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{ "title": [ "Early life in Ireland.", "Scotland.", "Legacy.", "Ireland.", "Scotland.", "Poetry.", "Other.", "\"Vita Columbae\".", "Book one (Of his Prophetic Revelations).", "Book two (Of his Miraculous Powers).", "Book three (The Apparitions of Angels).", "Other early sources of Columba's life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Columba was born to Fedlimid and Eithne of the Cenel Conaill in Gartan, a district beside Lough Gartan, in Tír Chonaill (mainly modern County Donegal) in the north of Ireland. On his father's side, he is claimed as being great-great-grandson of Niall of the Nine Hostages, a pseudo-historical Irish high king of the 5th century. He was baptised in Temple-Douglas, in the County Donegal parish of Conwal (midway between Gartan and Letterkenny), by his teacher and foster-uncle Cruithnechán. It is not known for sure if his name at birth was Colmcille or if he adopted this name later in life; Adomnán (Eunan) of Iona thought it was his birth name but other Irish sources have claimed his name at birth was Crimthann (meaning 'fox'). In the Irish language his name means 'dove', which is the same name as the Prophet Jonah (Jonah in Hebrew is also 'dove'), which Adomnán of Iona as well as other early Irish writers were aware of, although it is not clear if he was deliberately named after Jonah or not. When sufficiently advanced in letters he entered the monastic school of Movilla, at Newtownards, under Finnian of Movilla who had studied at Ninian's \"Magnum Monasterium\" on the shores of Galloway. He was about twenty, and a deacon when, having completed his training at Movilla, he travelled southwards into Leinster, where he became a pupil of an aged bard named Gemman. On leaving him, Columba entered the monastery of Clonard, governed at that time by Finnian, noted for sanctity and learning. Here he imbibed the traditions of the Welsh Church, for Finnian had been trained in the schools of Saint David. In early Christian Ireland the druidic tradition collapsed due to the spread of the new Christian faith. The study of Latin learning and Christian theology in monasteries flourished. Columba became a pupil at the monastic school at Clonard Abbey, situated on the River Boyne in modern County Meath. During the sixth century, some of the most significant names in the history of Celtic Christianity studied at the Clonard monastery. The average number of scholars under instruction at Clonard was said to be 300. Columba was one of twelve students of St Finnian who became known as the Twelve Apostles of Ireland. He became a monk and eventually was ordained a priest. Another preceptor of Columba was St Mobhi, whose monastery at Glasnevin was frequented by such famous men as St Canice, St Comgall, and St Ciarán. A pestilence which devastated Ireland in 544 caused the dispersion of Mobhi's disciples, and Columba returned to Ulster, the land of his kindred. He was a striking figure of great stature and powerful build, with a loud, melodious voice which could be heard from one hilltop to another. The following years were marked by the foundation of several important monasteries: Derry, at the southern edge of Inishowen; Durrow, County Offaly; Kells, County Meath; and Swords. While at Derry it is said that he planned a pilgrimage to Rome and Jerusalem, but did not proceed farther than Tours. Thence he brought a copy of those gospels that had lain on the bosom of St. Martin for the space of 100 years. This relic was deposited in Derry. Some traditions assert that sometime around 560 Columba became involved in a quarrel with Finnian of Moville of Movilla Abbey over a psalter. Columba copied the manuscript at the scriptorium under Finnian, intending to keep the copy. Finnian disputed his right to keep it. There is a suggestion that this conflict resulted in the Battle of Cúl Dreimhne in Cairbre Drom Cliabh (now in County Sligo) in 561, during which many men were killed. Richard Sharpe, translator of Adomnán's Life of St. Columba (referenced in the bibliography below) makes a stern caution at this point against accepting the many references that link the battle and Columba's leaving of Ireland, even though there is evidence in the annals that Columba supported his own king against the high king. Political conflicts that had existed for some time resulted in the clan Neill's battle against King Diarmait at Cooldrevny in 561. An issue, for example, was the king's violation of the right of sanctuary belonging to Columba's person as a monk on the occasion of the murder of Prince Curnan, the Columba's kinsman. Prince Curnan of Connacht, who had fatally injured a rival in a hurling match and had taken refuge with Columba, was dragged from his protector's arms and slain by Diarmaid's men, in defiance of the rights of sanctuary. A synod of clerics and scholars threatened to excommunicate him for these deaths, but Brendan of Birr spoke on his behalf. Eventually the process was deemed a miscarriage of justice. Columba's own conscience was uneasy, and on the advice of an aged hermit, Molaise, he resolved to expiate his sense of offence by departing Ireland. The term \"exile\" is used in some references. This, too, can be disputed, for the term \"pilgrimage\" is used more frequently in the literature about him. A marker at Stroove Beach on the Inishowen Peninsula commemorates the place where St. Columba set sail for Scotland. He left Ireland, but through the following years he would return several times in relationships with the communities he had founded there.Columba's copy of the psalter has been traditionally associated with the Cathach of St. Columba. In 574/5 during his return for the Synod of Drum Ceat he founded the monastery of Drumcliff in Cairbre, now County Sligo, near the battlefield.", "In 563, he travelled to Scotland with twelve companions (said to include Odran of Iona) in a wicker currach covered with leather. According to legend he first landed on the Kintyre Peninsula, near Southend. However, being still in sight of his native land, he moved farther north up the west coast of Scotland. The island of Iona was made over to him by his kinsman Conall mac Comgaill King of Dál Riata, who perhaps had invited him to come to Scotland in the first place. However, there is a sense in which he was not leaving his native people, as the Ulster Gaels had been colonising the west coast of Scotland for the previous couple of centuries. Aside from the services he provided guiding the only centre of literacy in the region, his reputation as a holy man led to his role as a diplomat among the tribes. There are also many stories of miracles which he performed during his work to convert the Picts, the most famous being his encounter with an unidentified animal that some have equated with the Loch Ness Monster in 565. It is said that he banished a ferocious \"water beast\" to the depths of the River Ness after it had killed a Pict and then tried to attack Columba's disciple named Lugne (see Vita Columbae Book 2 below). He visited the pagan King Bridei, King of Fortriu, at his base in Inverness, winning Bridei's respect, although not his conversion. He subsequently played a major role in the politics of the country. He was also very energetic in his work as a missionary, and, in addition to founding several churches in the Hebrides, he worked to turn his monastery at Iona into a school for missionaries. He was a renowned man of letters, having written several hymns and being credited with having transcribed 300 books. One of the few, if not the only, times he left Scotland was towards the end of his life, when he returned to Ireland to found the monastery at Durrow. Columba died on Iona and was buried in 597 by his monks in the abbey he created. In 794 the Vikings descended on Iona. Columba's relics were finally removed in 849 and divided between Scotland and Ireland. The parts of the relics which went to Ireland are reputed to be buried in Downpatrick, County Down, with Saint Patrick and Brigid of Kildare or at Saul Church neighbouring Downpatrick. (Names of Iona), Inchcolm and Eilean Chaluim Chille.", "", "Colmcille is one of the three patron saints of Ireland, after Patrick and Brigid of Kildare. Colmcille is the patron-saint of the city of Derry, where he founded a monastic settlement in c. 540. The name of the city in Irish is \"Doire Colmcille\" and is derived from the native oak trees in the area and the city's association with Colmcille. The Catholic Church of Saint Colmcille's Long Tower, and the Church of Ireland St Augustine's Church both claim to stand at the spot of this original settlement. The Church of Ireland Cathedral, St Columb's Cathedral, and the largest park in the city, St. Columb's Park, are named in his honour. St. Columba's Primary School in Drumcondra is a girl's school named after the saint. St. Colmcille's Primary School and St. Colmcille's Community School are two schools in Knocklyon, Dublin, named after him, with the former having an annual day dedicated to the saint on 9 June. The town of Swords, Dublin was reputedly founded by Colmcille in 560 AD. St Colmcille's Boys’ National School and St. Colmcille's Girls’ National School, both located in the town of Swords, are also named after the Saint as is one of the local gaelic teams, Naomh Colmcille. The Columba Press, a religious and spiritual book company based in Dublin, is named after Colmcille. Aer Lingus, Ireland's national flag carrier has named one of its Airbus A330 aircraft in commemoration of the saint (reg: EI-DUO).", "Columba is credited as being a leading figure in the revitalisation of monasticism. The Clan Malcolm/Clan McCallum claims its name from Columba and was reputedly founded by the descendants of his original followers. It is also said that Clan Robertson Clan Donnachaidh / Duncan are heirs of Columba. Clan MacKinnon may also have some claim to being spiritual descendants of St Columba as after he founded his monastery on Isle Iona, the MacKinnons were the abbots of the Church for centuries. This would also account for the fact that Clan MacKinnon is amongst the ancient clans of Scotland. The cathedral of the Catholic Diocese of Argyll and the Isles is placed under the patronage of Saint Columba, as are numerous Catholic schools and parishes throughout the nation. The Scottish Episcopal Church, the Church of Scotland, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of England also have parishes dedicated to him. The village of Kilmacolm in Renfrewshire is also derived from Colmcille's name. St Columba's Hospice, a prominent hospice in Edinburgh, is named after the saint.", "Columba currently has two poems attributed to him: \"Adiutor Laborantium\" and \"Altus Prosator\". Both poems are examples of Abecedarian hymns in Latin written while Columba was at the Iona Abbey. The shorter of the two poems, \"Adiutor Laborantium\" consists of twenty-seven lines of eight syllables each, with each line following the format of an Abecedarian hymn using the Classical Latin alphabet save for lines 10-11 and 25–27. The content of the poem addresses God as a helper, ruler, guard, defender and lifter for those who are good and an enemy of sinners whom he will punish. \"Altus Prosator\" consists of twenty-three stanzas sixteen syllables long, with the first containing seven lines and six lines in each subsequent stanza. It uses the same format and alphabet as \"Adiutor Laborantium\" except with each stanza starting with a different letter rather than each line. The poem tells a story over three parts split into the beginning of time, history of Creation, and the Apocalypse or end of time.", "As of 2011, Canadians who are of Scottish ancestry are the third largest ethnic group in the country and thus Columba's name is to be found attached to Catholic, Anglican and Presbyterian parishes. This is particularly the case in eastern Canada, apart from French-speaking Quebec. Throughout the US there are numerous parishes within the Catholic and Episcopalian denominations dedicated to Columba. Within the Protestant tradition the Presbyterian Church (which has its roots in Scottish Presbyterianism) also has parishes named in honour of Columba. There is even an Orthodox Church monastery dedicated to the saint in the Massachusetts town of Southbridge. Columba is the patron saint of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Youngstown, Ohio. The Cathedral there is named for him. Iona College, a small Catholic liberal arts college in New Rochelle, New York, is named after the island on which Columba established his first monastery in Scotland, as is Iona College in Windsor, Ontario, Iona Presentation College, Perth, and Iona College Geelong in Charlemont, Victoria. There are at least four pipe bands named for him; one each from Tullamore, Ireland, from Derry, Northern Ireland, from Kearny, New Jersey, and from Cape Cod, Massachusetts. St. Columba's School one of the most prominent English-Medium schools in India run by the Irish Christian Brothers is also named after the saint. The Munich GAA is named München Colmcilles. Saint Columba's Feast Day, 9 June, has been designated as International Celtic Art Day. The Book of Kells and the Book of Durrow, great medieval masterpieces of Celtic art, are associated with Columba. Benjamin Britten composed \"A Hymn of St Columba\" for choir and organ in 1962, setting a poem by the saint, on the occasion of the 1,400th anniversary of his voyage to Iona.", "The main source of information about Columba's life is the Vita Columbae, a hagiography written in the style of \"saint's lives\" narratives that had become widespread throughout medieval Europe. Compiled and drafted by scribes and clergymen, these accounts were written in Latin and served as written collections of the deeds and miracles attributed to the saint, both during his or her life or after death. The canonization of a saint, especially one who had lived on the fringes of the medieval Christian world like Columba, required a well-written hagiography to be submitted to Rome, but popular belief and local cults of sainthood often led to the veneration of these men and women without official approval from the Church. Writing a century after the death of Columba, the author Adomnán (also known as Eunan), served as the ninth Abbot of Iona until his death in 704. James Earle Fraser asserts that Adomnán drew extensively from an existing body of accounts regarding the life of Columba, including a Latin collection entitled \"De uirtutibus sancti Columbae\", composed c. 640 A.D. This earlier work is attributed to Cummene Find, who became the abbot of Iona and served as the leader of the monastic island community from 656 until his death in 668 A.D. or 669 A.D. While the Vita Columbae often conflicts with contemporaneous accounts of various battles, figures, and dates, it remains the most important surviving work from early medieval Scotland and provides a wealth of knowledge regarding the Picts and other ethnic and political groups from this time period. The Vita also offers a valuable insight into the monastic practices of Iona and the daily life of the early medieval Gaelic monks. The surviving manuscripts include: Instead of relying on chronological order, Adomnán categorises the events recorded in the \"Vita Columbae\" into three different books: Columba's Prophecies, Columba's Miracles, and Columba's Apparitions.", "In the first book, the author Adomnán lists Columba's prophetic revelations, which come as a result of the his ability to view the present and the future simultaneously. Most of the short chapters begin with Columba informing his fellow monks that a person will soon arrive on the island or an event will imminently occur. In one notable instance, Columba appears in a dream to King Oswald of Northumbria, and announces the king's incoming victory against the King Catlon (Cadwallon of Wales) in the Battle of Heavenfield. The people of Britain promise to convert to Christianity and receive baptism after the conclusion of the war. This victory signals the re-Christianizing of pagan England, and establishes King Oswald as ruler of the entirety of Britain. Columba's other prophecies include when he sends a man named Batain off to perform his penance, but then Columba turns to his friends and says Batain will instead return to Scotia and be killed by his enemies. Several of Saint Columba's prophecies reflect the scribal culture in which he was immersed, such his miraculous knowledge of the missing letter \"I” from Baithene's psalter or when he prophecies that an eager man will knock over his inkhorn and spill its contents.", "In the second book, Columba performs various miracles such as healing people with diseases, expelling malignant spirits, subduing wild beasts, calming storms, and even returning the dead to life. He also performs agricultural miracles that would hold a special significance to the common people of Ireland and the Britain such as when he casts a demon out of a pail and restores the spilt milk to its container. The Vita contains a story that has been interpreted as the first reference to the Loch Ness Monster. According to Adomnán, Columba came across a group of Picts burying a man who had been killed by the monster. Columba saves a swimmer from the monster with the sign of the Cross and the imprecation, \"Thou shalt go no further, nor touch the man; go back with all speed.\" The beast flees, terrified, to the amazement of the assembled Picts who glorified Columba's God. Whether or not this incident is true, Adomnan's text specifically states that the monster was swimming in the River Ness – the river flowing from the loch – rather than in Loch Ness itself.", "In book three, Adomnán describes different apparitions of the Saint, both that Columba receives and those that are seen by others regarding him. He mentions that, \"For indeed after the lapse of many years,... St. Columba was excommunicated by a certain synod for some pardonable and very trifling reasons, and indeed unjustly\" (P.79- 80). In one of the accounts, Columba, in this period of excommunication, goes to a meeting held against him in Teilte. Brendán, despite of all the negative reactions among the seniors toward Columba, kisses him reverently and assures that Columba is the man of God and that he sees Holy Angels accompanying Columba on his journey through the plain. In the last Chapter, Columba foresees his own death when speaking to his attendant: This day in the Holy Scriptures is called the Sabbath, which means rest. And this day is indeed a Sabbath to me, for it is the last day of my present laborious life, and on it I rest after the fatigues of my labours; and this night at midnight, which commenceth the solemn Lord's Day, I shall, according to the sayings of Scripture, go the way of our fathers. For already my Lord Jesus Christ deigneth to invite me; and to Him, I say, in the middle of this night shall I depart, at His invitation. For so it hath been revealed to me by the Lord himself. And when the bell strikes midnight, Columba goes to the church and kneels beside the altar. His attendant witnesses heavenly light in the direction of Columba, and angels join him in his passage to the Lord: And having given them his holy benediction in this way, he immediately breathed his last. After his soul had left the tabernacle of the body, his face still continued ruddy, and brightened in a wonderful way by his vision of the angels, and that to such a degree that he had the appearance, not so much of one dead, as of one alive and sleeping.", "Both the \"Vita Columbae\" and the Bede (672/673-735) record Columba's visit to Bridei. Whereas Adomnán just tells us that Columba visited Bridei, Bede relates a later, perhaps Pictish tradition, whereby Columba actually converts the Pictish king. Another early source is a poem in praise of Columba, most probably commissioned by Columba's kinsman, the King of the Uí Néill clan. It was almost certainly written within three or four years of Columba's death and is the earliest vernacular poem in European history. It consists of 25 stanzas of four verses of seven syllables each, called the Amra Coluim Chille. Through the reputation of its venerable founder and its position as a major European centre of learning, Columba's Iona became a place of pilgrimage. Columba is historically revered as a warrior saint, and was often invoked for victory in battle. His relics were finally removed in 849 and divided between Alba and Ireland. Relics of Columba were carried before Scottish armies in the reliquary made at Iona in the mid-8th century, called the Brecbennoch. Legend has it that the Brecbennoch was carried to the Battle of Bannockburn (24 June 1314) by the vastly outnumbered Scots army and the intercession of Columba helped them to victory. Since the 19th century the \"Brecbennoch of St. Columba\" has been identified with the Monymusk Reliquary, although this is now doubted by scholars. In the Antiphoner of Inchcolm Abbey, the \"Iona of the East\" (situated on an island in the Firth of Forth), a 14th-century prayer begins \"O Columba spes Scotorum...\" \"O Columbus, hope of the Scots\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Definition of CGS units in mechanics.", "Derivation of CGS units in electromagnetism.", "CGS approach to electromagnetic units.", "Alternative derivations of CGS units in electromagnetism.", "Various extensions of the CGS system to electromagnetism.", "Electrostatic units (ESU).", "ESU notation.", "Electromagnetic units (EMU).", "EMU notation.", "Relations between ESU and EMU units.", "Practical CGS units.", "Other variants.", "Electromagnetic units in various CGS systems.", "Advantages and disadvantages." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The CGS system goes back to a proposal in 1832 by the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss to base a system of absolute units on the three fundamental units of length, mass and time. Gauss chose the units of millimetre, milligram and second. In 1873, a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, including physicists James Clerk Maxwell and William Thomson recommended the general adoption of centimetre, gram and second as fundamental units, and to express all derived electromagnetic units in these fundamental units, using the prefix \"C.G.S. unit of...\". The sizes of many CGS units turned out to be inconvenient for practical purposes. For example, many everyday objects are hundreds or thousands of centimetres long, such as humans, rooms and buildings. Thus the CGS system never gained wide general use outside the field of science. Starting in the 1880s, and more significantly by the mid-20th century, CGS was gradually superseded internationally for scientific purposes by the MKS (metre–kilogram–second) system, which in turn developed into the modern SI standard. Since the international adoption of the MKS standard in the 1940s and the SI standard in the 1960s, the technical use of CGS units has gradually declined worldwide, in the United States more slowly than elsewhere. CGS units are today no longer accepted by the house styles of most scientific journals, textbook publishers, or standards bodies, although they are commonly used in astronomical journals such as \"The Astrophysical Journal\". CGS units are still occasionally encountered in technical literature, especially in the United States in the fields of material science, electrodynamics and astronomy. The continued usage of CGS units is most prevalent in magnetism and related fields because the B and H fields have the same units in free space and there is a lot of potential for confusion when converting published measurements from CGS to MKS. The units gram and centimetre remain useful as noncoherent units within the SI system, as with any other prefixed SI units.", "In mechanics, the quantities in the CGS and SI systems are defined identically. The two systems differ only in the scale of the three base units (centimetre versus metre and gram versus kilogram, respectively), with the third unit (second) being the same in both systems. There is a direct correspondence between the base units of mechanics in CGS and SI. Since the formulae expressing the laws of mechanics are the same in both systems and since both systems are coherent, the definitions of all coherent derived units in terms of the base units are the same in both systems, and there is an unambiguous correspondence of derived units: Thus, for example, the CGS unit of pressure, barye, is related to the CGS base units of length, mass, and time in the same way as the SI unit of pressure, pascal, is related to the SI base units of length, mass, and time: Expressing a CGS derived unit in terms of the SI base units, or vice versa, requires combining the scale factors that relate the two systems:", "", "The conversion factors relating electromagnetic units in the CGS and SI systems are made more complex by the differences in the formulae expressing physical laws of electromagnetism as assumed by each system of units, specifically in the nature of the constants that appear in these formulae. This illustrates the fundamental difference in the ways the two systems are built:", "Electromagnetic relationships to length, time and mass may be derived by several equally appealing methods. Two of them rely on the forces observed on charges. Two fundamental laws relate (seemingly independently of each other) the electric charge or its rate of change (electric current) to a mechanical quantity such as force. They can be written in system-independent form as follows: Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism relates these two laws to each other. It states that the ratio of proportionality constants formula_10 and formula_14 must obey formula_17, where \"c\" is the speed of light in vacuum. Therefore, if one derives the unit of charge from the Coulomb's law by setting formula_18 then Ampère's force law will contain a prefactor formula_19. Alternatively, deriving the unit of current, and therefore the unit of charge, from the Ampère's force law by setting formula_20 or formula_21, will lead to a constant prefactor in the Coulomb's law. Indeed, both of these mutually exclusive approaches have been practiced by the users of CGS system, leading to the two independent and mutually exclusive branches of CGS, described in the subsections below. However, the freedom of choice in deriving electromagnetic units from the units of length, mass, and time is not limited to the definition of charge. While the electric field can be related to the work performed by it on a moving electric charge, the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the velocity of the moving charge, and thus the work performed by the magnetic field on any charge is always zero. This leads to a choice between two laws of magnetism, each relating magnetic field to mechanical quantities and electric charge: These two laws can be used to derive Ampère's force law above, resulting in the relationship: formula_25. Therefore, if the unit of charge is based on the Ampère's force law such that formula_26, it is natural to derive the unit of magnetic field by setting formula_27. However, if it is not the case, a choice has to be made as to which of the two laws above is a more convenient basis for deriving the unit of magnetic field. Furthermore, if we wish to describe the electric displacement field D and the magnetic field H in a medium other than vacuum, we need to also define the constants ε and μ, which are the vacuum permittivity and permeability, respectively. Then we have (generally) formula_28 and formula_29, where P and M are polarization density and magnetization vectors. The units of P and M are usually so chosen that the factors λ and λ′ are equal to the \"rationalization constants\" formula_30 and formula_31, respectively. If the rationalization constants are equal, then formula_32. If they are equal to one, then the system is said to be \"rationalized\": the laws for systems of spherical geometry contain factors of 4π (for example, point charges), those of cylindrical geometry – factors of 2π (for example, wires), and those of planar geometry contain no factors of π (for example, parallel-plate capacitors). However, the original CGS system used λ = λ′ = 4π, or, equivalently, formula_33. Therefore, Gaussian, ESU, and EMU subsystems of CGS (described below) are not rationalized.", "The table below shows the values of the above constants used in some common CGS subsystems: Also, note the following correspondence of the above constants to those in Jackson and Leung: Of these variants, only in Gaussian and Heaviside–Lorentz systems formula_38 equals formula_39 rather than 1. As a result, vectors formula_40 and formula_41 of an electromagnetic wave propagating in vacuum have the same units and are equal in magnitude in these two variants of CGS. In each of these systems the quantities called \"charge\" etc. may be a different quantity; they are distinguished here by a superscript. The corresponding quantities of each system are related through a proportionality constant. Maxwell's equations can be written in each of these systems as:", "In the electrostatic units variant of the CGS system, (CGS-ESU), charge is defined as the quantity that obeys a form of Coulomb's law without a multiplying constant (and current is then defined as charge per unit time): The ESU unit of charge, franklin (Fr), also known as statcoulomb or esu charge, is therefore defined as follows: Therefore, in CGS-ESU, a franklin is equal to a centimetre times square root of dyne: The unit of current is defined as: Dimensionally in the CGS-ESU system, charge \"q\" is therefore equivalent to MLT. In CGS-ESU, all electric and magnetic quantities are dimensionally expressible terms of length, mass, and time, and none has an independent dimension. Such a system of units of electromagnetism, in which the dimensions of all electric and magnetic quantities are expressible in terms of the mechanical dimensions of mass, length, and time, is traditionally called an 'absolute system'.", "All electromagnetic units in ESU CGS system that do not have proper names are denoted by a corresponding SI name with an attached prefix \"stat\" or with a separate abbreviation \"esu\".", "In another variant of the CGS system, electromagnetic units (EMUs), current is defined via the force existing between two thin, parallel, infinitely long wires carrying it, and charge is then defined as current multiplied by time. (This approach was eventually used to define the SI unit of ampere as well). In the EMU CGS subsystem, this is done by setting the Ampere force constant formula_26, so that Ampère's force law simply contains 2 as an explicit prefactor. The EMU unit of current, biot (Bi), also known as abampere or emu current, is therefore defined as follows: The unit of charge in CGS EMU is: Dimensionally in the EMU CGS system, charge \"q\" is therefore equivalent to ML. Hence, neither charge nor current is an independent physical quantity in EMU CGS.", "All electromagnetic units in EMU CGS system that do not have proper names are denoted by a corresponding SI name with an attached prefix \"ab\" or with a separate abbreviation \"emu\".", "The ESU and EMU subsystems of CGS are connected by the fundamental relationship formula_17 (see above), where \"c\" = 29,979,245,800 ≈ 3⋅10 is the speed of light in vacuum in centimetres per second. Therefore, the ratio of the corresponding \"primary\" electrical and magnetic units (e.g. current, charge, voltage, etc. – quantities proportional to those that enter directly into Coulomb's law or Ampère's force law) is equal either to \"c\" or \"c\": and Units derived from these may have ratios equal to higher powers of \"c\", for example:", "The practical CGS system is a hybrid system that uses the volt and the ampere as the unit of voltage and current respectively. Doing this avoids the inconveniently large and small quantities that arise for electromagnetic units in the esu and emu systems. This system was at one time widely used by electrical engineers because the volt and ampere had been adopted as international standard units by the International Electrical Congress of 1881. As well as the volt and amp, the farad (capacitance), ohm (resistance), coulomb (electric charge), and henry are consequently also used in the practical system and are the same as the SI units.", "There were at various points in time about half a dozen systems of electromagnetic units in use, most based on the CGS system. These include the Gaussian units and the Heaviside–Lorentz units.", "In this table, \"c\" = is the dimensionless numeric value of the speed of light in vacuum when expressed in units of centimetres per second. The symbol \"≘\" is used instead of \"=\" as a reminder that the quantities are \"corresponding\" but not in general \"equal\", even between CGS variants. For example, according to the next-to-last row of the table, if a capacitor has a capacitance of 1 F in SI, then it has a capacitance of (10 \"c\") cm in ESU; \"but\" it is incorrect to replace \"1 F\" with \"(10 \"c\") cm\" within an equation or formula. (This warning is a special aspect of electromagnetism units in CGS. By contrast, for example, it is \"always\" correct to replace \"1 m\" with \"100 cm\" within an equation or formula.) One can think of the SI value of the Coulomb constant \"k\" as: This explains why SI to ESU conversions involving factors of \"c\" lead to significant simplifications of the ESU units, such as 1 statF = 1 cm and 1 statΩ = 1 s/cm: this is the consequence of the fact that in ESU system \"k\" = 1. For example, a centimetre of capacitance is the capacitance of a sphere of radius 1 cm in vacuum. The capacitance \"C\" between two concentric spheres of radii \"R\" and \"r\" in ESU CGS system is: By taking the limit as \"R\" goes to infinity we see \"C\" equals \"r\".", "While the absence of constant coefficients in the formulae expressing some relation between the quantities in some CGS subsystems simplifies some calculations, it has the disadvantage that sometimes the units in CGS are hard to define through experiment. Also, lack of unique unit names leads to a great confusion: thus \"15 emu\" may mean either 15 abvolts, or 15 emu units of electric dipole moment, or 15 emu units of magnetic susceptibility, sometimes (but not always) per gram, or per mole. On the other hand, SI starts with a unit of current, the ampere, that is easier to determine through experiment, but which requires extra coefficinets in the electromagnetic equations. With its system of uniquely named units, the SI also removes any confusion in usage: 1 ampere is a fixed value of a specified quantity, and so are 1 henry, 1 ohm, and 1 volt. An advantage of the Gaussian CGS system is that electric and magnetic fields have the same units, 4\"πε\" is replaced by 1, and the only dimensional constant appearing in the Maxwell equations is \"c\", the speed of light. The Heaviside–Lorentz system has these properties as well (with \"ε\" equaling 1), but it is a \"rationalized\" system (as is SI) in which the charges and fields are defined in such a way that there are fewer factors of 4\"π\" appearing in the formulas, and it is in Heaviside–Lorentz units that the Maxwell equations take their simplest form. In SI, and other rationalized systems (for example, Heaviside–Lorentz), the unit of current was chosen such that electromagnetic equations concerning charged spheres contain 4π, those concerning coils of current and straight wires contain 2π and those dealing with charged surfaces lack π entirely, which was the most convenient choice for applications in electrical engineering. However, modern hand calculators and personal computers have eliminated this \"advantage\". In some fields where formulas concerning spheres are common (for example, in astrophysics), it has been argued that the nonrationalized CGS system can be somewhat more convenient notationally. Specialized unit systems are used to simplify formulas even further than \"either\" SI \"or\" CGS, by eliminating constants through some system of natural units. For example, in particle physics a system is in use where every quantity is expressed by only one unit of energy, the electronvolt, with lengths, times, and so on all converted into electronvolts by inserting factors of speed of light \"c\" and the reduced Planck constant \"ħ\". This unit system is convenient for calculations in particle physics, but it would be considered impractical in other contexts." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Military career.", "Later life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Helsinki, Ehrnrooth entered cadet school in 1922 and served in the Uusimaa Dragoon Regiment (\"Uudenmaan Rakuunarykmentti\"). In 1958 he married a Danish countess Karin-Birgitte Schack who was a lady-in-waiting and a close friend of Queen Ingrid of Denmark. They had three children: Karin, Hans and Eva.", "During the brief Winter War against the Soviet Union, he served on the staffs of the 7th Division and the Cavalry Brigade. When the Continuation War, also against the Soviet Union, broke out in June 1941, he served as the chief of staff of the 2nd Division until he was seriously wounded. After he recovered he was appointed to lead the 7th Infantry regiment (JR 7) of the 2nd Division. During the battles on the Karelian Isthmus, he was awarded the Mannerheim cross. He also received the Grand Cross of the Royal Swedish Order of the Sword. After the war, he led an active military career until he retired in 1965.", "Adolf Ehrnrooth was the face and voice most associated with rehabilitation of the soldiers who secured Finland her independence. The long post-war era during which it simply was not progressive to value the military ended in the early 1990s, at which time his charismatic persona was at its height. He became a figurehead for the whole veteran community—straight-talking and unapologetic. When he found out that many nationalist youths cited him as an idol, he blasted them squarely by saying that he might have in his own youth held nationalistic views, but that Finland's path was now in the European Union, a view the nationalists did not hold. Voice impressionists have found his idiosyncratically emphasized speech patterns and overheavily guttural snarls a rich ground to harvest. For them he is one of the indispensable voices. In his last statement he gave support to ProKarelia (Finnish NGO) and its plan for the Return of Ceded Territories. He said that he defended the borders of Finland declared in the Treaty of Tartu and considered them the only proper borders of Finland and that it was great injustice that the Soviet Union had taken these territories. General Ehrnrooth died on 26 February 2004, and is buried in Hietaniemi cemetery, Helsinki. He was voted as the 4th greatest Finn of all time by the Finnish public during the Suuret suomalaiset (Great Finns) competition in 2004." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "As monkeys.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "They were proverbial as liars, cheats, and accomplished knaves. They once stole Heracles' weapons, during the time he was the penitent servant of Omphale in Lydia. He seized and bound them at Ephesus and punished them by tying them to a shoulder pole he slung over his shoulder with their faces pointing downwards, the only way they appear on Greek vases. The sight of Heracles' dark-tanned posterior set them both to laughing; when Heracles demanded to know what they were laughing at and they told him, he joined them in their laughter and let them go. This particular myth is depicted on a metope at Temple C at Selinus. According to Pherecydes, the Cercopes were turned to stone.", "In another myth, designed to explain their name (\"tail-men\" in Greek), Zeus changed the Cercopes into monkeys. This story inspired modern zoologists to name the genus of monkeys depicted in Minoan frescoes as \"Cercopithecus\". Monkeys figure in four Minoan frescos at Akrotiri, most famously in the crocus-gathering Xeste 3 fresco, where the monkey's ritual aspect, attending an enthroned female, is interpreted by Nanno Marinatos as servants of the divinity, acting as intermediary between humanity and the divine world. Green monkeys appear in Crete itself in the \"House of the Frescoes\" at Knossos, Monkeys are absent from Greek art. In Minoan art, it is assumed that they were exotic pets: \"... the monkeys, which were imported to Crete, were pets that would have been placed where they could be seen and used by their owners, rather than simply abandoned in the countryside,\" concluded Shaw (1993). When Greek mythographers attempted to account for the name \"Pithecusae\" (“Ape Islands”) given to Ischia and Procida by the Bay of Naples, where no monkeys had been seen within human memory, they were reduced to alleging that they must have been deceitful men whom Zeus punished by turning them into apes. When scholars attempted to account for this exotic image they have been forced to search farther afield: The story of Herakles and the Cercopes has been interpreted as a reminiscence of Phoenician traders bringing apes to Greek markets. See O. Keller, \"Thiere des classischen Alterthums\" (Innsbruck, 1887), p. 1. The interpretation may perhaps be supported by an Assyrian bas-relief which represents a Herculean male figure carrying an ape on his head and leading another ape by a leash, the animals being apparently brought as tribute to a king. See O. Keller, \"op. cit.\", p. 11, fig. 2. Cline identified the monkey species in 1991 as guenons, or blue monkeys, which have bluish fur over their green skins. Scholars generally assume that the appearance of the blue monkey in Aegean iconography was due to the import of the actual animal from north Africa; they were iconic religious animals in Egypt", "Further references to the \"Cercopes\" can be found by the following classical authors:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Medical uses.", "Side effects.", "Mechanism of action.", "Names.", "Natural occurrence.", "Chemistry.", "Pharmacology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hydroxycarbamide is used for the following indications:", "Reported side-effects are: neurological reactions (e.g., headache, dizziness, drowsiness, disorientation, hallucinations, and convulsions), nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, mucositis, anorexia, stomatitis, bone marrow toxicity (dose-limiting toxicity; may take 7–21 days to recover after the drug has been discontinued), megaloblastic anemia, thrombocytopenia, bleeding, hemorrhage, gastrointestinal ulceration and perforation, immunosuppression, leukopenia, alopecia (hair loss), skin rashes (e.g., maculopapular rash), erythema, pruritus, vesication or irritation of the skin and mucous membranes, pulmonary edema, abnormal liver enzymes, creatinine and blood urea nitrogen. Due to its negative effect on the bone marrow, regular monitoring of the full blood count is vital, as well as early response to possible infections. In addition, renal function, uric acid and electrolytes, as well as liver enzymes, are commonly checked. Moreover, because of this, severe anemia and neutropenia are contraindicated. Hydroxycarbamide has been used primarily for the treatment of myeloproliferative diseases, which has an inherent risk of transforming to acute myeloid leukemia. There has been a longstanding concern that hydroxycarbamide itself carries a leukemia risk, but large studies have shown that the risk is either absent or very small. Nevertheless, it has been a barrier for its wider use in patients with sickle-cell disease.", "Hydroxycarbamide decreases the production of deoxyribonucleotides via inhibition of the enzyme ribonucleotide reductase by scavenging tyrosyl free radicals as they are involved in the reduction of nucleoside diphosphates (NDPs). In the treatment of sickle-cell disease, hydroxycarbamide increases the concentration of fetal hemoglobin. The precise mechanism of action is not yet clear, but it appears that hydroxycarbamide increases nitric oxide levels, causing soluble guanylyl cyclase activation with a resultant rise in cyclic GMP, and the activation of gamma globin gene expression and subsequent gamma chain synthesis necessary for fetal hemoglobin (HbF) production (which does not polymerize and deform red blood cells like the mutated HbS, responsible for sickle cell disease). Adult red cells containing more than 1% HbF are termed F cells. These cells are progeny of a small pool of immature committed erythroid precursors (BFU-e) that retain the ability to produce HbF. Hydroxyurea also suppresses the production of granulocytes in the bone marrow which has a mild immunosuppressive effect particularly at vascular sites where sickle cells have occluded blood flow.", "Brand names include: Hydrea, Litalir, Droxia, and Siklos.", "Hydroxyurea has been reported as endogenous in human blood plasma at concentrations of approximately 30 to 200 ng/ml.", "Hydroxyurea has been prepared in many different ways since its initial synthesis in 1869. Medical chemists, Dresler and Stein created Hydroxyurea from hydroxylamine, hydrochloric acid and potassium cyanide as a technical exercise in organic chemistry, as part of a series of experiments generating derivatives of urea. Hydroxyurea lay dormant for more than fifty years until it was studied as part of an investigation into the toxicity of protein metabolites. Due to its chemical properties hydroxyurea was explored as an antisickling agent in the treatment of hematological conditions. One common mechanism for synthesizing hydroxyurea is by the reaction of calcium cyanate with hydroxylamine nitrate in absolute ethanol and by the reaction of salt (i.e. sodium or potassium) cyanates and hydroxylamine hydrochloride in aqueous solution. Hydroxyurea has also been prepared by converting a quaternary ammonium anion exchange resin from the chloride form to the cyanate form with sodium cyanate and reacting the resin in the cyanate form with hydroxylamine hydrochloride. This method of hydroxyurea synthesis was patented by Hussain et al. (2015).", "Hydroxyurea is a monohydroxyl-substituted urea (hydroxycarbamate) antimetabolite. Similar to other antimetabolite anti-cancer drugs, it acts by disrupting the DNA replication process of dividing cancer cells in the body. Hydroxyurea selectively inhibits ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase, an enzyme required to convert ribonucleoside diphosphates into deoxyribonucleoside diphosphates, thereby preventing cells from leaving the G1/S phase of the cell cycle. This agent also exhibits radiosensitizing activity by maintaining cells in the radiation-sensitive G1 phase and interfering with DNA repair. Biochemical research has explored its role as a DNA replication inhibitor which causes deoxyribonucleotide depletion and results in DNA double strand breaks near replication forks (see DNA repair). Repair of DNA damaged by chemicals or irradiation is also inhibited by hydroxyurea, offering potential synergy between hydroxyurea and radiation or alkylating agents. Hydroxyurea has many pharmacological applications under the Medical Subject Headings classification system:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology.", "Magical horses.", "Wrath of gods.", "Siege of Heracles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Laomedon was the father of Priam, Astyoche, Lampus, Hicetaon, Clytius, Cilla, Proclia, Aethilla, Medesicaste, Clytodora, and Hesione. Tithonus is also described by most sources as Laomedon's eldest legitimate son, and most sources omit Ganymede from the list of Laomedon's children, but indicate him as his uncle instead. Laomedon's possible wives are Placia, Strymo (or Rhoeo), and Leucippe; by the former he begot Tithonus and by the latter King Priam (see John Tzetzes' \"Scholia in Lycophronem\" 18 : \"Priamus was the son of Leucippe, whereas Tithonus was the son of Rhoeo or Strymo, the daughter of Scamander\"). He also had a son named Bucolion by the nymph Calybe, as recounted by Homer in the \"Iliad\" (6.22). Dictys Cretensis (4.22) added Thymoetes to the list of Laomedon's children.", "", "Laomedon owned several horses with divine parentage that Zeus had given Tros (Laomedon's grandfather) as compensation for the kidnapping of Ganymede. Anchises secretly bred his own mares from these horses. According to one story, Laomedon's son, Ganymede, was kidnapped by Zeus, who had fallen in love with the beautiful boy. Laomedon grieved for his son. Sympathetic, Zeus sent Hermes with two horses so swift they could run over water. Hermes also assured Laomedon that Ganymede was immortal and would be the cupbearer for the gods, a position of much distinction. However, Ganymede is more usually described as a son of Tros, an earlier King of Troy and grandfather of Laomedon (making him an uncle to Laomedon). Laomedon himself was the son of Ganymede's brother Ilus, the son of Tros.", "When Poseidon and Apollo entered a conspiracy to put Zeus in bonds, the supreme god being offended, sent them to serve with King Laomedon as punishment for their nefarious design. In other sources, the two gods simply tested the wantonness of the Laomedon. As ordered by Laomedon who promised wages, the two deities assuming the likeness of men undertook to build huge walls around the city. But when they had finished, the king refused to fulfil their agreement of reward. In vengeance, before the Trojan War, Apollo sent a pestilence to Troy while Poseidon released a sea monster which, carried up by a flood, snatched away the people of the plain. The oracles foretold deliverance from these calamities if Laomedon would expose his daughter Hesione to be devoured by the sea monster. The king then exposed her by fastening her to the rocks near the sea. But by chance, after fighting the Amazons, Heracles, who had landed at Troy, saw the girl to be sacrificed. The hero promised to save the princess on condition of receiving from Laomedon the mares which Zeus had given in compensation for the rape of Ganymede. When Laomedon agreed, Heracles (along with Oicles and Telamon) killed the monster and rescued Hesione at the last minute. But when Laomedon would not give up his magical horses for their deeds, the hero put to sea after threatening to make war on Troy.", "After his servitude, Heracles mustered an army of noble volunteers and sailed for Ilium with eighteen ships of fifty oars each. Having come to port at Ilium, he left the guard of the ships to Oicles and he, with the rest of the champions, set out to attack the city. Meanwhile, Laomedon marched against the ships with a multitude and slew Oicles in battle. But being repulsed by the troops of Heracles, Laomedon was besieged. The siege once laid, Telamon was the first to breach the wall and enter the city, and after him Heracles. When the son of Zeus had taken the city he shot down Laomedon and his sons, except Podarces. Heracles assigned Hesione as a war prize to Telamon (by whom he had a son called Teucer by her) and allowed her to take with her whomsoever of the captives she would. When Hesione chose Podarces, Heracles said that her brother must first be a slave and then be ransomed by her. So, when the prince was being sold, Hesione took the golden veil from her head and gave it as a ransom; hence Podarces was thereafter called Priam (from \"priamai\" 'to buy')." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "Founding.", "Later history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The province of Gallia Transalpina (\"Transalpine Gaul\") was later renamed Gallia Narbonensis, after its newly established capital of Colonia Narbo Martius (colloquially known as Narbo, at the location of the modern Narbonne), a Roman colony founded on the coast in 118 BC. The Romans had called it \"Provincia Nostra\" (\"our province\") or simply \"Provincia\" (\"the province\"). The term has survived in the modern French and Occitan names of the eastern part of the area (French \"Provence\", Occitan \"Provença\"), now a région of France.", "By the mid-2nd century BC, Rome was trading heavily with the Greek colony of Massalia (modern Marseille) on the southern coast of Gaul. Massalia, founded by colonists from Phocaea, was by this point centuries old and quite prosperous. Rome entered into an alliance with Massalia, by which it agreed to protect the town from local Gauls, nearby Aquitani, sea-borne Carthaginians and other rivals, in exchange for a small strip of land that it wanted in order to build a road to Hispania, to assist in troop transport. The Massalians, for their part, cared more for their economic prosperity than they did for territorial integrity. During this period, the Mediterranean settlements on the coast were threatened by the powerful Gallic tribes to the north, especially the tribes known as the Arverni and the Allobroges. In 123 BC, the Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus (later additionally named Allobrogicus) campaigned in the area and defeated the Allobroges and the Arverni under King Bituitus. This defeat substantially weakened the Arverni and ensured the further security of Gallia Narbonensis. In this strip of land, the Romans founded the town of Narbonne in 118 BC. At the same time, they built the Via Domitia, the first Roman road in Gaul, connecting Gaul to Hispania, and the Via Aquitania, which led toward the Atlantic through Tolosa (Toulouse) and Burdigala (Bordeaux). Thus the Romans built a crossroads that made Narbonne an optimal trading center, and Narbonne became a major trading competitor to Massalia. From Narbonne, the Romans established the province of Transalpine Gaul, later called Gallia Narbonensis.", "Control of the province, which bordered directly on Italia, gave the Roman state several advantages: control of the land route between Italy and the Iberian peninsula; a territorial buffer against Gallic attacks on Italy; and control of the lucrative trade routes of the Rhône valley between Gaul and the markets of Massalia. It was from the capital of Narbonne that Julius Caesar began his Gallic Wars. The area became a Roman province in 121 BC, originally under the name Gallia Transalpina (Transalpine Gaul). The name distinguished it from Cisalpine Gaul on the near side of the Alps to Rome. In 40 BC, during the Second Triumvirate, Lepidus was given responsibility for Narbonese Gaul (along with Hispania and Africa), while Mark Antony was given the balance of Gaul. Emperor Diocletian's administrative reorganization of the Empire in 314 merged the provinces \"Gallia Narbonensis\" and \"Gallia Aquitania\" into a new administrative unit called \"Dioecesis Viennensis\" (Diocese of Vienne) with the capital more to the north in Vienne. The new diocese's name was later changed to \"Dioecesis Septem Provinciarum\" (Diocese of the Seven Provinces), indicating that Diocletian had demoted the word \"province\" to mean a smaller subdivision than in traditional usage. \"Galla Narbonensis\" and surrounding areas were incorporated into the Visigothic Kingdom between AD 462 and 477, permanently ending Roman political control. After the Gothic takeover, the Visigothic dominions were to be generally known as Septimania, while to the east of the lower Rhone the term Provence came into use." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Mathematical career.", "Lebesgue's theory of integration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Henri Lebesgue was born on 28 June 1875 in Beauvais, Oise. Lebesgue's father was a typesetter and his mother was a school teacher. His parents assembled at home a library that the young Henri was able to use. His father died of tuberculosis when Lebesgue was still very young and his mother had to support him by herself. As he showed a remarkable talent for mathematics in primary school, one of his instructors arranged for community support to continue his education at the Collège de Beauvais and then at Lycée Saint-Louis and Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris. In 1894 Lebesgue was accepted at the École Normale Supérieure, where he continued to focus his energy on the study of mathematics, graduating in 1897. After graduation he remained at the École Normale Supérieure for two years, working in the library, where he became aware of the research on discontinuity done at that time by René-Louis Baire, a recent graduate of the school. At the same time he started his graduate studies at the Sorbonne, where he learned about Émile Borel's work on the incipient measure theory and Camille Jordan's work on the Jordan measure. In 1899 he moved to a teaching position at the Lycée Central in Nancy, while continuing work on his doctorate. In 1902 he earned his Ph.D. from the Sorbonne with the seminal thesis on \"Integral, Length, Area\", submitted with Borel, four years older, as advisor. Lebesgue married the sister of one of his fellow students, and he and his wife had two children, Suzanne and Jacques. After publishing his thesis, Lebesgue was offered in 1902 a position at the University of Rennes, lecturing there until 1906, when he moved to the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Poitiers. In 1910 Lebesgue moved to the Sorbonne as a maître de conférences, being promoted to professor starting with 1919. In 1921 he left the Sorbonne to become professor of mathematics at the Collège de France, where he lectured and did research for the rest of his life. In 1922 he was elected a member of the Académie des Sciences. Henri Lebesgue died on 26 July 1941 in Paris.", "Lebesgue's first paper was published in 1898 and was titled \"Sur l'approximation des fonctions\". It dealt with Weierstrass' theorem on approximation to continuous functions by polynomials. Between March 1899 and April 1901 Lebesgue published six notes in \"Comptes Rendus.\" The first of these, unrelated to his development of Lebesgue integration, dealt with the extension of Baire's theorem to functions of two variables. The next five dealt with surfaces applicable to a plane, the area of skew polygons, surface integrals of minimum area with a given bound, and the final note gave the definition of Lebesgue integration for some function f(x). Lebesgue's great thesis, \"Intégrale, longueur, aire\", with the full account of this work, appeared in the Annali di Matematica in 1902. The first chapter develops the theory of measure (see Borel measure). In the second chapter he defines the integral both geometrically and analytically. The next chapters expand the \"Comptes Rendus\" notes dealing with length, area and applicable surfaces. The final chapter deals mainly with Plateau's problem. This dissertation is considered to be one of the finest ever written by a mathematician. His lectures from 1902 to 1903 were collected into a \"Borel tract\" \"Leçons sur l'intégration et la recherche des fonctions primitives\". The problem of integration regarded as the search for a primitive function is the keynote of the book. Lebesgue presents the problem of integration in its historical context, addressing Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet, and Bernhard Riemann. Lebesgue presents six conditions which it is desirable that the integral should satisfy, the last of which is \"If the sequence f(x) increases to the limit f(x), the integral of f(x) tends to the integral of f(x).\" Lebesgue shows that his conditions lead to the theory of measure and measurable functions and the analytical and geometrical definitions of the integral. He turned next to trigonometric functions with his 1903 paper \"Sur les séries trigonométriques\". He presented three major theorems in this work: that a trigonometrical series representing a bounded function is a Fourier series, that the n Fourier coefficient tends to zero (the Riemann–Lebesgue lemma), and that a Fourier series is integrable term by term. In 1904-1905 Lebesgue lectured once again at the Collège de France, this time on trigonometrical series and he went on to publish his lectures in another of the \"Borel tracts\". In this tract he once again treats the subject in its historical context. He expounds on Fourier series, Cantor-Riemann theory, the Poisson integral and the Dirichlet problem. In a 1910 paper, \"Représentation trigonométrique approchée des fonctions satisfaisant a une condition de Lipschitz\" deals with the Fourier series of functions satisfying a Lipschitz condition, with an evaluation of the order of magnitude of the remainder term. He also proves that the Riemann–Lebesgue lemma is a best possible result for continuous functions, and gives some treatment to Lebesgue constants. Lebesgue once wrote, \"Réduites à des théories générales, les mathématiques seraient une belle forme sans contenu.\" (\"Reduced to general theories, mathematics would be a beautiful form without content.\") In measure-theoretic analysis and related branches of mathematics, the Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral generalizes Riemann–Stieltjes and Lebesgue integration, preserving the many advantages of the latter in a more general measure-theoretic framework. During the course of his career, Lebesgue also made forays into the realms of complex analysis and topology. He also had a disagreement with Émile Borel about whose integral was more general. However, these minor forays pale in comparison to his contributions to real analysis; his contributions to this field had a tremendous impact on the shape of the field today and his methods have become an essential part of modern analysis. These have important practical implications for fundamental physics of which Lebesgue would have been completely unaware, as noted below.", "Integration is a mathematical operation that corresponds to the informal idea of finding the area under the graph of a function. The first theory of integration was developed by Archimedes in the 3rd century BC with his method of quadratures, but this could be applied only in limited circumstances with a high degree of geometric symmetry. In the 17th century, Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz discovered the idea that integration was intrinsically linked to differentiation, the latter being a way of measuring how quickly a function changed at any given point on the graph. This surprising relationship between two major geometric operations in calculus, differentiation and integration, is now known as the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. It has allowed mathematicians to calculate a broad class of integrals for the first time. However, unlike Archimedes' method, which was based on Euclidean geometry, mathematicians felt that Newton's and Leibniz's integral calculus did not have a rigorous foundation. In the 19th century, Augustin Cauchy developed epsilon-delta limits, and Bernhard Riemann followed up on this by formalizing what is now called the Riemann integral. To define this integral, one fills the area under the graph with smaller and smaller rectangles and takes the limit of the sums of the areas of the rectangles at each stage. For some functions, however, the total area of these rectangles does not approach a single number. As such, they have no Riemann integral. Lebesgue invented a new method of integration to solve this problem. Instead of using the areas of rectangles, which put the focus on the domain of the function, Lebesgue looked at the codomain of the function for his fundamental unit of area. Lebesgue's idea was to first define measure, for both sets and functions on those sets. He then proceeded to build the integral for what he called simple functions; measurable functions that take only finitely many values. Then he defined it for more complicated functions as the least upper bound of all the integrals of simple functions smaller than the function in question. Lebesgue integration has the property that every function defined over a bounded interval with a Riemann integral also has a Lebesgue integral, and for those functions the two integrals agree. Furthermore, every bounded function on a closed bounded interval has a Lebesgue integral and there are many functions with a Lebesgue integral that have no Riemann integral. As part of the development of Lebesgue integration, Lebesgue invented the concept of measure, which extends the idea of length from intervals to a very large class of sets, called measurable sets (so, more precisely, simple functions are functions that take a finite number of values, and each value is taken on a measurable set). Lebesgue's technique for turning a measure into an integral generalises easily to many other situations, leading to the modern field of measure theory. The Lebesgue integral is deficient in one respect. The Riemann integral generalises to the improper Riemann integral to measure functions whose domain of definition is not a closed interval. The Lebesgue integral integrates many of these functions (always reproducing the same answer when it did), but not all of them. For functions on the real line, the Henstock integral is an even more general notion of integral (based on Riemann's theory rather than Lebesgue's) that subsumes both Lebesgue integration and improper Riemann integration. However, the Henstock integral depends on specific ordering features of the real line and so does not generalise to allow integration in more general spaces (say, manifolds), while the Lebesgue integral extends to such spaces quite naturally." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology.", "Divine visit.", "Calydonian hunt.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Oeneus was the son of King Porthaon and Euryte, and thus, brother of Agrius, Alcathous, Melas, Leucopeus, and Sterope. He married Althaea and became the father of Deianeira, Meleager, Toxeus, Clymenus, Periphas, Agelaus (or Ageleus), Thyreus (or Phereus or Pheres), Gorge, Eurymede, Melanippe and Perimede (although Meleager's and Deianeira's fathers could also have been Ares and Dionysus respectively). s\"ee Meleagrids\". Oeneus was also the father of Tydeus and possibly Melanippus or Olenias by Periboea, daughter of Hipponous, though Tydeus was exiled from Aetolia and appears in myths concerning Argos. According to Pausanias, Mothone was a daughter of Oeneus by a concubine. In some accounts, Polyxo was called the sister of Meleager and thus, can be counted among the daughters of Oeneus.", "Oeneus slew his son Toxeus by his own hand because he leaped over the ditch.", "When Dionysus had come as a guest to Oineus he fell in love with Althaea and the king realizing this, he voluntarily left the city and pretended to be performing sacred rites. But Dionysus lay with Althaea, who became mother of Dejanira. To Oineus, because of his generous hospitality, he gave the vine as a gift, and showed him how to plant it, and decreed that its fruit should be called oinos from the name of his host.", "Since Oineus had made sacrifices yearly to all the gods during the harvest ceremonies, but had omitted to honor Artemis, in anger she sent a boar of immense size to lay waste the district of Calydon. He sent out his son Meleager who promised that he would go with chosen leaders to attack the Calydonian Boar. So began the Calydonian Hunt during which the boar was killed by Atalanta and Meleager. However, an argument began as to who should take the boar's skin as a prize: Meleager gave it to Atalanta, but two of his maternal uncles, sons of Thestius, wanted the trophy for themselves, claiming that it belonged to them by the right of birth if Meleager did not want it. Meleager, in rage, killed them, which resulted in a war between the Calydonians and the Curetes, in which all of Oeneus' sons, including Meleager, fell.", "When Hipponoüs of Olenus, angered at his daughter Periboea because she claimed that she was with child by Ares, sent her away into Aetolia to Oeneus with orders for him to do away with her at the first opportunity. Oeneus, however, who had recently lost son and wife, was unwilling to slay Periboea, but married her instead and begat a son Tydeus. The sons of Oeneus' brother Agrius deposed him but Diomedes, his grandson through Tydeus, put Oeneus back on the Calydonian throne (or the throne passed to Andraemon, husband of Gorge, due to Oeneus' old age). Oeneus either died of natural causes or was killed by the surviving sons of Agrius who laid an ambush against him while Diomedes was transporting him to Peloponessus. He was buried in Argos by Diomedes, and a town was named Oenoe after him." ] }

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{ "title": [ "United States.", "Other contemporary usage.", "Artistic depictions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the military history of the United States camp followers were important in servicing and supplying the army during the Revolutionary War. There were also camp followers on both the Union and Confederate sides of the American Civil War. However, a major difference between the armies of the American Revolution and the Civil War was the presence of women and children. By the time of the Civil War, camps and campaigns included far fewer wives, children and other relatives of soldiers. Women still served as nurses in hospitals and in other limited support roles, but were not present in the same way in the earlier war. During the 19th century, members of Plains Indians who set up camp outside U.S. military forts or Indian agencies became known disparagingly as \"loafers\", or \"loaf-around-the-fort Indians\" or \"hang-around-the-fort Indians\". They along with the Indian scouts were seen by settlers as appeasing and docile, in stark contrast with the fierce and capable warriors whom the soldiers had to fight. Today's military operations in combat zones, such as the Iraq War that began with US invasion in 2003 or the Afghan War that began in 2001, feature extensive roles played by civilian contractors in providing logistic support for the armed forces. This has led journalists and historians to liken the phenomenon to that of camp followers.", "\"Camp-follower\" has also been used to describe the modern families of military personnel who accompany soldiers while traveling; either during active military campaigns (more common in less-developed countries), or during peacetime military deployments (more common in developed countries), especially moving from military base to military base in a nomadic lifestyle (more common in developed countries). Modern camp-follower children are now more often called \"military brats\" in several English-speaking countries. In the United States, Canada and Great Britain, the term refers specifically to the mobile children of career soldiers, who traditionally have been camp or base followers. In the United States this practice of base-following, or camp-following, dates all the way back to the beginning of the Republic. Some work has also been done to document and describe military brat subcultures from other English speaking countries as well.", "Mother Courage and Her Children, an 1939 play by Bertolt Brecht focuses on the life of a family of camp followers during the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Origins and early history.", "Balkan wars.", "Galatian war.", "Roman wars.", "Roman Gaul.", "Physical appearance.", "Culture.", "Social structure.", "Language.", "Religion.", "List of Gaulish tribes.", "Modern reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Gauls of Gallia Celtica according to the testimony of Caesar called themselves \"Celtae\" in their own language (as distinct from \"Belgae\" and \"Aquitani\"), and \"Galli\" in Latin. As is not unusual with ancient ethnonyms, these names came to be applied more widely than their original sense, \"Celtae\" being the origin of the term Celts itself (in its modern meaning referring to all populations speaking a language of the \"Celtic\" branch of Indo-European) while \"Galli\" is the origin of the adjective \"Gallic\", now referring to all of Gaul. The English name \"Gaul\" itself is not derived from Latin \"Galli\", but from the Germanic word \"*Walhaz\" (see Gaul).", "", "Gaulish culture developed out of the Celtic cultures over the first millennium BC. The Urnfield culture (c. 1300 BC – c. 750 BC) represents the Celts as a distinct cultural branch of the Indo-European-speaking people. The spread of iron working led to the Hallstatt culture in the 8th century BC; the Proto-Celtic language is often thought to have been spoken around this time. The Hallstatt culture evolved into the La Tène culture in around the 5th century BC. The Greek and Etruscan civilizations and colonies began to influence the Gauls especially in the Mediterranean area. Gauls under Brennus invaded Rome circa 390 BC. By the 5th century BC, the tribes later called Gauls had migrated from Central France to the Mediterranean coast. Gallic invaders settled the Po Valley in the 4th century BC, defeated Roman forces in a battle under Brennus in 390 BC and raided Italy as far as Sicily. In the early 3rd century BC, the Gauls attempted an eastward expansion, towards the Balkan peninsula, which at that time was a Greek province, with the ultimate goal to reach and loot the rich Greek city-states of the Greek mainland, but the majority of the Gaul army was exterminated by the Greeks and the few Gauls that survived were forced to flee. A large number of Gauls served in the armies of Carthage during the Punic Wars, and one of the leading rebel leaders of the Mercenary War, Autaritus, was of Gallic origin.", "During the Balkan expedition, led by Cerethrios, Brennos and Bolgios, the Gauls raided the Greek mainland twice. At the end of the second expedition the Gallic raiders had been repelled by the coalition armies of the various Greek city-states and were forced to retreat to Illyria and Thrace, but the Greeks were forced to grant safe-passage to the Gauls who then made their way to Asia Minor and settled in Central Anatolia. The Gallic area of settlement in Asia Minor was called Galatia; there they created widespread havoc. But they were checked through the use of war elephants and skirmishers by the Greek Seleucid king Antiochus I in 275 BC, after which they served as mercenaries across the whole Hellenistic Eastern Mediterranean, including Ptolemaic Egypt, where they, under Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246 BC), attempted to seize control of the kingdom. In the first Gallic invasion of Greece (279 BC), they achieved victory over the Macedonians and killed the Macedonian king Ptolemy Keraunos. They then focused on looting the rich Macedonian countryside, but avoided the heavily fortified cities. The Macedonian general Sosthenes assembled an army, defeated Bolgius and repelled the invading Gauls. In the second Gaulish invasion of Greece (278 BC), the Gauls, led by Brennos, suffered heavy losses while facing the Greek coalition army at Thermopylae, but helped by the Heracleans they followed the mountain path around Thermopylae to encircle the Greek army in the same way that the Persian army had done at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC, but this time defeating the whole of the Greek army. After passing Thermopylae the Gauls headed for the rich treasury at Delphi, where they were defeated by the re-assembled Greek army. This led to a series of retreats of the Gauls, with devastating losses, all the way up to Macedonia and then out of the Greek mainland. The major part of the Gaul army was defeated in the process, and those Gauls survived were forced to flee from Greece. The Gallic leader Brennos was seriously injured at Delphi and committed suicide there. (He is not to be confused with another Gaulish leader bearing the same name who had sacked Rome a century earlier (390 BC).", "In 278 BC Gaulish settlers in the Balkans were invited by Nicomedes I of Bithynia to help him in a dynastic struggle against his brother. They numbered about 10,000 fighting men and about the same number of women and children, divided into three tribes, Trocmi, Tolistobogii and Tectosages. They were eventually defeated by the Seleucid king Antiochus I (275 BC), in a battle in which the Seleucid war elephants shocked the Galatians. Although the momentum of the invasion was broken, the Galatians were by no means exterminated, and continued to demand tribute from the Hellenistic states of Anatolia to avoid war. 4,000 Galatians were hired as mercenaries by the Ptolemaic Egyptian king Ptolemy II Philadelphus in 270 BC. According to Pausanias, soon after arrival the Celts plotted “to seize Egypt”, and so Ptolemy marooned them on a deserted island in the Nile River. Galatians also participated at the victory at Raphia in 217 BC under Ptolemy IV Philopator, and continued to serve as mercenaries for the Ptolemaic dynasty until its demise in 30 BC. They sided with the renegade Seleucid prince Antiochus Hierax, who reigned in Asia Minor. Hierax tried to defeat king Attalus I of Pergamum (241–197 BC), but instead, the Hellenized cities united under Attalus's banner, and his armies inflicted a severe defeat upon the Galatians at the Battle of the Caecus River in 241 BC. After this defeat, the Galatians continued to be a serious threat to the states of Asia Minor. In fact, they continued to be a threat even after their defeat by Gnaeus Manlius Vulso in the Galatian War (189 BC). Galatia declined and at times fell under Pontic ascendancy. They were finally freed by the Mithridatic Wars, in which they supported Rome. In the settlement of 64 BC, Galatia became a client state of the Roman empire, the old constitution disappeared, and three chiefs (wrongly styled \"tetrarchs\") were appointed, one for each tribe. But this arrangement soon gave way before the ambition of one of these tetrarchs, Deiotarus, a contemporary of Cicero and Julius Caesar, who made himself master of the other two tetrarchies and was finally recognized by the Romans as 'king' of Galatia. The Galatian language continued to be spoken in central Anatolia until the 6th century.", "In the Second Punic War the famous Carthaginian general Hannibal Barca used Gallic mercenaries in his invasion of Italy. They played a part in some of his most spectacular victories, including the battle of Cannae. The Gauls were so prosperous by the 2nd century that the powerful Greek colony of Massilia had to appeal to the Roman Republic for defense against them. The Romans intervened in southern Gaul in 125 BC, and conquered the area eventually known as Gallia Narbonensis by 121 BC. In 58 BC Julius Caesar launched the Gallic Wars and had conquered the whole of Gaul by 51 BC. He noted that the Gauls (Celtae) were one of the three primary peoples in the area, along with the Aquitanians and the Belgae. Caesar's motivation for the invasion seems to have been his need for gold to pay off his debts and for a successful military expedition to boost his political career. The people of Gaul could provide him with both. So much gold was looted from Gaul that after the war the price of gold fell by as much as 20%. While they were militarily just as brave as the Romans, the internal division between the Gallic tribes guaranteed an easy victory for Caesar, and Vercingetorix's attempt to unite the Gauls against Roman invasion came too late. After the annexation of Gaul a mixed Gallo-Roman culture began to emerge.", "After more than a century of warfare, the Cisalpine Gauls were subdued by the Romans in the early 2nd century BC. The Transalpine Gauls continued to thrive for another century, and joined the Germanic Cimbri and Teutones in the Cimbrian War, where they defeated and killed a Roman consul at Burdigala in 107 BC, and later became prominent among the rebelling gladiators in the Third Servile War. The Gauls were finally conquered by Julius Caesar in the 50s BC despite a rebellion by the Arvernian chieftain Vercingetorix. During the Roman period the Gauls became assimilated into Gallo-Roman culture and by expanding Germanic tribes. During the crisis of the third century, there was briefly a breakaway Gallic Empire founded by the Batavian general Postumus.", "The fourth-century Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus wrote that the Gauls were tall, light-skinned, light-haired, and light-eyed: Almost all Gauls are tall and fair-skinned, with reddish hair. Their savage eyes make them fearful objects; they are eager to quarrel and excessively truculent. When, in the course of a dispute, any of them calls in his wife, a creature with gleaming eyes much stronger than her husband, they are more than a match for a whole group of foreigners; especially when the woman, with swollen neck and gnashing teeth, swings her great white arms and begins to deliver a rain of punches mixed with kicks, like missiles launched by the twisted strings of a catapult. The first century BCE Greek historian Diodorus Siculus described them as tall, generally heavily built, very light-skinned, and light-haired, with long hair and mustaches: The Gauls are tall of body, with rippling muscles, and white of skin, and their hair is blond, and not only naturally so, but they make it their practice to increase the distinguishing color by which nature has given it. For they are always washing their hair in limewater, and they pull it back from their forehead to the top of the head and back to the nape of the neck... Some of them shave their beards, but others let it grow a little; and the nobles shave their cheeks, but they let the mustache grow until it covers the mouth. Jordanes, in his \"Origins and Deeds of the Goths\", indirectly describes the Gauls as light-haired and large-bodied via comparing them to Caledonians, as a contrast to the Spaniards, who he compared to the Silures. He speculates based on this comparison that the Britons originated from different peoples, including the aforementioned Gauls and Spaniards. The Silures have swarthy features and are usually born with curly black hair, but the inhabitants of Caledonia have reddish hair and large loose-jointed bodies. They [the Britons] are like the Gauls and the Spaniards, according as they are opposite either nation. Hence some have supposed that from these lands the island received its inhabitants. In the novel \"Satyricon\", written by Roman courtier Gaius Petronius, a Roman character sarcastically suggests that he and his partner \"chalk our faces so that Gaul may claim us as her own\" in the midst of a rant outlining the problems with his partner's plan of using blackface to impersonate Aethiopians. This suggests that Gauls were thought of on average to be much paler than Romans.", "All over Gaul, archeology has uncovered numerous pre-Roman gold mines (at least 200 in the Pyrenees), suggesting that they were very rich, also evidenced by large finds of gold coins and artefacts. Also there existed highly developed population centers, called \"oppida\" by Caesar, such as Bibracte, Gergovia, Avaricum, Alesia, Bibrax, Manching and others. Modern archeology strongly suggests that the countries of Gaul were quite civilized and very wealthy. Most had contact with Roman merchants and some, particularly those that were governed by Republics such as the Aedui, Helvetii and others, had enjoyed stable political alliances with Rome. They imported Mediterranean wine on an industrial scale, evidenced by large finds of wine vessels in digs all over Gaul, the largest and most famous of which being the one discovered in Vix Grave, which stands 1.63 m (5′ 4′′) in height.", "Gaulish society was dominated by the druid priestly class. The druids were not the only political force, however, and the early political system was complex. The fundamental unit of Gallic politics was the tribe, which itself consisted of one or more of what Caesar called \"pagi\". Each tribe had a council of elders, and initially a king. Later, the executive was an annually-elected magistrate. Among the Aedui tribe the executive held the title of \"Vergobret\", a position much like a king, but its powers were held in check by rules laid down by the council. The tribal groups, or \"pagi\" as the Romans called them (singular: \"pagus\"; the French word \"pays\", \"country\", comes from this term) were organised into larger super-tribal groups that the Romans called \"civitates\". These administrative groupings would be taken over by the Romans in their system of local control, and these \"civitates\" would also be the basis of France's eventual division into ecclesiastical bishoprics and dioceses, which would remain in place—with slight changes—until the French Revolution. Although the tribes were moderately stable political entities, Gaul as a whole tended to be politically divided, there being virtually no unity among the various tribes. Only during particularly trying times, such as the invasion of Caesar, could the Gauls unite under a single leader like Vercingetorix. Even then, however, the faction lines were clear. The Romans divided Gaul broadly into \"Provincia\" (the conquered area around the Mediterranean), and the northern Gallia Comata (\"free Gaul\" or \"wooded Gaul\"). Caesar divided the people of Gaulia Comata into three broad groups: the \"Aquitani\"; \"Galli\" (who in their own language were called \"Celtae\"); and \"Belgae\". In the modern sense, Gaulish tribes are defined linguistically, as speakers of dialects of the Gaulish language. While the Aquitani were probably Vascons, the Belgae would thus probably be counted among the Gaulish tribes, perhaps with Germanic elements. Julius Caesar, in his book, \"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\", comments:", "Gaulish or Gallic is the name given to the Celtic language that was spoken in Gaul before the Latin of the late Roman Empire became dominant in Roman Gaul. According to Julius Caesar in his \"Commentaries on the Gallic War\", it was one of three languages in Gaul, the others being Aquitanian and Belgic. In Gallia Transalpina, a Roman province by the time of Caesar, Latin was the language spoken since at least the previous century. Gaulish is paraphyletically grouped with Celtiberian, Lepontic, and Galatian as Continental Celtic. The Lepontic language and the Galatian language are sometimes considered to be dialects of Gaulish. The exact time of the final extinction of Gaulish is unknown, but it is estimated to have been around or shortly after the middle of the 1st millennium. Gaulish may have survived in some regions as the mid to late 6th century in France. Despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and had coexisted with spoken Latin during the centuries of Roman rule of Gaul. Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish played a role in shaping the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and calques, sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence, and well as in conjugation and word order. Recent work in computational simulation suggests that Gaulish played a role in gender shifts of words in Early French, whereby the gender would shift to match the gender of the corresponding Gaulish word with the same meaning.", "The Gauls practiced a form of animism, ascribing human characteristics to lakes, streams, mountains, and other natural features and granting them a quasi-divine status. Also, worship of animals was not uncommon; the animal most sacred to the Gauls was the boar, which can be found on many Gallic military standards, much like the Roman eagle. Their system of gods and goddesses was loose, there being certain deities which virtually every Gallic person worshiped, as well as tribal and household gods. Many of the major gods were related to Greek gods; the primary god worshiped at the time of the arrival of Caesar was Teutates, the Gallic equivalent of Mercury. The \"father god\" in Gallic worship was \"Dis Pater\". However, there is no record of a theology, just a set of related and evolving traditions of worship. Perhaps the most intriguing facet of Gallic religion is the practice of the Druids. There is no certainty concerning their origin, but it is clear that they vehemently guarded the secrets of their order and held sway over the people of Gaul. Indeed, they claimed the right to determine questions of war and peace, and thereby held an \"international\" status. In addition, the Druids monitored the religion of ordinary Gauls and were in charge of educating the aristocracy. They also practiced a form of excommunication from the assembly of worshippers, which in ancient Gaul meant a separation from secular society as well. Thus the Druids were an important part of Gallic society.", "After completing the conquest of Gaul, Rome converted most of these tribes into civitates, making for the administrative map of the Roman provinces of Gaul. This was then perpetuated by the early church, whose geographical subdivisions were based on those of late Roman Gaul, and lasted into the areas of French dioceses prior to the French Revolution.", "The Gauls played a certain role in the national historiography and national identity of modern France. Attention given to the Gauls as the founding population of the French nation was traditionally second to that enjoyed by the Franks, out of whose kingdom the historical kingdom of France arose under the Capetian dynasty; for example, Charles de Gaulle is on record as stating, \"For me, the history of France begins with Clovis, elected as king of France by the tribe of the Franks, who gave their name to France. Before Clovis, we have Gallo-Roman and Gaulish prehistory. The decisive element, for me, is that Clovis was the first king to have been baptized a Christian. My country is a Christian country and I reckon the history of France beginning with the accession of a Christian king who bore the name of the Franks.\" However, the dismissal of \"Gaulish prehistory\" as irrelevant for French national identity has been far from universal. Pre-Roman Gaul has been evoked as a template for French independence especially during the Third French Republic. An iconic phrase summarizing this view is that of \"our ancestors the Gauls\" (\"nos ancêtres les Gaulois\"), associated with the history textbook for schools by Ernest Lavisse (1842–1922), who taught that \"the Romans established themselves in small numbers; the Franks were not numerous either, Clovis having but a few thousand men with him. The basis of our population has thus remained Gaulish. The Gauls are our ancestors.\" \"Astérix\", the popular series of French comic books following the exploits of a village of \"indomitable Gauls\", satirizes this view by combining scenes set in classical antiquity with modern ethnic clichés of the French and other nations. Similarly, in Swiss national historiography of the 19th century, the Gaulish Helvetii were chosen as representing the ancestral Swiss population (compare \"Helvetia\" as national allegory), as the Helvetii had settled in both the French and the German-speaking parts of Switzerland, and their Gaulish language set them apart from Latin- and German-speaking populations in equal measure." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography and nature.", "Mountains and rivers.", "Natural regions.", "History.", "Meissen.", "Bohemia.", "Lusatian League.", "Habsburg Monarchy.", "Saxony.", "Post-war.", "Inhabitants." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Geomorphological Upper Lusatia is shaped by the uniform Lusatian granite massif, only the north and northeast, the plain of the Upper Lusatian Heath and Pond Landscape is Pleistocene formed. The UNESCO has declared this area a Biosphere Reserve in 1996, in particular for the protection of otters. The middle part is hilly, while the south is characterized by the Lusatian Mountains, the westernmost range of the Sudetes.", "The highest elevations of the German part of Upper Lusatia are in the Zittau Mountains (Lusatian Ridge), part of the Lusatian Mountains forming the border with the adjacent Bohemian region in the south, which today belong to the Czech Republic. The highest peaks of the Zittau Mountains are the Lausche at and Hochwald at. The adjacent Lusatian Highlands comprise the Landeskrone (420 m), Löbauer Berg (448 m), Kottmar (583 m), Czorneboh (561 m), Bieleboh (499 m), and Valtenberg (587 m). However, the highest point of historic Upper Lusatia is the \"Tafelstein\" (Tabulový Kámen) in the Polish part, located at on the eastern slopes of the Smrk (\"Tafelfichte\") in the Jizera Mountains (\"Isergebirge\"), the border tripoint of Upper Lusatia with the historical region of Lower Silesia to the east and Bohemia to the south. All major rivers in the Upper Lusatia flow from south to north. In the west, the Pulsnitz at Königsbrück (the \"Gate to Upper Lusatia\" on the \"Via Regia\" trade route) formerly marked the border with the Meissen lands of the Saxon Electorate. The Spree river has its source in the Lusatian Highlands in the far south of the country and flows through Bautzen. The Lusatian Neisse has formed the German-Polish border since 1945. The river rises in the Czech Jizera Mountains, enters Upper Lusatia near Zittau, flows through Görlitz/Zgorzelec and leaves the country at Bad Muskau for Lower Lusatia. Most of the smaller rivers are called \"-wasser\" (water), often in combination with the name of a village which the stream flows through. The eastern border of Upper Lusatia with Lower Silesia is marked by the River Kwisa, who flows past Lubań (\"Lauban\") and continues north towards the Silesian lands into the Bóbr river. The central hilly \"Gefilde\" (\"Pahórčina\") landscape between Kamenz and Löbau was especially well suited for agriculture and is still very profitable. In the 19th century, in the northern part of Upper Lusatia, in the east on both sides of the Neisse river and around Hoyerswerda large quantities of brown coal were found. Especially the digging in open pits has destroyed large parts of the old cultural landscape. Currently the Nochten pit south of Weißwasser and Turów near Bogatynia in the Polish part are still active. Many of the old coal mines have been restored since the 1970s, especially after 1990, when particular attention was paid to revitalize the landscape. The newly formed lakes are already named and advertised as the Lusatian Lake District (\"Lausitzer Seenland\").", "Today, Upper Lusatia is grouped into eight natural regions or landscapes:", "The hunters of the Middle Stone Age (until about 8000 BC) only crossed through the area. Even the oldest agricultural cultures (4500 BC to 3300 BC) left behind only little evidence of settlement. In the early Bronze Age (11th century BC to 9th century BC) people of the Lusatian culture entered the previously uninhabited region from Bohemia and the Lusatian Neisse (\"Łužiska Nysa\"). Archeological evidence documents a path between the settlement areas around Bautzen (Budyšin) and Zittau (Žitawa). A fortified hill from the 10th century BC, the Schafsberg near Löbau (Lubij), played a special role. Another significant settlement was on the cliff above the Spree river, where in the course of history Bautzens Ortenburg was built, dominant and administrative center of what would become Upper Lusatia. Slavs settled in the region since 7th century. In the area between today's cities of Kamenz (Kamjenc) and Löbau the tribe of the Milceni was located. Their center was a fortified town at the site of today's Ortenburg in Bautzen. Another early Slavic settlement was situated in the valley of the Neisse river. The rural Sorbian population erected numerous hill forts, which were tribal centers as well as the residences of Slavic nobility.", "The independent development of the West Slavic tribes was interrupted in the 10th century by the expansion of the German state of East Francia. With the raids of 921/922 and 928/929 King Henry the Fowler initiated a period of military subjugation of the Polabian Slavs. In 932 the Milceni were forced to pay tribute. After Henry's death in 936 the Milceni once again became independent, but were subdued again in 939 by King Otto I of Germany. As a result, the Milceni lands, despite persistent militant struggles, became part of the vast \"Marca Geronis\" under the Saxon margrave Gero and after 965 of the newly established Margraviate of Meissen. All the major wall ring castles in the border areas were strengthened and prepared as starting points for further conquests. In place of the Milceni castles, German \"Burgwards\" appeared (first mentioned 1006), such as the Ortenburg Castle in Bautzen, or the castles of Göda and Doberschau. In the year 1002 the city of Bautzen was first mentioned by the chronicler Thietmar of Merseburg. Until the second half of the 10th century the fights continued, and in 990 the Milceni were finally subdued by Margrave Eckard I of Meissen. The church of Upper Lusatia was assigned to the Diocese of Meissen in 968. In 1007, the diocese received the first donation in Milceni lands, the castles \"Ostrusna\" (probably Ostritz) and Godobi (Göda). Soon however, the German feudal rule was threatened by the ascending Polish kingdom and its western expansion. In 1002 Bolesław I Chrobry conquered both Upper and Lower Lusatia and forced German king Henry II to enfeoff him with the \"Gau Milsca\". After several volatile and bitter feuds both parties signed the Peace of Bautzen on 30 January 1018, which assigned the Milceni lands of Upper Lusatia and Lusatia proper (today Lower Lusatia) to Poland. After the victory of Emperor Conrad II over the Polish king Mieszko II Lambert in 1031, Upper Lusatia again came under the rule of the Meissen margraves, confirmed by the 1033 Treaty of Merseburg. During the Investiture Controversy in 1076, King Henry IV of Germany granted Budissin Land to Duke Vratislaus II of Bohemia as an Imperial fief in turn for his support in the Saxon Rebellion. The son-in-law of Vratislaus, Count Wiprecht of Groitzsch, ruled it independently from 1084 to 1108 residing at Ortenburg Castle. In 1091, a further donation to the church was made, when Henry IV transferred five other villages in the \"Milzenerland\", four of them south of Göda. For 1144 it is documented that the \"Zagost\" province, an area southeast of Görlitz around Zawidów (\"Seidenberg\"), was a part of Budissin Land. Also in this region, the Diocese of Meissen was equipped with possessions. Upper Lusatia reached the Kwisa (\"Queis\"), the border to Silesia and its largest expansion to the east, already in the 12th century.", "In 1156 Emperor Frederick Barbarossa signed an alliance with the Přemyslid duke Vladislaus II of Bohemia. He not only promised him the royal crown but also the investiture with Ortenburg Castle and Land Budissin, which both became reality two years later. Therewith the first Bohemian period in the history of Upper Lusatia, with far-reaching consequences for the development of the country, began. In the first century of Přemyslid rule all major towns of Upper Lusatia, and all major religious institutions of the country – apart from the older Bautzen – were established. The Meissen bishop Bruno II from 1213 to 1218 established the college of St. Peter in Bautzen, which was richly endowed by King Ottokar I of Bohemia and his successors; Queen Kunigunde in 1234 donated the Cistercian monastery of St. Marienthal, which was subjected to the Diocese of Prague in 1244, and Bishop Bernhard in 1248 founded the second Cistercian monastery of St. Marienstern in Kuckau. The forest clearance since about 1100, mainly by Sorbian peasants, expanded the cultivated land. New places in the northern area around Hoyerswerda arose. The country's expansion intensified in the middle of the 12th century under the Bohemian kings, which was almost carried out as a competition with the Meissen bishops. German peasants, who cleared the large forest areas and created many new villages, were brought into the country in the course of the \"Ostsiedlung\". Often Slavic (Sorbian) hamlets were also extended by German settlers. The new German farmers were legally better off than the old-established population. The majority of the Sorbians peasants were serfs and had to perform serjeanty. The new (mostly German) villages could manage their affairs also relatively autonomous. However, when Sorbian peasants were involved in the \"Landesausbau\" development of the country, they enjoyed the same rights as the German colonists. Due to immigration from the west of the Elbe River over time a separate Upper Lusatian nobility emerged. This nobility controlled the land on behalf of the king or the margraves and in return received the country as a fief. Unlike in neighbouring Bohemia, the nobles held no allodial titles, as the conquered Milceni Land as a whole belonged to the king. In 1241 the boundary between the possessions of the Meissen bishops and the Bohemian Crown in Upper Lusatia were agreed by contract. Between the death of King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia in 1253 and 1262, the Ascanian margraves of Brandenburg attained Budissin Land. Neither the exact date of the acquisition nor the legal form of ownership – feud, marriage or pledge rule – can be established with certainty. With the establishment of a Landvogt as deputy of the Ascanian ruler they created the most important office in Upper Lusatia. In principle, the powers of the burggraves and judges from Bohemians time were united in one hand and even expanded. The Landvogt was the country's highest official, he decided in feudal matters, presided in the supreme court and was military commander-in-chief. The Landvogts remained in power until after the Thirty Years' War, although the administrative practice changed frequently. During the reign of the House of Ascania the division of Upper Lusatia into the countries of Bautzen (Budissin) and Görlitz by Margrave Otto IV of Brandenburg in 1268 was the most important event. Although the autonomy of Görlitz Land ended in 1329 (shortly revived under Duke John of Görlitz between 1377 and 1396), it permanently divided the Upper Lusatian nobility and the municipal administration. In Görlitz Land henceforth own meetings nobility took place, which also remained the case after the reunification of the two countries. The town of Görlitz, centre of the eastern phalf, rapidly gained importance and became economically the strongest city of Upper Lusatia. After the extinction of the Ascanian dynasty in 1319, the princes of the neighboring territories, including King John of Bohemia from the mighty House of Luxembourg, claimed Upper Lusatia for themselves. The Bohemian king again received the western lands around Bautzen in 1319 from Emperor Louis the Bavarian; the eastern part of Görlitz, as a dowry, fell to Silesian duke Henry I of Jawor —with the exception of the area around Lauban. Nevertheless, in 1329 he had to cede Görlitz to the Bohemian king, retaining only Zittau. In the same year John incorporated the \"terra et civitas goerlic\" into the Bohemian Crown, which tied Upper Lusatia closely and permanently with the Kingdom of Bohemia, without affecting Upper Lusatias internal order.", "In 1346 the five royal cities of Upper Lusatia and Zittau, which had fallen to Bohemia upon the death of Duke Henry of Jawor, founded the Lusatian League (\"Sechstädtebund\"). The united forces of the cities should secure the public peace and override local robber barons. This was also in the sense of the sovereign, King Charles IV, who supported the League with numerous privileges. The six municipalities in the subsequent period were able to prevail successfully against the nobility. With their increased economic prosperity they gained political influence. They were able to purchase numerous villages in the following 200 years and a significant proportion of the country fell under the direct rule of the city councils. In addition, within the so-called \"Weichbild\" enlarged municipal area, they were able to enforce their jurisdiction over large parts of the local nobility and its possessions. When the Hussite revolution erupted in the beginning of the 15th century in Bohemia, the League took up an adverse stance over the Czech Reformation. In alliance with Emperor Sigismund and Lower Lusatian nobles, the cities waged war against the insurgents. In turn Kamenz, Reichenbach and Löbau, as well as Zittau and Lauban were conquered by the Hussites and devastated. Only the two largest cities, Bautzen and Görlitz, could stand up to the sieges. The Hussite Wars eased the links of Upper Lusatia to the Bohemian Crown, and because of the weakness of the kingdom the internal affairs of the margraviate were regulated largely without royal interference. During this time the Upper Lusatian \"Landtag\" (diet) developed into the main instrument of the estates' autonomy. In 1469 the Upper Lusatian estates even seceded from the Bohemian king George of Poděbrady, because of his utraquist confession, which the Pope had condemned as heretical. Upper Lusatia rendered homage to his rival, the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus, who had conquered Moravia, Silesia and both Lusatias, but never ruled in Bohemia itself. Until the 1479 Peace of Olomouc with King Vladislaus II, the Lusatian League took part in Matthias' war for the Bohemian Crown. Matthias tried to manage his country more efficient. In Silesia, he therefore installed the office of an \"Oberlandeshauptmann\" (Upper State Governor), to whom both Lusatias were subjected. This was considered a threat to autonomy by the Upper Lusatian estates. Upon the death of Matthias Corvinus in 1490, Upper Lusatia again became a constituent Land of the Bohemian Crown. The hated Landvogt of King Matthias, Georg von Stein, was immediately expelled from Bautzens Ortenburg. At the end of the 15th century the political system of the margraviate was largely stabilized. Deputy of the absent sovereign remained the Landogt, who traditionally descended from the nobility of the Bohemian crown lands. However, before 1620, only one Upper Lusatian noble was able to assume the office. In Bautzen and Görlitz moreover two \"Amtshauptmänner\" existed. These three officials, with several secretaries, formed the entire royal administration. The country's centre of power was the \"Landtag\" assembly of the estates. Ever since the 15th century prelates, nobles and cities could, without the consent of the king's, assemble and take decisions. Thus, the \"Landtag\" was, next to the king, the legislative body of Upper Lusatia. The power of the cities had the effect that there were only two voting estates: The cities had extensive judicial powers over the subjects of many knights and over the nobles themselves. The supreme court was the court of the land and the cities, which was formed together by both estates. According to the \"privilegium de non-appellando\", a decision was final and couldn't be changed at the royal courts in Prague. The cities' supremacy remained a thorn in the side of the Upper Lusatian nobility. Only a few years after Martin Luther put up The Ninety-Five Theses in Saxon Wittenberg, his Reformative ideas spread all over Upper Lusatia. In Görlitz, Bautzen and Zittau, the first Protestant sermons were preached in 1520 and 1521, although the nobility, the city councils and King Louis II of Bohemia tried to prevent its spread. In Görlitz and Bautzen the municipal authorities however soon conceded the pressure of the population and officially adopted the Protestant Reformation in 1523 and 1524, though only in small cautious steps. In particular, the chapter of St. Peter in Bautzen resisted successfully and remained Catholic. Overall, it took decades until the Lutheran doctrine finally prevailed in most parishes, as in Upper Lusatia not the Bohemian sovereign introduced the Reformation but the local city councils and noble lords.", "When King Louis II was killed at the 1526 Battle of Mohács, his crown lands including Upper Lusatia were inherited by his Habsburg brother-in-law Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria, husband of the late king's sister Anne of Bohemia. During his only visit in 1537, he received the homage by the estates; however the rule was entrusted to the Bohemian \"Hofmeister\" Zdislav Berka z Dubé as Landvogt in Bautzen, who was not able to reach a settlement between the League and the local nobility. King Ferdinand himself took contradictory decisions, that did not resolve the continuous struggle over the hegemony in the Upper Lusatian lands. The stance of the nobility was strengthened with the establishment of the Upper Lusatian state countries of Muskau, Seidenberg, Hoyerswerda, and Königsbrück. King Ferdinand was dependent on support and taxes in the ongoing Ottoman–Habsburg wars and neither could afford to estrange the nobles nor to force back spreading Protestantism. In turn the estates, unlike the Bohemian utraquists, remained neutral in the Schmalkaldic War of 1546/47 and even arranged troops in support of Ferdinand's brother Emperor Charles V —against the fierce protest of reformer Johannes Bugenhagen. In contrast, the hesitant Lusatian League was not able to prolong military support up to the decisive Battle of Mühlberg. Furious King Ferdinand ordered the League's representatives to his Bohemian court at Prague, where he sentenced the cities to pay an enormous fine and seized their properties. Moreover, he revoked all the League's privileges, a measure that later could be rescinded in a long and arduous process of negotiations. Ferdinand's successor Emperor Maximilian II officially implemented the Lutheran Confessio Augustana in 1564. Nevertheless, the Upper Lusatian lands did not remain untouched by the rising conflicts in the course of the Counter-Reformation in the neighbouring lands of Bohemia and Moravia.", "The Margraviate of Upper Lusatia was transferred by the Peace of Prague (1635) to the Electorate of Saxony until 1806, when the electorate was elevated to the Kingdom of Saxony. According to the Final Act of the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the northeastern part of Upper Lusatia passed from the Kingdom of Saxony to the Kingdom of Prussia. The new demarcation line ran from Ruhland in the northwest to the Bohemian border at Seidenberg (Zawidów) in the southeast. The Upper Lusatian territory north of it, i.e. the districts of Hoyerswerda, Rothenburg, Görlitz and Lauban (Lubań), was attached to the Prussian Province of Silesia. Though this area had never been affiliated with historic Silesia before, it is still referred to as \"Silesian Upper Lusatia\" (\"Schlesische Oberlausitz\"), e.g. by the local body of the Evangelical Church.", "After the end of World War II in 1945, the border between Germany and Poland was fixed at the Oder–Neisse line. This new border split the historic region of Upper Lusatia between the two countries.", "Today approximately 780,000 people live in Upper Lusatia, nearly 157,000 of them in the Polish part to the east of the Neisse river. A part of the country belongs to the settlement area of the Sorbs. Between Kamenz, Bautzen and Hoyerswerda, about 20,000 people speak Sorbian. However, the German population is not culturally homogeneous, and the cultural borders can be quite well identified by the different dialect groups. While in the region around Bautzen a good deal of High German is spoken, in the south the Upper Lusatian dialect of German (\"Oberlausitzisch\"), is common. In the east, Silesian is still spoken by some. The greatest density of population can be found in the German-Polish twin city of Görlitz/Zgorzelec. Currently 91,000 inhabitants, 33,000 in the Polish part, live there. In the German part of Upper Lusatia, the population has been declining for almost 20 years. Young people leave the region because the unemployment in Eastern Saxony is particularly high. This and the low birth rate have led to severe aging of the population. In the absence of available jobs, minimal influx of foreigners is noticeable. The Polish part of Upper Lusatia is, apart from Zgorzelec, Lubań and Bogatynia, only sparsely populated. The area belongs to an economically weak region of Poland. Only the coal-fired power plant in Turów offers a larger number of industrial jobs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Linguistic development of the military castra.", "Description.", "Plan of forts.", "Sources and origins.", "Layout.", "Wall and ditch.", "Interval.", "Streets, gates and central plaza.", "Canteen.", "Major buildings.", "Barracks.", "Sanitation.", "Territory.", "Modifications in practice.", "Quadrangular camps in later times.", "Camp life.", "Ordinary life.", "Duties.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Castrum\" appears in Oscan and Umbrian, two other Italic languages, suggesting an origin at least as old as Proto-Italic language. Julius Pokorny traces a probable derivation from *k̂es-, \"schneiden\" (“cut”) in *k̂es-tro-m, \"Schneidewerkzeug\" (“cutting tool”). These Italic reflexes based on *kastrom include Oscan \"castrous\" (genitive case) and Umbrian \"castruo\", \"kastruvuf\" (accusative case). They have the same meaning, says Pokorny, as Latin \"fundus\", an estate, or tract of land. This is not any land, but is a prepared or cultivated tract, such as a farm enclosed by a fence or a wooden or stone wall of some kind. Cornelius Nepos uses Latin \"castrum\" in that sense: when Alcibiades deserts to the Persians, Pharnabazus gives him an estate (\"castrum\") worth 500 talents in tax revenues. This is a change of meaning from the reflexes in other languages, which still mean some sort of knife, axe, or spear. Pokorny explains it as \"’Lager’ als ‘abgeschnittenes Stück Land’\", “a lager, as a cut-off piece of land.” If this is the civilian interpretation, the military version must be “military reservation,” a piece of land cut off from the common land around it and modified for military use. All castra must be defended by works, often no more than a stockade, for which the soldiers carried stakes, and a ditch. The \"castra\" could be prepared under attack within a hollow square or behind a battle line. Considering that the earliest military shelters were tents made of hide or cloth, and all but the most permanent bases housed the men in tents placed in quadrangles and separated by numbered streets, one \"castrum\" may well have acquired the connotation of tent.", "The commonest Latin syntagmata (here phrases) for the term \"castra\" are: In Latin the term \"castrum\" is much more frequently used as a proper name for geographical locations: e.g., Castrum Album, Castrum Inui, Castrum Novum, Castrum Truentinum, Castrum Vergium. The plural was also used as a place name, as Castra Cornelia, and from this comes the Welsh place name prefix \"caer-\" and English suffixes \"-caster\" and \"-chester\"; e.g., Winchester, Lancaster. \"Castrorum Filius\", \"son of the camps,\" was one of the names used by the emperor Caligula and then also by other emperors. \"Castro\", also derived from \"Castrum\", is a common Spanish family name as well as toponym in Italy, the Balkans and Spain and other Hispanophone countries, either by itself or in various compounds such as the World Heritage Site of Gjirokastër (earlier \"Argurokastro\"). The terms stratopedon (\"army camp\") and phrourion (\"fortification\") were used by Greek language authors to translate \"castrum\" and \"castellum\", respectively.", "A \"castrum\" was designed to house and protect the soldiers, their equipment and supplies when they were not fighting or marching. The most detailed description that survives about Roman military camps is \"De Munitionibus Castrorum\", a manuscript of 11 pages that dates most probably from the late 1st to early 2nd century AD. Regulations required a major unit in the field to retire to a properly constructed camp every day. \"... as soon as they have marched into an enemy's land, they do not begin to fight until they have walled their camp about; nor is the fence they raise rashly made, or uneven; nor do they all abide ill it, nor do those that are in it take their places at random; but if it happens that the ground is uneven, it is first levelled: their camp is also four-square by measure, and carpenters are ready, in great numbers, with their tools, to erect their buildings for them.\" To this end a marching column ported the equipment needed to build and stock the camp in a baggage train of wagons and on the backs of the soldiers. Camps were the responsibility of engineering units to which specialists of many types belonged, officered by \"architecti\", \"chief engineers\", who requisitioned manual labor from the soldiers at large as required. They could throw up a camp under enemy attack in as little as a few hours. Judging from the names, they probably used a repertory of camp plans, selecting the one appropriate to the length of time a legion would spend in it: \"tertia castra\", \"quarta castra\", etc. (\"a camp of three days\", \"four days\", etc.). More permanent camps were \"castra stativa\" (\"standing camps\"). The least permanent of these were \"castra aestiva\" or \"aestivalia\", \"summer camps\", in which the soldiers were housed \"sub pellibus\" or \"sub tentoriis\", \"under tents\". Summer was the campaign season. For the winter the soldiers retired to \"castra hiberna\" containing barracks and other buildings of more solid materials, with timber construction gradually being replaced by stone. The camp allowed the Romans to keep a rested and supplied army in the field. Neither the Celtic nor Germanic armies had this capability: they found it necessary to disperse after only a few days. The largest castra were \"legionary fortresses\" built as bases for one or more whole legions. From the time of Augustus more permanent castra with wooden or stone buildings and walls were introduced as the distant and hard-won boundaries of the expanding empire required permanent garrisons to control local and external threats from war-like tribes. Previously, legions were raised for specific military campaigns and subsequently disbanded, requiring only temporary castra. From then on many castra of various sizes were established many of which became permanent settlements.", "", "From the most ancient times Roman camps were constructed according to a certain ideal pattern, formally described in two main sources, the \"De Munitionibus Castrorum\" and the works of Polybius. P. Fl. Vegetius Renatus has a small section on entrenched camps as well. The terminology varies but the basic plan is the same. The hypothesis of an Etruscan origin is a viable alternative.", "The ideal enforced a linear plan for a camp or fort: a square for camps to contain one legion or smaller unit, a rectangle for two legions, each legion being placed back-to-back with headquarters next to each other. Laying it out was a geometric exercise conducted by experienced officers called \"metatores\", who used graduated measuring rods called \"decempedae\" (\"10-footers\") and \"gromatici\" who used a groma, a sighting device consisting of a vertical staff with horizontal cross pieces and vertical plumb-lines. Ideally the process started in the centre of the planned camp at the site of the headquarters tent or building (principia). Streets and other features were marked with coloured pennants or rods. The street plans of various present-day cities still retain traces of a Roman camp, for example Marsala in Sicily, the ancient Lilybaeum, where the name of the main street, the Cassaro, perpetuates the name \"castrum\".", "The Castrum's special structure also defended from attacks. The base (\"munimentum\", \"fortification\") was placed entirely within the \"vallum\" (\"wall\"), which could be constructed under the protection of the legion in battle formation if necessary. The \"vallum\" was quadrangular aligned on the cardinal points of the compass. The construction crews dug a trench (\"fossa\"), throwing the excavated material inward, to be formed into the rampart (\"agger\"). On top of this a palisade of stakes (\"sudes\" or \"valli\") was erected. The soldiers had to carry these stakes on the march. Over the course of time, the palisade might be replaced by a fine brick or stone wall, and the ditch serve also as a moat. A legion-sized camp always placed towers at intervals along the wall with positions between for the division artillery.", "Around the inside periphery of the \"vallum\" was a clear space, the \"intervallum\", which served to catch enemy missiles, as an access route to the \"vallum\" and as a storage space for cattle (\"capita\") and plunder (\"praeda\"). Legionaries were quartered in a peripheral zone inside the \"intervallum\", which they could rapidly cross to take up position on the \"vallum\". Inside of the legionary quarters was a peripheral road, the \"Via Sagularis\", probably a type of \"service road\", as the \"sagum\", a kind of cloak, was the garment of soldiers.", "Every camp included \"main street\", which ran through the camp in a north-south direction and was very wide. The names of streets in many cities formerly occupied by the Romans suggest that the street was called \"cardo\" or \"cardus maximus\". This name applies more to cities than it does to ancient camps. Typically \"main street\" was the \"via principalis\". The central portion was used as a parade ground and headquarters area. The \"headquarters\" building was called the \"praetorium\" because it housed the \"praetor\" or base commander (\"first officer\"), and his staff. In the camp of a full legion he held the rank of \"consul\" or \"proconsul\" but officers of lesser ranks might command. On one side of the \"praetorium\" was the \"quaestorium\", the building of the \"quaestor\" (supply officer). On the other side was the \"forum\", a small duplicate of an urban forum, where public business could be conducted. Along the \"Via Principalis\" were the homes or tents of the several tribunes in front of the barracks of the units they commanded. The \"Via Principalis\" went through the \"vallum\" in the \"Porta Principalis Dextra\" (\"right principal gate\") and \"Porta Principalis Sinistra\" (\"left, etc.\"), which were gates fortified with \"turres\" (\"towers\"). Which was on the north and which on the south depends on whether the praetorium faced east or west, which remains unknown. The central region of the \"Via Principalis\" with the buildings for the command staff was called the \"Principia\" (plural of \"principium\"). It was actually a square, as across this at right angles to the \"Via Principalis\" was the \"Via Praetoria\", so called because the \"praetorium\" interrupted it. The \"Via Principalis\" and the \"Via Praetoria\" offered another division of the camp into four quarters. Across the central plaza (\"principia\") to the east or west was the main gate, the \"Porta Praetoria\". Marching through it and down \"headquarters street\" a unit ended up in formation in front of the headquarters. The standards of the legion were located on display there, very much like the flag of modern camps. On the other side of the praetorium the \"Via Praetoria\" continued to the wall, where it went through the \"Porta Decumana\". In theory this was the back gate. Supplies were supposed to come in through it and so it was also called, descriptively, the \"Porta Quaestoria\". The term Decumana, \"of the 10th\", came from the arranging of \"manipuli\" or \"turmae\" from the first to the 10th, such that the 10th was near the \"intervallum\" on that side. The \"Via Praetoria\" on that side might take the name \"Via Decumana\" or the entire \"Via Praetoria\" be replaced with \"Decumanus Maximus\".", "In peaceful times the camp set up a marketplace with the natives in the area. They were allowed into the camp as far as the units numbered 5 (half-way to the praetorium). There another street crossed the camp at right angles to the \"Via Decumana\", called the \"Via Quintana\", \"5th street\". If the camp needed more gates, one or two of the \"Porta Quintana\" were built, presumably named \"dextra\" and \"sinistra\". If the gates were not built, the \"Porta Decumana\" also became the \"Porta Quintana\". At \"5th street\" a public market was allowed.", "The \"Via Quintana\" and the \"Via Principalis\" divided the camp into three districts: the \"Latera Praetorii\", the \"Praetentura\" and the \"Retentura\". In the \"latera\" (\"sides\") were the \"Arae\" (sacrificial altars), the \"Auguratorium\" (for auspices), the \"Tribunal\", where courts martial and arbitrations were conducted (it had a raised platform), the guardhouse, the quarters of various kinds of staff and the storehouses for grain (\"horrea\") or meat (\"carnarea\"). Sometimes the \"horrea\" were located near the barracks and the meat was stored on the hoof. Analysis of sewage from latrines indicates the legionary diet was mainly grain. Also located in the \"Latera\" was the \"Armamentarium\", a long shed containing any heavy weapons and artillery not on the wall. The \"Praetentura\" (\"stretching to the front\") contained the \"Scamnum Legatorum\", the quarters of officers who were below general but higher than company commanders (\"Legati\"). Near the \"Principia\" were the \"Valetudinarium\" (hospital), \"Veterinarium\" (for horses), \"Fabrica\" (\"workshop\", metals and wood), and further to the front the quarters of special forces. These included \"Classici\" (\"marines\", as most European camps were on rivers and contained a river naval command), \"Equites\" (\"cavalry\"), \"Exploratores\" (\"scouts\"), and \"Vexillarii\" (carriers of vexillae, the official pennants of the legion and its units). Troops who did not fit elsewhere also were there. The part of the \"Retentura\" (\"stretching to the rear\") closest to the \"Principia\" contained the \"Quaestorium\". By the late empire it had developed also into a safekeep for plunder and a prison for hostages and high-ranking enemy captives. Near the \"Quaestorium\" were the quarters of the headquarters guard (\"Statores\"), who amounted to two centuries (companies). If the \"Imperator\" was present they served as his bodyguard.", "Further from the \"Quaestorium\" were the tents of the \"Nationes\" (\"natives\"), who were auxiliaries of foreign troops, and the legionaries themselves in double rows of tents or barracks (\"Strigae\"). One \"Striga\" was as long as required and 18 m wide. In it were two \"Hemistrigia\" of facing tents centered in its 9 m strip. Arms could be stacked before the tents and baggage carts kept there as well. Space on the other side of the tent was for passage. In the northern places like Britain, where it got cold in the winter, they would make wood or stone barracks. The Romans would also put a fireplace in the barracks. They had about three bunk beds in it. They had a small room beside it where they put their armour; it was as big as the tents. They would also make these barracks if the fort they had was going to stay there for good. A tent was 3 by 3.5 metres (0.6 m for the aisle), ten men per tent. Ideally a company took 10 tents, arranged in a line of 10 companies, with the 10th near the \"Porta Decumana\". Of the c. 9.2 square metres of bunk space each man received 0.9, or about 0.6 by 1.5 m, which was only practical if they slept with heads to the aisle. The single tent with its men was called \"contubernium\", also used for \"squad\". A squad during some periods was 8 men or fewer. The \"Centurion\", or company commander, had a double-sized tent for his quarters, which served also as official company area. Other than there, the men had to find other places to be. To avoid mutiny, it became extremely important for the officers to keep them busy. A covered portico might protect the walkway along the tents. If barracks had been constructed, one company was housed in one barracks building, with the arms at one end and the common area at the other. The company area was used for cooking and recreation, such as gaming. The army provisioned the men and had their bread (\"panis militaris\") baked in outdoor ovens, but the men were responsible for cooking and serving themselves. They could buy meals or supplementary foods at the canteen. The officers were allowed servants.", "For sanitary facilities, a camp had both public and private latrines. A public latrine consisted of a bank of seats situated over a channel of running water. One of the major considerations for selecting the site of a camp was the presence of running water, which the engineers diverted into the sanitary channels. Drinking water came from wells; however, the larger and more permanent bases featured the \"aqueduct\", a structure running a stream captured from high ground (sometimes miles away) into the camp. The praetorium had its own latrine, and probably the quarters of the high-ranking officers. In or near the \"intervallum\", where they could easily be accessed, were the latrines of the soldiers. A public bathhouse for the soldiers, also containing a latrine, was located near or on the \"Via Principalis\".", "The influence of a base extended far beyond its walls. The total land required for the maintenance of a permanent base was called its \"territoria\". In it were located all the resources of nature and the terrain required by the base: pastures, woodlots, water sources, stone quarries, mines, exercise fields and attached villages. The central castra might also support various fortified adjuncts to the main base, which were not in themselves self-sustaining (as was the base). In this category were \"speculae\", \"watchtowers\", \"castella\", \"small camps\", and naval bases. All the major bases near rivers featured some sort of fortified naval installation, one side of which was formed by the river or lake. The other sides were formed by a polygonal wall and ditch constructed in the usual way, with gates and watchtowers. The main internal features were the boat sheds and the docks. When not in use, the boats were drawn up into the sheds for maintenance and protection. Since the camp was placed to best advantage on a hill or slope near the river, the naval base was usually outside its walls. The \"classici\" and the \"optiones\" of the naval installation relied on the camp for its permanent defense. Naval personnel generally enjoyed better quarters and facilities. Many were civilians working for the military.", "This ideal was always modified to suit the terrain and the circumstances. Each camp discovered by archaeology has its own specific layout and architectural features, which makes sense from a military point of view. If, for example, the camp was built on an outcrop, it followed the lines of the outcrop. The terrain for which it was best suited and for which it was probably designed in distant prehistoric times was the rolling plain. The camp was best placed on the summit and along the side of a low hill, with spring water running in rivulets through the camp (\"aquatio\") and pastureland to provide grazing (\"pabulatio\") for the animals. In case of attack, arrows, javelins and sling missiles could be fired down at an enemy tiring himself to come up. For defence troops could be formed in an \"acies\", or \"battle-line\", outside the gates, where they could be easily resupplied and replenished, as well as being supported by archery from the palisade. The streets, gates and buildings present depended on the requirements and resources of the camp. The gates might vary from two to six and not be centred on the sides. Not all the streets and buildings might be present.", "Many settlements in Europe originated as Roman military camps and still show traces of their original pattern (e.g. Castres in France, Barcelona in Spain). The pattern was also used by Spanish colonizers in America following strict rules by the Spanish monarchy for founding new cities in the New World. Many of the towns of England still retain forms of the word \"castra\" in their names, usually as the suffixes \"-caster\", \"-cester\" or \"-chester\" – Lancaster, Tadcaster, Worcester, Gloucester, Mancetter, Uttoxeter, Colchester, Chester, Manchester and Ribchester for example. Castle has the same derivation, from the diminutive \"castellum\" or \"little fort\", but does not usually indicate a former Roman camp. Whitley Castle however is an exception, referring to the Roman fort of Epiacum in Northumberland.", "Activities conducted in a castra can be divided into ordinary and \"the duty\" or \"the watch\". Ordinary activity was performed during regular working hours. The duty was associated with operating the installation as a military facility. For example, none of the soldiers were required to man the walls all the time, but round-the clock duty always required a portion of the soldiers to be on duty at any time. Duty time was divided into \"vigilia\", the eight watches into which the 24-hour day was divided so they stood guard for 3 hours that day. The Romans used signals on brass instruments to mark time. These were mainly the \"buccina\" or \"bucina\", the \"cornu\" and the \"tuba\". As they did not possess valves for regulating the pitch, the range of these instruments was somewhat limited. Nevertheless, the musicians (\"Aenatores\", \"brassmen\") managed to define enough signals for issuing commands. The instrument used to mark the passage of a watch was the \"buccina\", from which the trumpet derives. It was sounded by a \"buccinator\".", "Ordinary camp life began with a \"buccina\" call at daybreak, the first watch of the day. The soldiers arose at this time and shortly after collected in the company area for breakfast and assembly. The centurions were up before them and off to the \"principia\" where they and the \"equites\" were required to assemble. The regimental commanders, the tribunes, were already converging on the \"praetorium\". There the general staff was busily at work planning the day. At a staff meeting the \"Tribunes\" received the password and the orders of the day. They brought those back to the \"centuriones\", who returned to their company areas to instruct the men. For soldiers, the main item of the agenda was a vigorous training session lasting about a watch long. Recruits received two, one in the morning and one in the afternoon. Planning and supervision of training were under a general staff officer, who might manage training at several camps. According to Vegetius, the men might take a hike or a jog under full pack, or swim a river. Marching drill was always in order. Each soldier was taught the use of every weapon and also was taught to ride. Seamanship was taught at naval bases. Soldiers were generalists in the military and construction arts. They practiced archery, spear-throwing and above all swordsmanship against posts (\"pali\") fixed in the ground. Training was taken very seriously and was democratic. Ordinary soldiers would see all the officers training with them including the \"praetor\", or the Emperor, if he was in camp. Swordsmanship lessons and use of the shooting range probably took place on the \"campus\", a \"field\" outside the \"castra\", from which English camp derives. Its surface could be lightly paved. Winter curtailed outdoor training. The general might in that case have sheds constructed, which served as field houses for training. There is archaeological evidence in one case of an indoor equestrian ring. Apart from the training, each soldier had a regular job on the base, of which there were a large variety from the various kinds of clerks to the craftsmen. Soldiers changed jobs frequently. The commander's policy was to have all the soldiers skilled in all the arts and crafts so that they could be as interchangeable as possible. Even then the goal was not entirely achievable. The gap was bridged by the specialists, the \"optiones\" or \"chosen men\", of which there were many different kinds. For example, a skilled artisan might be chosen to superintend a workshop. The supply administration was run as a business using money as the medium of exchange. The aureus was the preferred coin of the late republic and early empire; in the late empire the solidus came into use. The larger bases, such as \"Moguntiacum\", minted their own coins. As does any business, the base quaestorium required careful record keeping, performed mainly by the optiones. A chance cache of tablets from Vindolanda in Britain gives us a glimpse of some supply transactions. They record, among other things, the purchase of consumables and raw supplies, the storage and repair of clothing and other items, and the sale of items, including foodstuffs, to achieve an income. Vindolanda traded vigorously with the surrounding natives. Another feature of the camp was the military hospital (\"valetudinarium\", later \"hospitium\"). Augustus instituted the first permanent medical corps in the Roman army. Its physicians, the \"medici ordinarii\", had to be qualified physicians. They were allowed medical students, practitioners and whatever orderlies they needed; i.e., the military hospitals were medical schools and places of residency as well. Officers were allowed to marry and to reside with their families on base. The army did not extend the same privileges to the men, who were not allowed to marry. However, they often kept common law families off base in communities nearby. The communities might be native, as the tribesmen tended to build around a permanent base for purposes of trade, but also the base sponsored villages (\"vici\") of dependents and businessmen. Dependants were not allowed to follow an army on the march into hostile territory. Military service was for about 25 years. At the end of that time, the veteran was given a certificate of honorable discharge (\"honesta missio\"). Some of these have survived engraved on stone. Typically they certify that the veteran, his wife (one per veteran) and children or his sweetheart were now Roman citizens, which is a good indication that troops, which were used chiefly on the frontier, were from peoples elsewhere on the frontier who wished to earn Roman citizenship. However, under Antoninus Pius, citizenship was no longer granted to the children of rank-and-file veterans, the privilege becoming restricted only to officers. Veterans often went into business in the communities near a base. They became permanent members of the community and would stay on after the troops were withdrawn, as in the notable case of Saint Patrick's family.", "Conducted in parallel with the ordinary activities was \"the duty\", the official chores required by the camp under strict military discipline. The \"Legate\" was ultimately responsible for them as he was for the entire camp, but he delegated the duty to a tribune chosen as officer of the day. The line \"Tribunes\" were commanders of \"Cohortes\" and were approximately the equivalent of colonels. The 6 tribunes were divided into units of two, with each unit being responsible for filling the position of officer of the day for two months. The two men of a unit decided among themselves who would take what day. They could alternate days or each take a month. One filled in for the other in case of illness. On his day, the tribune effectively commanded the camp and was even respected as such by the \"Legate\". The equivalent concept of the duties performed in modern camps is roughly the detail. The responsibilities (\"curae\") of the many kinds of detail were distributed to the men by all the methods considered fair and democratic: lot, rotation and negotiation. Certain kinds of \"cura\" were assigned certain classes or types of troops; for example, wall sentries were chosen only from \"Velites\". Soldiers could be temporarily or permanently exempted: the \"immunes\". For example, a Triarius was \"immunis\" from the \"curae\" of the Hastati. The duty year was divided into time slices, typically one or two months, which were apportioned to units, typically maniples or centuries. They were always allowed to negotiate who took the duty and when. The most common kind of \"cura\" were the posts of the sentinels, called the \"excubiae\" by day and the \"vigilae\" at night. Wall posts were \"praesidia\", gate posts, \"custodiae\", advance positions before the gates, \"stationes\". In addition were special guards and details. One post was typically filled by four men, one sentinel and the others at ease until a situation arose or it was their turn to be sentinel. Some of the details were:", "Below are a number of links to sites reporting or summarizing current research or thinking. Many are reprints of articles made available to the public at no charge. The historical researcher will find their bibliographies of great interest." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "1988–2002: Original Charlotte Hornets.", "1985–1988: Birth of the Hornets.", "1988–1992: Early seasons.", "1992–1995: Johnson/Mourning era.", "1995–1998: Glen Rice era.", "1998–2002: Final years of original personnel.", "2004–2014: Charlotte Bobcats.", "2004–2007: Return to Charlotte.", "2007–2010: Larry Brown era.", "2009–2010: Michael Jordan's acquisition of the franchise.", "2010–2014: Final years of the Bobcats.", "2014–present: Return of the Hornets.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Logos.", "Uniforms.", "Original Hornets.", "Bobcats.", "Hornets.", "Season-by-season record.", "Arenas.", "Personnel.", "Retained draft rights.", "Franchise records, awards and honors.", "Franchise leaders.", "Individual awards.", "All-Star Game selections.", "Mascot and cheerleaders.", "Media coverage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "", "In 1985, the NBA was planning to expand by three teams by the 1988–1989 season, later modified to include a total of four expansion teams. George Shinn, an entrepreneur from Kannapolis, wanted to bring an NBA team to the Charlotte area, and he assembled a group of prominent local businessmen to head the prospective franchise. The Charlotte area had long been a hotbed for college basketball. Charlotte was also one of the fastest-growing cities in the United States, and was previously one of the three in-state regional homes to the American Basketball Association's Carolina Cougars from 1969 to 1974. Despite doubt from critics, Shinn's ace in the hole was the Charlotte Coliseum, a state-of-the-art arena that would seat almost 24,000 spectators – the largest basketball-specific arena ever to serve as a full-time home for an NBA team. On April 5, 1987, then-NBA Commissioner David Stern called", "The Hornets' first NBA game took place on November 4, 1988, at the Charlotte Coliseum, losing 133–93 to the Cleveland Cavaliers. Four days later, the team notched its first-ever victory over the Los Angeles Clippers, 117–105. On December 23, 1988, the Hornets really gave their fans something to cheer about, beating Michael Jordan and the Chicago Bulls 103–101 in Jordan's first return to North Carolina as a professional. The Hornets finished their inaugural season with a record of 20–62. Scheer left prior to the 1989–90 season. Despite initial concerns that the Coliseum was too big, the Hornets were a runaway hit, leading the NBA in attendance, a feat they would achieve seven more times in Charlotte. Eventually, the Hornets would sell out 364 consecutive games. The Hornets' second season was a struggle", "The Hornets were in the lottery again in 1992 and won the second overall pick in the draft, using it to select Georgetown center Alonzo Mourning. Charlotte now had two 20–10 threats in Johnson and Mourning, who with Kendall Gill, formed perhaps the league's top young trio. The team finished their fifth season at 44–38, their first-ever winning record and good enough for the first playoff berth in franchise history. Finishing fifth in the Eastern Conference, the Hornets upset the Boston Celtics in the first round, with Mourning", "Glen Rice would make an immediate impact after joining the Hornets, leading the team in scoring and points-per-game during the 1995–96 season. While Rice and Johnson provided high-powered scoring, Geiger tied with Johnson for the team lead in rebounds, and All-Star guard Kenny Anderson ran the point for the injured Muggsy Bogues. The Hornets were competitive but failed to qualify for the playoffs, again finishing with a 41–41 record. Allan Bristow resigned at the end of the season, and was replaced by Dave Cowens. The 1996 off-season was again marked by vast changes: Anderson declined to re-sign, Johnson was shipped to the Knicks for power forward Anthony Mason, and the team made a trade on draft day", "The 1998–99 season was shortened. The season did not start until February, as the lockout shortened the regular season to only 50 games. Additionally, Glen Rice was traded to the Lakers for Eddie Jones and Elden Campbell, and Dave Cowens resigned midway through the season. He was replaced by former Celtics teammate Paul Silas, who became the team's fifth head coach. The team finished with a 26–24 record, but failed to qualify for the playoffs. The next three seasons (1999–2000, 2000–01 and 2001–02) saw the Hornets in the playoffs each year, reaching the conference semifinals twice. Before the Hornets were eliminated from the 2002 playoffs, the NBA approved a deal for the team to move to New Orleans following the season. The move came mainly because attendance tailed off dramatically, reportedly due to Shinn's declining popularity in the city.", "Shortly after the relocation of the team to New Orleans, the NBA opened itself to the possibility of adding a replacement team in Charlotte for the 2004–05 season, given an arena deal could be reached. Several ownership groups, including one led by former Boston Celtics star Larry Bird, made bids for the franchise. On December 18, 2002, a group led by BET founder Robert L. Johnson was awarded the franchise, allowing him to become the first majority African American owner in U.S. major professional sports since the Negro leagues. The franchise with Johnson as its owner was approved by the NBA Board of Governors on January 10, 2003. Hip-hop artist Nelly became a notable co-owner. The owners", "The Bobcats held their expansion draft on June 22, 2004, picking up youngsters such as Gerald Wallace, Primož Brezec, and Jason Kapono. Shortly after, they traded with the Los Angeles Clippers to acquire the second pick in the 2004 NBA draft, which they used to select center Emeka Okafor from Connecticut. The Bobcats' inaugural game, and the first of their 2004–05 season took place on November 4 at the Charlotte Coliseum, and was a 103–96 loss to the Washington Wizards. Two days later, they won their first game in franchise history over the Orlando Magic, 111–100. On December 14, the Bobcats beat the New Orleans Hornets in overtime in the team's first trip to Charlotte since relocating. The Bobcats finished their inaugural season 18–64. Emeka Okafor, however, won the 2004–05 NBA Rookie of the Year Award. In the 2005 NBA draft, the Bobcats drafted Raymond Felton and Sean May from North Carolina. In their second season, the Bobcats", "Front office and coaching were key focuses for the Bobcats during the 2007 off-season. Rod Higgins was hired as general manager, and Sam Vincent was hired as the second head coach in franchise history. In the 2007 NBA draft, Brandan Wright was selected by the Bobcats with the eighth pick; he was subsequently traded to Golden State for Jason Richardson. The Bobcats were unable to capitalize on off-season moves, finishing the 2007–08 season with a 32–50 record. The team struggled amid rumors of players clashing with the coach.", "During the off-season, the team picked Gerald Henderson from Duke 12th overall in the 2009 NBA draft. The Bobcats traded Emeka Okafor for New Orleans Hornets' center Tyson Chandler, and through more trades acquired Stephen Jackson and Acie Law from the Golden State Warriors. On February 27, 2010, it was announced that Johnson had decided to sell the team", "Despite the departures of Raymond Felton and Tyson Chandler, the Bobcats hoped to make the playoffs for a second straight season. Following a dismal 9–19 start, Jordan announced that Larry Brown had stepped down as head coach. Paul Silas was hired as their new head coach the same day. The Bobcats sent Wallace to the Portland Trail Blazers and received two first round draft picks, Joel Przybilla, Sean Marks, and Dante Cunningham, also acquiring D. J. White and Morris Peterson in a trade with the Thunder. Going down the stretch, injuries to both Stephen Jackson and Tyrus Thomas derailed any chances of Charlotte trying to catch the Indiana Pacers for the eighth spot in the east. In the end, the Bobcats finished the season with a 34–48 record overall, finishing 25–29 under Silas. On June 13, 2011, the Bobcats made some changes to their front office by hiring former Trail Blazers general manager Rich Cho to the same position and promoting Rod Higgins to President of Basketball Operations. During the 2011 NBA draft the Bobcats sent Jackson, Shaun Livingston, and the 19th pick to Milwaukee and received Corey Maggette and the 7th pick in return. The Bobcats used that pick to draft Bismack Biyombo and with their 9th pick drafted Connecticut's Kemba Walker, the NCAA Basketball Tournament Most Outstanding Player. In the lockout-shortened 2011–12", "On May 21, 2013, Jordan officially announced the organization had submitted an application to change the name of the franchise to the Charlotte Hornets for the 2014–15 NBA season, pending a majority vote for approval by the NBA Board of Governors at a meeting in Las Vegas on July 18, 2013. The NBA announced, on July 18, 2013, that it had unanimously approved the rebranding, which would begin upon the conclusion of the 2013–14 season. The Bobcats announced on November 22, they would adopt a modified version of the original Hornets' teal-purple-white color palette, with black, gray and Carolina blue as accents. The team officially unveiled its future logo and identity scheme during halftime of their December 21 game against the Jazz. The team also started the \"Buzz City\" campaign to hype up the Hornets return. On January 16, 2014, the Bobcats revealed new Hornets", "", "The Hornets first logo was a teal and purple anthropomorphic hornet wearing white shoes and gloves dribbling an orange basketball. The words 'Charlotte Hornets' were in teal and curved across the top and bottom of the logo. An alternate logo, used only for the 1988–89 season, featured a large teal letter 'C', with 'Charlotte' in black letters curved upwards underneath. Inside the 'C' was a smaller white letter 'H' outlined in teal, with a black colored hornet holding a basketball from birds-eye view placed in the center. The 'H' portion of the logo remained on the warm-ups and waistband of the jerseys until the 1991–92 season. The Bobcats primary logo from 2004 to 2012 consisted of a snarling orange bobcat facing to the right with the indented name 'Bobcats' above in silver on a blue background, with 'Charlotte' (also indented) appearing above it in the same blue color. A change to a less vibrant orange", "", "The original Hornets uniforms were designed by international designer and North Carolina native Alexander Julian. The team chose teal and purple as its primary colors and featured a first for NBA uniforms—pinstripes. While most teams feature team names on home jerseys and their home city on away jerseys, the Hornets' uniforms had \"Charlotte\" on both home and away jerseys. Home uniforms were white with pinstripes in teal, green, blue and", "The Bobcats' first home jerseys were white, reading \"Bobcats\" in orange with blue and black trimming. The primary away jersey was orange reading \"Charlotte\" in white with blue and black trimming. In the 2006 off-season, the Bobcats announced a new alternate away jersey which debuted during the 2006–07 season. The alternate jersey is blue, with the name \"Bobcats\" in white with black, orange and white trimming. Racing Day blue alternates (with an arched 'Charlotte', checkered flag side stripes, and centered numbers) were used to honor Charlotte's NASCAR fanbase. For the 2009–10 season, the Bobcats sported redesigned uniforms, having a mixture of characteristics from both Hornets and Bobcats uniforms. The home uniforms were white and featured an arched \"Bobcats\" in blue with orange and white trim. Road uniforms were blue and featured an arched \"Charlotte\" in", "The newly renamed Hornets unveiled the team's uniforms on June 19, 2014, consisting of white home and purple road uniforms with the \"Hornets\" wordmark across the chest. The team also unveiled a teal alternate uniform with the \"Charlotte\" wordmark across the chest. The teal uniform is planned to be used as an alternate uniform for either home or road games and worn a total of 16–20 times per season. On June 25, 2015, the Hornets unveiled a black sleeved alternate uniform, featuring their \"Buzz City\" nickname in front. The team wore the uniform for as many as six games during the 2015–16 NBA season. It was also worn during select games of the 2016 NBA Playoffs. For the 2017–18 season and beyond, the Hornets will be outfitted by Nike's Air Jordan brand endorsed by franchise owner Michael Jordan. The white \"Association\" uniform and the teal \"Icon\" uniform feature the \"Hornets\" wordmark in front and the silhouetted hornet on the waistband. The purple", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Hornets. For the full season-by-season history,", "The Hornets played their first 15 seasons at the Charlotte Coliseum, which was called \"The Hive\" by fans. With almost 24,000 seats, it was (and still remains) the largest basketball-specific venue in the league by seating capacity. The Coliseum hosted 364 consecutive NBA sell-outs from December 1988 to November 1997. The Hornets would go on to lead the NBA in attendance over the course of their first seven seasons. When they returned as the Bobcats, they temporarily played in the Coliseum in the 2004–05 season while their new arena (the Charlotte Bobcats Arena) was being built. After its completion, the city closed the old", "", "The Hornets hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player is ostensibly either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not", "", "Bold denotes still active with team. \"Italic\" denotes still active", "Rookie of the Year NBA All-Rookie First Team NBA All-Rookie Second Team All-NBA Second", "The following Hornets players", "Hugo The Hornet is the current mascot of the franchise, and was retained by the New Orleans Hornets after the Charlotte Hornets departure in 2002, until the New Orleans franchise's rebranding as the Pelicans. Shortly after the news that the Bobcats would get the Hornets name back, at halftime of a December 21, 2013, game between the Bobcats and the Utah Jazz, Hugo was announced to return as the Charlotte Hornets' new mascot for the 2014–15 NBA season. From 2004 to 2014, Rufus D. Lynx was the mascot of the Bobcats. He first appeared on November 1, 2003, according to his official bio on the Bobcats' website. The name comes", "From 1988 to 1992, the Hornets aired most road games, and occasional home games, on a network of stations in North Carolina, South Carolina and Virginia fronted by WCCB in Charlotte. WCCB's longtime owner, Cy Bahakel, was a minority partner in the Hornets' original ownership group. Starting with the 1990–91 season, several games also aired on the original SportSouth, forerunner of Fox Sports South, for customers in North and South Carolina. WJZY became the Hornets' over-the-air flagship in 1992, and remained as such until 1998. From 1995 to 1998, some games aired on WJZY's sister station, WFVT-TV (now WMYT-TV). WAXN-TV became the flagship for the 1998–99 season, and remained as such until the original team departed in 2002. Generally, most home games slated for telecast aired on SportSouth/Fox Sports South. When the team returned as the Bobcats in 2004, Johnson partnered with Time Warner to create Carolinas Sports Entertainment Television (C-SET), a regional sports network. It aired 60 Bobcats games that also aired on Comporium Cable in the South Carolina portion of the Charlotte market. However, Time Warner placed C-SET on its digital package as an incentive to try to get customers to switch to its digital service, leaving analog customers in the dark. It also refused to allow DirecTV or Dish Network to pick up C-SET on their local feeds. As a result, Time Warner customers without digital cable, as well as western North Carolina and most of South Carolina, were left to rely on radio coverage. C-SET folded on the day of the 2005 NBA draft, and most games then moved to News 14 Carolina, a cable news channel available on Time Warner Cable's systems in Charlotte, the Triad and the Triangle. However, this still left viewers in most of South Carolina (except for the South Carolina side of the Charlotte area, which saw games on Comporium) as well as eastern and western North Carolina, out in the cold. News 14 was also not available on satellite. As part of the Time Warner Cable Arena deal, the Bobcats signed over broadcasting rights to Fox Sports South. Starting with the last five games of the 2007–08 season, about 70 games per season were shown on Fox Sports Carolinas (Fox Sports South's new regional feed) and sister network Sportsouth (renamed Fox Sports Southeast in 2015) in North and South Carolina. The deal is believed to be the first simultaneous naming rights and broadcast rights deal in the history of North American professional sports. Since the 2008–09 season, all Bobcats/Hornets games that are not slated for national broadcast have aired on either Fox Sports Carolinas or Sportsouth/Fox Sports Southeast. For the team's first four seasons after their return to the league, select games also aired on a network of over-the-air stations across North Carolina, South Carolina and Virginia, fronted by WJZY from 2004 to 2006 and WMYT from 2006 to 2008. The team's radio flagship is all-sports station WFNZ. Before 2010, games had aired on WOLS. WOLS switched its non-sports programming from oldies to Spanish language on January 1, 2009, making Bobcats and Duke basketball the station's only non-Spanish language programming. WBT was the Hornets' radio flagship during the original franchise's entire run." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "1987–1995: Early years in Miami.", "1995–2003: Title hopefuls.", "2003–2016: The Dwyane Wade era.", "2005–2006: Championship season.", "2006–2010: Post-championship struggles.", "2010–2014: The \"Big Three\" era.", "2014–2016: Post-\"Big Three\" and rebuild.", "2016–2019: Departure and return of Wade.", "Uniforms.", "1988–1999 uniforms.", "1999–present uniforms.", "Special uniforms.", "Rivalries.", "New York Knicks.", "Chicago Bulls.", "Orlando Magic.", "Boston Celtics.", "Indiana Pacers.", "Dallas Mavericks.", "Season-by-season record.", "Radio and television.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Retired numbers.", "Head coaches.", "Franchise accomplishments and awards.", "Franchise leaders.", "Individual awards.", "NBA All-Star Weekend." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In 1987 the NBA granted one of its four new expansion teams to Miami (the others being the Orlando Magic, Charlotte Hornets, and the Minnesota Timberwolves) and", "Upon the purchasing of the franchise by Carnival Cruise Lines chairman Micky Arison in 1995, Pat Riley was brought in as the team president and head coach. Riley acquired center Alonzo Mourning and point guard Tim Hardaway to serve as the centerpieces for the team, transforming Miami into a championship contender throughout the late 1990s. With them they also brought in a new team trainer, Cody Posselt, to work on shooting. The Heat underwent a dramatic turnaround", "In the 2003 NBA draft, with the fifth overall pick, Miami selected shooting guard Dwyane Wade out of Marquette. Free-agent swing-man Lamar Odom was signed from the Los Angeles Clippers. Just prior to the start of the 2003–04 season, Riley stepped down as head coach to focus on rebuilding the Heat, promoting Stan Van Gundy to the position of head coach. Behind Van Gundy's leadership, Wade's stellar rookie year and Odom's break out season, the Heat made the 2004 NBA Playoffs, beating the New Orleans", "In the summer of 2005, Riley brought in veteran free agent Gary Payton from the Boston Celtics, and also brought in James Posey, Jason Williams and Antoine Walker via trades. After a disappointing 11–10 start to the 2005–06 season, Riley relieved Van Gundy of his duties", "The Heat experienced four-years of post-title struggles from 2007 through 2010, including a 4–0 sweep by the Chicago Bulls in the 1st round of the 2007 NBA Playoffs. In the 2007–08 season, Wade was plagued by injuries and the Heat had a league worst 15–67 record. O'Neal was traded to Phoenix", "Entering the 2010–11 season with nearly $48 million in salary cap space, the Heat caused a major power shift during the blockbuster 2010 free agency, adding Chris Bosh and LeBron James, starting the \"Big 3\" era. However, the Heat got off to a 9–8 start. After a \"players only\" meeting, the team improved. The Heat finished with a 58–24 record and the 2nd seed. In the much anticipated 2011 NBA Playoffs, Miami defeated the Philadelphia 76ers in the first round, Boston Celtics in the Conference Semifinals, and Bulls in the Conference Finals, all in 5 games. The Heat reached the 2011 NBA Finals for the first time since 2006, in a rematch against the Dallas Mavericks. After taking a 2–1 series lead, the Heat lost the final three games to the Mavericks. After the second NBA Lockout ended, the Heat signed veteran Shane Battier. In the shortened 2011–12 season, the Heat started 27–7. However they", "On July 11, 2014, LeBron James announced on SI.com that after opting out of the final year of his contract, he would leave the Heat and return to the Cleveland Cavaliers. Wade and Bosh stayed in Miami. Like the Cavaliers in the 2010 off-season, the Heat focused on how it would maintain itself without LeBron. Wade and Bosh were joined by returning players Mario Chalmers, Norris Cole, Udonis Haslem and Chris Andersen along with former rivals Luol Deng and Danny Granger. The Heat also drafted Shabazz Napier and James Ennis. In 2015, they also gained Goran Dragić and his younger brother Zoran Dragić. After a season with several injuries,", "On July 6, 2016, Wade announced that he was leaving the Heat to go join his hometown Chicago Bulls. In September 2016, Bosh suffered numerous setbacks and failed his physical exam with the Heat and was not cleared by the team to participate in training camp. On September 26, 2016, Heat president Riley said that the team doubted about Bosh's return on", "", "Unveiled prior to the 1988–89 season, the original Miami Heat uniforms consist of simple striping, exclusive only on the right side of the jersey and shorts. The home uniforms were white with lettering in red, black and orange trim, while the away uniforms were black with red, white and orange trim; the numbers were white with red, black and orange trim, using the same font as the classic Los Angeles Lakers jerseys. The original 'flaming ball' logo is on the left leg of the shorts while the word 'Miami'", "The current Heat uniforms have been in use since the 1999–2000 season. These uniforms, though similar, have marked differences such as striping on both sides, change from orange to yellow trim, updated lettering and block numbers, and a modified 'flaming ball' logo on the right leg. The black away uniform numbers are now consistent with the lettering colors (white with red trim). The alternate red uniform was introduced during the", "Since the 2007–08 season, the Heat participated in the NBA's Noche Latina promotions, or Latin Nights. From 2008 to 2014, the Heat wore a modified version of their black uniforms, featuring the wordmark \"El Heat\"; a sleeved version was used in 2014. For the 2014–15 season, the Heat wore their white uniforms with the \"El Heat\" wordmark, followed by the Noche Latina version of their red alternates in the 2015–16 season. The Heat wore a variation of their current home uniforms on the opening night of the 2012–13 season, with gold accents and a patch of the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy on the right chest. They used another variation on opening night of the 2013–14 season, this time with gold lettering. During the 2013–14 season, the Heat wore a variation of their current home uniforms, but with the player's names at the back replaced by their nicknames (e.g. 'King James' for LeBron James). They wore the uniforms for select home games that season. From 2012 to 2014, the Heat wore special monochrome uniforms: an all-black ensemble in the 2011–12 season, an all-white version in the 2012–13 season, and an all-red attire", "", "The rivalry between the New York Knicks and the expansion Miami Heat was a result of their four consecutive playoff series from 1997 to 2000. Each series went seven games. The rivalry's central figure was Pat Riley, the head coach of both teams (the early 1990s for the", "The rivalry with the Chicago Bulls began once the Miami Heat became contenders during the 1990s, a decade dominated by the Bulls and Michael Jordan. During that period, the Heat were eliminated three times by the Bulls, who would go on to win the NBA championship each time. After Jordan retired and the Heat's fall in the early 2000s, the rivalry cooled but slightly picked up when the Heat faced them in the first round of the 2006 NBA playoffs, which ended in a 4–2 Heat series victory and went on to win the NBA Finals. The Bulls would sweep the defending champion Heat in the first round the next season. The rivalry has intensified with the resurgence of the Bulls, and the emergence of Derrick Rose and the Heat re-signing Dwyane Wade (who turned down a chance of joining his hometown Bulls) with newly acquired superstars in Chris Bosh and LeBron James (who spurned a chance of teaming up with Rose in Chicago). The revived rivalry has been very physical,", "The Orlando Magic and the Miami Heat had a rivalry because both teams are located in Florida, thus the rivalry was known as the Sunshine State rivalry. Another ingredient to the rivalry was the high-caliber players on both teams such as Orlando's Shaquille O'Neal and Penny Hardaway to Miami's Alonzo Mourning and Tim Hardaway. The two had met each other in the NBA playoffs for", "The two teams first squared off in the playoffs in 2010, with the Celtics defeating the Heat four games to one en route to an eventual NBA Finals appearance by the Celtics. Having suffered first round losses in three straight years, it was the loss to the Celtics that prompted Dwyane Wade to declare that the loss would be \"my last\" in the first round for the near future. LeBron James' own enmity with the Boston Celtics can be found as far back as his first stint with the Cleveland Cavaliers, where the Celtics upset the Cavaliers in 2008 and 2010. Among the two", "A recent rivalry was triggered with the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference semifinals of the 2012 NBA Playoffs. Although the two previously met in the 2004 NBA Playoffs (when Indiana won 4–2), as of 2014, the only two players still left from either team are Dwyane Wade and Udonis Haslem of the Heat. Both head coaches were fined for statements made relating to the officiating: Frank Vogel accused the Heat of flopping before the series started, while Erik Spoelstra took offense to what he perceived to be deliberate head-hunting of his players on the part of the Pacers. Indiana took a 2–1 lead after Miami's Chris Bosh was sidelined with an abdominal strain. Powered", "The Heat–Mavericks rivalry began in the 2006 NBA Finals, where the two teams met and both entering their first NBA Finals appearance. A year prior, the Heat had acquired Shaquille O'Neal. The Mavericks were led by Dirk Nowitzki, and the Heat were led by Dwyane Wade. Dallas had home-court advantage in the series due to a better regular season record (60–22) than Miami's (52–30) and took the first two games in the series, entering Game 3 with a commanding 2–0 lead. They looked set to win Game 3 until a rally by the Heat, including many free throws from Wade, resulted", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Heat. For the full season-by-season history,", "The Heat's flagship radio stations are WAXY (790 AM) in English, with Mike Inglis and John Crotty calling games, and WQBA (1140 AM) in Spanish, with Jose Pañeda and Joe Pujala on the call. The Heat games are televised primarily by Fox Sports Sun with Eric Reid and Tony Fiorentino. Reid has been part of the Heat's broadcasting team since the beginning of the franchise, first serving as a color analyst, and later becoming the lead play-by-play voice starting in the 1991–92 season. For the first four years of the franchise, there were radio-television simulcasts of locally-broadcast games before the franchise eventually created separate broadcast teams. WBFS-TV", "", "The Heat hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "The Heat have retired five numbers, although only four of the players played for the franchise. Michael Jordan was the first player to be honored despite not having played for the Heat. Pat Riley retired Jordan's signature No. 23 before his final", "There have been six head coaches for the Miami Heat. Ron Rothstein was the franchise's first head coach, serving from 1988 through 1991; he remains as assistant coach. Kevin Loughery was his successor from 1991 to 1995, guiding the Heat to their first two playoff berths in 1992 and 1994. Loughery was fired 46 games into the 1994–95 season, posting a 17–29 record. Alvin Gentry, an assistant coach who joined in 1991, was brought in to replace Loughery on an interim basis. Miami went 15–21 for the final 36 games, and Gentry moved to the Detroit Pistons the following season. In the summer of 1995, owner Micky Arison hired Pat Riley as the head coach and team president. At eleven years, Riley is the longest tenured head coach in the franchise's history, as well its all-time leader in total wins and games", "", "Bold denotes still active with team. \"Italic\" denotes still active but not with team.", "NBA Most Valuable Player NBA Finals MVP NBA Scoring Champion NBA Defensive Player of the Year NBA Most Improved Player Award Best NBA Player ESPY Award NBA Coach of the Year NBA Executive", "NBA All-Star selections NBA All-Star Game head coaches NBA All-Star Game MVP NBA" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Frescoes.", "Trivia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Stephen the Great, the King (in Romanian \"Domnitor\") of Moldavia from 1457 until his death in 1504, fought 36 battles against the Ottoman Empire, winning 34 of them. He was very religious and built churches after many victories. Stephen's illegitimate son, Petru Rareș, who ruled Moldavia from 1527 to 1538 and again from 1541 to 1546, promoted a new vision for Bukovina churches. He commissioned artists to cover the interiors and exteriors with elaborate frescoes (portraits of saints and prophets, scenes from the life of Jesus). The best preserved are the monasteries in the towns of Sucevița, Moldovița, Voroneț, Humor, Suceava, Pătrăuți, Arbore and Probota. These eight monasteries—including the Monastery of Moldovița—were placed on UNESCO World Heritage list in 1993, as the Painted churches of Moldavia.", "This monastery, built by Voivode Petru Rareș, is one of the eight monasteries in Northern Moldavia with frescoes painted on the outer walls. Sister Maika, who has been living in the monastery for more than 50 years, says that it is \"the holy scriptures in color\". Moldovița's frescoes were painted by Toma of Suceava in 1537. They are filled with yellow accents and are well preserved. The predominantly yellow-and-blue paintings on its exterior represent recurring themes in Christian Orthodox art: a procession of saints leads up to the Virgin enthroned with the Child in her lap, above the narrow east window; the \"Tree of Jesse\" springs from a recumbent Jesse at the foot of the wall to marshal the ancestry of Christ around the Holy Family; The \"Siege of Constantinople\" commemorates the intervention of the Virgin in saving the city of Constantinople from Persian attack in A.D. 626 (although the siege depicted is rather the Fall of Constantinople in 1453). Tall arches open the porch to the outside and daylight. Within it, \"The Last Judgment\" covers the entire surface of the west wall with its river of fire and its depiction of the sea giving up its dead to judgment. Moldovița and Humor are the last churches built with an open porch, a hidden place above the burial-vault, and with Gothic-style windows and doors.", "The monastery of Moldovița was depicted on a Romanian postage stamp in 1968." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Ancient and early history.", "18th century: Ohio Country.", "Virginia Military District.", "19th century: statehood, city establishment, and development.", "20th century.", "21st century.