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at Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite Canada's new satellite
Pioneer 10
Rosetta spacecraft
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
Further information about asteroids
see Logarithmic scale
External links
Minor planets |
An allocution, or allocutus, is a formal statement made to the court by the defendant who has been found guilty prior to being sentenced. It is part of the criminal procedure in some jurisdictions using common law.
Concept
An allocution allows the defendant to explain why the sentence should be lenient. In plea bargains, an allocution may be required of the defendant. The defendant explicitly admits specifically and in detail the actions and their reasons in exchange for a reduced sentence.
In principle, that removes any doubt as to the exact nature of the defendant's guilt in the matter.
The term "allocution" is used generally only in jurisdictions in the United States, but there are vaguely similar processes in other common law countries. In many other jurisdictions, it is for the defense lawyer to mitigate on their client's behalf, and the defendant rarely has the opportunity to speak.
The right of victims to speak at sentencing is also sometimes referred to as allocution.
Australia
In Australia, th |
e term allocutus is used by the Clerk of Arraigns or another formal associate of the Court. It is generally phrased as, "Prisoner at the Bar, you have been found Guilty by a jury of your peers of the offense of XYZ. Do you have anything to say as to why the sentence of this Court should not now be passed upon you?" The defense counsel will then make a plea in mitigation also called submissions on penalty in an attempt to mitigate the relative seriousness of the offense and heavily refer to and rely upon the defendant's previous good character and good works, if any.
The right to make a plea in mitigation is absolute. If a judge or magistrate refuses to hear such a plea or does not properly consider it, the sentence can be overturned on appeal.
United States
In most of the United States, defendants are allowed the opportunity to allocute before a sentence is passed. Some jurisdictions hold that as an absolute right. In its absence, a sentence but not the conviction may be overturned, resulting in the need fo |
r a new sentencing hearing. In the federal system, Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure 32i4 provides that the court must "address the defendant personally in order to permit the defendant to speak or present any information to mitigate the sentence."
The Federal Public Defender recommends that defendants speak in terms of how a lenient sentence will be sufficient but not greater than necessary to comply with the statutory directives set forth in .
See also
Confession law
References
Criminal procedure
Evidence law |
An ; Medieval Latin for "he has declared under oath" is a written statement voluntarily made by an affiant or deponent under an oath or affirmation which is administered by a person who is authorized to do so by law. Such a statement is witnessed as to the authenticity of the affiant's signature by a taker of oaths, such as a notary public or commissioner of oaths. An affidavit is a type of verified statement or showing, or in other words, it contains a verification, which means that it is made under oath on penalty of perjury, and this serves as evidence for its veracity and is required in court proceedings.
Definition
An affidavit is typically defined as a written declaration or statement that is sworn or affirmed before a person who has authority to administer an oath. There is no general defined form for an affidavit, although for some proceedings an affidavit must satisfy legal or statutory requirements in order to be considered. An affidavit may include,
a commencement which identifies the affiant; |
an attestation clause, usually a jurat, at the end certifying that the affiant made the statement under oath on the specified date;
signatures of the affiant and person who administered the oath.
In some cases, an introductory clause, called a preamble, is added attesting that the affiant personally appeared before the authenticating authority. An affidavit may also recite that the statement it records was made under penalty of perjury.
An affidavit that is prepared for use within the context of litigation may also include a caption that identifies the venue and parties to the relevant judicial proceedings.
Worldwide
Australia
On 2 March 2016, the High Court of Australia held that the ACT Uniform Evidence Legislation is neutral in the way sworn evidence and unsworn evidence is treated as being of equal weight.
India
In Indian law, although an affidavit may be taken as proof of the facts stated therein, the courts have no jurisdiction to admit evidence by way of affidavit. Affidavit is not treated as "e |
vidence" within the meaning of Section 3 of the Evidence Act. However, it was held by the Supreme Court that an affidavit can be used as evidence only if the court so orders for sufficient reasons, namely, the right of the opposite party to have the deponent produced for crossexamination. Therefore, an affidavit cannot ordinarily be used as evidence in absence of a specific order of the court.
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, under the Oaths Ordinance, with the exception of a courtmartial, a person may submit an affidavit signed in the presence of a commissioner for oaths or a justice of the peace.
Ireland
Affidavits are made in a similar way as to England and Wales, although "make oath" is sometimes omitted. An affirmed affidavit may be substituted for an sworn affidavit in most cases for those opposed to swearing oaths. The person making the affidavit is known as the deponent and signs the affidavit. The affidavit concludes in the standard format "swornaffirmed declared before me, name of commissioner for oathssol |
icitor, a commissioner for oaths solicitor, on the date at location in the countycity of countycity, and I know the deponent", and it is signed and stamped by the commissioner for oaths. It is important that the Commissioner states hisher name clearly, sometimes documents are rejected when the name cannot be ascertained.
In August 2020, a new method of filing affidavits came into force. Under Section 21 of the Civil Law and Criminal Law Miscellaneous Provisions Act 2020 witnesses are no longer required to swear before God or make an affirmation when filing an affidavit. Instead, witnesses will make a nonreligious statement of truth and, if it is breached, will be liable for up to one year in prison if convicted summarily or, upon conviction on indictment, to a maximum fine of 250,000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 years, or both.
This is designed to replace affidavits and statutory declarations in situations where the electronic means of lodgement or filing of documents with the Court provided |
for in Section 20 is utilised. As of January 2022, it has yet to be adopted widely, and it is expected it will not be used for some time by lay litigants who will still lodge papers in person.
United States
In American jurisprudence, under the rules for hearsay, admission of an unsupported affidavit as evidence is unusual especially if the affiant is not available for crossexamination with regard to material facts which may be dispositive of the matter at bar. Affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated, or who cannot be located or made to appear, may be accepted by the court, but usually only in the presence of corroborating evidence. An affidavit which reflected a better grasp of the facts close in time to the actual events may be used to refresh a witness's recollection. Materials used to refresh recollection are admissible as evidence. If the affiant is a party in the case, the affiant's opponent may be successful in having the affidavit admitted as evidence, as statements by a party |
opponent are admissible through an exception to the hearsay rule.
Affidavits are typically included in the response to interrogatories. Requests for admissions under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 36, however, are not required to be sworn.
When a person signs an affidavit, that person is eligible to take the stand at a trial or evidentiary hearing. One party may wish to summon the affiant to verify the contents of the affidavit, while the other party may want to crossexamine the affiant about the affidavit.
Some types of motions will not be accepted by the court unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence in support of the need for the motion. In such a case, a court will accept an affidavit from the filing attorney in support of the motion, as certain assumptions are made, to wit The affidavit in place of sworn testimony promotes judicial economy. The lawyer is an officer of the court and knows that a false swearing by them, if found out, could be grounds for severe penalty up |
to and including disbarment. The lawyer if called upon would be able to present independent and more detailed evidence to prove the facts set forth in his affidavit.
The acceptance of an affidavit by one society does not confirm its acceptance as a legal document in other jurisdictions. Equally, the acceptance that a lawyer is an officer of the court for swearing the affidavit is not a given. This matter is addressed by the use of the apostille, a means of certifying the legalization of a document for international use under the terms of the 1961 Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement of Legalization for Foreign Public Documents. Documents which have been notarized by a notary public, and certain other documents, and then certified with a conformant apostille, are accepted for legal use in all the nations that have signed the Hague Convention. Thus most affidavits now require to be apostilled if used for cross border issues.
See also
Declaration law
Deposition law
Fishman Affidavit, a wellknown exam |
ple of an affidavit
Performativity
Statutory declaration
Sworn declaration
References
Evidence law
Legal documents
Notary |
Aries is one of the constellations of the zodiac. It is located in the Northern celestial hemisphere between Pisces to the west and Taurus to the east. The name Aries is Latin for ram. Its old astronomical symbol is . It is one of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations. It is a midsized constellation, ranking 39th overall size, with an area of 441 square degrees 1.1 of the celestial sphere.
Aries has represented a ram since late Babylonian times. Before that, the stars of Aries formed a farmhand. Different cultures have incorporated the stars of Aries into different constellations including twin inspectors in China and a porpoise in the Marshall Islands. Aries is a relatively dim constellation, possessing only four bright stars Hamal Alpha Arietis, second magnitude, Sheratan Beta Arietis, third magnitude, Mesarthim Gamma Arietis, fourth magnitude, and 41 Arietis also fourth magnitude. The few deepsky objects within the constel |
lation are quite faint and include several pairs of interacting galaxies. Several meteor showers appear to radiate from Aries, including the Daytime Arietids and the Epsilon Arietids.
History and mythology
Aries is recognized as an official constellation now, albeit as a specific region of the sky, by the International Astronomical Union. It was originally defined in ancient texts as a specific pattern of stars, and has remained a constellation since ancient times; it now includes the ancient pattern as well as the surrounding stars. In the description of the Babylonian zodiac given in the clay tablets known as the MUL.APIN, the constellation, now known as Aries, was the final station along the ecliptic. The MUL.APIN was a comprehensive table of the risings and settings of stars, which likely served as an agricultural calendar. Modernday Aries was known as , "The Agrarian Worker" or "The Hired Man". Although likely compiled in the 12th or 11th century BC, the MUL.APIN reflects a tradition which marks the P |
leiades as the vernal equinox, which was the case with some precision at the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age. The earliest identifiable reference to Aries as a distinct constellation comes from the boundary stones that date from 1350 to 1000 BC. On several boundary stones, a zodiacal ram figure is distinct from the other characters present. The shift in identification from the constellation as the Agrarian Worker to the Ram likely occurred in later Babylonian tradition because of its growing association with Dumuzi the Shepherd. By the time the MUL.APIN was createdby 1000 BCmodern Aries was identified with both Dumuzi's ram and a hired laborer. The exact timing of this shift is difficult to determine due to the lack of images of Aries or other ram figures.
In ancient Egyptian astronomy, Aries was associated with the god AmonRa, who was depicted as a man with a ram's head and represented fertility and creativity. Because it was the location of the vernal equinox, it was called the "Indicator of the Reborn |
Sun". During the times of the year when Aries was prominent, priests would process statues of AmonRa to temples, a practice that was modified by Persian astronomers centuries later. Aries acquired the title of "Lord of the Head" in Egypt, referring to its symbolic and mythological importance.
