your keyboard, or select the “Step Into” option from the Run menu in the simulator as shown.
Each time you press “Step Into” or “F7” you will single-step through the program. The Program Counter (PC) of the microprocessor will increment for each instruction. SEI, CLD, and TXS are single-byte instructions, and LDX immediate is a 2 byte instruction. Step through each of the first four instructions. Afterward, the Program Counter will be at $2005. The Registers should be as shown below:
The next two instructions will be used to interface to the W65C22S.
; First, we initialize the VIA chip registers and set Port B to OUTPUTS lda #$ff sta VIA_DDRB ; set all as outputs
LDA #$ff – Load the Accumulator with the value declared which is 0xFF. STA VIA_DDRB will store the 0xFF to the memory location that is assigned to the label VIA_DDRB. We can use labels to name memory locations that we will use often. VIA_DDRB stands for VIA (Versatile Interface Adapter, nickname of the W65C22S), Data Direction Register B. This is one of the 16 registers within the W65C22S. It is an 8 bit register that is used to set the Data Register for Port B to either Inputs or Output. Each bit of the register corresponds with a wire on the Data Port. Writing a 0 to a bit make that Data line an INPUT, while writing a 1 to the bit makes that Data line an OUTPUT. 0xFF in hex is the same as “11111111” in binary, so we are writing a 1 to each bit in the Data Direction register. That makes each line of the Data Register Port B as an OUTPUT. We are doing this because those Output Data Register lines are hooked up to the 8 LEDs in the simulator. If we use Step Into again twice to single-step through these instructions, we should see the LEDs turn off and the DDRB has “FF” (all outputs) and ORB has “00”.
Now that our Port B is set to outputs, we will next start writing values to the Port B output register to different values so that the LEDs will change.
; Now we initialize the X register to use to count from 0 – 255 (FF)
ldx #$00 LOADER: lda $3000,x ; Load the value that is in memory at 3000 + x ; index. sta VIA_ORB ; Display value on LEDs. Value can be ; seen in ORB register of VIA inx ; Increment the value of X by 1 bne LOADER ; Branch to the label "LOADER" if the value of ; the X-register is not $00
These 5 instructions create a simple loop that reads a value from memory starting at $3000 (up to $30FF) and writing that value to the Output Data Register Port B. The first instruction will only be run once since the BNE (Branch if Not Equal) will branch back to the “LOADER” label. The LDX #$00 initializes the X Register to 0x00 so that we can use the X as an index register for the LDA instruction. LDA $3000,x is the LoaD the Accumulator instruction, using the X register as an index. The first time we run this instruction, X is 0x00 so we are loading the accumulator with the value that is in memory at location $3000. The next instruction is STA VIA_ORB. We are storing the value that is now in the accumulator to the location of the label VIA_ORB. VIA_ORB is the Data Register Port B that is hooked up to the LEDs in the Simulator, so the corresponding LEDs will change. Any bit or the ORB with a 1 will drive the matching LED. The next instruction is INX or INcrement X. This instruction will increase the X register value by 1. This is used to move the index we use for loading the values from memory. We use BNE to Branch if the Z (zero flag) is not set. Since we did an increment of the X register, the Z flag is “0”. The BNE instruction will branch back up to LOADER each time until the X register is incremented from FF to 00. At that point, the Z flag will be set and the processor will go to the next instruction after the BNE.
The Data window currently shows 00 (hexadecimal) for all of the data in that page. Click on the first set of “00” at 3000 and change the values. As you type, you will see the values change. The Data window has a nice feature where you can type an ASCII character to the right side of the hex values. As you type a character at the 8 dots to the right of the hex values, the hex values will change for the appropriate ASCII character. See below for examples of values you can type into the Data window.
Now that we have values in the Data window at $3000, we can single step through our loop. Remember that every time you run the “STA VIA_ORB”, the LEDs should change to the proper value (in binary) that is in the accumulator. This example is good to practice for converting numbers between decimal, hexadecimal, binary, and ASCII. Based on the Data at the $3000 page, the first value to be stored to the ORB is $01 hex (“00000001” binary). The furthest right LED should be the only LED that is lit.
Once you get to the ASCII “a”, you will hex “61” in the ORB register and the LEDs will correspond to “01100001” which is the binary equivalent of 0x61.
That is all the program does. You can keep single-stepping through the program, changing Data to read new values, etc.