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "2010 census.", "Population makeup.", "Italian-American community and symbols.", "Religion.", "Economy.", "Arts and culture.", "Landmarks.", "Museums and public art.", "Performing arts.", "Film.", "Sports.", "Professional teams.", "Ohio State Buckeyes.", "Other sports.", "Parks and attractions.", "Fairs and festivals.", "Shopping.", "Government.", "Mayor and city council.", "Government offices.", "Police and homeland security.", "Education.", "Colleges and universities.", "Primary and secondary schools.", "Libraries.", "Media.", "Transportation.", "Local roads, grid, and address system.", "Highways.", "Bridges.", "Airports.", "Aviation history.", "Mass transit.", "Cycling network.", "Modal share.", "Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The city of Columbus is named after Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer erroneously credited with discovering America. Since the late 20th century, historians have criticized Columbus for initiating colonization and for", "", "Between 1000 B.C. and 1700 A.D., the Columbus metropolitan area was a center to indigenous cultures known as the Moundbuilders. The cultures included the Adena, Hopewell and Fort Ancient people. The only remaining physical evidence of the cultures are their burial mounds and what they contained. Most of Central Ohio's remaining mounds", "The area including modern-day Columbus once comprised the Ohio Country, under the nominal control of the French colonial empire through the Viceroyalty of New France from 1663 until 1763. In the 18th century, European traders flocked to the area, attracted by the fur trade. The area was often caught between warring factions, including American Indian and European interests. In the 1740s, Pennsylvania traders overran the territory until the French forcibly evicted them. In the early 1750s, the Ohio Company sent George Washington to the Ohio Country to survey. Fighting for control of the territory in the French and Indian War (1754-1763) became part of the international Seven Years' War (1756-1763). During this period, the region routinely suffered turmoil, massacres, and battles. The 1763 Treaty of Paris ceded the Ohio Country to the British Empire.", "After the American Revolution, the Virginia Military District became part of Ohio Country as a territory of Virginia. Colonists from the East Coast moved in, but rather than finding an empty frontier, they encountered people of the Miami, Delaware, Wyandot, Shawnee, and Mingo nations, as well as European traders. The tribes resisted expansion by the fledgling United States, leading to years of bitter conflict. The decisive Battle of Fallen Timbers resulted in the Treaty of Greenville, which finally opened the way for new settlements. By 1797, a young surveyor from Virginia named", "After Ohio achieved statehood in 1803, political infighting among prominent Ohio leaders led to the state capital moving from Chillicothe to Zanesville and back again. Desiring to settle on a location, the state legislature considered Franklinton, Dublin, Worthington, and Delaware before compromising on a plan to build a new city in the state's center, near major transportation routes, primarily rivers. As well, Franklinton landowners had donated two plots in an effort to convince the state to move its capitol there. The two spaces were set to become Capitol Square (for the Ohio Statehouse) and the Ohio Penitentiary. Named in honor of Christopher Columbus, the city was founded on February 14, 1812, on the \"High Banks opposite Franklinton at the Forks of the Scioto most known as Wolf's Ridge.\" At the time, this area was a dense forestland, used only as a hunting ground.", "The Columbus Experiment was an environmental project in 1908 which involved construction of the first water plant in the world to apply filtration and softening, designed and invented by two brothers, Clarence and Charles Hoover. Those working to construct the project included Jeremiah O'Shaughnessy, name-bearer of the Columbus metropolitan area's O'Shaughnessy Dam. This invention helped drastically reduce typhoid deaths. The essential design is still used today. Columbus earned one of its nicknames, \"The Arch City,\" because of the dozens of wooden arches that spanned High Street at", "The Scioto Mile began development along the riverfront, an area that already had the Miranova Corporate Center and The Condominiums at North Bank Park. The 2010 United States foreclosure crisis forced the city to purchase numerous foreclosed, vacant properties to renovate or demolish themat a cost of tens of millions of dollars. In February 2011, Columbus had 6,117 vacant properties, according to city officials. Since 2010, Columbus has been growing and improving. From 2010 to 2017, the city added 164,000 jobs, second in the United States. The city is focused on downtown revitalization, with recent projects being the Columbus", "The confluence of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers is just north-west of Downtown Columbus. Several smaller tributaries course through the Columbus metropolitan area, including Alum Creek, Big Walnut Creek, and Darby Creek. Columbus is considered to have relatively flat topography thanks to a large glacier that covered most of Ohio during the Wisconsin Ice Age. However, there are sizable differences in elevation through the area, with the high point of Franklin County being above sea level near New Albany, and the low point being where the Scioto River leaves the county near Lockbourne. Numerous ravines near the rivers and creeks also add variety to the landscape. Tributaries to Alum Creek and the Olentangy River cut through shale, while tributaries to the Scioto River cut through limestone. The city has a total area of, of which is land and is water. Columbus currently has the largest land area of any Ohio city. This is due to Jim Rhodes's tactic to annex suburbs while serving as mayor. As surrounding communities grew or were constructed, they came to require access to waterlines, which was under the sole control of the municipal water system. Rhodes told these communities that if they wanted water, they would have to submit to assimilation into Columbus.", "The city's climate is humid continental (Köppen climate classification \"Dfa\") transitional with the humid subtropical climate to the south characterized by warm, muggy summers and cold, dry winters. Columbus is within USDA hardiness zone 6a. Winter snowfall is relatively light, since the city is not in the typical path of strong winter lows, such as the Nor'easters that strike cities farther east. It is also too far south and west for lake-effect snow from Lake Erie", "", "As of the census of 2010, there were 787,033 people, 331,602 households, and 176,037 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 370,965 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 61.5% White, 28.0% Black, 0.3% Native American, 4.1% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.9% from other races, and 3.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.6% of the population. Of the 331,602 households, 29.1% had children under the", "Columbus historically had a significant population of white people. In 1900, whites made up 93.4% of the population. Though European immigration has declined, the Columbus metropolitan area has recently experienced increases in African, Asian, and Latin American immigration, including groups from Mexico, India, Somalia, and China. Although the Asian population is diverse, the city's Hispanic community is mainly made up of Mexicans, though there is a notable Puerto Rican population. Many other countries of origin are represented in lesser numbers, largely due to the international draw of Ohio State University. 2008 estimates indicate roughly 116,000 of the city's residents are foreign-born, accounting for 82% of the new residents between 2000–2006 at a rate of 105 per week. 40% of the immigrants came from Asia, 23% from Africa, 22% from Latin America, and 13% from Europe. The city had the second", "Columbus has numerous Italian Americans, with groups including the Columbus Italian Club, Columbus Piave Club, and the Abruzzi Club. The community has helped promote the influence Christopher Columbus had in drawing European attention to the Americas. The Italian explorer, erroneously credited with the lands' discovery, has been posthumously criticized by historians for initiating colonization and for abuse, enslavement, and subjugation of natives. In addition to the city being named for the explorer, its seal and flag depict a ship he used for his first voyage to the Americas, the \"Santa María\". A similar-size replica of the ship was displayed downtown at Battelle Riverfront Park from 1991 to 2014. The city's Discovery District and Discovery Bridge are named in reference to Columbus's \"discovery\" of the Americas; the bridge includes artistic bronze medallions", "37.6 percent of Columbus residents identify as religious. Of this group, 15.7 percent identify as Protestant, 13.7 percent as Catholic, 1.5 percent as Jewish, 0.6% as Muslim, and 0.5% as Mormon. Places of worship include", "Columbus has a generally strong and diverse economy based on education, insurance, banking, fashion, defense, aviation, food, logistics, steel, energy, medical research, health care, hospitality, retail, and technology. In 2010, it was one of the 10 best big cities in the country, according to Relocate America, a real estate research firm. MarketWatch ranked Columbus and its metro area as the No. 7 best place in the country to operate a business in 2008. In 2012, Forbes Magazine ranked the city as the best city for working moms. In 2007, the city was ranked No. 3 in the United States by fDi magazine for \"Cities of the Future\", and No. 4 for most business-friendly in the country. Columbus was ranked as the seventh strongest economy in the United States in 2006, and the best in Ohio, according to Policom Corp. According to the Federal Reserve of St. Louis, the GDP of Columbus in 2016 was $131 billion. During the recession beginning in late 2007, Columbus's economy was not impacted as much as the rest of the country, due to decades of diversification work by long-time corporate residents, business leaders, and political leaders. The administration of former mayor Michael B. Coleman continued this work, although the city faced financial turmoil and had to increase taxes, allegedly due in part to fiscal mismanagement. Because Columbus is the state capital, there is a large government presence in the city. Including city, county, state, and federal employers, government jobs provide the largest single source of employment within Columbus. In 2019, the city had five corporations named to the U.S. Fortune 500 list: Alliance Data, Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company, American Electric Power, L Brands, and Cardinal Health in suburban Dublin. Other major employers include schools (for example, Ohio State University) and hospitals (among others, the Ohio State University Medical Center and Nationwide Children's Hospital, which are among the teaching hospitals of the Ohio State University College of Medicine), hi-tech research and development including the Battelle Memorial Institute, information/library companies such as OCLC and Chemical Abstracts Service, steel processing and pressure cylinder manufacturer Worthington Industries, financial institutions such as JP Morgan Chase and Huntington Bancshares, as well as Owens Corning. Wendy's and White Castle are also headquartered in Columbus. Major foreign corporations operating or with divisions in the city include Germany-based Siemens and Roxane Laboratories, Finland-based Vaisala, Tomasco Mulciber Inc., A Y Manufacturing, as well as Switzerland-based ABB Group and Mettler Toledo.", "", "Columbus has many notable buildings, including the Ohio Statehouse, the Ohio Judicial Center, and Greater Columbus Convention Center, Rhodes State Office Tower, LeVeque Tower, and One Nationwide Plaza. Construction of the Ohio Statehouse began in 1839 on a plot of land donated by four prominent Columbus landowners. This plot formed Capitol Square, which was not part of the city's original layout. Built of Columbus limestone from the Marble Cliff Quarry Co., the Statehouse stands on foundations deep, laid by prison labor gangs rumored to have been composed largely of masons jailed for minor infractions. It features a central recessed porch with a colonnade", "The Columbus Museum of Art opened in 1931, and its collection focuses on European and American art up to early modernism that includes extraordinary examples of Impressionism, German Expressionism, and Cubism. The Wexner Center for the Arts, a contemporary art gallery and research facility, is on the Ohio State University campus. Also on campus is the Jack Nicklaus Museum. Located just east of Downtown in Franklin Park, the Franklin Park Conservatory is a botanical garden that opened in 1895. It features over 400 species of plants in a large Victorian style glass greenhouse building that includes rain forest, desert, and Himalayan mountain biomes. COSI is a large science museum in downtown Columbus. The present building, the former Central High School, was completed in November", "Columbus is the home of many performing arts institutions including the Columbus Symphony Orchestra, Opera Columbus, BalletMet Columbus, the ProMusica Chamber Orchestra, CATCO, Columbus Children's Theatre, Shadowbox Cabaret, and the Columbus Jazz Orchestra. Throughout the summer, the Actors' Theatre of Columbus offers free performances of Shakespearean plays in an open-air amphitheater in Schiller Park in historic German Village. The Columbus Youth Ballet Academy was founded in the 1980s by ballerina and artistic director Shir Lee Wu, a discovery of Martha Graham. Wu is now", "Movies filmed in the Columbus metropolitan area include \"Teachers\" in 1984, \"Tango & Cash\" in 1989, \"Little Man Tate\" in 1991, \"Air Force One\" in 1997, \"Traffic\" in 2000, \"Speak\" in 2004, \"Bubble\" in 2005, and \"Parker\" in 2013.", "", "Columbus hosts two major league professional sports teams: the Columbus Blue Jackets of the National Hockey League (NHL) which play at Nationwide Arena and Columbus Crew SC of Major League Soccer (MLS) which play at Mapfre Stadium, the first soccer-specific stadium built in the United States for a Major League Soccer team. The Crew were one of the original members of MLS and won their first MLS Cup in 2008. The Columbus Crew is scheduled to move into a new downtown", "Columbus is home to one of the nation's most competitive intercollegiate programs, the Ohio State Buckeyes of Ohio State University. The program has placed in the top 10 final standings of the Director's Cup five times since 2000–2001, including No. 3 for the 2002–2003 season and No. 4 for the 2003–2004 season. The university funds 36 varsity teams, consisting of 17 male, 16 female, and three co-educational teams. In 2007–2008 and 2008–2009, the program generated the second-most revenue for college programs behind the Texas Longhorns of The University of Texas at Austin. The Ohio State Buckeyes are a member", "Columbus has a long history in motorsports, hosting the world's first 24-hour car race at the Columbus Driving Park in 1905, organized by the Columbus Auto Club. The Columbus Motor Speedway was built in 1945 and held their first motorcycle race in 1946. In 2010 the Ohio State University student-built Buckeye Bullet 2, a fuel cell vehicle, set an FIA world speed record for electric vehicles in reaching 303.025 mph, eclipsing the previous record of 302.877 mph. The annual All American Quarter Horse Congress, the world's largest single-breed horse show, attracts approximately 500,000 visitors to the Ohio Expo Center each October.", "Columbus's Recreation and Parks Department oversees about 370 city parks. Also in the area are 19 regional parks, the Metro Parks, part of the Columbus and Franklin County Metropolitan Park District. These parks include the Big Darby Creek, considered to be especially significant for its ecological diversity. Clintonville is home to Whetstone Park, which includes the Park of Roses, a rose garden. The Chadwick Arboretum on the OSU campus features a large and varied collection of plants. Downtown, the painting \"Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte\" is represented in topiary at Columbus's Topiary Park. Also near downtown, the Scioto Audubon Metro Park on the Whittier Peninsula opened in 2009. The park includes a large Audubon nature center focused on the birdwatching the area is known for. The Columbus Zoo and Aquarium's collections include lowland gorillas, polar bears, manatees, Siberian tigers, cheetahs, and kangaroos. In 2009, it was ranked as the best zoo in the United States, and in 2017 was again ranked as one of the 10 best zoos in the country. Also in the zoo complex is the Zoombezi Bay water park and amusement park.", "Annual festivities in Columbus include the Ohio State Fair—one of the largest state fairs in the country—as well as the Columbus Arts festival and the Jazz and Ribs Festival, both of which occur on the downtown riverfront. In the middle of May, Columbus is home to Rock on the Range, marketed as America's biggest rock festival. The festival, which takes place on a Friday, Saturday, and Sunday, has hosted Metallica, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Slipknot, and other notable bands. During the first weekend in June, the bars of Columbus's North Market District host the Park Street Festival, which attracts thousands", "Both of the metropolitan area's major shopping centers are located in Columbus: Easton Town Center and Polaris Fashion Place. Developer Richard E. Jacobs built the area's first three major shopping malls in", "", "The city is administered by a mayor and a seven-member unicameral council elected in two classes every two years to four-year terms at large. Columbus is the largest city in the United States that elects its city council at large as opposed to districts. The mayor appoints the director of safety and the", "As Ohio's capital and the county seat, Columbus hosts numerous federal, state, county, and city government offices and courts. Federal offices include the Joseph P. Kinneary U.S. Courthouse, one of several courts for the District Court for the Southern District of Ohio, after moving from 121 E. State St. in 1934. Another federal office, the John W. Bricker Federal Building, has offices for the Internal Revenue Service, Housing & Urban Development, Department of Agriculture, Social Security Administration and U.S. Senator Sherrod Brown. The State of Ohio's capitol building, the Ohio Statehouse, is located in the center of downtown on Capitol Square. It houses the Ohio", "Municipal police duties are performed by the Columbus Division of Police. Ohio Homeland Security operates the Strategic Analysis and Information Center", "", "Columbus is the home of two public colleges: Ohio State University, one of the largest college campuses in the United States, and Columbus State Community College. In 2009, Ohio State University was ranked No. 19 in the country by \"U.S. News & World Report\" for best public university, and No. 56 overall, scoring in the first tier of schools nationally. Some of OSU's graduate school programs placed in the top 5, including No. 5 for best veterinary program, and No.", "Columbus City Schools (CCS) is the largest district in Ohio, with 55,000 pupils. CCS operates 142 elementary, middle, and high schools, including a number of magnet schools (which are referred to as alternative schools within the school system). The suburbs operate their own districts, typically serving students in one or more townships, with districts sometimes crossing municipal boundaries. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Columbus also operates several parochial elementary and high schools. The area's second largest school district is South-Western City Schools, which encompasses southwestern Franklin County. There are also several private schools in the area. St. Paul's Lutheran", "The Columbus Metropolitan Library (CML) has served central Ohio residents since 1873. With a collection of 3 million items, the system has 22 locations throughout the area. This library is one of the country's most-used library systems and is consistently among", "Several weekly and daily newspapers serve Columbus and Central Ohio. The major daily newspaper in Columbus is \"The Columbus Dispatch\". There are also neighborhood/suburb specific papers, such as the Dispatch Printing Company's \"ThisWeek Community News\", the \"Columbus Messenger\", and the \"Short North Gazette\". \"The Lantern\" and \"UWeekly\" serve the Ohio State University community. Alternative arts, culture, or", "", "The city's two main corridors since its founding are Broad and High Streets. They both traverse beyond the extent of the city; High Street is the longest in Columbus, running (23.4 across the county), while Broad Street is longer across the county, at. The city's street plan originates downtown and extends into the old-growth neighborhoods, following a grid pattern with the intersection of High Street (running north–south) and Broad Street (running east–west) at its center. North–south streets run", "Columbus is bisected by two major Interstate Highways, Interstate 70 running east–west, and Interstate 71 running north to roughly southwest. They combine downtown for about in an area locally known as \"The Split\", which is a major traffic congestion point, especially during rush hour. U.S. Route 40, originally known as the National Road, runs east–west through Columbus, comprising Main Street to the east of downtown and Broad Street", "The Columbus riverfront hosts several bridges. The Discovery Bridge connects downtown to Franklinton across Broad Street. The bridge opened in 1992, replacing a 1921 concrete arch bridge; the first bridge at the site was built in 1816. The Main Street Bridge opened on July 30, 2010. The bridge has three lanes", "The city's primary airport, John Glenn Columbus International Airport, is on the city's east side. Formerly known as Port Columbus, John Glenn provides service to Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and Cancun, Mexico (on a seasonal basis), as well as to most domestic destinations, including all the major hubs along with San Francisco, Salt Lake City, and Seattle by June 2019. The airport was a hub for discount carrier Skybus Airlines and continues to be a home to NetJets, the world's largest fractional ownership air carrier. According to a 2005 market survey, John Glenn Columbus International Airport attracts about 50% of its passengers from outside of its radius primary service region. It is the 52nd-busiest airport in the United States by total passenger boardings. Rickenbacker International Airport, in southern Franklin County, is a major cargo facility that is used by the Ohio Air National Guard. Allegiant Air offers nonstop service from Rickenbacker to Florida destinations. Ohio State University Don Scott Airport and Bolton Field are other large general-aviation facilities in the Columbus area.", "In 1907, 14-year-old Cromwell Dixon built the \"SkyCycle,\" a pedal-powered blimp, which he flew at Driving Park. Three years later, one of the Wright Brothers' exhibition pilots, Phillip Parmalee, conducted the world's first commercial cargo flight when he flew two packages containing 88 kilograms of silk from Dayton to Columbus in a Wright Model B. Military aviators from Columbus distinguished themselves during World War I. Six Columbus pilots, led by top ace Eddie Rickenbacker, achieved 42 \"kills\" – a full 10% of all US aerial victories in the war, and more than the aviators of any other American city. After the war, Port Columbus", "Columbus maintains a widespread municipal bus service called the Central Ohio Transit Authority (COTA). The service operates 41 routes with a fleet of 440 buses, serving approximately 19 million passengers per year. COTA operates 23 regular fixed-service routes, 14 express services, a bus rapid transit route, a free downtown circulator, night service, an airport connector, and other services. Intercity bus service is provided by Greyhound, Barons Bus Lines, Miller Transportation, GoBus, and other carriers. Columbus does not have passenger rail service. The city's major train station, Union Station, that was a stop along Amtrak's National Limited train service until 1977 was razed in 1979, and the Greater Columbus Convention Center now stands in its place. Until", "Cycling as transportation is steadily increasing in Columbus with its relatively flat terrain, intact urban neighborhoods, large student population, and off-road bike paths. The city has put forth the 2012 Bicentennial Bikeways Plan as well as a move toward a Complete Streets policy. Grassroots efforts such as Bike To Work Week, Consider Biking, Yay Bikes, Third Hand Bicycle Co-op, Franklinton Cycleworks, and \"Cranksters\", a local radio program focused on urban cycling, have contributed", "The city of Columbus has a higher than average percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 9.8 percent of Columbus households lacked", "Columbus has ten sister cities as designated by Sister Cities International. Columbus established its first sister city relationship in 1955 with Genoa, Italy. To commemorate this relationship, Columbus received as a gift from the people of Genoa, a bronze statue of Christopher Columbus. The statue, sculpted by artist Edoardo Alfieri, overlooks Broad Street in front of Columbus City Hall. List of sister cities:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Cast.", "Production.", "Legal disputes.", "Casting.", "Filming.", "Effects.", "Music.", "Release and reception.", "Contemporary reviews.", "Reflective reviews." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "SPECTRE operative Emilio Largo devises a plan to hold NATO ransom by hijacking two atomic bombs from an Royal Air Force (RAF) Avro Vulcan strategic jet bomber during a training exercise. To facilitate his plans, SPECTRE operative Count Lippe recruits Angelo Palazzi to oversee the theft of the bombs, and with help from SPECTRE agent Fiona Volpe, has him surgically alter his face to match that of French Air Force pilot François Derval, who is assisting in the exercise. Volpe and Angelo eliminate the real Derval, while they are staying at the Shrublands health resort, only for the latter to demand more money. Fiona acquiesces, merely to have him continue with their operation. Angelo successfully hijacks the bomber, killing its crew, and lands it in shallow waters within the Bahamas. While the bombs are recovered by his men, Largo murders Angelo for reneging on his original deal with SPECTRE. British secret agent James Bond, recuperating at Shrublands after a previous assignment, notices Lippe's presence and keeps him under observation, discovering Derval's body. Upon being urgently recalled back to London, Bond finds himself targeted by Lippe for trying to interfere. Before he can defend himself, Lippe is killed by Fiona for nearly jeopardizing Largo's scheme. Once back in London, Bond learns that all 00 agents are being put on high alert following the theft of the bombs, after being informed a major city in the United States or the United Kingdom will be destroyed unless $100 million is paid to SPECTRE within seven days. While in talks with M on his assignment, Bond requests he be assigned to Nassau, Bahamas, to contact Derval's sister Domino, after recognising Derval from the photo given to the agents in their main briefing as the body he found at the resort. Bond meets with Domino, who he learns is the mistress of Largo when he visits a local casino. Both men recognise each other as adversaries and engage in a tense cat-and-mouse game while still pretending ignorance of each other's true nature. Following their initial meeting, Bond meets with his friend, CIA agent Felix Leiter, fellow agent Paula Caplan, and MI6 quartermaster Q, to receive equipment to help with finding the bombs, including an underwater infrared camera and miniature underwater breathing apparatus. Investigating Largo's ship, \"Disco Volante\", he notices an underwater hatch beneath her that intrigues him. The next day, he visits Largo at his estate during the night, only to find that Paula had been abducted and committed suicide before she could talk. Forced to escape and killing Volpe in the process, Bond evades Largo's men during a Junkanoo celebration. Suspecting the bombs were brought to the area, Bond and Felix search search for the Vulcan and find it camouflaged underwater, along with the body of Angelo. Upon returning to the island, Bond reveals to Domino that her brother was killed by Largo and has her help him search \"Disco Volante\". However, Largo catches her in the act and has her imprisoned. Meanwhile, Bond replaces one of Largo's men, as SPECTRE prepares to move the bombs, and manages to learn where one of them is being moved to before being forced to escape. Contacting Felix, the pair have the U.S. Navy intercept \"Disco Volante\" and recover one of the bombs. Bond pursues after Largo, and grabs hold of \"Disco Volante\" as she sheds the rear half and transforms into a hydrofoil to escape. Bond manages to get aboard and defeats Largo's men, whereupon Domino kills Largo in revenge after his assistant frees her. The group quickly flee \"Disco Volante\" moments before she is destroyed, whereupon Bond and Domino are airlifted to safety..", "Uncredited:", "", "Originally meant as the first James Bond film, \"Thunderball\" was the centre of legal disputes that began in 1961 and ran until 2006. Former Ian Fleming collaborators Kevin McClory and Jack Whittingham sued Fleming shortly after the 1961 publication of the \"Thunderball\" novel, claiming he based it upon the screenplay the trio had earlier written in a failed cinematic translation of James Bond. The lawsuit was settled out of court; McClory retained certain screen rights to the novel's story, plot, and characters. By then, Bond was a box-office success, and series producers Broccoli and Saltzman feared a rival McClory film beyond their control; they agreed to McClory's producer's credit of a cinematic \"Thunderball\", with them as executive producers. Later, in 1964, Eon producers Broccoli and Saltzman agreed with McClory to cinematically adapt the novel; it was promoted as \"Ian Fleming's \"Thunderball\"\". Yet, along with the official credits to screenwriters Richard Maibaum and John Hopkins, the screenplay is also identified as 'based on an original screenplay by Jack Whittingham' and as 'based on the original story by Kevin McClory, Jack Whittingham, and Ian Fleming'. To date, the novel has twice been adapted cinematically; the 1983 Jack Schwartzman-produced \"Never Say Never Again\" features Sean Connery as James Bond, but is not an Eon production.", "Broccoli's original choice for the role of Domino Derval was Julie Christie following her performance in \"Billy Liar\" in 1963. Upon meeting her personally, however, he was disappointed and turned his attentions towards Raquel Welch after seeing her on the cover of the October 1964 issue of \"Life\". Welch, however, was hired by Richard Zanuck of 20th Century Fox to appear in the film \"Fantastic Voyage\" the same year, instead. Faye Dunaway was also considered for the role and came close to signing for the part. Saltzman and Broccoli auditioned an extensive list of relatively unknown European actresses and models, including former Miss Italy Maria Grazia Buccella, Yvonne Monlaur of the Hammer horror films, and Gloria Paul. Eventually, former Miss France Claudine Auger was cast, and the script was rewritten to make her character French rather than Italian, although her lines were dubbed in the final cut by Nikki van der Zyl, who had voiced several previous Bond girls. Nevertheless, director Young cast her once again in his next film, \"Triple Cross\" (1966). One of the actresses who tried for Domino, Luciana Paluzzi, later accepted the role as the redheaded \"femme fatale\" assassin Fiona Kelly, who originally was intended by Maibaum to be Irish. The surname was changed to Volpe in co-ordination with Paluzzi's nationality.", "Guy Hamilton was invited to direct, but considered himself worn out and \"creatively drained\" after the production of \"Goldfinger\". Terence Young, director of the first two Bond films, returned to the series. Coincidentally, when Saltzman invited him to direct \"Dr. No\", Young expressed interest in directing adaptations of \"Dr. No\", \"From Russia with Love\" and \"Thunderball\". Years later, Young said \"Thunderball\" was filmed \"at the right time\", considering that if it was the first film in the series, the low budget (\"Dr. No\" cost only $1 million) would not have yielded good results. \"Thunderball\" was the final James Bond film directed by Young. Filming commenced on 16 February 1965, with principal photography of the opening scene in Paris. Filming then moved to the Château d'Anet, near Dreux, France, for the fight in precredit sequence. Much of the film was shot in the Bahamas; \"Thunderball\" is widely known for its extensive underwater action scenes which are played out through much of the latter half of the film. The rest of the film was shot at Pinewood Studios, Buckinghamshire, Silverstone racing circuit for the chase involving Count Lippe, Fiona Volpe's RPG-armed BSA Lightning motorcycle and James Bond's Aston Martin DB5 before moving to Nassau, and Paradise Island in the Bahamas (where most of the footage was shot), and Miami. Huntington Hartford gave permission to shoot footage on his Paradise Island and is thanked at the end of the film. On arriving in Nassau, McClory searched for locations to shoot many of the key sequences of the film and used the home of a local millionaire couple, the Sullivans, for Largo's estate, Palmyra. Part of the SPECTRE underwater assault was also shot on the coastal grounds of another millionaire's home on the island. The most difficult sequences to film were the underwater action scenes; the first to be shot underwater was at a depth of 50 feet to shoot the scene where SPECTRE divers remove the atomic bombs from the sunken Vulcan bomber. Peter Lamont had previously visited a RAF bomber station carrying a concealed camera which he used to get close-up shots of secret missiles (those appearing in the film were not actually present). Most of the underwater scenes had to be done at lower tides due to the sharks on the Bahamian coast. After he read the script, Connery realised the risk of the sequence with the sharks in Largo's pool and insisted that production designer Ken Adam build a Plexiglas partition inside the pool. The barrier was not a fixed structure, so when one of the sharks managed to pass through it, Connery fled the pool, seconds away from attack. Ken Adam later told UK daily newspaper \"The Guardian\", We had to use special effects, but unlike special effects today, they were real. The jet pack we used in \"Thunderball\" was real - it was invented for the United States Army. Bloody dangerous, and it only lasted a couple of minutes. The ejector seat in the Aston Martin was real and Emilio Largo's boat, the \"Disco Volante\", was real. You had power boats at that time, but there were no good-sized yachts that were able to travel at 40 to 50 knots, so it was quite a problem. But by combining a hydrofoil, which we bought in Puerto Rico for $10,000, and a catamaran, it at least looked like a big yacht. We combined the two hulls with a one-inch slip bolt and when they split it worked like a dream. We used lots of sharks for this movie. I'd rented a villa in the Bahamas with a saltwater pool which we filled with sharks and used for underwater filming. The smell was horrendous. This was where Sean Connery came close to being bitten. We had a plexiglass corridor to protect him, but I didn't have quite enough plexiglass and one of the sharks got through. He never got out of a pool faster in his life - he was walking on water. When special-effects coordinator John Stears provided a supposedly dead shark to be towed around the pool, the shark, which was still alive, revived at one point. Due to the dangers on the set, stuntman Bill Cummings demanded an extra fee of £250 to double for Largo's sidekick Quist as he was dropped into the pool of sharks. The climactic underwater battle was shot at Clifton Pier and was choreographed by Hollywood expert Ricou Browning, who had worked on \"Creature From the Black Lagoon\" in 1954 and other films. He was responsible for the staging of the cave sequence and the battle scenes beneath \"Disco Volante\" and called in his specialist team of divers who posed as those engaged in the onslaught. Voit provided much of the underwater gear in exchange for product placement and film tie-in merchandise. Lamar Boren, an underwater photographer, was hired to shoot all of the sequences. United States Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Charles Russhon, who had already established Eon productions' rapports with the local authorities in Turkey for \"From Russia with Love\" (1963) and at Fort Knox for \"Goldfinger\" (1964), supplied the experimental rocket fuel used to destroy \"Disco Volante\". Russhon, using his position, was also able to gain access to the United States Navy's Fulton surface-to-air recovery system, used to lift Bond and Domino from the water at the end of the film. Filming ceased in May 1965, and the final scene shot was the physical fight on the bridge of \"Disco Volante\". While in Nassau, during the final shooting days, special-effects supervisor John Stears was supplied experimental rocket fuel to use in exploding Largo's yacht. Ignoring the true power of the volatile liquid, Stears doused the entire yacht with it, took cover, and then detonated the boat. The resultant massive explosion shattered windows along Bay Street in Nassau roughly 30 miles away. Stears went on to win an Academy Award for his work on \"Thunderball\". As the filming neared its conclusion, Connery had become increasingly agitated with press intrusion and was distracted with difficulties in his marriage of 32 months to actress Diane Cilento. Connery refused to speak to journalists and photographers who followed him in Nassau, stating his frustration with the harassment that came with the role; \"I find that fame tends to turn one from an actor and a human being into a piece of merchandise, a public institution. Well, I don't intend to undergo that metamorphosis.\" In the end he gave only a single interview, to \"Playboy,\" as filming was wrapped up, and even turned down a substantial fee to appear in a promotional TV special made by Wolper Productions for NBC, \"The Incredible World of James Bond\". According to editor Peter R. Hunt, \"Thunderball\"'s release was delayed for three months, from September until December 1965, after he met David Picker of United Artists, and convinced him it would be impossible to edit the film to a high enough standard without the extra time.", "Thanks to special-effects man John Stears, \"Thunderball\"'s pretitle teaser, the Aston Martin DB5 (introduced in \"Goldfinger\"), reappears armed with rear-firing water cannon, seeming noticeably weathered – just dust and dirt, raised moments earlier by Bond's landing with the Bell Rocket Belt (developed by Bell Aircraft Corporation). The rocket belt Bond uses to escape the château actually worked, and was used many times, before and after, for entertainment, most notably at Super Bowl I and at scheduled performances at the 1964–1965 New York World's Fair. Bond receives a spear gun-armed underwater jet pack scuba (allowing the frogman to manoeuvre faster than other frogmen). Designed by Jordan Klein, green dye was meant to be used by Bond as a smoke screen to escape pursuers. Instead Ricou Browning, the film's underwater director, used it to make Bond's arrival more dramatic. The sky hook used to rescue Bond at the end of the film was a rescue system used by the United States military at the time. At \"Thunderball\"'s release, there was confusion as to whether a rebreather such as the one that appears in the film existed; most Bond gadgets, while implausible, often are based upon real technology. In the real world, a rebreather could not be so small, as it has no room for the breathing bag, while the alternative open-circuit scuba releases exhalation bubbles, which the film device does not. It was made with two CO bottles glued together and painted, with a small mouthpiece attached. For this reason, when the Royal Corps of Engineers asked Peter Lamont how long a man could use the device underwater, the answer was \"As long as you can hold your breath.\" Maurice Binder was hired to design the title sequence, and was involved in a dispute with Eon Productions to have his name credited in the film. As \"Thunderball\" was the first James Bond film shot in Panavision, Binder had to reshoot the iconic gun barrel scene which permitted him to not only incorporate pinhole photographic techniques to shoot inside a genuine gun barrel, but also made Connery appearing in the sequence for the first time a reality, as stunt man Bob Simmons had doubled for him in the three previous films. Binder gained access to the tank at Pinewood which he used to film the silhouetted title girls who appeared naked in the opening sequence, which was the first time actual nudity (although concealed) had ever been seen in a Bond film. On 26 June 2013, Christie's auction house sold the Breitling SA Top Time watch worn in the film by Connery for over £100,000; given to Bond by Q, it was also a Geiger counter in the plot.", "\"Thunderball\" was the third James Bond score composed by John Barry, after \"From Russia with Love\" and \"Goldfinger\". The original title song was entitled \"Mr. Kiss Kiss, Bang Bang\", taken from an Italian journalist who in 1962 dubbed agent 007 as Mr. Kiss Kiss, Bang Bang. The title theme was written by Barry and Leslie Bricusse; the song was originally recorded by Shirley Bassey, but it was realized late in the day that the track was too short for the needed titles. As Bassey was unavailable, it was later rerecorded by Dionne Warwick with a longer instrumental introduction. Her version was not released until the 1990s. The song was removed from the title credits after producers Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman were worried that a theme song to a James Bond film would not work well if the song did not have the title of the film in its lyrics. Barry then teamed up with lyricist Don Black and wrote \"Thunderball\", which was sung by Tom Jones, who according to Bond production legend, fainted in the recording booth when singing the song's final note. Jones said of it, \"I closed my eyes and I held the note for so long when I opened my eyes the room was spinning.\" Country musician Johnny Cash also submitted a song to Eon productions titled \"Thunderball\", but it went unused.", "The film premiered on 9 December 1965 in Tokyo and opened on 29 December 1965 in the UK. It was a major success at the box office with record-breaking earnings. \"Variety\" reported that \"Thunderball\" was the number-one money maker of 1966 at the North American box office by a large margin, with a net profit of $26,500,000. The second-highest money maker of 1966 was \"Doctor Zhivago\" at $15,000,000; in third place was \"Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?\" at $10,300,000. It eventually grossed $63.6 million in the United States, equating to roughly 58.1 million admissions. In total, the film has earned $141.2 million worldwide, surpassing the earnings of the three preceding films in the series—easily recouping its $9 million budget—and remained the highest-grossing Bond film until \"Live and Let Die\" (1973) assumed the record. After adjusting its earnings to 2011 prices, it has made around $1 billion, making it the second-most financially successful Bond film after \"Skyfall\". \"Thunderball\" won an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects awarded to John Stears in 1966. Ken Adam, the production director, was also nominated for a Best Production Design BAFTA award. The film won the Golden Screen Award in Germany and the Golden Laurel Action Drama award at the 1966 Laurel Awards. The film was also nominated for an Edgar Best Foreign Film award at the Edgar Allan Poe Awards.", "Upon its release, the film received generally positive reviews. Dilys Powell of \"The Sunday Times\" remarked after seeing the film that \"The cinema was a duller place before 007.\" David Robinson of the \"Financial Times\" criticised the appearance of Connery and his effectiveness to play Bond in the film, remarking: \"It's not just that Sean Connery looks a lot more haggard and less heroic than he did two or three years ago, but there is much less effort to establish him as connoisseur playboy. Apart from the off-handed order for Beluga, there is little of that comic display of bon viveur-manship that was one of the charms of Connery's almost-a-gentleman 007.\" Bosley Crowther of \"The New York Times\" found the film to be more humourous than its previous installments and felt \"\"Thunderball\" is pretty, too, and it is filled with such underwater action as would delight Capt. Jacques-Yves Cousteau.\" He further concluded his review with praise for the principal actors and wrote \"The color is handsome. The scenery in the Bahamas is an irresistible lure. Even the violence is funny. That's the best I can say for a Bond film.\" \"Variety\" felt \"Thunderball\" was a \"tight, exciting melodrama in which novelty of action figures importantly.\" Philip K. Scheuer, reviewing for the \"Los Angeles Times\", was less impressed with the film writing, \"It is the same as its predecessors, only more–too much of everything, from sudden desire to sudden desire.\" Additionally, he wrote: \"The submarine sequences are as pretty as can be in Technicolor, featuring besides fish and flippered bipeds, all sorts of awesome diving bells and powered sea sleds – not to mention an arsenal of lethal spear guns. If I could have just known more than half the time what, precisely, they were doing, the effect could have been prettier yet.\" \"Time\" applauded the film's underwater photography, but felt the \"script hasn't a morsel of genuine wit, but Bond fans, who are preconditioned to roll in the aisles when their hero merely asks a waiter to bring some beluga caviar and Dom Pérignon '55, will probably never notice. They are switched on by a legend that plays straight to the senses, and its colors are primary.\"", "According to Danny Peary, \"Thunderball\" \"takes forever to get started and has too many long underwater sequences during which it's impossible to tell what's going on. Nevertheless, it's an enjoyable entry in the Bond series. Sean Connery is particularly appealing as Bond – I think he projects more confidence than in other films in the series. Film has no \"great\" scene, but it's entertaining as long as the actors stay above water.\" Critics such as James Berardinelli praised Connery's performance, the \"femme fatale\" character of Fiona Volpe, and the underwater action sequences, remarking that they were well choreographed and clearly shot. He criticised the length of the scenes, however, stating they were in need of editing, particularly during the film's climax. At Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 88% based on 48 reviews with an average rating of 6.81/10. The website's consensus reads: Lavishly rendered set pieces and Sean Connery's enduring charm make \"Thunderball\" a big, fun adventure, even if it doesn't quite measure up to the series' previous heights. In 2014, \"Time Out\" polled several film critics, directors, actors, and stunt actors to list their top action films; \"Thunderball\" was listed at number 73." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Establishment.", "Growth and expansion.", "Late 20th and early 21st centuries.", "Geography.", "Architecture.", "Parks and nature.", "Neighborhoods.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Ethnicity.", "Religion.", "Language.", "Immigration.", "Economy.", "Education.", "Primary and secondary education.", "Higher education.", "Public library system.", "Culture.", "Performing arts.", "Film and television.", "Literature.", "Cuisine.", "Museums and tourism.", "Sports.", "Environment.", "Government and politics.", "Public safety.", "Police and law enforcement.", "Consent decree with Department of Justice.", "Fire department.", "Emergency Medical Services.", "Media.", "Print.", "Television.", "Radio.", "Healthcare.", "Transportation.", "Walkability.", "Urban transit systems.", "Private automobiles.", "Roads.", "Freeways.", "Airports.", "Seaport.", "Railroads.", "Inter-city bus lines.", "Hyperloop proposal.", "Sister cities and international relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Cleveland was established on July 22, 1796, by surveyors of the Connecticut Land Company when they laid out Connecticut's Western Reserve into townships and a capital city. They named the new settlement \"Cleaveland\" after their leader, General Moses Cleaveland. Cleaveland oversaw the New England-style design of the plan for what would become the modern downtown area, centered on Public Square, before returning home, never again to visit Ohio. The first permanent settler in Cleaveland was Lorenzo Carter, who built a cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River. The settlement served as an important supply post for the U.S. during the Battle of Lake Erie in the War of 1812. Locals adopted Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry as a civic hero and erected a monument in his honor decades later. The", "Home to a vocal group of abolitionists, Cleveland (code-named \"Station Hope\") was a major stop on the Underground Railroad for escaped African American slaves en route to Canada. The city also served as an important center for the Union during the American Civil War. After the war, the city witnessed rapid growth. Its prime geographic location as a transportation hub between the East Coast and the Midwest played an important role in its development as a commercial center. Cleveland served as a destination for iron ore shipped from Minnesota, along with coal transported by rail. In 1870, John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil in Cleveland. In 1885, he moved its headquarters to New York City, which had become a center of finance and business. By the early 20th century, Cleveland had emerged as", "After the war, Cleveland initially experienced an economic boom, and businesses declared the city to be the \"best location in the nation.\" In 1949, the city was named an All-America City for the first time and, in 1950, its population reached 914,808. In sports, the Indians won the 1948 World Series, the hockey team, the Barons, became champions of the American Hockey League, and the Browns dominated professional football in the 1950s. As a result, along with track and boxing champions produced, Cleveland was declared the \"City of Champions\" in sports at this time. The", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is water. The shore of Lake Erie is above sea level; however, the city lies on a series of irregular bluffs lying roughly parallel to the lake. In Cleveland these bluffs are cut principally by the Cuyahoga River, Big Creek, and Euclid Creek. The land rises quickly from the lake shore elevation of 569 feet. Public Square, less than inland, sits at an elevation of, and Hopkins Airport, inland from the lake, is at an elevation of. Cleveland borders several inner-ring and streetcar suburbs. To the west, it borders Lakewood, Rocky River, and Fairview Park, and to the east, it borders Shaker Heights, Cleveland Heights, South Euclid, and East Cleveland. To the southwest, it borders Linndale, Brooklyn, Parma, and Brook Park. The city also borders Newburgh Heights, Cuyahoga Heights, and Brooklyn Heights to the south, and Warrensville Heights, Maple Heights, and Garfield Heights to the southeast. To the northeast, along the shore of Lake Erie, Cleveland borders Bratenahl and Euclid.", "Cleveland's downtown architecture is diverse. Many of the city's government and civic buildings, including City Hall, the Cuyahoga County Courthouse, the Cleveland Public Library, and Public Auditorium, are clustered around the open Cleveland Mall and share a common neoclassical architecture. Built in the early 20th century, they are the result of the 1903 Group Plan. They constitute one of the most complete examples of City Beautiful design in the United States. The Terminal Tower, dedicated in 1930, was the tallest building in North America outside New York City until 1964 and the tallest in the city until 1991. It is a prototypical Beaux-Arts skyscraper. The two newer skyscrapers on Public", "Known locally as the \"Emerald Necklace\", the Olmsted-inspired Cleveland Metroparks encircle Cleveland and Cuyahoga County. The city proper is home to the Metroparks' Brookside and Lakefront Reservations, as well as significant parts of the Rocky River, Washington, and Euclid Creek Reservations. The Lakefront Reservation, which provides public access to Lake Erie, consists of four parks: Edgewater Park, Whiskey Island–Wendy Park, East 55th Street Marina, and Gordon Park. Three more parks fall under the jurisdiction of the Euclid Creek Reservation: Euclid Beach, Villa Angela, and Wildwood Marina. Bike and hiking trails in the Brecksville and Bedford Reservations, along with Garfield Park further north, provide access to trails in the Cuyahoga Valley National Park. The extensive system of trails within Cuyahoga Valley National Park extends south into Summit County, offering access to Summit Metro Parks as well. Also included", "Downtown Cleveland is centered on Public Square and includes a wide range of districts. It contains the traditional Financial District and Civic Center, as well as the Cleveland Theater District, which is home to Playhouse Square Center. Downtown also historically included the lively Short Vincent entertainment district, which emerged in the 1920s and reached its height in the 1940s and 1950s. Today the former Short Vincent forms part of the Financial District. Mixed-use neighborhoods, such as the Flats and the Warehouse District, are occupied by industrial and office buildings as well as restaurants and bars. The number of downtown housing units, in the form of condominiums, lofts, and apartments, has been on the increase since 2000 and especially 2010. Recent developments include the revival of the Flats, the Euclid Corridor Project, and the developments along East 4th Street.", "Typical of the Great Lakes region, Cleveland exhibits a continental climate with four distinct seasons, which lies in the humid continental (Köppen \"Dfa\") zone. Summers are warm and humid while winters are cold and snowy. The Lake Erie shoreline is very close to due east–west from the mouth of the Cuyahoga west to Sandusky, but at the mouth of the Cuyahoga it turns sharply northeast. This feature is the principal contributor to the lake effect snow that is typical in Cleveland (especially on the city's East Side) from mid-November until the surface of Lake Erie freezes, usually in late January or early February. The lake effect also causes a relative differential in geographical snowfall totals across", "As of the census of 2010, there were 396,698 people, 167,490 households, and 89,821 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 207,536 housing units at an average density of. There were 167,490 households of which 29.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 22.4% were married couples living together, 25.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46.4% were non-families. 39.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 3.11. The median age in the city was 35.7 years. 24.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 11% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.1% were from 25 to 44; 26.3% were from 45 to 64; and 12% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.0% male and 52.0% female. The median income for a household in the city was $27,349, and the median income for a family was $31,182. The per capita income for the city was $16,302. 31.0% of the population and 22.9% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 37.6% of those under the age of 18 and 16.8% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. Of the city's population over the age of 25, 13.1% held a bachelor's degree or higher, and 75.7% had a high school diploma or equivalent.", "As of the 2019 census estimate, the racial composition of the city was 39.8% white, 49.6% African American, 0.5% Native American, 2.4% Asian, and 4.3% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 11.6% of the population. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Cleveland saw a massive influx of immigrants from Ireland, Italy, and the Austro-Hungarian, German, Russian, and Ottoman Empires, most of whom were attracted by manufacturing jobs. As a result, Cleveland and Cuyahoga County today have substantial communities of Irish (especially in Kamm's Corners and other areas of West Park), Italians (especially in Little Italy and around Mayfield Road), Germans, and several Central-Eastern European ethnicities, including Czechs, Hungarians, Lithuanians, Poles, Romanians, Russians, Rusyns, Slovaks, Ukrainians, and ex-Yugoslav groups, such as Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs. The presence of Hungarians within Cleveland proper was, at one time, so great that the city boasted the highest concentration of Hungarians in the world outside of Budapest. Cleveland has a long-established Jewish community, historically centered on the East Side neighborhoods of Glenville and Kinsman, but now mostly concentrated in East Side", "The influx of immigrants in the 19th and early 20th centuries drastically transformed Cleveland's religious landscape. From a homogeneous settlement of", ", 88.4% (337,658) of Cleveland residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 7.1% (27,262) spoke Spanish, 0.6% (2,200)", "In 1920, Cleveland proper boasted a foreign-born population of 30% and, in 1870, that percentage was 42%. Although the foreign-born population of Cleveland today is not as big as it once was, the sense of identity remains strong among the city's various ethnic communities, as reflected in the Cleveland Cultural Gardens. Within Cleveland, the neighborhoods with the highest foreign-born populations are Asiatown/Goodrich–Kirtland Park (32.7%), Clark–Fulton (26.7%), West Boulevard (18.5%), Brooklyn Centre (17.3%), Downtown (17.2%), University Circle (15.9%,", "Cleveland's location on the Cuyahoga River and Lake Erie has been key to its growth. The Ohio and Erie Canal coupled with rail links helped the city become an important business center. Steel and many other manufactured goods emerged as leading industries. The city has since diversified its economy in addition to its manufacturing sector. Established in 1914, the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland is one of 12 U.S. Federal Reserve Banks. Its downtown building, located on East 6th Street and Superior Avenue, was completed in 1923 by the Cleveland architectural firm Walker and Weeks. The headquarters of the Federal Reserve System's Fourth District, the bank employs 1,000 people and maintains branch offices in Cincinnati and Pittsburgh. The chief executive officer and president is Loretta Mester. The city is also home to the corporate headquarters of many large companies such as Aleris, American Greetings, Applied Industrial Technologies, Cleveland-Cliffs, Inc., Eaton, Forest City Enterprises, Hyster-Yale Materials Handling, KeyCorp, Lincoln Electric, Medical Mutual of Ohio, NACCO Industries, Nordson, Parker-Hannifin,", "", "The Cleveland Metropolitan School District is the second largest K–12 district in the state of Ohio. It is the only district in Ohio under direct control of the mayor, who appoints a school board. Approximately of Cleveland, adjacent the Shaker Square neighborhood, is part of the Shaker Heights City School District. The area, which has been a", "Cleveland is home to a number of colleges and universities. Most prominent among these is Case Western Reserve University, a world-renowned research and teaching institution in University Circle. A private university with several prominent graduate programs, CWRU was ranked 40th in the nation in 2020 by \"U.S. News & World Report\". University Circle also", "Established in 1869, the Cleveland Public Library is one of the largest public libraries in the nation with a collection of 10,559,651 materials as of 2018. Its John G. White Special Collection includes the largest chess library in the world as well as an impressive collection of folklore and rare books on the Middle East and Eurasia. Under head librarian William Howard Brett, the library adopted an \"open shelf\" philosophy, which allowed patrons open", "", "Cleveland is home to Playhouse Square, the second largest performing arts center in the United States behind New York City's Lincoln Center. Playhouse Square includes the State, Palace, Allen, Hanna, and Ohio theaters within what is known as the Cleveland Theater District. Playhouse Square's resident performing arts companies include the Cleveland Ballet, the Cleveland International Film Festival, the Cleveland Play House, Cleveland State University Department of Theatre and Dance, DANCECleveland, the Great Lakes Theater Festival, and the Tri-C Jazz Fest. The center hosts Broadway musicals, special concerts, speaking engagements, and other events throughout the year. A city with strong traditions in", "Cleveland has served as the setting for many major studio and independent films. Reflecting its position as one of the largest American cities at the time, the city was referenced in numerous classic Hollywood movies, such as Howard Hawks' \"Ceiling Zero\" (1936) with James Cagney and Pat O'Brien, and Hobart Henley's romantic comedy \"The Big Pond\" (1930) with Maurice Chevalier and Claudette Colbert, which introduced the hit song \"You Brought a New Kind of Love to Me\". Michael Curtiz's 1933 pre-Code classic \"Goodbye Again\" with Warren William and Joan Blondell was set in Cleveland. Players from the 1948 Cleveland Indians, winners of the World Series, appeared in \"The Kid from Cleveland\" (1949). Cleveland Municipal Stadium features prominently in both that film and \"The Fortune Cookie\" (1966). Written and directed by Billy Wilder, the latter marked Walter Matthau and Jack Lemmon's", "The American modernist poet Hart Crane was born in nearby Garrettsville, Ohio in 1899. His adolescence was divided between Cleveland and Akron before he moved to New York City in 1916. Aside from factory work during the first world war, he served as reporter to \"The Plain Dealer\" for a short period, before achieving recognition in the Modernist literary scene. A diminutive memorial park is dedicated to Crane along the left bank of the Cuyahoga in Cleveland. In University Circle,", "Cleveland's mosaic of ethnic communities and their various culinary traditions have long played an important role in defining the local cuisine. Examples of these can particularly be found in neighborhoods such as Little Italy, Slavic Village, and Tremont. Local mainstays of Cleveland's cuisine include an abundance of Polish and Central European contributions, such as kielbasa, stuffed cabbage and pierogies. Cleveland also has plenty of corned beef, with nationally renowned Slyman's, on the near East Side, a perennial winner of various accolades from \"Esquire Magazine\", including being named the best corned beef sandwich in America in 2008. Other famed sandwiches include the Cleveland original, Polish Boy, a local favorite found at many BBQ and Soul food restaurants. With its blue-collar roots well intact, and plenty of Lake Erie perch available, the tradition of Friday", "There are two main art museums in Cleveland. The Cleveland Museum of Art is a major American art museum, with a collection that includes more than 40,000 works of art ranging over 6,000 years, from ancient masterpieces to contemporary pieces. The Museum of Contemporary Art Cleveland showcases established and emerging artists, particularly from the Cleveland area, through hosting and producing temporary exhibitions. Both museums offer free admission to visitors, with the Cleveland Museum of Art declaring their museum free and open \"for the benefit of all the people forever.\" Both museums are also part of Cleveland's University Circle, a concentration of cultural, educational, and medical institutions located east of downtown. In addition to the art museums, the neighborhood also includes the Cleveland Botanical Garden, Case Western Reserve University, University Hospitals, Severance Hall, the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, and the Western Reserve Historical Society. Also located at University Circle is the Cleveland Cinematheque at the Cleveland Institute of Art, hailed by \"The New York Times\" as one of the country's best alternative movie theaters. Cleveland is home to the I.", "Cleveland's current major professional sports teams include the Cleveland Indians (Major League Baseball), Cleveland Browns (National Football League), and Cleveland Cavaliers (National Basketball Association). Local sporting facilities include Progressive Field, FirstEnergy Stadium, Rocket Mortgage FieldHouse, and the Wolstein Center. The city is also host to the Cleveland Monsters of the American Hockey League, who won the 2016 Calder Cup, the first Cleveland AHL team to do so since the 1964 Barons. Other professional teams in the city include the Cleveland Fusion of the Women's Football Alliance and Cleveland SC of the National Premier Soccer League. The Cleveland Indians won the World Series in 1920 and 1948. They also won the American League pennant, making the World Series in the 1954, 1995, 1997, and 2016 seasons. Between 1995 and 2001, Progressive Field (then known as Jacobs Field) sold out 455 consecutive games, a Major League Baseball record until it was broken in 2008. Historically, the Browns have been among the most successful franchises in American football history, winning eight titles during a short period of time—1946, 1947, 1948, 1949, 1950, 1954, 1955, and 1964. The Browns have never played in a Super Bowl, getting close five times by making it to the NFL/AFC Championship Game in 1968, 1969, 1986,, and. Former owner Art Modell's relocation of the Browns after the 1995 season (to Baltimore creating the Ravens), caused tremendous heartbreak and resentment among local fans. Cleveland mayor, Michael R. White, worked with the NFL and Commissioner Paul Tagliabue to bring back the Browns beginning in the 1999 season, retaining all team history. In Cleveland's earlier football history, the Cleveland Bulldogs won the NFL Championship in 1924, and", "With its extensive cleanup of the Cuyahoga River and its Lake Erie coast, Cleveland has been recognized by national media as an environmental success story and a national leader in environmental protection. Since the city's industrialization, the Cuyahoga had become so affected by industrial pollution that it \"caught fire\" a total of 13 times beginning in 1868. It was the river fire of June 1969 that spurred the city to action under Mayor Carl B. Stokes, and played a key role in", "Cleveland operates on a mayor–council (strong mayor) form of government, in which the mayor is the chief executive. From 1924 to 1931, the city briefly experimented with a council–manager government under William R. Hopkins and Daniel E. Morgan before returning to the mayor–council system. The office of the mayor has been held by Frank G. Jackson since 2006. Previous mayors of Cleveland include progressive Democrat Tom L. Johnson, World War I-era War Secretary and BakerHostetler founder Newton D. Baker, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Harold Hitz Burton, two-term Ohio Governor and Senator Frank J. Lausche, former U.S. Health, Education, and Welfare Secretary Anthony J. Celebrezze, two-term Ohio Governor and Senator George V. Voinovich, former U.S. Congressman Dennis Kucinich, and Carl B. Stokes, the first African American mayor of a major U.S. city. Another nationally prominent Ohio politician, former U.S. President James A. Garfield, was born in Cuyahoga County's Orange Township (today the Cleveland suburb of Moreland Hills). His resting place is the James A. Garfield Memorial in Cleveland's Lake View Cemetery. From the Civil War era to the 1940s, Cleveland was primarily dominated by the Republican Party, with the notable exceptions of the Johnson and Baker mayoral administrations. Businessman and Senator Mark Hanna was among Cleveland's most influential Republican figures, both locally and nationally. In addition", "", "Like in other major American cities, crime in Cleveland is concentrated in areas with higher rates of poverty and lower access to jobs. In recent years, the rate of crime in the city has seen a significant decline, following a nationwide trend in falling crime rates. Cleveland Police statistics published in 2019 showed that rates for violent crimes and property crimes in Cleveland dropped substantially in 2018. The rate of property crimes specifically fell by 30% since 2016. Cleveland's law enforcement agency is the Cleveland Division of Police, established in 1866. The division has 1,444 sworn officers as of 2016. Cleveland has five police districts. The district system was introduced in the 1930s by Cleveland Public Safety Director Eliot Ness (of the Untouchables), who later ran for mayor of Cleveland in 1947. The division has been recognized for several \"firsts,\" including the \"first criminal conviction secured by matching a palm print lifted from a crime scene to a suspect.\" The current Chief of Police is Calvin D. Williams.", "In December 2014, the United States Department of Justice announced the findings of a two-year investigation, prompted by a request from Mayor Frank Jackson, to determine whether the Cleveland Police engaged in a pattern of excessive force. After reviewing nearly 600 use-of-force incidents from 2010 to 2013, the investigators found systemic patterns, insufficient accountability mechanisms, inadequate training, ineffective policies, and inadequate community engagement. As a result of the Justice Department report, the city agreed to a consent decree to revise its policies and implement new independent oversight over the police force. The consent decree, released on May 26, 2015, mandates sweeping changes in training for recruits and seasoned officers, developing programs to identify and support troubled officers, updating technology and data management practices, and an independent monitor to ensure the decree's goals are met. At least some of the provisions have been identified as unique to Cleveland. On June 12, 2015, Chief U.S. District Judge Solomon Oliver Jr. approved and signed the consent decree, beginning the process of police reform.", "Cleveland is served by the firefighters of the Cleveland Division of Fire, established in 1863. The fire department operates out of 22 active fire stations throughout the city in five battalions. Each Battalion is commanded by a", "Cleveland EMS is operated by the city as its own municipal third-service EMS division. Cleveland EMS is the primary provider of Advanced Life Support", "", "Cleveland's primary daily newspaper is \"The Plain Dealer\". Defunct major newspapers include the \"Cleveland Press\", an afternoon publication which printed its last edition on June 17, 1982; and the \"Cleveland News\", which ceased publication in 1960. Additional newspapers include: \"The Morning Journal\", which serves suburbs bordering directly on the western Cleveland border; the News-Herald which serves the smaller suburbs in the East Side; the Thursdays-only \"Sun Post-Herald\", which serves a few neighborhoods on the", "Combined with nearby Akron and Canton, Cleveland is ranked as the 19th-largest television market by Nielsen Media Research (–14). The market is served by 10 full power stations, including: WEWS-TV (ABC), WJW (Fox), WKYC (NBC), WOIO (CBS), WVIZ (PBS), WUAB (The CW), WVPX-TV (Ion), WQHS-DT (Univision), WDLI-TV (Ion Plus), and the independent WBNX-TV. \"The Mike", "Cleveland is directly served by 32 AM and FM radio stations, 22 of which are licensed to the city. Commercial FM music stations are frequently the highest rated stations in the market: WAKS (contemporary hit radio), WDOK (adult contemporary), WENZ (mainstream urban), WGAR-FM (country), WHLK (adult hits), WMJI (classic hits), WMMS (active rock/hot talk), WNCX (classic rock), WNWV (modern adult contemporary), WQAL (hot adult contemporary), and WZAK (urban adult contemporary). WCPN public radio functions as the local NPR affiliate, and sister station WCLV airs a classical music format. College radio stations include WBWC (Baldwin Wallace University), WCSB (Cleveland State University), WJCU (John Carroll University), and WRUW-FM (Case Western Reserve University).", "Cleveland is home to a number of leading hospital systems, several of which are in University Circle. Most notable is the world-renowned Cleveland Clinic, which is supplemented by University Hospitals and its Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital. On the city's West Side is the main campus of the MetroHealth System, which operates a level one trauma center in northeast Ohio, and has various locations throughout greater Cleveland. Cleveland's Global Center for Health Innovation opened", "", "In 2011, Walk Score ranked Cleveland the seventeenth most walkable of the fifty largest cities in the United States., Walk Score increased Cleveland's rank to being the", "Cleveland has a bus and rail mass transit system operated by the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority (RTA). The rail portion is officially called the RTA Rapid Transit, but local residents refer to it as \"The Rapid\". It consists of three light rail lines, known as the Blue, Green, and Waterfront Lines, and a heavy rail line, the Red Line. In 2008, RTA completed the HealthLine, a bus rapid transit", "The city of Cleveland has a higher than average percentage of households without a car. In 2016, 23.7 percent", "Cleveland's road system consists of numbered streets running roughly north–south, and named avenues, which run roughly east–west. The numbered streets are designated \"east\" or \"west\", depending where they lie in relation to Ontario Street, which bisects Public Square. The numbered street system extends beyond the city limits into some suburbs on both", "Three two-digit Interstate highways serve Cleveland directly. Interstate 71 begins just southwest of downtown and is the major route from downtown Cleveland to the airport. I-71 runs through the southwestern suburbs and eventually connects Cleveland with Columbus and Cincinnati. Interstate 77 begins in downtown Cleveland and runs almost due south through the southern suburbs. I-77 sees the least traffic of the three interstates, although it does connect Cleveland to Akron. Interstate 90 connects the two sides of Cleveland, and is the northern terminus for both I-71 and I-77. Running due east–west through the West Side suburbs, I-90 turns northeast at the junction with and", "Cleveland Hopkins International Airport is the city's major airport and an international airport that once served as a main hub for United Airlines and Continental Airlines. It holds the distinction of having the first airport-to-downtown rapid transit connection in North America, established in 1968. In 1930, the airport was the site of the first", "The Port of Cleveland, at the Cuyahoga River's mouth, is a major bulk freight terminal on Lake Erie, receiving much of the raw materials used by the region's manufacturing", "Cleveland has a long rich history as a major railroad hub in the United States. Today, Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Cleveland, via the \"Capitol Limited\" and \"Lake Shore Limited\" routes, which stop at", "National intercity bus service is provided at a Greyhound station, just behind the Playhouse Square theater district. Megabus provides service to Cleveland and has a stop at the Stephanie Tubbs Jones Transit Center", "On February 15, 2018, Hyperloop Transportation Technologies announced that it had signed an agreement with the North Ohio Areawide Coordinating Agency and the Illinois Department of Transportation", ", Cleveland maintains cultural, economic, and educational ties with 23 sister cities around the world. It concluded its first sister city partnership with Lima, Peru in 1964. Cleveland is home to the Consulate General of the Republic of Slovenia, which, until Slovene independence in 1991, served as an official consulate for Tito's Yugoslavia. In addition, the Jewish community of Greater Cleveland maintains an unofficial supportive relationship with the State of Israel. In October 1915 at Cleveland's Bohemian National Hall, Czech American and Slovak American representatives signed the Cleveland Agreement, a precursor to the Pittsburgh Agreement, calling for the formation of a joint Czech and Slovak state, which was realized with the establishment of Czechoslovakia in October 1918. During the Cold War, Cleveland industrialist Cyrus Eaton, an apprentice of John D. Rockefeller, played a significant role in promoting dialogue between the US and the USSR. The Cleveland Clinic operates the Cleveland Clinic Abu Dhabi hospital and a sports medicine clinic in Toronto, and a Cleveland Clinic hospital campus in London is scheduled to open in 2021. Sister cities" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "1985–1986: Team creation.", "1989–1992: Early years.", "1992–1996: The Shaquille O'Neal era.", "1996–1999: Penny Hardaway era.", "1999–2000: \"Heart and Hustle\" season.", "2000–2004: Tracy McGrady era.", "2004–2012: The Dwight Howard era.", "2012–present: Rebuilding.", "2012–2017: Rob Hennigan era.", "2017–present: Jeff Weltman era.", "Home arenas.", "Amway Center.", "Amway Arena (former arena).", "Team identity.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Mascot.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Retired numbers.", "Basketball Hall of Famers.", "Orlando Magic Hall of Fame.", "Season-by-season record.", "Rivalries.", "Miami Heat.", "Atlanta Hawks.", "Media.", "Television.", "Radio.", "Podcasts.", "Final Notes.", "Leaders.", "Franchise leaders.", "Awards and accomplishments.", "Individual awards.", "NBA All-Star Weekend." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In September 1985, Orlando businessman Jim L. Hewitt approached Philadelphia 76ers general manager Pat Williams as they met in Texas on his idea of bringing an NBA team to Orlando. Intrigued by the potential of an Orlando-based NBA team, Williams became the front man of the investment group one year later, after he left the 76ers. On June 19, 1986, the two held a news conference to announce their intention of seeking an NBA franchise. At the same time", "The Magic, in their debut year, went on to select Nick Anderson (Illinois), who had just won both the Mr. Basketball and College Player of the Year awards, in the first round of the 1989 NBA Draft. As 10th pick, he was the team's first franchise player and leading scorer for a decade. The Magic's very first game played was an exhibition game on October 13, 1989 against the then-reigning champion Detroit Pistons, which the Magic won. Anderson was quoted as saying the atmosphere and the people watching the game was \"like Game 7 of the NBA Finals\". On November 4, 1989, the Magic played their first season game at the Orlando Arena (O-Rena) against the visiting New Jersey Nets, who won 111–106 in a hard-fought game. The Magic's first victory came two days later, as the Magic defeated the New York Knicks 118–110. The inaugural team compiled a record of", "The Magic history was changed on May 17, 1992, when the franchise won the first pick in the 1992 NBA draft Lottery. The Magic selected big-man Shaquille O'Neal from Louisiana State University, the biggest prize in the draft since the Knicks won Patrick Ewing. O'Neal, a 7'1\" center, made an immediate impact on the Magic, leading the team to a 41–41 record. The Magic again became the NBA's most improved franchise, as they improved by 20 games. O'Neal was the first rookie to be", "In the offseason, O'Neal left as a free agent to the Los Angeles Lakers, dealing a huge blow to the Magic franchise. In the middle of the season, urged by player discontent, management fired coach Brian Hill and named Richie Adubato as interim coach for the rest of the season. Under Adubato, the Magic went 21–12 to compile a 45–37 record, led by Penny Hardaway. In the playoffs, the Magic quickly fell 0–2 to the heavily favored Miami Heat in the first round, but Hardaway battled back with consecutive 40 point games to assure a game five (the first player to do so), which the Magic ultimately lost. The Magic then hired Chuck Daly to be head coach for the 1997–98 season. In addition, Hall of Famer Julius Erving joined the Magic's front office, giving", "In 1999, the Magic, under general manager John Gabriel, who was later named Executive of the Year, hired rookie-coach Doc Rivers. Gabriel dismantled the previous team trading their only remaining superstar Anfernee Hardaway to the Phoenix Suns for Danny Manning (who never donned a Magic uniform), Pat Garrity, and two future draft", "The following offseason, Gabriel, with millions of cleared salary cap space, attempted to lure three of the NBA's most prized free agents: Tim Duncan, Grant Hill, and Tracy McGrady. Duncan opted to remain with the San Antonio Spurs, the Magic acquired Hill, a perennial All-Star, and McGrady. With McGrady and Hill together, the Magic were expected to be a force in the East. However, Hill was limited to 4 games because of an ankle injury. McGrady blossomed into a star during the season, becoming one of the NBA's top scorers. With the addition of Mike Miller from the draft, the Magic compiled a 43–39 record, which included a nine-game winning streak, and once again made the playoffs. McGrady made the All-Star Team and All-NBA 2nd Team. Miller won the Rookie of the Year. In the playoffs, they faced the Milwaukee Bucks in the first round. The Bucks won the series 3–1. In 2001–02, McGrady led the Magic to a winning record of 44–38. Hill was still severely limited by his ankle injury, and did not play for the vast majority of", "In the off-season, Weisbrod completely dismantled the team. Though he kept Davis as coach, he shook up the player roster, only keeping a few players from last season. The most significant trade was Tracy McGrady. McGrady, discontent with the Magic, wished to move on; Weisbrod accused McGrady of \"slacking off\" and not attending practices (McGrady later admitted that he did not give 100% during the 2003–2004 season and wanted the team to bring him some help, but never wanted to leave Orlando). The Magic traded McGrady along with Reece Gaines, Tyronn Lue, and Juwan Howard to the Houston Rockets for Steve Francis, Kelvin Cato, and Cuttino Mobley. In addition, the Magic acquired center Tony Battie and two second-round draft picks from the Cleveland Cavaliers in exchange for Drew Gooden, Steven Hunter, and the draft rights to Anderson Varejão. The Magic then signed free agent Hedo Türkoğlu. With the number one draft pick, the Magic selected high-school phenomenon and future All-Star and franchise cornerstone Dwight Howard, and a draft day trade with the Denver Nuggets got them point guard Jameer Nelson. After a promising 13–6 start, the Magic began to fall apart. First, Weisbrod traded Mobley for Doug Christie from the Sacramento Kings. Christie, because of his emotional ties to the Kings, at first refused to play for the Magic. Later on, Christie claimed he had bone spurs and was placed on the injured list after playing only a few games for the Magic. Near the end of the season, with a playoff-push faltering, Weisbrod fired Davis after leading Davis to believe he was going to be the team's head coach for the entire 2004–05 NBA season. He then promoted Chris Jent to interim head coach. Throughout the season, bolstered by Hill's return, the Magic played spectacularly, defeating top NBA teams. However, led by the erratic play of Francis, the Magic also lost to league teams with losing records. Howard showed great promise, becoming one of the few players to average a double-double. Howard was a consistent rebounder and scorer, becoming the first rookie to start and play all 82 games in a season. In addition, Nelson, after a slow start, developed into a talented player, taking over the starting point guard position. Hill", "", "Following the trade of Dwight Howard, the Magic entered into a state of rebuilding with Maurice Harkless and Nikola Vučević. On August 29, the Magic signed free agent guard E'Twaun Moore. On December 2, 2012, Howard's first game against his former team, the Magic defeated the Lakers 113–103. On February 21, 2013, the Magic traded JJ Redick, Ish Smith and Gustavo Ayón to the Milwaukee Bucks. In return, the Magic received Beno Udrih, Tobias Harris and rookie Doron Lamb. The Magic also traded Josh McRoberts to the Charlotte Bobcats for Hakim Warrick who was", "In the summer of 2017, the Magic made various changes, the first being the firing of general manager Rob Hennigan on April 13. On May 23, the Magic named Jeff Weltman, the former general manager of the Toronto Raptors, as president of basketball operations and named John Hammond, the former general manager for the Milwaukee Bucks, as the new general manager. With the sixth overall pick in the 2017 NBA Draft, Orlando drafted Florida State forward, Jonathan Isaac. During free agency the Magic signed Jonathon Simmons, Arron Afflalo, Shelvin Mack, Marreese Speights, Khem Birch and Adreian Payne. On October 6, 2017, the Magic announced that former superstar Tracy McGrady, had rejoined the team as assistant to the CEO. On February 8, 2018, the Magic traded starting point guard Elfrid Payton to the Phoenix Suns in exchange for a 2018 second-round pick. On April 12, 2018, head coach Frank Vogel was fired by the Magic after the conclusion of the 2017–18 regular season. On May 30, the Magic named Steve Clifford as their new head coach. On June 21, 2018, the Magic drafted center Mohamed Bamba with the sixth overall pick. and Melvin Frazier in the second round. Other player acquisitions included trading for Timofey Mozgov and Jerian Grant in", "", "The team's current home arena, the Amway Center, officially opened on October 1, 2010. The Orlando Magic hosted their first preseason game at Amway Center on October 10 against the New Orleans Hornets. The 2010–11 regular season home opener was on October 28 against the Washington Wizards, and the Magic won both games.", "Amway Arena opened in 1989 and served as home to the Orlando Magic since their inception until the 2009–2010 season. It was originally known as the Orlando Arena, or the \"O-Rena\", during its first 10 years. In 1999, TD Waterhouse purchased the naming rights and named the venue the TD Waterhouse Centre.", "", "Orlando advertising agency The Advertising Works, led by its president Doug Minear was responsible for the original Magic uniforms. The logo, featuring a basketball crowded by stars and the wordmark \"Magic\" with a star replacing the A, was created following meetings with Walt Disney World artists and over 5000 suggestions sent from around the country. Stars would remain a primary feature of the logo once it was redesigned in 2000 to feature a comet-like basketball. Pat Williams first suggested the colors black and gold of his alma mater Wake Forest, but this was eschewed for various factors, including the local college Central Florida using the same scheme. Black would still be the primary color in the scheme used by Minear, a trait shared by 16 other NBA teams. Other colors were an electric blue specially made by sporting goods manufacturer MacGregor, and silver.", "Stuff the Magic Dragon has been the Magic's mascot since 1989. A dragon designed by Wade Harrison and", "", "The Magic hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "", "", "In 2014, the Orlando Magic launched the team's Hall of", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Magic. For the full season-by-season history,", "", "The Orlando Magic and the Miami Heat had a rivalry because both teams are located in Florida, thus the rivalry was known as the Sunshine State rivalry. Another ingredient to the rivalry was the high-caliber players on both teams such as Orlando's Shaquille O'Neal and Penny Hardaway to Miami's Alonzo Mourning and Tim Hardaway. The two had met each other in the NBA playoffs for", "The Atlanta Hawks and the Orlando Magic had an intense rivalry, mostly stemming from playoff competitions and the rising stardom of Dwight Howard and Josh Smith, both from the 2004 NBA draft and who were both raised in Georgia.", "", "The current television announce team for the Orlando Magic is play-by-play announcer David Steele and color analyst Jeff Turner. Turner played for the Magic from its inaugural 1989 season to 1996. Paul Kennedy and Dante Marchetelli serve as courtside reporters, while Marchetelli, former coach Brian Hill, and former Magic player Nick Anderson host the pre-game, halftime and post-game shows. Television broadcasts were split in 2007–08 between Fox Sports Florida and Sun Sports (now Fox Sports Sun). In the 18 years before then, broadcasts were split between Sun Sports (formerly known as the Sunshine Network) and local television stations, originally WKCF and, later, WRBW. There", "The current radio announce team for the Orlando Magic is play-by-play announcer Dennis Neumann and color analyst Richie Adubato, another former Magic head coach. Games are produced by Magic Radio Network flagship AM 580 WDBO in Orlando, and also broadcast on AM 1380 WELE in Daytona Beach, 99.5 FM WGMW \"The Star\" in Gainesville and Ocala, AM 1290 WPCF in Panama City, AM 1590 WPSL in", "The official Orlando Magic website features a collection", "The Orlando Magic are one of the most supported teams and according to head coach of the San Antonio Spurs, Greg Popovich \"The [Orlando]", "", "Bold denotes still active with team. \"Italic\" denotes still active but not with team.", "", "NBA Defensive Player of the Year NBA Rookie of the Year NBA Sixth Man of the Year NBA Sportsmanship Award NBA Most Improved Player of the", "NBA All-Star Team" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Team creation.", "1969–1975: The Kareem Abdul-Jabbar era.", "1976–1979: Transition from Abdul-Jabbar.", "1979–1990: The Sidney Moncrief era.", "Ownership and arena changes.", "1990–1998: Era of struggles.", "1998–2003: Big Three era.", "2003–2009: Michael Redd era.", "2009–2013: Arrival of Brandon Jennings.", "2013–present: Giannis Antetokounmpo era.", "2013–2014: under Larry Drew.", "2014–2018: under Jason Kidd.", "2018–present: under Mike Budenholzer.", "Ownership.", "Mascot.