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+ "page_name": "Euphrates Dam | Middle East, Hydroelectricity & Irrigation | ...",
+ "page_url": "https://www.britannica.com/topic/Euphrates-Dam",
+ "page_snippet": "Euphrates Dam, dam on the Euphrates River in north-central Syria. The dam, which is located 30 miles (50 km) upriver from the town of Ar-Raqqah, was begun in 1968. Its construction prompted an intense archaeological excavation of the area around the town of \u1e6cabaqah. The dam is of earth-fillIts construction prompted an intense archaeological excavation of the area around the town of \u1e6cabaqah. The dam is of earth-fill construction, some 197 feet (60 m) high and 2.8 miles (4.5 km) long. It was completed in 1973, and the reservoir behind the dam, Lake Assad, began filling. The dam is of earth-fill construction, some 197 feet (60 m) high and 2.8 miles (4.5 km) long. It was completed in 1973, and the reservoir behind the dam, Lake Assad, began filling. The lake at its fullest extent is approximately 50 miles (80 km) long and averages 5 miles (8 km) in width.",
+ "page_result": "\n\n\n\n\n\n \n \n \n\n \n\n\t\n\t\n\n \n\n \n\n \n\t\t\n\n \n Euphrates Dam | Middle East, Hydroelectricity & Irrigation | Britannica\n\t\t\n\n\n\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\n\t\n\n\n\n\n\n \n\t\n\n \n\n \n\n\t\t \n\t\t\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n\t\t\tWhile every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies.\n\t\t\tPlease refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions.\n\t\t
\n\t\t\tWhile every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies.\n\t\t\tPlease refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions.\n\t\t
Euphrates Dam, dam on the Euphrates River in north-central Syria. The dam, which is located 30 miles (50 km) upriver from the town of Ar-Raqqah, was begun in 1968. Its construction prompted an intense archaeological excavation of the area around the town of \u1e6cabaqah. The dam is of earth-fill construction, some 197 feet (60 m) high and 2.8 miles (4.5 km) long. It was completed in 1973, and the reservoir behind the dam, Lake Assad, began filling. The lake at its fullest extent is approximately 50 miles (80 km) long and averages 5 miles (8 km) in width. The accompanying power plant was completed in 1977. Electrification subsequently reached to even the remotest villages in Al-Jaz\u012brah (the area to the east of the Euphrates). Several irrigation schemes are associated with the project.
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+ "page_name": "Dam - Wikipedia",
+ "page_url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam",
+ "page_snippet": "Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides frequently create landslide dams in mountainous regions with unstable local geology. Historical examples include the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, which blocks the Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560 m (1,840 ft) high, it is the tallest ...Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides frequently create landslide dams in mountainous regions with unstable local geology. Historical examples include the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, which blocks the Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560 m (1,840 ft) high, it is the tallest dam in the world, including both natural and man-made dams. Historical examples include the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, which blocks the Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560 m (1,840 ft) high, it is the tallest dam in the world, including both natural and man-made dams. A more recent example would be the creation of Attabad Lake by a landslide on Pakistan's Hunza River. The era of large dams began with the construction of the Aswan Low Dam in Egypt in 1902. The Hoover Dam, a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, was built between 1931 and 1936 on the Colorado River. By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, with some 40,000 of them over 15 meters high. By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, with some 40,000 of them over 15 meters high. Early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control water levels, for Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. A dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of surface water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture, and navigability.",
+ "page_result": "\n\n\n\nDam - Wikipedia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJump to content\n
A dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of surface water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture, and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect or store water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions.\n
Ancient dams were built in Mesopotamia and the Middle East for water control. The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, dating to 3,000 BC. Egyptians also built dams, such as Sadd-el-Kafara Dam for flood control. In modern-day India, Dholavira had an intricate water-management system with 16 reservoirs and dams. The Great Dam of Marib in Yemen, built between 1750 and 1700 BC, was an engineering wonder, and Eflatun Pinar, a Hittite dam and spring temple in Turkey, dates to the 15th and 13th centuries BC. The Kallanai Dam in South India, built in the 2nd century AD, is one of the oldest water regulating structures still in use.\n
Roman engineers built dams with advanced techniques and materials, such as hydraulic mortar and Roman concrete, which allowed for larger structures. They introduced reservoir dams, arch-gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams, and multiple arch buttress dams. In Iran, bridge dams were used for hydropower and water-raising mechanisms.\n
During the Middle Ages, dams were built in the Netherlands to regulate water levels and prevent sea intrusion. In the 19th century, large-scale arch dams were constructed around the British Empire, marking advances in dam engineering techniques. The era of large dams began with the construction of the Aswan Low Dam in Egypt in 1902. The Hoover Dam, a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, was built between 1931 and 1936 on the Colorado River. By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, with some 40,000 of them over 15 meters high.\n
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History
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Ancient dams
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Early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control water levels, for Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.\n
The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast of the capital Amman. This gravity dam featured an originally 9-metre-high (30 ft) and 1 m-wide (3.3 ft) stone wall, supported by a 50 m-wide (160 ft) earthen rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC.[3][4] However, the oldest continuously operational dam is Lake Homs Dam, built in Syria between 1319-1304 BC.[5]\n
The Ancient EgyptianSadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, about 25 km (16 mi) south of Cairo, was 102 m (335 ft) long at its base and 87 m (285 ft) wide. The structure was built around 2800[6] or 2600 BC[7] as a diversion dam for flood control, but was destroyed by heavy rain during construction or shortly afterwards.[6][7] During the Twelfth Dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III, and Amenemhat IV dug a canal 16 km (9.9 mi) long linking the Fayum Depression to the Nile in Middle Egypt. Two dams called Ha-Uar running east\u2013west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called Mer-wer or Lake Moeris covered 1,700 km2 (660 sq mi) and is known today as Birket Qarun.[8]\n
By the mid-late third millennium BC, an intricate water-management system in Dholavira in modern-day India was built. The system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it.[9]\n
One of the engineering wonders of the ancient world was the Great Dam of Marib in Yemen. Initiated sometime between 1750 and 1700 BC, it was made of packed earth \u2013 triangular in cross-section, 580 m (1,900 ft) in length and originally 4 m (13 ft) high \u2013 running between two groups of rocks on either side, to which it was linked by substantial stonework. Repairs were carried out during various periods, most importantly around 750 BC, and 250 years later the dam height was increased to 7 m (23 ft). After the end of the Kingdom of Saba, the dam fell under the control of the \u1e24imyarites (c. 115 BC) who undertook further improvements, creating a structure 14 m (46 ft) high, with five spillways, two masonry-reinforced sluices, a settling pond, and a 1,000 m (3,300 ft) canal to a distribution tank. These works were not finished until 325 AD when the dam permitted the irrigation of 25,000 acres (100 km2).\n
Eflatun P\u0131nar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya, Turkey. It is thought to date from the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th centuries BC.\n
The Kallanai is constructed of unhewn stone, over 300 m (980 ft) long, 4.5 m (15 ft) high and 20 m (66 ft) wide, across the main stream of the Kaveri River in Tamil Nadu, South India. The basic structure dates to the 2nd century AD[10] and is considered one of the oldest water diversion or water regulating structures still in use.[11] The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the fertile delta region for irrigation via canals.[12]\n
Du Jiang Yan is the oldest surviving irrigation system in China that included a dam that directed waterflow. It was finished in 251 BC. A large earthen dam, made by Sunshu Ao, the prime minister of Chu (state), flooded a valley in modern-day northern Anhui Province that created an enormous irrigation reservoir (100 km (62 mi) in circumference), a reservoir that is still present today.[13]\n
Roman dam construction was characterized by \"the Romans' ability to plan and organize engineering construction on a grand scale.\"[14] Roman planners introduced the then-novel concept of large reservoir dams which could secure a permanent water supply for urban settlements over the dry season.[15] Their pioneering use of water-proof hydraulic mortar and particularly Roman concrete allowed for much larger dam structures than previously built,[14] such as the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to that date,[16] and the Harbaqa Dam, both in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam was the Subiaco Dam near Rome; its record height of 50 m (160 ft) remained unsurpassed until its accidental destruction in 1305.[17]\n
Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams and masonry gravity dams.[18] Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam designs which had been unknown until then. These include arch-gravity dams,[19]arch dams,[20]buttress dams[21] and multiple arch buttress dams,[22] all of which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (see List of Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam bridges, such as the Bridge of Valerian in Iran.[23]\n
\nRemains of the Band-e Kaisar dam, built by the Romans in the 3rd century AD\n
In Iran, bridge dams such as the Band-e Kaisar were used to provide hydropower through water wheels, which often powered water-raising mechanisms. One of the first was the Roman-built dam bridge in Dezful,[24] which could raise water 50 cubits (c. 23 m) to supply the town. Also diversion dams were known.[25]Milling dams were introduced which the Muslim engineers called the Pul-i-Bulaiti. The first was built at Shustar on the River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world.[25] Water was conducted from the back of the dam through a large pipe to drive a water wheel and watermill.[26] In the 10th century, Al-Muqaddasi described several dams in Persia. He reported that one in Ahwaz was more than 910 m (3,000 ft) long,[27] and that it had many water-wheels raising the water into aqueducts through which it flowed into reservoirs of the city.[28] Another one, the Band-i-Amir Dam, provided irrigation for 300 villages.[27]\n
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Middle Ages
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In the Netherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often built to block rivers to regulate the water level and to prevent the sea from entering the marshlands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city because it was easy to cross the river at such a place, and often influenced Dutch place names. The present Dutch capital, Amsterdam (old name Amstelredam), started with a dam on the river Amstel in the late 12th century, and Rotterdam began with a dam on the river Rotte, a minor tributary of the Nieuwe Maas. The central square of Amsterdam, covering the original site of the 800-year-old dam, still carries the name Dam Square.\n
The Romans were the first to build arch dams, where the reaction forces from the abutment stabilizes the structure from the external hydrostatic pressure, but it was only in the 19th century that the engineering skills and construction materials available were capable of building the first large-scale arch dams.\n
Three pioneering arch dams were built around the British Empire in the early 19th century. Henry Russel of the Royal Engineers oversaw the construction of the Mir Alam dam in 1804 to supply water to the city of Hyderabad (it is still in use today). It had a height of 12 m (39 ft) and consisted of 21 arches of variable span.[29]\n
In the 1820s and 30s, Lieutenant-Colonel John By supervised the construction of the Rideau Canal in Canada near modern-day Ottawa and built a series of curved masonry dams as part of the waterway system. In particular, the Jones Falls Dam, built by John Redpath, was completed in 1832 as the largest dam in North America and an engineering marvel. In order to keep the water in control during construction, two sluices, artificial channels for conducting water, were kept open in the dam. The first was near the base of the dam on its east side. A second sluice was put in on the west side of the dam, about 20 ft (6.1 m) above the base. To make the switch from the lower to upper sluice, the outlet of Sand Lake was blocked off.[30]\n