We hope you have learned more about our Simulator and possibly the W65C02S microprocessor and W65C22S VIA. | https://wdc65xx.com/getting-started/simulator-getting-started/ |
ⓘ Mitsubishi 740
The Mitsubishi 740, also known as MELPS 740, is a series of 8-bit CMOS microcontrollers and microprocessors with an enhanced MOS Technology 6502 compatible core based on the expanded WDC 65C02. The ICs were manufactured by Mitsubishi Electric during the 1980s and 1990s.
The 740 family was primarily intended for single-chip implementations, and included optional RAM and ROM or EPROM on-die. Other additions included a variety of optional timers, input/output lines, and many other features. It was estimated around 600 variations could be ordered.
In 2002, Mitsubishi and Hitachi merged their chip divisions to form Renesas Technology, and then in 2010 with NEC Electronics to produce Renesas Electronics. The 740 family is now properly known as the Renesas 740.
1. History
In 1984, the first 740-series part, M50740, appeared in the 1984 Mitsubishi Single-Chip Microcontroller Databook, and was manufactured by Mitsubishi Electric. Further research is needed to determine the exact date the M50740 was announced.
In 1998, it was reported in EDN magazine, that MELPS 740 family had more than 600 different variations.
In 2002, Mitsubishi Electric and Hitachi agreed to merge their chip operations into a new $7 billion semiconductor company to be called Renesas Technology. The companies said they would both move their respective semiconductor operations to Renesas, including microcomputer, logic, analog, discrete devices, and memory with the exception of DRAMs. Renesas Technology was established on April 1, 2003, as a joint venture of Hitachi 55% and Mitsubishi Electric 45%.
In 2009, Renesas Technology and NEC Electronics reached a basic agreement to merge, and on April 1, 2010 the two merged into Renesas Electronics.
Though legacy Mitsubishi parts are no longer manufactured, the 740 instruction set is still alive in newer Renesas microcontroller series, such as 38000/740 series and 7200 series.
2. Instruction Set
The Mitsubishi 740 family has a processor core that executes a superset of the 6502 instruction set including many of the extensions added in the 65C02. There is a core set of new instructions common across all 740 family members, plus other instructions that exist in specific parts.
The major change in the 740 family compared to the 65C02 is the addition of a new processor status flag, T, in the formerly unused bit 6. When T is set to 1, the X register acted as a zero page address for the second operand for instructions using zero page addressing. This allowed the program to select a location in the zero page to act as a sort of second accumulator, setting the X register to point to it, and then removing that address from the instruction format. For instance, in the 6502 an ADC addr adds the contents of a zero-page memory location at addr to the value in the accumulator. Using T, this can be reduced to a single byte, ADC. This improves code density and avoids the memory cycle needed to read the address. The value in the T flag is set and cleared using the new SET and CLT instructions.
In most members of the 740 family, addresses $0008 through $0039 of the zero page are set aside as the "Special Function Registers", or SFR. These are used to control various add-ons like built-in I/O ports or timers. Some members of the family also include the "Stack Page Selection Bit" SPSB within the SFR. When the SPSB is clear set to 0, the stack is relocated to the zero page instead of its normal location in page one. As most members of the 740 family have the zero page implemented on-die instead of in external RAM, using the SPSB allows programs to have a working system entirely in a single chip, with appropriate ROMs. Many members of the 740 family include on-dye ROM or EPROM as well, allowing for complete single-chip implementations of small programs like device drivers. Since the stack grows downward from the top of the page, $00FF in this case, this requires the upper portion of page to be left otherwise unused to provide space for the stack.
2.1. Instruction Set Common instructions
The following is a list of new instructions and existing instructions with new modes in all 740 family parts. Some of these are from the W65C02, and others apply only to the 740 family.
2.2. Instruction Set W65C02 additions
- BBC - Branch Bits Clear - Branches when the contents of the bit specified in the accumulator or memory are clear 0. Known as BBR, Branch on Bit Reset, in Rockwell terminology.
- DEC - Decrement - Decrement the contents of accumulator 6502 was X and Y or memory only.
- INC - Increment - Increment the contents of accumulator or memory by one.
- CLB - Clear Bits - Clear the contents of the bit specified in the accumulator or memory to zero 0.
- SEB - Set Bits - Set the specified bit contents of accumulator or memory to one.
- BRA - Branch Always - Jump to address where offset has been added to the program counter, +127 128.