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Season-by-season record.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Basketball Hall of Famers.", "Radio and television." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "On January 22, 1968, the NBA awarded a franchise to Milwaukee Professional Sports and Services, Inc. (Milwaukee Pro), a group headed by Wesley Pavalon and Marvin Fishman. A fan contest was held to name the new team, with over 40,000 fans participating. While the most-voted fan entry was the \"Robins\", named for Wisconsin's state bird, the contest judges went with the second-most popular choice, the \"Bucks\", which was a reference to Wisconsin's official wild animal, the white-tailed deer. One fan, R. D. Trebilcox, was awarded a new car for his part in reasoning why the Bucks was a good nickname, saying that bucks were \"spirited, good jumpers, fast and agile.\" The Bucks", "With the addition of Alcindor, the Bucks finished with a 56–26 record in 1969–70, second-best in the league behind the New York Knicks. The 29-game improvement was the best in league history – a record which would stand for ten years until the Boston Celtics jumped from 29 wins in 1978–79 to 61 in 1979–80. The Bucks defeated the Philadelphia 76ers in five games in the Eastern Conference semifinals, only to be dispatched in five by the Knicks in the Eastern finals. Alcindor was a runaway selection for NBA Rookie of the Year. The following season, the Bucks traded for Cincinnati Royals guard Oscar Robertson to complement Alcindor. Subsequently, the Bucks finished 66–16, the second-most wins in NBA history at the time, and still a franchise record. During the regular season, the Bucks recorded a then-NBA record 20-game win streak. Posting a 12–2 record in the playoffs, they won their first NBA championship on April 30, 1971, by sweeping the Baltimore Bullets in four games. By winning it all in only their third season, the Bucks became the fastest true expansion team in the history of North", "After the deal, the Bucks had several seasons in transition, but most of these players would go on to help the team. After being sold to Fitzgerald and several partners in 1976, the Bucks would enter into another era of greatness. It began with Don Nelson who became head coach in November 1976 after Larry Costello abruptly resigned. In the 1977 draft, the Bucks had three first round picks and drafted Kent Benson, Marques Johnson and Ernie Grunfeld. Johnson would become a staple in the Bucks for years to come. Rookie Sidney Moncrief made", "There, they would win six straight division titles and have.500 seasons for the next 11 years. Within those years, the Bucks became perennial Eastern Conference contenders, primarily due to the strong play of Moncrief, Marques Johnson, Paul Pressey, Craig Hodges and the arrival of Terry Cummings, Ricky Pierce and Jack Sikma from trades with the Los Angeles Clippers and Seattle SuperSonics respectively. However, the Bucks were unable to make it to the NBA Finals again, being eliminated by either the Celtics or the Sixers each time. For much of the 1970s the Bucks colors were forest green, deep red and white. In 1978, they added various shades of green to the uniforms, and in 1985, they eliminated red from the team colors. Noteworthy for the 1980s Bucks is that in 1983 they became the first, and until 2003, only team in NBA history to sweep the Boston Celtics in a best-of-seven playoff series, being the first team to meet and defeat Michael Jordan in a playoff series (during Jordan's rookie year), and hosting Julius Erving's final NBA game in the 1987 NBA Playoffs, which would see the Bucks advancing with a game five first-round playoff victory.", "In 1985, Fitzgerald and his partners (one of which was Stuart Shadel) decided to sell the Bucks. He was having health problems and some of his investors wanted to get out. The Bucks were playing in the smallest arena in the NBA and the city did not want to build a new one. Milwaukee businessman and future U.S. Senator Herb Kohl bought the Bucks after fears that out-of-town investors could buy the team and move it out of Milwaukee. Before the transaction was complete, broadcaster Lloyd Pettit and his wife, Jane Bradley Pettit, announced they were donating a new arena called the Bradley Center. In 2003, after considering selling the team, Kohl announced that he had decided against selling the Bucks to Michael Jordan and would \"continue to own them, improve them and commit them to remaining in Wisconsin\". On May 21, 2012, the naming rights of the Bradley Center were sold to the BMO Harris Bank division of Bank of Montreal, which had purchased the assets of M&I Bank a year earlier. After the heirs to the Bradley fortune gave their approval, the arena was renamed the \"BMO Harris Bradley Center\".", "For most of the 1990s, the Bucks franchise was mired in mediocrity under coaches Frank Hamblen, Mike Dunleavy, and Chris Ford. From 1991 through 1998, the Bucks suffered a franchise-record seven straight losing seasons. During this period, the Bucks drafted Glenn Robinson with the first overall pick in the 1994 NBA Draft and in 1996 acquired rookie Ray Allen in a draft day trade with the Minnesota Timberwolves. Both players would have prominent roles in the Bucks resurgence during the late 1990s. After the franchise's 25th anniversary", "After a decade of dwelling near the bottom of the NBA's standings, the Bucks looked to add credibility to their basketball operations. In 1998, the team hired veteran coach George Karl, who had reached the NBA Finals with the Seattle SuperSonics. Under the leadership of Karl and general manager Ernie Grunfeld, and with the steady addition of talent such as Tim Thomas and Sam Cassell, the Bucks developed into an elite team in the Eastern Conference. The nucleus of the \"big three\"—consisting of Ray Allen, Cassell, and Robinson—along with Karl, created a successful renaissance era in Milwaukee. The team reached its zenith in 2000–2001, winning 52 games and their first division title in 15 years. The Bucks reached the 2001 Eastern Conference Finals by defeating the Charlotte Hornets. They lost the Eastern Conference finals in seven games to the 76ers. After coming within one game of an NBA Finals appearance in 2001, the Bucks sought to make key off-season player additions to put the team in the NBA Finals. Behind the strong", "Under the direction of new general manager Larry Harris, the Bucks struggled with inconsistency and injury for the next six years. During that period, they reached the playoffs twice, first under coach Terry Porter in 2004 and then under Terry Stotts in 2006. In both instances, they were defeated by the Detroit Pistons in five games. During that period, Michael Redd blossomed into an all-star and a perimeter shooting threat, becoming the new \"face of the franchise\". The Bucks received the first pick in the 2005 NBA draft, and used it to select center Andrew Bogut. Bogut struggled with both inconsistency and injuries in his first four years in Milwaukee, but over time became a key contributor to the Bucks. In 2006, the team finished 40–42, last in their", "In the 2009 NBA draft, the Milwaukee Bucks selected point guard Brandon Jennings, who had not gone to college but played in Italy the previous year. Midway through the season, Bucks' general manager John Hammond traded Hakim Warrick to the Chicago Bulls, and acquired John Salmons. In a Bucks uniform, Salmons averaged a team-leading 19.9 points per game. The play of Jennings, along with the improvement of Andrew Bogut, the improved Ersan İlyasova, and the Salmons trade, catapulted the team to be a playoff contender. At the beginning of the season, the Bucks had low playoffs expectations; they had not been in four years. In October, the Bucks quickly fell behind the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Central Division, but Milwaukee ultimately clinched a playoff berth on April 6, 2010, with a road win over the Chicago Bulls. It was during that time that the phrase \"\"Fear the Deer\"\" started, most likely by an ESPN commentator, and adopted on message boards and within Andrew Bogut's Squad 6. The slogan rang well with Bucks fans, who started bringing signs with", "", "Jim Boylan was relieved of his coaching duties and ex-Atlanta Hawks coach Larry Drew was hired. On June 27, 2013, the Bucks chose Greek forward Giannis Antetokounmpo with the 15th overall pick of the 2013 NBA draft. They also traded the 43rd pick, Ricky Ledo, for Nate Wolters. In the 2013 free agency campaign, they brought in O. J. Mayo, Carlos Delfino, Zaza Pachulia, and Gary Neal as well as seeing Monta Ellis opt out of the final year of his contract. The Bucks also agreed to sign-and-trade Brandon Jennings to the Detroit Pistons in exchange for Brandon Knight, Khris Middleton, and Viacheslav Kravtsov. The Bucks later extended their contract with Larry Sanders", "On July 1, 2014, the Milwaukee Bucks secured the coaching rights for Jason Kidd from the Brooklyn Nets in exchange for two second-round draft picks in the 2015 NBA draft, and the 2019 NBA draft. With the acquisition of Kidd, the team fired coach Larry Drew. With the many changes to the Bucks in ownership, coaches, and acquiring new young players to rebuild the team, the Bucks' new slogan for the 2014–15 season became \"\"Own The Future\"\". The Bucks' overall play vastly improved, and on December 26, the Bucks beat the Atlanta Hawks 107–77 for their 15th win, matching their win total of the previous season just 30 games in. The Bucks then went on a stretch from January 24 to February 20, where they went 10–2. The Bucks beat the Sacramento Kings on February 11 for their 30th win of the year, and also became the first ever NBA team to double their win total from the previous season before the All-Star Break. Off the court, the Bucks", "On May 17, 2018, the Bucks announced former San Antonio Spurs' assistant coach and former Atlanta Hawks head coach Mike Budenholzer as their new head coach. On August 26, 2018, the Bucks' new arena, Fiserv Forum, opened to the public. The Bucks stormed through their 2018–19 regular season, racing out to a 25–10 start en route to finishing 60–22, the fifth 60-win season in franchise history and the first time they had won that many in a regular season since the 1980–81 season. They also finished with the league-best record for the second time in franchise", "As of July 16, 2015, the following", "The Bucks' official mascot is Bango. The word \"Bango\" was originally coined by Eddie Doucette, the longtime play-by-play announcer for the Bucks. Doucette used the word whenever a Bucks player connected on a long-range basket. It was often used for sharpshooter Jon McGlocklin. When it came time for the Bucks to choose a name for their new mascot, the name \"Bango\" won the contest. Bango has been the Bucks' official mascot since on October 18, 1977, which was Milwaukee's home opener of the 1977–78 season. In addition to the date being Bango's home debut, the game itself pitted Milwaukee against former Bucks center Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and his Los Angeles Lakers at the Milwaukee Arena. Bango has worked hard to become popular with Bucks fans throughout the state of Wisconsin over the years, appearing at schools, parades, and festivals as a goodwill ambassador for the team. His high-flying acrobatic layups, daring rebounds, and other entertaining antics still play an important role in energizing Bucks fans at the BMO Harris Bradley Center. Since 2001, Bango has also made perennial appearances at the NBA All-Star Game. At", "The Bucks' first uniforms were based on the Boston Celtics' uniforms, featuring block lettering and numbers. The hunter green road uniforms featured the city name and numbers in white with red trim. The home white uniforms featured the team nickname and numbers in hunter green with red trim; the color scheme was reversed for the 1971–72 season. In the 1973–74 season, the road uniforms featured a script \"Milwaukee\" and numbers in red with white trim; two seasons later they used the same design for their home uniforms. In the 1975–76 season the road uniforms changed to the block \"Milwaukee\" lettering while retaining the script home uniform. The shorts featured the alternate Bucks logo on the left leg. Coinciding with the debut of Robert Indiana's iconic MECCA court in the 1976–77 season, the Bucks redesigned their uniforms. It now featured side stripes of kelly, lime and hunter green (a.k.a. the \"Irish Rainbows\"), inspired by the \"Rainbow Guts\" uniforms of the Houston Astros. Both the hunter green and white uniforms featured the streamlined \"Bucks\" lettering from the team logo and block lettering. They removed the color red prior to the 1985–86 season. The Bucks changed their logo and uniforms for the 1993–94 season. The purple road uniforms featured a modernized \"Bucks\" lettering from their logo and numbers in silver with hunter green trim, with green side stripes. The home white uniforms featured the same lettering and numbers in hunter green with silver trim, with purple side stripes. The stripes were extended to the jersey in the 2001–02 season. In the 1995–96 season the Bucks unveiled a hunter green alternate uniform. The script \"Bucks\" lettering was in white fading to silver and purple and numbers were in white with green and purple trim. The uniform featured the graphic deer logo on the right side. They were retired after the 1998–99 season. It would be resurrected for the 2012–13 season during Hardwood Classics Nights, to updated uniform standards. The uniforms were changed again for the 2006–07 season. The new home uniform was white with hunter green stripes on the sides. Inside each green stripe is a thinner red stripe that splits into two stripes near the shoulders. The numbers are green with a red outline. Milwaukee had two road uniforms as part of this set. The primary one was hunter green and a similar design to the home uniform with white numbers with a silver highlight and red outline. Both uniforms jerseys said \"BUCKS\" across the chest in beveled block letters, the 'B' and 'S' slightly larger than the rest of the letters. A secondary road uniform was introduced in the 2008–09 season. Consisting of red jersey and shorts, it was made to resemble the 1968–73 uniforms. It says \"Milwaukee\" in white and silver writing, along with the numbers. The uniform set was tweaked for the 2014–15 season, with the addition of a gold tab commemorating their 1971 championship and the move of the NBA logo to the back. The 'Bucks' lettering was tweaked to make all the letters the same height.", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Bucks. For the full season-by-season", "", "The Bucks hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "", "Since the 2007–08 season, all Bucks games not nationally broadcast have aired exclusively on regional cable television over Fox Sports Wisconsin. In 2018 the Bucks agreed to a seven year extension with the network. Selected games also air on the FS Wisconsin Plus feed, in case of Milwaukee Brewers conflicts. Bucks games produced by Fox Sports are also carried on the Fox Sports Go application within the team's broadcast territory. Prior to the Fox Sports Wisconsin exclusivity, the Bucks split their television broadcasts between FS Wisconsin (which through various incarnations have televised Bucks games since 1996) and WCGV (Channel 24) from 1999 to 2007, and prior that, WVTV (Channel 18) was the over-the-air partner from 1994 to 1999. WCGV also previously carried Bucks games from 1988 to 1994, and WVTV again, this time from 1976 to 1988; these two stations are currently owned by the Sinclair Broadcast Group. The telecasts during each station's tenures as the over-the-air TV home of the Bucks consisted of almost exclusively road games; very few Bucks home games on either station were televised through the years, as the Bucks were one of the last NBA teams to regularly televise home games. The Bucks, along with their respective TV partners, co-produced and distributed the over-the-air telecasts to stations throughout Wisconsin. In the franchise's early years, Bucks games were carried on then-ABC affiliate WITI (Channel 6), from 1968 to 1971, and on then-CBS affiliate WISN-TV (Channel 12) from 1971 to 1976; both respective runs also coincided with NBA coverage already carried by their networks at the time: ABC (1965–1973) and CBS (1973–1990). The two stations swapped networks in March 1977, with WISN since remaining with ABC, and WITI switching from CBS to Fox in December 1994. Since 1986, Jim Paschke has been the team's television play-by-play announcer, with former Buck Jon McGlocklin providing color commentary for the team from 1976 to 2018. From 2015 to 2018, veteran announcer Gus Johnson called selected games alongside Paschke on a rotating basis. During that time, former Buck Marques Johnson also was in the booth for selected games, but became the new permanent color commentator for the 2018–19 season when the team moved to the Fiserv Forum. Veteran sportscaster Eddie Doucette served as the team's original play-by-play voice, working in that capacity from 1968 to 1984; he also called selected Bucks games on WITI, WISN-TV, and during most of WVTV's first tenure with the Bucks. He and McGlocklin also co-founded the Midwest Athletes Against Childhood Cancer (MACC) Fund in 1976, which raises money to help cancer research. On the radio side the team has been carried by WTMJ (620/103.3) and throughout the state on the Milwaukee Bucks Radio Network (which is sponsored by BMO Harris) for most of the team's history. Ted Davis announces, with former WTMJ-TV sports director Dennis Krause providing color and serving as solo announcer on nights where Davis has a broadcasting assignment elsewhere." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "1978–1981: Birth of the Mavericks.", "1982–1990: Playoff contention.", "1990–1998: Rebuilding.", "1990–1994.", "1994–1996: Arrival of Jason Kidd.", "1996–1998.", "1998–2019: The Dirk Nowitzki era.", "1998–2001: New beginnings.", "2001–2005: Run and Gun Nellie Ball.", "2005–2006: First Finals appearance.", "2006–2007: Nowitzki wins MVP.", "2007–2008: The return of Jason Kidd.", "2008–2010: Falls in the playoffs.", "2010–2011: Championship season.", "2011–2013: Post-championship struggles and later absence from playoffs.", "2013–2016: Return to the playoffs.", "2016–2019: Lottery return, Dirk's final years and Dončić rookie season.", "2019–present: The Luka Dončić era.", "2019–present: Return to playoff contention and Dončić's meteoric rise.", "Uniforms.", "Head coaches.", "Rivalries.", "Miami Heat.", "San Antonio Spurs.", "Phoenix Suns.", "Houston Rockets.", "Los Angeles Lakers.", "Sacramento Kings.", "Season-by-season record.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Retired numbers.", "NBA All-Star selections.", "Management.", "Terdema Ussery.", "Sexual assault and domestic violence allegations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In 1978, Californian businessman Garn Eckardt met Dallas lawyer Doug Adkins, and mentioned he was trying to raise capital to move an NBA team to the city. Asking for a possible partner, Adkins recommended him one of his clients, Home Interiors and Gifts owner Don Carter. Negotiations with Eckardt fell through, but Carter remained interested in the enterprise as a gift to his wife Linda, who played basketball while at Duncanville High School. At the same time, Buffalo Braves president and general manager Norm Sonju developed an interest in bringing the NBA to Dallas as he studied possible new locations for the ailing franchise. While the Braves went to California as the San Diego Clippers, Sonju eventually returned to Texas, and was introduced to Carter by mayor Robert Folsom, one of the", "In 1982–83, the Mavericks were serious contenders for the first time. At the All-Star break, they were 25–24 and had won 12 of their last 15 games. They could not sustain that momentum and finished seven games behind the Denver Nuggets for the sixth and final playoff spot in the Western Conference. But the Mavs' 38–44 record was a 10-game improvement from the previous season. Mark Aguirre led the 1982–83 Mavericks with 24.4 points per game, finishing sixth in the NBA. Jay Vincent and Rolando Blackman contributed 18.7 and 17.7 points per game, respectively. Brad Davis was 10th in the NBA in assists with 7.2 per game, and shot.845 from the free-throw line, 6th in the league. Derek Harper was drafted by the Mavs with the 11th pick of the 1983 NBA draft. The 6 ft 4 in guard would spend the next decade with the organization, averaging 15 points and 6.1 assists. The Mavericks' in 1983–84 posted a winning record for the first time in franchise history, finishing 43–39 and second in the Midwest Division. The Mavs also earned the first playoff berth in franchise history. Mark Aguirre", "", "The team endured numerous changes in 1990, losing Sam Perkins to the Lakers via free agency and suffering injuries to practically their entire 1990–91 starting lineup. The players they managed to acquire—Rodney McCray, Fat Lever and Alex English—were all in the twilight of their careers. On November 9 it was announced that Fat Lever would have season-ending surgery on his right knee, and that very night, Tarpley suffered a knee injury of his own which ended his season. The Mavericks' season only got worse from there, and they finished with a record of 28–54, falling behind even the second-year Minnesota Timberwolves and Orlando Magic. In March 1991, Tarpley", "The addition of Jason Kidd infused the Mavericks with new life in 1994–95. Kidd averaged 11.7 points, 5.4 rebounds and 7.7 assists in his rookie season, and led the league in triple-doubles. Roy Tarpley was allowed to return to the league after three years and helped with 12.6 points and 8.2 rebounds per game. The tandem of Jim Jackson and Jamal Mashburn combined as the league's highest-scoring pair of teammates. On separate occasions, Mashburn and Jackson scored 50 points in a game that season. Mashburn contributed 24.1 points per game, fifth in the NBA; Jackson averaged 25.7 points but suffered a severe ankle sprain in February which caused him to miss the remainder of the regular season. Second-year forward Popeye Jones had a great year as well, as he averaged 10.6 rebounds and led the NBA in offensive rebounds. The Mavericks' improvement was dramatic. They jumped to 36–46, 10th in the Western Conference and only five games behind the Denver Nuggets for the eighth and final playoff spot. It was the biggest one-year improvement in the team's history and the highest in the NBA that season. Many expected the Mavericks' improvement", "The 1996–97 season was a year of transition for the Mavericks, as they basically re-designed their entire team; 27 different players saw action for that Dallas team, setting an all-time NBA record. By the time the season was over, only rookie forward Samaki Walker remained from the opening-day roster. The first big move came in December, as Jason Kidd, Loren Meyer and Tony Dumas were traded to the Phoenix Suns for guards Michael Finley and Sam Cassell and forward A. C. Green. By far the most important of these acquisitions was Finley who, after his first half-season in Dallas, went on to average over or near 20 ppg for at least the next seven years of his Mavericks career. He made two visits to the NBA All-Star Game and played in each of the Mavs' games until the 2004–05 season. Don Nelson was hired as Dallas' general manager on February 7. Within a week of his hiring, the Mavs had released Fred Roberts and Oliver Miller and traded Jamal Mashburn to the Miami Heat for forwards Kurt Thomas and Martin Müürsepp and guard Sasha Danilović. Thomas did not play in 1996–97, and only ended up playing in five games as a Maverick before signing as a free agent with the New York Knicks.", "", "In the lockout-shortened 1998–99 season, the Mavericks finished with a lowly 19–31 record, but Michael Finley and Gary Trent put up solid numbers and led their team to their first winning home record (15–10) since 1989–90. Notable were the acquisitions of power forward Dirk Nowitzki and point guard Steve Nash, two seemingly unspectacular moves which would make a great impact in the future. In the following season the team finally \"clicked\" and started to win on a consistent basis. Led by Finley, the Mavericks earned their first 40-win season since 1989–90. He was greatly helped by Nowitzki, who finally \"arrived\" in the NBA and established himself as a potent offensive threat. On January 14, 2000, Ross Perot's group sold the Dallas Mavericks to Internet entrepreneur and season ticket-holder Mark Cuban for $285 million. Cuban immediately set out to revitalize the Mavericks and increase the team's popularity in Dallas and nationwide. His controversial moves", "The 2001–02 season was a great season for the Mavericks, with a 57–25 record and many sellout crowds in the American Airlines Center. This season also saw a change in logo and colors, changing from the cowboy hat logo and green to a new horse logo. In addition, the team gained sleeker uniforms. Another blockbuster trade sent Juwan Howard, Tim Hardaway and Donnell Harvey to the Denver Nuggets in exchange for Raef LaFrentz, Nick Van Exel, Tariq Abdul-Wahad and Avery Johnson, the Mavericks also made several attempts to sign the Utah Jazz's star", "Prior to the 2005 NBA draft, the Mavericks had traded all their picks away and were left empty-handed. On August 15, 2005, veteran guard Michael Finley was waived under the new \"Allan Houston Rule\". Under that rule, the Orlando Magic waived Doug Christie, who then signed with the Mavericks. On August 19, the Mavericks held a press conference announcing they had re-signed Darrell Armstrong, and introduced Christie, DeSagana Diop, Rawle Marshall, and Josh Powell as new Mavericks. Christie's playing time was very limited amid a surgically repaired ankle still hampering his play. He was waived on November 25, 2005. At the end of calendar 2005, Nowitzki achieved a", "After an end to their playoff run in 2006, the Mavericks sought retribution in the new season. After a 0–4 start, the Mavericks went on a historic run and posted a 52–5 record over their next 57 games. They finished the regular season with a record of 67–15, good enough to be tied for 6th place all-time, first in the league and the number 1 seed in the Western Conference playoffs. Dirk Nowitzki had a dominant season, further cementing his place as one of the game's elite players; he won his fifth consecutive Euroscar during the season and was named the NBA MVP at its end. Josh Howard was named to the all-star team. However, the first-place Mavericks were defeated in six games by the 8th-seeded Golden State", "The Mavericks dealt Devin Harris, two first-round picks and others to the New Jersey Nets for veteran all-star Jason Kidd and other role players, Cuban also tried to sign the free agent Kevin Garnett unsuccessfully. The Mavericks were 3–11 against winning teams since the trade and lost Nowitzki for a little over a week due to a high ankle sprain injury. He returned April 2 in a crucial game against the Golden State Warriors in a 111–86 Mavericks victory and helped defeat the Phoenix Suns in", "After getting off to 2–7 start, the Mavericks eventually found themselves with the sixth spot in the Western Conference playoff bracket for 2009 after going 50–32 (ninth consecutive 50+-win season) and about three to four weeks earlier, were not even sure if they were going to make the eighth and final spot. But a run of 5–1 in their last six regular season games got them to a game over the Hornets for sixth place. Dirk Nowitzki also entered the postseason with a streak of twenty-five consecutive games of scoring 20 or more points, which was ended in the first game of the quarterfinals series versus the arch-rival, San Antonio Spurs. The Mavericks surprised many people by winning Game 1, 105–97 in San Antonio. The Spurs quickly won game two in a rout. As the series shifted to Dallas, who had only lost one game there after the", "After yet another first round exit, the Mavericks began an unexpectedly early off-season. The first order of business for Mark Cuban and the Mavericks was to re-sign Dirk Nowitzki, and they did so on July 4, 2010, when the Mavericks and Nowitzki agreed to a four-year deal worth $80 million. On July 13, the Mavericks, after losing the opportunity to sign LeBron James, Dwyane Wade, or Amar'e Stoudemire, acquired centers Tyson Chandler and Alexis Ajinca from the Charlotte Bobcats for center Erick Dampier, forward Eduardo Nájera and guard Matt Carroll. According to \"USA Today\", this trade was one of the most lopsided trades in NBA history; Chandler \"was the perfect fit during his first season with the Mavericks, anchoring their defense on the way to the franchise's first championship.\" The 2010–11 campaign saw the Mavericks fly out of the gate, winning 24 out of their first 29 games. However, on December 27, Dirk Nowitzki sustained a knee injury that derailed", "The 2011–12 season was shortened to 66 games due to a lockout, which meant the Mavericks had to wait until Christmas Day to raise their first championship banner. During the brief off-season, owner Mark Cuban decided to maintain financial flexibility by letting Tyson Chandler, DeShawn Stevenson, J. J. Barea and Caron Butler go. Chandler signed with the New York Knicks, Stevenson joined the New Jersey Nets, Barea went to the Minnesota Timberwolves, and Butler joined the Los Angeles Clippers. Meanwhile, they acquired incumbent NBA Sixth Man of the Year Lamar Odom via a", "During the 2013 off-season, the Mavericks chose not to re-sign role players Collison, Brand, and Kaman. Mayo then declined to exercise his player option, and later signed with the Milwaukee Bucks. The Mavericks signed José Calderón from the Detroit Pistons and Monta Ellis from the Bucks. They also signed veteran Samuel Dalembert. On April 4, 2014, the Mavericks swept the season-series with the Los Angeles Lakers for the first time since the 1980–81 season with a 107–95 win. The Mavericks finished 49–33, one game ahead of Phoenix for the eighth and final playoff spot, which meant that they would once again have", "The Mavericks did not make the playoffs during the 2016–17 season, despite efforts from their newest additions, Seth Curry, Harrison Barnes, Nerlens Noel, and Yogi Ferrell. They began the season going 3–15 through their first 18 games, and could not bounce back, finishing at a 33–49 record despite fighting towards a winning record, even reaching a 28–36 record partway through the season. This was the second time in 17 years they missed the playoffs, with the other being the 2012–2013 season. The season marked the first time the team finished with a losing record since the 1999–2000 season. The Dallas Mavericks received the ninth pick in the 2017 NBA draft and used it to select point guard Dennis Smith Jr. out of North Carolina State. They began", "", "On January 31, 2019, the Mavericks sent Dennis Smith Jr., DeAndre Jordan, Wesley Matthews, and two future first-round draft picks to the New York Knicks in exchange for Kristaps Porziņģis, Tim Hardaway Jr., Courtney Lee, and Trey Burke. At the quarter-mark of the season, the Mavericks began with a 15–6 record through their first 21 games. With Luka Dončić averaging a near 30-point triple-double, leading the Mavericks in points, rebounds, and assists, along with entering MVP contention, he led the Mavericks to the top-rated offense in the league. On December 12, 2019, the Mavericks won against the Detroit Pistons in Mexico City, as part of the NBA's efforts to expand internationally. During that game, Luka Dončić tallied 41 points, 12 rebounds, and 11 assists, becoming the first player in NBA history to record multiple 40-point triple-doubles before the age of 21.", "During their expansion season of 1980–81, the Mavericks road uniform colors were royal blue with green and white trim, but the green and blue were reversed a year later, and green was the dominant road uniform color through 1992. However, in the 1992–93 season, they went back to their original road uniform scheme from their expansion season, with minor alterations to the \"Dallas\" script, a design that the Mavericks used until 2001. From 1980 to 2001, the home white uniforms had \"Mavericks\" in blue, with green and white trim, with a few minor alterations to the \"Mavericks\" script during the 1990s. The 1980s green road jerseys were revived in the 2004–05 season as part of the Mavericks' 25th anniversary. However, while the lettering from the 1980s uniform was present, the number scheme resembled the 1993–2001 uniforms. The green uniforms would be revived again in the 2015–16 season, still with the 1990s number scheme. In the 2001–02 NBA season, the Mavericks drastically updated their logos and uniforms, with a new Dallas Cowboys-inspired color scheme of midnight blue, royal blue and silver. The new uniforms consist of a \"Dallas\" script on both the home and road jerseys. On the home jersey, \"Dallas\" is in midnight blue across the chest and the numbers are in royal blue with silver trim, while on the road jersey, \"Dallas\" is in white, with the numbers in silver and white trim. In the 2003–04 NBA season, the Mavericks debuted their shiny silver alternate uniforms, with \"Mavericks\" in white and royal blue trim, with blue numerals. However, it proved to be unpopular with fans (thus derisively nicknamed the 'Trash Bags'), and it was scrapped after just one game (at Lakers on October 28, 2003). In the 2004–05 NBA season, the Mavericks introduced an alternate green uniform similar to their 1980s road uniforms. They were designed by rapper Sean \"P. Diddy\" Combs, and featured \"Mavs\" in", "There have been nine head coaches for the Mavericks franchise. The franchise's first head coach was Dick Motta, who served for two non-consecutive stints and coached for nine seasons with the Mavericks. Motta is the franchise's all-time leader for the most regular-season games coached (738); Don Nelson, Donnie Nelson's father, is the franchise's all-time leader for the most regular-season game wins (339); Avery Johnson is the franchise's all-time leader for the most playoff games coached (47), the most playoff-game wins (23), and the highest winning percentage in the", "", "The Mavericks-Heat rivalry is a testament to when the two teams faced each other in the NBA finals on two separate occasions. First they came head to head in the 2006 NBA Finals, in which the two teams captured their first respective conference titles. The Mavericks came into the series 60–22 with a strong group of players while the Miami Heat came in with a respectable 52–30 record and sported an aging but still strong Shaquille O'Neal as well as an up-and-coming Dwyane Wade. Dallas was favored by many in the media to win the", "The Mavericks-Spurs rivalry is relatively new but very fierce. It features two teams with Dallas roots—the Spurs began their life in the ABA as the Dallas Chaparrals and did not move to San Antonio until 1973. On October 11, 1980, the Mavs made their NBA debut by defeating the Spurs 103–92. The teams have met numerous times in the playoffs, with the Spurs defeating the Mavericks in 2001, 2003, 2010, and 2014, while the Mavericks defeated the Spurs in 2006 and 2009. The Spurs have won five championships and six conference titles, while the Mavericks have won one championship and two conference titles. The Spurs have won 15 division titles, while the Mavericks have won 3. Both the Spurs and the Mavericks have 3 60-win seasons. This is known as the \"I-35 rivalry\" because both cities lie on Interstate 35. The two teams met in the playoffs during the 2000–2001 season with the Spurs winning in five games. Little was made during this series, as the Spurs won their first NBA championship only two years before. The Mavericks, run by a trio of Steve Nash, Michael Finley, and Dirk Nowitzki, had just defeated the Utah Jazz despite not having home court advantage and were only starting to meld into a title contender.", "During the 2004 off-season, former Dallas Mavericks point guard Steve Nash signed a free-agent deal with the 29–53 Phoenix Suns to help out their offense. The addition of Nash helped as Phoenix rolled to a 62–20 record and the best record in the NBA. The teams met in the Western Conference Semi-finals with Phoenix having the home-court advantage. Phoenix won Game One 127–102 with a 40-point game by Amar'e Stoudemire. Steve Nash was also given his NBA MVP award during that game, a game in which he terrorized his former team. However, Mavericks star Dirk Nowitzki hit a game-winning", "An NBA intrastate rivalry, both in Texas linked by I-45, as well as both Dallas and Houston fans traditionally having a disdain for each other's city, the rivalry started when the Mavericks were the last Texas team to join the NBA. This is also known as the I-45 rivalry because they both lie on Interstate 45. In the Mavs' inaugural season in 1980–81, the Rockets won all six meetings including a 116–68 blowout win. In the playoffs, the Mavericks defeated the Rockets in the 1988, and 2005 playoffs, the latter of which was plagued with allegations of game fixing. and the Rockets swept several season series with the Mavericks during the 1990s during the Rockets' championship years. On April 11,", "The rivalry between the Lakers and Mavericks began in the 1980s during the Lakers' Showtime era. In the 1984 NBA Playoffs, the Lakers won over the Mavericks in the Western Conference Semi-finals with the series 4–1. In 1986, they met again in the semi-finals and the Lakers won the series 4–2. In the 1988 NBA Playoffs, the Lakers, who were the defending champions, defeated the Mavericks in a seven-game series in the Western Conference Finals and eventually became the back-to-back champions after winning the", "The rivalry between the Kings and Mavericks could very well be traced to the similar styles of plays of Chris Webber, Dirk Nowitzki, Mike Bibby, Steve Nash, Peja Stojaković, and Michael Finley and the similar coaching styles of Rick Adelman and Don Nelson. In the 2002 NBA Playoffs the Kings defeated the", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Mavericks. For the full season-by-season history,", "", "The Mavericks hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "Following the death of former Los Angeles Lakers guard Kobe Bryant on January 26,", "The following Mavericks players", "Mark Cuban purchased a majority stake in the Mavericks for $280 million from Ross Perot Jr. in 2000.", "Terdema Ussery served as team president and CEO from 1997 until 2015. During this time Ussery also served in other", "In February 2018, the Dallas Mavericks hired former AT&T executive Cynthia Marshall as their interim CEO in a direct response to the franchise's sexual assault and domestic violence allegations involving Ussery and Earl K. Sneed. Marshall was the first black female CEO of an NBA franchise as well as the first woman ever to hold the position. Owner Mark Cuban formally responded in March 2018 to allegations of a 2011 sexual assault that surfaced in a Sports Illustrated investigation released in February. In an email to The Associated Press on March 6, Cuban" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Relocation to New Orleans.", "2002–2005: Early years in New Orleans.", "2005–2011: Chris Paul era.", "Chris Paul's departure.", "2012–2019: Anthony Davis era.", "2012–2013: Beginning the Anthony Davis era.", "2013–2015.", "2015: Return to the playoffs.", "2017–2019: End of the Anthony Davis era.", "2019–present: Rebuilding and Zion Williamson.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Retired numbers.", "Season-by-season record.", "Mascot." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "While the Charlotte Hornets put a competitive team on the court throughout the 1990s, the team's attendance began falling dramatically. Many attributed this lapse in popularity to the team's owner, George Shinn, who was slowly becoming despised by the people of the city. In 1997, a Charlotte woman claimed that Shinn had raped her, and the resulting trial severely tarnished his reputation in the city. The consensus was that while Charlotte was a basketball city, fans took out their anger at Shinn on the team. Shinn had also become discontented with the Charlotte Coliseum, which had been considered state-of-the-art when it opened but had since been considered obsolete due to a limited number of luxury boxes. On March 26, 2001, both the Hornets and the Vancouver Grizzlies applied for relocation to Memphis, Tennessee, which was ultimately won by the Grizzlies. Shinn then issued an ultimatum that unless the city built a new arena at no cost to him, the Hornets would leave town. The city initially refused, leading Shinn to consider moving the team to either Norfolk, Louisville, or St. Louis. Of the cities in the running, only St. Louis had an NBA-ready arena, the Savvis Center, already in place and was a larger media market than Charlotte at the time; also, it was the only one of the four to have previously hosted an NBA franchise — the St. Louis Hawks, who moved to Atlanta in 1968. Finally, a new arena in Uptown, which would eventually become the Spectrum Center, was included in a non-binding referendum for a larger arts-related package, and Shinn withdrew his application to move the team. Polls showed the referendum on its way to passage. However, just days before the referendum, Mayor Pat McCrory vetoed a living wage ordinance. The veto prompted many of the city's African American ministers to oppose the referendum; they felt it was immoral for the city to build a new arena when city employees were not paid enough to make a living. After the referendum failed, city leaders devised a plan to build a new arena in a way that did not require voter support, but made it known that they would not even consider building it unless Shinn sold the team. While even the NBA acknowledged that Shinn had alienated fans, league officials felt such a demand would anger other owners. The city council refused to remove the statement, leading the Hornets to request a move to New Orleans – a move which would eventually return the NBA to that city since the Jazz moved to Salt Lake City in 1979. Before the Hornets were eliminated from the playoffs, the NBA approved the move. As part of a deal, the NBA promised that Charlotte would get a new team, which took the court two years later as the. In a 2008 interview with the \"Charlotte Observer\", Shinn, who has not returned to Charlotte since the Hornets moved, admitted that the \"bad judgment I made in my life\" played a role in the Hornets' departure. He also said that if he had it to do all over again, he would not have withdrawn from the public after the sexual assault trial. Shinn emphasized how he was making amends by committing to New Orleans saying, \"I've made enough mistakes in my life. I'm not going to make one here. This city needs us here. We're going to make this (New Orleans) thing work.\"", "The Hornets opened their inaugural season in New Orleans on October 30, 2002, against New Orleans' original NBA franchise, the Utah Jazz. In the first regular season NBA game played in New Orleans in over 17 years, the Hornets defeated the Jazz 100–75, and posthumously retired #7 of \"Pistol\" Pete Maravich during halftime. The Hornets finished the season with a 47–35 record but were defeated by the Philadelphia 76ers in the First Round of the 2003 playoffs. Following the season, the team unexpectedly fired head coach Paul Silas and replaced him with Tim Floyd. The Hornets began the 2003–04 season strong with a 17–7 start but sputtered at the end and finished 41–41. They lost to the Miami Heat in the First Round of the 2004 playoffs. After the season, Floyd was fired and the team hired Byron Scott as its new head coach. During the first two seasons in New Orleans the Hornets competed in the NBA's Eastern Conference. The 2004–05 season saw the team move to the Western Conference's Southwest Division to even the number of teams in each conference after the Charlotte Bobcats started play in their inaugural season of that same year. In a season marred by injury to the team's three all-stars, the team finished the year with a franchise-worst record of 18–64.", "In the subsequent draft, the Hornets used their first-round pick to select point guard Chris Paul out of Wake Forest University. Because of the catastrophic devastation brought by Hurricane Katrina upon the communities of southeastern Louisiana, the Hornets franchise temporarily relocated its base of operations to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, in 2005–06 and 2006–07, posting records of 38–44 and 39–43 respectively. During this time, the franchise was known as the New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets. In these two seasons, most home games were played at the Ford Center in Oklahoma City, while a few remained at New Orleans Arena. One year after the Hornets moved back to New Orleans permanently, the Seattle SuperSonics relocated to Oklahoma City and became the Oklahoma City Thunder. The Hornets franchise returned to New Orleans full-time for the 2007–08 season, with all 41 home games in the New Orleans Arena. The 2008 NBA All-Star Game and its accompanying festivities were awarded to New Orleans and a serious marketing campaign was commenced in February 2007. Healthier than previous seasons, the Hornets opened the season with a 29–12 record at the halfway mark, completing the regular season with a record of 56–26, making the season their most successful ever. The Hornets also won their first division title, winning the Southwest Division. Having clinched the second overall seed for the Western Conference in the 2008 playoffs, the Hornets beat the Dallas Mavericks in the first round, but then lost to the defending-champion San Antonio Spurs in seven games in the conference semifinals. In August 2008, the Hornets unveiled a modified logo and new uniforms with the colors of Creole blue, purple, and Mardi Gras gold. Pinstripes were also added to the uniforms. The Hornets also introduced a new gold alternate uniform in 2010 which was used mostly in games played on Saturday at home and on the road. The Hornets finished the 2008–09 season with a 49–33 record. Facing the Denver Nuggets in the first round of the 2009 playoffs, the Hornets were eliminated in five games. The Hornets started the 2009–10 season with a 3–6 record and fired head coach Byron Scott. General manager Jeff Bower took over the head coaching duties for the remainder of the season. The Hornets finished the season with a 37–45 record and last in the Southwest Division they had won two seasons prior. Jeff Bower resigned as head coach and Monty Williams was brought in as new head coach. The team finished the 2010–11 season with a 46–36 record and qualified for the 2011 NBA Playoffs, where they lost to the Lakers four games to two. In December 2010, the NBA purchased the Hornets from George Shinn for an estimated $300 million.", "Before the 2011–12 season, the Hornets were considering trade offers for Chris Paul and he requested a trade to the New York Knicks. The Hornets looked at many teams, including the Boston Celtics and the Golden State Warriors as trade partners, but Paul had made it clear he wanted to be traded to New York or Los Angeles. A three-team trade involving the Los Angeles Lakers and the Houston Rockets was agreed upon, but commissioner David Stern vetoed the trade. On December 14, 2011, the Hornets agreed to a deal with the Los Angeles Clippers that would send Paul to Los Angeles in exchange for Eric Gordon, Chris Kaman, Al-Farouq Aminu, and a first-round draft pick acquired by the Clippers from a trade with the Minnesota Timberwolves in 2004.", "", "On April 13, 2012, it was announced that Tom Benson, owner of the National Football League's New Orleans Saints, had purchased the franchise from the NBA for $338 million. In addition, Benson announced that he would change the team name to something that would better suit the region, fueling rumors that the Hornets name could one day return to Charlotte, where the Charlotte Bobcats had been playing since 2004. In June 2012, Benson appointed two senior Saints executives to supervise the Hornets: Saints' general manager Mickey Loomis became head of basketball operations, overseeing general manager Dell Demps, and Saints' business operations head Dennis Lauscha took on the same role with the Hornets. The Hornets traded Emeka Okafor and Trevor Ariza to the Wizards for Rashard Lewis, whom they bought out, and a draft pick. On May 30, 2012, the Hornets were awarded the first overall pick in the 2012 NBA draft and subsequently drafted Anthony Davis. They also drafted Austin Rivers with the tenth pick (acquired from the Clippers as part of the Chris Paul trade). On July 11, 2012, Ryan Anderson, 2012's Most Improved Player and three-point field goals leader, was acquired by the New Orleans Hornets in a sign-and-trade with the Orlando Magic for Gustavo Ayón.", "New owner Tom Benson had indicated early in his ownership that he wished to change the team's name to something more local, even preferring that the Utah Jazz – founded in New Orleans in 1974 and played there until 1979 – give up the \"Jazz\" name, but the Jazz indicated they had no interest in returning the name due to over 30 years of history associated with it. Benson had also heavily favored the names \"Brass\" and \"Krewe\". However, on December 4, 2012, it was reported that the Hornets would change their name to the New Orleans Pelicans beginning with the 2013–14 season. The team name is inspired by Louisiana's state bird, the brown pelican. The name \"Pelicans\" previously had been used by a minor-league baseball team that played in New Orleans from 1901 to 1957. The Hornets organization officially confirmed the name change in a press conference held on January 24, 2013, where officials unveiled the team's new logos and navy blue–gold–red color scheme. On April 18, 2013, after the end of the team's 2012–13 season, the team's name was officially changed to the Pelicans. Following the New Orleans franchise's 2013 disestablishment of the \"Hornets\" name, on May 21, 2013, the Charlotte Bobcats' owner Michael Jordan officially announced the organization had submitted an application to change the name of his franchise to the Charlotte Hornets for the 2014–15 season pending a majority vote for approval by the NBA Board of Governors at a meeting in Las Vegas, on July 18, 2013. Then-NBA Deputy Commissioner and COO Adam Silver had previously pointed out that the league owns the rights to the name Hornets and that could speed up the process. The NBA unanimously approved the name change starting with 2014–15. On June 27, 2013, during the 2013 NBA draft, the Pelicans selected Nerlens Noel 6th overall, and traded him along with a 2014 protected first-round pick for All-Star point guard Jrue Holiday of the Philadelphia 76ers and the 42nd pick, Pierre Jackson. At a May 20, 2014, press conference announcing the Charlotte Bobcats' official team name change to Hornets, it was also announced that the Pelicans agreed to transfer the records and statistics of the original Hornets (1988–2002) to the current Charlotte franchise, thus unifying all of Charlotte's NBA basketball history under one franchise; the team records and statistics since the 2002 move to New Orleans would be retained by the Pelicans, retroactively turning the Pelicans into a 2002 expansion team. As a result, the Hornets are considered in the league records as having suspended operations from 2002 to 2004, became the Bobcats from 2004 to 2014, and then the Hornets again.", "During the 2014–15, for the first time under the name Pelicans, the team qualified for the NBA playoffs with a 45–37 record as the eighth seed in the Western Conference. They owned the tie-breaker over the Oklahoma City Thunder by winning the regular season head-to-head series, 3–1, and they faced the Golden State Warriors in the first round; the Warriors swept the Pelicans in four games. After the season, the Pelicans fired coach Monty Williams. On May 31, 2015, the Pelicans hired Alvin Gentry as the franchise's sixth head coach. The Pelicans missed the 2016 NBA Playoffs, finishing with a 30–52 record. They acquired the 6th pick in the 2016 NBA Draft from the draft lottery and selected Buddy Hield from the University of Oklahoma.", "On February 20, 2017, the Pelicans acquired DeMarcus Cousins in a trade with the Sacramento Kings when they traded Buddy Hield, Tyreke Evans, Langston Galloway, a 2017 first-round pick, and a 2017 second-round pick in exchange for Cousins and Omri Casspi. On February 1, 2018, the Pelicans acquired Nikola Mirotić in a trade with the Chicago Bulls. Though the trade went through, a previous trade for Mirotić to the Pelicans was called off when New Orleans did not want to pay for Mirotić's 2019 team option contract that Mirotić had signed with the Bulls during the off-season in 2017. The Pelicans received Mirotić and a 2018 second-round pick for veterans Ömer Aşık, Jameer Nelson, and Tony Allen. Mirotić demanded a trade when former teammate Bobby Portis punched Mirotić in the face during an off-season practice. At the time of the trade, Mirotić was the Bulls' leading scorer, and DeMarcus Cousins was injured. Mirotić played well for the Pelicans after the trade. On March 15, 2018, Tom Benson died from complications of the flu. Ownership of the Pelicans and the Saints were transferred to Benson's widow, Gayle Benson. The Pelicans clinched a playoff spot on April 9, 2018, and finished with a 48–34 record. In the first round of the playoffs, they swept the Portland Trail Blazers in four games and then lost to the Golden State Warriors four games to one. In January 2019, Davis demanded a trade from the franchise, and was fined for publicly announcing the request. On May 14, 2019, the Pelicans received the first overall pick at the NBA draft lottery of the 2019 NBA draft, despite having a six percent chance to win it. On June 15, 2019, the Pelicans agreed to trade Davis to the Los Angeles Lakers. In return, the Lakers agreed to send Lonzo Ball, Brandon Ingram, Josh Hart and three first-round picks, including the fourth overall pick in the 2019 NBA draft, to the Pelicans. The Pelicans later agreed to trade draft rights of the fourth overall pick of the 2019 NBA draft to the Atlanta Hawks, receiving the draft rights to the eighth, 17th and 35th picks in the 2019 NBA draft. The three-way trade was completed on July 6, 2019, marking the end of an era for the Pelicans.", "On June 20, 2019, the Pelicans selected Zion Williamson with the first overall pick. The team also drafted Alen Smailagić and Jordan Bone, both of whom were immediately traded to the Golden State Warriors and Atlanta Hawks, respectively. The Pelicans then received Jaxson Hayes, Nickeil Alexander-Walker and Marcos Louzada Silva from Hawks. On July 1, the Pelicans announced that they signed Williamson to his rookie-scale contract. However, the Pelicans began the 2019–20 season without Williamson as he had a knee surgery following an injury in the preseason. He made his debut on January 22, 2020, scoring 22 points in 18 minutes of play.", "Originally, the New Orleans Hornets wore teal and white uniforms, with purple and gold added as trim colors. In 2004, they added a gold uniform to the rotation, and in 2007, the 'fleur-de-bee' logo was added on the right chest. All three uniforms only featured the city name in front. During their two-year residency in Oklahoma City (2005–2007), the Hornets wore modified white uniforms with the team name in front. A teal hexagon patch with the acronym \"OKC\" inside adorned the right chest of their uniforms to represent their temporary home. They also wore a special white uniform with \"Oklahoma City\" surrounding the number, and a corresponding red uniform worn during Valentine's Day 2007. The red uniforms were auctioned for charity. Both uniforms replaced the \"OKC\" patch with the \"NOLA\" patch. In 2008, the Hornets received new logos and uniforms, featuring lettering and numbers inspired by the wrought iron designs of the city. Teal was replaced with \"creole blue\", and pinstripes were added to the uniform. The following season, the Hornets began wearing a special uniform during Mardi Gras week; the design featured a purple front and a green back along with the \"NOLA\" wordmark in gold. Before the 2010–11 season, the Hornets brought back a gold alternate uniform, this time with pinstripes and the \"NOLA\" wordmark in front. The New Orleans Hornets were sold to Tom Benson on April 13, 2012. After purchasing the team, Benson indicated that he wanted to change the club's nickname to something more regionally appropriate. On December 14, 2012, it was reported that the Hornets would change their nickname to the New Orleans Pelicans. On January 24, 2013, the team held a press conference, where it unveiled its new nickname, logos and colors. The name Pelicans is a reference to the brown pelican, the state bird of Louisiana. The team said in a press release that its colors would be navy, gold and red; each color is represented in the city flag of New Orleans. The team formally adopted its new brand identity at the end of the 2012–13 season. On August 1, 2013, the Pelicans released their new uniforms. The 'New Orleans' wordmark logo across the front of the jerseys is inspired by French Quarter street signs; the Pelicans are one of three NBA teams to wear the city name across the front of both home and road jerseys. The partial logo is featured on the sides of the shorts, and the \"Bird-de-Lis\" logo (a combination mark of the pelican, fleur-de-lis and crescent basketball shape) is featured on the back neck. NBA teams were not allowed to have alternate uniforms during their first season of operation. On September 23, 2014, the Pelicans unveiled a red alternate uniform for the 2014–15 season that would be worn four times in the year. Prior to the red alternate uniform unveiling, the NBA announced that its league logo would be moved to the back neck of game jerseys for all 30 clubs; as a result, the NBA league logo replaced the \"Bird-de-Lis\" logo on the back neck. On September 17, 2015, the Pelicans unveiled a new alternate uniform, introduced as part of the NBA's \"Pride\" uniforms for the 2015–16 season. The short-sleeved uniforms feature Mardi Gras' signature colors – purple, green and gold. The tops are purple with green accents on the sleeves and sport 'NOLA' (a local acronym for New Orleans, Louisiana) across the chest in the Pelicans’ signature font in gold letters trimmed in green. The Pelicans 'NO' logo is featured at the bottom of the v-neck and the Crescent City basketball logo is on the left sleeve in Mardi Gras colors. Additionally, the trim around the neckline is purple, green and gold-striped. Additionally, on the back of the jersey, the players’ numbers will be gold with green trim, last name in white traditional lettering and the NBA logo will be featured at the base of the neck. The purple shorts will have green and gold stripes down the side with a small secondary logo – the \"Bird-de-Lis\" in gold centered on the waistband. The Pelicans’ partial logo is on both sides of the shorts in Mardi Gras colors. In 2017, the Pelicans received minor tweaks upon switching to Nike as the uniform supplier. The white \"Association\" and navy \"Icon\" uniforms now featured an enlarged and condensed treatment of the \"New Orleans\" wordmark, in a manner similar to the red \"Statement\" alternates with the \"Pelicans\" wordmark. They also continued to wear their Mardi Gras-themed uniforms as part of the \"City\" edition series, which were updated annually. And during the 2018–19 season, the Pelicans wore an \"Earned\" edition uniform as a reward for qualifying in the 2018 playoffs. The uniforms switched the Mardi Gras colors for the Pelicans' existing palette.", "", "The Pelicans hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.", "Notes:", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Pelicans. For the full season-by-season history, see List of New Orleans Pelicans seasons.\" \"Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, % = Winning Percentage\";", "Pierre the Pelican is the official mascot for the Pelicans. He was introduced on October 30, 2013, the opening night of regular season for the team at home against the Indiana Pacers. The name for the mascot was selected by the fans through an online poll on the team's website. However, Pierre's unconventional design frightened some fans. The mascot's redesigned head was released on February 11, 2014. The Pelicans' prior mascot was Hugo the Hornet, who was part of the organization from 2002 to 2013. Hugo returned as the mascot for the Charlotte Hornets starting with the 2014–15 season." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Sequence of events.", "Chinese reaction.", "Settlement.", "Official investigation and reporting in the aftermath.", "Official State Department account.", "George Tenet statement.", "Chinese reaction.", "\"Observer\" and \"Politiken\" investigation.", "ICTY investigation.", "Amnesty International report.", "Future of the location." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the days prior to the bombing, an attack folder labelled \"Belgrade Warehouse 1\" was circulated for command approval. The folder originated within the CIA and described the target as a warehouse for a Yugoslav government agency suspected of arms proliferation activities. In this form, the strike was approved by President Clinton. It is unclear if other NATO leaders approved the strike. A report by the French Ministry of Defense after the war stated that \"part of the military operations were conducted by the United States outside the strict framework of NATO\" and that a dual-track command structure existed. NATO had no authority over the B-2 stealth bombers that carried out the strike. According to the CIA account, the target was checked against 'no-strike' databases but these raised no alarms; these are lists of protected sites such as schools, hospitals and places of worship. The joint Observer/Politiken investigation later reported its journalists had interviewed various NATO and US officers who had checked the databases the morning after the attack and found the embassy listed at its correct location. On the night of May 7–8, the strike was carried out by bombers of the United States Air Force's 509th Bomb Wing flying directly out of Whiteman AFB, Missouri. The bombers were armed with JDAM GPS-guided precision bombs but the geographic coordinates provided by the CIA and programmed into the bombs were those of the Chinese embassy away. At around midnight local time 5 bombs landed at the location indicated, striking the south end of the embassy almost simultaneously. The embassy had taken precautionary measures in view of the ongoing bombing campaign, sending staff home and housing others in the basement, but the attack still resulted in 3 fatalities, Shao Yunhuan (邵云环) who worked for the \"Xinhua News Agency\", and Xu Xinghu (许杏虎) and his wife Zhu Ying (朱颖) who worked for \"Guangming Daily\", and 27 injuries.", "The raid caused a dramatic rise in tension between China and the United States. An official statement on Chinese television denounced what it called a \"barbaric attack and a gross violation of Chinese sovereignty\". China's ambassador to the UN described what he called \"NATO's barbarian act\" as \"a gross violation of the United Nations charter, international law and the norms governing international relations\" and \"a violation of the Geneva convention\". President Clinton telephoned Chinese president Jiang Zemin. Large demonstrations erupted at consular offices of the United States and other NATO countries in China in reaction to news of the bombing. On May 9, 1999, then vice-president Hu Jintao delivered a national televised speech condemning the \"barbaric\" and \"criminal conduct\" of NATO, which \"incited the fury of the Chinese people.\" He said the unauthorized demonstrations in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Chengdu and Shenyang reflected the anger and patriotism of the Chinese people, and which the Chinese government fully supported, but urged against extreme and illegal conduct. The protests continued for several days, during which tens of thousands of rock-throwing protesters kept US Ambassador James Sasser and other staff trapped in the Beijing embassy. The residence of the US Consul in Chengdu was damaged by fire and protestors tried to burn the consulate in Guangzhou. There were no reported injuries. President Clinton's apologies and those of the US State Department were not initially broadcast by Chinese state-run media outlets. The demonstrations continued for four days before the Chinese government called a halt, eventually broadcasting President Clinton's apology on television and ordering the police to restrain the demonstrators. The two nations' leaders finally spoke on May 14.", "By the end of 1999, relations began to gradually improve. In August, the U.S. government made a \"voluntary humanitarian payment\" of $4.5 million to the families of the three Chinese nationals who were killed and to the 27 injured in the bombing. On December 16, 1999, the two governments reached a settlement under which the United States agreed to pay $28 million in compensation for damage to the Chinese Embassy facility, and China agreed to pay $2.87 million in compensation for damage inflicted to the U.S. Embassy and other diplomatic facilities in China.", "Late on May 8, US Defense Secretary William Cohen and George Tenet issued a joint press release stating neither the aircrew involved nor the equipment were to blame for the incident. The first attempt to explain the bombing came on May 10. William Cohen told reporters \"In simple terms, one of our planes attacked the wrong target because the bombing instructions were based on an outdated map\". The statement made no mention of the CIA. It was subsequently revealed that the CIA possessed maps showing the embassy. While US officials then began, on the record, to deflect questions pending the outcome of further enquiries, they continued to brief journalists off the record. For example, also on May 10 Eric Schmitt published an account with most of the elements that were to feature in DCI Tenet's later admissions. The officials briefed Schmitt that \"the Chinese Embassy and a headquarters for a Yugoslav arms agency... look very similar: same size, shape and height\", and that the buildings were apart, which was less than half of the measured distance. Media criticism focused on the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA), which issued a press release to counter the attacks stating that \"recent news reports regarding the accuracy of NIMA maps have been inaccurate or incomplete\" and that \"a hardcopy map is neither intended, nor used, as the sole source for target identification and approval\". CIA Director George Tenet later acknowledged that the map used should never have been used for aerial bombing target selection.", "In June, Under Secretary of State Thomas Pickering led a delegation to China to present the US version of events. According to the official account, CIA analysts knew the address of the Yugoimport office to be Bulevar Umetnosti 2 (2 Boulevard of the Arts). Using this information, they attempted to pinpoint its geographic location by using the known locations and addresses of other buildings on parallel streets as reference points. Pickering referred to this technique as intersection and resection, not related to the method of resection and intersection. Parallel lines were drawn from known addresses and locations on a parallel street. With this information it was attempted to reconstruct the pattern of street addresses on Bulevar Umetnosti, which was information unknown to the targeters. The pattern of street addresses on Bulevar Umetnosti was not as expected, and the targeter erroneously pinpointed the embassy \"located on a small side street at some distance on Bulevar Umetnosti\" from the intended target. This was not true as Ulica Tresnjevog Cveta (Cherry Blossom St, the small side street where the embassy was located) does not connect with Bulevar Umetnosti which ends short of the junction with Cherry Blossom St. A procedure designed to determine the coordinates of a known address on a known street produced the coordinates of a different address on a street neither a continuation of nor connected to the street targeted. Multiple checks designed to prevent attacks on sensitive targets each failed as the location of the embassy had not been updated since the embassy moved to New Belgrade three years earlier. As a result, the bombers took to the air with the coordinates of the Chinese embassy programmed into the bombs on board. This account did not draw a connection between the use of an old map and the targeting of the embassy and did not address the reason that target authorization listed the objective as a warehouse instead of an office building.", "On July 22, George Tenet made a statement before a public hearing of the House Intelligence Committee. Covering the same ground as Under Sec. Pickering's statement in China, he additionally acknowledged the target package originated within the CIA and that it was the sole CIA-directed strike of the war, stated that he had been personally unaware that the CIA was circulating strike requests and recognised that the CIA possessed maps correctly displaying the embassy. Deputy Defense Secretary John Hamre, giving evidence the same day, stated that \"NIMA is not at fault\".", "Few Chinese politicians believed the US version of events, believing instead the strike had been deliberate. Former ambassador Li Daoyu stated \"we don't say it was a decision of Clinton or the White House\", but the Chinese government describes the US explanation for \"the so-called mistaken bombing\" as \"anything but convincing\" and has never accepted the US version of events.", "Acting on a tip-off, Jens Holsoe of Danish newspaper \"Politiken\" contacted UK paper \"The Observer\" with a view to conducting a joint investigation. Holsoe, together with John Sweeney and Ed Vulliamy of \"The Observer\", interviewed numerous sources including a NATO officer \"serving in an operational capacity at the four-star level\", a staff-officer serving at a two-star level, a \"very high-ranking\" former US intelligence officer, a NATO flight controller at the Naples HQ for Kosovo air operations, and a US NIMA official. After a four-month investigation, they published their findings on Oct 17. According to the journalists' investigation the embassy bombing was a deliberate attack, which is consistent with the pattern of strikes that night where, according to NATO's official briefing of May 8, \"the focus was wholly on disrupting the national leadership [of Yugoslavia]\". Apart from \"the FDSP weapons warehouse\", every target that night was a command and control (C2) center. A further report in \"The Observer\" of November 28, 1999 added more details. According to the report, American officials indicated that the reason behind the bombing of the embassy, was because they believe the embassy had provided signals facilities for Željko Ražnatović, commonly known as Arkan, a Serb paramilitary leader wanted by the ICTY for war crimes. NATO's briefing of May 8, which stated Arkan's HQ was at the Hotel Yugoslavia away, is consistent with this interpretation. Representatives of NATO governments dismissed the investigation. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright described it as \"balderdash\" and UK Foreign Secretary Robin Cook said there wasn't a \"shred of evidence to support this rather wild story\". Initially, the \"New York Times\" refused to report on the investigation until its findings could be corroborated. Subsequently, Andrew Rosenthal informed letter-writers by post that the \"Times\" hadn't found evidence to support the allegations. The Times didn't contact the authors or their sources. Other sources, including major American media such as the \"Washington Post\", \"New York Times\", and \"Chicago Tribune\" maintained that while responsibility was found in the inaccurate planning of air strikes, the attack was not deliberate. International News wires like The Associated Press, Reuters, and Agence France Press (AFP) published numerous reports supporting both the accidental and deliberate attack theories. The American media was criticized for devoting little attention to the incident, as well as for consistently referring to the incident as an \"accidental bombing\", where China contested that belief. A 2010 \"Salon\" article by Laura Rozen featured an interview of \"Washington Post\" columnist and former intelligence officer William M. Arkin, who was dismissive of the investigation. While acknowledging that investigators had spoken to signals intelligence officers in NATO, Arkin told Rozen: \"The Chinese Embassy and the Hotel Yugoslavia, where Arkan's generals were believed to be commanding his paramilitary Tigers, are right across the street from each other, and in fact both were bombed the same night... I think there were communications emanating from the Hotel Yugoslavia across the street. And I think that stupid people who are leaking rumors to the Observer have made that mistake.\" The Hotel Yugoslavia was attacked on May 7, but NATO was aware of its function and connection with Arkan. Arkin did not discuss the way that NATO planners could be aware of the HQ and target it successfully if they were confused about its location.", "A report conducted by the ICTY entitled Final Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing Campaign Against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia after the Kosovo War examined the attack on the Chinese embassy specifically and came to the conclusion that the OTP (Office of the Prosecutor) should not undertake an investigation concerning the bombing of the Chinese Embassy. In reaching its decision, it rendered the following observations:", "Amnesty International examined the NATO air campaign and assessed the legality of its actions. In the case of the embassy bombing Amnesty reported both on the official explanation and to the Observer/Politiken investigation without arbitrating as to which was true. NATO was criticised for continuing its bombing campaign uninterrupted when its safeguards to protect civilians were known to be faulty. A genuinely accidental attack would not imply legal responsibility, but the report stated that \"the very basic information needed to prevent this mistake was publicly and widely available\" and that \"NATO failed to take the necessary precautions required by Article 57(2) of Protocol I\" of the Geneva conventions.", "Marking the 10th anniversary of the bombing, on May 7, 2009, mayor of Belgrade Dragan Đilas and Chinese Ambassador to Serbia Wei Jinghua dedicated a commemorative plaque on the location. The author of the plaque is Nikola Kolja Milunović. During the visit of the President of the People's Republic of China Xi Jinping to Serbia in June 2016, he and his Serbian counterpart Tomislav Nikolić visited the location, declared the nearby turnaround a Square of the Serbian-Chinese Friendship and announced the construction of the Chinese Cultural Center on the location of the former embassy. The construction of the center began on July 20, 2017, in the presence of mayor Siniša Mali and Chinese ambassador Li Manchang. The center will have ten floors, two below the ground and eight above, with the total floor area of. The project will cost 45 million euros." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Systematics, taxonomy and evolution.", "Phylogeny.", "Species.", "Fossil record.", "Relationship with humans and conservation status." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The evolutionary relationship between \"Anser\" geese have been difficult to resolve because of their rapid radiation during the Pleistocene and frequent hybridization. Based on the \"Taxonomy in Flux\" from John Boyd's website.", "The genus contains 11 species: The following white geese were separated as the genus \"Chen\". Most ornithological works traditionally now include \"Chen\" within \"Anser\", Some authorities also treat some subspecies as distinct species (notably tundra bean goose) or as likely future species splits (notably Greenland white-fronted goose).", "Numerous fossil species have been allocated to this genus. As the true geese are near-impossible to assign osteologically to genus, this must be viewed with caution. It can be assumed with limited certainty that European fossils from known inland sites belong into \"Anser\". As species related to the Canada goose have been described from the Late Miocene onwards in North America too, sometimes from the same localities as the presumed grey geese, it casts serious doubt on the correct generic assignment of the supposed North American fossil geese. \"Heterochen\" = \"Anser pratensis\" seems to differ profoundly from other species of \"Anser\" and might be placed into a different genus; alternatively, it might have been a unique example of a grey goose adapted for perching in trees. The Maltese swan \"Cygnus equitum\" was occasionally placed into \"Anser\", and \"Anser condoni\" is a synonym of \"Cygnus paloregonus\". A goose fossil from the Early-Middle Pleistocene of El Salvador is highly similar to \"Anser\". Given its age it is likely to belong to an extant genus, and biogeography indicates \"Branta\" as other likely candidate. ?\"Anser scaldii\" (Late Miocene of Antwerp, Belgium) may be a shelduck.", "Two species in the genus are of major commercial importance, having been domesticated as poultry: European domesticated geese are derived from the greylag goose, and Chinese and some African domesticated geese are derived from the swan goose. Most species are hunted to a greater or lesser extent; in some areas, some populations are endangered by over-hunting. Most notably, the lesser white-fronted goose is listed by IUCN Red List as Vulnerable throughout its range, and due to overhunting and rampant habitat destruction, the population of the swan goose is on the verge of collapsing, leading to a listing as Endangered. Other species have benefited from reductions in hunting since the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with most species in western Europe and North America showing marked increases in response to protection. In some cases, this has led to conflicts with farming, when large flocks of geese graze crops in the winter." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Isle of Wight 1970 and Jeff Beck.", "1972–1974.", "1975–1980: Rainbow.", "1980–1988: Bonnet and Forcefield.", "1988–1998: Sabbath and Solo.", "Death.", "Posthumous releases.", "Band timeline (not including session work).", "Motor racing and TV appearances." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Colin Flooks (Cozy Powell) was born in Cirencester, Gloucestershire and was adopted. He never met his birth parents. He started playing drums aged twelve in the school orchestra, thereafter playing along in his spare time to popular singles of the day. The first band Powell was in, called the Corals, played each week at the youth club in Cirencester. During this time the band broke the world record for non-stop playing. At the age of fifteen, Cozy had already worked out an impressive drum solo. The stage name \"Cozy\" was borrowed from the jazz drummer Cozy Cole. The Corals also played at a youth club in Latton a small village 7 miles from Cirencester.", "The semi-professional circuit was next, with semi-pro outfit The Sorcerers, a vocal harmony pop band. The late nights and usual on-the-road exploits began to affect his education, and Powell left to take an office job to finance the purchase of his first set of Premier drums. The Sorcerers performed in the German club scene of the 1960s. By 1968 the band had returned to England, basing themselves around Birmingham. Powell struck up friendships with fellow musicians like Robert Plant and John Bonham (both at the time unknowns in Listen), future Slade vocalist Noddy Holder, bassist Dave Pegg and a young Tony Iommi. The Sorcerers now became Youngblood, and a series of singles were released in late 1968–69. The group then linked up with The Move's bassist/singer Ace Kefford to form The Ace Kefford Stand. Five recorded tracks are available on the Ace Kefford album 'Ace The Face' released by Sanctuary Records in 2003. Powell also began session work. Powell with fellow Sorcerers Dave and Denny Ball formed Big Bertha.", "Powell also played with swamp rocker Tony Joe White at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970. Powell then landed the then highly prestigious drumming job with Jeff Beck's group in April 1970. Their first project was to record an album of Motown covers in the USA. This was never finished and remains unreleased. During the sessions, photographs show Cozy Powell and Jeff Beck present at the recording of Stevie Wonder's \"Superstition\", on which Jeff Beck appears. Cozy has stated in interviews he plays on the record but this remains to be confirmed. After the recording of two albums, \"Rough and Ready\" (October 1971) and \"Jeff Beck Group\" (July 1972), the band fell apart.", "In 1972 Powell drummed for two tracks (\"Hey Sandy\" and \"Martha\") on Harvey Andrews' album \"Writer of Songs\". By late 1972 he had joined up with the Ball brothers and singer Frank Aiello to form Bedlam, whose eponymous album was recorded for Chrysalis and released in August 1973. With Powell's session work at RAK and subsequent solo success (including \"Dance with the Devil\", which reached No. 3 in the UK singles chart during January 1974), Bedlam fell apart. \"Dance With The Devil\" was his only solo hit in the United States, peaking at No. 49. The track featured Suzi Quatro on bass. Powell's second hit during 1974 was with \"The Man in Black\", which reached No. 18. Arrows front man Alan Merrill, also a RAK records artist, played electric bass on '\"The Man in Black'\" and the b-side '\"After Dark.