Hunts Creek near the city of Parramatta, Australia, was dammed in the 1850s, to cater to the demand for water from the growing population of the city. The masonry arch dam wall was designed by Lieutenant Percy Simpson who was influenced by the advances in dam engineering techniques made by the Royal Engineers in India. The dam cost \u00a317,000 and was completed in 1856 as the first engineered dam built in Australia, and the second arch dam in the world built to mathematical specifications.[31]\n
The first such dam was opened two years earlier in France. It was the first French arch dam of the industrial era, and it was built by Fran\u00e7ois Zola in the municipality of Aix-en-Provence to improve the supply of water after the 1832 cholera outbreak devastated the area. After royal approval was granted in 1844, the dam was constructed over the following decade. Its construction was carried out on the basis of the mathematical results of scientific stress analysis.\n
The 75-miles dam near Warwick, Australia, was possibly the world's first concrete arch dam. Designed by Henry Charles Stanley in 1880 with an overflow spillway and a special water outlet, it was eventually heightened to 10 m (33 ft).\n
In the latter half of the nineteenth century, significant advances in the scientific theory of masonry dam design were made. This transformed dam design from an art based on empirical methodology to a profession based on a rigorously applied scientific theoretical framework. This new emphasis was centered around the engineering faculties of universities in France and in the United Kingdom. William John Macquorn Rankine at the University of Glasgow pioneered the theoretical understanding of dam structures in his 1857 paper On the Stability of Loose Earth. Rankine theory provided a good understanding of the principles behind dam design.[32] In France, J. Augustin Tortene de Sazilly explained the mechanics of vertically faced masonry gravity dams, and Zola's dam was the first to be built on the basis of these principles.[33]\n
The era of large dams was initiated with the construction of the Aswan Low Dam in Egypt in 1902, a gravity masonrybuttress dam on the Nile River. Following their 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the British began construction in 1898. The project was designed by Sir William Willcocks and involved several eminent engineers of the time, including Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Aird, whose firm, John Aird & Co., was the main contractor.[34][35] Capital and financing were furnished by Ernest Cassel.[36] When initially constructed between 1899 and 1902, nothing of its scale had ever before been attempted;[37] on completion, it was the largest masonry dam in the world.[38]\n
The Hoover Dam is a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, constructed in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the US states of Arizona and Nevada between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression. In 1928, Congress authorized the project to build a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies, Inc. Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques were unproven. The torrid summer weather and the lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on 1 March 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.[39]\n
By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, some 40,000 of them over 15 m (49 ft) high.[40] In 2014, scholars from the University of Oxford published a study of the cost of large dams \u2013 based on the largest existing dataset \u2013 documenting significant cost overruns for a majority of dams and questioning whether benefits typically offset costs for such dams.[41]\n
Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such as beavers. Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure.\n
In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock.[42] The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.\n
Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and the constant-radius dam. The constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all elevations of the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower towards the bottom of the dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls Dam, in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constant-angle dam, also known as a variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept constant and the variation in distance between the abutments at various levels is taken care of by varying the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams. Parker Dam on the Colorado River is a constant-angle arch dam.\n
A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain City, Nevada, in the United States is an example of the type. This method of construction minimizes the amount of concrete necessary for construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens as viewed from downstream.\n
The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses as the supporting abutments, as for example the Daniel-Johnson Dam, Qu\u00e9bec, Canada. The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses as the hollow gravity type but requires a good rock foundation because the buttress loads are heavy.\n
In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push from the water is Earth's gravity pulling down on the mass of the dam.[43] The water presses laterally (downstream) on the dam, tending to overturn the dam by rotating about its toe (a point at the bottom downstream side of the dam). The dam's weight counteracts that force, tending to rotate the dam the other way about its toe. The designer ensures that the dam is heavy enough that the dam's weight wins that contest. In engineering terms, that is true whenever the resultant of the forces of gravity acting on the dam and water pressure on the dam acts in a line that passes upstream of the toe of the dam.[citation needed] The designer tries to shape the dam so if one were to consider the part of the dam above any particular height to be a whole dam itself, that dam also would be held in place by gravity, i.e., there is no tension in the upstream face of the dam holding the top of the dam down. The designer does this because it is usually more practical to make a dam of material essentially just piled up than to make the material stick together against vertical tension.[citation needed] The shape that prevents tension in the upstream face also eliminates a balancing compression stress in the downstream face, providing additional economy.\n
For this type of dam, it is essential to have an impervious foundation with high bearing strength. Permeable foundations have a greater likelihood of generating uplift pressures under the dam. Uplift pressures are hydrostatic pressures caused by the water pressure of the reservoir pushing up against the bottom of the dam. If large enough uplift pressures are generated there is a risk of destabilizing the concrete gravity dam.[44][citation needed]\n
On a suitable site, a gravity dam can prove to be a better alternative to other types of dams. When built on a solid foundation, the gravity dam probably represents the best-developed example of dam building. Since the fear of flood is a strong motivator in many regions, gravity dams are built in some instances where an arch dam would have been more economical.\n
Gravity dams are classified as \"solid\" or \"hollow\" and are generally made of either concrete or masonry. The solid form is the more widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct. Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and Braddock Locks & Dam is a hollow gravity dam.[citation needed]\n
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Arch-gravity dams
\nThe Hoover Dam is an example of an arch-gravity dam.\n
A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam into an arch-gravity dam for areas with massive amounts of water flow but less material available for a pure gravity dam. The inward compression of the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting on the dam. Thus, the gravitational force required by the dam is lessened, i.e., the dam does not need to be so massive. This enables thinner dams and saves resources.\n
A barrage dam is a special kind of dam that consists of a line of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of water passing the dam. The gates are set between flanking piers which are responsible for supporting the water load, and are often used to control and stabilize water flow for irrigation systems. An example of this type of dam is the now-decommissioned Red Bluff Diversion Dam on the Sacramento River near Red Bluff, California.\n
Embankment dams are made of compacted earth, and are of two main types: rock-fill and earth-fill. Like concrete gravity dams, embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water.\n
A fixed-crest dam is a concrete barrier across a river.[46] Fixed-crest dams are designed to maintain depth in the channel for navigation.[47] They pose risks to boaters who may travel over them, as they are hard to spot from the water and create induced currents that are difficult to escape.[48]\n
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By size
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There is variability, both worldwide and within individual countries, such as in the United States, in how dams of different sizes are categorized. Dam size influences construction, repair, and removal costs and affects the dams' potential range and magnitude of environmental disturbances.[49]\n
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Large dams
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The International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) defines a \"large dam\" as \"A dam with a height of 15 m (49 ft) or greater from lowest foundation to crest or a dam between 5 m (16 ft) metres and 15 metres impounding more than 3 million cubic metres (2,400 acre\u22c5ft)\".[50] \"Major dams\" are over 150 m (490 ft) in height.[51] The Report of the World Commission on Dams also includes in the \"large\" category, dams which are between 5 and 15 m (16 and 49 ft) high with a reservoir capacity of more than 3 million cubic metres (2,400 acre\u22c5ft).[45]Hydropower dams can be classified as either \"high-head\" (greater than 30 m in height) or \"low-head\" (less than 30 m in height).[52]\n
As of 2021[update], ICOLD's World Register of Dams contains 58,700 large dam records.[53]: 6 The tallest dam in the world is the 305 m-high (1,001 ft) Jinping-I Dam in China.[54]\n
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Small dams
\nDam in Europe at Autumn as viewed from FPV drone.\n
As with large dams, small dams have multiple uses, such as, but not limited to, hydropower production, flood protection, and water storage. Small dams can be particularly useful on farms to capture runoff for later use, for example, during the dry season.[55] Small scale dams have the potential to generate benefits without displacing people as well,[56] and small, decentralised hydroelectric dams can aid rural development in developing countries.[57] In the United States alone, there are approximately 2,000,000 or more \"small\" dams that are not included in the Army Corps of EngineersNational Inventory of dams.[58] Records of small dams are kept by state regulatory agencies and therefore information about small dams is dispersed and uneven in geographic coverage.[52]\n
Countries worldwide consider small hydropower plants (SHPs) important for their energy strategies, and there has been a notable increase in interest in SHPs.[59] Couto and Olden (2018)[59] conducted a global study and found 82,891 small hydropower plants (SHPs) operating or under construction. Technical definitions of SHPs, such as their maximum generation capacity, dam height, reservoir area, etc., vary by country.\n
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Non-jurisdictional dams
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A dam is non-jurisdictional when its size (usually \"small\") excludes it from being subject to certain legal regulations. The technical criteria for categorising a dam as \"jurisdictional\" or \"non-jurisdictional\" varies by location. In the United States, each state defines what constitutes a non-jurisdictional dam. In the state of Colorado a non-jurisdictional dam is defined as a dam creating a reservoir with a capacity of 100 acre-feet or less and a surface area of 20 acres or less and with a height measured as defined in Rules 4.2.5.1. and 4.2.19 of 10 feet or less.[60] In contrast, the state of New Mexico defines a jurisdictional dam as 25 feet or greater in height and storing more than 15 acre-feet or a dam that stores 50 acre-feet or greater and is six feet or more in height (section 72-5-32 NMSA), suggesting that dams that do not meet these requirements are non-jurisdictional.[61] Most US dams, 2.41 million of a total of 2.5 million dams, are not under the jurisdiction of any public agency (i.e., they are non-jurisdictional), nor are they listed on the National Inventory of Dams (NID).[62]\n
Small dams incur risks similar to large dams. However, the absence of regulation (unlike more regulated large dams) and of an inventory of small dams (i.e., those that are non-jurisdictional) can lead to significant risks for both humans and ecosystems.[62] For example, according to the US National Park Service (NPS), \"Non-jurisdictional\u2014means a structure which does not meet the minimum criteria, as listed in the Federal Guidelines for Dam Safety, to be included in dam safety programs. The non-jurisdictional structure does not receive a hazard classification and is not considered for any further requirements or activities under the NPS dam safety program.\"[63] Small dams can be dangerous individually (i.e., they can fail), but also collectively,[64] as an aggregation of small dams along a river or within a geographic area can multiply risks. Graham's 1999 study[65] of US dam failures resulting in fatalities from 1960 to 1998 concluded that the failure of dams between 6.1 and 15 m high (typical height range of smaller dams[66]) caused 86% of the deaths, and the failure of dams less than 6.1 m high caused 2% of the deaths. Non-jurisdictional dams may pose hazards because their design, construction, maintenance, and surveillance is unregulated.[66] Scholars have noted that more research is needed to better understand the environmental impact of small dams[59] (e.g., their potential to alter the flow, temperature, sediment[67][52] and plant and animal diversity of a river).\n