- BBS - Branch Bits Set - Branches when the contents of the bit specified in the accumulator or memory are set 1.
2.3. Instruction Set 740 family additions
- RRF - Rotate Right 4 - Rotate the contents of memory to the right by 4 bits.
- COM - Complement - Ones complement 1s of contents of memory and store it into memory.
- TST - Test - Tests whether the contents of a memory location is zero or not.
- CLT - Clear T Flag - Clear the contents of X-modified arithmetic mode flag to zero.
- LDM - Load Memory - Load memory with immediate value.
- SET - Set T flag - Set the contents of X-modified arithmetic mode float to one.
2.4. Instruction Set Missing instructions
The W65C02 as opposed to the original 65C02 added several new instructions originally designed by Rockwell Semiconductor. These included instructions to set or clear which they referred to as "reset", not "clear" single bits in memory, as well as instructions to branch if those bits were set or clear. These were retained in the 740 family.
However, the W65C02 also included the test-and-set/reset instructions, which tested if the bit was set or clear, setting the Z flag appropriately, and then either setting or clearing that bit. These were useful for waiting on certain flags to appear and then resetting them before handling the flag. These instructions were not included in the 740.
Additionally, the original 65C02s STZ single-instruction STore Zero was not retained, but this functionality was partially replaced by LDM.
The W65C02 also added several new instructions for low-power operation. These may or may not be available on all members of the 740 series.
The following instructions are not available in M50740A, M50740ASP, M50741, M50752, M50757, M50758 parts.
- WIT $C2 - Stops the internal clock until an interrupt is received. Called WAI in W65C02. Widely used by device drivers, which are generally interrupt driven.
The following instructions are not available in M50752, M50757, M50758 parts.
- STP $42 - Stops the internal clock completely until a RESET is received.
2.5. Instruction Set Multiply/Divide instructions
The following instructions are available in M37450 parts.
- DIV $E2 - Divide 16-bit / 8-bit - Divides by accumulator the 16-bit data that is the contents of Mzz+x+1 for high byte and the contents of the next address memory for low byte, and stores the quotient in the accumulator and the remainder on the stack as ones complement.
- MUL $62 - Multiply 8-bit x 8-bit - Multiplies accumulator with the memory specified by the zero page X addressing mode and stores the high byte of the result on the stack and the low byte in the accumulator.
2.6. Instruction Set Oscillator instructions
The following instructions are available in M50740A, M50740ASP, M50741, M50752, M50757, M50758 parts.
- SLW $C2 - Releases the connection between the oscillator output and pin Xoutf.
- FST $E2 - Connects oscillator output to Xoutf.
3. Part groupsParts with external EPROM / ROM
These parts dont have any internal EEPROM or ROM, thus require an external EEPROM or ROM to hold the firmware.
- M50734
- M37450S
- M50740ASP
These parts have pins on the top of the package to allow an EPROM to be plugged into it. These parts are expensive and primarily used during development purposes.
- M37450PSS, M37450PFS.
- M50931-PGYS, M50941-PGYS, M50950-PGYS, M50955-PGYS, M50964-PGYS.
- M50740-PGYS, M50742-PGYS, M50743-PGYS, M50745-PGYS, M50752-PGYS, M50753-PGYS.
These parts have internal EPROM memory. They are available as either as OTP one-time programmable EPROM or Eraseable Window EPROM.
- M50944E, M50957E, M50963E.
- M37410E, M37450E.
- M50746E, M50747E.
Commercial temperature:
- M50930, M50931, M50932, M50940, M50941, M50943, M50944, M50950, M50951, M50954, M50955, M50957, M50959, M50963, M50964.
- M50708, M50740, M50740A, M50741, M50742, M50743, M50744, M50745, M50746, M50747, M50747H, M50752, M50753, M50754, M50757, M50758.
- M37410M, M37415M, M37450M.
Extended temperature:
- M50930T.
- M50744T, M50747T, M50753T.
4.1. Parts M50734
The M50734 is a ROM/RAM-less device includes peripherals such as UART, Serial I/O, A/D, Watchdog timer, VCU, 32 parallel I/O ports. A choice of 8 and 16-bit timers to manage real time tasks. Its instruction set is a superset of the 6502 microprocessor.