Aries was not fully accepted as a constellation until classical times. In Hellenistic astrology, the constellation of Aries is associated with the golden ram of Greek mythology that rescued Phrixus and Helle on orders from Hermes, taking Phrixus to the land of Colchis. Phrixos and Helle were the son and daughter of King Athamas and his first wife Nephele. The king's second wife, Ino, was jealous and wished to kill his children. To accomplish this, she induced a famine in Boeotia, then falsified a message from the Oracle of Delphi that said Phrixos must be sacrificed to end the famine. Athamas was about to sacrifice his son atop Mount Laphystium when Aries, sent by Nephele, arrived. Helle fell off of Aries's back in flig |
ht and drowned in the Dardanelles, also called the Hellespont in her honor.
Historically, Aries has been depicted as a crouched, wingless ram with its head turned towards Taurus. Ptolemy asserted in his Almagest that Hipparchus depicted Alpha Arietis as the ram's muzzle, though Ptolemy did not include it in his constellation figure. Instead, it was listed as an "unformed star", and denoted as "the star over the head". John Flamsteed, in his Atlas Coelestis, followed Ptolemy's description by mapping it above the figure's head. Flamsteed followed the general convention of maps by depicting Aries lying down. Astrologically, Aries has been associated with the head and its humors. It was strongly associated with Mars, both the planet and the god. It was considered to govern Western Europe and Syria, and to indicate a strong temper in a person.
The First Point of Aries, the location of the vernal equinox, is named for the constellation. This is because the Sun crossed the celestial equator from south to north i |
n Aries more than two millennia ago. Hipparchus defined it in 130 BC. as a point south of Gamma Arietis. Because of the precession of the equinoxes, the First Point of Aries has since moved into Pisces and will move into Aquarius by around 2600 AD. The Sun now appears in Aries from late April through mid May, though the constellation is still associated with the beginning of spring.
Medieval Muslim astronomers depicted Aries in various ways. Astronomers like alSufi saw the constellation as a ram, modeled on the precedent of Ptolemy. However, some Islamic celestial globes depicted Aries as a nondescript fourlegged animal with what may be antlers instead of horns. Some early Bedouin observers saw a ram elsewhere in the sky; this constellation featured the Pleiades as the ram's tail. The generally accepted Arabic formation of Aries consisted of thirteen stars in a figure along with five "unformed" stars, four of which were over the animal's hindquarters and one of which was the disputed star over Aries's head. |
AlSufi's depiction differed from both other Arab astronomers' and Flamsteed's, in that his Aries was running and looking behind itself.
The obsolete constellations of Aries ApesVespaLiliumMusca Borealis all centred on the same the northern stars. In 1612, Petrus Plancius introduced Apes, a constellation representing a bee. In 1624, the same stars were used by Jakob Bartsch as for Vespa, representing a wasp. In 1679, Augustin Royer used these stars for his constellation Lilium, representing the fleurdelis. None of these constellation became widely accepted. Johann Hevelius renamed the constellation "Musca" in 1690 in his Firmamentum Sobiescianum. To differentiate it from Musca, the southern fly, it was later renamed Musca Borealis but it did not gain acceptance and its stars were ultimately officially reabsorbed into Aries. The asterism involved was 33, 35, 39, and 41 Arietis.
In 1922, the International Astronomical Union defined its recommended threeletter abbreviation, "Ari". The official boundaries of Ari |
es were defined in 1930 by Eugne Delporte as a polygon of 12 segments. Its right ascension is between 1h 46.4m and 3h 29.4m and its declination is between 10.36 and 31.22 in the equatorial coordinate system.
In nonWestern astronomy
In traditional Chinese astronomy, stars from Aries were used in several constellations. The brightest starsAlpha, Beta, and Gamma Arietisformed a constellation called Lou , variously translated as "bond", "lasso", and "sickle", which was associated with the ritual sacrifice of cattle. This name was shared by the 16th lunar mansion, the location of the full moon closest to the autumnal equinox. This constellation has also been associated with harvesttime as it could represent a woman carrying a basket of food on her head. 35, 39, and 41 Arietis were part of a constellation called Wei , which represented a fat abdomen and was the namesake of the 17th lunar mansion, which represented granaries. Delta and Zeta Arietis were a part of the constellation Tianyin , thought to represent t |
he Emperor's hunting partner. Zuogeng , a constellation depicting a marsh and pond inspector, was composed of Mu, Nu, Omicron, Pi, and Sigma Arietis. He was accompanied by Yeoukang, a constellation depicting an official in charge of pasture distribution.
In a similar system to the Chinese, the first lunar mansion in Hindu astronomy was called "Aswini", after the traditional names for Beta and Gamma Arietis, the Aswins. Because the Hindu new year began with the vernal equinox, the Rig Veda contains over 50 newyear's related hymns to the twins, making them some of the most prominent characters in the work. Aries itself was known as "Aja" and "Mesha". In Hebrew astronomy Aries was named "Taleh"; it signified either Simeon or Gad, and generally symbolizes the "Lamb of the World". The neighboring Syrians named the constellation "Amru", and the bordering Turks named it "Kuzi". Half a world away, in the Marshall Islands, several stars from Aries were incorporated into a constellation depicting a porpoise, along wit |
h stars from Cassiopeia, Andromeda, and Triangulum. Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Arietis formed the head of the porpoise, while stars from Andromeda formed the body and the bright stars of Cassiopeia formed the tail. Other Polynesian peoples recognized Aries as a constellation. The Marquesas islanders called it Napaika; the Mori constellation Pipiri may correspond to modern Aries as well. In indigenous Peruvian astronomy, a constellation with most of the same stars as Aries existed. It was called the "Market Moon" and the "Kneeling Terrace", as a reminder for when to hold the annual harvest festival, Ayri Huay.
Features
Stars
Aries has three prominent stars forming an asterism, designated Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Arietis by Johann Bayer. Alpha Hamal and Beta Sheratan are commonly used for navigation. There is also one other star above the fourth magnitude, 41 Arietis Bharani. Arietis, called Hamal, is the brightest star in Aries. Its traditional name is derived from the Arabic word for "lamb" or "head of the ra |
m" ras alhamal, which references Aries's mythological background. With a spectral class of K2 and a luminosity class of III, it is an orange giant with an apparent visual magnitude of 2.00, which lies 66 lightyears from Earth. Hamal has a luminosity of and its absolute magnitude is 0.1.
Arietis, also known as Sheratan, is a bluewhite star with an apparent visual magnitude of 2.64. Its traditional name is derived from "sharatayn", the Arabic word for "the two signs", referring to both Beta and Gamma Arietis in their position as heralds of the vernal equinox. The two stars were known to the Bedouin as "qarna alhamal", "horns of the ram". It is 59 lightyears from Earth. It has a luminosity of and its absolute magnitude is 2.1. It is a spectroscopic binary star, one in which the companion star is only known through analysis of the spectra. The spectral class of the primary is A5. Hermann Carl Vogel determined that Sheratan was a spectroscopic binary in 1903; its orbit was determined by Hans Ludendorff in 1907 |
. It has since been studied for its eccentric orbit.
Arietis, with a common name of Mesarthim, is a binary star with two whitehued components, located in a rich field of magnitude 812 stars. Its traditional name has conflicting derivations. It may be derived from a corruption of "alsharatan", the Arabic word meaning "pair" or a word for "fat ram". However, it may also come from the Sanskrit for "first star of Aries" or the Hebrew for "ministerial servants", both of which are unusual languages of origin for star names. Along with Beta Arietis, it was known to the Bedouin as "qarna alhamal". The primary is of magnitude 4.59 and the secondary is of magnitude 4.68. The system is 164 lightyears from Earth. The two components are separated by 7.8 arcseconds, and the system as a whole has an apparent magnitude of 3.9. The primary has a luminosity of and the secondary has a luminosity of ; the primary is an Atype star with an absolute magnitude of 0.2 and the secondary is a B9type star with an absolute magnitude o |
f 0.4. The angle between the two components is 1. Mesarthim was discovered to be a double star by Robert Hooke in 1664, one of the earliest such telescopic discoveries. The primary, 1 Arietis, is an Alpha Canum Venaticorum variable star that has a range of 0.02 magnitudes and a period of 2.607 days. It is unusual because of its strong silicon emission lines.
The constellation is home to several double stars, including Epsilon, Lambda, and Pi Arietis. Arietis is a binary star with two white components. The primary is of magnitude 5.2 and the secondary is of magnitude 5.5. The system is 290 lightyears from Earth. Its overall magnitude is 4.63, and the primary has an absolute magnitude of 1.4. Its spectral class is A2. The two components are separated by 1.5 arcseconds. Arietis is a wide double star with a whitehued primary and a yellowhued secondary. The primary is of magnitude 4.8 and the secondary is of magnitude 7.3. The primary is 129 lightyears from Earth. It has an absolute magnitude of 1.7 and a spect |
ral class of F0. The two components are separated by 36 arcseconds at an angle of 50; the two stars are located 0.5 east of 7 Arietis. Arietis is a close binary star with a bluewhite primary and a white secondary. The primary is of magnitude 5.3 and the secondary is of magnitude 8.5. The primary is 776 lightyears from Earth. The primary itself is a wide double star with a separation of 25.2 arcseconds; the tertiary has a magnitude of 10.8. The primary and secondary are separated by 3.2 arcseconds.
Most of the other stars in Aries visible to the naked eye have magnitudes between 3 and 5. Ari, called Boten, is a star of magnitude 4.35, 170 lightyears away. It has an absolute magnitude of 0.1 and a spectral class of K2. Arietis is a star of magnitude 4.89, 263 lightyears away. Its spectral class is A0 and its absolute magnitude is 0.0. 14 Arietis is a star of magnitude 4.98, 288 lightyears away. Its spectral class is F2 and its absolute magnitude is 0.6. 39 Arietis Lilii Borea is a similar star of magnitude |
4.51, 172 lightyears away. Its spectral class is K1 and its absolute magnitude is 0.0. 35 Arietis is a dim star of magnitude 4.55, 343 lightyears away. Its spectral class is B3 and its absolute magnitude is 1.7. 41 Arietis, known both as c Arietis and Nair al Butain, is a brighter star of magnitude 3.63, 165 lightyears away. Its spectral class is B8 and it has a luminosity of . Its absolute magnitude is 0.2. 53 Arietis is a runaway star of magnitude 6.09, 815 lightyears away. Its spectral class is B2. It was likely ejected from the Orion Nebula approximately five million years ago, possibly due to supernovae. Finally, Teegarden's Star is the closest star to Earth in Aries. It is a brown dwarf of magnitude 15.14 and spectral class M6.5V. With a proper motion of 5.1 arcseconds per year, it is the 24th closest star to Earth overall.