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By use
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Saddle dam
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A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a primary dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency. An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or \"saddle\" through which the reservoir would otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent inundation of nearby land. Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake, similar to a levee, which is a wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect adjacent land from flooding.\n
A weir (sometimes called an \"overflow dam\") is a small dam that is often used in a river channel to create an impoundment lake for water abstraction purposes and which can also be used for flow measurement or retardation.\n
A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion. Conversely, a wing dam is a structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.\n
A dry dam, also known as a flood retarding structure, is designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and allows the channel to flow freely, except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding downstream.\n
A diversionary dam is designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural course. The water may be redirected into a canal or tunnel for irrigation and/or hydroelectric power production.\n
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Underground dam
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Underground dams are used to trap groundwater and store all or most of it below the surface for extended use in a localized area. In some cases, they are also built to prevent saltwater from intruding into a freshwater aquifer. Underground dams are typically constructed in areas where water resources are minimal and need to be efficiently stored, such as in deserts and on islands like the Fukuzato Dam in Okinawa, Japan. They are most common in northeastern Africa and the arid areas of Brazil while also being used in the southwestern United States, Mexico, India, Germany, Italy, Greece, France and Japan.[68]\n
There are two types of underground dams: \"sub-surface\" and a \"sand-storage\". A sub-surface dam is built across an aquifer or drainage route from an impervious layer (such as solid bedrock) up to just below the surface. They can be constructed of a variety of materials to include bricks, stones, concrete, steel or PVC. Once built, the water stored behind the dam raises the water table and is then extracted with wells. A sand-storage dam is a weir built in stages across a stream or wadi. It must be strong, as floods will wash over its crest. Over time, sand accumulates in layers behind the dam, which helps store water and, most importantly, prevent evaporation. The stored water can be extracted with a well, through the dam body, or by means of a drain pipe.[69]\n
A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment dam used to store tailings, which are produced during mining operations after separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore. Conventional water retention dams can serve this purpose, but due to cost, a tailings dam is more viable. Unlike water retention dams, a tailings dam is raised in succession throughout the life of the particular mine. Typically, a base or starter dam is constructed, and as it fills with a mixture of tailings and water, it is raised. Material used to raise the dam can include the tailings (depending on their size) along with soil.[70]\n
There are three raised tailings dam designs, the \"upstream\", \"downstream\", and \"centerline\", named according to the movement of the crest during raising. The specific design used is dependent upon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailings, and cost. An upstream tailings dam consists of trapezoidal embankments being constructed on top but toe to crest of another, moving the crest further upstream. This creates a relatively flat downstream side and a jagged upstream side which is supported by tailings slurry in the impoundment. The downstream design refers to the successive raising of the embankment that positions the fill and crest further downstream. A centerlined dam has sequential embankment dams constructed directly on top of another while fill is placed on the downstream side for support and slurry supports the upstream side.[71][72]\n
Because tailings dams often store toxic chemicals from the mining process, modern designs incorporate an impervious geomembrane liner to prevent seepage.[73] Water/slurry levels in the tailings pond must be managed for stability and environmental purposes as well.[72]\n
A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with around the start of the 20th century which uses steel plating (at an angle) and load-bearing beams as the structure. Intended as permanent structures, steel dams were an (failed) experiment to determine if a construction technique could be devised that was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams.\n
\n
Timber dams
\nA timber crib dam in Michigan, 1978\n
Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution and in frontier areas due to ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in modern times because of their relatively short lifespan and the limited height to which they can be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet in order to maintain their water retention properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations where timber dams are most economical to build are those where timber is plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to transport, and either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue. Timber dams were once numerous, especially in the North American West, but most have failed, been hidden under earth embankments, or been replaced with entirely new structures. Two common variations of timber dams were the \"crib\" and the \"plank\".\n
Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log house and the interior filled with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of the water. Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help float logs downstream in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.\n
\"Timber plank dams\" were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction methods using heavy timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks.\n
\nA cofferdam during the construction of locks at the Montgomery Point Lock and Dam\n
A cofferdam is a barrier, usually temporary, constructed to exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. Made commonly of wood, concrete, or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures. When the project is completed, the cofferdam will usually be demolished or removed unless the area requires continuous maintenance. (See also causeway and retaining wall.)\n
Common uses for cofferdams include the construction and repair of offshore oil platforms. In such cases, the cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped into the space, displacing the water and allowing a dry work environment below the surface.\n
\n
Natural dams
\n
Dams can also be created by natural geological forces. Lava dams are formed when lava flows, often basaltic, intercept the path of a stream or lake outlet, resulting in the creation of a natural impoundment. An example would be the eruptions of the Uinkaret volcanic field about 1.8 million\u201310,000 years ago, which created lava dams on the Colorado River in northern Arizona in the United States. The largest such lake grew to about 800 km (500 mi) in length before the failure of its dam. Glacial activity can also form natural dams, such as the damming of the Clark Fork in Montana by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which formed the 7,780 km2 (3,000 sq mi) Glacial Lake Missoula near the end of the last Ice Age. Moraine deposits left behind by glaciers can also dam rivers to form lakes, such as at Flathead Lake, also in Montana (see Moraine-dammed lake).\n
Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides frequently create landslide dams in mountainous regions with unstable local geology. Historical examples include the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, which blocks the Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560 m (1,840 ft) high, it is the tallest dam in the world, including both natural and man-made dams. A more recent example would be the creation of Attabad Lake by a landslide on Pakistan's Hunza River.\n
Natural dams often pose significant hazards to human settlements and infrastructure. The resulting lakes often flood inhabited areas, while a catastrophic failure of the dam could cause even greater damage, such as the failure of western Wyoming's Gros Ventre landslide in 1927, which wiped out the town of Kelly resulting in the deaths of six people.\n
Beavers create dams primarily out of mud and sticks to flood a particular habitable area. By flooding a parcel of land, beavers can navigate below or near the surface and remain relatively well hidden or protected from predators. The flooded region also allows beavers access to food, especially during the winter.\n
As of 2005[update], hydroelectric power, mostly from dams, supplies some 19% of the world's electricity, and over 63% of renewable energy.[74] Much of this is generated by large dams, although China uses small-scale hydro generation on a wide scale and is responsible for about 50% of world use of this type of power.[74]\n
Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator; to boost the power generation capabilities of a dam, the water may be run through a large pipe called a penstock before the turbine. A variant on this simple model uses pumped-storage hydroelectricity to produce electricity to match periods of high and low demand, by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. (For example, see Dinorwig Power Station.)\n
A spillway is a section of a dam designed to pass water from the upstream side of a dam to the downstream side. Many spillways have floodgates designed to control the flow through the spillway. There are several types of spillway. A \"service spillway\" or \"primary spillway\" passes normal flow. An \"auxiliary spillway\" releases flow in excess of the capacity of the service spillway. An \"emergency spillway\" is designed for extreme conditions, such as a serious malfunction of the service spillway. A \"fuse plug spillway\" is a low embankment designed to be overtopped and washed away in the event of a large flood. The elements of a fuse plug are independent free-standing blocks, set side by side which work without any remote control. They allow increasing the normal pool of the dam without compromising the security of the dam because they are designed to be gradually evacuated for exceptional events. They work as fixed weirs at times by allowing overflow in common floods.\n
A spillway can be gradually eroded by water flow, including cavitation or turbulence of the water flowing over the spillway, leading to its failure. It was the inadequate design of the spillway and installation of fish screens that led to the 1889 over-topping of the South Fork Dam in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, resulting in the Johnstown Flood (the \"great flood of 1889\").[75]\n
Erosion rates are often monitored, and the risk is ordinarily minimized, by shaping the downstream face of the spillway into a curve that minimizes turbulent flow, such as an ogee curve.\n
\n
Creation
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Common purposes
\n
\n\n
\n
Function\n
\n
Example\n
\n
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Power generation\n
\n
Hydroelectric power is a major source of electricity in the world. Many countries have rivers with adequate water flow, that can be dammed for power generation purposes. For example, the Itaipu Dam on the Paran\u00e1 River in South America generates 14 GW and supplied 93% of the energy consumed by Paraguay and 20% of that consumed by Brazil as of 2005.\n
\n
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Water supply\n
\n
Many urban areas of the world are supplied with water taken from rivers pent up behind low dams or weirs. Examples include London, with water from the River Thames, and Chester, with water taken from the River Dee. Other major sources include deep upland reservoirs contained by high dams across deep valleys, such as the Claerwen series of dams and reservoirs.\n
\n
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Stabilize water flow / irrigation\n
\n
Dams are often used to control and stabilize water flow, often for agricultural purposes and irrigation.[76] Others such as the Berg Strait Dam can help to stabilize or restore the water levels of inland lakes and seas, in this case, the Aral Sea.[77]\n
Dams (often called dykes or levees in this context) are used to prevent ingress of water to an area that would otherwise be submerged, allowing its reclamation for human use.\n
\n
\n
Water diversion\n
\n
A typically small dam used to divert water for irrigation, power generation, or other uses, with usually no other function. Occasionally, they are used to divert water to another drainage or reservoir to increase flow there and improve water use in that particular area. See: diversion dam.\n
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Navigation\n
\n
Dams create deep reservoirs and can also vary the flow of water downstream. This can in return affect upstream and downstream navigation by altering the river's depth. Deeper water increases or creates freedom of movement for water vessels. Large dams can serve this purpose, but most often weirs and locks are used.\n