Incorporated into this particular IC are the following:
- High-speed interprocessor link
- 4 inputs to 8-bit analog-to-digital converters
- Extended memory addressing
- Power-down SLEEP mode
- Enhanced 6502 processor
- Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter UART
- 24 digital I/O
The M50734SP/FP and the M50734SP/FP-10 are unique CMOS LSI microprocessor with UART, clocked serial I/O, A-D converter, VCU, watchdog timer and 32-bit parallel I/O arranged around the M5040 CPU core. Since the M50734 has multiple internal timers for real-time control, it is ideal for controlling office automation equipment such as printers, typewriters, plotters, copy machines, FAX and handy word processors. Use of the CMOS process enables low power consumption, making the M50734SP also suitable for applications where battery-powered operation is required.
The difference between the M50734SP and the M50734FP, or between the M50734SP-10 and the M50734FP-10 lies only in the package. The difference between the M50734SP/FP and the M50734SP/FP-10 lies only in the maximum clock frequency.
4.2. Parts Other vendors
In the 1990s a clone of the M50959 was manufactured in Russia with the designation KF1869VE1 Russian: КФ1869ВЕ1. | https://amp.en.depression.pp.ua/15596669/1/mitsubishi-740.html |
Language: Igor. Code size: 2.1 kB.
// An example function that takes a variable in the range (-1, 1) // and returns a real value. It will be called with random numbers // uniformly distributed in the range (-1, 1). Function nop(x) Variable x // parameters are declared in Igor return x End // SampleN takes a function of a single variable, such as nop, and // a number of times to sample the function and add the results. It // does this one-hundred-thousand times, putting the results in the // wave "accumulator". It then prepares a histogram of the values in // accumulator, and plots the values, along with uncertainties // given by the square root of the number in each bin. Function SampleN(f, ntimes) FUNCREF nop f Variable ntimes Make/O/N=100000 accumulator // create accumulator with 1e5 points accumulator = 0 // set all values to zero Variable n for (n = ntimes ; n > 0; n -= 1) // loop ntimes times accumulator += f(enoise(1)) // add a new value to each element endfor // Prepare the histogram Make/N=51/O myhisto // create myhisto to hold histogram // Compute the histogram from accumulator, putting the results // in myhisto, centering the x-coordinate of each bin (/C flag) // and computing a wave W_SqrtN holding the square root of the // number of counts in each bin (/N flag). The width of the bins // is set using an algorithm described in the documentation (/B=4). Histogram /B=4 /C/DEST=myhisto/N accumulator WAVE W_SqrtN // declare wave created by Histogram DoWindow/F MyGraph // see if we have already made a graph if (V_flag == 0) // if not, Display/K=1 myhisto // graph myhisto and then DoWindow/C MyGraph // rename the window so we can find HMC#FixGraph() // fix the graph, and add error bars ErrorBars myhisto Y,wave=(W_SqrtN,W_SqrtN) SetAxis left 0,* // make sure y axis starts at 0 endif Execute/P "CurveFit/G/H=\"1000\"/TBOX=784 gauss myhisto /W=W_SqrtN /I=1 /D /R" Execute/P "HMC#AddChiSqInfoToPlot()" End
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The bit position of the flip flop in flag register is: All of the three flip flop set and reset according to the stored result in the accumulator. Sign- If D7 of the result is 1 then sign flag is set otherwise reset. As we know that a number on the D7 always desides the sign of the number. Zeros Z -If the result stored in an accumulator is zero then this flip flop is set otherwise it is reset. Auxiliary carry AC -If any carry goes from D3 to D4 in the output then it is set otherwise it is reset. Carry C -If the result stored in an accumulator generates a carry in its final output then it is set otherwise it is reset.
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Interrupt unit Serial IO unit These five units consist of other internal parts. These units of microprocessor architecture are helpful in understanding the microprocessor. The following section gives a detail view of microprocessor. Two bit address registers PC and SP. Resigter unit of Microprocessor General purpose data register consists of six general-purpose data registers to store 8-bit data.
It is very important section in microprocessor Architecture. During the execution of a program the user can use these registers to store a data or copy a data temporarily by using data transfer instructions.
Though these registers are of 8 bits but whenever the microprocessor has to handle bit data. The microprocessors architecture also have two 8-bit internal data registers. These registers are W and Z. These registers are for internal operation of the microprocessor and not available to the user. Microprocessor uses these registers internally. Program counter PC It is a bit register which deals with sequencing the execution of instructions.