\" Jeff Beck's studio producer was Mickie Most and Powell soon found himself drafted into sessions for artists signed to Most's RAK label, including Julie Felix, Hot Chocolate, Donovan and Suzi Quatro. To cash in on his chart success the drummer formed Cozy Powell's Hammer in April 1974. The line-up included Bernie Marsden (guitar), Clive Chaman (bass), Don Airey (keyboards) and Frank Aiello (Bedlam) on vocals. Clive Chaman was replaced on bass by Neil Murray in the band in early 1975 for the RAK Rocks Britain Tour. \"Na Na Na\" was a UK No. 10 hit, and another single \"Le Souk\" was recorded but never released. Sharing a love of the power-trio set up (Cream), Cozy Powell formed a band with guitarist Clem Clempson and bassist Greg Ridley (Humble Pie), but when this fell apart Cozy temporarily quit the music business to take up motorcycle racing. His desire to launch a three-piece in the vein of Cream remained; recordings with Tipton, Entwistle & Powell are testament to this as much as sessions with Cream's Jack Bruce and on guitar Uli Jon Roth, briefly after recording for Cinderella: \"to get him (Uli Roth) had been the idea of Larry Mazor (at the time manager of Cinderella), Jack met him, but at the time Uli was busy with a symphony. I don't think it would have worked, we had him in mind as well as some other people, like Gary Moore, ideally Jeff Beck really\", followed by Clem Clempson, Pat Travers and Pat Thrall with whom they recorded, shopped for a deal - unsuccessfully—until Powell would join Black Sabbath.", "In 1975 he joined Rainbow. Powell and Ritchie Blackmore were the only constants in the band's line-up over the next five years, as Blackmore evolved the sound of the band from a neo-classical hard rock-heavy metal to a more commercial AOR sound. Rainbow's 1979 \"Down to Earth\" LP (from which singles \"Since You Been Gone\" and \"All Night Long\" are taken) proved to be the band's most successful album thus far; however, Powell was concerned over the overtly commercial sound. Powell decided to leave Rainbow, although not before they headlined the first ever Monsters of Rock show at Castle Donington, England, on 16 August 1980. The festival was Powell's last show with the band.", "After Powell left Rainbow he worked with vocalist Graham Bonnet (he too an ex-Rainbow member) on Bonnet's new project called Graham Bonnet & The Hooligans, their most notable single being the UK top 10 single \"Night Games\" (1981), also on Bonnet's solo \"Line Up\" album. For the rest of the 1980s, Powell assumed short-term journeyman roles with a number of major bands – Michael Schenker Group from 1980 to 1982, and Whitesnake from 1982 to 1985. In 1985 he started recording with Phenomena for their self-titled first album, which was released the same year, when he joined up with Keith Emerson and Greg Lake as a member of Emerson, Lake & Powell. He also worked briefly with another new supergroup named Forcefield along with Bonnet and later Tony Martin on vocals, former Ian Gillan Band member Ray Fenwick and former Focus member Jan Akkerman on the guitars, Neil Murray and later Laurence Cottle on bass. Cottle would eventually join as a session player for the recording of Black Sabbath's Headless Cross and again was replaced by Murray following that tour.", "Powell worked with Gary Moore in 1988, followed by stints with Black Sabbath from 1988 to 1991, and again in 1994–1995. Between late 1992 and early 1993, Powell put together an occasional touring band using the old band name 'Cozy Powell's Hammer' featuring himself on drums, Neil Murray on bass, Mario Parga on guitar and Tony Martin on vocals and occasional rhythm guitar/synth module. The band performed throughout Europe and appeared on German television. Powell made headlines in 1991 when he appeared on the BBC children's programme \"Record Breakers\", where he set a world record for the most drums (400) played in under one minute, live on television. Powell along with Neil Murray were members of Brian May's band, playing on the \"Back to the Light\" and \"Another World\" albums. He played with May opening for Guns N' Roses on the second American leg of their Use Your Illusion tour in 1993. The duo also served a spell with blues guitarist Peter Green in the mid-nineties. Powell briefly joined Yngwie Malmsteen for the album \"Facing the Animal\" in 1997. Powell's last recording session was for Colin Blunstone's \"The Light Inside\", alongside Don Airey, which was released shortly after Powell's death. The final solo album by Cozy Powell \"Especially for You\" was released in 1998 after his death, and featured American vocalist John West, Neil Murray, Lonnie Park, Michael Casswell and others.", "Powell died on 5 April 1998 following a car crash while driving his Saab 9000 at in bad weather on the M4 motorway near Bristol. He had been dating a married woman who was having troubles with her husband. Upset, she phoned him and asked him to come quickly to her house which was approximately away. As he was driving to her house, she phoned him again and asked \"Where are you?\" He informed her he was on his way and she then heard him say \"Oh shit!\" followed by a loud bang. Powell was ejected through the windscreen and died at the scene. According to the BBC report, at the time of the crash Powell's blood-alcohol reading was over the legal limit, and he was not wearing a seat belt, in addition to talking with his girlfriend on his mobile phone. The official investigation also found evidence of a slow puncture in a rear tyre that, it was suggested, could well have caused a sudden collapse of the tyre with a consequent loss of control of the car. He was living at Lambourn in Berkshire at the time and had returned to the studio shortly before his death to record with Fleetwood Mac founder Peter Green. At the time of death Powell had recently had to pull out of tour rehearsals with Yngwie Malmsteen, having suffered an injury in a motorcycle accident. One of his last phone calls, to Joe Geesin (his fan club editor), was to express distress about this, to describe the physiotherapy treatment he was undergoing, and to voice his enthusiasm for the then-forthcoming Brian May tour. A memorial plaque in Cirencester was unveiled on 7 January 2016, in a ceremony led by Brian May, with Suzi Quatro, Bernie Marsden, Neil Murray, Don Airey and Tony Iommi in attendance.", "In October 2005 Powell made a \"new\" appearance on an album. Former Black Sabbath vocalist Tony Martin released a studio album (\"Scream\"), and on it is a track named \"Raising Hell\". This was a track Powell had recorded the drum track for when he and Tony were in Hammer in 1992, and gave to Tony for \"future use\". There are apparently as many as 19 additional drum tracks also recorded that could turn up in the future. Judas Priest guitarist Glenn Tipton has also released material recorded during the 1997 \"Baptizm of Fire\" sessions; this 2006 collection, entitled \"Edge of the World\", was released under the moniker of Tipton, Entwistle & Powell in memory of John Entwistle and Powell.", "Text in bold indicates solo work", "Powell had a fascination with fast cars and motorbikes, and raced for Hitachi on the UK saloon car circuit for a few months in the mid-seventies. He was quoted as saying in an interview, \"I drive like I drum – madly\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The Spurs in San Antonio.", "Franchise history.", "1967–1973: Beginnings as the Dallas/Texas Chaparrals.", "1973–1976: Moving to San Antonio.", "1976–1985: The George Gervin era.", "1985–1989: Difficult years.", "1989–1997: The David Robinson era.", "1997–2016: The Tim Duncan era.", "1997–2003: The \"Twin Towers\".", "2003–2013: The \"Big Three\".", "2013–2016: Fifth championship and Duncan's retirement.", "2016–present: Post-Duncan era.", "Rivalries.", "Los Angeles Lakers.", "Dallas Mavericks.", "Phoenix Suns.", "Houston Rockets.", "Logo and uniforms.", "Season-by-season record.", "Arena history.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Retired numbers.", "Basketball Hall of Famers.", "Franchise leaders.", "Individual awards.", "NBA individual awards.", "NBA All-Star Weekend.", "ABA individual awards.", "Head coaches." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Spurs are the city's only team in any of the four major U.S. professional sports leagues and the only major-league team in the city's history to have lasted more than five years. Spurs players are active members of the San Antonio community, and many former Spurs are still active in San Antonio including David Robinson with the Carver Academy and George Gervin with the George Gervin Youth Center. The Spurs set several NBA attendance records while playing at the", "", "The San Antonio Spurs started out as the Dallas Chaparrals of the original version of the American Basketball Association (ABA). Coached by player/coach Cliff Hagan the Dallas Chaparrals were one of 11 teams to take the floor in the inaugural season of the upstart ABA. The Chaps' second season was a bit of a disappointment, as the team finished in 4th place with a mediocre 41–37 record.", "While the Chaparrals had been modestly successful on the court, they were sinking financially by their third season. The financial difficulties were largely caused by the ownership group's refusal to invest much money on the team. After missing the playoffs for the first time in their existence in the 1972–73 season, nearly all of the owners wanted out. A group of 36 San Antonio businessmen—led by Angelo Drossos, John Schaefer, and Red McCombs—worked out a \"lend-lease\" deal with the Dallas ownership group. Drossos and his group would lease the team for three years with an option to purchase. They were allowed to move the team to San Antonio immediately, but and would return the team to Dallas if no purchase occurred by 1975. After the deal was signed,", "Although there was some initial skepticism in league circles regarding the potential success and talent levels of the incoming ABA teams, the Spurs would prove worthy of NBA inclusion during the 1976–77 season with a record of 44–38, good for a tie for fourth place overall in the Eastern Conference. This was done in spite of significant handicaps the NBA imposed on the incoming ABA teams, limiting their draft picks and television revenues during their early time in the merged league. They gained a new rival in the form of", "The next four seasons were a dark time in Spurs' history with the team having a combined record of 115–213 from 1985–86 until 1988–89. The losing seasons and dwindling attendance often caused the Spurs to be mentioned as a potential candidate for relocation to another city. The lone bright spot during this period was the Spurs being awarded the top pick in the 1987 NBA draft through NBA Draft Lottery. The Spurs used this selection on United States Naval Academy standout David", "Although there was speculation that Robinson might choose not to sign with the Spurs and to become a free agent once his Navy commitment ended, Robinson decided in the end to come to San Antonio for the 1989–90 season. While it was thought that Robinson's arrival would make the Spurs respectable again, no one expected what happened in his rookie season. Led by Robinson, 1989 draftee Sean Elliott from Arizona, and trade acquisition Terry Cummings from the Milwaukee Bucks, the Spurs achieved the biggest one-season turnaround in NBA history, finishing with a record of 56–26. They also jumped all the way to first place in the Midwest Division, their first division title in seven years. Robinson had one of the most successful rookie seasons for a center in NBA history, finishing the season as the unanimous Rookie", "", "Gregg Popovich watched Tim Duncan play in summer league and immediately noted that, \"If I try to coach this guy, the only thing I can do is screw him up\", effectively saying that Duncan was very gifted, very intelligent, and had a keen knowledge of the game. Duncan quickly emerged as a dominant force in the NBA during the 1997–98 season, averaging 21.1 points and 11.9 rebounds per game as a power forward. He was named First Team All-NBA while winning Rookie of the Year honors. The team ended up at 56–26, breaking their own record from 1989–90 for the biggest single-season improvement for wins, but once again lost to the Jazz in the Western Conference semi-finals. While both Duncan and Robinson played low-post roles, the two seamlessly meshed on the court. With a healthy Robinson and Duncan and the additions of playoff veterans such as Mario Elie and Jerome Kersey, the Spurs looked forward to the 1998–99 season. Prior to the beginning of training camps, however, the NBA owners, led by commissioner David Stern, locked out the players in order to force a new collective bargaining agreement", "Coming off their second NBA Championship, the retirement of David Robinson left a void in San Antonio's daunting defense, while playoff hero Steve Kerr and veteran forward Danny Ferry also retired. Meanwhile, backup point guard Speedy Claxton left for the Golden State Warriors, and Stephen Jackson left for the Atlanta Hawks. With several holes to fill in their rotation, the Spurs would make several key signings in the off-season. Rasho Nesterović and Hedo Türkoğlu were brought in to replace Robinson and Jackson, respectively. What proved to be the most important off-season acquisition would be the signing of veteran Robert Horry. The Spurs, playing with nine new players, struggled early as they missed the presence of Robinson while the new players struggled to fit in, as they held a 9–10 record on December 3. However, the Spurs would turn it around, as they ended December on a 13-game winning streak and quickly climbed back to the top of the NBA standings. They would battle all year for the top spot in the Western Conference, as they ended the season on another strong note winning their final 11 games. However, they would fall one game short of a division title and the best record in the West, posting a record of 57–25. In the second round of the playoffs, the Spurs found themselves in another showdown with the Los Angeles Lakers. The Spurs would win Games 1 and 2 at home, but drop the next two in the Los Angeles. In Game 5 back in San Antonio, Duncan seemingly delivered the Spurs a 73–72 win as he hit a dramatic shot with just 0.4 seconds remaining. However, the Lakers' Derek Fisher would launch a game-winner as time expired, giving the Lakers a stunning 74–73 win to take a 3–2 series lead. Demoralized the Spurs would head back to Los Angeles where they would lose the series in six games. After their disappointing second round collapse, the Spurs looked to regain the NBA crown. With the acquisition of guard Brent Barry from Seattle, the Spurs would get off to a quick start, posting a 12–3 record in November. The Spurs would stay hot through December as they", "The Spurs returned with their core roster largely intact, adding free agents Marco Belinelli and Jeff Ayres (formerly Jeff Pendergraph) while losing Gary Neal to the Milwaukee Bucks. The Spurs clinched the best record in the NBA with 62 wins, which included a franchise record 19 straight wins in February and March. In the first round of the playoffs, the eighth-seeded Dallas Mavericks surprised the Spurs by taking the series to 7 games, but the Spurs prevailed in convincing fashion in the deciding Game 7. In the second round, Tim Duncan surpassed Karl Malone for fifth place in NBA playoffs all-time points scored while the Spurs cruised past the Portland Trail Blazers in 5 games. San Antonio played the Oklahoma City Thunder in the Western Conference Finals, which marked the third straight appearance in the Western Conference Finals for the Spurs, and defeated them in 6 games to advance to the Finals for a second straight year for a rematch with the Miami Heat. It was also the first time that they had advanced to the Finals in consecutive years. This made it the first time since 1998 NBA Finals that the same two teams faced off in the Finals in consecutive years. With a victory in the second game of the series, Duncan, Ginóbili, and Parker won more playoff games together than any other three players on the same team in NBA history. The Spurs would go on to win the 2014 NBA Championship, 4 games to 1. The Spurs blew out Miami in all of their wins, each of them by 15 or more points. Kawhi Leonard had a breakout performance and was named NBA Finals MVP for his big game performance and is the third youngest to win it, behind Magic Johnson and teammate Duncan. In the 2014 NBA draft, they selected Kyle Anderson", "In the 2016–17 season, despite the retirement of longtime captain Tim Duncan, the Spurs—led by Kawhi Leonard—remained a title contender and finished with a record of 61–21. After defeating the Grizzlies and the Rockets in the first two rounds of the playoffs, the Spurs—who suffered injuries to Leonard, Parker, and David Lee—were swept by the Golden State Warriors in the Western Conference Finals. In the third quarter of Game 1 of the 2017 Western Conference Finals, Leonard landed on Zaza Pachulia's foot after attempting a", "", "From 1999 to 2004, the rivalry between the Spurs and the Los Angeles Lakers was considered the NBA's best.", "The rivalry between the San Antonio Spurs and the Dallas Mavericks features two teams with Dallas roots. The Mavericks were swept in the 2012–13 season by the Spurs for the first time since the 1998 season, Tim Duncan's rookie season.", "Since 1992, the Spurs and the Phoenix Suns have met 10 times in the playoffs, in which the Spurs have won six series and the Suns have won four. Some of the most notable moments of their rivalry include Charles Barkley's game-winning jump shot in the 1993", "The rivalry between the Spurs and the Houston Rockets was renewed in the 2017 playoffs, in which the two teams met in the Western Conference Semifinals. The match-up was the first between the two teams in the playoffs since the 1995 Western Conference Finals. In Game Two of the series, starting point guard Tony Parker suffered a ruptured quadriceps tendon, forcing", "Since becoming the San Antonio Spurs in 1973, the team colors have been black, silver and white. The distinctive logo of the word Spurs in Eurostile font, with the stylized spur substituting for the letter U, has been a part of the team's identity since their move to San Antonio. The logo incorporated 'Fiesta colors' of pink, orange and teal, used from 1989 to 2002 (though the uniforms remained the same), and alignment from straight to arched beginning with the 2002–03 NBA season. The Spurs have always worn black on the road and white at home, except during the 1973–76 ABA seasons and their first NBA season when the home uniform was always silver. Until the 1988–89 NBA season, the road uniform had \"San Antonio\" on the front while the home uniform featured the team nickname adopted from the Spurs logo; from 1973 to 1982, the road uniform lettering was black with silver trim. In addition, from 1977 to 1981 a saddle-like striping was featured on the back of the home shorts. Since the 1989–90 NBA season the Spurs uniform has remained practically the same, with the road uniform now using the team nickname from their logo; a minor change included the addition of another black (road) and white (home) trim to the already silver-trimmed block numbers in the 2002–03 season. The Spurs wear black sneakers and socks on the road, and white sneakers and socks at home (except for select games with the silver alternates), a practice that began in the 2002–03 season. When the NBA moved to the Adidas \"Revolution 30\" technology for the 2010–11 season, the Spurs changed to V-neck jerseys and eliminated striping on the shorts' beltline. On September 19, 2012, the Spurs unveiled a silver alternate uniform. In breaking from the traditional practice of placing the team or city name in front, the Spurs' new uniform features only the stylized spur logo, with the black number trimmed in white and silver on the upper right. The Spurs primary logo is atop the player name and number on the back (replaced by the NBA logo prior to the 2014–15 season), while the Eurostile 'SA' initials (for San Antonio) are on the left leg of the shorts. Black, silver and white side stripes are also featured on the uniform. The uniforms are worn for select home games. A variation of this uniform, featuring military camouflage patterns instead of the usual silver, was used for two games in the 2013–14 season; a sleeved version was used the next season. Another variation, this time in black, was unveiled for the 2015–16 season. At times throughout the season, the Spurs wear a jersey that says \"Los Spurs\" on the front, in recognition of Latino fans both at home and across the US and Latin America. The Spurs were one of the first NBA teams to wear these branded jerseys. In 2014, the jerseys were sleeved. These events are called \"Noches Latinas\", first launched during the 2006–07 NBA season, part of an Hispanic marketing campaign known as \"éne-bé-a\". Six teams in the NBA participate in these events. The Spurs have had the most players from Latin America and are one of only three NBA teams who have had at least five players on their rosters who originate from Latin America and Spain (if one includes Puerto Rico as part of Latin America, although it is a U.S. territory), the others being the Memphis Grizzlies and the Portland Trail Blazers. The switch to Nike as the uniform provider in 2017 eliminated the \"home\" and \"away\" uniform designations. The Spurs' black \"Icon\", silver \"Statement\" and white \"Association\" uniform remained identical to the previous set save for the manufacturer's logo and updated lettering on the team name.", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Spurs. For the full season-by-season history,", "Dallas (Texas)", "", "The Spurs own the NBA rights to the players listed in the table below. The typical pattern is to allow the player to develop in leagues outside the United States. The player is free to negotiate contracts in other leagues and is not obligated to play", "", "", "Bold denotes still active with the team. \"Italics\" denotes still active, but not with the team. \"Name*\" includes combined statistics for the", "", "NBA Most Valuable Player NBA Finals MVP NBA Rookie of the Year NBA Defensive Player of the Year NBA Sixth Man of the Year NBA Most Improved Player Award NBA Coach of the Year NBA Executive of the Year", "NBA All-Star selections NBA All-Star Game", "ABA Coach of the Year Award ABA Executive of the Year award ABA Rookie", "Notes:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Team creation.", "1967–1981: The Wes Unseld era.", "1979–1988: Playoff disappointments.", "1989–1997.", "1997–2001.", "2001–2003: Michael Jordan era.", "2001–02.", "2002–03.", "Jordan's departure.", "2003–2010: Gilbert Arenas era.", "2003–04.", "2004–05: Return to the playoffs.", "2005–06.", "2006–07.", "2007–08.", "2008–10.", "2010–2019: John Wall era.", "2010–2013: Beginning.", "2013–14: Return to playoffs.", "2014–15.", "2015–16.", "2016–17.", "2017–18.", "2018–19.", "2019–present: Tommy Sheppard and Bradley Beal era.", "Season-by-season record.", "Team name, logos and uniforms.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Retired numbers.", "Basketball Hall of Famers.", "Individual records and awards.", "Franchise leaders.", "Individual awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The team now known as the Wizards began playing as the Chicago Packers in 1961, as the first modern expansion team in NBA history, an expansion prompted by Abe Saperstein's American Basketball League. Rookie Walt Bellamy was the team's star, averaging 31.6 points per game, 19.0 rebounds per game, and leading the NBA in field goal percentage. During the All-Star game, Bellamy represented the team while scoring 23 points and grabbing 17 rebounds. Bellamy was named the league Rookie of the Year, but the team finished with the NBA's worst record at 18–62. The team's original nickname was a nod to Chicago's meatpacking industry; their home arena, the International Amphitheater, was next door to the Union Stock Yards. However, it was extremely unpopular since it was the same nickname used by the NFL's Green Bay Packers, bitter rivals of the Chicago Bears. After only one", "In the late 1960s, the Bullets drafted two future Hall of Fame members: Earl Monroe, in the 1967 draft, number two overall, and Wes Unseld, in the following year’s draft, also number two overall. The team improved dramatically, from 36 wins the previous season to 57 in the 1968–69 season, and Unseld received both the rookie of the year and MVP awards. The Bullets reached the playoffs with high expectations to go far, but they were eliminated by the New York Knicks in the first round. The next season the two teams met again in the first round, and although this one went to seven games, the Knicks emerged victorious again. In the 1970–71 season, the 42–40 Bullets again met the Knicks, this time though in the Eastern Conference finals. With the Knicks team captain Willis Reed injured in the finals, the injury-free Bullets took advantage of his absence, and in game seven, at New York's Madison Square Garden, the Bullets' Gus Johnson made a critical basket late in the game to lift the Bullets over the Knicks 93–91 and advance to their first NBA Finals. They were swept in four games by the powerful Milwaukee Bucks led by future Hall of Fame members Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (known in 1971 as Lew Alcindor) and Oscar Robertson. Even after the trades of Earl Monroe (to the Knicks) and Gus Johnson (to the Suns), the Bullets remained a playoff contender throughout the 1970s. Following a less than spectacular 1971–72 season, Baltimore acquired Elvin Hayes from the Houston Rockets and drafted Kevin Porter in the third round, out of St. Francis in Pennsylvania. After a slow", "Age and injuries finally caught up with the Bullets. In the 1979–80 season, they barely made the playoffs as they captured the sixth and final playoff spot via a tiebreaker despite posting a 39–43 record. In the playoffs, they were swept by the Philadelphia 76ers in a two-game playoff series. The following year the Bullets failed to make the playoffs for the first time in 13 years. Wes Unseld retired and Elvin Hayes was traded to the Houston Rockets the following season. In 1980–81, Washington played strong under the coaching of Gene Shue and Don Moran, finishing the regular season with a 43–39 record, and although they advanced to the Eastern Conference semifinals in the playoffs, they had clearly lost the power of the late 1970s. The 1982 Bullets continued to play with the same talent they had in the previous year. They finished with a winning record, but in a highly competitive Atlantic Division they finished last and missed the playoffs. The next two years saw the Bullets continue to play mediocre basketball as they finished with losing records but they made the playoffs in the new expanded NBA", "The Bullets got off to a 5–1 start in 1988–89, but they lost 16 of 18 games from mid-December to mid-January. They finished with a 31–51 record despite stellar seasons by Jeff Malone and Bernard King, who averaged 24.3 and 22.3 points per game respectively to lead the team. The lone highlight of the Bullets’ 30-win 1990–91 season was the successful comeback effort by Bernard King as he recovered from knee surgery he suffered while playing for the Knicks in 1984–85 season to finish third in the NBA in scoring with a 28.4 points per game. In 1990, the team named Susan O'Malley as its president, the first female president of a franchise in the history of the NBA, who is the daughter of Peter O'Malley, the prominent lawyer from Maryland and former president of the Washington Capitals. The Bullets continued to struggle due to injuries and inconsistent play. They posted a 25–57 record in the 1991–92 season. Pervis Ellison was named 1992 Most Improved Player of The Year, averaging 20.0 points, 11.2 rebounds, and 2.7 blocks per game. Undrafted rookie Larry Stewart became the first undrafted player in NBA history to make an All-Rookie Team, being selected to the All-Rookie Second Team. The Bullets drafted Tom Gugliotta with their sixth overall pick in the 1992 NBA draft. They finished the 1992–93 season with a 22–60 record. Following the season, the Bullets traded Harvey Grant to the Portland Trail Blazers for former All-Star center Kevin Duckworth. In 1993, the Bullets did a rap music video of their version of Naughty by Nature's rap single \"Hip Hop Hooray\", featuring the rap trio themselves. Injuries continued to bite the Bullets as key players Rex Chapman and Calbert Cheaney (the club's first-round draft pick) missed significant stretches, and Ellison missed almost the entire season. The result was a 24–58 record for the 1993–94 season. Don MacLean was named 1994 Most Improved Player of the season, leading the Bullets with 18.2 points per game (tied with Chapman). The Bullets selected Juwan Howard in the 1994 NBA draft and traded Gugliotta along with three first-round draft picks to the Golden State Warriors for the rights to Chris", "The newly named Wizards began the 1997–98 season playing 5 home games at the Capital Centre before moving to the new MCI Center on December 2, 1997. The Wizards finished the season with a 42–40 record including 4 straight victories to end the season but just missed the playoffs. Highlights of the season included Chris Webber leading the team in scoring (21.9 ppg) and rebounding (9.5 rpg). Strickland led the league in assists (10.5 apg) before suffering an injury near the end of the season. He was also named on the All-NBA Second Team. Tracy Murray averaged 15.1 ppg off the bench including a 50-point game against Golden", "", "After retiring from the Chicago Bulls in early 1999, Michael Jordan became the Washington Wizards' president of basketball operations as well as a minority owner in January 2000. In September 2001, Jordan came out of retirement at age 38 to play for Washington. Jordan stated that he was returning \"for the love of the", "Jordan announced he would return for the 2002–03 season, and this time he was determined to be equipped with reinforcements, as he traded for All-Star Jerry Stackhouse and signed budding star Larry Hughes. Jordan even accepted a sixth-man role on the bench in order for his knee to survive the rigors of an 82-game season. A combination", "After the season, majority owner Pollin fired Jordan as team president, much to the shock of players, associates, and the public. Jordan felt betrayed, thinking that he would get his ownership back after his playing days ended, but Pollin justified Jordan's dismissal by noting that Jordan had detrimental effects on the team, such as benching Hughes for Tyronn Lue, making poor trades, and using the team's first-round draft pick on high schooler Kwame Brown. The Wizards replaced Jordan's managerial role with general manager Ernie Grunfeld.", "", "Without Jordan in the fold the following year, the Washington Wizards were not expected to win, and they did not. Despite the signing of future All-Star point guard Gilbert Arenas, in a move that was ironically made", "The 2004–05 season saw the team (now in the new Southeast Division) post its best regular-season record in 26 years (45–37) and marked the first time the franchise had ever made the playoffs as the Wizards. In the off-season, the team traded Stackhouse, Christian Laettner, and the draft rights to Devin Harris to the Dallas Mavericks for Antawn Jamison. During the regular season, the scoring trio of Arenas, Jamison and Hughes was the highest in the NBA and earned the nickname of \"The Big Three\". Hughes led the NBA in steals with 2.89 per game. Arenas and Jamison were both named to the 2005 Eastern Conference All-Star team, marking the first time Washington had two players in the All-Star game since Jeff Malone and Moses Malone represented the Bullets in the 1987 All-Star Game.", "The 2005–06 season was filled with ups and downs. During the off-season, Washington acquired Caron Butler and Antonio Daniels. During the regular season, the Wizards again had the best scoring trio in the NBA, this time consisting of Arenas, Jamison and Butler as the \"Big Three\". The Wizards started the 2005–06 season at 5–1, but went on an 8–17 funk to go to 13–18 through 31 games. Then, they went 13–5 in the next eighteen games. On April 5, 2006, the team was 39–35 and looking to", "The 2006–07 season started out very promisingly for the Wizards. In the off-season they signed free agents DeShawn Stevenson and Darius Songaila. Etan Thomas beat out Haywood for the starting center job. After starting the season 0–8 on the road, Washington rebounded to win 6 of 7 away from Verizon Center. After a November 4–9, Washington went 22–9 through December and January. Arenas scored a franchise-record 60 points against the Lakers on December 17. He and Eddie Jordan were named player of the month and coach of the month for December, respectively. On January 3 and again on January 15, Arenas hit buzzer-beating three-pointers to beat Milwaukee and Utah. On January 30, Jamison went down with a sprained left knee in a win against Detroit. Washington went 4–8 in the 12 games without him. On February 3, Songaila made his Wizards debut against the Lakers. On February 18,", "The Wizards retained a majority of their roster from the 2006–07 season, only losing Jarvis Hayes to Detroit, Calvin Booth to the Philadelphia 76ers, and Michael Ruffin to the Milwaukee Bucks as free agents. Washington signed Oleksiy Pecherov, the team's first-round pick in 2006, as well as 2007 picks Nick Young and Dominic McGuire. Etan Thomas missed the regular season after undergoing open-heart surgery. The team began the season starting 0–5, but rebounded to win six straight. After eight", "During the off-season, Arenas signed a 6-year, $111 million contract, while Jamison signed a 4-year, $50 million contract. The Wizards did not re-sign guard Roger Mason, who signed with the San Antonio Spurs. The Wizards added guards Dee Brown and Juan Dixon, and drafted JaVale McGee 18th overall in the 2008 NBA Draft. In September, Arenas underwent a third operation on his surgically repaired left knee to clean out fluid and debris, and was expected to miss at least the first month of the season. The forecast came in longer than expected, as Arenas missed 5 months of action due to concerns on his knee before returning on March 29, 2009. In the first game of the preseason, Jamison suffered a right knee contusion, and was expected to miss the rest of the preseason. Haywood announced that he would undergo surgery on his right wrist and was expected to miss 4–6 months. The preseason marked the return of Etan Thomas who had missed all of the 2007–2008 season while recovering from open heart surgery. The Wizards added guard Fenny Falmagne from the Dakota Wizards on August 23, 2008 that later was waived by the team after knee injury. The Wizards opened the season on October 29 with a loss against New Jersey, and dropped fifteen of their first nineteen games. Head coach Eddie Jordan was fired on November 24 after a 1–10 start, and was replaced by interim coach Ed Tapscott. On December 10, Washington acquired guards Javaris Crittenton and Mike James in a three-team deal that sent Antonio Daniels to New Orleans. The team waived guard Dee Brown. They won just 14 of their first 60 games and in the end tied a franchise worst record of 19–63. One of the few high points of the season came on February 27 when recently inaugurated President Barack Obama attended a Wizards game against the Chicago Bulls, sitting in a northeast court-side seat. The", "", "Leonsis completed his takeover of the Wizards and Verizon Center in June through his newly-formed holding company, Monumental Sports and Entertainment. He had previously purchased the Washington Capitals and Mystics from the Pollin family. Leonsis has taken a fan-centric approach to running the franchise, by listening and responding to the concerns of Wizards supporters through his email and personal website. He has written a manifesto of 101 changes he hopes to implement during his ownership, including changing the team's colors back to the red, white and blue of the Bullets era, and possibly changing the team nickname back to 'Bullets' as well. Team president Ernie Grunfeld later confirmed", "On February 3, 2014, the Wizards defeated the Portland Trail Blazers to improve to a 24–23 record. The win marked the first time the team had held a winning record since 2009. On April 2, 2014, the Wizards defeated the Boston Celtics by a score of 118–92 to clinch the team's first playoff berth since the 2007–08 season. On April 29, 2014, the Wizards defeated the Chicago Bulls in game 5 of the Eastern Conference Quarterfinals by a score of 75–69 to win", "After the departure of Trevor Ariza, the Wizards signed veteran small forward Paul Pierce to a two-year contract. Pierce's veteran leadership proved to be a major factor on and off the court in the team's improvement. On November 12, 2014, the Wizards defeated the Detroit Pistons 107–103, extending their record to 6–2 for the first time since the 1975–76 season. The following game three days later, the Wizards defeated the Orlando Magic 98-93 as they won their third straight and moved to 7–2, their best start since opening 7–1 during the 1974–75 season. With a 104–96 win over", "However, the 2015–16 season was much less successful. The Wizards finished 10th in the Eastern Conference with a 41-41 record, and missed the playoffs. On April 13, 2016 the Wizards, missing the playoffs for the first time since 2012–13, fired head coach Randy Wittman. On April", "The Wizards started off the 2016–17 season with a 2–8 record. However, they rebounded to touch the second seed, before a slump brought them down to the fourth seed, finishing 49–33, behind the 51–31 Toronto Raptors at third, the 51–31 Cleveland Cavaliers at second, and the 53–29 Boston Celtics in first place. The", "For the 2017–18 season, The Wizards would play their next season in the newly named Capital One Arena.", "In the off-season, they picked up Thomas Bryant off waivers and Troy Brown in the draft with the 15th pick in the 2018 NBA Draft. Despite Bryant becoming a valuable asset and Bradley Beal having a career season, the season would end up being a underwhelming one full of turmoil and on court troubles. The Wizards also went through injuries, including Dwight Howard playing 9 games before missing the rest of the season due to back problems and losing John Wall who underwent a season-ending surgery on his left Achilles which he injured while recovering from a previous injury, while trading Kelly Oubre Jr., Otto Porter Jr., and Markieff Morris at the same time. As a result, the Wizards would miss the playoffs for the first time since the 2015–16 season.", "In April 2019, the Wizards fired general manager Ernie Grunfeld, who had been with the team since 2003, with Tommy Sheppard taking over as interim general manager until being", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Wizards. For the full season-by-season history,", "After moving from Chicago in 1963, the then-Baltimore Bullets used red and navy colors as part of the team's logos and uniforms. In 1969, the club changed the colors to blue and orange. The red, white and blue colors returned as part of the franchise's iconic uniforms beginning with the 1973–74 season, coinciding with the team's move to Landover, Maryland to become the Capital Bullets. Those uniforms also featured large horizontal stripes on the chest of the jerseys, and three stars on the side panels of the shorts. The uniforms were kept when they changed their location identifier a year later to the Washington Bullets. The Bullets kept the \"Stars and Stripes\" uniform until 1987, although they made a minor tweak prior to the 1985–86 season with additional thin stripes, the \"Bullets\" logo on the right leg, and thin shorts stripes replacing the three stars. In 1987, the Bullets changed their logo and uniforms, going with red uniforms on the road and white uniforms at home. With the exception of a switch to block lettering and numbers before the 1990–91 season (switching over from the Serpentine font used for both elements, with the player name on back rendered in lower case as well), the Bullets kept these uniforms until 1997. In 1997, the then-team owner Abe Pollin decided to change the club's nickname from Bullets to Wizards. The reasoning behind the name change was because Pollin did not want the team's name to continue to be associated with any violent connotations. The name change also included new logos, colors and uniforms, coinciding with the team's move to the new MCI Center. The new team's colors were blue, bronze and black. The primary logo depicted a wizard conjuring a basketball with a quarter moon. In 2007, the Wizards made minor modifications on their team jerseys and logos. To accommodate the gold–black alternate jerseys they introduced the previous season along with the design change on the Verizon Center floor, they changed their secondary team colors from bronze to metallic gold, and the player's name on the back of the jersey was changed from white/blue with bronze trim to gold (blue on home uniforms) with a", "", "The Wizards hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "", "", "", "Bold denotes still active with team. \"Italic\" denotes still active but not with team.", "NBA Most Valuable Player NBA Finals MVP NBA Rookie of the Year NBA Most Improved Player NBA Coach of the Year NBA Executive of" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Team creation.", "1989–1995: Early years.", "1995–2007: The Kevin Garnett era.", "2007–2010: Post-Kevin Garnett era.", "2010–2014: Kevin Love era.", "2014–2020: Wiggins and Towns era.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Mascot.", "Season-by-season record.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Management.", "Radio.", "Television." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "NBA basketball returned to the Twin Cities in 1989 for the first time since the Minneapolis Lakers departed to Los Angeles in 1960. The NBA had granted one of its four new expansion teams on April 22, 1987 (the others being the Orlando Magic, Charlotte Hornets, and the Miami Heat) to original owners Harvey Ratner and Marv Wolfenson to begin play", "The Timberwolves debuted on November 3, 1989, losing to the Seattle SuperSonics on the road 106–94. Five days later, they made their home debut at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, losing to the Chicago Bulls 96–84. Two nights later on November 10, the Wolves got their first win, beating the Philadelphia 76ers at home 125–118. The Timberwolves, led by Tony Campbell with 23.2 ppg, went on to a 22–60 record, finishing in sixth place in the Midwest Division. Playing in the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, the expansion Timberwolves set an NBA record by drawing over 1 million fans to their home games. This included a crowd of 49,551 on April 17, 1990, which saw the Timberwolves lose to the Denver Nuggets 99–88 in the final home game of", "In the 1995 NBA draft, the Timberwolves selected high school standout Kevin Garnett in the first round (5th overall), and Flip Saunders was named head coach. Christian Laettner was traded along with Sean Rooks to the Atlanta Hawks for Andrew Lang and Spud Webb. Also, first-round pick Donyell Marshall was traded the previous season for Golden State Warriors' forward Tom Gugliotta. These trades paved the way for rookie Kevin Garnett to become the go-to player inside. Garnett went on to average 10.4 ppg in his rookie season as the Wolves finished in 5th place in the Midwest Division, with a 26–56 record. In 1996, the Wolves added another star player in the draft, trading Ray Allen to the Milwaukee Bucks for the rights to Stephon Marbury, the 4th overall pick. The addition of Marbury had a positive effect on the entire team, as Garnett and Gugliotta became the first Wolves to be selected to the All-Star team. Gugliotta and Garnett led the Timberwolves in scoring as the team made the playoffs for the first time in franchise history with a record of 40–42. However, in the playoffs the Timberwolves made a quick exit as they were swept by the Houston Rockets in three straight games. The T-Wolves also decided to change their image by changing their team logo and color scheme, adding black to the team colors and replacing the original logo with one featuring a snarling wolf looming over a field of trees. It was also during this season that Minnesota began to play on a parquet floor. In 1997, Garnett and Marbury established themselves as two of the brightest rising stars in the NBA. Garnett averaged 18.5 ppg and 9.6 rebounds per game, while Marbury averaged 17.7 ppg and dished out 8.6 assists per game. Despite losing leading scorer Tom Gugliotta for half the season, the Timberwolves went on to post their first winning season at 45–37, making the playoffs for the second straight season. After dropping Game 1 of the playoffs on the road to the Seattle SuperSonics, the Timberwolves won their first postseason game in Game 2, winning in Seattle 98–93. As the series shifted to Minnesota, the Timberwolves had an opportunity to pull off the upset as they won Game 3 by a score of 98–90. However, the Wolves dropped Game 4 at home as the Sonics went on to win the series in five games. In 1998, a year after signing Kevin Garnett to a six-year, $126 million contract, the Timberwolves were then used as the poster child of irresponsible spending as the NBA endured a four-month lockout that wiped out much of the season. With an already cap-heavy payroll, the Wolves let Tom Gugliotta walk, partially because the team wanted to save money in order to sign Stephon Marbury to a long-term contract, and in part", "On July 31, 2007, the Minnesota Timberwolves reached a deal to trade All-Star Kevin Garnett to the Boston Celtics for Al Jefferson, Theo Ratliff, Gerald Green, Sebastian Telfair, Ryan Gomes, two first-round draft picks, and cash considerations. This is the largest combination of players and picks ever traded for a single player in NBA history. Garnett and the Celtics went on to win the 2008 NBA Finals in six games over the Los Angeles Lakers. That summer, the Timberwolves traded Mike James and Justin Reed to the Houston Rockets for Juwan Howard. In October of the same year, the Timberwolves waived Howard after reaching a contractual buyout agreement, worth $10 million of roughly $14.25 million which Minnesota would have", "On July 12, 2010, Minnesota traded for Miami Heat forward Michael Beasley, the second pick from the 2008 NBA draft. In a locally untelevised game on November 12, 2010, Kevin Love grabbed a franchise-record 31 rebounds and scored 31 points in a win over the New York Knicks, the NBA's first 30–30 game in 28 years. Love was later named an All Star for the 2010–11 NBA season, the franchise's first All Star selection since Kevin Garnett in 2007. Love would later break Garnett's team record of 37 straight double-doubles on February 8, 2011 in a win over the Houston Rockets. On March 8, 2011, Love acquired his 52nd straight double-double, surpassing the mark of Moses Malone for the most consecutive double-doubles since the NBA-ABA merger in a win over the Indiana Pacers. The streak eventually reached 53 games and came to an end with a six-point, 12-rebound performance in a 100–77 loss to the Golden State Warriors on", "On August 23, 2014, the Timberwolves, Cleveland Cavaliers, and Philadelphia 76ers agreed on a three-way trade that would send Kevin Love to the Cavaliers to join LeBron James and Kyrie Irving. Minnesota received Andrew Wiggins, Anthony Bennett, Thaddeus Young, and a trade exception as part of the deal. The 76ers received Alexey Shved, Luc Mbah a Moute, and a 2015 first-round pick via the Miami Heat. The 2014–15 season marked a new era for the Timberwolves, beginning with the Kevin Love trade. Flip Saunders was promoted to head coach, making it his second stint with the Timberwolves after coaching the team from 1995 to 2005. The Timberwolves started the new season with a 105–101 loss to the Memphis Grizzlies, with Wiggins making his debut. The team recorded its first win the following game, a 97–91 victory over the Detroit Pistons. On November 12, 2014, the Timberwolves played an international home game at Mexico City Arena against the Houston Rockets. The Timberwolves had a 16–66 record for the season and missed the playoffs for the 11th consecutive year. Despite this, Wiggins was selected as the NBA Rookie of the Year, the first player in franchise", "In their inaugural season in 1989, the Timberwolves (or \"Wolves\" as it said on their jerseys) debuted blue road uniforms with green lettering and numbers with white. Their home uniforms featured blue lettering and numbers with green outlining. The creation of both uniforms was led by head designer, Brian Mulligan. There was going to be a green alternate jersey with blue lettering to go with the uniforms, but the idea was dropped. It would've followed a similar move the Dallas Mavericks took when they switched back to blue in the early 1990s, opting the Wolves a chance to use green for a jersey color instead. After drafting Kevin Garnett, the Timberwolves design team, under guidance from Brian Mulligan, changed their uniforms yet again in 1996. This time, the team added black and grey to the mix, and changing to a darker shade of blue. The front of the jerseys then said the team's full name \"Timberwolves\" in a different font. For the 1997–98 season, a black alternate uniform was introduced. Those uniforms were used until the 2007–08 season. The Timberwolves unveiled a new alternate logo on June 25, 2008. The uniforms changed again in the 2008 off-season, this time with the road jerseys reading \"Minnesota\" and the home jerseys reading \"Wolves\", similar to that of the team's early years. Both uniforms had green, black, grey", "Crunch the Wolf is", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Timberwolves. For the full season-by-season history,", "", "The Timberwolves hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "", "The flagship station for the Timberwolves Radio Network is 830 WCCO (AM). WCCO became the team's radio home in 2011. Before that, KFAN/KFXN had been the", "The Timberwolves' games are broadcast on" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Elements and beginnings (1894–1936).", "Silent film era.", "Early studios.", "Top-grossing silent films in the United States.", "During the sound era.", "Transition.", "Later homages.", "Preservation and lost films.", "Dawson Film Find." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The earliest precursors to film began with image projection through the use of a device known as the magic lantern, which utilized a glass lens, a shutter, and a persistent light source (such as a powerful lantern) to project images from glass slides onto a wall. These slides were originally hand-painted, but, after the advent of photography in the 19th century, still photographs were sometimes used. Thus the invention of a practical photography apparatus preceded cinema by only fifty years. The next significant step toward the invention of cinema was the development of an understanding of image movement. Simulations of movement date as far back as to 1828—only four years after Paul Roget discovered the phenomenon he called \"Persistence of Vision.\" Roget showed that when a series of still images is shown at a considerable speed in front of a viewer's eye, the images merge into one registered image that appears to show movement. This is an optical illusion, since the image is not actually moving. This experience was further demonstrated through Roget's introduction of the thaumatrope, a device that spun at a fairly high speed a disk with an image on its surface. The invention of film allowed for true motion pictures rather than optical illusions. The film which consisted of flexible and transparent celluloid could record split second pictures. Developed by Étienne-Jules Marey, he was one of the", "The work of Muybridge, Marey, and Le Prince laid the foundation for future development of motion picture cameras, projectors and transparent celluloid film, which lead to the development of cinema as we know it today. American inventor George Eastman, who had first manufactured photographic dry plates in 1878, made headway on a stable type of celluloid film in 1888. The art of motion pictures grew into full maturity in the \"silent era\" (1894 in film – 1929 in film). The height of the silent era (from the early 1910s in film to the late 1920s) was a particularly fruitful period, full of artistic innovation. The film movements of Classical Hollywood as well as French Impressionism, German Expressionism, and Soviet Montage began in this period. Silent filmmakers pioneered the art form to the extent that virtually every style and genre of film-making of the 20th and 21st centuries has its artistic roots in the silent era. The silent era was also a pioneering one from a technical point of view. Three-point lighting, the close-up, long shot, panning, and continuity editing all became prevalent long before silent films were replaced by \"talking pictures\" or \"talkies\" in the late 1920s. Some scholars claim that the artistic quality of cinema decreased for several years, during the early 1930s, until film directors, actors, and production staff adapted fully to the new \"talkies\" around the mid 1930s. The visual quality of silent movies—especially those produced in the 1920s—was often high, but there remains a widely held misconception that these films were primitive, and are barely watchable by modern standards. This misconception comes from the general public's unfamiliarity with the medium, as well as from carelessness on the part of the industry. Most silent films are poorly preserved, leading to their deterioration, and well-preserved films are often played back at the wrong speed or suffer from censorship cuts and missing frames and scenes, giving the appearance of poor editing. Many silent films exist only in second- or third-generation copies, often made from already damaged and neglected film stock. Another widely held misconception is that silent films lacked color. In fact, color was far more prevalent in silent films than in the first few decades of sound films. By the early 1920s, 80 per cent of movies could be seen in some sort of color, usually in the form of film tinting or toning or even hand coloring, but also with fairly natural two-color processes such as Kinemacolor and Technicolor. Traditional colorization processes ceased with the adoption of sound-on-film technology. Traditional film colorization, all of which involved the use of dyes in some form, interfered with the high resolution required for built-in recorded sound, and were therefore abandoned. The innovative three-strip technicolor process introduced in the mid-30s was costly and fraught with limitations, and color would not have the same prevalence in film as it did in the silents for nearly four decades.", "The early studios were located in the New York City area. Edison Studios were first in West Orange, New Jersey (1892), they were moved to the Bronx, New York (1907). Fox (1909) and Biograph (1906) started in Manhattan, with studios in St George, Staten Island. Others films were shot in Fort Lee, New Jersey. In December 1908, Edison led the formation of the Motion Picture Patents Company in an attempt to control the industry and shut out smaller producers. The \"Edison Trust\", as it was nicknamed, was made up of Edison, Biograph, Essanay Studios, Kalem Company, George Kleine Productions, Lubin Studios, Georges Méliès, Pathé, Selig Studios, and Vitagraph Studios, and dominated distribution through the General Film Company. This company dominated the industry as both a vertical and horizontal monopoly", "The following are American films from the silent film era that had earned the highest", "", "Although attempts to create sync-sound motion pictures go back to the Edison lab in 1896, only from the early 1920s were the basic technologies such as vacuum tube amplifiers and high-quality loudspeakers available. The next few years saw a race to design, implement, and market several rival sound-on-disc and sound-on-film sound formats, such as Photokinema (1921), Phonofilm (1923), Vitaphone (1926), Fox Movietone (1927) and RCA Photophone (1928). Warner Bros was the first studio to accept sound as an", "Several filmmakers have paid homage to the comedies of the silent era, including Charlie Chaplin, with \"Modern Times\" (1936), Orson Welles with \"Too Much Johnson\" (1938), Jacques Tati with \"Les Vacances de Monsieur Hulot\" (1953), Pierre Etaix with \"The Suitor\" (1962), and Mel Brooks with \"Silent Movie\" (1976). Taiwanese director Hou Hsiao-hsien's acclaimed drama \"Three Times\" (2005) is silent during its middle third, complete with intertitles; Stanley Tucci's \"The Impostors\" has an opening silent sequence in the style of early silent comedies. Brazilian filmmaker Renato Falcão's \"Margarette's Feast\" (2003) is silent. Writer / Director Michael Pleckaitis puts his own twist on the genre with \"Silent\" (2007). While not silent, the \"Mr. Bean\" television series and movies have used the title character's non-talkative nature to create a similar style of humor. A lesser-known example is Jérôme Savary's \"La fille du garde-barrière\" (1975), an homage to silent-era films that uses intertitles and blends comedy, drama, and explicit sex scenes (which led to it being refused a cinema certificate by the British Board of Film Classification). In 1990, Charles Lane directed and starred in \"Sidewalk Stories\", a low budget salute to sentimental silent", "The vast majority of the silent films produced in the late 19th and early 20th centuries are considered lost. According to a September 2013 report published by the United States Library of Congress, some 70 percent of American silent feature films fall into this category. There are numerous reasons for this number being so high. Some films have been lost unintentionally, but most silent films were destroyed on purpose. Between the end of the silent era and the rise of home video, film studios would often discard large numbers of silent films out of a desire to free up storage in their archives, assuming that they had lost the cultural relevance and economic value to justify the amount of space they occupied. Additionally, due to the fragile nature of the nitrate film stock which was used to shoot and distribute silent films, many motion pictures have irretrievably deteriorated or have been lost in accidents, including fires (because nitrate is highly flammable and can spontaneously combust when stored improperly). Examples of such incidents include the 1965 MGM vault fire and the 1937 Fox vault fire, both of which incited catastrophic losses of films. Many such films not completely destroyed survive only partially, or in badly damaged prints. Some lost films, such as \"London After Midnight\" (1927), lost in the MGM fire, have been the subject of considerable interest by film collectors and historians. Major silent films presumed lost include: Though most lost silent films will never be recovered, some have been discovered in film archives or private collections. Discovered and preserved versions may be editions made for the home rental market of the 1920s and 1930s that are discovered in estate sales, etc. The degradation of old film stock can be slowed through proper archiving, and films can be transferred to safety film stock or to digital media for preservation. The preservation of silent films has been a high priority for historians and archivists.", "Dawson City, in the Yukon territory of Canada, was once the end of the distribution line for many films. In 1978, a cache of more than 500 reels of nitrate film was discovered during the excavation of a vacant lot formerly the site of the Dawson Amateur Athletic Association, which had started showing films at their recreation centre in 1903. Works by Pearl White, Helen Holmes, Grace Cunard," ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1970–1974: Franchise inception.", "1974–1979.", "1980–1983: Transitioning.", "1983–1995.", "Paul Allen ownership.", "1995–2006: Rebuilding and troubles.", "2006–2012.", "2012–present.", "Season-by-season record.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Retired numbers.", "Basketball Hall of Famers.", "Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame.", "FIBA Hall of Fame.", "NBA draft.", "Team branding.", "Front office.", "Venues.", "In-game entertainment.", "Fan support and \"Blazermania\".", "Media.", "Television and radio broadcast.", "Press relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Sports promoter Harry Glickman sought a National Basketball Association (NBA) franchise for Portland as far back as 1955 when he proposed two new expansion teams, the other to be located in Los Angeles. When the Memorial Coliseum was opened in 1960 Glickman saw the potential it could serve as a professional basketball venue but it was not until February 6, 1970, that the NBA board of governors granted him the rights to a franchise in Portland. To raise the money for the $3.7 million admission tax, Glickman associated himself to real estate magnates Robert Schmertz of New Jersey, Larry Weinberg of Los Angeles and Herman Sarkowsky of Seattle. Two weeks later, on February 24, team management held a contest to select the team's name and received more than 10,000 entries. The most popular choice was \"Pioneers\", but that name", "In 1974 the team selected Bill Walton from UCLA. The ABA–NBA merger of 1976 saw those two rival leagues join forces. Four ABA teams joined the NBA; the remaining teams were dissolved and their players distributed among the remaining NBA squads in a dispersal draft. The Trail Blazers selected Maurice Lucas in the dispersal draft. That summer, they also hired Jack Ramsay as head coach. The two moves, coupled with the team's stellar play, led Portland to several firsts: winning record (49–33), playoff appearance, and championship in 1977. Starting on April 5 of that year, the team began a", "During the 1980s, the team was a consistent presence in the NBA post-season, failing to qualify for the playoffs only in 1982. However, they never advanced past the conference semifinals during the decade. The Pacific Division of the", "In the 1983 draft, the team selected University of Houston guard–forward Clyde Drexler with the 14th pick; \"Clyde the Glide\" would become the face of the franchise for over a decade, and the team's second-most decorated player (after Walton). In the next year's draft, the Trail Blazers landed the No. 2 pick in the NBA draft. After the Houston Rockets selected Drexler's college teammate Akeem Olajuwon at No. 1, the Trail Blazers selected Kentucky center Sam Bowie. Drafting third, the Chicago Bulls selected Michael Jordan. The selection of the injury-plagued Bowie over Jordan has been criticized as one of the worst draft picks in the history of American professional sports. That summer, the Blazers also made a controversial trade, sending Lever,", "In 1988, Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen purchased the Blazers for $70 million. At the time of the purchase, Allen, then 35, became the youngest team owner in the Big Four professional sports. His first season as owner was one marked by turmoil, as conflicts erupted over who should start at several positions. Both Vandeweghe and Johnson suffered injuries; they were replaced in the starting lineup by Jerome Kersey and Kevin Duckworth. Several players, most notably Drexler, were accused of undermining Schuler. The team went 25–22 to open the 1988–89 season, and Schuler was fired. He was replaced on an interim basis with assistant coach Rick Adelman, and Vandeweghe was traded to the New York Knicks. Under Adelman, the team went 14–21 to finish the season, and barely qualified for the playoffs. That off-season, the team traded Sam Bowie (who had returned to the team to end the season) to the New Jersey Nets for forward Buck Williams, and Adelman was given the coaching job on a non-interim basis. The addition of Williams, and the replacement", "Several players left in free agency, including Terry Porter (1995), Buck Williams (1996), and Clifford Robinson (1997), which left Jerome Kersey unprotected in the 1995 expansion draft. In an effort to rebuild, the team acquired several players who were highly talented, but had reputations for off-court troubles. Isaiah Rider, who was traded by the Minnesota Timberwolves for a draft pick and career backups due to his frequent arrests and lack of punctuality, was arrested for cannabis possession two days before his debut with the Blazers. Rasheed Wallace, who was acknowledged as a hot-tempered player since college, was also acquired, in a trade with the Washington Bullets. Point guard Kenny Anderson was signed as a free agent, and subsequently traded to the Toronto Raptors for Damon Stoudamire in February 1998 (the Raptors traded Anderson to the Boston Celtics five days later, because he did not want to play in Canada). Initially, this approach worked, as the team returned to the Western Conference finals in 1999 under head coach Mike Dunleavy. After being swept by the eventual champion San Antonio Spurs, Whitsitt sent Rider and guard Jim Jackson to the Atlanta Hawks for guard Steve Smith and acquired former All-Star forward Scottie Pippen from the", "In the 2006 NBA draft the Blazers traded Viktor Khryapa and draft rights for Tyrus Thomas for draft rights to LaMarcus Aldridge. The Blazers also traded for the sixth pick, Brandon Roy. In the spring of 2007, Steve Patterson resigned as team president, and Paul Allen entered into an agreement to re-purchase the Rose Garden. On the court, the team finished with a 32–50 record, an 11-game improvement, and rookie shooting guard Roy was named the 2006–07 Rookie of the Year. That summer Pritchard was promoted to general manager, and former Nike Inc. executive Larry Miller was hired as team president. The Blazers won the 2007 NBA draft lottery and selected Ohio State center Greg Oden with the No. 1 pick in the draft. Some had speculated that they might choose Kevin Durant instead; Durant was picked at No. 2 by regional rivals the Seattle SuperSonics. Oden suffered a pre-season knee injury requiring microfracture surgery, and missed the entire 2007–08 season. Oden's constant battle with injuries and Durant's success resulted in comparisons to the Blazers' selection of Sam Bowie over Michael Jordan in 1984. Despite this, the Trail Blazers had a 13-game winning streak that began in early December, resulting in a 13–2 record, an NBA best for the month of December. Nate McMillan won NBA Coach of the Month honors, and Roy garnered NBA Western Conference Player of the Week honors in back-to-back weeks (the first Trail Blazers' player to accomplish the feat since Clyde Drexler in the 1990–91 season). Western Conference head coaches selected Roy to the 2008 NBA All-Star Game, the first All-Star for the Blazers since Rasheed Wallace in 2001. The Blazers finished the season 41–41, their best record since the 2003–04 season. Following the season, the Blazers became the", "On June 28, 2012, the Blazers selected Weber State guard Damian Lillard and University of Illinois center Meyers Leonard with the 6th and 11th picks overall, respectively. They also selected University of Memphis guard Will Barton with the 40th pick overall, and traded the rights of the 41st overall pick, University of Kansas guard Tyshawn Taylor, to the Brooklyn Nets for cash considerations. Headed by their new general manager Olshey, the Trail Blazers front office further made a few changes during July 2012. The Blazers signed their 30th pick from the 2006 draft, Joel Freeland, and their 22nd pick from the 2009 draft, Víctor Claver, as well as re-signing Hickson and Nicolas Batum. They also signed veteran point guard Ronnie Price to back up Lillard, who was selected as co-MVP of the 2012 Las Vegas Summer League. Dallas Mavericks assistant coach Terry Stotts was hired as head coach on August 7, 2012. Under the reins of Lillard, the Blazers played well into January 2013, posting a 20–15 record. On January 11, 2013, at home against the Miami Heat, Wesley Matthews made two consecutive three-pointers late in the fourth quarter to help the Blazers secure a 92–90 victory. However, despite the Blazers remaining among the playoff contenders for most of the season, injuries to starters Batum, LaMarcus Aldridge, and Matthews, as well as a losing", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Trail Blazers. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Portland Trail Blazers seasons.\" In the Blazers' 49 years of existence (through 2019), they have qualified for the NBA playoffs 35 times, including a streak", "", "The Trail Blazers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "", "", "", "Notes:", "The Trail Blazers have had the No. 1 pick in the NBA draft four times in their history; each time selecting a center. In 1972 the choice was LaRue Martin, Bill Walton was picked in 1974, Mychal Thompson", "The team's colors are red, black, and white. The team's \"pinwheel\" logo, originally designed by the cousin of Glickman, is a graphic interpretation of two five-on-five basketball teams lined up against each other. One side of the pinwheel is red; the other side is black or white. The logo has gone from a vertical alignment to a slanted one starting in the 1991 season, creating a straight edge along the top The Blazers' initial uniforms were white at home and red on the road. The 1970–1975 design featured a swooping tail accenting the last letter ('blazers' on the home uniforms; 'Portland' on the road uniforms). The 1975–1977 uniforms featured the team name written vertically on the right side; this uniform was used in their 1977 championship season. Following their championship victory, the Blazers unveiled what is now their most iconic look, featuring a \"blaze\" strip that runs diagonally down the uniform. The team also switched their road uniforms to black. The 1977–1991 set featured lowercase lettering, while a red uniform was used in lieu of the black uniforms from 1979 to 1985. Following a redesign in the 1991–92 season, the Blazers updated their look to feature uppercase letters. A 2002–03 rebrand saw the team add silver accents and introduce a red alternate uniform, while a slight change in the 2005–06 season saw the Blazers return to the city name on their road uniforms. The 2009–10 season saw the Blazers unveil a fourth alternate uniform, a design that features the team's 'Rip City' nickname and a more subtle version of", "The team from 1988 until 2018 was owned by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen; ownership of the Trail Blazers is currently via a series of holding companies which Allen owned. Vulcan Inc. is a private corporation in which currently Allen's sister Jody Allen as head of the Paul Allen's estate is the chairman and sole shareholder. A subsidiary of Vulcan, Vulcan Sports and Entertainment (VSE), manages Allen's sports-related properties, including the Trail Blazers, the Seattle Seahawks NFL team, the Seattle Sounders MLS team, and the Moda Center. In the fall of 2012, Peter McLoughlin was named CEO of Vulcan Sports and Entertainment. The Trail Blazers as a corporate entity are owned by VSE. Jody Allen as head of estate serves as the team's", "The Trail Blazers play their home games in the Moda Center, a multipurpose arena which is located in Portland's Rose Quarter, northeast of downtown. The Moda Center, originally named the Rose Garden, opened in 1995 and can seat a total of 19,980 spectators for basketball games; capacity increases to 20,580 with standing room. Like the Trail Blazers, the Moda Center is owned by Paul Allen through subsidiary Vulcan Sports and Entertainment. During a two-year period between 2005 and 2007, the arena was owned by a consortium of creditors who financed its construction after the Oregon Arena Corporation, a now-defunct holding company owned by Allen, filed for bankruptcy in 2004. In August 2013, the arena's name was changed from the Rose Garden to the Moda Center, after the Blazers' front office officials reached a $4 million agreement with Moda Health Corporation. The name change was met with considerable criticism from fans. Prior to 1995, the Trail Blazers' home venue was the Memorial Coliseum, which today stands adjacent to the Moda Center. This facility, built in 1960, can seat 12,888 spectators for basketball (originally 12,666). It was renamed the Veterans Memorial Coliseum in 2011.", "The team has a cheerleading-dance squad known as the BlazerDancers. Consisting of 16 members, the all-female BlazerDancers perform dance routines at home games, charity events, and promotional events. The 2008–2009 team held auditions in late July 2008. Seven new dancers, as well", "The relationship between the team and its fans, commonly known as \"Blazermania\", has been well-chronicled. The Trail Blazers have long been one of the NBA's top draws, with the exception of two periods in the team's history. The team drew poorly during its first four seasons of existence, failing to average more than 10,000 spectators per game. Attendance increased in 1974, when the team drafted Bill Walton. The phenomenon known as Blazermania started during the 1976–77 season, when the team posted its first winning record, made its first playoff appearance, and captured its only NBA title, defeating the heavily favored Philadelphia 76ers in the", "", "Games of the Trail Blazers are routinely broadcast via television and radio. The team was one of the first in the NBA to produce its own television broadcasts. The team's television production facility is known as Post-Up Productions. Since leaving Fox Sports Net Northwest in 2007, all television broadcasts of the Blazers' games, when not carried on a national network, are broadcast by NBC Sports Northwest (formerly Comcast SportsNet Northwest). For the 2007–08 season, all but six regular-season games were carried on CSN Northwest or the \"Blazers Television Network\" (a syndication package within the team's television market, whose flagship was KGW); the other six were broadcast nationally on TNT or ESPN. Thirty-four games were produced and broadcast in high-definition television. The Trail Blazers' former television play-by-play team was Mike Barrett and Mike Rice, joined by sideline reporter Michael Holton, who succeeded Terry Porter (2010–11) and Rebecca Haarlow (2009–10). The team was also known for its long association with Steve \"Snapper\" Jones, who played for the team prior to his career as a television analyst; Jones departed the franchise in 2005. All Trail Blazers' games are broadcast over the radio, with broadcasting carried on the Trail Blazers radio network, which consists of 25 stations located in the Pacific Northwest. The flagship station of the Blazers' radio network is 620 KPOJ in Portland. The radio broadcasting team consists of play-by-play announcer Travis Demers and studio host Jay Allen. All games are preceded by a pre-game analysis show, \"Blazers Courtside\", and followed by a post-game show known as \"The 5th Quarter\". Bob Akamian served as studio host until halfway through the 2010–2011 season,", "Several local news outlets provide in-depth coverage of the Trail Blazers. Chief among them is \"The Oregonian\", the largest paper in the state of Oregon. Other newspapers providing detailed coverage of the team (including the assignment of beat writers to cover the team) include the \"Portland Tribune\", a weekly Portland paper, and the Vancouver, Washington \"Columbian\". Notable local journalists to cover the team include John Canzano of the \"Oregonian\", Jason Quick of CSNNW, and Dwight Jaynes of the \"Portland Tribune\". Online coverage of the \"Oregonian\" is provided through OregonLive.com, a website collaboration between the paper and Advance Internet. In addition to making \"Oregonian\" content available, oregonlive.com hosts several blogs covering the team written by \"Oregonian\" journalists, as well as an additional blog, \"Blazers" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "1967–1971: San Diego Rockets.", "1971–1976: Move to Houston and improvement with Murphy and Rudy-T.", "1976–1982: The Moses Malone era.", "1984–2001: The Hakeem Olajuwon era.", "1984–1987: The \"Twin Towers\".", "1987–1992: Lean years.", "1993–1995: Back-to-Back Championships for Clutch City.", "1995–2002: Post-championship and rebuilding.", "2002–2009: The Yao Ming era.", "2009–2012: Competitive rebuilding.", "2012–present: The James Harden era.", "Season-by-season record.", "Home arenas.", "Team identity.", "Uniforms and logos.", "Mascots.", "Rivalries.", "Honors and statistics.", "Individual honors.", "All-Star Weekend.", "Franchise leaders.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Basketball Hall of Famers.", "Politics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Rockets were founded in 1967 in San Diego by Robert Breitbard, who paid an entry fee of US$1.75 million to join the NBA as an expansion team for the 1967–68 season. The NBA wanted to add more teams in the Western United States, and chose San Diego based on the city's strong economic and population growth, along with the local success of an ice hockey team owned by Breitbard, the San Diego Gulls. The resulting contest to name the franchise", "In 1971, Texas Sports Investments bought the franchise for $5.6 million and moved the team to Houston. The franchise became the first NBA team in Texas, and the nickname \"Rockets\" took on even greater relevance after the move, given Houston's long connection to the space industry. Before the start of the 1971–72 season, Hannum left for the Denver Rockets of the American Basketball Association – later renamed Denver Nuggets, who joined the NBA in 1976 – and Tex Winter was hired in his place. In the first six games of the 1971–72 season in Winter's first head coaching season, the Rockets all lost those games with an average of around 15 points per game. Their first win of the season came on October 26, 1971, with a 104-103 win over the home team, Detroit Pistons. Their second", "In the 1975–76 NBA season the Rockets finally had a permanent home in Houston as they moved into The Summit, which they would call home for the next 29 years. During the period, the franchise was owned by Kenneth Schnitzer, developer of the Greenway Plaza which included The Summit. After missing the 1976 playoffs, Tom Nissalke was hired as a coach, and pressed the team to add a play-making guard in college standout John Lucas and a rebounding center through Moses Malone, who he had coached in the ABA. The additions had an immediate", "", "In his first season, Olajuwon finished second to Michael Jordan in NBA Rookie of the Year balloting, and the Rockets record improved by 19 games, good enough for a return to the playoffs as the third best team in the West, where they were upset by the sixth-seeded Utah Jazz. The duo of Olajuwon and Sampson earned much praise, and was nicknamed \"Twin Towers\". In the following season, Houston won the Midwest Division title with a 51–31 record. The subsequent playoffs had the Rockets sweeping the Sacramento Kings, having a hard-fought six-game series with Alex English's Denver Nuggets, and then facing defending champion Lakers, losing the first game but eventually managing to win the series – the only Western Playoffs defeat of the Showtime Lakers – to get to the franchise's second Finals appearance. The NBA Finals once again matched the", "In the next five seasons, the Rockets either failed to qualify for the playoffs or were eliminated in the first round. The first elimination in 1988 led to Fitch's dismissal, with Don Chaney replacing him as head coach. Chaney, like Olajuwon, also played for the Houston Cougars under Guy Lewis, having played along Elvin Hayes in the late 1960s. Chaney had his best season during 1990–91, where he was named the Coach of the Year after leading the Rockets to a 52–30 record despite Olajuwon's absence due to injury for 25 games.", "On July 30, 1993, Leslie Alexander purchased the Rockets for $85 million. Following the bitter Game 7 loss in Seattle in overtime, Olajuwon gathered the team and famously stated \"we go from here\". The next season, in Tomjanovich's second full year as head coach, the Rockets began the 1993–94 season by tying an NBA record with a start of 15–0. Their first loss of the season came on December 3, 1993, as the Hawks, led by Dominique Wilkins' 27 points, defeated the Rockets, 133–111. The next game, the Rockets stormed a comeback against", "During the off-season, the Rockets went for a change of visual identity, making navy blue and silver the new primary colors while adopting a new cartoon-inspired logo and pinstriped jerseys. The Rockets won 48 games in the 1995–96 season, in which Olajuwon became the NBA's all-time leader in blocked shots. The playoffs had the Rockets beating the Lakers before a sweep by the SuperSonics. Before the start of the succeeding season, the Rockets sent four players to Phoenix in exchange for Charles Barkley. The resulting \"Big Three\" of Olajuwon, Drexler, and Barkley had a strong debut season with a 57–25 record, going all the way to the Western Conference finals before losing to the Utah Jazz 4–2 on a dramatic last-second shot by John Stockton. The following season was marked by", "After Houston was awarded the first overall pick in the 2002 NBA draft, they selected Yao Ming, a Chinese center. The Rockets missed the 2003 playoffs by one game, improving their record by 15 victories. The 2003–04 season marked the Rockets' arrival to a new arena, the Toyota Center, a redesign of their uniforms and logo, and their first season without Rudy Tomjanovich, who resigned as head coach after being diagnosed with bladder cancer. Led by former Knicks coach Jeff Van Gundy, the Rockets finished the regular season with a record of 45–37, earning their first playoff berth since 1999, again losing to the Lakers in the first round. In the off-season, Houston saw major changes in the roster as the Rockets acquired Tracy McGrady in a seven-player deal with the Orlando Magic. The scoring champion", "During the 2009–10 season, the Rockets saw the departures of Artest in the off-season and McGrady, Joey Dorsey and Carl Landry during mid-season trades. Despite great play by Kevin Martin, who arrived from the Kings, and Aaron Brooks, who would eventually be chosen as the Most Improved Player of the season, the Rockets could not make it to the playoffs, finishing 42–40, 3rd in the Southwest Division. At that time,", "After the roster moves made by Morey during the 2012 NBA off-season, only four players were left from the 2011–12 Rockets roster: Chandler Parsons, Greg Smith, Marcus Morris, and Patrick Patterson, with the latter two leaving through trades during the 2012–13 season. The most important acquisition was reigning Sixth Man of the Year James Harden, who Morey called a \"foundational\" player expected to be Houston's featured player after a supporting role in the Oklahoma City Thunder. Harden caused an immediate impact as part of the starting lineup for the Rockets, with 37 points, 12 assists, 6 rebounds, 4 steals, and a block in the season opener against the Detroit Pistons, and an average of 25.9 points a game through the season. Combining Harden's performance and McHale's up-tempo offense, the Rockets became one of the highest scoring offenses in the NBA, leading the league in scoring for the majority of the season. In the postseason, the Rockets fell to the Oklahoma City Thunder in the first round, losing the series 4–2. Eager to add another franchise player to their team, the Rockets heavily pursued and then acquired Jeremy Lin during the off-season, the first American of Taiwanese and Chinese descent to play in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Lin led the Knicks to seven straight victories while establishing an NBA scoring record in February 2012. Also, they pursued free agent center Dwight Howard in the 2013 off-season. He officially signed with the Rockets on July 13, 2013. Led by the new inside-out combination of Howard and James Harden, and with a strong supporting cast including Chandler Parsons, Jeremy Lin, and Ömer Aşık, the Rockets were expected to jump into title contention in the upcoming season. However, that postseason, the Rockets were defeated in the first round by the Portland Trail Blazers, losing the series 4–2. Still, in the 2014–15 season, without Lin and Parsons but reinforced by Trevor Ariza, the Rockets started the season well, winning the first four games of the season for the first time since 1996–97, and winning each of their first six games by 10 points or more, the first team to accomplish this feat since the 1985–86 Denver Nuggets. Though the Rockets had many key players miss time throughout the entire season, James Harden took it upon himself to keep the Rockets near the top of the conference, turning him into an MVP front-runner. He became the first Rocket to score 50 points in a game since Hakeem Olajuwon, as well as the only player in franchise history to record multiple 50 point games in a season. On April 15, 2015, the Rockets beat the Jazz to claim their first ever Southwest Division title and first Division crown since 1994, and by completing 56 wins finished with the third-best regular season record in franchise history. During the playoffs, the Rockets beat the Mavericks 4–1 in the first round, and overcame a 3–1 deficit against the Los Angeles Clippers to win the Western semifinals and return to the Conference Finals for the first time in 18 years. In the Conference Finals, the Rockets were defeated by the Golden State Warriors 4–1. The 2015–16 season saw Kevin McHale fired after a bad start where the team only won 4 of its first 11 games, and assistant J. B. Bickerstaff took over coaching duties. Inconsistent play led to the Rockets struggling to remain in the playoff qualifying zone, and surrounded by trade rumors. Houston only clinched its 2016 playoffs spot by winning its last game, finishing the season 41–41 to earn an eight seed and a match-up against the Warriors. Like in the", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Rockets. For the full season-by-season history,", "During the four years the Rockets were in San Diego, they played their games in the San Diego Sports Arena, which had a seating capacity of 14,400. In their first season after moving to Houston, the Rockets did not have their own arena, and they played their first two years at various venues in the city, including the Astrodome, AstroHall, Sam Houston Coliseum and Hofheinz Pavilion, the latter eventually being adopted as their home arena until 1975. They also had to play \"home\" games in other cities such as San Antonio, Waco, Albuquerque, and even San Diego in efforts to extend the fan-base. During their first season, the Rockets averaged less than 5,000 fans per game (roughly half full), and in one game in Waco, there were only 759 fans in attendance. Their first", "", "When the Rockets debuted in San Diego, their colors were green and gold. Road uniforms featured the city name, while the home uniforms feature the team name, both in a serifed block lettering. This was the only uniform design the Rockets would use throughout their years in San Diego. The Rockets' first logo featured a rocket streaking with a basketball surrounded by the team name. Upon moving to Houston in 1971, the Rockets replaced green with red. They kept the same design from their San Diego days, save for the change of color and city name. The logo used is of a player with a spinning basketball launching upward, with boosters on his back, leaving a trail of red and gold flames and the words \"Houston Rockets\" below it.", "The mascot was introduced on March 14, 1995 formerly known as \"Clutch\". From 1993 to 1995, the mascot was Turbo, a costumed man that performed acrobatic dunks and other maneuvers. In 1995, the Rockets debuted Clutch the Bear as a second", "The Rockets have developed many rivalries within the Western Conference ever since the team returned there in 1980. Two are intrastate rivalries, with the San Antonio Spurs, who moved along with the Rockets after four years with them in the Eastern Conference, and the Dallas Mavericks, introduced that very season.", "", "NBA Most Valuable Player Award NBA Finals MVP NBA Scoring Champions NBA Defensive Player of the Year NBA Rookie of the Year NBA Sixth Man of the Year NBA", "All-Star All-Star", "Bold denotes still active with team. \"Italics\" denotes still active but not with team. Points", "", "The Rockets hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "", "On October 4, 2019, the Rockets' general manager Daryl Morey issued a tweet that supported the 2019 Hong Kong protests, which drew criticism from the Rockets' owner Tilman Fertitta who said that while Morey was the best general manager in the NBA, the Rockets were not a political organization. Morey later deleted the tweet. Morey's tweet resulted in the Chinese Basketball Association's suspension of its relationship with the Rockets and the issuance of a statement of dissatisfaction from the consulate office of China in Houston. On October 6, Morey and the NBA each issued a separate statement addressing the original tweet; Morey said that he never intended his tweet to cause any offense, while the NBA said the tweet was \"Regrettable\". The statements drew attention and subsequent bipartisan criticism from several US politicians. Chinese media outlets, including the Chinese Communist Party-run \"People's Daily\", described Morey and the NBA's statements as non-apologetic and unacceptable, because they did not contain the word \"apologize\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "1948–1950: Original run.", "The Denver Rockets and ABA revival.", "1969–1976: ABA years.", "Becoming the Denver Nuggets.", "1976–1982: Early NBA years.", "1982–1989: The Alex English era.", "1989–1991: A period of decline.", "1991–1996: The Dikembe Mutombo era.", "1997–2003: Another period of struggle.", "New ownerships.", "2003–2013: George Karl in charge.", "2003–2006: Carmelo Anthony era.", "2006–2008: Anthony and Iverson.", "2008–2011: Anthony and Billups.", "2011–2012: Anthony's departure.", "2012–2013: Team concept.", "2013–present.", "Season-by-season record.", "Colors, logos and uniforms.", "1967–1974: Denver Rockets (ABA).", "1974–1981: Maxie The Miner.", "1981–1993: Rainbow City Skyline.", "1993–2003: Navy blue, metallic gold and maroon.", "2003–2018: Powder blue, navy blue and gold.", "2018–present: Evolved new identity.", "City Edition uniforms.