\n
Some of these purposes are conflicting, and the dam operator needs to make dynamic tradeoffs. For example, power generation and water supply would keep the reservoir high, whereas flood prevention would keep it low. Many dams in areas where precipitation fluctuates in an annual cycle will also see the reservoir fluctuate annually in an attempt to balance these different purposes. Dam management becomes a complex exercise amongst competing stakeholders.[79]\n
One of the best places for building a dam is a narrow part of a deep river valley; the valley sides can then act as natural walls. The primary function of the dam's structure is to fill the gap in the natural reservoir line left by the stream channel. The sites are usually those where the gap becomes a minimum for the required storage capacity. The most economical arrangement is often a composite structure such as a masonry dam flanked by earth embankments. The current use of the land to be flooded should be dispensable.\n
Compensation for land being flooded as well as population resettlement
\n
Removal of toxic materials and buildings from the proposed reservoir area
\n
Impact assessment
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Impact is assessed in several ways: the benefits to human society arising from the dam (agriculture, water, damage prevention and power), harm or benefit to nature and wildlife, impact on the geology of an area (whether the change to water flow and levels will increase or decrease stability), and the disruption to human lives (relocation, loss of archeological or cultural matters underwater).\n
Reservoirs held behind dams affect many ecological aspects of a river. Rivers topography and dynamics depend on a wide range of flows, whilst rivers below dams often experience long periods of very stable flow conditions or sawtooth flow patterns caused by releases followed by no releases. Water releases from a reservoir including that exiting a turbine usually contain very little suspended sediment, and this, in turn, can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks; for example, the daily cyclic flow variation caused by the Glen Canyon Dam was a contributor to sand barerosion.\n
Older dams often lack a fish ladder, which keeps many fish from moving upstream to their natural breeding grounds, causing failure of breeding cycles or blocking of migration paths.[80] Even fish ladders do not prevent a reduction in fish reaching the spawning grounds upstream.[81] In some areas, young fish (\"smolt\") are transported downstream by barge during parts of the year. Turbine and power-plant designs that have a lower impact upon aquatic life are an active area of research.\n
At the same time, however, some particular dams may contribute to the establishment of better conditions for some kinds of fish and other aquatic organisms. Studies have demonstrated the key role played by tributaries in the downstream direction from the main river impoundment, which influenced local environmental conditions and beta diversity patterns of each biological group.[82] Both replacement and richness differences contributed to high values of total beta diversity for fish (average\u202f=\u202f0.77) and phytoplankton (average\u202f=\u202f0.79), but their relative importance was more associated with the replacement component for both biological groups (average\u202f=\u202f0.45 and 0.52, respectively).[82] A study conducted by de Almeida, R. A., Steiner, M.T.A and others found that, while some species declined in population by more than 30% after the building of the dam, others increased their population by 28%.[83] Such changes may be explained by the fact that the fish obtained \"different feeding habits, with almost all species being found in more than one group.[83]\n
A large dam can cause the loss of entire ecospheres, including endangered and undiscovered species in the area, and the replacement of the original environment by a new inland lake. As a result, the construction of dams have been opposed in various countries with some, such as Tasmania's Franklin Dam project, being cancelled following environmentalist campaigns.[84]\n
Large reservoirs formed behind dams have been indicated in the contribution of seismic activity, due to changes in water load and/or the height of the water table. However, this is a mistaken assumption, because the relatively marginal stress attributed to the water load is orders of magnitude lesser than the force of an earthquake. The increased stress from the water load is insufficient to fracture the Earth's crust, and thus does not increase the severity of an earthquake.[85]\n
Dams are also found to influence global warming.[86] The changing water levels in reservoirs are a source for greenhouse gases like methane.[87] While dams and the water behind them cover only a small portion of earth's surface, they harbour biological activity that can produce large quantities of greenhouse gases.[88]\n
\n
Human social impact
\n
Dams' impact on human society is significant. Nick Cullather argues in Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia that dam construction requires the state to displace people in the name of the common good, and that it often leads to abuses of the masses by planners. He cites Morarji Desai, Interior Minister of India, in 1960 speaking to villagers upset about the Pong Dam, who threatened to \"release the waters\" and drown the villagers if they did not cooperate.[89]\n
The Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China is more than five times the size of the Hoover Dam (U.S.). It creates a reservoir 600 km (370 mi) long to be used for flood control and hydropower generation. Its construction required the loss of over a million people's homes and their mass relocation, the loss of many valuable archaeological and cultural sites, and significant ecological change.[90] During the 2010 China floods, the dam held back a what would have been a disastrous flood and the huge reservoir rose by 4 m (13 ft) overnight.[91]\n
In 2008, it was estimated that 40\u201380 million people worldwide have been displaced from their homes as a result of dam construction.[92]\n
\n
Economics
\n
Construction of a hydroelectric plant requires a long lead time for site studies, hydrological studies, and environmental impact assessments, and are large-scale projects in comparison to carbon-based power generation. The number of sites that can be economically developed for hydroelectric production is limited; new sites tend to be far from population centers and usually require extensive power transmission lines. Hydroelectric generation can be vulnerable to major changes in the climate, including variations in rainfall, ground and surface water levels, and glacial melt, causing additional expenditure for the extra capacity to ensure sufficient power is available in low-water years.\n
Once completed, if it is well designed and maintained, a hydroelectric power source is usually comparatively cheap and reliable. It has no fuel and low escape risk, and as an clean energy source it is cheaper than both nuclear and wind power.[93] It is more easily regulated to store water as needed and generate high power levels on demand compared to wind power.\n
\n
Reservoir and dam improvements
\n
Despite some positive effects, the construction of dams severely affects river ecosystems leading to degraded riverine ecosystems as part of the hydrological alteration.[94] One of the main ways to reduce the negative impacts of reservoirs and dams is to implement the newest nature-based reservoir optimization model for resolving the conflict in human water demand and riverine ecosystem protection.[94]\n
Water and sediment flows can be re-established by removing dams from a river. Dam removal is considered appropriate when the dam is old and maintenance costs exceed the expense of its removal.[95] Some effects of dam removal include erosion of sediment in the reservoir, increased sediment supply downstream, increased river width and braiding, re-establishment of natural water temperatures and recolonisation of habitats that were previously unavailable due to dams.[95]\n
Dam failures are generally catastrophic if the structure is breached or significantly damaged. Routine deformation monitoring and monitoring of seepage from drains in and around larger dams is useful to anticipate any problems and permit remedial action to be taken before structural failure occurs. Most dams incorporate mechanisms to permit the reservoir to be lowered or even drained in the event of such problems. Another solution can be rock grouting \u2013 pressure pumpingPortland cementslurry into weak fractured rock.\n
\nInternational special sign for works and installations containing dangerous forces\n
During an armed conflict, a dam is to be considered as an \"installation containing dangerous forces\" due to the massive impact of possible destruction on the civilian population and the environment. As such, it is protected by the rules of international humanitarian law (IHL) and shall not be made the object of attack if that may cause severe losses among the civilian population. To facilitate the identification, a protective sign consisting of three bright orange circles placed on the same axis is defined by the rules of IHL.\n
A notable case of deliberate dam failure (prior to the above ruling) was the Royal Air Force'Dambusters' raid on Germany in World War II (codenamed \"Operation Chastise\"), in which three German dams were selected to be breached in order to damage German infrastructure and manufacturing and power capabilities deriving from the Ruhr and Eder rivers. This raid later became the basis for several films.\n
Since 2007, the Dutch IJkdijk foundation is developing, with an open innovation model and early warning system for levee/dike failures. As a part of the development effort, full-scale dikes are destroyed in the IJkdijk fieldlab. The destruction process is monitored by sensor networks from an international group of companies and scientific institutions.\n
Ice dam \u2013 accumulation of ice on a river caused by ice break-up forming a barrier that in turn can cause floodsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
^Atif Ansar; Bent Flyvbjerg; Alexander Budzier; Daniel Lunn (June 2014). \"Should we build more large dams? The actual costs of hydropower megaproject development\". Energy Policy. 69: 43\u201356. arXiv:1409.0002. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.10.069. S2CID55722535. SSRN2406852.\n
^\"Methodology and Technical Notes\". Watersheds of the World. Archived from the original on 4 July 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007. A large dam is defined by the industry as one higher than 15 meters high and a major dam as higher than 150.5 meters.\n
^Graf, WL (1993). \"Landscapes, commodities, and ecosystems: The relationship between policy and science for American rivers\". Sustaining Our Water Resources. Washington DC: National Academy Press. pp. 11\u201342.\n
^Ashley, Jeffrey T. F.; Bushaw-Newton, Karen; Wilhelm, Matt; Boettner, Adam; Drames, Gregg; Velinsky, David J. (March 2006). \"The Effects of Small Dam Removal on the Distribution of Sedimentary Contaminants\". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 114 (1\u20133): 287\u2013312. doi:10.1007/s10661-006-4781-3. ISSN0167-6369. PMID16565804. S2CID46471207.\n
^Blight, Geoffrey E. (1998). \"Construction of Tailings Dams\". Case studies on tailings management. Paris: International Council on Metals and the Environment. pp. 9\u201310. ISBN978-1-895720-29-7. Retrieved 10 August 2011.\n
^\"The Club and the Dam\". Johnstown Flood Museum. Johnstown Area Heritage Association. Retrieved 15 January 2018.\n
\n
^C. J. Shiff (1972). M. Taghi Farvar; John P. Milton (eds.). \"The Impact of Agricultural Development on Aquatic Systems and its Effect on the Epidemiology of Schistosomes in Rhodesia\". The careless technology: Ecology and international development. Natural History Press. pp. 102\u2013108. OCLC315029. Recently, agricultural development has concentrated on soil and water conservation and resulted in the construction of a multitude of dams of various capacities which tend to stabilize water flow in rivers and provide a significant amount of permanent and stable bodies of water.\n
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^\"Kazakhstan\". Land and Water Development Division. 1998. Construction of a dam (Berg Strait) to stabilize and increase the level of the northern part of the Aral Sea.\n
^Silva, S., Vieira-Lanero, R., Barca, S., & Cobo, F. (2017). Densities and biomass of larval sea lamprey populations (Petromyzon marinus Linnaeus, 1758) in north-western Spain and data comparisons with other European regions. Marine and Freshwater Research, 68(1), 116\u2013122.\n
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^Tummers, J. S., Winter, E., Silva, S., O'Brien, P., Jang, M. H., & Lucas, M. C. (2016). Evaluating the effectiveness of a Larinier super active baffle fish pass for European river lamprey Lampetra fluviatilis before and after modification with wall-mounted studded tiles. Ecological Engineering, 91, 183\u2013194.\n
^Jain, Sharad K.; Singh, V. P. (12 September 2003). Water Resources Systems Planning and Management. Elsevier. p. 408. ISBN978-0-08-054369-7. \"However, a reservoir, at worst, can only advance an earthquake which would have occurred otherwise too. The magnitude of forces associated with an earthquake is several orders bigger compared to the additional load of water in the reservoir. The change in stresses due to water load is too small to cause fracture in the Earth's crust (Srivastava, 1993). Therefore, the presence of a reservoir does not increase the severity of an earthquake.\"\n
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^Kosnik, Lea-Rachel (1 March 2008). \"The Potential of Water Power in the Fight Against Global Warming\". SSRN1108425.\n
Hartung, Fritz; Kuros, Gh. R. (1987). \"Historische Talsperren im Iran\". In Garbrecht, G\u00fcnther (ed.). Historische Talsperren. Vol. 1. Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer. pp. 221\u2013274. ISBN978-3-87919-145-1.