This register is a memory pointer. Memory locations have bit addresses which is why this is a bit register. The microprocessor uses program counter to sequence the execution of the instructions. The function of this register is to point to the memory address from which the next byte is to be fetch.
When a data byte machine code is being fetched, and the program counter is incremented by one to point to the next memory location. Stack pointer SP This register is of bit. Microprocessor uses this register as a memory pointer. The beginning of the stack is defined by loading bit address in the stack pointer. For instance, every time microprocessor accesses a memory, its PC register increments by one.
This unit works as a MUX when data is going from the register to the internal data bus. It works as a DEMUX when data is coming to a register from the internal data bus of the microprocessor. These registers actually work as the buffer stage between the microprocessor and external system buses. Control Unit This is also important unit in microprocessor Architecture analysis. This unit generates signals within microprocessor to carry out the instruction, which has been decoded.
Practically it causes certain connections between blocks of the microprocessor to be opened or closed. The control unit itself consists of three parts; the instructions register IR. Instruction decoder and machine cycle encoder and control and timing unit. Instruction registers The Instruction register holds the machine code of the instruction. When microprocessor executes a program, it reads the machine code or opcode from the memory.
This opcode is stored in the instruction register. Instruction decoder and machine cycle encoder The Instruction register sends the machine code to this unit.
It decodes the opcode and finds out what is to be done in response of the coming opcode and how many machine cycles are required to execute this instruction. Control and timing unit The control unit generates signals internally in the microprocessor to carry out the instruction, which has been decoded. Practically, it causes certain connections between blocks of the microprocessor to be opened or closed.
So that the data goes where it is required to be fetch and the ALU operations occur. ALU uses data from memory and from accumulator to perform the arithmetic operation.
It always stores the result of the operation in accumulator. The ALU has accumulator, flag register and temporary register.
Accumulator The accumulator is an 8-bit register. The microprocessor uses this register to store 8-bit data. It performs arithmetical and logical operations. The microprocessor stores result of every ALU operation in the accumulator. You can identify an accumulator as register A. Flags The ALU also has five flip-flops. They becomes set or reset after an operation. The value is according to the data conditions of the result in the accumulator and other registers.
The bit positions in the flag register are in Figure below. The microprocessor uses these flags to set and to test data conditions. For example, after an addition of two numbers. If the sum in the accumulator is larger than 8-bit. Then the flip-flop indicates a carry called the carry flag CY to set to one. When an arithmetic operation like add or subtract results in zero.
Then the flip-flop called the zero Z flag is set to one. Figure shows this 8-bit flag register, adjacent to the accumulator. Format of the flag register Format of the flag register The flags are stored in the 8-bit register so that the programmer can examine these flags by accessing the register through some instructions. These flags are important in the decision-making process of the microprocessor. The conditions set or reset of the flags are check by the software instructions.
For instance, the instruction JC jump on carry runs to change the sequence of a program when CY flag is set. Proper understanding of flag is essential in writing assembly language programs. Z Zero flag: This flag indicates whether the result of a mathematical or logical operation is zero or not.
If the result of the current operation is zero, then this flag will be set or reset. CY Carry flag: The carry flag indicates whether, during an addition or subtraction operation a carry or a borrow is there or not. If carry is generated then this flag bit will be set. This flag can also be set before a mathematical operation as an extra operand to certain instruction. Auxiliary carry flag Here, a carry generates from D3, bit position and propagates to the D4 position.
This carry is called auxiliary carry. This flag is never used for setting or testing a condition. S Sign flag: This flag indicates whether the result of a mathematical operation is negative or positive. If the result is negative then sign flag will be set and if the result is positive, then this flag will reset. Actually, this bit is a replica of the D7 bit. This flag shows or indicates whether current result is of even parity 1 or of odd parity 0.
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8085 Microprocessor Architecture & Working
This microprocessor exhibits some unique characteristics and this is the reason it still holds popularity among the microprocessors. Basically, was the first commercially successful microprocessor by Intel. As some of the architectural drawbacks associated with was also eliminated by The size of the data bus of is 8 bits while that of the address bus is
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Microprocessor Architecture
ADD B? Add the content of register B to the content of the accumulator. All the above two examples are only one byte long. All one-byte instructions contain information regarding operands in the opcode itself. Two-byte instruction: In a two byte instruction the first byte of the instruction is its opcode and the second byte is either data or address. The first byte 06 is the opcode for MVI B and second byte 05 is the data which is to be moved to register B.
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