Aries has its share of variable stars, including R and U Arietis, Miratype variable stars, and T Arietis, a semiregular variable star. R Arietis is a Mira variable star that ranges |
in magnitude from a minimum of 13.7 to a maximum of 7.4 with a period of 186.8 days. It is 4,080 lightyears away. U Arietis is another Mira variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 15.2 to a maximum of 7.2 with a period of 371.1 days. T Arietis is a semiregular variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 11.3 to a maximum of 7.5 with a period of 317 days. It is 1,630 lightyears away. One particularly interesting variable in Aries is SX Arietis, a rotating variable star considered to be the prototype of its class, helium variable stars. SX Arietis stars have very prominent emission lines of Helium I and Silicon III. They are normally mainsequence B0pB9p stars, and their variations are not usually visible to the naked eye. Therefore, they are observed photometrically, usually having periods that fit in the course of one night. Similar to Alpha Canum Venaticorum variables, SX Arietis stars have periodic changes in their light and magnetic field, which correspond to the periodic rotat |
ion; they differ from the Alpha Canum Venaticorum variables in their higher temperature. There are between 39 and 49 SX Arietis variable stars currently known; ten are noted as being "uncertain" in the General Catalog of Variable Stars.
Sky objects
NGC 772 is a spiral galaxy with an integrated magnitude of 10.3, located southeast of Arietis and 15 arcminutes west of 15 Arietis. It is a relatively bright galaxy and shows obvious nebulosity and ellipticity in an amateur telescope. It is 7.2 by 4.2 arcminutes, meaning that its surface brightness, magnitude 13.6, is significantly lower than its integrated magnitude. NGC 772 is a class SAsb galaxy, which means that it is an unbarred spiral galaxy without a ring that possesses a somewhat prominent bulge and spiral arms that are wound somewhat tightly. The main arm, on the northwest side of the galaxy, is home to many star forming regions; this is due to previous gravitational interactions with other galaxies. NGC 772 has a small companion galaxy, NGC 770, that |
is about 113,000 lightyears away from the larger galaxy. The two galaxies together are also classified as Arp 78 in the Arp peculiar galaxy catalog. NGC 772 has a diameter of 240,000 lightyears and the system is 114 million lightyears from Earth. Another spiral galaxy in Aries is NGC 673, a faceon class SABsc galaxy. It is a weakly barred spiral galaxy with loosely wound arms. It has no ring and a faint bulge and is 2.5 by 1.9 arcminutes. It has two primary arms with fragments located farther from the core. 171,000 lightyears in diameter, NGC 673 is 235 million lightyears from Earth.
NGC 678 and NGC 680 are a pair of galaxies in Aries that are only about 200,000 lightyears apart. Part of the NGC 691 group of galaxies, both are at a distance of approximately 130 million lightyears. NGC 678 is an edgeon spiral galaxy that is 4.5 by 0.8 arcminutes. NGC 680, an elliptical galaxy with an asymmetrical boundary, is the brighter of the two at magnitude 12.9; NGC 678 has a magnitude of 13.35. Both galaxies have brigh |
t cores, but NGC 678 is the larger galaxy at a diameter of 171,000 lightyears; NGC 680 has a diameter of 72,000 lightyears. NGC 678 is further distinguished by its prominent dust lane. NGC 691 itself is a spiral galaxy slightly inclined to our line of sight. It has multiple spiral arms and a bright core. Because it is so diffuse, it has a low surface brightness. It has a diameter of 126,000 lightyears and is 124 million lightyears away. NGC 877 is the brightest member of an 8galaxy group that also includes NGC 870, NGC 871, and NGC 876, with a magnitude of 12.53. It is 2.4 by 1.8 arcminutes and is 178 million lightyears away with a diameter of 124,000 lightyears. Its companion is NGC 876, which is about 103,000 lightyears from the core of NGC 877. They are interacting gravitationally, as they are connected by a faint stream of gas and dust. Arp 276 is a different pair of interacting galaxies in Aries, consisting of NGC 935 and IC 1801.
NGC 821 is an E6 elliptical galaxy. It is unusual because it has hints of |
an early spiral structure, which is normally only found in lenticular and spiral galaxies. NGC 821 is 2.6 by 2.0 arcminutes and has a visual magnitude of 11.3. Its diameter is 61,000 lightyears and it is 80 million lightyears away. Another unusual galaxy in Aries is Segue 2, a dwarf and satellite galaxy of the Milky Way, recently discovered to be a potential relic of the epoch of reionization.
Meteor showers
Aries is home to several meteor showers. The Daytime Arietid meteor shower is one of the strongest meteor showers that occurs during the day, lasting from 22 May to 2 July. It is an annual shower associated with the Marsden group of comets that peaks on 7 June with a maximum zenithal hourly rate of 54 meteors. Its parent body may be the asteroid Icarus. The meteors are sometimes visible before dawn, because the radiant is 32 degrees away from the Sun. They usually appear at a rate of 12 per hour as "earthgrazers", meteors that last several seconds and often begin at the horizon. Because most of the Day |
time Arietids are not visible to the naked eye, they are observed in the radio spectrum. This is possible because of the ionized gas they leave in their wake. Other meteor showers radiate from Aries during the day; these include the Daytime Epsilon Arietids and the Northern and Southern Daytime May Arietids. The Jodrell Bank Observatory discovered the Daytime Arietids in 1947 when James Hey and G. S. Stewart adapted the World War IIera radar systems for meteor observations.
The Delta Arietids are another meteor shower radiating from Aries. Peaking on 9 December with a low peak rate, the shower lasts from 8 December to 14 January, with the highest rates visible from 8 to 14 December. The average Delta Aquarid meteor is very slow, with an average velocity of per second. However, this shower sometimes produces bright fireballs. This meteor shower has northern and southern components, both of which are likely associated with 1990 HA, a nearEarth asteroid.
The Autumn Arietids also radiate from Aries. The shower |
lasts from 7 September to 27 October and peaks on 9 October. Its peak rate is low. The Epsilon Arietids appear from 12 to 23 October. Other meteor showers radiating from Aries include the October Delta Arietids, Daytime Epsilon Arietids, Daytime May Arietids, Sigma Arietids, Nu Arietids, and Beta Arietids. The Sigma Arietids, a class IV meteor shower, are visible from 12 to 19 October, with a maximum zenithal hourly rate of less than two meteors per hour on 19 October.
Planetary systems
Aries contains several stars with extrasolar planets. HIP 14810, a G5 type star, is orbited by three giant planets those more than ten times the mass of Earth. HD 12661, like HIP 14810, is a Gtype main sequence star, slightly larger than the Sun, with two orbiting planets. One planet is 2.3 times the mass of Jupiter, and the other is 1.57 times the mass of Jupiter. HD 20367 is a G0 type star, approximately the size of the Sun, with one orbiting planet. The planet, discovered in 2002, has a mass 1.07 times that of Jupiter an |
d orbits every 500 days. In 2019, scientists conducting the CARMENES survey at the Calar Alto Observatory announced evidence of two Earthmass exoplanets orbiting the star within its habitable zone.
See also
Aries Chinese astronomy
References
Explanatory notes
Citations
Bibliography
Online sources
SIMBAD
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations Aries
The clickable Aries
Star Tales Aries
Warburg Institute Iconographic Database medieval and early modern images of Aries
Constellations
Constellations listed by Ptolemy
Northern constellations |
Aquarius is a constellation of the zodiac, between Capricornus and Pisces. Its name is Latin for "watercarrier" or "cupcarrier", and its old astronomical symbol is , a representation of water. Aquarius is one of the oldest of the recognized constellations along the zodiac the Sun's apparent path. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations. It is found in a region often called the Sea due to its profusion of constellations with watery associations such as Cetus the whale, Pisces the fish, and Eridanus the river.
At apparent magnitude 2.9, Beta Aquarii is the brightest star in the constellation.
History and mythology
Aquarius is identified as "The Great One" in the Babylonian star catalogues and represents the god Ea himself, who is commonly depicted holding an overflowing vase. The Babylonian starfigure appears on entitlement stones and cylinder seals from the second millennium. It contained the winter solstice in the |
Early Bronze Age. In Old Babylonian astronomy, Ea was the ruler of the southernmost quarter of the Sun's path, the "Way of Ea", corresponding to the period of 45 days on either side of winter solstice. Aquarius was also associated with the destructive floods that the Babylonians regularly experienced, and thus was negatively connoted. In Ancient Egypt astronomy, Aquarius was associated with the annual flood of the Nile; the banks were said to flood when Aquarius put his jar into the river, beginning spring.
In the Greek tradition, the constellation came to be represented simply as a single vase from which a stream poured down to Piscis Austrinus. The name in the Hindu zodiac is likewise kumbha "waterpitcher".
In Greek mythology, Aquarius is sometimes associated with Deucalion, the son of Prometheus who built a ship with his wife Pyrrha to survive an imminent flood. They sailed for nine days before washing ashore on Mount Parnassus. Aquarius is also sometimes identified with beautiful Ganymede, a youth in G |
reek mythology and the son of Trojan king Tros, who was taken to Mount Olympus by Zeus to act as cupcarrier to the gods. Neighboring Aquila represents the eagle, under Zeus' command, that snatched the young boy; some versions of the myth indicate that the eagle was in fact Zeus transformed. An alternative version of the tale recounts Ganymede's kidnapping by the goddess of the dawn, Eos, motivated by her affection for young men; Zeus then stole him from Eos and employed him as cupbearer. Yet another figure associated with the water bearer is Cecrops I, a king of Athens who sacrificed water instead of wine to the gods.