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Hodge, A. Trevor (1992). Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply. London: Duckworth. ISBN978-0-7156-2194-3.
\n
Hodge, A. Trevor (2000). \"Reservoirs and Dams\". In Wikander, \u00d6rjan (ed.). Handbook of Ancient Water Technology. Technology and Change in History. Vol. 2. Leiden: Brill. pp. 331\u2013339. ISBN978-90-04-11123-3.
Ren, Kang (2019). \"A nature-based reservoir optimization model for resolving the conflict in human water demand and riverine ecosystem protection\". Journal of Cleaner Production. 231: 406\u2013418. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.05.221. S2CID182485278.
Schnitter, Niklaus (1987a). \"Verzeichnis geschichtlicher Talsperren bis Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts\". In Garbrecht, G\u00fcnther (ed.). Historische Talsperren. Vol. 1. Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer. pp. 9\u201320. ISBN978-3-87919-145-1.
\n
Schnitter, Niklaus (1987b). \"Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pfeilerstaumauer\". In Garbrecht, G\u00fcnther (ed.). Historische Talsperren. Vol. 1. Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer. pp. 57\u201374. ISBN978-3-87919-145-1.
\n
Schnitter, Niklaus (1987c). \"Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Bogenstaumauer\". In Garbrecht, G\u00fcnther (ed.). Historische Talsperren. Vol. 1. Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer. pp. 75\u201396. ISBN978-3-87919-145-1.
Smith, Norman (1971). A History of Dams. London: Peter Davies. pp. 25\u201349. ISBN978-0-432-15090-0.
\n
Vogel, Alexius (1987). \"Die historische Entwicklung der Gewichtsmauer\". In Garbrecht, G\u00fcnther (ed.). Historische Talsperren. Vol. 1. Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer. pp. 47\u201356 (50). ISBN978-3-87919-145-1.
\n
Further reading
\n
Khagram, Sanjeev. Dams and Development: Transnational Struggles for Water and Power. Ithaca: Cornell University Press 2004.
\n
McCully, Patrick. Silenced Rivers: The Ecology and Politics of Large Dams. London: Zed. 2001.
\n\n\n\n",
+ "page_last_modified": " Mon, 26 Feb 2024 11:09:02 GMT"
+ },
+ {
+ "page_name": "Discover the Largest Dam in the World - A-Z Animals",
+ "page_url": "https://a-z-animals.com/blog/discover-largest-dam-in-the-world/",
+ "page_snippet": "Discover the largest dam in the world. Find out where it's at, how large it is, and the reason that it was built!The tallest dam in the world is the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, situated along the Murghab River. It is an impressive 1,860 feet (567 meters) tall and all-natural, created by an earthquake measuring 7.4 on the Richter scale in 1911 that triggered a huge landslide, creating a wall of earth and rock that is the dam. It is an impressive 1,860 feet (567 meters) tall and all-natural, created by an earthquake measuring 7.4 on the Richter scale in 1911 that triggered a huge landslide, creating a wall of earth and rock that is the dam. No other dam, manmade or natural, even comes close to the size of the Usoi Dam. \u00b7 Jinping-I Dam is the second tallest dam and the tallest manmade dam on the planet, measuring 1,001 feet (305 meters) tall. The largest dam in the world is the Tarbela Dam. The Tarbela Dam has a structural volume of 106,000,000 m3, far more than the second-place Fort Peck Dam. The Tarbela Dam is only 143 meters in height, making it a somewhat average-size embankment dam. The tallest manmade dam in the entire world is the Jinping-I Dam, and it measures 305 meters or 1,001 feet tall. This is a double-curved concrete arch dam that was designed to produce hydroelectricity. The dam is located in Sichuan, China, and is situated on the Yalong River.",
+ "page_result": " Discover the Largest Dam in the World - A-Z Animals
Dams control the flow of water in an area and be used to hold drinking water, provide water for irrigation, and generate hydroelectric power.
There are different types of dams that vary by function, including dry dams, diversionary dams, tailings dams, and weirs.
The largest dam in the world is the Tarbela Dam, which has a structural volume of 106,000,000 cubic meters, and is in Pakistan along the Indus River.
The tallest artificial dam on Earth is the Jinping-I Dam in Sichuan, China. It was designed to produce hydroelectricity and measures 305 meters or 1,001 feet tall.
The Indus River is critical to the Pakistani economy, and Tarbela Dam provides key agricultural irrigation.
Dams are incredibly important structures. They help control the flow of water in a given area and can be outfitted to generate hydroelectric power. Many of the largest rivers in the world have multiple dams along their length to help capture the immense power of moving water. Although many people know about the Hoover Dam, that\u2019s a relatively small dam compared to others in existence. Today, we\u2019re going to look at the largest dam in the world. Learn where it\u2019s at, how large it is, and how it measures up to some of the most famous dams.
Dams often refer to man-made barriers that are designed to prevent or impede the flow of water in a given area. They have many different uses. For example, dams are often used to hold drinking water, provide water for irrigation, and create hydropower.
Dams are often used in conjunction with levees and floodgates to control the flow of water and prevent it from going into certain areas. For example, the upper portion of the Mississippi River is home to several dams and locks that are designed to aid in controlling water levels.
Dams are complex structures that require years of planning and a great deal of upkeep. However, not all dams are made for the same purposes.
What Are Different Types of Dams?
Dams will often vary in their construction, materials, and purpose. We\u2019re going to review a few types of dams by their function, so you can get an idea of their overall use.
Dry dams are made to prevent flooding during times of excess rainfall. These dams allow water to flow normally until a flood level is reached. Then, the dam holds back the water and releases it in a controlled manner.
Diversionary dams are used to send all or a great deal of the water from a river to another path. These dams are often used for generating hydroelectric power as well as irrigation.
Tailings dams are usually earth-fill dams that store mining leftovers. These simple embankment dams grow with the mining operation. Some of the largest dams in the world are tailings dams.
Weirs are also called overflow dams, and they are used to create an impoundment lake to claim water. These tend to be very small dams in terms of height and length.
These are just a few ways that people use dams today. While some of them can be very small-scale, others can be incredibly large.
For our purposes, we are going to look at the largest man-made dams in the world. Thus, we will not consider tailings dams. Tailings dams are earth structures used to contain mining materials. If they were not considered separately, then they would easily be the largest structures. Although they are impressive, they\u2019re not the dams most people are interested in knowing about.
How Do We Measure the Largest Dam in the World?
The best way to measure the dams for size is by their volume.
Another thing to consider is how we are going to measure the largest dam in the world. Looking at measures of reservoir capacity and installed capacity for power generation may be useful. Yet, we\u2019re going to consider only the structure volume to determine which dam is the largest rather than the tallest dam in the world.
What is the Largest Dam in the World?
The Tarbela Dam is the largest dam in the world by volume.
The largest dam in the world is the Tarbela Dam. The Tarbela Dam has a structural volume of 106,000,000 m3, far more than the second-place Fort Peck Dam. The Tarbela Dam is only 143 meters in height, making it a somewhat average-size embankment dam.
Tarbela Dam is located in Pakistan along the Indus River. The earth-filled dam was designed to help provide water for irrigation as well as to help generate hydroelectric power. The estimated installed capacity of the hydroelectric power generation of the dam is about 4,888 MW with a maximum of 6,298 MW at maximum. Still, most of the water that flows through the dam area is not used for power generation.