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Retired numbers.", "Basketball Hall of Famers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The original Denver Nuggets was founded in the National Basketball League (NBL) prior to the 1948–49 season. Following that season, the NBL combined with", "In 1967, one of the ABA's charter franchises was awarded to a group in Kansas City, Missouri, headed by Southern Californian businessman James Trindle. However, Trindle was unable to find a suitable arena in the Kansas City area. League commissioner George Mikan suggested moving the team to Denver. After agreeing to name", "Playing at the Denver Auditorium Arena, the Rockets had early successes on the court, developing a strong fan base along the way. However, the team had a history of early playoff exits and failed to play in the ABA championship series. Early, Denver had a solid lineup led by Byron Beck and Larry Jones, then later by Beck and Ralph Simpson. Lonnie Wright of the American Football League's Denver Broncos signed with the Rockets during that first season and became the first player to", "Ringsby sold the team to San Diego businessmen Frank Goldberg and Bud Fischer in 1972. In 1974, in anticipation of moving into the NBA, and the new McNichols Arena, the franchise held a contest to choose a new team nickname, as \"Rockets\" was already in use by the Houston Rockets. The winning choice was \"Nuggets\", in honor of the original Nuggets team in Denver from 1948–50, the last year as a charter member of the NBA. Their new logo was a miner \"discovering\" an ABA ball. Goldberg and Fischer in turn sold the team to a local investment group in 1976. With the drafting and signing", "The Nuggets and Nets had actually applied to join the NBA in 1975, but were forced to stay in the ABA by a court order. The Nuggets continued their strong play early on in the NBA, as they won division titles in their first two seasons in the league, and missed a third by a single game. However, neither of these teams were ultimately successful in the postseason. Similarly to the other new NBA teams, the Nuggets were given many financial issues including a $2 million entry fee. Red McCombs bought the", "Anchored by scoring machines Alex English and Kiki Vandeweghe at the two forward spots, and Dan Issel at center, Denver led the league in scoring, with English and Vandeweghe both averaging above 25 points per game. It was a novel strategy, allowing the Nuggets to top the Midwest Division and qualify for the playoffs during that span. (On December 13, 1983, the Nuggets and the visiting Detroit Pistons combined for an NBA record 370 points, with Detroit winning in triple overtime, 186–184.) At the end of the season, English won the NBA scoring title, becoming the only Nugget to win the", "Moe left the team in 1990, and was replaced by Paul Westhead. Westhead also believed in a \"run and gun\" style of play, and gave the green light for players like Michael Adams and Chris Jackson to light up the scoreboards within seconds of possession.", "Denver took a positive step in rebuilding by drafting Georgetown University center Dikembe Mutombo in 1991. Mutombo finished runner-up to Larry Johnson for the NBA rookie of the year that season. Denver finished 24–58 that year. Denver fired Westhead prior to the 1992–93 season and hired former star player Dan Issel as his successor. The Nuggets had two lottery picks that year and drafted University of Notre Dame forward LaPhonso Ellis and University of Virginia guard Bryant Stith. Denver improved to 36–46, just missing the playoffs that year. Denver ditched their rainbow colors for a dark navy, metallic gold and wine color scheme starting in the 1993–94 season. Led by Mutombo, Mahmoud Abdul-Rauf (who changed his name from Chris Jackson prior to the season), and Ellis, Denver finished with its first winning season since the Doug Moe era at 42–40. Denver clinched the 8th seed in the Western Conference playoffs, playing the first place Seattle SuperSonics. Denver was a heavy underdog, having", "After finishing the 1996–97 season with the fourth worst record in the league (21–61), the Nuggets sent Antonio McDyess to the Phoenix Suns, and Dale Ellis returned to Seattle. Denver flirted with history in the 1997–98, by nearly setting the mark for fewest wins in an 82-game season (11). They tied the then-NBA's all-time worst \"single-season\" losing streak at 23—only one game shy of the overall worst mark of 24 by the Cleveland Cavaliers of the early 1980s. The losing streak was later broken by the Cavaliers in 2011 and the Philadelphia 76ers in 2014 with 26 consecutive losses. Several years later, the Nuggets tied for the worst record in the NBA in 2002–03, also with the Cavaliers.", "The team's struggles in the late 1990s were due in part to ownership instability. COMSAT bought the NHL's Quebec Nordiques in 1995 and moved them to Denver as the Colorado Avalanche. However, its diversification into sports ownership was proving a drain on the company. In particular, cost overruns associated with the construction of Pepsi Center had shareholders up in arms. Finally, in 1997, COMSAT agreed in principle to sell Ascent Entertainment Group, the umbrella corporation for its sporting assets, to Liberty Media. However, Liberty was not interested in sports ownership at the time (though it has since bought the Atlanta Braves), and made the deal contingent upon Ascent selling the Avalanche and Nuggets. After almost two years, Ascent sold the Avalanche and Nuggets to Walmart heirs Bill and Nancy Laurie for $400 million. However, a group of Ascent shareholders sued, claiming that the sale price was several million dollars too low. Ascent then agreed to sell the Avalanche and Nuggets to Denver banking tycoon Donald Sturm for $461 million. However, a new", "", "In 2003, the Nuggets drafted future All-Star Carmelo Anthony with the third overall pick in the 2003 NBA draft. That same year, the team also updated their logos and uniforms, with a new color scheme of powder blue, gold and royal blue; the latter color was changed to navy blue in 2008. In just two months of the season, the Nuggets recorded more wins than they had in 51⁄2 months of play in 2002–03. Much of the reason for this incredible turnaround were the front-office moves of General Manager Kiki Vandeweghe, a former Nuggets player who assumed General Manager duties on August 9, 2001. In April, the turnaround was complete as they became the first franchise in NBA history to qualify for the postseason following a sub-20-win campaign the previous year since the NBA went to an 82-game schedule. They were eliminated in the first round 4 games to 1 by the Minnesota Timberwolves. On December 28, 2004, head coach Jeff Bzdelik was fired from the organization and replaced by interim coach, former Los Angeles Lakers player and Los Angeles Sparks head coach Michael Cooper. The Nuggets later hired George Karl as a permanent replacement. Karl", "On December 19, 2006, the Nuggets traded Joe Smith, Andre Miller and two first-round draft picks of the 2007 NBA draft to the Philadelphia 76ers for Ivan McFarlin and superstar Allen Iverson (McFarlin was waived immediately following the trade's approval). The moves gave the Nuggets the top two scorers in the league at the time in Anthony and Iverson, who were both scoring over 30 points per game at the time of the trade. On January 11, 2007, Earl Boykins, Julius Hodge and cash considerations were traded to the Milwaukee Bucks, in exchange for point guard Steve Blake. With Iverson, many considered the Nuggets as one of the elite in the West. However, chemistry was an issue, as the Nuggets finished the season with the 6 seed, giving them a first round matchup against the San Antonio Spurs. In the playoffs, the Nuggets took Game 1 and home court advantage away from the Spurs. However, as had occurred in the 2005 playoffs, the Spurs bounced back to sweep the next four, as the Nuggets were eliminated in the first round in five games for", "On July 16, 2008, at the end of the 2007–08 NBA season, the Nuggets traded former NBA Defensive Player of the Year Marcus Camby to the Los Angeles Clippers for a second-round draft pick (that was then traded to the New York Knicks for Renaldo Balkman). This trade was to reduce the Nuggets' payroll costs. On November 3, 2008, guard Allen Iverson was traded to the Detroit Pistons for Chauncey Billups, Antonio McDyess, and Cheikh Samb (part of the trade exception from the Marcus Camby trade was used to allow the deal to go through). McDyess was waived though on November 10, 2008, and he returned to Detroit shortly afterwards. With Carmelo Anthony averaging 22.8 points per game and Billups averaging 6.4 assists in the 2008–09 NBA season the Nuggets accomplished a great number of franchise milestones. Their 54–28 record matched the most wins the franchise had gotten", "On February 22, 2011, after months of speculation that he wanted to leave the Nuggets, Carmelo Anthony was traded along with Chauncey Billups, Anthony Carter, Shelden Williams and Renaldo Balkman to the New York Knicks in a multi-player deal also involving the Minnesota Timberwolves in which the Nuggets received Wilson Chandler, Raymond Felton, Danilo Gallinari, Timofey Mozgov and Kosta Koufos. On the day when the trade was done, the Nuggets were left with 9 players to play against the Memphis Grizzlies. The Nuggets won 120–107, where they led by as many as 27 points. In the closing minutes of the game, the arena resounded with chants of \"Who needs Melo?\" George Karl said after the game, \"Our guys, when their backs are confronted with a difficult situation, they usually play at a high level. We always react to tough situations in a very positive way.\" Some people said after the trade the Nuggets would become the \"Cleveland Cavaliers\" of the West, that is, falter in the standings and lose their playoff hopes due to the loss of their franchise player, Carmelo. However, the trade only seemed to", "On August 10, 2012, Denver was involved in a four-team trade where they received All-Star Andre Iguodala and sent Arron Afflalo and Al Harrington to the Orlando Magic. This same trade also sent Dwight Howard to the Los Angeles Lakers. After the trade, Iguodala tweeted \"I'm excited to be joining the Denver Nuggets and I know my best basketball is ahead of me!\" Despite losing their first three games, the 2012–2013 Nuggets finished with a franchise best 57–25 record, and a 38–3 record in Pepsi Center (the Washington Wizards, Miami Heat, and Minnesota Timberwolves were the only", "Along with Karl being fired, Denver saw a major shake-up in the front office with Executive of the Year Masai Ujiri accepting the general manager position with the Toronto Raptors and vice-president Pete D'Alessandro, who was expected to replace Ujiri, being named General Manager of the Sacramento Kings. On June 21, 2013, Tim Connelly was announced as the new general manager. and to replace Karl, the Nuggets hired the Indiana Pacers' associate head coach, former NBA player, Brian Shaw. Guard-forward Andre Iguodala was sent to the Golden State Warriors in a sign-and-trade in which they acquired guard Randy Foye from the Utah Jazz. They also signed center-forward JJ Hickson, who was previously with the Portland Trail Blazers and 5' 9\" guard Nate Robinson, who played for the Bulls during the 2012–2013 season. They also acquired Darrell Arthur", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Nuggets. For the full season-by-season history,", "The Nuggets have displayed numerous color schemes, logos and uniforms throughout their franchise history, including their days in the American Basketball Association (ABA) as the \"Denver Rockets.\"", "From 1967–68 through 1970–71, the Denver Rockets' logos, uniforms and colors were black, orange and white. From 1971–72 through 1973–74, the", "During the Nuggets' final two seasons in the ABA, the team's logo featured a cartoonish miner known as \"Maxie The Miner,\" with a large red beard, a pick axe in one hand and a red and blue basketball in the other hand. When the Nuggets joined the NBA in the 1976–77 season, they retained the pick-axe logo on their jerseys from the ABA days. The home uniforms feature \"Nuggets\" in red, with", "From 1981–82 through 1992–93, the Nuggets wore the Denver \"rainbow city\" skyline across the chest and back on both the home and away uniforms. Some fans also call the iconic 1980s logo the \"Tetris\" logo, due to the buildings that shadow the mountains on the logo which are in the shape of squares. The initial home uniforms were white with navy and green trim, with \"Nuggets\" and the uniform number in gold with blue trim. The player", "For the 1993–94 season, the Nuggets drastically changed their look, with a navy blue, metallic gold and maroon color scheme on their uniforms. The \"rainbow city skyline,\" which had been synonymous with the team since 1981, was replaced with a logo that featured a navy blue snow-capped mountain above an enlarged western-style \"Nuggets\" wordmark in metallic", "For the 2003–04 season, the Nuggets made another uniform change, coinciding with Carmelo Anthony's debut, with a color scheme of powder blue, gold (yellow) and royal blue. The primary logo, featuring a snow-capped mountain, curved ribbon with a \"Denver\" wordmark and an enlarged western-style \"Nuggets\" workmark \"(see previous section)\", was modified, with the mountain royal blue, the ribbon powder blue and the \"Nuggets\" wordmark a golden yellow. Like the 1990s uniforms, the Nuggets' revised jerseys also had the \"Aachen\" typeface across the chest—it was \"Nuggets\" in powder blue, with royal blue", "For the 2018–19 season, the Nuggets modified their logos and uniforms, featuring various color schemes that the team has worn in their history. The current color scheme consists of midnight blue (navy), sunshine yellow, flatirons red (maroon) and skyline blue (royal)—the latter color is only featured on the \"Statement\" jersey and two of the team's new alternate logos. Powder blue, which was the team's dominant road jersey color from 2003–04 to 2016–17 and diminished to trim status on the 2017–18 uniforms, was eliminated from all logos and uniforms. The white \"Association\" jersey features \"Nuggets\" in flatirons red, with sunshine yellow trim", "In the 2017–18 season, Nike released a fourth uniform option known as the \"City\" series, which is updated annually. The Nuggets' first \"City\" uniform had a navy base, highlighting the pick-axe and mountain logo in front", "", "The Nuggets hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Writing.", "Casting.", "Filming.", "Music.", "Promotion.", "Release and reception.", "Contemporary reviews.", "Retrospective reviews." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "American NASA spacecraft Jupiter 16 is hijacked from orbit by an unidentified spaceship. The United States suspects it to be the work of the Soviets, but the British suspect Japanese involvement since the spacecraft, after having \"swallowed\" Jupiter 16, landed in the Sea of Japan. To investigate, MI6 operative James Bond is sent to Tokyo, after faking his own death in Hong Kong and being buried at sea from. Upon his arrival, Bond attends a sumo match where he is approached by Japanese secret service agent Aki, who takes him to meet local MI6 operative Dikko Henderson. Henderson claims to have critical evidence about the rogue craft, but is killed before he can elaborate. Bond chases and kills the assailant, taking the assailant's clothing as a disguise, and is driven in the getaway car to Osato Chemicals. Once there, Bond subdues the driver and breaks into the office safe of the company's president, Mr. Osato. After obtaining secret documents, Bond is pursued by armed security, but is rescued by Aki, who flees to a secluded subway station. Bond chases her, but falls down a trap door leading to the office of the head of the Japanese secret service, Tiger Tanaka. The stolen documents are examined, and found to include a photograph of the cargo ship \"Ning-Po\", with a microdot message saying the tourist who took the photo was killed as a security precaution. While at Tanaka's spa, Bond meets with Aki again. Having developed feelings for each other, the pair kiss and Bond carries Aki to his bed. Bond goes back to Osato Chemicals to meet Mr. Osato himself, masquerading as a potential new buyer. Osato humours Bond, but after their meeting, he orders his secretary, Helga Brandt, to have him killed; both are revealed to be SPECTRE agents. Outside the building, assassins open fire on Bond before Aki rescues him again. Bond and Aki drive to Kobe, where the \"Ning-Po\" is docked. They investigate the company's dock facilities, and discover that the ship was delivering elements for rocket fuel. They are discovered, but Bond eludes the henchmen until Aki gets away; however, Bond is captured. He wakes, tied up in Brandt's cabin on the \"Ning-Po\". Brandt interrogates Bond, before seducing him. Brandt flies Bond to Tokyo the next day, but en route, she sets off a flare in the plane, seals Bond in his seat and bails out, finally persuaded to kill him. Bond manages to evade the trap, lands the plane and flees before it explodes. After finding out where the \"Ning-Po\" unloaded, Bond flies over the area in a heavily armed autogyro created by Q, called 'Little Nellie'. Near a volcano, Bond is attacked by four helicopters, which he defeats thanks to the array of weaponry, confirming his suspicions that the enemy's base is nearby. A Soviet spacecraft is then captured in orbit by another unidentified craft, heightening tensions with the United States. The mysterious spaceship lands in an extensive base hidden inside the volcano. It soon turns out that the true mastermind behind this is Ernst Stavro Blofeld, the mysterious leader of SPECTRE who has been hired by a great power (strongly implied to be the People's Republic of China) to start a Soviet-American war, in order for them to destroy each other so that China can replace them as the world's new superpower. Blofeld summons Osato and Brandt to his office to answer for not having killed Bond; Osato immediately blames his assistant, Brandt. Blofeld gives them a last chance, but as Brandt leaves, he activates a mechanism that drops her to her death into a pool filled with piranhas. Blofeld then orders Osato to kill Bond. Bond then meets Tanaka and Aki in Kyoto where they plan to infiltrate the island by disguising Bond as a Japanese fisherman, amongst Tiger himself and 100 of his ninjas. The following night a SPECTRE assassin tries to poison Bond while he and Aki are sleeping together, however Aki accidentally ingests the deadly liquid instead. Bond kills the assassin but Aki dies moments later. Following a second attempt on his life by another assassin, Bond is introduced to Tanaka's student, Kissy Suzuki, who is to act as his wife. Acting on her lead, a funeral for an Ama girl who died recently, the pair reconnoitre a cave booby-trapped with poison, and the volcano above it. Establishing that the mouth of the volcano is a disguised hatch to the secret rocket base, Bond slips in, while Kissy goes to alert Tanaka. Bond locates and frees the captured American and Soviet astronauts and, with their help, steals a space suit in an attempt to infiltrate the SPECTRE spacecraft, \"Bird One\". However, Blofeld spots Bond mishandling his equipment, and he is detained while Bird One is launched with a backup astronaut. Bond is taken into the control room where he meets Blofeld face-to-face for the first time. Blofeld kills Osato to demonstrate the price of failure to Bond. Bird One closes in on an American space capsule, and U.S. forces prepare to launch a nuclear attack on the USSR. Meanwhile, a team of Japanese ninjas trained by Tanaka approach the base's entrance, but are detected and fired upon. Bond manages to open the hatch, letting in the ninjas. During the ensuing battle, Bond fights his way back to the control room, kills Blofeld's bodyguard Hans by tossing him into the piranha pool, and activates Bird One's self-destruct before it reaches the American craft. The Americans promptly stand down their forces. Blofeld activates the base's self-destruct system, a bomb that triggers a volcanic eruption, and escapes. Bond, Kissy, Tanaka, and the surviving ninjas leave before the eruption destroys the base, and are picked up by the Japanese Maritime Forces and the British Secret Service.", "\"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\" was the intended next film after \"Thunderball\" (1965), but the producers decided to adapt \"You Only Live Twice\" instead because \"OHMSS\" would require searching for high and snowy locations. Lewis Gilbert originally declined the offer to direct, but accepted after producer Albert R. Broccoli called him saying: \"You can't give up this job. It's the largest audience in the world.\" Peter R. Hunt, who edited the first five Bond films, believed that Gilbert had been contracted by the producers for other work but they found they had to use him. Gilbert, producers Broccoli and Harry Saltzman, production designer Ken Adam and director of photography Freddie Young then went to Japan, spending three weeks searching for locations. SPECTRE's shore fortress headquarters was changed to an extinct volcano after the team learned that the Japanese do not build castles by the sea. The group was due to return to the UK on a BOAC Boeing 707 flight (BOAC Flight 911) on 5 March 1966, but cancelled after being told they had a chance to watch a ninja demonstration. That flight crashed 25 minutes after takeoff, killing all on board. In Tokyo, the crew also found Hunt, who decided to go on holiday after having his request to direct declined. Hunt was invited to direct the second unit for \"You Only Live Twice\" and accepted the job. Unlike most James Bond films featuring various locations around the world, almost the entire film is set in one country and several minutes are devoted to an elaborate Japanese wedding. This is in keeping with Fleming's original novel, which also devoted a number of pages to the discussion of Japanese culture. Toho Studios provided soundstages, personnel, and the female Japanese stars to the producers.", "The producers had Harold Jack Bloom come to Japan with them to write a screenplay. Bloom's work was ultimately rejected, but since several of his ideas were used in the final script, Bloom was given the credit of \"Additional Story Material\". Among the elements were the opening with Bond's fake death and burial at sea, and the ninja attack. As the screenwriter of the previous Bond films, Richard Maibaum, was unavailable, Roald Dahl (a close friend of Ian Fleming) was chosen to write the adaptation, despite having no prior experience writing a screenplay except for the uncompleted \"The Bells of Hell Go Ting-a-ling-a-ling\". Dahl said that the original novel was \"Fleming's worst book, with no plot in it which would even make a movie\", and compared it to a travelogue, stating that he had to create a new plot though \"I could retain only four or five of the original story's ideas.\" On creating the plot, Dahl said he \"did not know what the hell Bond was going to do\" despite having to deliver the first draft in six weeks, and decided to do a basic plot similar to \"Dr. No\". Dahl was given a free rein on his script, except for the character of Bond and \"the girl formula\", involving three women for Bond to seduce — an ally and a henchwoman who both get killed, and the main Bond girl. While the third involved a character from the book, Kissy Suzuki, Dahl had to create Aki and Helga Brandt to fulfil the rest. Gilbert was mostly collaborative with Dahl's work, as the writer declared: \"He not only helped in script conferences, but had some good ideas and then left you alone, and when you produced the finished thing, he shot it. Other directors have such an ego that they want to rewrite it and put their own dialogue in, and it's usually disastrous. What I admired so much about Lewis Gilbert was that he just took the screenplay and shot it. That's the way to direct: You either trust your writer or you don't.\" Charles Gray, who played Dikko Henderson, actually says the famous \"shaken not stirred\" line the other way round saying \"that is stirred not shaken, that was right wasn't it?\" Bond replies \"Perfect.\"", "When the time came to begin \"You Only Live Twice\", the producers were faced with the problem of a disenchanted star. Sean Connery had stated that he was tired of playing James Bond and all of the associated commitment (time spent filming and publicising each movie), together with finding it difficult to do other work, which would potentially lead to typecasting. Saltzman and Broccoli were able to persuade Connery by increasing his fee for the film, but geared up to look for a replacement. Jan Werich was originally cast by producer Harry Saltzman to play Blofeld. Upon his arrival at the Pinewood set, both producer Albert R. Broccoli and director Lewis Gilbert felt that he was a poor choice, resembling a \"poor, benevolent father Christmas\". Nonetheless, in an attempt to make the casting work, Gilbert continued filming. After several days, both Gilbert and Broccoli determined that Werich was not menacing enough, and recast Blofeld with Donald Pleasence in the role. Pleasence's ideas for Blofeld's appearance included a hump, a limp, a beard, and a lame hand, before he settled on the scar. He found it uncomfortable, though, because of the glue that attached it to his eye. Many European models were tested for Helga Brandt including German actress Eva Renzi who passed on the film, with German actress Karin Dor being cast. Dor performed the stunt of diving into a pool to depict Helga's demise, without the use of a double. Strangely, for the German version, Dor was dubbed by somebody else. Gilbert had chosen Tetsurō Tamba after working with him in \"The 7th Dawn\". A number of martial arts experts were hired as the ninjas. The two Japanese female parts proved difficult to cast, due to most of the actresses tested having little English. Akiko Wakabayashi and Mie Hama, both Toho stars, were eventually chosen and started taking English classes in the UK. Hama, initially cast in the role of Tanaka's assistant, had difficulty with the language, so the producers switched her role with Wakabayashi, who had been cast as Kissy, a part with less dialogue. Wakabayashi only requested that her character name, \"Suki\", be changed to \"Aki\".", "Filming of \"You Only Live Twice\" lasted from July 1966 to March 1967. The film was shot primarily in Japan and most of the locations are identifiable. In summary: Most of the interiors were shot at Pinewood. The opening sequence in Hong Kong used some location footage of a street in Kowloon. Hong Kong's Victoria Harbour is also shown but the at-sea burial of Bond and the retrieval of the corpse was filmed off Gibraltar and the Bahamas. The scenes with the light aircraft ferrying Bond to his supposed death were shot over a very English looking, Buckinghamshire countryside whereas this was supposed to be Japan. Large crowds were present in Japan to see the shooting. A Japanese fan began following Sean Connery with a camera, and police had to deal with fan incursions several times during shooting. The heavily armed WA-116 autogyro \"Little Nellie\" was included after Ken Adam heard a radio interview with its inventor, RAF Wing Commander Ken Wallis. Little Nellie was named after music hall star Nellie Wallace, who has a similar surname to its inventor. Wallis piloted his invention, which was equipped with various mock-up armaments by John Stears' special effects team, during production. \"Nellie's\" battle with helicopters proved to be difficult to film. The scenes were initially shot in Miyazaki, first with takes of the gyrocopter, with more than 85 take-offs, 5 hours of flight and Wallis nearly crashing into the camera several times. A scene filming the helicopters from above created a major downdraft and cameraman John Jordan's foot was severed by the craft's rotor. It was surgically reattached by surgeons visiting the country, and then amputated in London when the surgery was deemed to have been flawed. Jordan would continue work for the Bond series with a prosthetic foot. The concluding shots involved explosions, which the Japanese government did not allow in a national park. So, the crew moved to Torremolinos, Spain, which was found to resemble the Japanese landscape. The shots of the volcano were filmed at Shinmoedake on Kyushu Island. The sets of SPECTRE's volcano base were constructed at a lot inside Pinewood Studios, with a cost of $1 million and including operative heliport and monorail. The tall set could be seen from away, and attracted many people from the region. Locations outside Japan included using the Royal Navy frigate, then in Gibraltar, for the sea burial, Hong Kong for the scene where Bond fakes his death, and Norway for the Soviet radar station. Sean Connery's then-wife Diane Cilento performed the swimming scenes for at least five Japanese actresses, including Mie Hama. Martial arts expert Donn F. Draeger provided martial arts training, and also doubled for Connery. Lewis Gilbert's regular editor, Thelma Connell, was originally hired to edit the film. However, after her initial, almost three-hour cut received a terrible response from test audiences, Peter R. Hunt was asked to re-edit the film. Hunt's cut proved a much greater success, and he was awarded the director's chair on the next film as a result.", "The soundtrack was the fourth of the series to be composed by John Barry. He tried to incorporate the \"elegance of the Oriental sound\" with Japanese music-inspired tracks. The theme song, \"You Only Live Twice\", was composed by Barry and lyricist Leslie Bricusse and sung by Nancy Sinatra after her father Frank Sinatra passed on the opportunity. Nancy Sinatra was reported to be very nervous while recording — first she wanted to leave the studio; then she claimed to sometimes \"sound like Minnie Mouse\". Barry declared that the final song uses 25 different takes. There are two versions of the song \"You Only Live Twice\", sung by Nancy Sinatra, one directly from the movie soundtrack, and a second one for record release arranged by Billy Strange. The movie soundtrack song is widely recognised for its striking opening bars and oriental flavour, and was far more popular on radio. The record release made No. 44 on the Billboard charts in the USA, No. 11 in UK. Both versions of the title song are available on CD. A different title song was originally recorded by Julie Rogers, but eventually discarded. Only two lines from that version were kept in the final lyrics, and the orchestral part was changed to fit Sinatra's vocal range. Rogers' version only appeared in a James Bond 30th Anniversary CD, with no singer credit. In the 1990s, an alternative example of a possible theme song (also called \"You Only Live Twice\" and sung by Lorraine Chandler) was discovered in the vaults of RCA Records. It became a very popular track with followers of the Northern soul scene (Chandler was well known for her high-quality soul output on RCA) and can be found on several RCA soul compilations.", "To promote the film, United Artists Television produced a one-hour color television programme titled \"Welcome to Japan, Mr. Bond\", which first aired on 2 June 1967 in the United States on NBC. Bond regulars Lois Maxwell and Desmond Llewelyn appeared playing respectively \"Miss Moneypenny\" and \"Q\". Kate O'Mara appears as Miss Moneypenny's assistant. The programme shows clips from \"You Only Live Twice\" and the then four existing Bond films, and contained a storyline of Moneypenny trying to establish the identity of Bond's bride.", "\"You Only Live Twice\" premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on June 12, 1967 in attendance of Queen Elizabeth II. The film opened the following day in the United Kingdom and United States and set an opening day record at the Odeon Leicester Square and went to number one in the United States with a weekend gross of $600,000. It grossed $7 million from 161 theaters in the United States in its first 3 weeks and was number one for seven weeks. The film grossed $43 million in the United States and over $68 million worldwide.", "Roger Ebert of the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" awarded the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, in which he criticised the focus on gadgets, declaring \"the formula fails to work its magic. Like its predecessor \"Thunderball,\" another below-par entry, this one is top-heavy with gadgets but weak on plotting and getting everything to work at the same time.\" Bosley Crowther, reviewing for \"The New York Times\", felt \"there's enough of the bright and bland bravado of the popular British super-sleuth mixed into this melee of rocket-launching to make it a bag of good Bond fun. And there's so much of that scientific clatter — so much warring of super-capsules out in space and fussing with electronic gadgets in a great secret underground launching pad—that this way out adventure picture should be the joy and delight of the youngsters and give pleasure to the reasonable adults who can find release in the majestically absurd.\" \"Variety\" stated more positively that \"As entertainment [\"You Only Live Twice\"] compares favorably in quality and is replete with as many fights, gadgets, and beauties as its predecessors\". \"Time\" was sharply critical of the film claiming the franchise had become \"the victim of the same misfortune that once befell Frankenstein: there have been so many flamboyant imitations that the original looks like a copy.\" The reviewer later derided that \"the effects are ineffective. The outer-space sequences would be more appropriate in a grade school educational short entitled Our Amazing Universe, and the volcanic climax is a series of clumsy process shots that no one took the trouble to fix. Even Connery seems uncomfortable and fatigued...\" Clifford Terry, reviewing for the \"Chicago Tribune\", remarked that \"a large percentage of \"You Only Live Twice\" is disappointing, lacking the wit and zip, the pacing and punch, of its predecessors, especially the first three. Roald Dahl's script is larded with sex-slanted jokes that are either pathetically feeble or sophomorically coarse, Bond's patented puns are punier and even Connery's enthusiasm for his shrewd, suave, and sensual character seems to have waned.\"", "On the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 73% based on 49 reviews with an average rating of 6.53/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"With exotic locales, impressive special effects, and a worthy central villain, \"You Only Live Twice\" overcomes a messy and implausible story to deliver another memorable early Bond flick.\" James Berardinelli of \"ReelViews\" said that the first half was good, but \"It's only during the second half, as the plot escalates beyond the bounds of preposterousness, that the film starts to fragment\", criticising Blofeld's appearance and stating \"rockets that swallow up spacecraft are a bit too extravagant.\" Ali Barclay of \"BBC Films\" panned Dahl's script displaying \"a whole new world of villainy and technology.\" Leo Goldsmith lauded the volcano base as \"the most impressive of Ken Adam's sets for the franchise.\" Danny Peary wrote that \"You Only Live Twice\" \"should have been about twenty minutes shorter\" and described it as \"not a bad Bond film, but it doesn't compare to its predecessors — the formula had become a little stale.\" IGN ranked \"You Only Live Twice\" as the fourth best \"Bond\" film, and \"Entertainment Weekly\" as the second best, considering that it \"pushes the series to the outer edge of coolness\". But Norman Wilner of MSN chose it as the fifth worst, criticising the plot, action scenes and little screentime for Blofeld. Literary critic Paul Simpson called the film one of the most colourful of the series and credited the prefecture of Kagoshima for adding \"a good flavour\" of Japanese influence on the film, but he panned the depiction of Blofeld as a \"let-down\", \"small, bald and a whooping scar.\" Simon Winder said that the film is \"perfect\" for parodies of the series. John Brosnan, in his book \"James Bond in the Cinema\", compared the film to an episode of \"Thunderbirds\" with a reliance on gadgetry but admitted it had pace and spectacle. Christopher Null considered the film to be one of James Bond's most memorable adventures, but the plot \"protracting and quite confusing\". The film is recognised by American Film Institute in these lists:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Team creation.", "1968–1975: The Lenny Wilkens era.", "Arrival of Spencer Haywood.", "1975–1983: The championship years.", "1983–1989: A period of decline.", "1989–1998: The Payton/Kemp era.", "1998–2008: A decade of struggles.", "2007–08: Arrival of Kevin Durant.", "Relocation to Oklahoma City.", "Possible new franchise.", "Sacramento Kings.", "Milwaukee Bucks.", "Atlanta Hawks.", "Future arena talks.", "KeyArena renovations.", "Uniforms.", "Rivalries.", "Players.", "Retired numbers.", "Basketball Hall of Famers.", "High points.", "Franchise leaders.", "Individual awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "On December 20, 1966, Los Angeles businessmen Sam Schulman and Eugene V. Klein, who both owned the AFL's San Diego Chargers at the time, and a group of minority partners were awarded an NBA franchise for the city of Seattle. Schulman would serve as the active partner and head of team operations. He named the team \"SuperSonics\" after Boeing's recently awarded contract for the SST project, which", "Hazzard was traded to the Atlanta Hawks before the start of the next season for Lenny Wilkens. Wilkens brought a strong all-around game to the SuperSonics, averaging 22.4 points, 8.2 assists, and 6.2 rebounds per game for Seattle in the 1968–69 season. Rule, meanwhile, improved on his rookie statistics with 24.0 points per game and 11.5 rebounds per game. The SuperSonics, however, only won 30 games and Bianchi was replaced by Wilkens as player/coach during the offseason. Wilkens and Rule both represented Seattle in the 1970 NBA", "Wilkens was named the 1971 All-Star Game MVP, but the big news of the season came when owner Sam Schulman managed to land American Basketball Association Rookie of the Year and MVP Spencer Haywood following a lengthy court battle (see \"Haywood v. National Basketball Assn.\"). The following season, the SuperSonics went on to record their first winning season at 47–35. The team, led by player-coach Wilkens and First Team forward Haywood, held a 46–27 mark on March 3, but late season injuries to starters Haywood, Dick Snyder, and Don Smith contributed to the team losing eight of its final nine games; otherwise, the 1971–72 team might have become the franchise's first playoff team. For the 1972–73 season, Wilkens was dealt to Cleveland in a highly unpopular trade, and without his leadership the SuperSonics fell to a 26–56 record. One of the few bright spots of the season was Haywood's second consecutive All-NBA First Team selection, as he averaged a SuperSonics record 29.2 points per game and collected 12.9 rebounds per game.", "The legendary Bill Russell was hired as the head coach in the following year, and in 1975 he coached the SuperSonics to the playoffs for the first time. The team, which starred Haywood, guards Fred Brown and Slick Watts, and rookie center Tommy Burleson, defeated the Detroit Pistons in a three-game mini-series before falling to the eventual champion Golden State Warriors in six games. The next season, the SuperSonics traded Haywood to New York forcing the remaining players to pick up the offensive slack. Guard Fred Brown, now in his fifth season, was selected to the", "In October 1983, original team owner Sam Schulman sold the SuperSonics to Barry Ackerley, initiating a period of decline and mediocrity for the franchise. In 1984, Fred Brown retired after playing 13 productive seasons, all with Seattle. His career reflected much of the SuperSonics' history to that time because he had been on the same team roster as Rule and Wilkens during his rookie season, playing a key role on Seattle's first playoff teams, and being the team's important sixth man during the championship series years. In recognition of his many contributions to the team, Brown's number was retired in 1986. Lenny Wilkens left the", "The SuperSonics began setting a new foundation with the drafting of forward Shawn Kemp in 1989 and guard Gary Payton in 1990, and the trading of Dale Ellis and Xavier McDaniel to other teams during the 1990–91 season. It was George Karl's arrival as head coach in 1992, however, that marked a return to regular season and playoff competitiveness for the SuperSonics. With the continued improvement of Gary Payton and Shawn Kemp, the SuperSonics posted a 55–27 record in the 1992–93 season and took the Phoenix Suns to seven games in the Western Conference Finals. The next year, 1993–94, the SuperSonics had the best record in the NBA at 63–19, but suffered a first round loss to the Denver Nuggets, becoming the first #1 seed to lose a playoff", "The 1998–99 season saw the SuperSonics struggle. Westphal was fired, after the team started the 2000–01 season 6–9, and replaced by then-assistant coach Nate McMillan on an interim basis, who was then retained as permanent head coach in February 2001. The 2002–03 season saw All-Star Payton traded to the Milwaukee Bucks, and it also marked the end to the SuperSonics' 11-year streak of having a season with a winning percentage of at least.500, the second longest current streak in the NBA at the time.", "On May 22, 2007, the SuperSonics were awarded the 2nd pick in the 2007 NBA draft, equaling the highest draft position the team has ever held. They selected Kevin Durant from the University of Texas. On June 28, 2007, the SuperSonics traded Ray Allen and the 35th pick of the 2nd round (Glen Davis) in the 2007 NBA draft to the Boston Celtics for rights to the 5th pick Jeff Green, Wally Szczerbiak, and Delonte West. On July 11, 2007, the SuperSonics and the Orlando Magic agreed to a sign and trade for Rashard Lewis. The SuperSonics received a future second-round draft pick and a $9.5 million trade exception from the Magic. On July 20 the SuperSonics used the trade exception and a second-round draft pick to acquire Kurt Thomas and", "From 2001 to 2006, Starbucks chairman emeritus, former president and CEO Howard Schultz was the majority owner of the team, along with 58 partners or minor owners, as part of the Basketball Club of Seattle LLP. On July 18, 2006, Schultz sold the SuperSonics and its sister team, the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA)'s Seattle Storm, to the Professional Basketball Club LLC (PBC), a group of businessmen from Oklahoma City for $350 million. The team relocated to Oklahoma City in 2008, and now plays as the Oklahoma City Thunder. In 2006, after unsuccessful efforts to persuade Washington state government officials to provide funding to update KeyArena, the Basketball Club of Seattle LLP, led by Howard Schultz, sold the team to the Professional Basketball Club", "", "In 2011, a group of investors led by Valiant Capital Management hedge fund founder Chris Hansen spoke with then-Seattle mayor Mike McGinn about the possibilities of investing in an arena in hopes of securing an NBA franchise and reviving the SuperSonics. An offer was made by McGinn to Hansen to obtain ownership of KeyArena for little to no money to aid in his efforts. As KeyArena was deemed unacceptable by the NBA and barely breaking even in operation, the facility would likely have needed to be leveled and a new one built on the site. Determining there were transportation concerns in the Lower Queen Anne neighborhood around the Seattle Center, Hansen declined in favor of building a new arena at another location. Hansen began quietly purchasing available land near Safeco Field in Seattle's SoDo industrial neighborhood, at the southern end of what was designated a Stadium Transition Overlay District housing both Safeco Field home of the MLB's Seattle Mariners and CenturyLink Field home of the NFL's Seattle Seahawks and MLS's Seattle Sounders. A short time later, Hansen presented to McGinn and King County Executive Dow Constantine the proposal for a basketball, hockey, and entertainment arena at the SoDo site. McGinn employed a stadium consultant on the city's behalf to study the viability of such a project. Local media took notice of the land purchases and began to postulate that it was for an arena. Rumors of meetings between McGinn and Hansen's investment group began to circulate in late 2011 and were finally acknowledged in early 2012.", "In September 2013, then-Deputy Commissioner Adam Silver, in line to become the next commissioner upon David Stern's retirement in February 2014, made the announcement that the Milwaukee Bucks would need to replace the aging BMO Harris Bradley Center because of its small size and lack of amenities. The team had recently signed a lease through the 2016–17 NBA season, but the NBA made it clear that the lease would not be renewed past that point. With counties surrounding Milwaukee passing ordinances that they would not approve a regional tax option to fund a new arena, rumors began swirling that owner Herb Kohl would need to sell all or part of his ownership of the team. Though Kohl had repeatedly stated he would not", "On January 2, 2015, the \"Atlanta Journal-Constitution\" reported that Atlanta Spirit, then-owners of the Atlanta Hawks, would put the team up for sale. Initially, only majority owner Bruce Levenson would put his stake in the team up for sale; however, the remaining minority owners announced that they would sell their stakes as well, putting the entire franchise up for sale. On January 6, 2015, the \"Seattle Post-Intelligencer\" reported that Chris Hansen and film producer Thomas Tull (the latter a minority", "On May 2, 2016, the Seattle City Council voted 5–4 against vacating a section of Occidental Avenue South, which connected property purchased by Hansen and was deemed critical to siting a future arena. The vote was seen as a significant setback to the memorandum of understanding between Hansen, the city and King County, which ran", "While talks of building a new arena were underway, there were also talks from another group of investors on renovating the SuperSonics' former home, the KeyArena. One of the investors is Tim Leiweke, co-founder of the Oak View Group. On December 4, 2017, one day after the deal with SoDo investor Chris Hansen expired, the Seattle City Council voted 7–1 approving the renovation of the KeyArena, with one person not available for voting that day. While the renovation is considered to have a", "The Seattle SuperSonics' first uniforms had \"Sonics\" displayed in a font that was also used by the Cincinnati Royals (now the Sacramento Kings). The road jerseys were green and had the lettering displayed in yellow coloring, where the home uniforms were white and had the lettering green. In 1995, the SuperSonics changed their uniforms adding red and orange, removing yellow, to their new jerseys that would last six seasons. It displayed the new Sonics logo on the front and their alternate logo", "The SuperSonics were traditional rivals with the Portland Trail Blazers because of the teams' proximity; the rivalry had been dubbed the I-5 Rivalry in reference to Interstate 5 that connects the two cities, which are only 174 miles apart. The rivalry was fairly equal in accomplishments,", "", "", "", "", "Points scored (regular season) (as of the end of the", "NBA Defensive Player of the Year NBA Rookie of the Year Award NBA Finals MVP NBA Executive of the Year NBA Most Improved Player Award J. Walter Kennedy Citizenshi" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "1974–1979: Early years in New Orleans.", "Moving to Utah.", "1979–1984: Frank Layden era.", "1984–2003: The Stockton/Malone era.", "2003–2005: Rebuilding.", "2005–2010: Williams/Boozer era.", "2010–2013: Millsap/Jefferson era.", "2013–2017: Hayward/Gobert era.", "2017–present: Mitchell/Gobert era.", "Rivalries.", "Season-by-season record.", "Mascot.", "Logos and uniforms.", "New Orleans Jazz.", "Utah Jazz.", "Throwback uniforms.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Basketball Hall of Famers.", "Franchise leaders.", "Individual awards.", "NBA All-Star Weekend.", "Broadcasters." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "On June 7, 1974, the New Orleans Jazz were admitted as an expansion franchise into the National Basketball Association (NBA). Team officials selected the name because of its definition in the dictionary: collective improvisation. The team began its inaugural season in New Orleans in the 1974–75 season. The team's first major move was to trade for star player Pete Maravich (who had played college basketball at LSU) from the Atlanta Hawks for two first-round draft picks, three second-round picks, and one third-round pick over the next three years. Although he was considered one of the most entertaining players in the league and won the scoring championship for the 1976–77 season with 31.1 points per game, the Jazz's best record while in New Orleans was 39–43 in the 1977–78 season. Maravich struggled with knee injuries from that season onward until they ended in 1985. Venue issues were a continual problem for the team while it was based in New Orleans. In the Jazz's first season, they played in the Municipal Auditorium and Loyola Field House, where the basketball court was", "Despite being barely competitive, the Jazz drew well during their first five years. However, by 1979 the franchise was sinking financially. Barry Mendelson, the team's executive vice president for most of the early years, said one factor in the financial trouble was an 11-percent amusement tax, highest in the U.S. at the time. The team also could not attract much local corporate support—an important factor even in those days—or local investors. Deciding that the Jazz could not be viable in New Orleans, Battistone decided to move elsewhere. After scouting several new homes, he decided on Salt Lake City, even though it was a smaller market. Salt Lake", "The Jazz's attendance declined slightly after the team's move from New Orleans to Utah, partly because of a late approval for the move (June 1979) and also poor marketing in the Salt Lake City area. The team's management made the first of several moves in 1979, bringing high-scoring forward Adrian Dantley to Utah in exchange for Spencer Haywood. Dantley averaged 28 points per game during the 1979–80 season, allowing the team to waive Pete Maravich early in the year. The team struggled to a 24–58 mark, but was rewarded with the second overall pick in the 1980 NBA draft, which they used to pick", "Jazz fans were not happy when the team picked an unknown guard in the first round of the 1984 NBA draft, John Stockton. The Jazz fans on hand for the draft party booed the selection. The 1984–85 season saw the emergence of Mark Eaton as a defensive force. Eaton averaged 5.6 blocks per game (still an NBA single-season record) along with 9.7 points and 11.3 rebounds, and won the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award. On the downside, John Drew played only 19 games all season, which deprived the team of their high-scoring sixth man. However, the Jazz returned to the playoffs, facing the Houston Rockets and their All-Star centers, Hakeem Olajuwon and Ralph Sampson. The Jazz prevailed in the series, 3–2, and advanced to the second round, losing the series to the high-scoring Denver Nuggets, 4–1. The team's perennial financial woes and instability were somewhat stabilized during April 1985, when auto dealer Larry H. Miller bought 50 percent of the team from Battistone for $8 million. Battistone had been seeking to move the team. In the 1985 NBA draft, the team added Louisiana Tech power forward Karl Malone, who made an immediate impact in the, averaging 14.9 points and 8.9 rebounds per game. However, starter Darrell Griffith missed the season with a stress fracture, and the Jazz hovered around.500 most of the year. In postseason, the", "Without Malone and Stockton, the faces of the Jazz franchise, the team lacked foundation as it went into the 2003–04 season. They were expected to finish near the bottom of the NBA by several NBA preview magazines, including \"Sports Illustrated\". The Jazz finished with a 42–40 record. The team featured several unheralded players who emerged as key contributors, including Kirilenko, Raja Bell, and Carlos Arroyo. In particular, Kirilenko demonstrated versatility on both offense and defense and earned a spot in the All-Star Game. The Jazz missed the playoffs", "In summer 2005, the Jazz continued to change their roster by trading three draft picks to acquire the number 3 overall pick, which they used to select Deron Williams. Other transactions included Raja Bell leaving the team for the Phoenix Suns, the Jazz re-obtaining center Greg Ostertag from the Sacramento Kings, and oft-injured Raúl López being traded to the Memphis Grizzlies. The 2005–06 season was injury-plagued before it started; Boozer missed the first 49 games and Gordan Giricek and Kirilenko both missed significant time due to injuries. Okur and Kirilenko, however, showed consistently good play, and Williams, despite a mid-season slump, was still an integral piece of the Jazz offense. However, team owner Larry Miller expressed displeasure with the team's effort during the season. The Jazz stayed in the playoff race until the third-to-last game, when they lost to the Dallas Mavericks. The Jazz ended the season 41–41, three games out of the playoffs. Ostertag retired at the end of the season, having spent 10 of his 11 NBA seasons with the Jazz. In the 2006 NBA draft, the Jazz selected Ronnie Brewer in the first round and in the second round selected Dee Brown and Paul Millsap. Several young players were traded to the Golden State Warriors for Derek Fisher, which give the Jazz frontcourt a veteran point guard. The Jazz were heralded by several major sports websites for drafting well and making good off-season moves. During the 2006–07 season, the Jazz improved considerably compared to the previous few seasons, finishing with a", "In the 2010 NBA draft, the Utah Jazz selected Gordon Hayward from Butler University with the No. 9 overall pick, and Jeremy Evans with the No. 55 overall pick. Boozer agreed to a five-year, $80 million contract with the Chicago Bulls in free agency on July 7, 2010. The Jazz turned the transaction into a sign-and-trade one day later, receiving a trade exception worth around $13 million in return from Chicago. Kyle Korver also agreed to sign with the Bulls, two days later. Terms were not announced, but multiple reports had his deal as three years, $13 million. Wesley Matthews signed a five-year, $33 million offer sheet with the Portland Trail Blazers on July 10, 2010. Less than a week after the Boozer loss, the", "Before the 2013–14 season began, Utah did not retain either Paul Millsap or Al Jefferson. Millsap accepted a two-year offer to join the Atlanta Hawks, while Jefferson signed with the Charlotte Bobcats. Jeff Hornacek was hired during the off-season as head coach of the Phoenix Suns. On March 14, 2014, the Jazz were officially eliminated from playoff contention with a 96–87 loss to the Los Angeles Clippers. On June 27, 2013, Rudy Gobert was selected with the 27th overall pick in the 2013 NBA draft by the Denver Nuggets. He was later traded on draft night to the Utah Jazz. On July 6, he signed his rookie scale contract with the Jazz and joined them for the 2013 NBA Summer League. On May 20, 2014, the Jazz earned the 5th pick in the 2014 NBA draft at the NBA Draft Lottery, with which they chose 18-year-old Australian point guard Dante Exum. They also had the 23rd pick from a trade with the Golden State Warriors and their own pick in the second round (the 35th pick overall). With the 23rd pick they", "On June 22, 2017, Donovan Mitchell was selected with the 13th overall pick in the 2017 NBA draft by the Denver Nuggets, who immediately traded Mitchell's rights to the Jazz in exchange for Trey Lyles. The Jazz also acquired veteran Ricky Rubio to play the point guard position. The Jazz began the 2017–18 season poorly, with an injury to Gobert and a lack of scoring leaving them with a 17–21 record by the end of December. In the second half of the season, the Jazz made rookie Mitchell a starter, and he subsequently led the team and all rookies in the league in", "The Jazz have not had a natural or fierce rival throughout their history, where each team has been competitive with the other over a long period of time. There have been several teams that they have played more than once in the NBA playoffs. The Jazz have played the Houston Rockets eight times in the playoffs with the Jazz winning the series five times. The Rockets won two NBA championships in 1994 and 1995), while defeating the Jazz along the way. The Portland Trail Blazers advanced to the 1992 NBA Finals after defeating the Jazz, while the Seattle SuperSonics advanced to the 1996", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Jazz. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Utah Jazz seasons.\" The Jazz are the only team in the NBA never to", "Jazz Bear is the club's mascot. He was introduced to the league on", "", "During the Jazz's time in New Orleans from 1974 to 1979, the home uniform was white with gold trim, a purple \"Jazz\" script and", "When the team moved to Utah in 1979, the Jazz made slight changes to their uniforms. The home uniforms remained the same, with the word \"Utah\" was added to the center chest logo in the 1986–87 season. The road uniforms were changed to dark green, with the aforementioned Jazz logo on the center chest and gold numbers. For the 1984–85 season, they were changed back to purple, this time with gold numbers and white trim, along with the addition of the word 'Utah' on the logo. These uniforms were worn until the 1995–96 season. For the 1996–97 season, the Jazz drastically updated their logos and uniforms, with a new color scheme of purple (slightly lighter from the previous shade), copper and turquoise. Their new uniform set featured a silhouette of the Wasatch Range on the center chest, with a stylish new Jazz script, and", "The Jazz have worn the original J-note uniforms on three separate occasions. During the 2003–04 season, the Jazz commemorated the team's 25th season in Utah by donning replicas of the 1986–96 white uniforms. Then in the 2009–10 season, the Jazz wore the 1979–1984 green uniforms (albeit with white trim", "", "The Jazz hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee, who is not signed", "", "Bold denotes still active with team. \"Name*\" includes points scored for the team while in the ABA. \"Italics\" denotes still", "NBA MVP NBA Rookie of the Year NBA Defensive Player of the Year NBA Coach of the Year NBA Executive of", "NBA All-Star Selections NBA All-Star", "The Jazz's flagship radio stations are KZNS (1280) \"The Zone\" and KZNS-FM Fox Sports Radio 97.5. The Jazz signed a new exclusive 12-year agreement with then FSN Utah, (now part of AT&T SportsNet Rocky Mountain) on October 20, 2009, ending the team's broadcasts on KJZZ-TV. The team's current TV and radio announcers are: Retired announcers:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1970–1978: Buffalo Braves.", "1978–1984: San Diego Clippers.", "1984–1989: Move to Los Angeles, and early struggles.", "1989–1994: Playoff appearances.", "1994–2000: Fitch, Anaheim and the move to Staples Center.", "Anaheim relocation talks.", "Bill Fitch era.", "Move to Staples Center.", "2000–2009: Further struggles at Staples Center.", "2009–2011: Blake Griffin's arrival and steady improvement.", "2011–2017: Arrival of Chris Paul and Lob City.", "2017–present: Rebuild.", "Season-by-season record.", "Home arenas.", "Proposed Inglewood arena.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Coaches and players of note.", "Retained draft rights.", "Franchise leaders.", "Individual awards.", "NBA All-Star Weekend." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The franchise began in Western New York as the Buffalo Braves, one of three NBA expansion franchises that began play in the 1970–71 season, along with the Portland Trail Blazers and Cleveland Cavaliers. They played their home games at the Buffalo Memorial Auditorium, along with another Buffalo team that would begin play that year, the National Hockey League's Buffalo Sabres. After two bad seasons, the Braves' fortunes started to change under coach Jack Ramsay and star forward/center Bob McAdoo. McAdoo led the NBA in scoring for three consecutive seasons and was named the league's MVP in the 1974–75 season. The Braves qualified for the playoffs three times in a row, losing twice to the eventual Eastern Conference champions (the Boston Celtics in 1974 and", "In 1978, San Diego welcomed the relocation of the Buffalo Braves franchise, as the city's previous NBA franchise, the San Diego Rockets, had relocated to Houston seven years earlier in 1971. San Diego team officials did not think \"Braves\" was a proper representative nickname for the club in San Diego, and a local naming contest ultimately decided on \"Clippers\", in reference to the city being known for the great sailing ships that passed through San Diego Bay. Playing at the San Diego Sports Arena,", "In 1984, despite the pending lawsuits between franchise ownership and the NBA following the move, the Clippers began play at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena. The Clippers finished their first season in Los Angeles 31–51 under head coach Jim Lynam. The Clippers' early days in Los Angeles were marred with many seasons of hapless performances. Despite fielding a squad of talented veterans, the organization suffered systematic injuries to many of its star players. The phenomenon was dubbed", "The Clippers traded the rights to the recently drafted Danny Ferry and Reggie Williams for high-scoring shooting guard Ron Harper at the start of the 1989–90 season. Los Angeles had a 19–19 record nearly halfway into the season, prompting some to seriously consider the team as a possible playoff contender. That move, along with the 1987 NBA draft of Ken Norman, the 1988 selections of Danny Manning and Charles Smith (Smith was acquired from Philadelphia in exchange for the draft rights to Hersey Hawkins), and the 1990 draft of Loy Vaught, formed a nucleus that would make the franchise a playoff contender. Midway through the 1991–92 season, the Clippers made yet another coaching change. Larry Brown, recently fired by the San Antonio Spurs, was hired as the team's head coach in late January 1992. He replaced Mike Schuler, who had led the team to a 22–25 record before his firing. Brown finished the season with", "", "Anaheim, a suburb approximately thirty miles south of Downtown Los Angeles in affluent Orange County, expressed interest in obtaining an NBA franchise. The city, expecting to lose the NFL's Los Angeles Rams (who relocated to St. Louis in 1995 for 21 seasons, before moving back to Los Angeles in 2016), was looking for a new professional team and began courting the Clippers, who struggled carving out an identity competing against the popular Lakers for audience share. From 1994 to 1999, the Clippers played several games annually (usually five to eight regular season games a season, and an annual preseason game) at the Arrowhead Pond of Anaheim, sharing the venue with the NHL's Ducks and the Splash indoor soccer team. Clippers games regularly drew a much-higher average attendance per game at the Pond than when the team played its home games at their regular venue, the Los Angeles Sports Arena; the Anaheim games proved so popular that many Clippers players and much of the fan base, as well as the NBA, wanted to the team to stay in what was considered at the time a state-of-the-art arena. For instance, between 1994 and 1997, the Clippers drew an average of nearly", "On the court, the Clippers continued to make frequent roster changes throughout this particular period, which only resulted with one playoff appearance under Fitch. Along with Loy Vaught, a collection of young players (including Lamond Murray, Eric Piatkowski, and Lorenzen Wright), and journeyman veterans (among them Pooh Richardson, Tony Massenburg, Rodney Rogers, Darrick Martin, and Brian Williams), the Fitch-coached teams during this particular era struggled mightily, although they did make the playoffs once during this time. The 1996–97 team made the playoffs with a losing record (36–46) and were swept in", "In what was supposed to be a counter-move, the Coliseum Commission, the management entity that managed the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena and Coliseum, had planned to build a new 18,700-seat arena in the parking lot next to the Sports Arena that would have cost up to $94 million, that would have included 1,100 club seats, 84 luxury suites, and an on-site practice facility for the Clippers. However, those plans were scuttled once planning for Staples Center (two miles directly up the street from the Sports Arena) were taking place, and the Clippers decided to become a tenant at Staples. In 1999,", "The 2000–01 season brought changes. Derek Strong was sent to the Orlando Magic in exchange for Corey Maggette and the draft rights to Keyon Dooling. The Clippers' two draft picks that year were childhood friends from Illinois: high schooler Darius Miles (3rd overall pick) and Quentin Richardson (18th overall pick). The team became popular among fans with its high-flying style of basketball and the Clippers did improve slightly, registering a 31–51 record. The team also lead the NBA in bench-scoring, with 37 points per game. To improve upon the previous season, the Clippers acquired high-scoring and rebounding power forward Elton Brand from the Chicago Bulls in exchange for the draft rights to Tyson Chandler. Brand earned a spot on the 2002 NBA Western Conference All-Star team as an injury replacement for Shaquille O'Neal. The Clippers contended for most of the season, but won only 3 of the last 12 games and finished 39–43, five games out of the playoffs. In order to seriously challenge for playoff contention in 2003, the franchise traded Miles to the Cavaliers for Andre Miller, who led the NBA in assists in 2001–02 with 11 per game. With a seasoned point guard in Miller, Lamar Odom at small forward, one of the league's best power forwards in Brand, and center Olowokandi, as well as having the best supporting cast in the league, the Clippers threatened a potential playoff run. However, poor team chemistry and injuries (the Clippers lost 293 man-games to injury), they finished with a disappointing 27–55 record. Coach Alvin Gentry was also replaced, with Dennis Johnson entering midway through the 2002–03 season. After the dismal season prior, the team lost several of its core players, with Miller, Odom, Olowakandi,", "With the first overall pick, the team selected Blake Griffin. To clear a spot in the lineup for him, they traded Zach Randolph to Memphis for Quentin Richardson. Richardson was then traded to the Minnesota Timberwolves for Sebastian Telfair, Craig Smith, and Mark Madsen. Griffin immediately impressed in training camp and preseason. On October 23, he broke his kneecap during the Clippers' final exhibition game against the New Orleans Hornets, following a dunk. Initially, the Clippers' stated that he only had a sore", "In December 2011, the Clippers signed Caron Butler to a $24 million deal and claimed veteran point guard Chauncey Billups three days later. On December 14, they traded Eric Gordon, Chris Kaman, Al-Farouq Aminu and Minnesota's 2012 first-round pick acquired in 2005 for New Orleans Hornets' four-time all-star Chris Paul. Paul had previously almost been traded to the Los Angeles Lakers, but NBA commissioner David Stern had vetoed the trade (the NBA was owner of the Hornets at the time). Paul and Griffin were selected as starters for the Western Conference team in the 2012 NBA All-Star Game, the first time in franchise history the team had two All-Star starters in the same year. The team gained the nickname \"Lob City\" due to a comment made by Griffin during the Clippers Media Day when the announcement of Chris Paul's trade reached the team. Griffin, after being told the news by Jordan, declared, \"Yeah! It's going to be lob city!\" In February 2012, the Clippers signed Kenyon Martin. An 11-year NBA veteran and former NBA All-Star (2004), Martin joined the Clippers after signing with the Xinjiang Guanghui Flying Tigers of the Chinese Basketball Association the previous summer. On February 6, 2012, during a game against the Orlando Magic, Billups tore his Achilles tendon and missed the remainder of the season. In March 2012, Nick Young joined the Clippers as part of a three-team trade with the Washington Wizards and the Denver Nuggets. He became the eighth player to debut in the 2011–12 season. After a stretch that saw the Clippers lose 12 of 19 games after Billups's season-ending injury, with rumors of Vinny Del Negro's career as head coach of the Clippers possibly coming to an abrupt end, Los Angeles went on a tear. The Clippers won 12 of their next 14 games, including road wins over the defending champions Dallas Mavericks and the Western Conference-leading Oklahoma City Thunder, clinching their fifth playoff berth since their 1976 conference semi-finals loss to the Boston Celtics (the last time they made the playoffs as the Buffalo Braves) before a dominating home win over the Oklahoma City Thunder on April 16, 2012. It was their third win in four regular season games against the Thunder. Chris Paul's push for the NBA Most Valuable Player Award was at its peak, and the 2011–12 season was the first time the Clippers were in the playoffs since 2005–06 season. In their first playoff game, the Clippers rallied from a 27-point deficit against the Grizzlies to win 99–98 in one of the biggest rallies in playoff history. They led the series 3–1, then lost two straight, before coming back to win Game 7 in Memphis 82–72, becoming the 6th NBA road team to win Game 7 after leading series 3–1, and prevail to the second round. The Clippers relied on their bench during that game, and they came through, scoring all but two of their points in the fourth quarter. In the second round of the playoffs, the team was swept by the San Antonio Spurs. The following off-season, GM Neil Olshey", "In preparation for a rebuild, the Clippers brought in two-time Executive Of The Year winner Jerry West to serve as their special consultant; West was the architect behind the dynasties of the 2000 to 2002 Los Angeles Lakers and mid to late 2010s Golden State Warriors, and had helped to establish the Memphis Grizzlies as a relevant playoff contender. On June 28, 2017, Chris Paul was sent to the Houston Rockets in a sign-and-trade in exchange for Lou Williams, Patrick Beverley, Montrezl Harrell, Sam Dekker, Darrun Hilliard, DeAndre Liggins, Kyle Wiltjer, a future first round pick, and cash considerations. The team retained Griffin and acquired Italian wing Danilo Gallinari in a three-team trade with the Denver Nuggets and Atlanta Hawks. Due to injuries to Griffin and Gallinari and no serious depth on the roster, the team was struggling by the 2018 trade deadline and traded Griffin to the Detroit Pistons in exchange for Tobias Harris, Avery Bradley, Boban Marjanović, a protected first round pick in 2018, and a second round pick in 2019. With the added depth, they", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Clippers. For the full season-by-season history,", "", "On June 15, 2017, the Clippers and the city of Inglewood entered into an exclusive negotiating agreement in which the team plans to build a new privately funded 18,000 to 20,000-seat arena, Inglewood Basketball and Entertainment Center, planning to open by 2024, when the Clippers' current lease with Staples Center expires. The planned arena is expected to be located at Century Boulevard between Yukon and Prairie Avenues, directly south of the under-construction SoFi Stadium, the future home of the Los Angeles Rams and Los Angeles Chargers of the National Football League. The arena is also expected to house a practice facility and team headquarters for the Clippers, as the team's current practice facility in Los Angeles' Playa Vista neighborhood is still owned by the Sterling Family Trust, and is leased back", "On June 18, 2015, the Los Angeles Clippers unveiled its new brand identity. The club's primary logo features a basketball in the shape of a compass, with the club's \"LAC\" monogram situated in the middle. Below that is the club's wordmark logo in black, with the two curved lines below the wordmark symbolizing the horizon of the ocean, which the club says it alludes to its nautical roots. The team also unveiled its new home and away uniforms, which kept the design template from the previous", "", "The Clippers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "Bold denotes still active with team. \"Italic\" denotes still active but", "NBA Rookie of the Year NBA Most Improved Player NBA Sixth Man of the Year NBA Sportsmanship Award NBA Teammate", "NBA All-Star selections NBA" ] }