Depictions
In the first century, Ptolemy's Almagest established the common Western depiction of Aquarius. His water jar, an asterism itself, consists of Gamma, Pi, Eta, and Zeta Aquarii; it pours water in a stream of more than 20 stars terminating with Fomalhaut, now assigned solely to Piscis Austrinus. The water bearer's head is represented by 5th magnitude 25 Aquarii while his left shoulder |
is Beta Aquarii; his right shoulder and forearm are represented by Alpha and Gamma Aquarii respectively.
In Eastern astronomy
In Chinese astronomy, the stream of water flowing from the Water Jar was depicted as the "Army of YuLin" Yulimkiun or Yulinjun, Hanzi . The name "Yulin" means "feathers and forests", referring to the numerous lightfooted soldiers from the northern reaches of the empire represented by these faint stars. The constellation's stars were the most numerous of any Chinese constellation, numbering 45, the majority of which were located in modern Aquarius. The celestial army was protected by the wall Leibizhen , which counted Iota, Lambda, Phi, and Sigma Aquarii among its 12 stars. 88, 89, and 98 Aquarii represent Fouyoue, the axes used as weapons and for hostage executions. Also in Aquarius is Louipitchin, the ramparts that stretch from 29 and 27 Piscium and 33 and 30 Aquarii through Phi, Lambda, Sigma, and Iota Aquarii to Delta, Gamma, Kappa, and Epsilon Capricorni.
Near the border with Cet |
us, the axe Fuyue was represented by three stars; its position is disputed and may have instead been located in Sculptor. Tienliecheng also has a disputed position; the 13star castle replete with ramparts may have possessed Nu and Xi Aquarii but may instead have been located south in Piscis Austrinus. The Water Jar asterism was seen to the ancient Chinese as the tomb, Fenmu. Nearby, the emperors' mausoleum Xiuliang stood, demarcated by Kappa Aquarii and three other collinear stars. Ku "crying" and Qi "weeping", each composed of two stars, were located in the same region.
Three of the Chinese lunar mansions shared their name with constellations. Nu, also the name for the 10th lunar mansion, was a handmaiden represented by Epsilon, Mu, 3, and 4 Aquarii. The 11th lunar mansion shared its name with the constellation Xu "emptiness", formed by Beta Aquarii and Alpha Equulei; it represented a bleak place associated with death and funerals. Wei, the rooftop and 12th lunar mansion, was a Vshaped constellation formed |
by Alpha Aquarii, Theta Pegasi, and Epsilon Pegasi; it shared its name with two other Chinese constellations, in modernday Scorpius and Aries.
Features
Stars
Despite both its prominent position on the zodiac and its large size, Aquarius has no particularly bright stars, its four brightest stars being less than magnitude 2. However, recent research has shown that there are several stars lying within its borders that possess planetary systems.
The two brightest stars, Alpha and Beta Aquarii, are luminous yellow supergiants, of spectral types G0Ib and G2Ib respectively, that were once hot bluewhite Bclass main sequence stars 5 to 9 times as massive as the Sun. The two are also moving through space perpendicular to the plane of the Milky Way. Just shading Alpha, Beta Aquarii is the brightest star in Aquarius with an apparent magnitude of 2.91. It also has the proper name of Sadalsuud. Having cooled and swollen to around 50 times the Sun's diameter, it is around 2200 times as luminous as the Sun. It is around |
6.4 times as massive as the Sun and around 56 million years old. Sadalsuud is 540 20 lightyears from Earth. Alpha Aquarii, also known as Sadalmelik, has an apparent magnitude of 2.94. It is 520 20 lightyears distant from Earth, and is around 6.5 times as massive as the Sun and 3000 times as luminous. It is 53 million years old.
Aquarii, also called Sadachbia, is a white main sequence star of spectral type star of spectral type A0V that is between 158 and 315 million years old and is around two and a half times the Sun's mass, and double its radius. Of magnitude 3.85, it is 164 9 light years away. It has a luminosity of . The name Sadachbia comes from the Arabic for "lucky stars of the tents", sa'd alakhbiya.
Aquarii, also known as Skat or Scheat is a bluewhite A2 spectral type star of apparent magnitude 3.27 and luminosity of .
Aquarii, also known as Albali, is a bluewhite A1 spectral type star with an apparent magnitude of 3.77, an absolute magnitude of 1.2, and a luminosity of .
Aquarii is an F2 |
spectral type double star; both stars are white. Overall, it appears to be of magnitude 3.6 and luminosity of . The primary has a magnitude of 4.53 and the secondary a magnitude of 4.31, but both have an absolute magnitude of 0.6. Its orbital period is 760 years; the two components are currently moving farther apart.
Aquarii, sometimes called Ancha, is a G8 spectral type star with an apparent magnitude of 4.16 and an absolute magnitude of 1.4.
Aquarii, also called Situla, has an apparent magnitude of 5.03.
Aquarii, also called Hudoor or Ekchusis, is an M2 spectral type star of magnitude 3.74 and luminosity of .
Aquarii, also called Bunda, is an A7 spectral type star with an apparent magnitude of 4.69 and an absolute magnitude of 2.4.
Aquarii, also called Seat, is a B0 spectral type star with an apparent magnitude of 4.66 and an absolute magnitude of 4.1.
Planetary systems
Twelve exoplanet systems have been found in Aquarius as of 2013. Gliese 876, one of the nearest stars to Earth at a distance of |
15 lightyears, was the first red dwarf star to be found to possess a planetary system. It is orbited by four planets, including one terrestrial planet 6.6 times the mass of Earth. The planets vary in orbital period from 2 days to 124 days. 91 Aquarii is an orange giant star orbited by one planet, 91 Aquarii b. The planet's mass is 2.9 times the mass of Jupiter, and its orbital period is 182 days. Gliese 849 is a red dwarf star orbited by the first known longperiod Jupiterlike planet, Gliese 849 b. The planet's mass is 0.99 times that of Jupiter and its orbital period is 1,852 days.
There are also lessprominent systems in Aquarius. WASP6, a type G8 star of magnitude 12.4, is host to one exoplanet, WASP6 b. The star is 307 parsecs from Earth and has a mass of 0.888 solar masses and a radius of 0.87 solar radii. WASP6 b was discovered in 2008 by the transit method. It orbits its parent star every 3.36 days at a distance of 0.042 astronomical units AU. It is 0.503 Jupiter masses but has a proportionally larger r |
adius of 1.224 Jupiter radii. HD 206610, a K0 star located 194 parsecs from Earth, is host to one planet, HD 206610 b. The host star is larger than the Sun; more massive at 1.56 solar masses and larger at 6.1 solar radii. The planet was discovered by the radial velocity method in 2010 and has a mass of 2.2 Jupiter masses. It orbits every 610 days at a distance of 1.68 AU. Much closer to its sun is WASP47 b, which orbits every 4.15 days only 0.052 AU from its sun, yellow dwarf G9V WASP47. WASP47 is close in size to the Sun, having a radius of 1.15 solar radii and a mass even closer at 1.08 solar masses. WASP47 b was discovered in 2011 by the transit method, like WASP6 b. It is slightly larger than Jupiter with a mass of 1.14 Jupiter masses and a radius of 1.15 Jupiter masses.
There are several more singleplanet systems in Aquarius. HD 210277, a magnitude 6.63 yellow star located 21.29 parsecs from Earth, is host to one known planet HD 210277 b. The 1.23 Jupiter mass planet orbits at nearly the same distance a |
s Earth orbits the Sun1.1 AU, though its orbital period is significantly longer at around 442 days. HD 210277 b was discovered earlier than most of the other planets in Aquarius, detected by the radial velocity method in 1998. The star it orbits resembles the Sun beyond their similar spectral class; it has a radius of 1.1 solar radii and a mass of 1.09 solar masses. HD 212771 b, a larger planet at 2.3 Jupiter masses, orbits host star HD 212771 at a distance of 1.22 AU. The star itself, barely below the threshold of nakedeye visibility at magnitude 7.6, is a G8IV yellow subgiant star located 131 parsecs from Earth. Though it has a similar mass to the Sun1.15 solar massesit is significantly less dense with its radius of 5 solar radii. Its lone planet was discovered in 2010 by the radial velocity method, like several other exoplanets in the constellation.
As of 2013, there were only two known multipleplanet systems within the bounds of Aquarius the Gliese 876 and HD 215152 systems. The former is quite prominent |
; the latter has only two planets and has a host star farther away at 21.5 parsecs. The HD 215152 system consists of the planets HD 215152 b and HD 215152 c orbiting their K0type, magnitude 8.13 sun. Both discovered in 2011 by the radial velocity method, the two tiny planets orbit very close to their host star. HD 215152 c is the larger at 0.0097 Jupiter masses still significantly larger than the Earth, which weighs in at 0.00315 Jupiter masses; its smaller sibling is barely smaller at 0.0087 Jupiter masses. The error in the mass measurements 0.0032 and respectively is large enough to make this discrepancy statistically insignificant. HD 215152 c also orbits further from the star than HD 215152 b, 0.0852 AU compared to 0.0652.
On 23 February 2017, NASA announced that ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST1 in Aquarius has seven Earthlike rocky planets. Of these, three are in the system's habitable zone, and may contain water. The discovery of the TRAPPIST1 system is seen by astronomers as a significant step toward f |
inding life beyond Earth.
Deep sky objects
Because of its position away from the galactic plane, the majority of deepsky objects in Aquarius are galaxies, globular clusters, and planetary nebulae. Aquarius contains three deep sky objects that are in the Messier catalog the globular clusters Messier 2, Messier 72, and the asterism Messier 73. While M73 was originally catalogued as a sparsely populated open cluster, modern analysis indicates the 6 main stars are not close enough together to fit this definition, reclassifying M73 as an asterism. Two wellknown planetary nebulae are also located in Aquarius the Saturn Nebula NGC 7009, to the southeast of Aquarii; and the famous Helix Nebula NGC 7293, southwest of Aquarii.
M2, also catalogued as NGC 7089, is a rich globular cluster located approximately 37,000 lightyears from Earth. At magnitude 6.5, it is viewable in smallaperture instruments, but a 100 mm aperture telescope is needed to resolve any stars. M72, also catalogued as NGC 6981, is a small 9th magn |
itude globular cluster located approximately 56,000 lightyears from Earth. M73, also catalogued as NGC 6994, is an open cluster with highly disputed status.