If we were to count tailings dams, then the largest one would be the Syncrude Tailings Dam in Canada, with a structural volume of 540,000,000 m3.
Where is the Largest Dam in the World Located on a Map?
The Tarbela Dam is located along the Indus River in Pakistan. The dam is about 30 km from the city of Swabi, 52 km from Haripur, and 105 km northwest of the capital city of Islamabad. The dam created the large and long Tarbela Lake that continues north as the Indus River.
What is the Tallest Dam in the World?
The tallest manmade dam in the entire world is the Jinping-I Dam, and it measures 305 meters or 1,001 feet tall. This is a double-curved concrete arch dam that was designed to produce hydroelectricity. The dam is located in Sichuan, China, and is situated on the Yalong River.
How does this compare to a dam that is familiar to most people reading this, the Hoover Dam? Well, the Hoover Dam is just 726ft tall or 221.4 meters and has a volume of 2,480,000 m3. As you can see, this dam is much shorter than the Jinping-I Dam. Also, it has far less structural volume than the Tarbela Dam.
What Dam Produces the Most Energy?
The Yangtze River is home to many hydroelectric dams.
Many of the dams that are created these days are designed to generate hydroelectric power. Thus, it\u2019s only fair to mention the one that produces the most energy. The Three Gorges Dam produces the most energy, and its installed capacity is 22,500 MW.
The Three Gorges Dam is a gravity dam located in China and is situated on the Yangtze River. The dam measures 181 meters high and has a length of 2,335 miles, and it also has a large reservoir.
Dams around the world come in many sizes and with several different purposes. While the largest dam in the world is used for power generation and irrigation, other large dams are used to help create a water supply for humans. The massive scale of the Tarbela Dam is not likely to be matched soon, though.
New dams take many years to build, so Tarbela Dam could maintain its status as the largest dam in the world until it is no longer useful.
What Are the Tallest Dams in the World?
At the top of the list of the tallest dams in the world is a dam so big that it’s nearly double the height of the second-tallest dam on Earth.
The tallest dam in the world is the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, situated along the Murghab River. It is an impressive 1,860 feet (567 meters) tall and all-natural, created by an earthquake measuring 7.4 on the Richter scale in 1911 that triggered a huge landslide, creating a wall of earth and rock that is the dam. No other dam, manmade or natural, even comes close to the size of the Usoi Dam.
Jinping-I Dam is the second tallest dam and the tallest manmade dam on the planet, measuring 1,001 feet (305 meters) tall.
Nurek Dam in Tajikistan and Xiaowan Dam, Baihetan Dam, and Xiluodu Dam in south-central China are among the top 6 tallest dams in the world. Grande Dixence Dam in Switzerland, Enguri Dam in the country of Georgia, Yusufeli Dam in Turkey, and Vajont Dam in Italy round out the top 10 tallest dams.
Which Dams Are the Largest in the U.S.?
Now we’ve looked at the largest and tallest dams in the world, let’s consider the largest dams in the United States.
The top 5 dams by height in the U.S. are:
Oroville Dam (770 feet)
Hoover Dam (726 feet)
Dworshak Dam (717 feet)
Glen Canyon Dam (710 feet)
New Bullards Bar Dam (645 feet)
The top 5 dams by water capacity in the U.S. are:
Hoover Dam (8.95 cubic miles)
Glen Canyon Dam (8.53 cubic miles)
Garrison Dam (7.05 cubic miles)
Oahe Dam (6.98 cubic miles)
Fort Peck Dam (5.52 cubic miles)
More information on all these dams can be found here.
Kyle Glatz is a writer at A-Z-Animals where his primary focus is on geography and mammals. Kyle has been writing for researching and writing about animals and numerous other topics for 10 years, and he holds a Bachelor's Degree in English and Education from Rowan University.\nA resident of New Jersey, Kyle enjoys reading, writing, and playing video games.
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+ "page_last_modified": " Wed, 21 Feb 2024 17:25:30 GMT"
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+ "page_name": "Usoi Dam - Wikipedia",
+ "page_url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usoi_Dam",
+ "page_snippet": "Water does not flow over the top ... of the dam at a rate which approximately matches the rate of inflow, maintaining the lake at a relatively constant level. The level thus only rises an average of 20 cm per year. The flow averages about 45 cubic meters per second, with an annual variation of 35-80 cubic meters per second and dissipates about 250 megawatts. Geologists are concerned that the Usoi Dam may become ...Water does not flow over the top of the dam, which would quickly cause it to erode away; instead, water seeps out of the base of the dam at a rate which approximately matches the rate of inflow, maintaining the lake at a relatively constant level. The level thus only rises an average of 20 cm per year. The flow averages about 45 cubic meters per second, with an annual variation of 35-80 cubic meters per second and dissipates about 250 megawatts. Geologists are concerned that the Usoi Dam may become unstable during future large-magnitude earthquakes, which are relatively common in the seismically active Pamirs, and might collapse due to liquefaction or subsequent landslides during such an event. The Usoi Dam is a natural landslide dam along the Murghab River in Tajikistan. At 567 metres (1,860 ft) high, it is the tallest dam in the world, either natural or man-made. The dam was created on February 18, 1911, when the 7.4-Ms Sarez earthquake caused a massive landslide that blocked the flow of the river. The dam is formed of approximately 2 cubic kilometres (0.48 cu mi) of rock dislodged from the steeply sloped river valley of the Murghab, which cuts from east to west through the high and rough Pamir Mountains. It is named after the village of Usoi, which was completely buried by the 1911 landslide. The dam rises to a height of 500 to 700 metres (1,600 to 2,300 ft) from the original valley floor. The dam rises to a height of 500 to 700 metres (1,600 to 2,300 ft) from the original valley floor. The basin formed by Usoi Dam now holds Sarez Lake, a 55.8-kilometre (34.7 mi)-long lake holding 16.074 cubic kilometres (13,031,000 acre\u22c5ft) of water. Water does not flow over the top of the dam, which would quickly cause it to erode away; instead, water seeps out of the base of the dam at a rate which approximately matches the rate of inflow, maintaining the lake at a relatively constant level. The dam wall survived a localised 7.2 magnitude earthquake, the 2015 Tajikistan earthquake, on the 7th December 2015 with no visible signs of deterioration.",
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Usoi Dam viewed from behind. Sarez Lake is on the right, and the smaller body of water to the left is Shadau Lake. The earthen barrier separating the two lakes is not part of the dam, which is further behind in the background.
\nSatellite photo showing the Usoi Dam, the western end of Sarez Lake and the smaller Shadau Lake\n
The Usoi Dam is a natural landslide dam along the Murghab River in Tajikistan. At 567 metres (1,860 ft) high, it is the tallest dam in the world, either natural or man-made. The dam was created on February 18, 1911, when the 7.4-MsSarez earthquake caused a massive landslide that blocked the flow of the river.[1]\n
The dam is formed of approximately 2 cubic kilometres (0.48 cu mi) of rock dislodged from the steeply sloped river valley of the Murghab, which cuts from east to west through the high and rough Pamir Mountains. It is named after the village of Usoi, which was completely buried by the 1911 landslide. The dam rises to a height of 500 to 700 metres (1,600 to 2,300 ft) from the original valley floor.[2]\n
The basin formed by Usoi Dam now holds Sarez Lake, a 55.8-kilometre (34.7 mi)-long lake holding 16.074 cubic kilometres (13,031,000 acre\u22c5ft) of water. Water does not flow over the top of the dam, which would quickly cause it to erode away; instead, water seeps out of the base of the dam at a rate which approximately matches the rate of inflow, maintaining the lake at a relatively constant level. The level thus only rises an average of 20 cm per year. The flow averages about 45 cubic meters per second, with an annual variation of 35-80 cubic meters per second[3] and dissipates about 250 megawatts.\n
Geologists are concerned that the Usoi Dam may become unstable during future large-magnitude earthquakes, which are relatively common in the seismically active Pamirs, and might collapse due to liquefaction or subsequent landslides during such an event.[4] Collapse of the dam would unleash a locally catastrophic flood.[5] The Murghab's river valley tends to be relatively narrow and steep. This would focus and maintain any flood's destructive power as it swept through the valley of the Murghob District.\n
The dam wall survived a localised 7.2 magnitude earthquake, the 2015 Tajikistan earthquake, on the 7th December 2015 with no visible signs of deterioration.\n
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+ "page_last_modified": " Fri, 23 Feb 2024 04:01:09 GMT"
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+ {
+ "page_name": "Tabqa Dam - Wikipedia",
+ "page_url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabqa_Dam",