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{ "title": [ "WordPerfect for DOS.", "WordPerfect for Windows.", "History.", "WordPerfect Office Suite.", "Novell buys WordPerfect Company.", "Microsoft vs Novell.", "Market share.", "Application integration and middleware.", "Faithful customers.", "\"Novell v. Microsoft\" antitrust lawsuit.", "Corel WordPerfect.", "WordPerfect Office.", "Corel WordPerfect Office 2000.", "Latest version.", "Quattro Pro.", "Presentations.", "WordPerfect Lightning.", "Other desktop applications.", "\"Classic Mode\".", "Version history.", "Summary.", "Unix.", "Macintosh.", "Atari ST.", "Amiga.", "Linux.", "iOS.", "Unicode and Asian language editing.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1979, Brigham Young University graduate student Bruce Bastian and computer science professor Alan Ashton created word processing software for a Data General minicomputer system owned by the city of Orem, Utah. Bastian and Ashton retained ownership of the software that they created. They then founded Satellite Software International, Inc., to market the program to other Data General users. WordPerfect 1.0 represented a significant departure from the previous Wang standard for word processing. The first version of WordPerfect for the IBM PC was released the day after Thanksgiving in 1982. It was sold as WordPerfect 2.20, continuing the version numbering from the Data General program. Over the next several months, three more minor releases arrived, mainly to correct bugs. The developers had hoped to program WordPerfect in C, but at this early stage there were no C compilers available for the IBM PC and they had to program it in x86 assembly language. All versions of WordPerfect up to 5.0 were written in x86, and C was only adopted with WP 5.1 when it became necessary to convert it to non-IBM compatible computers. The use of straight assembly language and a high amount of direct screen access gave WordPerfect a significant performance advantage over WordStar, which used strictly DOS API functions for all screen and keyboard access and was often very slow. In addition, WordStar, created for the CP/M operating system in which subdirectories are not supported, was extremely slow in switching to support sub-directories in MS-DOS. In 1983, WordPerfect 3.0 was released for DOS. This was updated to support DOS 2.x, sub-directories, and hard disks. It also expanded printer support, where WordPerfect 2.x only supported Epson and Diablo printers that were hard-coded into the main program. Adding support for additional printers this way was impractical, so the company introduced printer drivers, a file containing a list of control codes for each model of printer. Version 3.0 had support for 50 different printers, and this was expanded to 100 within a year. WordPerfect also supplied an editor utility that allowed users to make their own printer drivers or to modify the included ones. \"Antic\" magazine observed that \"WordPerfect is almost unusable without its manual of over 600 pages!\" A version of WordPerfect 3.0 became the Editor program of WordPerfect Office. WordPerfect 4.0 was released in 1984. WordPerfect 4.2, released in 1988, introduced automatic paragraph numbering which was important to law offices, and automatic numbering and placement of footnotes and endnotes that were important to law offices and academics. It became the first program to overtake the original market leader WordStar in a major application category on the DOS platform. By 1987, Compute! magazine described WordPerfect as \"a standard in the MS-DOS world\" and \"a powerhouse program that includes almost everything\". In November 1989, WordPerfect Corporation released the program's most successful version WordPerfect 5.1 for DOS, which was the first version to include pull-down menus to supplement the traditional function key combinations, support for tables, a spreadsheet-like feature, and full support for typesetting options such as italic, redline, and strike-through. This version also included \"print preview\", a graphical representation of the final printed output that became the foundation for WordPerfect 6.0's graphic screen editing. WordPerfect 5.1+ for DOS was introduced to allow older DOS-based PCs to utilize the new WordPerfect 6 file format. This version could read and write WordPerfect 6 files, included several 3rd-party screen and printing applications (previously sold separately), and provided several minor improvements. WordPerfect 6.0 for DOS, released in 1993, could switch between its traditional text-based display mode and a graphical display mode that showed the document as it would print out known as WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get). The previous text-based versions used different colors or text color inversions to indicate various markups and a graphic mode only for an uneditable print preview that used generic fonts rather than the actual fonts that appeared on the printed page. By the time WordPerfect 6.0 was released, the company had grown \"to command more than 60 percent of the word processing software market.\"", "", "WordPerfect was late in coming to market with a Windows version. The first mature version, WordPerfect 5.2 for Windows, was released in November 1992. Prior to that, there was a WordPerfect 5.1 for Windows, introduced a year earlier. That version had to be installed from DOS and was largely unpopular due to serious stability issues. By the time WordPerfect 5.2 for Windows was", "WordPerfect became part of an office suite when the company entered into a co-licensing agreement with Borland Software Corporation in 1993. The offerings were marketed as Borland Office, containing Windows versions of WordPerfect, Quattro Pro, Borland", "The WordPerfect product line was sold twice, first to Novell in June 1994, who then sold it", "Compounding WordPerfect's troubles were issues associated with the release of the first 32-bit version, WordPerfect 7, intended for use on Windows 95. In the lawsuit 'Novell v. Microsoft', Novell argued that these problems were due to anti-competitive acts by Microsoft. While WordPerfect 7 contained notable improvements over the 16-bit WordPerfect for Windows 3.1, it was released in May 1996, nine months after the introduction of Windows 95 and Microsoft Office 95 (including Word 95). The initial release suffered", "While WordPerfect dominated the DOS market, Microsoft shifted its attention toward a Windows version of Word; after Windows 3.0 was introduced, Word's market share began to grow at an extraordinary rate. A Windows version of WordPerfect was not introduced until nearly two years", "While Microsoft offered something that looked like a fully integrated office suite in Microsoft Office, a common complaint about early Windows versions of WordPerfect Office was that it looked like a collection of separate applications from different vendors cobbled together, with inconsistent user interfaces from one application to another. In fact, enabling applications from various software developers to work together on every platform was part of the Novell strategy. Novell had acquired WordPerfect", "Among the remaining avid users of WordPerfect are many law firms and government offices, which favor WordPerfect features such as macros, reveal codes, and the ability to access a large range of formatting options such as left-right block indent directly with key combinations rather than having to click through several layers of submenus as Microsoft Word often requires. Fast typists appreciate the ability to keep their hands on the keyboard, rather than reaching for the mouse as often as would be required if they were using Microsoft", "In November 2004, Novell filed an antitrust lawsuit against Microsoft for alleged anti-competitive behavior (such as tying Word to sales of Windows) that Novell claims led to loss of WordPerfect market share. That lawsuit,", "Since its acquisition by Corel, WordPerfect for Windows has officially been known as Corel WordPerfect. On January 17, 2006, Corel announced WordPerfect X3. Corel is an original member of the OASIS Technical Committee on the OpenDocument Format, and Paul Langille, a senior Corel developer, is one of the original four authors of the OpenDocument specification. In January 2006, subscribers to Corel's electronic newsletter were informed that WordPerfect 13 was scheduled for release later in 2006. The subsequent release of X3 (identified as \"13\" internally and in registry entries) has been met with generally positive reviews, due to new features including a unique PDF import capability, metadata removal tools, integrated search and online resources and other features. Version X3 was described by CNET in January, 2006 as a \"winner\", \"a feature-packed productivity suite that's just as easy to use — and in many ways more innovative than — industry-goliath Microsoft Office 2003.\" CNET went on to describe X3 as \"a solid upgrade for long-time users\", but that \"Die-hard Microsoft fans may want to wait to see what Redmond has up its sleeve with the radical changes expected within the upcoming", "WordPerfect Office is an office suite developed by Corel Corporation. It originates from Borland Software Corporation's Borland Office, released in 1993 to compete against Microsoft Office and AppleWorks. Borland's suite bundled three key applications: WordPerfect, Quattro Pro and Paradox. Borland then sold the suite to Novell in 1994, which led to the addition of Novell Presentations and the now-defunct InfoCentral. It was then sold to Corel in 1996.", "Corel WordPerfect Office 2000 featured version 9 of its core applications: WordPerfect, Quattro Pro, Presentations, Paradox and CorelCentral. All versions of the suite also bundle Trellix 2 and Microsoft Visual Basic for Applications. The suite for Windows was released on November 16, 1998 as a preview and on May 25, 1999 to retail. The Home and Student edition, as well as the Family Pack, omit the Presentations and Paradox software. Small Business edition was released on January 31, 2000 and omits Paradox. Several variants of this suite exist. One", "The latest version is", "Quattro Pro is a spreadsheet program that originally competed against the dominant Lotus 1-2-3,", "Presentations is a presentation program by Corel. Its", "WordPerfect Lightning is a note-taking application. Its", "Paradox is a relational database manager for", "Corel added \"Classic Mode\" in WordPerfect 11. Although this displays the \"classic\" cyan Courier text on medium blue background, it is not a true emulation of the DOS version. It", "", "WordPerfect 9 and newer is bundled with the WordPerfect Office Suite and cannot be purchased separately. In addition, versions of WordPerfect have also been", "Known versions for Sun include 6.0, requiring SunOS or Solaris 2, year of release unknown. At one time or another,", "Development of WordPerfect for Macintosh did not run parallel to versions for other operating systems, and used version numbers unconnected to contemporary releases for DOS and Windows. Version 2 was a total rewrite, adhering more closely to Apple's UI guidelines. Version 3 took this further, making extensive use of the technologies Apple introduced in Systems 7.0–7.5, while remaining fast and capable of running well on older machines. Corel released version 3.5 in 1996, followed by the improved version 3.5e (for enhanced) in 1997. It was never updated beyond that, and the product was eventually discontinued., Corel has reiterated that the company", "Like the Macintosh version, development of WordPerfect for the Atari ST did not run parallel to the DOS versions. However the Atari ST version number aligned with contemporary DOS releases. In 1987, WordPerfect Corp. released version 4.1. This was the only Atari version ever released, but numerous patches and updates ensured that the Atari version of WordPerfect ran on all Atari ST, Atari STe, TT, and Falcon computers. WordPerfect ST differs from the DOS version most notably in speed and number of windows a user can open. On the Atari ST version, a user can open up to four windows (compared to DOS' two) and the application runs three to five times faster than the DOS version (depending on which update or patch is installed). This was possible", "In 1987, WordPerfect was ported to the Amiga 1000 and was upgraded through version 4.1 on the Amiga platform despite rumors of its discontinuation. The company's efforts were not well supported by Amiga users and it did not sell well. Though it could be started from the Workbench or CLI, WordPerfect remained a fundamentally text-oriented program", "In 1995, WordPerfect 6.0 was made available for Linux as part of Caldera's internet office package. In late 1997, a newer version was made available for download, but had to be purchased to be activated. In 1998 Corel released WordPerfect 8.0 for Linux. The full version was sold as a package. A cut-down version was made available for downloading. Hoping to establish themselves in the nascent commercial Linux market, Corel also developed their own distribution of Linux. This included WordPerfect 8.1 for Linux. Although the Linux distribution was fairly well-received, the response to WordPerfect for Linux varied. Some Linux promoters appreciated the availability of a well-known, mainstream application for the operating system. Once", "A WordPerfect X7 app for iOS was released in 2014, but it was merely remote desktop", "WordPerfect lacks support for Unicode, which limits its usefulness in many markets outside North America and Western Europe. Despite pleas from long-time users, this feature has not yet been implemented. For users in WordPerfect's traditional markets, the inability to deal with complex character sets, such as Asian language scripts,", "\"PC Magazine\" stated in March 1983 that \"\"WordPerfect\" is very impressive, a more than full-featured program with a few truly state-of-the-art goodies tucked into the package\". It cited WordPerfect's inclusion of mail merge, footnotes, and macros—all missing from WordStar—as well as \"virtually every... feature that one ought to expect from a higher-priced program\" including find-and-replace, bold and underline display, and automatic paragraph reflow. \"Byte\" in December 1984 noted the application's built-in print buffer, ability to show bold, underline, and centered text, and extensive math capabilities. It criticized the quality of the spell checker and difficult tab settings, but concluded that \"its powerful capabilities far outweigh the problems mentioned\". \"Compute!\" in August 1985 called \"WordPerfect\" \"excellent\". It especially praised the clean, uncluttered screen and fast spell checker. Noting the spell checker's size and the company's \"excellent track record of supporting its software\", \"Antic\" in May 1988 concluded that \"If you want to own the most power-packed word processor available for the ST today, and can live with the relative complexity needed for harnessing this power, WordPerfect is what you've been waiting for.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Observation.", "Properties.", "Nebula structure.", "Planetary nebula nucleus (PNN)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "This nebula was discovered by the French astronomer Charles Messier while searching for comets in late January 1779. Messier's report of his independent discovery of Comet Bode reached fellow French astronomer Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix two weeks later, who then independently rediscovered the nebula while following the comet. Darquier later reported that it was \"\"...as large as Jupiter and resembles a planet which is fading\"\" (which may have contributed to the use of the \"planetary nebula\" terminology). It would be entered into Messier's catalogue as the 57th object. Messier and German-born astronomer William Herschel speculated that the nebula was formed by multiple faint stars that were unresolvable with his telescope. In 1800, German Count Friedrich von Hahn announced that he had discovered the faint central star at the heart of the nebula a few years earlier. He also noted that the interior of the ring had undergone changes, and said he could no longer find the central star. In 1864, English amateur astronomer William Huggins examined the spectra of multiple nebulae, discovering that some of these objects, including M57, displayed the spectra of bright emission lines characteristic of fluorescing glowing gases. Huggins concluded that most planetary nebulae were not composed of unresolved stars, as had been previously suspected, but were nebulosities. The nebula was first photographed by the Hungarian astronomer Eugene von Gothard in 1886.", "Messier 57 is located south of the bright star Vega, which forms the northwestern vertex of the Summer Triangle asterism. The nebula lies about 40% of the distance from Beta (β) to Gamma (γ) Lyrae, making it an easy target for amateur astronomers to find. The nebula disk has an angular size of, making it too small to be resolved with 10×50 binoculars. It is best observed using a telescope with an aperture of at least, but even a telescope will reveal its elliptical ring shape. The interior hole can be resolved by a instrument at a magnification of 100×. Larger instruments will show a few darker zones on the eastern and western edges of the ring, and some faint nebulosity inside the disk. The central star, at magnitude 14.8, is difficult to spot.", "M57 is from Earth. It has a visual magnitude of 8.8 and photographic magnitude of 9.7. Photographs taken over a period of 50 years show the rate of nebula expansion is roughly 1 arcsecond per century, which corresponds to spectroscopic observations as 20–30 km s. M57 is illuminated by a central white dwarf or planetary nebula nucleus (PNN) of 15.75v visual magnitude. All the interior parts of this nebula have a blue-green tinge that is caused by the doubly ionized oxygen emission lines at 495.7 and 500.7 nm. These observed so-called \"forbidden lines\" occur only in conditions of very low density containing a few atoms per cubic centimeter. In the outer region of the ring, part of the reddish hue is caused by hydrogen emission at 656.3 nm, forming part of the Balmer series of lines. Forbidden lines of ionized nitrogen or [N II] contributes to the reddishness at 654.8 and 658.3 nm.", "M57 is an example of the class of planetary nebulae known as bipolar nebulae, whose thick equatorial rings visibly extend the structure through its main axis of symmetry. It appears to be a prolate spheroid with strong concentrations of material along its equator. From Earth, the symmetrical axis is viewed at about 30°. Overall, the observed nebulosity has been currently estimated to be expanding for approximately 1,610 ± 240 years. Structural studies find this planetary exhibits knots characterized by well developed symmetry. However, these are only silhouettes visible against the background emission of the nebula's equatorial ring. M57 may include internal N II emission lines located at the knots' tips that face the PNN; however, most of these knots are neutral and appear only in extinction lines. Their existence shows they are probably only located closer to the ionization front than those found in the Lupus planetary IC 4406. Some of the knots do exhibit well-developed tails which are often detectable in optical thickness from the visual spectrum.", "The central PNN was discovered by Hungarian astronomer Jenő Gothard on September 1, 1886, from images taken at his observatory in Herény, near Szombathely. Within the last two thousand years, the central star of the Ring Nebula has left the asymptotic giant branch after exhausting its supply of hydrogen fuel. Thus it no longer produces its energy through nuclear fusion and, in evolutionary terms, it is now becoming a compact white dwarf star. The PNN now consists primarily of carbon and oxygen with a thin outer envelope composed of lighter elements. Its mass is about, with a surface temperature of 125,000 ± 5,000 K. Currently it is 200 times more luminous than the Sun, but its apparent magnitude is only +15.75." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "1946–1962: Early years.", "1959–1965: The Wilt Chamberlain era.", "1965–1978: Thurmond and Barry.", "1978–1985: A period of struggles.", "1985–1997: The Chris Mullin era.", "1997–2009: Wilderness years.", "2009–present: Stephen Curry era.", "2009–2012: Continued struggles and good draft choices.", "2012–2014: Moving toward success.", "2014–present: The Strength In Numbers Dynasty.", "Move from Oakland back to San Francisco.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Rivalries.", "Cleveland Cavaliers.", "Media.", "Television.", "Radio.", "Season-by-season record.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Retired numbers.", "Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame members.", "Statistical leaders and awards.", "Individual awards.", "NBA All-Star Weekend." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Warriors were founded in 1946 as the Philadelphia Warriors, a charter member of the Basketball Association of America. They were owned by Peter A. Tyrrell, who also owned the Philadelphia Rockets of the American Hockey League. Tyrrell hired Eddie Gottlieb, a longtime basketball promoter in the Philadelphia area, as coach and general manager. The owners named the team after the Philadelphia Warriors, an old basketball team", "In 1959, the team signed draft pick Wilt Chamberlain. Known as \"Wilt the Stilt\", he led the team in scoring six times, quickly began shattering NBA scoring records and changed the NBA style of play forever. On March 2, 1962, in a Warrior \"home\" game played on a neutral court in Hershey, Pennsylvania, Chamberlain scored 100 points against the New York Knicks, a single-game record the NBA ranks among its finest moments. In 1962, Franklin Mieuli purchased the majority shares of the team and relocated the franchise to", "In 1965, they drafted Rick Barry in the first round who went on to become NBA Rookie of the Year that season and then led the Warriors to the NBA Finals in the 1966–67 season, losing (four games to two) to Chamberlain's new team that had replaced the Warriors in Philadelphia, the 76ers. Angered by management's failure to pay him certain incentive bonuses he felt were due him, Barry sat out the 1967–68 season and signed with the Oakland Oaks of the rival American Basketball Association for the following year, but after four seasons in the ABA rejoined the Warriors in 1972. During Barry's absence, the Warriors were no longer title contenders, and the mantle of leadership fell to Thurmond, Jeff Mullins and Rudy LaRusso. They began scheduling more home games", "Due of the loss of key players such as Barry, Wilkes and Thurmond to trades and retirements, the Warriors struggled to put a competitive team on the court from 1978 to 1987 after being one of the NBA's dominant teams in the 1960s and most of the 1970s. Through the NBA draft, however, they acquired some players such as high-scoring forward Purvis Short (1978), former Purdue center Joe Barry Carroll (1980) and center Robert Parish (1976), who was traded to the Boston Celtics in 1980 along with the draft pick that would become Kevin McHale for the pick used to draft Carroll. In 1983, the Warriors", "After a subpar stretch in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the team had a brief resurgence under coach Karl, culminating in a 1987 Western Conference Semifinal match against Magic Johnson and the Los Angeles Lakers that is still shown on TV in the \"NBA's Greatest Games\" series. The second-half performance by the Warriors' All-Star point guard Sleepy Floyd still stands as the NBA playoff record for points scored in a quarter (29) and in a half (39). His six consecutive field goals in the fourth quarter led to a 51-point finish for him and a victory for the Warriors. The \"Sleepy Floyd game\" catalyzed increased interest in the NBA in the Bay Area; so did new coach Don Nelson, who engineered a string of wins in the late 1980s and early 1990s with the high-scoring trio of point guard Tim Hardaway, guard Mitch Richmond and forward Chris Mullin. Collectively known as \"Run TMC\" after the rap group Run-D.M.C., the trio stayed together for just", "Longtime Seton Hall college coach P. J. Carlesimo, who had been recently fired by the Portland Trail Blazers, replaced Adelman as head coach for the 1997–98 season. Sprewell was suspended for the remainder of the season for losing his temper and choking Carlesimo during a team practice in December, generating the glaring newspaper headline \"WARRIORS HIT ROCK BOTTOM\" and the declaration by general manager Garry St. Jean that Sprewell would never play for the Warriors again. He would not play in the NBA again until he was dealt in January 1999 to the New York Knicks for John Starks, Chris Mills and Terry Cummings. St. Jean had become the new Warriors' general manager in July 1997; he and his predecessor Dave Twardzik received much of the blame for the Warriors' struggles early in Cohan's turbulent tenure as owner in addition to Cohan himself. St. Jean brought in players such as Terry Cummings, John Starks and Mookie Blaylock who were well past their primes. Twardzik drafted several flops, such as Todd Fuller (while Kobe Bryant was still available as well as Steve Nash and Jermaine O'Neal) and Steve Logan (who never played an NBA game). In the following draft, the team selected Adonal Foyle while Tracy McGrady was still available. St. Jean did, however, draft future two-time NBA slam dunk champion off-guard Jason Richardson (from Michigan", "", "The Warriors chose future superstar point guard Stephen Curry of Davidson College with the seventh overall pick in the 2009 NBA draft. During the 2009 off-season, Warrior ownership declined to renew the contract of general manager Chris Mullin. Larry Riley, Nelson's longtime assistant coach, was promoted in his place; Riley drafted Curry and traded Jamal Crawford to the Atlanta Hawks for Acie Law and Speedy Claxton. The Warriors had another injury-prone year in 2009–10 as they were consistently unable to field their ideal starting lineup. In November, a malcontented Stephen Jackson and seldom-used Acie Law were traded to the Charlotte Bobcats for Raja Bell (out for the season with an injury) and Vladimir Radmanovic. Four days later, they signed center Chris Hunter. Starting in January 2010, they issued multiple 10-day contracts, most notably to power forward Anthony Tolliver from the Idaho Stampede. Due to their multiple injuries,", "The Warriors' 2012 off-season moves changed the course of the franchise. In the 2012 draft, the Warriors selected small forward Harrison Barnes with the 7th overall pick, center Festus Ezeli with the 30th pick, small forward Draymond Green with the 35th pick, and 7-foot-1 center Ognjen Kuzmic with the 52nd pick. According to sportswriter Anthony Slater, in this draft, \"Golden State got a starter [Barnes], a rotation player [Ezeli] and a transcendent talent that perfectly fit the small-ball direction of the league [Green].\" In addition, Curry agreed to a four-year, $44 million rookie scale contract extension. At the time, many basketball writers considered the move risky for Golden State because of Curry's injury history. In 2016, however, Slater argued that Curry's relatively inexpensive contract paid \"huge dividends\" by freeing up the necessary funds to allow the team to \"keep a strong core around him\". The team made a series of other moves, trading Dorell Wright, obtaining point guard Jarrett Jack, and signing forward Carl Landry. Despite early-season injuries to Brandon Rush and Andrew Bogut, and despite starting two rookies (Barnes and Ezeli), the 2012–13 Warriors had one of their best starts in decades. The", "Persistent reports that Mark Jackson's job as head coach was in jeopardy led Warriors players to make a unanimous declaration of support for Jackson only minutes after the Warriors' first-round playoff loss to the Clippers. Nonetheless, on May 6, 2014, the team announced that Jackson had been let go. In his three-season tenure as head coach, Jackson compiled a 121–109 (.526) record, overseeing a major turnaround. When Jackson took the helm in 2011, the franchise had made the playoffs only one time over the prior 17 seasons, averaging 30.2 wins per season during that period. Jackson, became just the third head coach in franchise history to lead a team to at least 50 wins in a season, joining Don Nelson and Alvin Attles, who both hit the mark twice with the Warriors. With 121 wins overall, Jackson ranked fourth on the franchise's all-time wins list, trailing Attles (557), Nelson (422) and Eddie Gottlieb (263). On May 14, 2014, the Golden State Warriors signed Steve Kerr to a reported five-year, $25 million deal to become the team's new head coach. It was a first-time head-coaching position for Kerr, 48, a five-time NBA champion guard who set an all-time career record for accuracy in three-point shooting (.454). Kerr had formerly served as president and general manager for the Phoenix Suns basketball team (2007 to 2010), and had most recently been working as an NBA broadcast analyst for Turner Network Television (TNT). The Warriors also signed point guard Shaun Livingston and guard Leandro Barbosa during the off-season. The Warriors completed the 2014–2015 regular season with a league-best record of 67–15, setting a new record for most wins in franchise history. The Warriors also finished with a home record of 39–2, second-best in NBA history. The team ranked first in defensive efficiency for the season and second in offensive efficiency, barely missing the mark that the Julius Erving-led Sixers achieved by being first in both offensive and defensive efficiency. On May 4, Stephen Curry was named the 2014–15 NBA Most Valuable Player. Curry became the first Warrior", "In April 2014, the Warriors began the purchase process for a 12-acre (4.9 ha) site in Mission Bay, San Francisco, to hold a new 18,000-seat arena, which was expected to be ready beginning with the 2019–20 NBA season. The location was selected after an original proposal to construct the arena on Piers 30 and 32, just south of the Bay Bridge, met with vocal opposition due to concerns about traffic, environmental impacts and obstruction of views. The new location, which still faced some vocal opposition in San Francisco, eliminated the need for voter approval as required with the original site. The move also elicited criticism due to the perceived alienation of a loyal fanbase in Oakland. The sale was finalized in October 2015 and naming rights were sold to JPMorgan Chase for the arena to be called the Chase Center. Although the Warriors considered a name change, possibly returning to their former name of San Francisco Warriors, it was ultimately decided that they would remain the Golden State Warriors upon their return to San Francisco.", "The Warriors have utilized several different logo and uniform designs throughout their history, with the most recent redesign occurring in 2010. However, on", "", "While the Warriors and the Cleveland Cavaliers have played each other since the Cavaliers joined the NBA in 1970, the two teams' rivalry began to develop in the 2014–15 season when they met", "", "Bob Fitzgerald has done television play-by-play, and former Warriors swingman Kelenna Azubuike does color commentary for the Warriors on NBC Sports Bay Area, where they telecast more than 70 Warrior games a year. They also host \"Roundtable Live\", a half-hour pre-game show leading up to the broadcast of select Golden State home games,", "Tim Roye has done the radio play-by-play for Warrior games since 1995. He is joined in the booth by former Warriors forward Tom Tolbert for home games only. He will also be joined by Jim Barnett full-time starting in 2019, who will do color", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Warriors. For the full season-by-season history,", "", "The Warriors hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee, who is not signed", "", "Notes: Arizin, Fulks, Gola, Johnston and Phillip played all or most of their tenure with the Warriors in Philadelphia. Rodgers' tenure was evenly divided between Philadelphia and San Francisco, and Chamberlain's and Attles' nearly so. King (Knicks), Lucas (Knicks), Parish (Celtics), Richmond (Kings), Sampson (University of Virginia", "", "Most Valuable Player NBA Finals MVP NBA Defensive Player of the Year NBA Rookie of the Year NBA Most Improved Player of the Year NBA Executive of", "NBA All-Star selections NBA All-Star Game head" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Millet species.", "History.", "Domestication in East Asia.", "Domestication in South Asia.", "Domestication in West Africa.", "Domestication in East Africa.", "Spreading.", "Research.", "Cultivation.", "Production.", "Alcoholic beverages.", "As a food source.", "Grazing millet.", "Nutrition.", "Comparison with other major staple foods." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Generally, millets are small-grained, annual, warm-weather cereals belonging to the grass family. They are highly tolerant of drought and other extreme weather conditions and have a similar nutrient content to other major cereals.", "The different species of millets are not necessarily closely related. All are members of the family Poaceae (the grasses) but can belong to different tribes or even subfamilies. The most commonly cultivated millets are in bold and marked with an asterisk (*). Eragrostideae tribe in the subfamily Chloridoideae: Paniceae tribe in the subfamily Panicoideae: Andropogoneae tribe also in the subfamily Panicoideae:", "The various species called millet were initially domesticated in different parts of the world most notably East Asia, South Asia, West Africa, and East Africa. However, the domesticated varieties have often spread well beyond their initial area. Specialized archaeologists called palaeoethnobotanists, relying on data such as the relative abundance of charred grains found in archaeological sites, hypothesize that the cultivation of millets was of greater prevalence in prehistory than rice, especially in northern China and Korea. Millets also formed important parts of the prehistoric diet in Indian, Chinese Neolithic and Korean Mumun societies.", "Proso millet (\"Panicum miliaceum\") and foxtail millet (\"Setaria italica\") were important crops beginning in the Early Neolithic of China. Some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at Cishan (north), where proso millet husk phytoliths and biomolecular components have been identified around 10,300–8,700 years ago in storage pits along with remains of pit-houses, pottery, and stone tools related to millet cultivation. Evidence at \"Cishan\" for foxtail millet dates back to around 8,700 years ago. The oldest evidence of noodles in China were made from these two varieties of millet in a 4,000-year-old earthenware bowl containing well-preserved noodles found at the Lajia archaeological site in north China. Palaeoethnobotanists have found evidence of the cultivation of millet in the Korean Peninsula dating to the Middle Jeulmun pottery period (around 3500–2000 BCE). Millet continued to be an important element in the intensive, multicropping agriculture of the Mumun pottery period (about 1500–300 BCE) in Korea. Millets and their wild ancestors, such as barnyard grass and panic grass, were also cultivated in Japan during the Jōmon period some time after 4000 BCE. Chinese myths attribute the domestication of millet to Shennong, a legendary Emperor of China, and Hou Ji, whose name means Lord Millet.", "Little millet (\"Panicum sumatrense\") is believed to have been domesticated around 5000 before present in South Asia and Kodo millet (\"Paspalum scrobiculatum\") around 3700 before present, also in South Asia. Various millets have been mentioned in some of the Yajurveda texts, identifying foxtail millet (\"priyaṅgu\"), Barnyard millet (\"aṇu\") and black finger millet (\"śyāmāka\"), indicating that millet cultivation was happening around 1200 BCE in India.", "Pearl millet (\"Pennisetum glaucum\") was definitely domesticated in Africa by 3500 before present, though 8000 before present is thought likely. Early evidence includes finds at Birimi in West Africa with the earliest at Dhar Tichitt in Mauritania. Pearl millet was domesticated in the Sahel region of West Africa, where its wild ancestors are found. Evidence for the cultivation of pearl millet in Mali dates back to 2500 BCE, and pearl millet is found in the Indian subcontinent by 2300 BCE.", "Finger millet is originally native to the highlands of East Africa and was domesticated before the third millennium BCE. Its cultivation had spread to South India by 1800 BCE.", "The cultivation of common millet as the earliest dry crop in East Asia has been attributed to its resistance to drought, and this has been suggested to have aided its spread. Asian varieties of millet made their way from China to the Black Sea region of Europe by 5000 BCE. Millet was growing wild in Greece as early as 3000 BCE, and bulk storage containers for millet have been found from the Late Bronze Age in Macedonia and northern Greece. Hesiod describes that \"the beards grow round the millet, which men sow in summer.\" And millet is listed along with wheat in the third century BCE by Theophrastus in his \"Enquiry into Plants\".", "Research on millets is carried out by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and ICAR-Indian Institute of Millets Research in Telangana, India, and by the USDA-ARS at Tifton, Georgia, United States.", "Pearl millet is one of the two major crops in the semiarid, impoverished, less fertile agriculture regions of Africa and southeast Asia. Millets are not only adapted to poor, droughty, and infertile soils, but they are also more reliable under these conditions than most other grain crops. This has, in part, made millet production popular, particularly in countries surrounding the Sahara in western Africa. Millets, however, do respond to high fertility and moisture. On a per-hectare basis, millet grain production can be 2–4 times higher with use of irrigation and soil supplements. Improved breeds of millet improve their disease resistance and can significantly enhance farm yield productivity. There has been cooperation between poor countries to improve millet yields. For example, 'Okashana 1', a variety developed in India from a natural-growing millet variety in Burkina Faso, doubled yields. This breed was selected for trials in Zimbabwe. From there it was taken to Namibia, where it was released in 1990 and enthusiastically adopted by farmers. 'Okashana 1' became the most popular variety in Namibia, the only non-Sahelian country where pearl millet—locally known as \"mahangu\"—is the dominant food staple for consumers. 'Okashana 1' was then introduced to Chad. The breed has significantly enhanced yields in Mauritania and Benin.", "In 2016, global production of millet was 28.4 million tonnes, led by India with 36% of the world total (table). Niger also had significant production.", "In India, various alcoholic beverages are produced from millets. Millet is also the base ingredient for the distilled liquor \"rakshi\".", "Millets are major food sources in arid and semiarid regions of the world, and feature in the traditional cuisine of many others. In western India, sorghum (called \"jowar\", \"jola\", \"jonnalu\", \"jwaarie\", or \"jondhahlaa\" in Gujarati, Kannada, Telugu, Hindi and Marathi languages, respectively; \"mutthaari\", \"kora\", or \"panjappullu\" in Malayalam; or \"cholam\" in Tamil) has been commonly used with millet flour (called \"jowari\" in western India) for hundreds of years to make the local staple, hand-rolled (that is, made without a rolling pin) flat bread (\"rotla\" in Gujarati, \"bhakri\" in Marathi, or \"roti\" in other languages). Another cereal grain popularly used in rural areas and by poor people to consume as a staple in the form of \"roti\". Other millets such as \"ragi\" (finger millet) in Karnataka, \"naachanie\" in Maharashtra, or \"kezhvaragu\" in Tamil, \"ragulu\" in Telugu, with the popular \"ragi rotti\" and \"Ragi mudde\" is a popular meal in Karnataka. Ragi, as it is popularly known, is dark in color like rye, but rougher in texture. Millet porridge is a traditional food in Russian, German, and Chinese сuisines. In Russia, it is eaten sweet (with milk and sugar added at the end of the cooking process) or savoury with meat or vegetable stews. In China, it is eaten without milk or sugar, frequently with beans, sweet potato, and/or various types of squash. In Germany, it is also eaten sweet, boiled in water with apples added during the boiling process and honey added during the cooling process. Millet is also the main ingredient in a Vietnamese sweet snack called bánh đa kê. It contains a layer of smashed millet and mungbean topped with sliced dried coconut meat wrapped in a crunchy rice cake. It is a specialty of Hanoi. Per capita consumption of millets as food varies in different parts of the world, with consumption being the highest in Western Africa. In the Sahel region, millet is estimated to account for about 35 percent of total cereal food consumption in Burkina Faso, Chad and the Gambia. In Mali and Senegal, millets constitute roughly 40 percent of total cereal food consumption per capita, while in Niger and arid Namibia it is over 65 percent (see \"mahangu\"). Other countries in Africa where millets are a significant food source include Ethiopia, Nigeria and Uganda. Millet is also an important food item for the population living in the drier parts of many other countries, especially in eastern and central Africa, and in the northern coastal countries of western Africa. In developing countries outside Africa, millet has local significance as a food in parts of some countries, such as China, India, Burma and North Korea. The use of millets as food fell between the 1970s and the 2000s, both in urban and rural areas, as developing countries such as India have experienced rapid economic growth and witnessed a significant increase in per capita consumption of other cereals. People affected by gluten-related disorders, such as coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers, who need a gluten-free diet, can replace gluten-containing cereals in their diets with millet. Nevertheless, while millet does not contain gluten, its grains and flour may be contaminated with gluten-containing cereals. It is a common ingredient in seeded bread. Millets are also used as bird and animal feed.", "In addition to being used for seed, millet is also used as a grazing forage crop. Instead of letting the plant reach maturity, it can be grazed by stock and is commonly used for sheep and cattle. Millet is a C4 plant, which means that it has good water-use efficiency and utilizes high temperature and is therefore a summer crop. A C4 plant uses a different enzyme in photosynthesis from C3 plants, and this is why it improves water efficiency. In southern Australia millet is used as a summer quality pasture, utilizing warm temperatures and summer storms. Millet is frost-sensitive and is sown after the frost period, once soil temperature has stabilised at 14 °C or higher. It is sown at a shallow depth. Millet grows rapidly and can be grazed 5–7 weeks after sowing, when it is 20–30 cm high. The highest feed value is from the young green leaf and shoots. The plant can quickly come to head, so it must be managed accordingly because as the plant matures, the value and palatability of feed reduces. The Japanese millets (\"Echinochloa esculenta\") are considered the best for grazing and in particular Shirohie, a new variety of Japanese millet, is the best suited variety for grazing. This is due to a number of factors: it gives better regrowth and is later to mature compared to other Japanese millets; it is cheap – cost of seed is $2–$3 per kg, and sowing rates are around 10 kg per hectare for dryland production; it is quick to establish, can be grazed early, and is suitable for both sheep and cattle. Compared to forage sorghum, which is grown as an alternative grazing forage, animals gain weight faster on millet, and it has better hay or silage potential, although it produces less dry matter. Lambs do better on millet compared to sorghum. Millet does not contain prussic acid, which can be in sorghum. Prussic acid poisons animals by inhibiting oxygen utilisation by the cells and is transported in the blood around the body — ultimately the animal will die from asphyxia. There is no need for additional feed supplements such as Sulphur or salt blocks with millet. The rapid growth of millet as a grazing crop allows flexibility in its use. Farmers can wait until sufficient late spring / summer moisture is present and then make use of it. It is ideally suited to irrigation where livestock finishing is required.", "A 100-gram serving of raw millet (\"Panicum miliaceum\" or proso millet) provides 378 calories and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins and numerous dietary minerals, especially manganese at 76% DV (USDA nutrient table). Raw millet is 9% water, 73% carbohydrates, 4% fat and 11% protein (table).", "The following table shows the nutrient content of millet compared to major staple foods in a raw form. Raw forms, however, are not edible and cannot be fully digested. These must be prepared and cooked as appropriate for human consumption. In processed and cooked form, the relative nutritional and antinutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw forms reported in this table. The nutritional value in the cooked form depends on the cooking method." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "1948–1957: Rochester Royals.", "1957–1972: Cincinnati Royals.", "1972–1985: Kansas City–Omaha/Kansas City Kings.", "1972–1976.", "1976–1984.", "1985–present: Sacramento Kings.", "1988–1989: Ricky Berry.", "1989–1990: Pervis Ellison.", "1990–1991: Lionel Simmons.", "1991–1998: The Mitch Richmond era.", "1998–2004: \"The Greatest Show on Court\" era.", "2004–2006: Decline.", "2006–2009: Change and transition.", "2009–2012: \"Here we Rise\" period.", "2013–2015: Franchise restructuring.", "2015–2017: Divac as general manager, new arena.", "2017–present: Departure of Demarcus Cousins, Rebuilding.", "Team logo, uniform and colors.", "Rochester Royals.", "Cincinnati Royals.", "Kansas City(–Omaha) Kings.", "Sacramento Kings.", "Change to purple and black.", "City special edition uniforms.", "Classic uniforms.", "Mascot.", "Season-by-season record.", "Rivalries.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Retired numbers.", "Naismith Basketball Hall of Famers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The basis of the purely-professional Royals team that came into existence in 1945, after two decades of sponsored'semi-professional' team. Seagram was the team's main sponsor and received the bulk of what monies were made. One of the team's early stars was Lester Harrison, a local high school star of some publicity before joining the team. The driven Harrison later became the team's captain, coach, manager and chief scout over the next two decades, and was very key in the team's continued success and existence through hard years in the 1930s. Among visitors to Rochester then to play the team were the Original Celtics, the New York Rens and the Harlem Globetrotters. With", "In April 1957, the Harrison brothers moved the Royals to Cincinnati, a city that was then trying to obtain an NBA expansion franchise. This move followed a well-received regular season game played at Cincinnati Gardens on February 1, 1957. The change of venue was said to have been partly suggested by Jack Twyman and Dave Piontek, who were two of several roster players on the new Royals from that area. Cincinnati, which had a strong college basketball fanbase then, and no NFL franchise to compete with, was deemed the best choice for the Harrisons, who also considered other cities. The Royals name continued to fit in Cincinnati, often known as the \"Queen City\". During the team's first NBA draft in Cincinnati, the team acquired Clyde Lovellette and guard George King. They teamed with the 1–2 punch of Maurice Stokes and Twyman to produce a budding contender in the team's very first season in the Queen City. But injuries and the loss of star guard Si Green, the #1 overall pick of the 1956 NBA draft, to military service dropped the team into a tie for second place in the NBA Western Division during", "The Royals, before moving to Kansas City, renamed themselves the Kings to avoid confusion with the Royals baseball team. The team initially divided its home games between Kansas City and Omaha until 1975, when it abandoned the Omaha market. During that time the team was officially called the \"Kansas City-Omaha Kings\". The move from Omaha marked the opening of the 16,785-seat Kemper Arena in Kansas City. During the first days the Kings played at the 7,316-seat Municipal Auditorium. While in Omaha the team played in the 9,300-seat Omaha Civic Auditorium.", "The team netted a new superstar in Nate Archibald, who led the league in scoring and assists in the 1972–73 season. The Kings later played several home games in St. Louis during the early 1980s to large crowds. While still in Cincinnati, the Kings introduced a most unusual uniform design, which placed the player's surname below his number. The design remained intact through the first several seasons of the team's run in Sacramento, even when the shade of blue on the road uniforms was changed from royal blue to powder blue, and the script '\"Kansas City\"' which adorned the road jerseys was scrubbed after the move in favor of a repeat of the \"Kings\" script", "The Kings finally achieved some success in their new home when they hired Cotton Fitzsimmons as coach. Fitzsimmons won the Midwest Division in 1978–79 with rookie point guard Phil Ford, who was NBA Rookie of the Year in 1979. Kansas City was led by shooting guard Otis Birdsong, strong on both offense and defense, all-around shooting forward Scott Wedman, and passing center Sam Lacey, who had a trademark bank shot. They drew an average of 10,789 fans to Kemper Arena that season, the only time during their tenure in KC that average attendance was in five figures (the attendance at the peak was only two-thirds of Kemper's capacity). Most Kansas City sports fans preferred to spend their entertainment dollar on the Royals, who won the American League West division championship four times in five seasons between 1976 and 1980, and reached the 1980 World Series. The Kings made the playoffs in 1979–80 and again in 1980–81, despite finishing the 1980–81 regular season at 40–42. The Kings made a run in the 1981 NBA Playoffs, reaching the Western Conference finals. Ernie Grunfeld played the point in this run in place of an injured Ford, as KC used a slow half-court game to win the first two rounds. Power forward Reggie King had a remarkable series, dominating the opposition. After upsetting the Phoenix Suns by winning Game 7 at Phoenix in the Conference", "The Kings moved to their current home of Sacramento, California in the 1985–86 NBA season, with their first Sacramento season ending in the first round of the Western Conference 1986 NBA Playoffs. The starting lineup was Reggie Theus, LaSalle Thompson, Mark Olberding, Terry Tyler, and Mike Woodson, with Larry Drew, Eddie Johnson, Otis Thorpe, and Joe Kleine coming off the bench. However, despite fan loyalty the Kings saw little success in subsequent seasons, and the team did not make the playoffs again until the 1996 NBA Playoffs in the 1995–96 NBA season. Some of their failure was attributable to misfortunes such as the career-altering car crash suffered by promising point guard Bobby Hurley in 1993, and the suicide of Ricky Berry during the 1989 off-season; some was attributed to poor management such as the long tenure of head coach Garry St. Jean and the selection of \"Never Nervous\" Pervis Ellison with the first overall pick in the 1989 NBA draft. Former Kings television broadcaster Jerry Reynolds (1987, 1988–90) and NBA legend Bill Russell (1987–88) were the earliest head coaches.", "Ricky Berry was selected by the Kings in the first round, 18th pick overall in the 1988 NBA draft. He had a dazzling rookie year in the 1988–89 season shooting 40.6% from three-point range. The Kings also drafted Vinny Del Negro (selected by the Kings in the second round, 29th overall pick in the 1988 NBA draft) and acquired Rodney McCray from the Houston Rockets. In his first year with the Kings, McCray made 1988 NBA All-Defensive First Team. It was the first season the Kings would play without Reggie Theus and LaSalle Thompson (both part in the original team from Kansas City) or Joe Kleine (selected by the Kings as first", "Following the loss of Ricky Berry, 1989–90 season featured Pervis Ellison, who was first overall pick in the 1989 NBA draft by the Kings, and acquisition Wayman Tisdale (from the Indiana Pacers, second pick overall in the 1985 NBA draft). An injury kept Ellison on the sidelines for 48 of 82 games of his rookie year, after which he was traded to the", "Lionel Simmons – or L-Train – was drafted by the Kings in the 1990 NBA draft in the first round, 7th pick overall. In his first season, he made the NBA All-Rookie First Team. He would go on to play his entire career (1990–1997) with the Kings and had 5,833 career points. Antoine Carr (acquired from", "The early 1990s were difficult for the Kings. Sacramento was known for having strong fan support, and while they won over 60% of their home games, the team struggled on the road, going 1–40 on the road in a single season. But prayers were answered when they acquired Mitch Richmond, who previously played for the Golden State Warriors. The former NBA Rookie of the Year was selected as an All-Star six times while making the All-NBA Second Team three times. Garry St. Jean was chosen as new coach in 1992 and coached the team all the way through 1997, where he was replaced by Eddie Jordan. During the 1990s, Sacramento had other stars like Spud Webb, Kurt Rambis, Wayman Tisdale, Walt Williams, Olden Polynice and Brian Grant,", "The Kings drafted Jason Williams in the 1998 NBA draft, signed Vlade Divac, and traded for Chris Webber prior to the lockout-shortened season of 1998–99. These acquisitions coincided with the arrival of Peja Stojaković from Serbia, who had been drafted in 1996. Each of these moves was attributed to general manager Geoff Petrie, who has won the NBA Executive of the Year Award twice. Led by new head coach Rick Adelman, and aided by former Princeton head coach Pete Carril, the Kings' Princeton offense impressed others for its quick style and strong ball movement. Some criticized the Kings for their poor team defense, Williams's \"flash over substance\" style with its many turnovers, and Webber's failure to step up in important match-ups. Still, they quickly garnered many fans outside of California, many of whom were drawn to the spectacular pairing of Williams and Webber. In 1998–99, they went 27–23, their first winning season in nearly twenty years and their first since moving to Sacramento. The new arrivals Webber, Williams, and Divac all played", "The 2004–05 season marked change for the Kings, who lost three starters from the famed 2002 team. In the off-season of 2004, Divac signed with the Lakers, which prompted the Kings to sign Brad Miller to start at center. Early in the season, Christie was traded to the Orlando Magic for Cuttino Mobley, and in February, Webber was traded to the Philadelphia 76ers for three forwards (Corliss Williamson, Kenny Thomas, and Brian Skinner). Thomas and Skinner failed in their attempt to replicate Webber's impact, and as a result the team's record suffered. The Kings lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Seattle SuperSonics. The 2005 off-season continued with changes, when they traded fan-favorite Bobby Jackson for Bonzi Wells and acquired free agent Shareef Abdur-Rahim. The 2005–06", "In 2006–07, the disappointing play of the Kings was coupled with the distraction of legal troubles. Coach Eric Musselman pleaded no contest to DUI charges early in the season, while Artest got into trouble for neglect of his dogs, and was later accused of domestic assault. The Kings relieved Artest of basketball duties, pending investigation, then later reinstated him. They finished the season 33–49 (their worst in 9 years) which landed them in fifth place in the Pacific Division. They", "Despite having the best odds to win the top overall pick in the 2009 NBA draft, the Kings obtained the 4th overall pick, the lowest they could possibly pick, to the outrage of many fans. Along with new head coach Paul Westphal, they selected Tyreke Evans. With the 23rd pick, they selected Omri Casspi from Israel. On April 27, 2010, Evans was the first Sacramento era player to receive the NBA Rookie of the Year Award. Evans also became the 4th player in NBA", "On May 16, 2013, the Maloof family reached agreement to sell the Kings to a group led by Silicon Valley tech entrepreneur Vivek Ranadivé for a then-record NBA franchise valuation of $535 million. Ranadivé, 55, named Raj Bhathal, 71, founder of Tustin-based Raj Manufacturing, one of the largest swimwear companies in the nation, as one of the investors in a consortium to buy a majority stake in the Kings from the franchise's longtime owners, the Maloof family, for a reported $348 million. The group fought off a rival bid that would have moved the team to Seattle after the NBA's Board of Governors rejected investor Chris Hansen's bid to relocate the team. The new owners intend to keep", "On March 3, 2015, the Kings announced former Sacramento center Vlade Divac as the new vice president of basketball operations. Following the end of Sacramento's 29–53 season for 2014–15, The Kings made aggressive off-season moves in drafting Willie Cauley-Stein and acquiring Rajon Rondo, Kosta Koufos, Marco Belinelli, and Caron Butler in preparation for the 2015–16 season. To free up cap space, Divac traded Nik Stauskas, Carl Landry, Jason Thompson, a future top 10 protected first round pick, and the right to swap two future first round picks to the Philadelphia 76ers for the rights to second round picks Artūras Gudaitis and Luka Mitrović. While the 76ers gave up nearly nothing to acquire draft assets that would result in the selection of number 1 overall pick Markelle Fultz, the Kings remained one of", "On February 20, 2017, the Kings traded DeMarcus Cousins, alongside Omri Casspi to the New Orleans Pelicans for Tyreke Evans, Buddy Hield, Langston Galloway and two future draft picks. The Kings finished the 2016–17 season with a 32–50 record. In the 2017 NBA draft the team selected Kentucky point guard De'Aaron Fox with the fifth pick. They also selected North Carolina forward Justin Jackson with the 15th pick, Duke center Harry Giles with the 20th pick,and Kansas point guard Frank Mason III with the 34th pick. With four rookie pickups, Divac wanted to add veteran presences on the roster. On July 10, 2017, the team signed three veterans – Vince Carter, Zach Randolph, and George Hill. The team finished the 2017–18 season with a 27–55 record, placing 12th in the Western Conference. Giles sat out the entire season due to a leg injury despite previous reports that he would make his rookie debut in January. Hill was traded to the Cleveland Cavaliers. Greek center Papagiannis, who was selected in the first round of the 2016 draft, averaged only 2.1", "", "The initial Rochester Royals logo featured a blue and white shield with the word \"ROCHESTER\" on the top, with a white banner with the word \"ROYALS\"", "Upon moving to Cincinnati in 1957, the team logo became a basketball with a cartoon face. The basketball was depicted as wearing a crown with the city of Cincinnati within it. The word \"CINCINNATI\" was featured above the logo while the word \"ROYALS\" was below. The crown also had the team name on it. This logo was white with blue outlines. The uniforms remained blue on the road and white at home, again with red accents and the city/team name designation on the respective uniforms.", "For the 1972–73 season, the renamed and relocated Kansas City-Omaha Kings kept their uniforms and logos, with the exception of the name change. After settling in Kansas City for good in", "Following their move from Kansas City in 1985 the Kings still used the same color scheme of red, white and blue. The logo of a crown atop a bottom half of the basketball was also carried over. However, the shades of blue used on their home and road uniforms were different for five seasons. The home uniforms use royal blue, while the road uniforms use powder blue. The striping patterns were also different between the two uniforms, with the script \"Kings\" wordmark", "In 1994, the Kings radically changed their look, adopting a new color scheme of purple, silver, black and white. The uniform set consists of one wide side stripe running through the right leg of the shorts, with the primary Kings logo prominently featured. The home uniform is in white, while the road uniform is in black (by later coincidence, the NHL's Los Angeles Kings would use that exact color scheme). From 1994 to 1997, a half-purple, half-black uniform, featuring checkerboard side panels, was used as an alternate uniform, which was panned by fans. However, the uniform was revived for", "Nike also released a special edition 'City' uniform that pays tribute to both local culture and team heritage. Sacramento's 2017–18 'City' uniforms feature a white and powder blue base with red trim, echoing the road uniform colors the team wore", "During the 2002–03 season, the Kings brought back the 1960s Cincinnati Royals white uniform for a few games as a tribute to Oscar Robertson. The following season, they wore the mid-1970s Kansas City Kings white uniform for select games to honor Nate Archibald. The Kings' mid-1980s powder blue jerseys were first brought back in the 2004–05 season to celebrate the franchise's 20th season in Sacramento. They would return in 2015–16 for the team's final season at Sleep Train Arena, and the following season upon moving to Golden 1 Center. During the 2010–11 season, the Kings honored the 1950–51 Rochester Royals championship team by wearing throwback uniforms from that era. The team also wore blue versions of the Rochester throwbacks in the 2014–15 season. For the 2019–20 season, the Kings will bring back their blue uniforms worn from 1990–94 in commemoration of the franchise's 35th season in Sacramento.", "Since the 1997–98 season, the official Kings mascot has", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Kings. For the full season-by-season history,", "Prior to moving to Ohio, the Royals' biggest rival was the Syracuse Nationals, which went on to become the Philadelphia 76ers. This left upstate New York without a team until the Buffalo Braves were established in 1970. This third attempt did not last, with the Braves moving to San Diego, California in 1978 to become the San Diego Clippers. In 1970, the Cleveland", "", "The Kings hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "All of the Kings retired numbers", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Team creation.", "1968–1976: Early years.", "1975–1976: Trip to the NBA Finals.", "1976–1988: From success to scandals.", "1988–1992: Kevin Johnson era.", "1992–1996: The Charles Barkley era.", "1996–2004: Average times.", "2004–2012: The Steve Nash era.", "2004–2006: Nash wins back-to-back MVPs.", "2006–2008: \"Seven seconds or less\".", "2008–2010: Ups and downs.", "2010–2012: Slow decline without Amar'e.", "2012–present: Decline and struggles.", "2013–2018: Ryan McDonough's tenure.", "2018–present: James Jones's tenure.", "Season-by-season record.", "Home arenas.", "Uniform history.", "1968–1973: Original uniforms.", "1973–1992: Western look.", "1992–2000: Streaking Sun look.", "2000–2013: Seven Seconds or Less look.", "2013–2017: Updated Streaking Sun look.", "2017–present: Switch to Nike.", "Los Suns special uniforms.", "Suns mascot.", "The Suns Gorilla.", "Personnel.", "Retained draft rights.", "Ring of Honor and retired numbers.", "Phoenix Suns' All-Century Team.", "40th Anniversary Team.", "Basketball Hall of Famers.", "The annual NBA outdoors game.", "Media.", "Emmy awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Suns were one of two franchises to join the NBA at the start of the 1968–69 season, alongside the Milwaukee Bucks from Milwaukee, Wisconsin. They were the first major professional sports franchise in the Phoenix market and in the entire state of Arizona, and remained the only one for the better part of 20 years (a Phoenix Roadrunners team played in the World Hockey Association from 1974 to 1977) until the Arizona Cardinals of the National Football League relocated from St. Louis in 1988. The Suns played its first 24 seasons at Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum, called the \"Madhouse on McDowell\", located slightly northwest of downtown Phoenix. The franchise was formed by an ownership group led by Karl Eller, owner of a public enterprise, the investor Donald Pitt, Don Diamond, Bhavik Darji, Marvin Meyer, and Richard L. Bloch. Other owners with a minority stake consisted", "Jerry Colangelo, then a player scout, came over from the Chicago Bulls, a franchise formed two years earlier, as the Suns' first general manager at the age of 28, along with Johnny \"Red\" Kerr as head coach. Unlike the first-year success that Colangelo and Kerr had in Chicago, in which the Bulls finished with a first-year expansion record of 33 wins and a playoff berth (plus a Coach of the Year award for Kerr), Phoenix finished its first year at 16–66, and finished 25 games out of the final playoff spot. Both Goodrich and Van Arsdale were selected to the All-Star Game in", "The 1975–76 season proved to be a pivotal year for the Suns as they made several key moves, including the offseason trade of former All-Star guard Charlie Scott to the Boston Celtics in exchange for guard Paul Westphal, a member of Boston's 1974 championship team. They also drafted center and eventual fan favorite Alvan Adams from the University of Oklahoma and guard Ricky Sobers of UNLV. The Suns and Buffalo Braves made a midseason trade, with Phoenix sending forward/center John Shumate to Buffalo in exchange for forward Garfield Heard. Phoenix had an inconsistent regular season, starting out at 14–9 (then the best start in team history), then went 4–18 during a stretch where the team sustained several injuries (including Dick Van Arsdale breaking his right arm in a February game). The Suns then went 24–13 in the final 37 games to finish 42–40, clinching their first playoff spot since 1970. The Suns faced the Seattle SuperSonics in", "In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Suns enjoyed several successful seasons, making the playoffs eight seasons in a row. Problems arose on and off the court in the mid-1980s. In 1987, the Maricopa County Attorney's Office indicted 13 people on drug-related charges, three of whom were active Suns' players James Edwards, Jay Humphries and Grant Gondrezick. These indictments were partially based on testimony from star player Walter Davis, who was given immunity. No defendants ever", "The Suns' luck began to turn around in 1988 with the acquisition of Kevin Johnson from the Cleveland Cavaliers, along with Mark West and Tyrone Corbin, for All-Star power forward Larry Nance and Mike Sanders. This was the beginning of a franchise-record 13 consecutive playoff appearances. All-Star Tom Chambers came over from the Seattle SuperSonics (the first unrestricted free agent in NBA history), 1986 second round draft pick Jeff Hornacek continued to develop, and \"Thunder\" Dan Majerle was drafted with the 14th pick in the 1988 draft. Kurt Rambis was added from the Charlotte Hornets in", "In 1992, the Suns moved into their new arena in downtown Phoenix, the America West Arena. The arena is occasionally referred to as the \"Purple Palace\" due to its purple seats, one of the Suns' colors. All-Star power forward Charles Barkley was traded from the Philadelphia 76ers for Jeff Hornacek, Andrew Lang, and Tim Perry. Barkley went on to win the MVP award that 1992–93 season. In addition to Barkley, the Suns added key players to their roster, including Danny Ainge and draftees Arkansas center Oliver Miller and forward Richard Dumas (who was actually drafted", "In the 1996 NBA draft, the Suns used their 15th pick for Santa Clara guard Steve Nash. Upon hearing the draft announcement, Suns fans booed in disapproval of the relatively unknown player, because he had not played in one of the major college conferences. During his first two seasons in the NBA, he played a supporting role behind star point guards Jason Kidd and Kevin Johnson. After the Barkley trade, the Suns began the 1996–97 season 0–13, a franchise record for the worst start. During the 13-game losing streak, Fitzsimmons stepped down", "", "The beginning of 2004 saw the departure of the face of Suns management since the team's inception, when Jerry Colangelo announced that the Phoenix Suns were to be sold to an investment group headed by San Diego-based business executive and Tucson native Robert Sarver for $401 million. The 2004–05 season marked the Suns' return to the NBA's elite, finishing with the best record at 62–20, and tying a franchise record set by the 1992–93 team. They set a team record for greatest one-season improvement at 33 games. During the off-season, the Suns signed unrestricted free agent All-Star point guard Steve Nash from Dallas, who had formerly played for the Suns at the beginning of his career. Nash went on to", "Under coach D'Antoni, the Suns popularized the fast break offense known as \"7 seconds or less\", which was later published in a book written by \"Sports Illustrated\" writer Jack McCallum. Though criticized for a supposed lack of defense, the Suns specialized an efficient offense designed to quickly get off shots that made regrouping on defense difficult for the opposing team. The Suns entered the 2006–07 season aiming to win the first championship in franchise history. From November 20 to December 22, the Suns posted a 15-game win streak, followed almost immediately with a 17-game win streak from December 29 to January 28. On March 14, the 49–14 Suns met the 52–10 Dallas Mavericks in a match-up where both teams were fighting for the top seed in the Western conference and Nash was going for his third consecutive MVP award against Dirk Nowitzki. Though the Suns won the game in double overtime, the Mavericks would finish with the West's top seed at 67–15, and Nowitzki would narrowly win the MVP award ahead of Nash. While the Mavericks were upset in the first round by the eight-seed Golden State Warriors,", "On June 9, 2008, Terry Porter was named head coach of the Phoenix Suns, succeeding Mike D'Antoni. Porter was an assistant coach of the Detroit Pistons when he was let go after the Pistons were eliminated by the Boston Celtics in the 2008 NBA Eastern Conference Finals. During the off-season, the Suns had difficulties signing free agents because of being over the luxury tax. They made attempts to sign a backup point guard, Tyronn Lue; however, he decided to sign with the Bucks for more money. The Suns selected Robin Lopez (15th overall pick out of Stanford) in the 2008 NBA draft and acquired Goran Dragić, who was originally picked by the rival San Antonio Spurs. On February 16, 2009, the Suns fired Porter and he was succeeded by Alvin Gentry. The Suns were expected to make the transition back to the up-tempo style basketball nicknamed the \"7 Seconds or Less\" or \"Run and Gun\" style. On February 18, Gentry began his head coaching tenure with a 140–100 blowout over the Clippers at home. Six Suns players scored in double digits, led by Leandro", "The Suns re-signed Amar'e Stoudemire in the 2010 free agency period with a five-year contract for around $95 million, with $71 million guaranteed, and the rest of his salary coming only if certain conditions were held, such as getting guaranteed 4th and 5th-season money if he remained healthy enough to meet those conditions. However, during the summer of 2010, the Suns let Stoudemire go to the New York Knicks since they were guaranteeing him $100 million and hired player agent Lon Babby as president of basketball operations. The team then paid over $80 million to acquire Hedo Türkoğlu, Josh Childress, and Hakim Warrick to not only replace Stoudemire but also add bench depth. On August 5, 2010, the Suns hired Lance Blanks as general", "During the 2012 free agency period, the Suns traded Steve Nash to the Los Angeles Lakers in exchange for first round picks in 2013 and 2015, as well as second round picks in 2013 and 2014. After the trade, the Suns then re-acquired point guard Goran Dragić from Houston, signed Minnesota Timberwolves forward Michael Beasley, and claimed Houston forward Luis Scola off amnesty waivers while also using the same amnesty clause (as codified in the 2011 collective bargaining agreement) to waive Josh Childress. They also did a three-way trade with the New Orleans Hornets and the Timberwolves by trading Robin Lopez and Hakim Warrick to the Hornets and a 2014 second rounder to the Timberwolves in exchange for Wesley Johnson, a top 14-protected future first rounder and the rights to Brad Miller and Jerome Dyson. The latter two players' rights were later waived and the Suns then signed Jermaine O'Neal for one year. The Suns also signed P. J.", "On April 22, 2013, it was announced that the Suns had fired general manager Lance Blanks. On May 7, 2013, former Celtics assistant general manager Ryan McDonough was announced as the new general manager of the Suns. On May 26, 2013, the Suns hired Jeff Hornacek as their head coach to replace interim head coach Lindsey Hunter. The team also started the new season with new modified logos, replacing most of the purple on their logos with black, although purple would still be found on their jerseys. In the 2013 NBA draft on June 27, the Suns selected Ukrainian center Alex Len from Maryland with their 5th pick and power forward Alex Oriakhi from Missouri with their 57th pick. Although the Suns were expected to have a poor season, they began the season with a 19–11 record. Eric Bledsoe then went down against the Los Angeles Clippers with a torn meniscus and missed the following 33 games. The Suns went 17–16 during his absence led by Goran Dragić, keeping Phoenix in the playoff race with the Memphis Grizzlies and Dallas Mavericks.", "Before the start of the regular season and during preseason on October 8, 2018, owner Robert Sarver decided to relieve Ryan McDonough from general manager position, and named vice president of basketball operations James Jones and assistant general manager Trevor Bukstein the interim general managers. A highlight of the season was when a planned three-way trade with the Washington Wizards and Memphis Grizzlies fell apart through miscommunication of the players involved and being sent in the planned deal. The Suns would once again have another losing season as they missed the playoffs for the ninth straight season. At the end of the season, the Suns made James Jones the team's permanent general manager, with co-interim general manager Trevor Bukstein returning to his prior assistant general manager role. When the season came to an end, the coaching staff, including head coach Igor Kokoškov, were fired on April 23, 2019. Former New Orleans Hornets/Pelicans head coach and Philadelphia 76ers assistant coach Monty Williams was hired as the team's new head coach on May 3, and completed the rest of the new coaching staff on", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Suns. For the full season-by-season", "The Suns played at the Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum from 1968 until 1992. In 1992, they moved to Talking Stick Resort Arena,", "", "After the NBA had awarded a franchise to the Phoenix metropolitan area in 1968, local designers chose purple and orange as the main colors for", "The Suns tweaked their uniforms for the 1973–74 season. Other than the basic template itself, only the lettering and numbers", "In time for the move to the America West Arena for the 1992–93 season, the Suns overhauled their look. The home white and road purple uniforms now feature the \"Streaking", "Before the 2000–01 season the Suns changed to a more simplistic uniform style. The home white uniform has the word \"Suns\" and the numbers in purple with orange trim along with purple side stripes. The road purple uniform has the word \"Phoenix\" and the", "The Suns overhauled their uniforms anew prior to the 2013–14 season. The look was inspired from their previous uniform designs. The home white uniforms featured \"Suns\" in orange with black trim along with black numbers, orange streaks and grey and orange sunbursts. The purple road uniforms featured \"Phoenix\" in white with orange trim along with orange numbers, white streaks and black, grey and orange sunbursts. The orange alternate", "When the NBA switched to Nike beginning with the 2017–18 season, the Suns drastically revamped their uniforms. Gone was the modernized \"Streaking Sun\" and the sunburst of the previous uniforms, and the Suns returned to a more simplified design. Purple also returned as a prominent color. The home-and-away designations were eliminated and in its place were the white \"Association\" uniform, the primary color \"Icon\"", "The Suns started wearing special \"Noche Latina\" uniforms in 2007 to commemorate the Latin American fanbase. The 2007 edition used the home white uniform template with the flag of Latin American countries substituting for the orange stripes. Starting in 2008, the Suns began to wear a modified version of their orange alternate uniforms with \"Los Suns\" in front, which they kept until 2013. During the 2010 NBA Playoffs, the Suns wore their \"Los Suns\" uniforms on Cinco de Mayo for Game 2 of the Western Conference semifinals against the San Antonio Spurs. Sports reporter Dave Zirin called the \"Los Suns\" action an \"unprecedented political statement by a sports team.\" The move was also widely reported to be a protest of an Arizona illegal-immigration law enacted", "", "For the first eleven seasons of their existence in the NBA, the Suns had no official mascot, but some years later this mascot was born by accident. A messenger for Eastern Onion, a singing telegram service, came to the Coliseum during a home game dressed as a gorilla. As he left, Coliseum security suggested he do a few dances underneath the basket during a timeout and the fans loved it. So did the messenger, Henry Rojas, who kept coming to games until he was officially invited to be part of the team. An earlier attempt at a mascot was made involving a sunflower costume, but it never caught on. The Suns Gorilla then became one of the most famous mascots in the NBA. Nicknamed \"Go\", fans are familiar with the Gorilla for his on the court antics", "", "The Suns hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "", "The Suns' All-Century Team", "The 40th Anniversary Suns Team, selected by fans through an Internet vote, was unveiled on January 3, 2008.", "", "The Suns held an annual basketball exhibition game, the NBA Outdoors, every first weekend of October in Indian Wells Tennis Garden in Indian Wells, California near the city of Palm Springs from 2008 to 2010. However, the club ceased playing the outdoor preseason game prior to the 2011–12 NBA preseason. As a result of a recommendation by the Coachella Valley Recreation and Park District's Superintendent of Operations, Craig DeWitt, the NBA held its first outdoor exhibition basketball game on October 11, 2008. That", "Phoenix Suns games air locally on the Fox", "In October 2008, the Phoenix Suns organization, along with partnered advertising agencies, were honored with 12 Emmy awards by the Rocky Mountain Southwest Chapter of the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. The Suns won an award in the Advanced Media category for a video on Suns.com during the 2007 NBA Playoffs, Raja Bell Reunion with Teammates, produced by Steven J. Koek. An Emmy was also awarded in 2008 for PlanetOrange.net, the team's official online fan community. The site was produced by Suns VP of Interactive Services Jeramie McPeek and powered by technology from social media application developer KickApps. McPeek was also awarded for the writing and producing of the virtual locker room site, SunsLockerRoom.com along with Daniel Banks. The Phoenix Suns also created a Twitter Central for their fans called Suns Twackle." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Long filenames.", "End of life.", "Norton Commander for Windows.", "1.0.", "2.0.", "Norton Commander for OS/2.", "Reception.", "Norton Commander-inspired software." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "John Socha started work on Norton Commander in 1984; at the time, he called it \"Visual DOS\" or \"VDOS\". Norton Commander was easy to use because it had a constant view of two file manipulation objects at once. After starting the program the user sees two panels with file lists. Each panel can be easily configured to show information about the other panel, a directory tree, or a number of other options. At the bottom of the screen, Norton Commander displays a list of commands that are extended on demand by the CTRL and ALT keys. Thus, without heavy use of the mouse (although mouse functionality was integrated around version 3.0), the user is able to perform many file manipulation actions quickly and efficiently. Additionally, it also includes a built-in text file viewer (invoked with F3 key) and text file editor (invoked with F4 key). Norton Commander was very popular during the DOS era and it has been extensively cloned. For example, the IntelliJ IDE used to include a \"Commander\" plugin that performed file manipulation using the same shortcut keys as Norton Commander but the plugin is now obsolete.", "Windows 95 included a new graphical shell called Windows Explorer and supported long filenames (LFN). Symantec released Norton Commander 5.51 to support long filenames using the standard Windows APIs. In order to preserve LFNs while working in real mode, Norton Commander 5.51 required the use of a Terminate and Stay Resident (TSR) utility. Norton Commander did not have native support for LFNs in real mode and would truncate them.", "According to former Peter Norton Group developer Mark Lowlier, after Symantec had acquired Peter Norton Computing, Symantec had speculated Microsoft Windows would be a success, so the key PNC resources had been diverted, while new programmers for Windows platform were hired. Enrique Salem (who eventually became Symantec's CEO) led the development of a File Manager and Program Manager released as Norton Desktop for Windows.", "Norton Commander for Windows was a Windows 95 variant of the classical DOS file manager.", "Version 1.0 was first released in 1996. It supported both Windows 95 and Windows NT. This version fully integrated with Windows features such as the Recycle Bin and Quick View. Quick View feature was supported via the included basic Quick View Plus. Version 1.02 added Windows 98 support.", "Version 2.0 was released in 2000. It supports Windows 2000 and functions under Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7. Installer included Network Utilities, Norton Commander Scheduler, and the Norton Commander. Network Utilities allows for viewing devices and systems on network, connecting to remote systems, mapping network drives, network monitoring, and more. Norton Commander is little changed from previous versions, and includes file compression/de-compression of various formats, network utilities access, disk cleanup, files and folder compare, FTP connection management, and more. The last Windows version of Norton Commander was 2.01.", "Version 1.0 was released in December 1992. It supports OS/2 2.0 with HPFS or FAT file system. It does not include the command prompt found in other versions of Norton Commander. In June 1993, Symantec lowered the price of Norton Commander for OS/2 to $49, and soon ceased sales.", "\"BYTE\" in 1989 listed Norton Commander 2.0 for DOS as among the \"Distinction\" winners of the BYTE Awards, stating that \"navigating through a crowded hard disk is a breeze\".", "There are several programs that follow the style of Norton Commander. Examples are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career and research.", "Personal life and beliefs.", "Awards and honors.", "Posthumous recognition.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Carl Sagan was born in Brooklyn, New York. His father, Samuel Sagan, was an immigrant garment worker from Kamianets-Podilskyi, then in the Russian Empire, in today's Ukraine. His mother, Rachel Molly Gruber, was a housewife from New York. Carl was named in honor of Rachel's biological mother, Chaiya Clara, in Sagan's words, \"the mother she never knew\". He had a sister, Carol, and the family lived in a modest apartment near the Atlantic Ocean, in Bensonhurst, a Brooklyn neighborhood. According to Sagan, they were Reform Jews, the most liberal of North American Judaism's four main groups. Carl and his sister agreed that their father was not especially religious, but that their mother \"definitely believed in God, and was active in the temple;... and served only kosher meat\". During the depths of the Depression, his father worked as a theater usher. According to biographer Keay Davidson, Sagan's \"inner war\" was a result of his close relationship with both of his parents, who were in many ways \"opposites\". Sagan traced his later analytical urges to his mother, a woman who had been extremely poor as a child in New York City during World War I and the 1920s. As a young woman, she had held her own intellectual ambitions, but they were frustrated by social restrictions: her poverty, her status as a woman and a wife, and her Jewish ethnicity. Davidson notes that she therefore \"worshipped her only son, Carl. He would fulfill her unfulfilled dreams.\" However, he claimed that his sense of wonder came from his father, who in his free time gave apples to the poor or helped soothe labor-management tensions within New York's garment industry. Although he was awed by Carl's intellectual abilities, he took his son's inquisitiveness in stride and saw it as part of his growing up. In his later years as a writer and scientist, Sagan would often draw on his childhood memories to illustrate scientific points, as he did in his book \"Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors\". Sagan describes his parents' influence on his later thinking: Sagan recalls that one of his most defining moments was when his parents took him to the 1939 New York World's Fair when he was four years old. The exhibits became a turning point in his life. He later recalled the moving map of the \"America of Tomorrow\" exhibit: \"It showed beautiful highways and cloverleaves and little General Motors cars all carrying people to skyscrapers, buildings with lovely spires, flying buttresses—and it looked great!\" At other exhibits, he remembered how a flashlight that shone on a photoelectric cell created a crackling sound, and how the sound from a tuning fork became a wave on an oscilloscope. He also witnessed the future media technology that would replace radio: television. Sagan wrote: He also saw one of the Fair's most publicized events, the burial of a time capsule at Flushing Meadows, which contained mementos of the 1930s to be recovered by Earth's descendants in a future millennium. \"The time capsule thrilled Carl\", writes Davidson. As an adult, Sagan and his colleagues would create similar time capsules—capsules that would be sent out into the galaxy; these were the Pioneer plaque and the \"Voyager Golden Record\" précis, all of which were spinoffs of Sagan's memories of the World's Fair. During World War II Sagan's family worried about the fate of their European relatives. Sagan, however, was generally unaware of the details of the ongoing war. He wrote, \"Sure, we had relatives who were caught up in the Holocaust. Hitler was not a popular fellow in our household... But on the other hand, I was fairly insulated from the horrors of the war.\" His sister, Carol, said that their mother \"above all wanted to protect Carl... She had an extraordinarily difficult time dealing with World War II and the Holocaust.\" Sagan's book \"The Demon-Haunted World\" (1996) included his memories of this conflicted period, when his family dealt with the realities of the war in Europe but tried to prevent it from undermining his optimistic spirit.", "From 1960 to 1962 Sagan was a Miller Fellow at the University of California, Berkeley. Meanwhile, he published an article in 1961 in the journal \"Science\" on the atmosphere of Venus, while also working with NASA's Mariner 2 team, and served as a \"Planetary Sciences Consultant\" to the RAND Corporation. After the publication of Sagan's \"Science\" article, in 1961 Harvard University astronomers Fred Whipple and Donald Menzel offered Sagan the opportunity to give a colloquium at Harvard and subsequently offered him a lecturer position at the institution. Sagan instead asked to be made an assistant professor, and eventually Whipple and Menzel were able to convince Harvard to offer Sagan the assistant professor position he requested. Sagan lectured, performed research, and advised graduate students at the institution from 1963 until 1968, as well as working at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, also located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 1968, Sagan was denied tenure at Harvard. He later indicated that the decision was very much unexpected. The tenure denial has been blamed on several factors, including that he focused his interests too broadly across a number of areas (while the norm in academia is to become a renowned expert in a narrow specialty), and perhaps because of his well-publicized scientific advocacy, which some scientists perceived as borrowing the ideas of others for little more than self-promotion. An advisor from his years as an undergraduate student, Harold Urey, wrote a letter to the tenure committee recommending strongly against tenure for Sagan. Long before the ill-fated tenure process, Cornell University astronomer Thomas Gold had courted Sagan to move to Ithaca, New York, and join the faculty at Cornell. Following the denial of tenure from Harvard, Sagan accepted Gold's offer and remained a faculty member at Cornell for nearly 30 years until his death in 1996. Unlike Harvard, the smaller and more laid-back astronomy department at Cornell welcomed Sagan's growing celebrity status. Following two years as an associate professor, Sagan became a full professor at Cornell in 1970 and directed the Laboratory for Planetary Studies there. From 1972 to 1981, he was associate director of the Center for Radiophysics and Space Research (CRSR) at Cornell. In 1976, he became the David Duncan Professor of Astronomy and Space Sciences, a position he held for the remainder of his life. Sagan was associated with the U.S. space program from its inception. From the 1950s onward, he worked as an advisor to NASA, where one of his duties included briefing the Apollo astronauts before their flights to the Moon. Sagan contributed to many of the robotic spacecraft missions that explored the Solar System, arranging experiments on many of the expeditions. Sagan assembled the first physical message that was sent into space: a gold-plated plaque, attached to the space probe \"Pioneer 10\", launched in 1972. \"Pioneer 11\", also carrying another copy of the plaque, was launched the following year. He continued to refine his designs; the most elaborate message he helped to develop and assemble was the Voyager Golden Record, which was sent out with the Voyager space probes in 1977. Sagan often challenged the decisions to fund the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station at the expense of further robotic missions.", "Sagan was married three times. In 1957, he married biologist Lynn Margulis. The couple had two children, Jeremy and Dorion Sagan. After Carl Sagan and Margulis divorced, he married artist Linda Salzman in 1968 and they also had a child together, Nick Sagan. During these marriages, Carl Sagan focused heavily on his career, a factor which may have contributed to Sagan's first divorce. In 1981, Sagan married author Ann Druyan and they later had two children, Alexandra (known as Sasha) and Samuel Sagan. Carl Sagan and Druyan remained married until his death in 1996. He lived in an Egyptian revival house in Ithaca perched on the edge of a cliff that had formerly been the headquarters of a Cornell secret society. Daughter Sasha published a book in 2019 on her father's primary legacy: skepticism does not mean pessimism. In 2020 Sasha Sagan released \"For Small Creatures Such As We: Rituals for Finding Meaning in our Unlikely World\" which depicts life with her parents and her father's death when she was fourteen. Isaac Asimov described Sagan as one of only two people he ever met whose intellect surpassed his own. The other, he claimed, was the computer scientist and artificial intelligence expert Marvin Minsky. Sagan wrote frequently about religion and the relationship between religion and science, expressing his skepticism about the conventional conceptualization of God as a sapient being. For example: Some people think God is an outsized, light-skinned male with a long white beard, sitting on a throne somewhere up there in the sky, busily tallying the fall of every sparrow. Others—for example Baruch Spinoza and Albert Einstein—considered God to be essentially the sum total of the physical laws which describe the universe. I do not know of any compelling evidence for anthropomorphic patriarchs controlling human destiny from some hidden celestial vantage point, but it would be madness to deny the existence of physical laws. In another description of his view on the concept of God, Sagan wrote: The idea that God is an oversized white male with a flowing beard who sits in the sky and tallies the fall of every sparrow is ludicrous. But if by God one means the set of physical laws that govern the universe, then clearly there is such a God. This God is emotionally unsatisfying... it does not make much sense to pray to the law of gravity. On atheism, Sagan commented in 1981: An atheist is someone who is certain that God does not exist, someone who has compelling evidence against the existence of God. I know of no such compelling evidence. Because God can be relegated to remote times and places and to ultimate causes, we would have to know a great deal more about the universe than we do now to be sure that no such God exists. To be certain of the existence of God and to be certain of the nonexistence of God seem to me to be the confident extremes in a subject so riddled with doubt and uncertainty as to inspire very little confidence indeed. Sagan also commented on Christianity and the Jefferson Bible, stating \"My long-time view about Christianity is that it represents an amalgam of two seemingly immiscible parts, the religion of Jesus and the religion of Paul. Thomas Jefferson attempted to excise the Pauline parts of the New Testament. There wasn't much left when he was done, but it was an inspiring document.\" Regarding spirituality and its relationship with science, Sagan stated: 'Spirit' comes from the Latin word 'to breathe'. What we breathe is air, which is certainly matter, however thin. Despite usage to the contrary, there is no necessary implication in the word'spiritual' that we are talking of anything other than matter (including the matter of which the brain is made), or anything outside the realm of science. On occasion, I will feel free to use the word. Science is not only compatible with spirituality; it is a profound source of spirituality. When we recognize our place in an immensity of light-years and in the passage of ages, when we grasp the intricacy, beauty, and subtlety of life, then that soaring feeling, that sense of elation and humility combined, is surely spiritual. An environmental appeal, \"Preserving and Cherishing the Earth\", signed by Sagan with other noted scientists in January 1990, stated that \"The historical record makes clear that religious teaching, example, and leadership are powerfully able to influence personal conduct and commitment... Thus, there is a vital role for religion and science.\" In reply to a question in 1996 about his religious beliefs, Sagan answered, \"I'm agnostic.\" Sagan maintained that the idea of a creator God of the Universe was difficult to prove or disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that could challenge it would be an infinitely old universe. Sagan's views on religion have been interpreted as a form of pantheism comparable to Einstein's belief in Spinoza's God. His son, Dorion Sagan said, \"My father believed in the God of Spinoza and Einstein, God not behind nature but as nature, equivalent to it.\" His last wife, Ann Druyan, stated: When my husband died, because he was so famous and known for not being a believer, many people would come up to me—it still sometimes happens—and ask me if Carl changed at the end and converted to a belief in an afterlife. They also frequently ask me if I think I will see him again. Carl faced his death with unflagging courage and never sought refuge in illusions. The tragedy was that we knew we would never see each other again. I don't ever expect to be reunited with Carl. In 2006, Ann Druyan edited Sagan's 1985 Glasgow \"Gifford Lectures in Natural Theology\" into a book, \"\", in which he elaborates on his views of divinity in the natural world. Sagan is also widely regarded as a freethinker or skeptic; one of his most famous quotations, in \"Cosmos\", was, \"Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence\" (called the \"Sagan standard\" by some). This was based on a nearly identical statement by fellow founder of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, Marcello Truzzi, \"An extraordinary claim requires extraordinary proof.