Aquarius is also home to several planetary nebulae. NGC 7009, also known as the Saturn Nebula, is an 8th magnitude planetary nebula located 3,000 lightyears from Earth. It was given its moniker by the 19th century astronomer Lord Rosse for its resemblance to the planet Saturn in a telescope; it has faint protrusions on either side that resemble Saturn's rings. It appears bluegreen in a telescope and has a central star of magnitude 11.3. Compared to the Helix Nebula, another planetary nebula in Aquarius, it is quite small. NGC 7293, also known as the Helix Nebula, is the closest planetary nebula to Earth at a distance of 650 lightyears. It covers 0.25 square degrees, making it also the largest planetary nebula as seen from Earth. However, because it is so large, it is only viewable as a very faint object, though it has a fairly high integrated magnitude o |
f 6.0.
One of the visible galaxies in Aquarius is NGC 7727, of particular interest for amateur astronomers who wish to discover or observe supernovae. A spiral galaxy type S, it has an integrated magnitude of 10.7 and is 3 by 3 arcseconds. NGC 7252 is a tangle of stars resulting from the collision of two large galaxies and is known as the AtomsforPeace galaxy because of its resemblance to a cartoon atom.
Meteor showers
There are three major meteor showers with radiants in Aquarius the Eta Aquariids, the Delta Aquariids, and the Iota Aquariids.
The Eta Aquariids are the strongest meteor shower radiating from Aquarius. It peaks between 5 and 6 May with a rate of approximately 35 meteors per hour. Originally discovered by Chinese astronomers in 401, Eta Aquariids can be seen coming from the Water Jar beginning on 21 April and as late as 12 May. The parent body of the shower is Halley's Comet, a periodic comet. Fireballs are common shortly after the peak, approximately between 9 May and 11 May. The normal mete |
ors appear to have yellow trails.
The Delta Aquariids is a double radiant meteor shower that peaks first on 29 July and second on 6 August. The first radiant is located in the south of the constellation, while the second radiant is located in the northern circlet of Pisces asterism. The southern radiant's peak rate is about 20 meteors per hour, while the northern radiant's peak rate is about 10 meteors per hour.
The Iota Aquariids is a fairly weak meteor shower that peaks on 6 August, with a rate of approximately 8 meteors per hour.
Astrology
, the Sun appears in the constellation Aquarius from 16 February to 12 March. In tropical astrology, the Sun is considered to be in the sign Aquarius from 20 January to 19 February, and in sidereal astrology, from 15 February to 14 March.
Aquarius is also associated with the Age of Aquarius, a concept popular in 1960s counterculture. Despite this prominence, the Age of Aquarius will not dawn until the year 2597, as an astrological age does not begin until the Sun is |
in a particular constellation on the vernal equinox.
Notes
See also
Aquarius Chinese astronomy
References
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations Aquarius
The clickable Aquarius
Warburg Institute Iconographic Database medieval and early modern images of Aquarius
Constellations
Equatorial constellations
Constellations listed by Ptolemy |
is handdrawn and computer animation originating from Japan. In Japan and in Japanese, a term derived from the English word animation describes all animated works, regardless of style or origin. However, outside of Japan and in English, anime is colloquial for Japanese animation and refers specifically to animation produced in Japan. Animation produced outside of Japan with similar style to Japanese animation is referred to as animeinfluenced animation.
The earliest commercial Japanese animations date to 1917. A characteristic art style emerged in the 1960s with the works of cartoonist Osamu Tezuka and spread in following decades, developing a large domestic audience. Anime is distributed theatrically, through television broadcasts, directly to home media, and over the Internet. In addition to original works, anime are often adaptations of Japanese comics manga, light novels, or video games. It is classified into numerous genres targeting various broad and niche audiences.
Anime is a diverse medium with dis |
tinctive production methods that have adapted in response to emergent technologies. It combines graphic art, characterization, cinematography, and other forms of imaginative and individualistic techniques. Compared to Western animation, anime production generally focuses less on movement, and more on the detail of settings and use of "camera effects", such as panning, zooming, and angle shots. Diverse art styles are used, and character proportions and features can be quite varied, with a common characteristic feature being large and emotive eyes.
The anime industry consists of over 430 production companies, including major studios like Studio Ghibli, Sunrise, Ufotable, CoMix Wave Films and Toei Animation. Since the 1980s, the medium has also seen international success with the rise of foreign dubbed, subtitled programming and its increasing distribution through streaming services. As of 2016, Japanese anime accounted for 60 of the world's animated television shows.
In 2019, the annual overseas exports of Ja |
panese animation exceeded 10 billion for the first time in history.
Etymology
As a type of animation, anime is an art form that comprises many genres found in other mediums; it is sometimes mistakenly classified as a genre itself. In Japanese, the term anime is used to refer to all animated works, regardless of style or origin. Englishlanguage dictionaries typically define anime as "a style of Japanese animation" or as "a style of animation originating in Japan". Other definitions are based on origin, making production in Japan a requisite for a work to be considered "anime".
The etymology of the term anime is disputed. The English word "animation" is written in Japanese katakana as and as , in its shortened form. Some sources claim that the term is derived from the French term for animation "cartoon", literally 'animated design', but others believe this to be a myth derived from the popularity of anime in France in the late 1970s and 1980s.
In English, animewhen used as a common nounnormally functi |
ons as a mass noun. For example "Do you watch anime?" or "How much anime have you collected?" As with a few other Japanese words, such as sak and Pokmon, English texts sometimes spell anime as anim as in French, with an acute accent over the final e, to cue the reader to pronounce the letter, not to leave it silent as English orthography may suggest. Prior to the widespread use of anime, the term Japanimation was prevalent throughout the 1970s and 1980s. In the mid1980s, the term anime began to supplant Japanimation; in general, the latter term now only appears in period works where it is used to distinguish and identify Japanese animation.
History
Precursors
Emakimono and kagee are considered precursors of Japanese animation. Emakimono was common in the eleventh century. Traveling storytellers narrated legends and anecdotes while the emakimono was unrolled from the right to left with chronological order, as a moving panorama. Kagee was popular during the Edo period and originated from the shadows play of |
China. Magic lanterns from the Netherlands were also popular in the eighteenth century. The paper play called Kamishibai surged in the twelfth century and remained popular in the street theater until the 1930s. Puppets of the bunraku theater and ukiyoe prints are considered ancestors of characters of most Japanese animations. Finally, mangas were a heavy inspiration for Japanese anime. Cartoonists Kitzawa Rakuten and Okamoto Ippei used film elements in their strips.
Pioneers
Animation in Japan began in the early 20th century, when filmmakers started to experiment with techniques pioneered in France, Germany, the United States, and Russia. A claim for the earliest Japanese animation is Katsud Shashin , a private work by an unknown creator. In 1917, the first professional and publicly displayed works began to appear; animators such as ten Shimokawa, Seitar Kitayama, and Jun'ichi Kuchi considered the "fathers of anime" produced numerous films, the oldest surviving of which is Kuchi's Namakura Gatana. Many ear |
ly works were lost with the destruction of Shimokawa's warehouse in the 1923 Great Kant earthquake.
By the mid1930s, animation was wellestablished in Japan as an alternative format to the liveaction industry. It suffered competition from foreign producers, such as Disney, and many animators, including Nobur fuji and Yasuji Murata, continued to work with cheaper cutout animation rather than cel animation. Other creators, including Kenz Masaoka and Mitsuyo Seo, nevertheless made great strides in technique, benefiting from the patronage of the government, which employed animators to produce educational shorts and propaganda. In 1940, the government dissolved several artists' organizations to form the The first talkie anime was Chikara to Onna no Yo no Naka 1933, a short film produced by Masaoka. The first featurelength anime film was Momotaro Sacred Sailors 1945, produced by Seo with a sponsorship from the Imperial Japanese Navy. The 1950s saw a proliferation of short, animated advertisements created for tele |
vision.
Modern era
In the 1960s, manga artist and animator Osamu Tezuka adapted and simplified Disney animation techniques to reduce costs and limit frame counts in his productions. Originally intended as temporary measures to allow him to produce material on a tight schedule with an inexperienced staff, many of his limited animation practices came to define the medium's style. Three Tales 1960 was the first anime film broadcast on television; the first anime television series was Instant History 196164. An early and influential success was Astro Boy 196366, a television series directed by Tezuka based on his manga of the same name. Many animators at Tezuka's Mushi Production later established major anime studios including Madhouse, Sunrise, and Pierrot.
The 1970s saw growth in the popularity of manga, many of which were later animated. Tezuka's workand that of other pioneers in the fieldinspired characteristics and genres that remain fundamental elements of anime today. The giant robot genre also known as |
"mecha", for instance, took shape under Tezuka, developed into the super robot genre under Go Nagai and others, and was revolutionized at the end of the decade by Yoshiyuki Tomino, who developed the real robot genre. Robot anime series such as Gundam and Super Dimension Fortress Macross became instant classics in the 1980s, and the genre remained one of the most popular in the following decades. The bubble economy of the 1980s spurred a new era of highbudget and experimental anime films, including Nausica of the Valley of the Wind 1984, Royal Space Force The Wings of Honnamise 1987, and Akira 1988.
Neon Genesis Evangelion 1995, a television series produced by Gainax and directed by Hideaki Anno, began another era of experimental anime titles, such as Ghost in the Shell 1995 and Cowboy Bebop 1998. In the 1990s, anime also began attracting greater interest in Western countries; major international successes include Sailor Moon and Dragon Ball Z, both of which were dubbed into more than a dozen languages world |
wide. In 2003, Spirited Away, a Studio Ghibli feature film directed by Hayao Miyazaki, won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature at the 75th Academy Awards. It later became the highestgrossing anime film, earning more than 355 million. Since the 2000s, an increased number of anime works have been adaptations of light novels and visual novels; successful examples include The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya and Fatestay night both 2006. Demon Slayer Kimetsu no Yaiba the Movie Mugen Train became the highestgrossing Japanese film and one of the world's highestgrossing films of 2020. It also became the fastest grossing film in Japanese cinema, because in 10 days it made 10 billion yen 95.3m; 72m. It beat the previous record of Spirited Away which took 25 days.