+ "page_snippet": "The Tabqa Dam (Arabic: \u0633\u064e\u062f\u064f\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u064e\u0651\u0628\u0652\u0642\u064e\u0629\u0650, romanized: Sadd a\u1e6d-\u1e6cabqah, Kurdish: Bendava Tebqa; Classical Syriac: \u0723\u071f\u072a\u0710 \u0715\u071b\u0712\u0729\u0717, romanized: Sekro d'Tabqa), or al-Thawra Dam as it is also named (Arabic: \u0633\u064e\u062f\u064f\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u064e\u0651\u0648\u0652\u0631\u064e\u0629\u0650, romanized: Sadd a\u1e6f-\u1e6eawrah, ...The Tabqa Dam (Arabic: \u0633\u064e\u062f\u064f\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u064e\u0651\u0628\u0652\u0642\u064e\u0629\u0650, romanized: Sadd a\u1e6d-\u1e6cabqah, Kurdish: Bendava Tebqa; Classical Syriac: \u0723\u071f\u072a\u0710 \u0715\u071b\u0712\u0729\u0717, romanized: Sekro d'Tabqa), or al-Thawra Dam as it is also named (Arabic: \u0633\u064e\u062f\u064f\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u064e\u0651\u0648\u0652\u0631\u064e\u0629\u0650, romanized: Sadd a\u1e6f-\u1e6eawrah, Kurdish: Bendava Tewra; Classical Syriac: \u0723\u071f\u072a\u0710 \u0715\u072c\u0718\u072a\u0717, romanized: Sekro d'\u1e6eawra, literally \"Dam of the Revolution\"), most commonly known as Euphrates Dam (Arabic: \u0633\u064e\u062f\u064f\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u0652\u0641\u064f\u0631\u064e\u0627\u062a\u0650, romanized: Sadd al-Fur\u0101t; Kurdish: Bendava Firat\u00ea; Classical Syriac: \u0723\u071f\u072a\u0710 \u0715\u0726\u072a\u072c, romanized: Sekro d'Frot), is an earthen dam on the Euphrates, located 40 kilometres (25 mi) upstream from the city of Raqqa in Raqqa Governorate, Syria. Originally, the Tabqa Dam was conceived as a dual-purpose dam. The dam would include a hydroelectric power station with eight turbines capable of producing 880 MW in total, and would irrigate an area of 640,000 hectares (2,500 sq mi) on both sides of the Euphrates. Iraq asked the Arab League to intervene but Syria argued that it received less water from Turkey as well. As a result, tensions rose; both governments sent troops to the Syria-Iraq border, and the Iraqi government threatened to bomb the Tabqa Dam. Before the dispute could escalate any further, an agreement was reached in 1975 after mediation by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union, whereby Syria immediately increased the flow from the dam and agreed to let 60 percent of the Euphrates water that came over the Syria-Turkey border flow into Iraq. After the completion of the Tabqa Dam, Syria built two more dams in the Euphrates, both of which were functionally related to the Tabqa Dam. The Baath Dam, located 18 kilometres (11 mi) downstream from the Tabqa Dam, was completed in 1986 and functions as a floodwater control to manage the irregular output of the Tabqa Dam and as a hydroelectric power station. The Baath Dam, located 18 kilometres (11 mi) downstream from the Tabqa Dam, was completed in 1986 and functions as a floodwater control to manage the irregular output of the Tabqa Dam and as a hydroelectric power station. The Tishrin Dam, which functions primarily as a hydroelectric power station, has been constructed 80 kilometres (50 mi) south from the Syria\u2013Turkey border and filling of the reservoir started in 1999.",
+ "page_result": "\n\n\n\nTabqa Dam - Wikipedia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJump to content\n
The Tabqa Dam (Arabic: \u0633\u064e\u062f\u064f\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u064e\u0651\u0628\u0652\u0642\u064e\u0629\u0650, romanized: Sadd a\u1e6d-\u1e6cabqah, Kurdish: Bendava Tebqa; Classical Syriac: \u0723\u071f\u072a\u0710 \u0715\u071b\u0712\u0729\u0717, romanized: Sekro d'Tabqa), or al-Thawra Dam as it is also named (Arabic: \u0633\u064e\u062f\u064f\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u064e\u0651\u0648\u0652\u0631\u064e\u0629\u0650, romanized: Sadd a\u1e6f-\u1e6eawrah, Kurdish: Bendava Tewra; Classical Syriac: \u0723\u071f\u072a\u0710 \u0715\u072c\u0718\u072a\u0717, romanized: Sekro d'\u1e6eawra, literally \"Dam of the Revolution\"), most commonly known as Euphrates Dam (Arabic: \u0633\u064e\u062f\u064f\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u0652\u0641\u064f\u0631\u064e\u0627\u062a\u0650, romanized: Sadd al-Fur\u0101t; Kurdish: Bendava Firat\u00ea; Classical Syriac: \u0723\u071f\u072a\u0710 \u0715\u0726\u072a\u072c, romanized: Sekro d'Frot), is an earthen dam on the Euphrates, located 40 kilometres (25 mi) upstream from the city of Raqqa in Raqqa Governorate, Syria. The city of Al-Thawrah is located immediately south of the dam. The dam is 60 metres (200 ft) high and 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi) long and is the largest dam in Syria.[1] Its construction led to the creation of Lake Assad, Syria's largest water reservoir. The dam was constructed between 1968 and 1973 with help from the Soviet Union. At the same time, an international effort was made to excavate and document as many archaeological remains as possible in the area of the future lake before they would be flooded by the rising water. When the flow of the Euphrates was reduced in 1974 to fill the lake behind the dam, a dispute broke out between Syria and Iraq (which is downstream) that was settled by intervention from Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union.[2] The dam was originally built to generate hydroelectric power, as well as irrigate lands on both sides of the Euphrates. The dam has not reached its full potential in either of these objectives.[3]\n
In 1927, when Syria was a French mandate, it was proposed to build a dam in the Euphrates near the Syria\u2013Turkey border. After Syria became independent in 1946, the feasibility of this proposal was re-investigated, but the plan was not carried out. In 1957, the Syrian government reached an agreement with the Soviet Union for technical and financial aid for the construction of a dam in the Euphrates. Syria, as part of the United Arab Republic (UAR), signed an agreement with West Germany in 1960 for a loan to finance the construction of the dam. After Syria left the UAR in 1961, a new agreement about the financing of the dam was reached with the Soviet Union in 1965. A special government department was created in 1961 to oversee the construction of the dam.[4] In the early 1960s Swedish geomorphologist\u00c5ke Sundborg worked as an advisor on the dam project with the task of estimating the amount and fate of sediments that would enter into the dam. Sundborg developed for this purpose a mathematical model on the projected growth of a river delta in the dam.[5][6]\n
Originally, the Tabqa Dam was conceived as a dual-purpose dam. The dam would include a hydroelectric power station with eight turbines capable of producing 880 MW in total, and would irrigate an area of 640,000 hectares (2,500 sq mi) on both sides of the Euphrates.[3][7] Construction of the dam lasted between 1968 and 1973, while the accompanying power station was finished on 8 March 1978.[8] The dam was constructed during the agricultural reform policies of Hafez al-Assad, who had re-routed the Euphrates river for the dam in 1974.[9] The total cost of the dam was US$340 million of which US$100 million was in the form of a loan by the Soviet Union.[7] The Soviet Union also provided technical expertise.[10] During construction, up to 12,000 Syrians and 900 Russian technicians worked on the dam.[11] They were housed in the greatly expanded town near the construction site, which was subsequently renamed Al-Thawrah.[1] To facilitate the project, as well as the construction of irrigation works on the Khabur River, the national railway system (Chemins de Fer Syriens) was extended from Aleppo to the dam, Raqqa, Deir ez-Zor, and eventually Qamishli.[12] Around 4,000 Arab families who had been living in the flooded part of the Euphrates Valley were resettled in other parts of northern Syria, part of a partially implemented plan to establish an \"Arab belt\" along the borders with Turkey and Iraq in order to separate Kurds in Syria from Turkish and Iraqi Kurdistan.[13][14]\n
In 1974, the authorities started to fill the lake behind the dam by reducing the flow of the Euphrates. Slightly earlier, the Turkish government had started filling the reservoir of the newly constructed Keban Dam, and at the same time the area was hit by significant drought.[15] As a result, Iraq received significantly less water from the Euphrates than normal, and complained that annual Euphrates flow had dropped from 15.3 cubic kilometres (3.7 cu mi) in 1973 to 9.4 cubic kilometres (2.3 cu mi) in 1975.[16][17] Iraq asked the Arab League to intervene but Syria argued that it received less water from Turkey as well.[18] As a result, tensions rose; both governments sent troops to the Syria-Iraq border,[2][19] and the Iraqi government threatened to bomb the Tabqa Dam.[2][20] Before the dispute could escalate any further, an agreement was reached in 1975 after mediation by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union, whereby Syria immediately increased the flow from the dam and agreed to let 60 percent of the Euphrates water that came over the Syria-Turkey border flow into Iraq.[2][18] In 1987, Turkey, Syria and Iraq signed an agreement by which Turkey was committed to maintain an average Euphrates flow of 500 cubic metres (18,000 cu ft) per second into Syria, which translates into 16 cubic kilometres (3.8 cu mi) of water per year.[21]\n
The upper part of the Syrian Euphrates valley has been intensively occupied at least since the Late Natufian period (10,800\u20139500 BC).[22][23] Nineteenth- and early twentieth-century European travellers had already noted the presence of numerous archaeological sites in the area that would be flooded by the new reservoir.[24] In order to preserve or at least document as many of these remains as possible, an extensive archaeological rescue programme was initiated during which more than 25 sites were excavated.[25][26]\n
Between 1963 and 1965, archaeological sites and remains were located with the help of aerial photographs, and a ground survey was carried out as well to determine the periods that were present at each site.[27] Between 1965 and 1970, foreign archaeological missions carried out systematic excavations at the sites of Mureybet (United States), Tell Qannas (Habuba Kabira) (Belgium), Mumbaqa (Germany), Selenkahiye (Netherlands), and Emar (France). With help from UNESCO, two minarets at Mureybet and Meskene were photogrammetrically measured, and a protective glacis was built around the castle Qal'at Ja'bar. The castle was located on a hilltop that would not be flooded, but the lake would turn it in an island.[28] The castle is now connected to the shore by a causeway.\n
In 1971, with support from UNESCO, Syria appealed to the international community to participate in the efforts to salvage as many archaeological remains as possible before the area would disappear under the rising water of Lake Assad. To stimulate foreign participation, the Syrian antiquities law was modified so that foreign missions had the right to claim a part of the artefacts that were found during excavation.[29] As a result, between 1971 and 1977, numerous excavations were carried out in the Lake Assad area by Syrian as well as foreign missions. Syrian archaeologists worked at the sites of Tell al-'Abd, 'Anab al-Safinah, Tell Sheikh Hassan, Qal'at Ja'bar, Dibsi Faraj and Tell Fray. There were missions from the United States on Tell Hadidi (Azu), Dibsi Faraj, Tell Fray and Shams ed-Din-Tannira; from France on Mureybet and Emar; from Italy on Tell Fray; from the Netherlands on Tell Ta'as, Jebel 'Aruda and Selenkahiye; from Switzerland on Tell al-Hajj; from Great Britain on Abu Hureyra and Tell es-Sweyhat; and from Japan on Tell Roumeila. In addition, the minarets of Mureybet and Meskene were moved to higher locations, and Qal'at Ja'bar was further reinforced and restored.[29] Many finds from the excavations are now on display in the National Museum of Aleppo, where a special permanent exhibition is devoted to the finds from the Lake Assad region.[30]\n