Attributes
Anime differs greatly from other forms of animation by its diverse art styles, methods of animation, its production, and its process. Visually, anime works exhibit a wide variety of art styles, differing between creators, artists, and studi |
os. While no single art style predominates anime as a whole, they do share some similar attributes in terms of animation technique and character design.
Technique
Modern anime follows a typical animation production process, involving storyboarding, voice acting, character design, and cel production. Since the 1990s, animators have increasingly used computer animation to improve the efficiency of the production process. Early anime works were experimental, and consisted of images drawn on blackboards, stop motion animation of paper cutouts, and silhouette animation. Cel animation grew in popularity until it came to dominate the medium. In the 21st century, the use of other animation techniques is mostly limited to independent short films, including the stop motion puppet animation work produced by Tadahito Mochinaga, Kihachir Kawamoto and Tomoyasu Murata. Computers were integrated into the animation process in the 1990s, with works such as Ghost in the Shell and Princess Mononoke mixing cel animation with co |
mputergenerated images. Fuji Film, a major cel production company, announced it would stop cel production, producing an industry panic to procure cel imports and hastening the switch to digital processes.
Prior to the digital era, anime was produced with traditional animation methods using a pose to pose approach. The majority of mainstream anime uses fewer expressive key frames and more inbetween animation.
Japanese animation studios were pioneers of many limited animation techniques, and have given anime a distinct set of conventions. Unlike Disney animation, where the emphasis is on the movement, anime emphasizes the art quality and let limited animation techniques make up for the lack of time spent on movement. Such techniques are often used not only to meet deadlines but also as artistic devices. Anime scenes place emphasis on achieving threedimensional views, and backgrounds are instrumental in creating the atmosphere of the work. The backgrounds are not always invented and are occasionally based on r |
eal locations, as exemplified in Howl's Moving Castle and The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya. Oppliger stated that anime is one of the rare mediums where putting together an allstar cast usually comes out looking "tremendously impressive".
The cinematic effects of anime differentiates itself from the stage plays found in American animation. Anime is cinematically shot as if by camera, including panning, zooming, distance and angle shots to more complex dynamic shots that would be difficult to produce in reality. In anime, the animation is produced before the voice acting, contrary to American animation which does the voice acting first.
Characters
The body proportions of human anime characters tend to accurately reflect the proportions of the human body in reality. The height of the head is considered by the artist as the base unit of proportion. Head heights can vary, but most anime characters are about seven to eight heads tall. Anime artists occasionally make deliberate modifications to body proportions |
to produce super deformed characters that feature a disproportionately small body compared to the head; many super deformed characters are two to four heads tall. Some anime works like Crayon Shinchan completely disregard these proportions, in such a way that they resemble caricatured Western cartoons.
A common anime character design convention is exaggerated eye size. The animation of characters with large eyes in anime can be traced back to Osamu Tezuka, who was deeply influenced by such early animation characters as Betty Boop, who was drawn with disproportionately large eyes. Tezuka is a central figure in anime and manga history, whose iconic art style and character designs allowed for the entire range of human emotions to be depicted solely through the eyes. The artist adds variable color shading to the eyes and particularly to the cornea to give them greater depth. Generally, a mixture of a light shade, the tone color, and a dark shade is used. Cultural anthropologist Matt Thorn argues that Japanese an |
imators and audiences do not perceive such stylized eyes as inherently more or less foreign. However, not all anime characters have large eyes. For example, the works of Hayao Miyazaki are known for having realistically proportioned eyes, as well as realistic hair colors on their characters.
Hair in anime is often unnaturally lively and colorful or uniquely styled. The movement of hair in anime is exaggerated and "hair action" is used to emphasize the action and emotions of characters for added visual effect. Poitras traces hairstyle color to cover illustrations on manga, where eyecatching artwork and colorful tones are attractive for children's manga. Despite being produced for a domestic market, anime features characters whose race or nationality is not always defined, and this is often a deliberate decision, such as in the Pokmon animated series.
Anime and manga artists often draw from a common canon of iconic facial expression illustrations to denote particular moods and thoughts. These techniques are o |
ften different in form than their counterparts in Western animation, and they include a fixed iconography that is used as shorthand for certain emotions and moods. For example, a male character may develop a nosebleed when aroused. A variety of visual symbols are employed, including sweat drops to depict nervousness, visible blushing for embarrassment, or glowing eyes for an intense glare. Another recurring sight gag is the use of chibi deformed, simplified character designs figures to comedically punctuate emotions like confusion or embarrassment.
Music
The opening and credits sequences of most anime television series are accompanied by Jpop or Jrock songs, often by reputed bandsas written with the series in mindbut are also aimed at the general music market, therefore they often allude only vaguely or not at all, to the thematic settings or plot of the series. Also, they are often used as incidental music "insert songs" in an episode, in order to highlight particularly important scenes.
Genres
Anime are |
often classified by target demographic, including , , and a diverse range of genres targeting an adult audience. Shoujo and shounen anime sometimes contain elements popular with children of both sexes in an attempt to gain crossover appeal. Adult anime may feature a slower pace or greater plot complexity that younger audiences may typically find unappealing, as well as adult themes and situations. A subset of adult anime works featuring pornographic elements are labeled "R18" in Japan, and are internationally known as hentai originating from . By contrast, some anime subgenres incorporate ecchi, sexual themes or undertones without depictions of sexual intercourse, as typified in the comedic or harem genres; due to its popularity among adolescent and adult anime enthusiasts, the inclusion of such elements is considered a form of fan service. Some genres explore homosexual romances, such as yaoi male homosexuality and yuri female homosexuality. While often used in a pornographic context, the terms yaoi and yu |
ri can also be used broadly in a wider context to describe or focus on the themes or the development of the relationships themselves.
Anime's genre classification differs from other types of animation and does not lend itself to simple classification. Gilles Poitras compared the labeling Gundam 0080 and its complex depiction of war as a "giant robot" anime akin to simply labeling War and Peace a "war novel". Science fiction is a major anime genre and includes important historical works like Tezuka's Astro Boy and Yokoyama's Tetsujin 28go. A major subgenre of science fiction is mecha, with the Gundam metaseries being iconic. The diverse fantasy genre includes works based on Asian and Western traditions and folklore; examples include the Japanese feudal fairytale InuYasha, and the depiction of Scandinavian goddesses who move to Japan to maintain a computer called Yggdrasil in Ah! My Goddess. Genre crossing in anime is also prevalent, such as the blend of fantasy and comedy in Dragon Half, and the incorporation |
of slapstick humor in the crime anime film Castle of Cagliostro. Other subgenres found in anime include magical girl, harem, sports, martial arts, literary adaptations, medievalism, and war.
Formats
Early anime works were made for theatrical viewing, and required played musical components before sound and vocal components were added to the production. In 1958, Nippon Television aired Mogura no Abanchru "Mole's Adventure", both the first televised and first color anime to debut. It was not until the 1960s when the first televised series were broadcast and it has remained a popular medium since. Works released in a direct to video format are called "original video animation" OVA or "original animation video" OAV; and are typically not released theatrically or televised prior to home media release. The emergence of the Internet has led some animators to distribute works online in a format called "original net anime" ONA.
The home distribution of anime releases were popularized in the 1980s with the VHS and L |
aserDisc formats. The VHS NTSC video format used in both Japan and the United States is credited as aiding the rising popularity of anime in the 1990s. The LaserDisc and VHS formats were transcended by the DVD format which offered the unique advantages; including multiple subtitling and dubbing tracks on the same disc. The DVD format also has its drawbacks in its usage of region coding; adopted by the industry to solve licensing, piracy and export problems and restricted region indicated on the DVD player. The Video CD VCD format was popular in Hong Kong and Taiwan, but became only a minor format in the United States that was closely associated with bootleg copies.
A key characteristic of many anime television shows is serialization, where a continuous story arc stretches over multiple episodes or seasons. Traditional American television had an episodic format, with each episode typically consisting of a selfcontained story. In contrast, anime shows such as Dragon Ball Z had a serialization format, where con |
tinuous story arcs stretch over multiple episodes or seasons, which distinguished them from traditional American television shows; serialization has since also become a common characteristic of American streaming television shows during the "Peak TV" era.
Industry
The animation industry consists of more than 430 production companies with some of the major studios including Toei Animation, Gainax, Madhouse, Gonzo, Sunrise, Bones, TMS Entertainment, Nippon Animation, P.A.Works, Studio Pierrot and Studio Ghibli. Many of the studios are organized into a trade association, The Association of Japanese Animations. There is also a labor union for workers in the industry, the Japanese Animation Creators Association. Studios will often work together to produce more complex and costly projects, as done with Studio Ghibli's Spirited Away. An anime episode can cost between US100,000 and US300,000 to produce. In 2001, animation accounted for 7 of the Japanese film market, above the 4.6 market share for liveaction works. |
The popularity and success of anime is seen through the profitability of the DVD market, contributing nearly 70 of total sales. According to a 2016 article on Nikkei Asian Review, Japanese television stations have bought over worth of anime from production companies "over the past few years", compared with under from overseas. There has been a rise in sales of shows to television stations in Japan, caused by late night anime with adults as the target demographic. This type of anime is less popular outside Japan, being considered "more of a niche product". Spirited Away 2001 is the alltime highestgrossing film in Japan. It was also the highestgrossing anime film worldwide until it was overtaken by Makoto Shinkai's 2016 film Your Name. Anime films represent a large part of the highestgrossing Japanese films yearly in Japan, with 6 out of the top 10 in 2014, in 2015 and also in 2016.
Anime has to be licensed by companies in other countries in order to be legally released. While anime has been licensed by its |
Japanese owners for use outside Japan since at least the 1960s, the practice became wellestablished in the United States in the late 1970s to early 1980s, when such TV series as Gatchaman and Captain Harlock were licensed from their Japanese parent companies for distribution in the US market. The trend towards American distribution of anime continued into the 1980s with the licensing of titles such as Voltron and the 'creation' of new series such as Robotech through use of source material from several original series.
In the early 1990s, several companies began to experiment with the licensing of less childrenoriented material. Some, such as A.D. Vision, and Central Park Media and its imprints, achieved fairly substantial commercial success and went on to become major players in the now very lucrative American anime market. Others, such as AnimEigo, achieved limited success. Many companies created directly by Japanese parent companies did not do as well, most releasing only one or two titles before completi |
ng their American operations.
Licenses are expensive, often hundreds of thousands of dollars for one series and tens of thousands for one movie. The prices vary widely; for example, Jinki Extend cost only 91,000 to license while Kurau Phantom Memory cost 960,000. Simulcast Internet streaming rights can be cheaper, with prices around 1,0002,000 an episode, but can also be more expensive, with some series costing more than per episode.
The anime market for the United States was worth approximately 2.74 billion in 2009, today in 2022 the anime market for the United States is worth approximately 25 billion. Dubbed animation began airing in the United States in 2000 on networks like The WB and Cartoon Network's Adult Swim. In 2005, this resulted in five of the top ten anime titles having previously aired on Cartoon Network. As a part of localization, some editing of cultural references may occur to better follow the references of the nonJapanese culture. The cost of English localization averages US10,000 per ep |
isode.
The industry has been subject to both praise and condemnation for fansubs, the addition of unlicensed and unauthorized subtitled translations of anime series or films. Fansubs, which were originally distributed on VHS bootlegged cassettes in the 1980s, have been freely available and disseminated online since the 1990s. Since this practice raises concerns for copyright and piracy issues, fansubbers tend to adhere to an unwritten moral code to destroy or no longer distribute an anime once an official translated or subtitled version becomes licensed. They also try to encourage viewers to buy an official copy of the release once it comes out in English, although fansubs typically continue to circulate through filesharing networks. Even so, the laid back regulations of the Japanese animation industry tend to overlook these issues, allowing it to grow underground and thus increasing the popularity until there is a demand for official highquality releases for animation companies. This has led to an increase |
in global popularity with Japanese animations, reaching 40 million in sales in 2004.
Since the 2010s anime has become a global multibillion industry setting a sales record in 2017 of 2.15 trillion 19.8 billion, driven largely by demand from overseas audiences. In 2019, Japan's anime industry was valued at 24 billion a year with 48 of that revenue coming from overseas which is now its largest industry sector. By 2025 the anime industry is expected to reach a value of 30 billion with over 60 of that revenue to come from
overseas.
Markets
Japan External Trade Organization JETRO valued the domestic anime market in Japan at , including from licensed products, in 2005. JETRO reported sales of overseas anime exports in 2004 to be . JETRO valued the anime market in the United States at , including in home video sales and over from licensed products, in 2005. JETRO projected in 2005 that the worldwide anime market, including sales of licensed products, would grow to . The anime market in China was valued at |
in 2017, and is projected to reach by 2020. By 2030 the global anime market is expected to reach a value of 48.3 Billion with the largest contributors to this growth being North America, Europe, China and The Middle East.
Awards
The anime industry has several annual awards that honor the year's best works. Major annual awards in Japan include the fuji Nobur Award, the Mainichi Film Award for Best Animation Film, the Animation Kobe Awards, the Japan Media Arts Festival animation awards, the Tokyo Anime Award and the Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year. In the United States, anime films compete in the Crunchyroll Anime Awards. There were also the American Anime Awards, which were designed to recognize excellence in anime titles nominated by the industry, and were held only once in 2006. Anime productions have also been nominated and won awards not exclusively for anime, like the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature or the Golden Bear.
Working conditions
In recent years the anime industry has |
been accused by both Japanese and foreign media for underpaying and overworking its animators. In response the Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida promised to improve the working conditions and salary of all animators and creators working in the industry. A few anime studios such as MAPPA have taken actions to improve the working conditions of their employees.
Globalization and Cultural Impact
Anime has become commercially profitable in Western countries, as demonstrated by early commercially successful Western adaptations of anime, such as Astro Boy and Speed Racer. Early American adaptions in the 1960s made Japan expand into the continental European market, first with productions aimed at European and Japanese children, such as Heidi, Vicky the Viking and Barbapapa, which aired in various countries. Italy, Spain, and France grew a particular interest into Japan's output, due to its cheap selling price and productive output. In fact, Italy imported the most anime outside of Japan. These mass imports in |
fluenced anime popularity in South American, Arabic and German markets.
The beginning of 1980 saw the introduction of Japanese anime series into the American culture. In the 1990s, Japanese animation slowly gained popularity in America. Media companies such as Viz and Mixx began publishing and releasing animation into the American market. The 1988 film Akira is largely credited with popularizing anime in the Western world during the early 1990s, before anime was further popularized by television shows such as Pokmon and Dragon Ball Z in the late 1990s. By 1997, Japanese anime was the fastestgrowing genre in the American video industry. The growth of the Internet later provided international audiences an easy way to access Japanese content. Early on, online piracy played a major role in this, through over time many legal alternatives appeared. Since the 2010s various streaming services have become increasingly involved in the production and licensing of anime for the international markets. This is especially |
the case with net services such as Netflix and Crunchyroll which have large catalogs in Western countries, although as of 2020 anime fans in many developing nonWestern countries, such as India and Philippines, have fewer options of obtaining access to legal content, and therefore still turn to online piracy. However beginning with the early 2020s anime has been experiencing yet another boom in global popularity and demand due to the Covid19 pandemic and streaming services like Netflix, Prime video, Hulu and anime only services like Crunchyroll Funimation increasing the international availability of the amount of new licensed anime shows as well as the size of their catalogs.
Netflix reported that, between October 2019 and September 2020, more than member households worldwide had watched at least one anime title on the platform. Anime titles appeared on the streaming platforms top 10 lists in almost 100 countries within the 1year period.
As of 2021 Japanese anime are the most demanded foreign language shows |
in the United States accounting for 30.5 of the market shareIn comparison, Spanish and Korean shows account for 21 and 11 of the market share.
In 2022 the anime series Attack on Titan won the award of "Most indemand TV series in the world 2021" in the Global TV Demand Awards. Attack on Titan became the first ever nonEnglish language series to earn the title of Worlds Most InDemand TV Show, previously held by only The Walking Dead and Game of Thrones.
Rising interest in anime as well as japanese video games has led to an increase of university students in the United Kingdom wanting to get a degree in the Japanese language.
Various anime and manga series have influenced Hollywood in the making of numerous famous movies and characters. Hollywood itself has produced liveaction adaptations of various anime series such as Ghost in the Shell, Death Note, Dragon Ball Evolution and Cowboy Bebop. However most of these adaptations have been reviewed negatively by both the critics and the audience and have become boxof |
fice flops. The main reasons for the unsuccessfulness of Hollywood's adaptions of anime being the often change of plot and characters from the original source material and the limited capabilities a liveaction movie or series can do in comparison to an animated counterpart. One particular exception however is Alita Battle Angel which has become a moderate commercial success, receiving generally positive reviews from both the critics and the audience for it's visual effects and following the source material. The movie grossed 404 million worldwide, making it directors Robert Rodriguez's highestgrossing film.
Anime alongside many other parts of Japanese pop culture has helped Japan to gain a positive worldwide image and improve it's relations with other countries.
In 2015 During remarks welcoming Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe to the White House, President Barack Obama thanked Japan for its cultural contributions to the United States by saying
This visit is a celebration of the ties of friendship and famil |
y that bind our peoples. I first felt it when I was 6 years old when my mother took me to Japan. I felt it growing up in Hawaii, like communities across our country, home to so many proud Japanese Americans, and Today is also a chance for Americans, especially our young people, to say thank you for all the things we love from Japan. Like karate and karaoke. Manga and anime. And, of course, emojis. In July 2020, after the approval of a Chilean government project in which citizens of Chile would be allowed to withdraw up to 10 of their privately held retirement savings, journalist Pamela Jiles celebrated by running through congress with her arms spread out behind her, imitating the move of many characters of the anime and manga series Naruto. In April 2021 Peruvian politicians Jorge Hugo Romero of the PPC and Milagros Jurez of the UPP cosplayed as anime characters to get the otaku vote.
A 2018 survey conducted in 20 countries and territories using a sample consisting of 6,600 respondents held by Dentsu reveale |
d that 34 of all surveyed people found excellency in anime and manga more than other Japanese cultural or technological aspects which makes this mass Japanese media the 3rd most liked "Japanese thing", below japanese cuisine 34.6 and japanese robotics 35.1. The advertisement company views anime as a profitable tool for marketing campaigns in foreign countries due it's popularity and high reception.
Anime plays a role in driving tourism to Japan. In surveys held by Statista between 2019 and 2020, 24.2 of tourists from the United States, 7.7 of tourists from China and 6.1 of tourists from South Korea said they were motivated to visit Japan because of Japanese popular culture.
In a 2021 survey held by Crunchyroll market research, 94 of GenZ's and 73 of the general population said that they are familiar with anime.
Fan response
Anime clubs gave rise to anime conventions in the 1990s with the "anime boom", a period marked by anime's increased global popularity. These conventions are dedicated to anime and man |
ga and include elements like cosplay contests and industry talk panels. Cosplay, a portmanteau of "costume play", is not unique to anime and has become popular in contests and masquerades at anime conventions. Japanese culture and words have entered English usage through the popularity of the medium, including otaku, an unflattering Japanese term commonly used in English to denote an obsessive fan of anime andor manga. Another word that has arisen describing obsessive fans in the United States is wapanese meaning 'white individuals who want to be Japanese', or later known as weeaboo or weeb, individuals who demonstrate an obsession in Japanese anime subculture, a term that originated from abusive content posted on the website 4chan.org. While originally derogatory, the terms "Otaku" and "Weeb" have been reappropriated by some in the anime fandom overtime and today are used by some fans to refer to themselves in a comedic and more positive way.
Anime enthusiasts have produced fan fiction and fan art, including |
computer wallpapers and anime music videos AMVs.
As of the 2020s, many anime fans use social media platforms like YouTube, Facebook, Reddit and Twitter which has added an entire "anime and manga" category of topics
with online communities and databases such as MyAnimeList to discuss anime, manga and track their progress watching respective series as well as using news outlets such as Anime News Network.
Due to anime's increased popularity in recent years, a large number of celebrities such as Elon Musk, BTS and Ariana Grande have come out as anime fans.