After the completion of the Tabqa Dam, Syria built two more dams in the Euphrates, both of which were functionally related to the Tabqa Dam. The Baath Dam, located 18 kilometres (11 mi) downstream from the Tabqa Dam, was completed in 1986 and functions as a floodwater control to manage the irregular output of the Tabqa Dam and as a hydroelectric power station. The Tishrin Dam, which functions primarily as a hydroelectric power station, has been constructed 80 kilometres (50 mi) south from the Syria\u2013Turkey border and filling of the reservoir started in 1999.[31] Its construction was partly motivated by the disappointing performance of the Tabqa Dam.[32] The implementation of a fourth dam between Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor \u2013 the Halabiye Dam \u2013 was planned in 2009 and an appeal to archaeologists was released to excavate sites that will be flooded by the new reservoir.[33]\n
On 11 February 2013 the dam was captured by the Syrian opposition in their fight against the government, according to The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights.[34] In 2013, four of the dam's eight turbines were operational and the original staff continued to manage it. Dam workers still received pay from the Syrian Government, and fighting in the area temporarily ceased if repairs were needed.[35] The dam was then captured by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in 2014. SDF efforts to retake parts of the Al-Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor Governorates, including the area immediately surrounding the dam, began in November 2016. Interruptions in power output from the dam due to combat are estimated to have affected up to 40,000 people.[36] \n
In January 2017 the Euphrates rose 10 meters due to heavy precipitation and flow mismanagement, disrupting transportation and flooding farmland downstream. A nearby raid against ISIL by combined SDF and US special forces also impacted the dam's entrance.[36] \n
In March 2017, ISIL warned of the dam's imminent collapse[37] after the towers attached to the dam were bombed by an American B-52 bomber during a joint US/SDF operation to capture it on March 26, 2017. The dam had been on a U.S. no-strike list but was struck by three bombs anyway.[38] The bombing caused critical equipment to fail and the dam to stop functioning. One of the bombs, a bunker buster, failed to detonate. An emergency ceasefire between the Islamic State, US forces, and the Syrian government, otherwise sworn enemies, enabled engineers to make emergency repairs to the dam to prevent it from failing[38] while the Turkish authorities coordinated to close the gates of dams upstream in order to prevent overtopping.[39] A US drone strike killed three of the civilian emergency dam workers shortly thereafter.[38] On March 29 a floodgate was opened by emergency workers, causing flooding downstream which displaced approximately 3,000 people. A second floodgate was opened on April 5, mitigating risk of collapse.[39] If the dam had failed major flooding would have extended past Deir ez-Zor, more than 100 miles downstream.[36] SDF forces announced they captured the dam on 10 May 2017.[40]\n
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Characteristics of the dam and the reservoir[edit]
The Tabqa dam is located on a spot where rocky outcrops on each side of the Euphrates Valley are less than 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) apart. The dam is an earth-fill dam that is 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi) long, 60 metres (200 ft) high from the riverbed (307 metres (1,007 ft) above sea-level), 512 metres (1,680 ft) wide at its base and 19 metres (62 ft) at the top.[41] The hydroelectric power station is located on the southern end of the dam and contains eight Kaplan turbines. The turbines' rotation speed is 125 RPM, and they can potentially generate 103 MW each.[42] Lake Assad is 80 kilometres (50 mi) long and on average 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) wide.[32] The reservoir can potentially hold 11.7 cubic kilometres (2.8 cu mi) of water, at which size its surface area would be 610 square kilometres (240 sq mi).[31] Annual evaporation is 1.3 cubic kilometres (0.31 cu mi) due to the high average summer temperature in northern Syria.[43] This is high compared to reservoirs upstream from Lake Assad. For example, the evaporation at Keban Dam Lake is 0.48 cubic kilometres (0.12 cu mi) per year at roughly the same surface area.[15]\n
Neither the Tabqa Dam nor Lake Assad is currently used to its full economic potential. Although the lake can potentially hold 11.7 cubic kilometres (2.8 cu mi), actual capacity is 9.6 cubic kilometres (2.3 cu mi), with a surface area of 447 square kilometres (173 sq mi).[44] The proposed irrigation scheme suffered from a number of problems, including the high gypsum content in the reclaimed soils around Lake Assad, soil salinization, the collapse of canals that distributed the water from Lake Assad, and the unwillingness of farmers to resettle in the reclaimed areas. As a result, only 60,000 hectares (230 sq mi) were irrigated from Lake Assad in 1984.[32] In 2000, the irrigated surface had risen to 124,000 hectares (480 sq mi), which is 19 percent of the projected 640,000 hectares (2,500 sq mi).[43][45] Due to lower than expected water flow from Turkey, as well as lack of maintenance, the dam generates only 150 MW instead of 800 MW.[3] Lake Assad is the most important source of drinking water to Aleppo, providing the city through a pipeline with 0.08 cubic kilometres (0.019 cu mi) of drinking water per year.[3] The lake also supports a fishing industry.[46]\n
Research indicates that the salinity of the Euphrates water in Iraq has increased considerably since the nearly simultaneous construction of the Keban Dam in Turkey and the Tabqa Dam in Syria. This increase can, among other things, be related to the lower discharge of the Euphrates as a result of the construction of the Keban Dam and the dams of the Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) in Turkey, and to a lesser degree of the Tabqa Dam in Syria. High-salinity water is less useful for domestic and irrigation purposes.[47]\n
The shore of the lake has developed into an important marshland area. On the southeastern shore, some areas have been reforested with evergreen trees including the Aleppo pine and the Euphrates poplar. Lake Assad is an important wintering location for migratory birds and the government has undertaken measures to protect small areas along the shores of Lake Assad from hunters by downgrading access roads. The island of Jazirat al-Thawra has been designated a nature reserve.[48]\n
^Reich, Bernard (1990). Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN978-0-313-26213-5.\n
^ abc\"Syria Crisis: Ar-Raqqa\"(PDF). United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. 31 January 2017. Retrieved 21 January 2022.\n
^ ab\"Syria Crisis: Menbij and Ar-Raqqa\"(PDF). United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. 8 April 2017. Retrieved 21 January 2022.\n
Adeel, Zafar; Mainguet, Monique (2000), Summary Report of the Workshop, New Approaches to Water Management in Central Asia, United Nations University/ICARDA, pp. 208\u201322, archived from the original on 28 May 2010, retrieved 16 December 2009
\n
Akkermans, Peter M. M. G.; Schwartz, Glenn M. (2003), The archaeology of Syria. From complex hunter-gatherers to early urban societies (ca. 16,000\u2013300 BC), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN0-521-79666-0
Bounni, Adnan; Lundquist, J. M. (1977), \"Campaign and exhibition from the Euphrates in Syria\", The Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 44: 1\u20137, ISSN0066-0035, JSTOR3768538
Jones, C.; Sultan, M.; Yan, E.; Milewski, A.; Hussein, M.; Al-Dousari, A.; Al-Kaisy, S.; Becker, R. (2008), \"Hydrologic impacts of engineering projects on the Tigris\u2013Euphrates system and its marshlands\", Journal of Hydrology, 353 (1\u20132): 59\u201375, Bibcode:2008JHyd..353...59J, doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.01.029, ISSN0022-1694
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Kalpakian, Jack (2004), Identity, conflict and cooperation in international river systems, Aldershot: Ashgate, ISBN978-0-7546-3338-9
McClellan, Thomas L. (1997), \"Euphrates Dams, Survey of\", in Meyers, Eric M. (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Ancient Near East, vol. 2, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 290\u2013292, ISBN0-19-506512-3
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McDowall, David (2004), A modern history of the Kurds, London: I.B. Tauris, ISBN978-1-85043-416-0
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Murdoch, D. A.; Vos, R.; Abdallah, A.; Abdallah, M.; Andrews, I.; al-Asaad, A.; van Beusekom, R.; Hofland, R.; Roth, T. (2005), A Winter Survey of Syrian Wetlands. Final Report of the Syrian Wetland Expedition, January \u2013 February 2004, London: privately published, OCLC150245788
Rahi, Khayyun A.; Halihan, Todd (2009), \"Changes in the salinity of the Euphrates River system in Iraq\", Regional Environmental Change, 10: 27\u201335, doi:10.1007/s10113-009-0083-y, ISSN1436-378X, S2CID8616217
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Reichel, Clemens (2004), \"Appendix B: Site gazetteer\"(PDF), in Wilkinson, Tony J. (ed.), On the margin of the Euphrates. Settlement and land use at Tell es-Sweyhat and in the Upper Lake Assad area, Syria, Oriental Institute Publications, vol. 124, Chicago: Oriental Institute, pp. 223\u2013261, ISBN1-885923-29-5, archived from the original(PDF) on 16 May 2013, retrieved 17 December 2009
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Scheumann, Waltina (2003), \"The Euphrates issue in Turkish\u2013Syrian relations\", in Brauch, Hans G\u00fcnter; Liotta, P. H.; Marquina, Antonio; Rogers, Paul F.; Selim, Mohammed El-Sayed (eds.), Security and environment in the Mediterranean. Conceptualising security and environmental conflicts, Berlin: Springer, pp. 745\u2013760, ISBN3-540-40107-5
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Shapland, Greg (1997), Rivers of discord: international water disputes in the Middle East, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN978-0-312-16522-2
Wolf, Aaron T. (1994), \"A Hydropolitical History of the Nile, Jordan and Euphrates River Basins\", in Biswas, Asit K (ed.), International Waters of the Middle East: From Euphrates-Tigris to Nile, Oxford University Press, pp. 5\u201343, ISBN978-0-19-854862-1
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