Anime style
One of the key points that made anime different from a handful of Western cartoons is the potential for visceral content. Once the expectation that the aspects of visual intrigue or animation being just for children is put aside, the audience can realize that themes involving violence, suffering, sexuality, pain, and death can all be storytelling elements utilized in anime just as much as other media. However, as anime itself became increasin |
gly popular, its styling has been inevitably the subject of both satire and serious creative productions. South Parks "Chinpokomon" and "Good Times with Weapons" episodes, Adult Swim's Perfect Hair Forever, and Nickelodeon's Kappa Mikey are examples of Western satirical depictions of Japanese culture and anime, but anime tropes have also been satirized by some anime such as KonoSuba.
Traditionally only Japanese works have been considered anime, but some works have sparked debate for blurring the lines between anime and cartoons, such as the American animestyle production Avatar The Last Airbender. These animestyled works have become defined as animeinfluenced animation, in an attempt to classify all anime styled works of nonJapanese origin. Some creators of these works cite anime as a source of inspiration, for example the French production team for ban StarRacers that moved to Tokyo to collaborate with a Japanese production team. When anime is defined as a "style" rather than as a national product, it leave |
s open the possibility of anime being produced in other countries, but this has been contentious amongst fans, with John Oppliger stating, "The insistence on referring to original American art as Japanese "anime" or "manga" robs the work of its cultural identity."
A U.A.E.Filipino produced TV series called Torkaizer is dubbed as the "Middle East's First Anime Show", and is currently in production and looking for funding. Netflix has produced multiple anime series in collaboration with Japanese animation studios, and in doing so, has offered a more accessible channel for distribution to Western markets.
The webbased series RWBY, produced by Texasbased company Rooster Teeth, is produced using an anime art style, and the series has been described as "anime" by multiple sources. For example, Adweek, in the headline to one of its articles, described the series as "Americanmade anime", and in another headline, The Huffington Post described it as simply "anime", without referencing its country of origin. In 2013, |
Monty Oum, the creator of RWBY, said "Some believe just like Scotch needs to be made in Scotland, an American company can't make anime. I think that's a narrow way of seeing it. Anime is an art form, and to say only one country can make this art is wrong." RWBY has been released in Japan with a Japanese language dub; the CEO of Rooster Teeth, Matt Hullum, commented "This is the first time any Americanmade anime has been marketed to Japan. It definitely usually works the other way around, and we're really pleased about that."
Media franchises
In Japanese culture and entertainment, media mix is a strategy to disperse content across multiple representations different broadcast media, gaming technologies, cell phones, toys, amusement parks, and other methods. It is the Japanese term for a transmedia franchise. The term gained its circulation in late 1980s, but the origins of the strategy can be traced back to the 1960s with the proliferation of anime, with its interconnection of media and commodity goods.
A |
number of anime and manga media franchises such as Demon Slayer Kimetsu no Yaiba, Dragon Ball and Gundam have gained considerable global popularity, and are among the world's highestgrossing media franchises. Pokmon in particular is estimated to be the highestgrossing media franchise of all time.
See also
Animation director
Chinese animation
Cinema of Japan
Cool Japan
Culture of Japan
History of anime
Japanophilia
Japanese language
Japanese popular culture
Korean animation
Lists of anime
Manga
Mechademia
Otaku
Vtuber
Voice acting in Japan
Notes
References
Sources
External links
1917 introductions
Anime and manga terminology
Japanese inventions |
Asterism may refer to
Asterism astronomy, a pattern of stars
Asterism gemology, an optical phenomenon in gemstones
Asterism typography, a moderately rare typographical symbol denoting a break in passages
See also
Aster disambiguation |
Ankara , ; , historically known as Ancyra and Angora, is the capital of Turkey. Located in the central part of Anatolia, the city has a population of 5.1 million in its urban center and over 5.7 million in Ankara Province, making it Turkey's secondlargest city after Istanbul.
Serving as the capital of the ancient Celtic state of Galatia 28064 BC, and later of the Roman province with the same name 25 BC7th century, the city is very old, with various Hattian, Hittite, Lydian, Phrygian, Galatian, Greek, Persian, Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman archeological sites. The Ottomans made the city the capital first of the Anatolia Eyalet 1393 late 15th century and then the Angora Vilayet 18671922. The historical center of Ankara is a rocky hill rising over the left bank of the Ankara River, a tributary of the Sakarya River. The hill remains crowned by the ruins of Ankara Castle. Although few of its outworks have survived, there are wellpreserved examples of Roman and Ottoman architecture throughout the city, the mos |
t remarkable being the 20 BC Temple of Augustus and Rome that boasts the Monumentum Ancyranum, the inscription recording the Res Gestae Divi Augusti.
On 23 April 1920, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey was established in Ankara, which became the headquarters of the Turkish National Movement during the Turkish War of Independence. Ankara became the new Turkish capital upon the establishment of the Republic on 29 October 1923, succeeding in this role as the former Turkish capital Istanbul following the fall of the Ottoman Empire. The government is a prominent employer, but Ankara is also an important commercial and industrial city located at the center of Turkey's road and railway networks. The city gave its name to the Angora wool shorn from Angora rabbits, the longhaired Angora goat the source of mohair, and the Angora cat. The area is also known for its pears, honey and muscat grapes. Although situated in one of the driest regions of Turkey and surrounded mostly by steppe vegetation except for the fores |
ted areas on the southern periphery, Ankara can be considered a green city in terms of green areas per inhabitant, at per head.
Etymology
The orthography of the name Ankara has varied over the ages. It has been identified with the Hittite cult center Ankuwa, although this remains a matter of debate. In classical antiquity and during the medieval period, the city was known as nkyra , "anchor" in Greek and Ancyra in Latin; the Galatian Celtic name was probably a similar variant. Following its annexation by the Seljuk Turks in 1073, the city became known in many European languages as Angora; it was also known in Ottoman Turkish as Engr. The form "Angora" is preserved in the names of breeds of many different kinds of animals, and in the names of several locations in the US see Angora.
History
The region's history can be traced back to the Bronze Age Hattic civilization, which was succeeded in the 2nd millennium BC by the Hittites, in the 10th century BC by the Phrygians, and later by the Lydians, Persian |
s, Greeks, Galatians, Romans, Byzantines, and Turks the Seljuk Sultanate of Rm, the Ottoman Empire and finally republican Turkey.
Ancient history
The oldest settlements in and around the city center of Ankara belonged to the Hattic civilization which existed during the Bronze Age and was gradually absorbed c. 2000 1700 BC by the IndoEuropean Hittites. The city grew significantly in size and importance under the Phrygians starting around 1000 BC, and experienced a large expansion following the mass migration from Gordion, the capital of Phrygia, after an earthquake which severely damaged that city around that time. In Phrygian tradition, King Midas was venerated as the founder of Ancyra, but Pausanias mentions that the city was actually far older, which accords with present archeological knowledge.
Phrygian rule was succeeded first by Lydian and later by Persian rule, though the strongly Phrygian character of the peasantry remained, as evidenced by the gravestones of the much later Roman period. Persian so |
vereignty lasted until the Persians' defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great who conquered the city in 333 BC. Alexander came from Gordion to Ankara and stayed in the city for a short period. After his death at Babylon in 323 BC and the subsequent division of his empire among his generals, Ankara, and its environs fell into the share of Antigonus.
Another important expansion took place under the Greeks of Pontos who came there around 300 BC and developed the city as a trading center for the commerce of goods between the Black Sea ports and Crimea to the north; Assyria, Cyprus, and Lebanon to the south; and Georgia, Armenia and Persia to the east. By that time the city also took its name nkyra, meaning anchor in Greek which, in slightly modified form, provides the modern name of Ankara.
Celtic history
In 278 BC, the city, along with the rest of central Anatolia, was occupied by a Celtic group, the Galatians, who were the first to make Ankara one of their main tribal centers, the headquarters of the Tect |
osages tribe. Other centers were Pessinus, today's Ballhisar, for the Trocmi tribe, and Tavium, to the east of Ankara, for the Tolistobogii tribe. The city was then known as Ancyra. The Celtic element was probably relatively small in numbers; a warrior aristocracy which ruled over Phrygianspeaking peasants. However, the Celtic language continued to be spoken in Galatia for many centuries. At the end of the 4th century, St. Jerome, a native of Dalmatia, observed that the language spoken around Ankara was very similar to that being spoken in the northwest of the Roman world near Trier.
Roman history
The city was subsequently passed under the control of the Roman Empire. In 25 BC, Emperor Augustus raised it to the status of a polis and made it the capital city of the Roman province of Galatia. Ankara is famous for the Monumentum Ancyranum Temple of Augustus and Rome which contains the official record of the Acts of Augustus, known as the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, an inscription cut in marble on the walls of thi |
s temple. The ruins of Ancyra still furnish today valuable basreliefs, inscriptions and other architectural fragments. Two other Galatian tribal centers, Tavium near Yozgat, and Pessinus Balhisar to the west, near Sivrihisar, continued to be reasonably important settlements in the Roman period, but it was Ancyra that grew into a grand metropolis.
An estimated 200,000 people lived in Ancyra in good times during the Roman Empire, a far greater number than was to be the case from after the fall of the Roman Empire until the early 20th century. The small Ankara River ran through the center of the Roman town. It has now been covered and diverted, but it formed the northern boundary of the old town during the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman periods. ankaya, the rim of the majestic hill to the south of the present city center, stood well outside the Roman city, but may have been a summer resort. In the 19th century, the remains of at least one Roman villa or large house were still standing not far from where the ankay |
a Presidential Residence stands today. To the west, the Roman city extended until the area of the Genlik Park and Railway Station, while on the southern side of the hill, it may have extended downwards as far as the site presently occupied by Hacettepe University. It was thus a sizeable city by any standards and much larger than the Roman towns of Gaul or Britannia.
Ancyra's importance rested on the fact that it was the junction point where the roads in northern Anatolia running northsouth and eastwest intersected, giving it major strategic importance for Rome's eastern frontier. The great imperial road running east passed through Ankara and a succession of emperors and their armies came this way. They were not the only ones to use the Roman highway network, which was equally convenient for invaders. In the second half of the 3rd century, Ancyra was invaded in rapid succession by the Goths coming from the west who rode far into the heart of Cappadocia, taking slaves and pillaging and later by the Arabs. For |
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