\" This idea had been earlier aphorized in Théodore Flournoy's work \"From India to the Planet Mars\" (1899) from a longer quote by Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827), a French mathematician and astronomer, as the Principle of Laplace: \"The weight of the evidence should be proportioned to the strangeness of the facts.\" Late in his life, Sagan's books elaborated on his naturalistic view of the world. In \"The Demon-Haunted World\", he presented tools for testing arguments and detecting fallacious or fraudulent ones, essentially advocating wide use of critical thinking and the scientific method. The compilation \"Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of the Millennium\", published in 1997 after Sagan's death, contains essays written by Sagan, such as his views on abortion, as well as an account by his widow, Ann Druyan, of his death in relation to his having been an agnostic and freethinker. Sagan warned against humans' tendency towards anthropocentrism. He was the faculty adviser for the Cornell Students for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. In the \"Cosmos\" chapter \"Blues For a Red Planet\", Sagan wrote, \"If there is life on Mars, I believe we should do nothing with Mars. Mars then belongs to the Martians, even if the Martians are only microbes.\" Sagan was a user and advocate of marijuana. Under the pseudonym \"Mr. X\", he contributed an essay about smoking cannabis to the 1971 book \"Marihuana Reconsidered\". The essay explained that marijuana use had helped to inspire some of Sagan's works and enhance sensual and intellectual experiences. After Sagan's death, his friend Lester Grinspoon disclosed this information to Sagan's biographer, Keay Davidson. The publishing of the biography, \"Carl Sagan: A Life\", in 1999 brought media attention to this aspect of Sagan's life. Not long after his death, his widow Ann Druyan went on to preside over the board of directors of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML), a non-profit organization dedicated to reforming cannabis laws. In 1994, engineers at Apple Computer code-named the Power Macintosh 7100 \"Carl Sagan\" in the hope that Apple would make \"billions and billions\" with the sale of the PowerMac 7100. The name was only used internally, but Sagan was concerned that it would become a product endorsement and sent Apple a cease-and-desist letter. Apple complied, but engineers retaliated by changing the internal codename to \"BHA\" for \"Butt-Head Astronomer\". Sagan then sued Apple for libel in federal court. The court granted Apple's motion to dismiss Sagan's claims and opined in dicta that a reader aware of the context would understand Apple was \"clearly attempting to retaliate in a humorous and satirical way\", and that \"It strains reason to conclude that Defendant was attempting to criticize Plaintiff's reputation or competency as an astronomer. One does not seriously attack the expertise of a scientist using the undefined phrase 'butt-head'.\" Sagan then sued for Apple's original use of his name and likeness, but again lost. Sagan appealed the ruling. In November 1995, an out-of-court settlement was reached and Apple's office of trademarks and patents released a conciliatory statement that \"Apple has always had great respect for Dr. Sagan. It was never Apple's intention to cause Dr. Sagan or his family any embarrassment or concern.\" Apple's third and final code name for the project was \"LAW\", short for \"Lawyers are Wimps\". Sagan briefly served as an adviser on Stanley Kubrick's film \"\". Sagan proposed that the film suggest, rather than depict, extraterrestrial superintelligence.", "", "The 1997 film \"Contact\", based on Sagan's only fiction novel of the same name and finished after his death, ends with the dedication \"For Carl\". His photo can also be seen in the film. In 1997 the Sagan Planet Walk was opened in Ithaca, New York. It is a walking-scale model of the Solar System, extending 1.2 km from the center of The Commons in downtown Ithaca to the Sciencenter, a hands-on museum. The exhibition was created in memory of Carl Sagan, who was an Ithaca resident", "Footnotes Citations" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Naming.", "History.", "The period of Charles IV.", "Period of Hussite Wars.", "The period after the Battle of White Mountain.", "The Age of Enlightenment.", "19th century.", "The Equipment of the church.", "Gravestones.", "The Architecture.", "Parts of the church.", "The windows.", "The interior.", "The keystones.", "The main nave.", "The choir.", "Exterior.", "The tower.", "Curiosities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The oldest naming for this church and the whole monastery is \"in viridi\" (on green). The naming was later changed to \"on the little grass\", probably due to the green grasslands in the valley of Botič creek, where the church was founded. In the Middle Ages the church and the monastery were called, like the adjoining stream, simply \"Botič\". Today's usual naming \"Na Slupi\" has its origin in the 16th century and it is deduced from \"slup\" – tanks for fish which were placed in the Botič.", "The order of Servites or the order of servants of the Virgin Mary was created in the 13th century and their goal was unlimited respect to the Virgin Mary. According to tradition the apparition happened in 1233 on the day of Ascension. The apparition influenced the seven Florentines who gave up their existing lives and went to Monte Senario where they founded a monastery. The Servite Order showed up in Prague for the first time in 1360.", "The legend says that King Charles IV promised in front of the painting in the Florentine monastery of Servites that he would build a monastery for this order in the Czech lands as thanks for his cure. Another possible impulse for founding the monastery could have been an effort to reinforce the deteriorating religious life in Bohemia and above all in Prague in the second half of the 14th century. Charles IV asked pope Innocent VI for permission to set up a new monastery in Prague in 1359 and was granted permission. The monastery was founded in 1360 and the construction of the church started immediately. According to Beneš of Weitmile (the chronicler) the church was established next to the older chapel of the Virgin Mary.", "During the Hussite period the monastery was robbed by Prague's citizens in 1420 and probably also burnt down. The monks from the monastery were probably in exile at that time. The monastery Na Slupi was between the two fighting sides and on 15 September 1420 the inhabitants of Prague built two big catapults near the choir of the monastery church. Both weapons were destroyed by the defenders. Then the inhabitants of Prague broke through the southern wall, they put a big cannon in the nave of the church and were able to aim directly at besieging the royal garrison in Vyšehrad. For this reason, the nave was newly vaulted in the late-Gothic period (it is estimated that the vaulting was constructed from 1436 to 1480). The Servites probably returned to the monastery shortly after the ending of Hussite Wars which is obvious from documented financial gift to the monastery in 1439. The repair of the church took place after 1480. It was mostly financed by financial support of various donors. The citizen of the New Town Mikuláš Replík had donated a bell to the church although this bell was removed from the belfry by the parishioners of the Church of Saint Adalbert. And they placed the bell to their church. Through the numerous donations the monastery was very poor and around 1480 the monks left it. Then monastery passed to the royal holding. The monks from the Church of Saint Adalbert bought a new bell to the church Na Slupi in 1498. The church was at that time represented by Švábs from Chvatlin, Duchk and Mikuláš. Their symbol is visible at the keystone of the vault inside the church. The monastery was still very poor. The building was half ruined and in 1554 the last prior, and at that time the only monk in monastery, Ondřej Bergmann, wrote a letter to the abbot in Karlov where he entrusted himself and the church under his protection. The abbot of Augustinian order agreed with this proposal.", "The next fate of the monastery and other buildings is not clear. The Church of Our Lady on the Lawn continued to be in the holding of the church in Karlov. Servites had a considerable influence at Vienna court which they used after the Battle of White Mountain to get means for renewal the monastery. The monastery returned to the order in 1626. Three monks settled in the monastery which was subordinated to Servites monastery of Saint Michal in the Old Town. The unstable period around the year 1648 did not allowed bigger construction works in monastery. There were made only the most urgent repairs. It was decided about the reconstruction after the general prior of the order visited the monastery. The reparation took place several years later during the 1760s. Seventeen monks lived in the monastery in 1710. The reconstruction of the buildings finished in 1726. The Servites's highlighting period was on the beginning of the 18th century. The number of supporters and donors was growing. The monastery bought near so called Dlouhoveský house with chapel in 1707, which the monastery afterwards sold to establish the convent of Alžbětinky.", "The monastery was seriously damaged by bombs during the Seven Years' War in 1757. There was general resentment toward the European monastic life in the following period of the Age of Enlightenment. The New Town and the Old Town monasteries were merged in 1783. The Servite order was cancelled on 23. 6. 1786. The Church of Our Lady on the Lawn was secularized in 1783. The monastery became an artillery barracks in the years 1785 – 1792, then it was a lodging house and then it became a military educational institute in the years 1822-1850.", "The monastery was enlarged and rebuilt in 1856 in order to place there the institute of mentally ill. The church was sanctified again in 1856. The architect and the historian of the art Bernard Grueber (1806-1882) was in charge of numerous pseudo-gothic repairs. The repairs took place in the years 1858-1863 (another source states years 1856-58). The two-storied building of the former monastery is known in this pseudo-gothic form. The monastery was rebuilt in 1910 and currently there is located the Skin Clinic of the Charles University. A big part of the current look of the church can be attributed to Grueber, including the internal furnishing of the church in the pseudo-gothic style. There was built choir and low roof of the presbytery was raised. Grueber also designed the new interior, such as the altar partition, doors, altars, pulpit, candlesticks and monstrance. The last major reconstruction of the church was in years 1914-1916 when the inner plastering was replaced with the brickwork. The reconstruction was directed by the builder František Schlaffer.", "The church was filled with baroque furniture during the 18th century and it received new altar in 1732. After cancelling the Servites Order in Prague and unhollying the church its artistic inventor had been spread. The monastery has received some paintings and sculptures, four of them we can still see in their church. We can see a copy of Florentine painting Annunciation Virgin Mary in the monastery. The equipment in the church comes from the period of the architect Bernard Grueber and it is mostly in the pseudo-gothic style. There is a painting of Annunciation Virgin Mary on the main altar from 1857 by Leopold Kupelwieser. There are two side altars on the sides of victory arch, the altar of Saint Anna on the south wall and the altar of Saint Joseph on the north wall. The organs and holly water font are from Grueber's workshop.", "There are several gravestones in the church. The gravestone behind the altar bears the name Jan Petr Dejma from Střítěž. There is a sunken ledger in the choir which covers a tomb of Servites. There is a gravestone in the nave which bears name of baron Schönebeck. There is a gravestone of Magdalena Premerová under the choir on the north wall and there is a gravestone of Marie Jakobína Schadnerová on the south wall.", "The orientation of the church is traditional, the altar is oriented to the east. The main nave of the church does not have completely dominate position and there is not a trial for monumentality and strong verticalization which is typical for the earlier period of gothic. The original parts of the church come from the period of the Caroline gothic and this church is an illustration of diversity and variety of New Town's religious architecture of that time. The shield of the nave significantly exceeds the roof of the choir. The west facade is rather plain and a third of the facade occupies a prismatic four-sided tower. Almost a whole north side of the church is hidden by the buildings of the former monastery.", "The church consists of three parts: choir, nave and tower. The choir consists of one vault field and five-sided closing. The ground plan of the nave is almost a square, just like the ground plan of the tower which stands in the axis of west facade of the church.", "There are slender pointed windows with new tracery between the rests, simple window in the end of choir, the north window is immured and the south window is two part with new flame tracery. The original bevelled mouldings are preserved only in the end of church, otherwise they are covered with plaster. There were penetrated new portals in the western half of the nave. The portals have pointed arch with pinnacles on the sides. The current look of the portals was created by the architect Grueber.", "The size of the nave is 9, 5 x 9, 65 x 12 metres. The choir was built in the pseudo-gothic style together with a noticeable renewed ledge along the choir. The rounded vault supports run out from the ledge. There are consoles from modern period under the ledge. The supports have calyx-shaped capitals and they are covered with carved grapevine and cabbage leaves. There are linden leaves on the supports too.", "The keystone in the choir ending bears a board with a relief of the Czech lion. There are family signs and a shield which depicts a hand with two open fingers on the keystones in the eastern part. There is stylized rosette and a sign of family Šváby from Chvatliny on the keystones in the west part. The sign represents a gate between two towers with battlements where is a standing sheep. The frontal arcs have grooved profile.", "The main nave space is unique because it is vaulted on the single middle slender cylindrical pillar which supports the vault. The pillar has a cylindrical pedestal, simple base and small ring in the upper part. The vault ribs are connected to the pillar through small corbels. The main nave is almost a square. The both west square fields have a cross-ribbed vault.", "There is a pseudo-gothic entrance to the sacristy on the northern side of the choir ending. The sacristy is rectangular and it is arched with barrel vault. The choir is arched with one rectangular field with cross-ribbed vault in front and with radial vault at the end. There are simple ribs in the choir. We can find pseudo gothic pulpit in the southwest corner and also pseudo-gothic oratory in the west part of the church. The oratory is accessible from the first floor through the wide arcade. There is an entrance and a new spiral stairs to the tower in the west wall. The entrance to the chapel was built in the 19th century and it is under the oratory.", "The outer layout of the nave is similar to the choir, on the three loose corners there are supports put up diagonally.", "There is a slim tower in the front facade which has height 38 metres. The tower has in its lower part a shape of four-sided prism. There are two ledges, the first one is in the height of the ledge which is placed under the windows of the nave and the second one in the height of the main ledge of the nave. The tower continues with another narrowed floor and with pointed arch. This part of the tower has three floors of various heights. Above the second ledge there is another eight-sided part with two little windows with pointed arches. The thickness of the brickwork is around 80 centimetres. The Baroque onion-domed roof was replaced by Grueber with the pyramidal roof which is there up to now. This tower is unique among all of the Prague towers because its diversion from the vertical is 63 centimetres towards the street Na Slupi. Both of the shields of the nave have the panelling from restoration in the 19th century. There is nothing left from the gothic monastery and current appearance of the buildings of the former monastery is determined by the modification in the 19th century.", "The position of the significant buildings built in times of Charles IV. is supposedly determined by celestial symbolism and Christian mysticism. Five churches founded by Charles IV. create regular cross. Cross of the buildings meant a special blessing to the town in the Middle Ages." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early sources.", "Iconography.", "Literature.", "Other sources." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Early sources provide glimpses of other versions of the story from the one that Apollodorus tells. Possibly Alcyoneus was not originally a Giant, but simply one of Heracles' many monstrous opponents.", "Depictions of Heracles fighting Alcyoneus, named by inscription, are found on several sixth century BC pots (e.g., Lourve F208). The earliest extant representation of their battle probably occurs on a metope from the first temple dedicated to Hera at Foce del Sele, which shows Heracles holding a large figure by the hair, while stabbing him with a sword. Such a scene is also depicted on several shield-band reliefs from Olympia (B 1801, B 1010). A terracotta frieze (Basel BS 318) and the sixth century BC pots show a reclining Alcyoneus. And on some of the pots Alcyoneus is apparently sleeping, with a winged Hypnos nearby (Melborne 1730.4, Getty 84.AE.974, Munich 1784, Toledo 52.66). These depictions suggest the existence of a story in which Heracles takes advantage of a sleeping opponent. The presence of cattle on several of the pots suggests that the story also involved cattle in some way (e.g., Tarquinia RC 2070, Taranto 7030). This last pot depicts Heracles, with a headlock perhaps dragging his opponent, which might be a representation of Heracles dragging Alcyoneus out of his homeland.", "The earliest mentions of Alcyoneus in literature, are by the fifth century BC poet Pindar. According to Pindar, Heracles and Telamon were traveling through Phlegra, where they encountered Alcyoneus, whom Pindar describes as a \"herdsman... huge as a mountain\", and a \"great and terrible warrior\". A battle occurs in which Alcyoneus \"laid low, by hurling a rock, twelve chariots and twice twelve horse-taming heroes who were riding in them\", before finally being \"destroyed\" by the two heroes. The participation of Telamon and other mortals in the battle, and the lack of mention of any of the gods, or other Giants, seem to imply that for Pindar, unlike apparently Apollodorus, the battle between Heracles and Alcyoneus was a separate event from the Gigantomachy. And in fact Pindar never actually calls Alcyoneus a Giant, although the description of him as \"huge as a mountain\", his use of a rock as a weapon, and the location of the battle at Phlegra, the usual site of the Gigantomachy, all suggest that he was. Scholia to Pindar tell us that Alcyoneus lived on the isthmus of Thrace and that he had stolen his cattle from Helios, causing the Gigantomachy, (Schol. Pindar \"Isthmian\" 6.47) and that Alcyoneus, one of the Giants, attacked Heracles, not in Thrace but at the Isthmus of Corinth, while the hero was returning with the cattle of Geryon, and that this was according to Zeus' plan because the Giants were his enemies (Schol. Pindar \"Nemean\" 4.43). The cattle shown on the sixth century pots, might thus represent either Alcyoneus' cattle stolen from Helios, or Heracles' cattle taken from Geryon.", "Alcyoneus is usually identified as the winged Giant battling Athena on the Gigantomachy frieze from the Pergamon Altar. An unascribed lyric fragment (985 PMG) calls the Giant \"Phlegraian Alkyoneus of Pallene, the eldest of the Gigantes [Giants]\". Claudian has Alcyoneus buried under the volcanic Mount Vesuvius while Philostratus says that the bones of Alcyoneus were considered a \"marvel\" by the people living near Vesuvius, where it was said that many Giants were buried. The \"Suda\" says that Hegesander told of a myth in which Alcyoneus had seven daughters, the Alkyonides, who threw themselves into the sea when Alcyoneus died and were turned into birds, the Halcyons (kingfishers). The late fourth century or early fifth century AD Greek poet Nonnus, in his poem \"Dionysiaca\", mentions Alcyoneus as one of the several Giants that Dionysus battles in the Gigantomachy. Nonnus has Gaia set the Giants against Dionysus, promising Alcyoneus Artemis as his wife should the Giants subdue Dionysus. Nonnus makes Alcyoneus nine cubits high, and has him fight with mountains as weapons." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "2001–2003: \"Original Pirate Material\".", "2004–2005: \"A Grand Don't Come for Free\".", "2006–2007: \"The Hardest Way to Make an Easy Living\".", "2008–2009: \"Everything Is Borrowed\".", "2010–2011: \"Computers and Blues\" and \"Cyberspace and Reds\".", "2017–present.", "Band members." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Mike Skinner sent a demo tape to a record shop in north London, run by A&R Nick Worthington. The song developed into Skinner's first single, \"Has It Come to This?\", and was released under the name The Streets. The song peaked at number 18 on the UK Singles Chart in October 2001. The Streets' debut album, \"Original Pirate Material\", was released in March 2002. The album was successful both with critics and the general public. In the UK, the album was nominated for the Mercury Prize \"Original Pirate Material\" was nominated for British Album of the Year, and The Streets was nominated for British Urban Act, British Breakthrough Act and British Male Solo Artist at the 2003 BRIT Awards. \"NME\" named \"Original Pirate Material\" as the third best album of 2002. Subsequent singles from \"Original Pirate Material\" include \"Don't Mug Yourself\", \"Weak Become Heroes\" and \"Let's Push Things Forward\".", "In May 2004, Skinner released the single \"Fit but You Know It\", which peaked at number 4 on the UK Singles Chart. The single was later used by EA Sports as part of the soundtrack for its video game \"FIFA Football 2005\". \"Fit But You Know It\" appeared on The Streets' second album, \"A Grand Don't Come for Free\". The album entered the UK album charts at number two, but later reached number one after six weeks. The album's second single, \"Dry Your Eyes\", debuted at the top of the chart in the UK. \"Blinded by the Lights\", the third single from \"A Grand Don't Come for Free\", peaked at number 10 on the UK Singles Chart in 2004.", "The Streets' third studio album, \"The Hardest Way to Make an Easy Living\", was released on 10 April 2006. In the UK it debuted the album chart at number one.", "In September 2008, The Streets released their fourth studio album, \"Everything Is Borrowed\". One song from the album was on Skinner's Myspace page for a while before being replaced by a cover of \"Your Song\". In a posting on his Myspace blog, Skinner noted that the group's upcoming LP would contain \"peaceful, positive vibes\" in comparison with 2006's \"The Hardest Way To Make An Easy Living\". In a blurb about the album on Skinner's Myspace, he says, \"This album started off life as parables but then I realised that it might get a bit cheesy so I got rid of the alien song and the devil song replaced them with more straight up songs. I've pretty much kept my promise that I made to myself not to reference modern life on any of them though which is hard to do and keep things personal at the same time.\"", "In November 2010, Skinner announced on the official The Streets website, that he would release what he referred to as a mixtape album called \"Cyberspace and Reds\", consisting of various recordings he had made since he had finished work on the final Streets album, \"Computers and Blues\". \"Cyberspace and Reds\" was released in January 2011, initially only for download via the Streets iPhone app. A so-called \"deluxe\" edition was later made available for general download through the Streets website. The final Streets album, \"Computers and Blues\", was released on 7 February 2011, the first single being \"Going Through Hell\".", "On 22 December 2017, The Streets released two new tracks: \"Burn Bridges\" and \"Sometimes I Hate My Friends More Than My Enemies\" on streaming services. It was The Streets' first new music released in six years. In 2018, The Streets released three singles: \"If You Ever Need to Talk I'm Here\" was released on streaming services on 31 January, \"You Are Not the Voice in Your Head...\" was released on 30 March, and \"Call Me in the Morning\" was released on 22 November. On 1 April 2020 Skinner announced a new single featuring Australian music project Tame Impala, set to be released on an upcoming mixtape titled \"None Of Us Are Getting Out Of This Life Alive\" The track premiered on Annie Mac's BBC Radio 1 show.", "Current members Other contributors and live members" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Tautas partija was founded in 1998 by Andris Šķēle, a businessman and former prime minister, who was the chairman of the party until 2002. Because of Šķēle's powerful personality, many voters identified the party with its leader during this period. In 2002, Šķēle exited politics and Atis Slakteris became the chairman of Tautas partija. At the October 2002 elections the party became the third largest in the Saeima (parliament), winning 16.7% of the vote and 20 seats. In 2004, People's Party member Aigars Kalvītis became prime minister. At the legislative elections, on 7 October 2006, the party won 19.49% of the popular vote and 23 out of 100 seats in the Saeima, becoming the largest party in parliament and maintaining its status as leader of the coalition government, with Kalvītis as prime minister. The post of the Prime Minister was lost in 2007, but the party retained its place in the coalition under Ivars Godmanis of the Latvian Way party, and then until spring of 2010 under Valdis Dombrovskis of the New Era Party. However at the 2010 elections, the first after the Latvian economic crisis, the party lost most of its support, winning just 4 seats in the elections. Tautas partija was a member of the European People's Party (EPP). On July 9, 2011, 248 out of 308 party congress delegates voted to disband the People's Party. According to some political analysts, it was done in order to avoid repaying a Ls1.03 million campaign donation it received and spent illegally in 2006, but party chairman Andris Šķēle denied that. On September 22, 2016, the Senate of the Supreme Court of Latvia refused People’s Party appeal against the Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau's decision to make it pay back 1.03 million lats, however on December 16, 2011, the People's Party was declared insolvent by the Riga City Central District Court." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Version history.", "Availability.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "On May 14, 2006, Microsoft released the first Community Technology Preview (CTP) version of Expression Web, code-named \"Quartz\". On September 5, 2006, Microsoft released Beta 1. Beta 1 removed most of the FrontPage-proprietary (non-standard) features such as bots (use of FPSE features for server-side scripting), parts, functions, themes, automatic generation of navigation buttons, FrontPage forms, navigation pane to build a web site's hierarchy, and other non-standard features available in CTP 1. The Release To Manufacturing version was made available on December 4, 2006. The first and the only service pack was published in December 2007. Expression Web does not have the form validation controls for HTML fields like FrontPage, but supports validator controls for ASP.NET. Microsoft Expression Web 2 was released in 2008. Expression Web 2 offers native support for PHP and Silverlight. No service packs have been released for version 2. Microsoft Expression Web 3 was released in 2009. Until version 2, Expression Web was the only application in the Expression Studio suite based on Microsoft Office code and dependencies. With version 3, Expression Web was rewritten in Windows Presentation Foundation, in line with the rest of the Expression Suite, without Microsoft Office dependencies. A result of this was features like customizable toolbars and menus, standard Windows color scheme, spell check, DLL addins, file menu export feature, drag-and-drop between remote sites, comparing sites by timestamp, automatic language tagging, basic macro support were removed in this version. Other features like Undo do not work reliably. Version 3 introduced Expression Web 3 SuperPreview tool for comparing and rendering webpage in various browsers. Also noted was the lack of support for root relative links, links that start with a \"/\" to refer to the root of a web server. This feature was added with Expression Web 3 Service Pack 1, released in November 2009. Service Pack 2 for Expression Web 3 was released in April 2010. Servive Pack 3 for Expression Web 3 was released in October 2011 and includes general product, stability, performance, and security fixes. Microsoft Expression Web 4 was released on June 7, 2010. It added the option of HTML add-ins, and access to a web-based SuperPreview functionality, for testing pages on browsers that cannot be installed on the user's system (such as Mac OS X or Linux browsers). Microsoft Expression Web 4 also provides an SEO Checker which analyzes produced web site against the best practices for getting the highest possible search-engine rankings. Version 4 does not bring back all the features removed in Version 3. Expression Web 4 Service Pack 1 was released in March 2011 and added support for IntelliSense for the HTML5 and CSS3 draft specifications in the Code editor, HTML5 and CSS3 support in the CSS Properties palette, selected CSS3 properties in the Style dialogs, semantic HTML5 tags in Design View and new PHP 5.3 functions. Expression Web 4 SP2 was released in July 2011, and fixed a number of issues and introduced new features such as jQuery IntelliSense support, a panel for managing snippets, Interactive Snapshot Panel, comment/uncomment functionality in Code View, and workspace and toolbar customization.", "As of December, 2012, Microsoft has announced that Expression Studio will no longer be a stand-alone product. Expression Blend is being integrated into Visual Studio, while Expression Web and Expression Design will now be free products. Technical support is available for customers who purchased Expression Web or Expression Design following their published support lifetime guides, while no support will be offered to free downloaders. No new versions of Expression Web or Design are planned.", "Microsoft Expression Web received positive reviews. \"PC Pro\" awarded Expression Web 2 five stars out of six. \"It largely succeeded by concentrating on providing standards-compliant support for the web's core markup languages, (X)HTML and CSS,\" Tom Arah concluded. \"PC Magazine\" also rated Expression Web 2 with 4 stars out of 5 and labeled it as a more cost-effective option compared to the main competitor, Adobe Dreamweaver. \"Even if money is no object, Expression Web 2 might be your better choice,\" editor Edward Mendelson wrote. However, \"PC Magazine\" criticized a lack of \"Secure FTP in its Web-publishing functions\" and \"the ability to create browser-based (as opposed to server-based) scripting of dynamic pages that works in all browsers, including Safari\". On the other hand, \"PC Magazine\" noted that \"most designers won't care about their absence\". However, Microsoft Expression 3 later added support for SSH File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) (otherwise known as \"Secure FTP\") as well as FTP over SSL (FTPS). Expression Web 4, like the previous versions, also received positive reviews with \"PC Magazine\" calling it an \"efficient website editor with full support for current standards,\" and praising its \"clear interface\" and \"flexible preview functions.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Platform and manifesto.", "Political manifesto and platform.", "Electoral manifesto.", "The Fidesz-crisis.", "Governance.", "Presidency.", "Political Assembly.", "Congress.", "Activities within the party.", "Summit.", "Ministerial meetings.", "Other activities.", "Activities within European institutions.", "European Commission.", "European Parliament.", "European Council.", "Activities beyond the European Union.", "In third countries.", "In the Council of Europe.", "In the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "In the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.", "Relations with the United States.", "Global networks.", "Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies.", "EPP associations.", "Small and Medium Entrepreneurs Europe (SME Europe).", "European Democrat Students.", "European Seniors' Union.", "European Union of Christian Democratic Workers.", "Women of the European People’s Party.", "Youth of the European People’s Party.", "Membership." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "According to its website, the EPP is \"the family of the political centre-right, whose roots run deep in the history and civilisation of the European continent, and [which] has pioneered the European project from its inception\". The EPP was founded in Luxembourg on 8 July 1976 on the initiative of Jean Seitlinger; Leo Tindemans, then Prime Minister of Belgium, who became the first President of the EPP; and Wilfried Martens, who later became both President of the EPP and Prime Minister of Belgium. It had been preceded by the \"Secretariat International des partis démocratiques d'inspiration chrétienne\", founded in 1925, the \"Nouvelles Equipes Internationales\", founded in 1946 (or 1948), and the European Union of Christian Democrats, founded in 1965. In the late 1990s the Finnish politician Sauli Niinistö negotiated the merger of the European Democrat Union (EDU), of which he was President, into the EPP. In October 2002 the EDU ceased its activities after being formally absorbed by the EPP at a special event in Estoril, Portugal. In recognition of his efforts Niinistö was elected Honorary President of the EPP the same year. The EPP has had six Presidents:", "", "During its Congress in Bucharest in 2012 the EPP updated its political platform after 20 years (since its Congress in Athens in 1992) and approved a political manifesto in which it summarised its main values and policies. The manifesto highlights: The manifesto also describes the EPP's priorities for the EU, including:", "As a central part of its campaign for the European elections in 2009 the EPP approved its election manifesto at its Congress in Warsaw in April that year. The manifesto called for:", "Controversy over the right-wing politics of the ruling Hungarian Fidesz-leader Viktor Orbán caused a split in the EPP in the run-up of the 2019 European Parliament election. On one hand the EPP had been reluctant for years to address Fidesz's stance against the rule of law, expressed by the Article 7 proceedings of the European Parliament. On the other hand, European Commission President Jean-Claude Juncker, a prominent EPP-member, stated \"I believe his [Fidesz’s] place is not in the European People’s Party\". Orbán's campaigns targeting billionaire George Soros and Jean-Claude Juncker carried wide reverberations for Europe questioning the EPP's effort to install its lead candidate Manfred Weber as the next Commission president. After years of deferring a decision about the Fidesz issue, the EPP was eventually compelled to address the problem two months before the 2019 European elections, as 13 outraged member parties requested the Hungarian party's exclusion from the EPP due to its billboard campaign featuring Jean-Claude Juncker. 190 of the 193 EPP delegates decided on 20 March 2019 to partially suspend Fidesz membership. According to this, Fidesz is \"until further notice\" excluded from EPP meetings and internal elections, but remains in the European People's Party group of the European Parliament. Fidesz has not delivered on its earlier promise to leave the EPP in case of a penalty. In February 2020 the EPP extended the suspension of Fidesz indefinitely. On 2 April 2020 thirteen parties within the EPP have issued a joint statement aimed at Donald Tusk, asking him to expunge Fidesz from the party. Three days prior to this, the Hungarian parliament passed a law, declaring a state of emergency within Hungary for an indefinite time period and granting Prime Minister Viktor Orbán the right to rule by decree.", "The EPP operates as an international non-profit association under Belgian law according to its by-laws, the Statutes of the European People's Party (\"\"), originally adopted 29 April 1976.", "The Presidency is the executive body of the party. It decides on the general political guidelines of the EPP and presides over its Political Assembly. The Presidency is composed of the President, ten Vice-Presidents, the Honorary Presidents, the Secretary General and the Treasurer. The Chairperson of the EPP Group in the European Parliament, the Presidents of the Commission, the Parliament and the Council, and the High Representative (if they are a member of an EPP member party) are all \"ex officio\" Vice-Presidents. As of November 2019 the Presidency of the EPP is (Vice Presidents in the order of votes received at the EPP Congress in Zagreb):", "The Political Assembly defines the political positions of the EPP between Congresses, and decides on membership applications, political guidelines and the budget. The Political Assembly is composed of designated delegates from EPP member parties, associated parties, member associations and other affiliated groups. The Political Assembly meets at least three times a year.", "The Congress is the highest decision-making body of the EPP. It is composed of delegates from member parties, EPP associations, EPP Group MEPs, the EPP Presidency, national heads of party and government, and European Commissioners who belong to a member party, with the numbers of delegates being weighted according to the EPP's share of MEPs, and individual delegates being elected by member parties according to member parties' rules. Under the EPP's statutes the Congress must meet once every three years, but it also meets normally during the years of elections for the European Parliament (every five years), and extraordinary Congresses have also been summoned. The Congress elects the EPP Presidency every three years, decides on the main policy documents and electoral programmes, and provides a platform for the EPP's heads of government and party leaders.", "", "EPP leaders meet for the EPP Summit a few hours before each meeting of the European Council in order to formulate common positions. Invitations are sent by the EPP President and attendees include, besides the members of the EPP's Presidency, all Presidents and Prime Ministers who are members of the European Council and belong to the EPP; the Presidents of the European Parliament, the European Commission and the European Council, as well as the High Representative for Foreign Affairs, provided that they belong to the EPP; Deputy Prime Ministers or other ministers in those cases where the Prime Minister of a country does not belong to an EPP member party; and, where no EPP member party is part of a government, the leaders of the main EPP opposition party.", "Following the pattern of the EPP Summit the party also organises regular EPP Ministerial meetings before each meeting of the Council of the European Union, with ministers, deputy ministers, secretaries of state and MEPs in the specific policy field attending:", "The EPP also organises working groups on different issues and on an ad hoc basis, as well as meetings with its affiliated members in the European Commission. It also invites individual Commissioners to the EPP Summit meetings and to EPP Ministerial meetings. Following amendments to the EU Regulation that governs Europarties in 2007, the EPP, like the other \"Europarties\", is responsible for organising a pan-European campaign for the European elections every five years. According to the Lisbon Treaty, the parties must present candidates for President of the European Commission, but the EPP had already done this by endorsing Jose Manuel Barroso for a second term in April 2009. The year 2014 saw the first fully fledged campaign of the EPP ahead of the European elections of that year. The party nominated former Luxembourgish Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker as its candidate for President of the European Commission and led a pan-European campaign in coordination with the national campaigns of all its member parties.", "As of December 2019, the EPP will hold the Presidency of the European Commission with Ursula von der Leyen (CDU).", "Following EPP's victory in the 2019 European Parliament election, Ursula von der Leyen was nominated by the EPP as Commission President. She was endorsed by the European Council and elected by an absolute majority in the European Parliament. On 1 December 2019 the von der Leyen Commission officially took office. It includes 10 EPP officeholders out of 27 European Commissioners.", "The EPP has the largest group in the European Parliament: the EPP Group. It currently has 182 Members of the European Parliament and its chairman is the German MEP Manfred Weber. In every election for the European Parliament candidates elected on lists of member parties of the EPP are obliged to join the EPP Group in the European Parliament. The EPP Group holds five of the fourteen vice-presidencies of the European Parliament.", "The EPP has 11 out of the 27 EU heads of state or government attending the EPP summit meetings in preparation of the European Council (as of March 2020): The EPP also has other heads of state or government who do not normally take part in the European Council or EPP summits since that responsibility belongs to the other leaders of their countries: János Áder (Hungary, Fidesz), Sauli Niinistö (Finland, KOK).", "", "Through its associate and observer parties the EPP has four head of state or government in non-EU countries:", "The Group of the EPP in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe defends freedom of expression and information, as well as freedom of movement of ideas and religious tolerance. It promotes the principle of subsidiarity and local autonomy, as well as the defence of national, social and other minorities. The EPP/CD Group is led by Aleksander Pociej, a member of the Polish Civic Platform. The EPP/CD group also includes members from parties that are not related to the EPP itself, including members of the Patriotic Union (Liechtenstein), the Progressive Citizens' Party (Liechtenstein), and the National and Democratic Union (Monaco).", "The \"EPP and like-minded Group\" in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is the most active political group in that body. The Group meets on a regular basis and promotes the EPP's positions. The members of the EPP Group also participate in the election-monitoring missions of the OSCE. The Group is chaired by Walburga Habsburg Douglas (Sweden), and its Vice-Presidents are Consiglio Di Nino (Canada), Vilija Aleknaitė Abramikiene (Lithuania), Laura Allegrini (Italy) and George Tsereteli (Georgia). The Group also includes members of parties not related to the EPP, accounting for the \"like-minded\" part of its name. Among them are members of the Patriotic Union (Liechtenstein), the Union for the Principality (Monaco), the Conservative Party of the United Kingdom, the Conservative Party of Canada and the Republican Party of the United States.", "The EPP is also present and active in the Parliamentary Assembly of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and forms the \"EPP and Associated Members\" Group there. It is led by the German CDU politician Karl Lamers, who is also the current President of the Assembly. The Group also included members of the Conservative Party of Canada and the Republican Party of the United States, but now they're members of Conservative Group", "The EPP has close relations with the International Republican Institute (IRI), an organisation funded by the U.S. government specially to promote democracy and democratisation. The EPP and the IRI cooperate within the framework of the European Partnership Initiative. The EPP's late President, Wilfried Martens, endorsed Senator John McCain, the Republican nominee for president, in the presidential election in 2008. McCain was also Chairman of the IRI. In 2011 Martens and McCain made joint press statements expressing their concern about the state of democracy in Ukraine.", "The EPP is the European wing of two global centre-right organisations, the International Democrat Union (IDU) and the Christian Democrat International (CDI).", "Following the revision in 2007 of the EU Regulation that governs European political parties, allowing the creation of European foundations affiliated to Europarties, the EPP established in the same year its official foundation/think tank, the Centre for European Studies (CES). The CES includes as members all the major national think tanks and foundations affiliated to EPP member parties: the Konrad Adenauer Foundation (CDU), the Hanns Seidel Foundation (CSU), the Foundation for Analysis and Social Studies (PP), the Constantinos Karamanlis Institute for Democracy (ND), the Jarl Hjalmarson Foundation (MOD), the Political Academy of the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) and others. During the European Parliament election campaign in 2009 the CES launched a web-based campaign module, tellbarroso.eu, to support Jose Manuel Barroso, the EPP's candidate for re-election as Commission President. In 2014, to honour Wilfried Martens – the late President of the EPP who was also President of the CES – changed its name to Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies or Martens Centre. The current President of the Martens Centre is former Slovak Prime Minister Mikuláš Dzurinda. The Budapest-based Robert Schuman Institute and the Luxembourg-based Robert Schuman Foundation are also affiliated with the European People's Party.", "The EPP is linked to several specific associations that focus on specific groups and organise seminars, forums, publications and other activities.", "SME Europe is the official business organisation of the EPP, and serves as a network for pro-business politicians and political organisations. Its main objective is to shape EU policy in a more SME-friendly way in close cooperation with the SME Circle of the EPP Group in the European Parliament, the DG Enterprise and the pro-business organisations of the EPP's member parties. Its top priorities are to reform the legal framework for SMEs all over Europe, and to promote and support the interests of small and medium-sized enterprises. SME Europe was founded in May 2012 by three Members of the European Parliament, Paul Rübig, Nadezhda Neynsky and Bendt Bendtsen.", "European Democrat Students (EDS) is now the official students' organisation of the EPP, though it was founded in 1961, 15 years before the EPP itself. Led by Virgilio Falco, EDS has 40 member organisations, representing nearly 1,600,000 students and young people in 31 countries, including Belarus and Georgia. Every year EDS hosts Summer and Winter \"universities\", and several seminars. It also regularly publishes a magazine, \"Bullseye\", and organises topical campaigns.", "Founded in Madrid in 1995 and led by Ann Hermans of the CD&V, the European Seniors' Union (ESU) is the largest political senior citizens' organisation in Europe. The ESU is represented in 26 states with 45 organisations and about 500,000 members.", "The European Union of Christian Democratic Workers (EUCDW) is the labour organisation of the EPP, with 24 member organisations in 18 different countries. As the officially recognised EPP association of workers, the EUCDW is led by Elmar Brok, MEP. It aims at the political unification of a democratic Europe, the development of the EPP on the basis of Christian social teaching, and the defence of workers' interests in European policy-making.", "The Women of the European People's Party (EPP Women) is recognised by the EPP as the official association of women from all like-minded political parties of Europe. EPP Women has more than 40 member organisations from countries of the European Union and beyond. All of them are women's organisations of political parties that are members of the EPP. EPP Women is led by Doris Pack.", "The Youth of the European People's Party (YEPP), led by Lídia Pereira, is the EPP's official youth organisation. It has 64 member organisations, bringing together between one and two million young people in 40 countries.", "Within the EPP there are three kinds of member organisations: full members, associate members and observers. Full members are parties from EU states. They have absolute rights to vote in all the EPP's organs and on all matters. Associate members have the same voting rights as full members except for matters concerning the EU's structure or policies. These associate members are parties from EU candidate countries and EFTA countries. Observer parties can participate in all the activities of the EPP, and attend the Congresses and Political Assemblies, but they do not have any voting rights. A special status of \"supporting member\" is granted by the Presidency to individuals and associations. Although they do not have voting rights, they can be invited by the President to attend meetings of certain organs of the party." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Influence on C. S. Lewis.", "Other influences, references, and adaptations.", "Film adaptations.", "Criticism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The narrator is a London businessman named Bedford who withdraws to the countryside to write a play, by which he hopes to alleviate his financial problems. Bedford rents a small countryside house in Lympne, in Kent, where he wants to work in peace. He is bothered every afternoon, however, at precisely the same time, by a passer-by making odd noises. After two weeks Bedford accosts the man, who proves to be a reclusive physicist named Mr. Cavor. Bedford befriends Cavor when he learns he is developing a new material, \"cavorite\", which can negate the force of gravity. When a sheet of cavorite is prematurely processed, it makes the air above it weightless and shoots off into space. Bedford sees in the commercial production of cavorite a possible source of \"wealth enough to work any sort of social revolution we fancied; we might own and order the whole world\". Cavor hits upon the idea of a spherical spaceship made of \"steel, lined with glass\", and with sliding \"windows or blinds\" made of cavorite by which it can be steered, and persuades a reluctant Bedford to undertake a voyage to the Moon; Cavor is certain there is no life there. On the way to the Moon, they experience weightlessness, which Bedford finds \"exceedingly restful\". On the surface of the Moon the two men discover a desolate landscape, but as the Sun rises, the thin, frozen atmosphere vaporises and strange plants begin to grow with extraordinary rapidity. Bedford and Cavor leave the capsule, but in romping about get lost in the rapidly growing jungle. They hear for the first time a mysterious booming coming from beneath their feet. They encounter \"great beasts\", \"monsters of mere fatness\", that they dub \"mooncalves\", and five-foot-high \"Selenites\" tending them. At first they hide and crawl about, but growing hungry partake of some \"monstrous coralline growths\" of fungus that inebriate them. They wander drunkenly until they encounter a party of six extraterrestrials, who capture them. The insectoid lunar natives (referred to as \"Selenites\", after Selene, the moon goddess) are part of a complex and technologically sophisticated society that lives underground, but this is revealed only in radio communications received from Cavor after Bedford's return to Earth. Bedford and Cavor break out of captivity beneath the surface of the Moon and flee, killing several Selenites. In their flight they discover that gold is common on the Moon. In their attempt to find their way back to the surface and to their sphere, they come upon some Selenites carving up mooncalves but fight their way past. Back on the surface, they split up to search for their spaceship. Bedford finds it but returns to Earth without Cavor, who injured himself in a fall and was recaptured by the Selenites, as Bedford learns from a hastily scribbled note he left behind. Chapter 20, \"Mr. Bedford in Infinite Space\", plays no role in the plot but is a remarkable set piece in which the narrator describes experiencing a quasi-mystical \"pervading doubt of my own identity... the doubts within me could still argue: 'It is not you that is reading, it is Bedford—but \"you are not Bedford,\" you know. That's just where the mistake comes in.' 'Counfound it!' I cried, 'and if I am not Bedford, what \"am\" I? But in that direction no light was forthcoming, though the strangest fancies came drifting into my brain, queer remote suspicions like shadow seem from far away... Do you know I had an idea that really I was something quite outside not only the world, but all worlds, and out of space and time, and that this poor Bedford was just a peephole through which I looked at life...\" By good fortune, the narrator lands in the sea off the coast of Britain, near the seaside town of Littlestone, not far from his point of departure. His fortune is made by some gold he brings back, but he loses the sphere when a curious boy named Tommy Simmons climbs into the unattended sphere and shoots off into space. Bedford writes and publishes his story in \"The Strand Magazine\", then learns that \"Mr. Julius Wendigee, a Dutch electrician, who has been experimenting with certain apparatus akin to the apparatus used by Mr. Tesla in America\", has picked up fragments of radio communications from Cavor sent from inside the Moon. During a period of relative freedom Cavor has taught two Selenites English and learned much about lunar society. Cavor's account explains that Selenites exist in thousands of forms and find fulfilment in carrying out the specific social function for which they have been brought up: specialisation is the essence of Selenite society. \"With knowledge the Selenites grew and changed; mankind stored their knowledge about them and remained brutes—equipped,\" remarks the Grand Lunar, when he finally meets Cavor and hears about life on Earth. Unfortunately, Cavor reveals humanity's propensity for war; the lunar leader and those listening to the interview are \"stricken with amazement\". Bedford infers that it is for this reason that Cavor has been prevented from further broadcasting to Earth. Cavor's transmissions are cut off as he is trying to describe how to make cavorite. His final fate is unknown, but Bedford is sure that \"we shall never... receive another message from the moon\".", "C. S. Lewis explicitly stated that his science fiction books were both inspired by and written as an antithesis to those of H. G. Wells. Specifically, he acknowledged \"The First Men in The Moon\" to be \"the best of the sort [of science fiction] I have read...\" (from a letter to Roger Lancelyn Green). The influence of Wells's book is especially visible in \"Out of the Silent Planet\", the first book of Lewis's \"Space Trilogy\". There, too, a central role in the story line is played by a partnership between a worldly businessman interested in the material gains from space travel (and specifically, in importing extraterrestrial gold to Earth) and a scientist with wider cosmic theories. Also in Lewis's book, the two quietly build themselves a spaceship in the seclusion of an English country house, and take off into space without being noticed by the rest of the world. (It may be noted that both Wells and Lewis, like virtually all science fiction writers until the 1950s, grossly underestimated the resources needed for even the smallest jaunt outside Earth's gravitational field.) Like Wells's book, Lewis's reaches its climax with the Earth scientist speaking to the wise ruler of an alien world (in this case Oyarsa, the ruler of Malacandra/Mars) and blurting out the warlike and predatory nature of humanity. However, in Lewis's book the businessman-scientist pair are the villains of the piece. Moreover, his scientist, Professor Weston, has a philosophy diametrically opposite to Cavor's, being an outspoken proponent of human colonisation of other planets, up to and including extermination of \"primitive natives\".", "Brian Stableford argues this is the first alien dystopia. The book could also be considered to have launched the science fiction subgenre depicting intelligent social insects, in some cases a non-human species such as the space-traveling Shaara \"bees\" in the future universe of A. Bertram Chandler, in others (such as Frank Herbert's \"Hellstrom's Hive\") humans who evolved or consciously engineered their society in this direction. Nigel Kneale co-adapted the screenplay (with Jan Read) for the 1964 film version; it is reasonable to assume that Kneale's familiarity with the work may have inspired the idea of the Martian hives which feature so significantly in \"Quatermass and the Pit\", one of Kneale's most-admired creations.", "\"The First Men in the Moon\" has been adapted to film four times, and once prior to that as a mash-up Verne-Wells film:", "Soon after the publication of \"The First Men in the Moon\", Wells was accused by the Irish writer Robert Cromie of having stolen from his novel \"A Plunge into Space\" (1890), which used an antigravity device similar to that in Chrysostom Trueman's \"The History of a Voyage to the Moon\" (1864). Both novels had certain elements in common, such as a globular spaceship built in secret after inventing a way to overcome Earth's gravity. Wells simply replied: \"I have never heard of Mr Cromie nor of the book he attempts to advertise by insinuations of plagiarism on my part.\" Jules Verne was publicly hostile to Wells's novel mainly due to Wells having his characters go to the moon via a totally fictional creation of an anti-gravitational material rather than the actual use of technology." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Ideology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "New Era was founded on 2 February 2002 by Einars Repše, a politician and central banker who was very popular at that time. Originally, most of the party candidates were political unknowns led by Repše. In its first election campaign, New Era promised to combat corruption and tax evasion. According to New Era promises, eliminating tax evasion would increase Latvia's state budget by 400 million Latvian lats (about 750 million United States dollars), allowing for increased funding for a variety of programs and also for tax cuts. Running on this platform, the party won 23.9% of the popular vote and 26 out of 100 seats in the 2002 legislative election and became the largest party in the Saeima, the parliament of Latvia. It formed a coalition government with 3 other parties, with the New Era leader Einars Repše as the prime minister. In January 2004, the coalition fell apart and Repše resigned. New Era was in the opposition until October 2004, when it joined a coalition government led by Aigars Kalvītis of the People’s Party. It left the coalition after a vote-buying scandal in the Jūrmala municipal elections which involved one of its coalition partners, the Latvia's First Party. The New Era Party first requested Latvia's First Party to leave the coalition. After Latvia's First Party and prime minister Kalvītis refused this demand, all New Era ministers resigned on 13 April 2006. In the October 2006 parliamentary elections, the New Era party won 18 seats. After the elections it did not rejoin the coalition government. Despite its significant losses, it became the largest opposition party. Repše has lost most of his popularity, due to a sequence of scandals, but remains one of the party leaders. In March 2007, the party established a new structure, in which it had two leaders: Einars Repše and Arturs Krisjanis Karins. Arturs Krisjanis Karins is a United States citizen, born in the United States to a Latvian family. In 2008, prominent MPs and members of the board—Ina Druviete, Karlis Sadurskis, Ilma Cepane and Sandra Kalniete—left the New Era to create Civic Union. Its leadership resigned, and Solvita Aboltina and Artis Kampars became new leaders. The chairman of the New Era parliamentary faction is Dzintars Zakis. In March 2009, New Era Party member Valdis Dombrovskis, who served as finance minister from 2002 to 2004, became Prime Minister, bringing the New Era Party to the leadership of a 4-party, center-right coalition government. On 6 August 2011, it merged with two other parties to form the new political party Unity.", "The New Era Party had strong populist leanings and derived most of its appeal from positioning itself as the main anti-corruption force in Latvian politics. New Era supporters characterized most of the other political parties as corrupt and controlled by oligarchs. As a result, New Era had very strained relations with most of the other political parties, which made a considerable effort to leave New Era in opposition whenever possible. On ethnic issues, New Era tended to be somewhat nationalist. Its economic positions were uncertain and have changed over time. Its original platform in 2002 included radical free-market reforms in health care and education, such as replacing government-funded higher education by student loans." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation and early years (1903–1939).", "Halliday to McNeill (1939–1978).", "Alex Ferguson era (1978–1986).", "Post-Ferguson (1987–1999).", "Skovdahl to Brown (1999–2013).", "Recent years (2013–present).", "Colours and crest.", "Stadium.", "Training Facilities.", "New Aberdeen Stadium.", "Supporters and nicknames.", "Supporters.", "Rivalries.", "Nicknames.", "Players.", "Notable players.", "Records.", "Individual.", "Managers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The current Aberdeen F.C. was formed following the merger of three clubs based in the city—Aberdeen, Victoria United and Orion—in 1903. The new club played its first match on 15 August 1903: a 1–1 draw with Stenhousemuir. That first season produced a win in the Aberdeenshire Cup, but only a third-place finish in the Northern League. The club applied for membership of the Scottish League for the following season, and were elected to the Second Division. In 1904, the club were managed by Jimmy Philip. At the end of its first season, despite having finished seventh out of twelve teams, Aberdeen were elected to the new, expanded First Division. They have remained in the top tier of Scottish football ever since. From 1906, the club made steady progress, with a Scottish Cup semi-final appearance in 1908 and another in 1911. In that season of 1910–11, Aberdeen recorded their first victories over the Old Firm of Celtic and Rangers, and led the league for a time, but finished the season in second place. Wartime affected the club as much as any other; despite spending cuts and other economies, by 1917 the situation became untenable. Aberdeen dropped out of competitive football, along with Dundee and Raith Rovers. Senior football returned on 16 August 1919, and Aberdeen resumed with a fixture against Albion Rovers. Philip was still in charge, and continued to oversee a team capable of isolated good results, but never quite able to sustain a challenge long enough to win a trophy. In 1923, Aberdeen were drawn against Peterhead in the Scottish Cup, and posted their record score—a 13–0 victory. Philip retired a year later, and was replaced as manager by Paddy Travers. He presided over the team's first Scottish Cup final in 1937. Travers' \"trainer\"—first team coach in modern parlance—was former player Donald Colman. Colman conceived the dug-out, a covered area set slightly below the level of the playing surface to better aid his observations. Everton visited Pittodrie soon after its introduction, and exported the idea to the English leagues, from where it spread throughout the football-playing world. Travers left to become manager of Clyde in 1939.", "Travers was replaced by former Yeovil Town manager Dave Halliday, one of more than a hundred applicants for the role, and the club moved from their black and gold strip to red and white. Halliday had barely begun his work when World War II halted competitive football in the United Kingdom. For these six years, the club was temporarily taken over by then-directors Charles B Forbes and George Anderson while Halliday served in the war. Halliday's place in the Aberdeen Hall of Fame was secured after the war when he became the first manager to bring national trophies to Pittodrie. Aberdeen won the Southern League Cup in the 1945–46 season, defeating Rangers 3–2 at Hampden. They then reached the 1947 Scottish Cup final, defeating Hibernian 2–1 with George Hamilton, signed from Halliday's former club Queen of the South, scoring to gain the club's first major trophy. From this early success, Halliday's side reached two more Scottish Cup finals, in 1953 and 1954, though they lost both. Halliday's team were not to be denied, however, and the following season, 1954–55, Aberdeen won their first Scottish League title. Though league winners, the club did not participate in the first European Cup competition—Scotland's place was awarded to Hibernian, who took part by special invitation. Halliday and Hamilton left at the end of that championship-winning season, and Halliday was replaced by Davie Shaw. Aberdeen won the League Cup under his guidance, beating St Mirren in 1955–56, and reached another Scottish Cup final in 1959. However, Shaw stepped aside for another former favourite player, Tommy Pearson, in 1959. Pearson's time in charge coincided with a high turnover of players, and yielded no trophies. He retired in 1965, making way for Eddie Turnbull. Turnbull led Aberdeen to the 1967 Scottish Cup final, where the side was ultimately defeated by Celtic. Despite this loss, Aberdeen qualified for the European Cup Winner's Cup in the following season thanks to their appearance in this final, the first time the club had competed in European competition. Their first tie was a 14–1 aggregate victory over KR Reykjavik, although they lost the second round tie with Standard Liège 3–2 on aggregate. Two years later, Derek \"Cup-tie\" McKay recorded the only four goals of his Aberdeen career to help his team to the 1969–70 Scottish Cup, scoring the winning goals in the quarter- and semi final, and two in the final itself. As Scottish Cup holders, Aberdeen once again qualified for the same competition, but were eliminated in the first round following a 4–4 aggregate tie with Honvéd. This tie, level after extra time and also level on away goals, was decided by the first penalty shoot-out in UEFA competition history, Honvéd winning the shootout 5–4 in Budapest. The Aberdeen side of the 1970s regularly challenged for domestic honours. However, they rarely won trophies, with the exception of the Drybrough Cup in 1971 under Jimmy Bonthrone and the League Cup in 1976, under Ally MacLeod. During this decade, Aberdeen had five managers: Eddie Turnbull, Jimmy Bonthrone, Ally MacLeod, Billy McNeill and Alex Ferguson. They reached two more national cup finals—the Scottish Cup in 1978 under Billy McNeill and the League Cup in the following season under the new manager Alex Ferguson.", "Under Ferguson's guidance, the club won three league championships, four Scottish Cups, one League Cup, the European Cup Winner's Cup, the European Super Cup and a Drybrough Cup—all in the space of seven years. Players such as Jim Leighton, Willie Miller, Alex McLeish and Gordon Strachan became the backbone of the team. Aberdeen's second League title was won in 1979–80, and this initial success was built on, with Scottish Cup wins in three successive seasons from 1982 to 1984, and two more league titles in 1983–84 and 1984–85. During the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1983, Aberdeen beat FC Sion, Dinamo Tirana and Lech Poznań to face the German Cup winners Bayern Munich. This game was won 3–2 at Pittodrie after a goalless draw in Germany, John Hewitt with the winning goal. They then faced now-defunct Belgian club Waterschei in the semi-final. Aberdeen beat them 5–1 at home, and lost for the first time in the tournament, 1–0 away, resulting in an aggregate victory which sent Aberdeen to the final. On 11 May 1983, Aberdeen beat Real Madrid 2–1 after extra time to win the cup and become only the third Scottish side to win a European trophy. The club released a song, \"European Song\", to coincide with the appearance in the final. This was followed up with the capture of the European Super Cup in December, when Hamburger SV were beaten over two legs. Aberdeen reached the semi-finals of the 1983–84 European Cup Winners' Cup, before losing to Porto 2–0 on aggregate. In the first round of the 1984–85 European Champion Club's Cup Aberdeen lost to East Berlin side BFC Dynamo in a penalty shoot-out 4–5, following a 3–3 on aggregate in regular times. Today, both clubs enjoy friendly relations.", "After Ferguson moved south of the border to manage Manchester United in November 1986, Aberdeen struggled to compete with Celtic and a resurgent Rangers. Aberdeen signed new co-managers in 1989, pairing Alex Smith and Jocky Scott. A number of foreign players were signed, including Dutch internationals Theo Snelders and Hans Gillhaus. In the 1989–90 season, the club won both the Scottish Cup and the Scottish League Cup. In 1991, they lost the last game of the season, and the league title, to Rangers. Former player Willie Miller took over in 1992 and presided over two seasons where Aberdeen came close to winning the title. However, the club ended the 1994–95 season second-bottom, and had to rely on a play-off victory over Dunfermline Athletic to retain their Premier Division status. Miller was sacked in February 1995, and replaced by Roy Aitken. Despite a Scottish League Cup success in 1995, the club continued to struggle. Alex Miller and Paul Hegarty had spells in charge in the late 1990s, but with the financial burden of a new stand putting the club into debt for the first time in its history, the directors turned to Stewart Milne, a local businessman whose firm had built the stand, hiring him as the club's chairman.", "Aberdeen's first and only foreign manager, Ebbe Skovdahl, was appointed in 1999 and his time in charge coincided with some of the heaviest defeats in the club's history. The low point of the club's history came in the 1999–2000 season, where they finished bottom of the table. As the Scottish Premier League was being expanded to twelve teams, there was then a three team play-off. However, as Falkirk's stadium did not meet SPL requirements, Aberdeen retained their status in the top flight. This was followed by an early-season defeat to Ireland's Bohemian F.C. on the away goals rule in the next season's UEFA Cup. Steve Paterson was appointed to replace Skovdahl following his resignation in 2002, but lasted only two seasons. Paterson's tenure with Aberdeen was marred by his addiction to alcohol. In March 2003 he failed to attend a home game against Dundee due to being too hungover after a night of drinking prior to the match. Jimmy Calderwood took over in 2004 and Aberdeen posted more consistent results than in previous seasons. In the 2006–07 season, the club finished in third place in the league and entered the final qualifying round for the 2007–08 UEFA Cup. Aberdeen defeated Dnipro on the away goals rule to progress (the first time Aberdeen had won on away goals in European football for 40 years). They went on to beat F.C. Copenhagen 4–0, which was the biggest margin of victory and one of Pittodrie's biggest crowds since the 1980s. This set up a meeting with German giants Bayern Munich, which they lost 7–3 on aggregate after a 2–2 draw which saw Aberdeen lead twice in the first leg. Calderwood was sacked by Aberdeen on 24 May 2009, hours after he took the club to a fourth-place finish and back into Europe. Poor domestic cup performances were thought to be the reason for Calderwood's dismissal. Mark McGhee of Motherwell was appointed as Calderwood's replacement in June 2009. McGhee controversially dismissed Aberdeen legend and goalkeeping coach Jim Leighton in August 2009 and replaced him with Colin Meldrum. Aberdeen suffered a 9–0 defeat to Celtic on 6 November 2010, their heaviest ever defeat. McGhee and his assistants were eventually sacked in December of that year. Aberdeen approached Craig Brown, who was working without a contract at Motherwell, to replace McGhee. Brown initially rebuffed an offer, but after further discussions with the club Brown resigned as manager at Motherwell to be announced as the next manager at Aberdeen two days later. The first act of the new management team of Brown and Archie Knox was to re-instate Leighton. Aberdeen failed to produce better results under Craig Brown's tenure, and in March 2013 he announced his retirement to take up a non-executive director role on the club's board.", "Derek McInnes was announced as the successor to Craig Brown in March 2013. In McInnes' first season as manager, Aberdeen won the 2013–14 Scottish League Cup after defeating Inverness 4–2 on penalties, their first trophy in 19 years. Aberdeen finished third in the Scottish Premiership, and began the next season by coming through the early rounds of the Europa League, beating Dutch club FC Groningen before eventually being eliminated by Spanish side Real Sociedad. The club ended the season in second place—their best league position since 1993–94—in 2015, 2016, and 2017. In recent seasons' Europa League competitions, they were defeated in the third qualifying round four times: In 2015–16 by FC Kairat, in 2016–17 by NK Maribor, in 2017–18 by Apollon Limassol, and in 2019–20 by HNK Rijeka. Aberdeen were league runners-up once more in 2016–17 and reached both cup finals, but were beaten 3–0 by Celtic in the League Cup and 2–1 by the same opponents in the Scottish Cup, echoing the outcome in 1992–93 when Aberdeen had finished second to Rangers in all competitions. They were again second the following season, earning a first league win against Celtic away from home for fourteen years in the final game of the season. This qualified them for the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League, where they were defeated after extra time by Premier League side Burnley in the second qualifying round. In November 2019, Major League Soccer side Atlanta United FC acquired a less than 10 percent stake in Aberdeen for £2 million (US$2.57 million) as part of a strategic alliance between the two clubs. As part of this deal, vice-chairman Dave Cormack became chairman of the club, replacing Stewart Milne. Atlanta United president Darren Eales also took a seat on Aberdeen's board of directors.", "For the first season of the club's existence, the team played in a predominantly white strip. This is variously reported as all-white, or as white shirts with blue shorts and socks. This colour scheme was the direct descendant of the colours worn by the precursor Aberdeen club, but lasted only one season before being replaced. For the 1904–05 season, Aberdeen adopted a black and gold striped shirt, which led to the team being nicknamed \"the Wasps\". This strip, with only minor variations, was worn until just before the start of the Second World War. The blue shorts lasted until 1911, and then were replaced with white ones. Socks were black with gold trim, either as stripes or as a solid bar at the turndown. In March 1939, Aberdeen changed the black and gold colours to red and white, reflecting the silver and red colours of the official City of Aberdeen arms. The first red strips were worn with white shorts, with either red or white socks from 1939 until the 1965–66 season. In 1966, Aberdeen adopted red shorts, making the official kit all-red, similar to that of Liverpool, who made a similar change at around the same time. This arrangement has continued to the present day, with several variations in design, in common with most senior clubs as the replica shirt market has expanded. In the late 1970s an Admiral strip featured five vertical white stripes on the left side of the shirt and shorts, and the early 1980s shirts—as worn at the 1983 European Cup Winners Cup final—featured white vertical pinstripes. Later design changes included significant amounts of blue, and a one-season reversion to white shorts, although the all-red scheme returned in 1997. Shirt sponsorship began in 1987, and the initial shirt sponsor was JVC. Since then, with the club making fewer appearances on the international stage, shirt sponsors have tended to be local to Aberdeen—they have included one of the local commercial radio stations, Northsound, as well as several Aberdeen-based oil service companies., the current shirt sponsor is Saltire Energy. Away colours have tended to be either white—often with black shorts—or a combination of yellow and black, referring back to the black and gold strips of the pre-war era, although for a time in the 1970s, Aberdeen sported an all-blue change strip with white socks. For the 2007–08 season, the change strip was all-white, with a third kit of yellow and black halves available if needed for European games, or in the event of a clash involving both red and white. The club did not have an official crest before 1972, but several variations on the letters AFC had from time to time featured on the shirt, usually in some kind of cursive font. In November 1972, the club unveiled an official crest or logo, designed by Aberdonian graphic designer Donald Addison. The design represented a capital letter \"A\" as the side view of a football goal, with a ball forming the crossbar of the letter. This ball was crosshatched in such a way as to depict it as being inside the net, signifying the scoring of a goal. The logo was completed by the letters \"FC\" in smaller type at a level with the ball element. This badge was used on the shirts from around 1978, with no significant alterations until the mid-1980s when the words \"Aberdeen Football Club\" were added in a circular border, and the date of the club's founding, 1903, was added under the goal element. The current version of the crest, which retains these elements in a unified design, was introduced at the start of the 1997–98 season. Two stars signifying the winning of the two European trophies in 1983 were introduced over the badge in the 2005–06 season.", "Aberdeen have played throughout their existence at Pittodrie Stadium, the name of which comes from the Pictish for \"place of manure\". The ground was first used by the original Aberdeen F.C. in 1899, in a 7–1 win over Dumbarton; when they merged with two other teams in 1903, the new club took over the old Aberdeen ground. On 15 August 1903, 8,000 spectators turned up to watch the new Aberdeen draw 1–1 against Stenhousemuir, the first game played at Pittodrie by its amalgamated tenants. The club initially rented the ground, but subsequently bought it in 1920. The stadium currently seats. The record attendance is 45,061, during a Scottish Cup match between Aberdeen and Hearts on 13 March 1954. The stadium consists of four stands: the Main Stand, which also houses the club offices and players facilities; the Merkland Road Family Stand; the South Stand, which is opposite the main stand and holds the largest number of spectators; and the Richard Donald stand to the east, which was completed in 1993, contains hospitality suites, and is named after former chairman Dick Donald. A quarter of the South Stand is used to accommodate travelling supporters. In 1978, Pittodrie became the first all covered, all-seater stadium in Britain.", "Aberdeen train at Cormack Park, which was opened on 31 October 2019 by former manager Sir Alex Ferguson, who described the development as \"up there with the best\" that he had seen. As well as being a training centre for the first team, the complex is also home to the Bobby Clark Football Academy and the AFC Community Trust, as well as acting as a community sports hub. The training facilities are named after chairman Dave Cormack, due to the significant financial investment he made to realise the completion of the project. The complex is made up of a training pavilion, groundsman’s accommodation, three full-sized training pitches, two floodlit 3G pitches and two grass pitches. There is also flexible outdoor and indoor space that can be used for sporting or recreational purposes. All the pitches are named after club legends, chosen by the fans via an online poll. Prior to the opening of Cormack Park, the first team trained in a variety of locations around the city, including the local Gordon Barracks, beach, Seaton Park, Aberdeen Sports Village and Countesswells, the playing fields of Robert Gordon's College.", "Since 2009, Aberdeen have been examining a move to a new stadium. Plans for a new stadium began when the club indicated that further development of Pittodrie Stadium was not possible due to the age of the ground and the restrictions from surrounding land. Aberdeen City Council approved an initial project in May 2009, to be situated near Loirston Loch in the south of the city, subject to planning permission. In August 2010, a planning application for the new stadium was submitted to the council, which was approved the following February. The move was delayed by a year in May 2012 due to problems with land ownership, and suffered a serious setback the following August, when the council rejected a joint application by Aberdeen and Cove Rangers to build a community sports centre at nearby Calder Park. Aberdeen announced in November 2014 new plans to instead build training facilities at Balgownie, on land owned by the University of Aberdeen, but the project was ultimately scrapped in the following July. Plans to develop a new stadium and training facilities near Westhill, close to the newly developed Aberdeen Western Peripheral Route, were announced in May 2016. The site's training facilities, Cormack Park, became operational in 2019. The new stadium is expected to have a similar capacity to Pittodrie Stadium.", "", "Aberdeen's supporters, known as the Red Army, are listed in the team squad list as wearing the number 12 shirt. In 1999, a group of supporters founded the Red Ultras group with the express aim of improving the atmosphere at Pittodrie. However, it was decided that this particular group was to disband at the beginning of 2010. Organised chants and choreography still take place in 'centre block' of the top tier of the Richard Donald Stand and Aberdeen fans still do choreographies at home and away games. Aberdeen are the only full-time team in the third largest city in Scotland, a city which is relatively remote, geographically, from other large population centres, and as a result have a large catchment area of potential supporters. The average attendance in the 2018–19 Scottish Premiership was 14,924. In the 1980s, a minority of the club's supporters had a reputation as one of Britain's most prominent casuals groups, the Aberdeen Soccer Casuals. The rise of the Aberdeen Casuals coincided with the most successful period in the club's history, and has been chronicled in more than one published account. Whilst numbers have steadily declined with the introduction of Football Banning Orders preventing hooligans from travelling to games, the Aberdeen Casuals still appear at big fixtures often away from home and in the UEFA Europa League. There were clashes at both fixtures against FC Groningen in 2014, as well as 13 arrests after violent clashes with Dundee United fans at a game in December 2015.", "Aberdeen have rarely played in the same division as their geographically closest neighbours (Cove Rangers, Peterhead, Brechin City, Montrose, Arbroath, Elgin City, and Forfar Athletic), so rivalries have tended to come from further afield. Cove Rangers from the same city entered the professional leagues for the first time in 2019, although the Aberdeen derby is yet to occur in a league meeting. In the early 1980s, owing to the success both domestically and in Europe of Aberdeen and Dundee United, the pair were known as the New Firm. However, Dundee United have their city neighbours Dundee as close rivals, and the antagonism was not always reciprocated to the same degree. The same situation applies to Aberdeen's rivalry with Rangers, in that Rangers have their own much older and well-known Old Firm rivalry with Celtic. Aberdeen's rivalry with Rangers arose after a number of incidents in matches between the two clubs in the 1980s, namely Willie Johnston's stamp on John McMaster's neck in the Scottish League Cup and Neil Simpson's tackle on Ian Durrant in 1988, as well as Aberdeen's dominance in Scottish football throughout the decade. There are still often violent clashes between both sets of supporters within and outwith the stadium to this day. Aberdeen developed a minor rivalry with Inverness Caledonian Thistle since Inverness were first promoted to the SPL in 2004. It is known as the North derby due to the fact both Aberdeen and Inverness are the two largest settlements in the north of Scotland. Aberdeen's re-emerged as one of the top teams in Scotland during the 2010s, which increased the rivalry with Celtic both competitively and between supporters. There have been minor incidents at games, mainly relating to political disturbances by Celtic supporters at games between the clubs, including the disruption of minute's silences and the display of banners showing support for the 1981 Irish hunger strike.", "Aberdeen are known as \"The Dons\", a name that has been in use since at least 1913. The origin of this nickname is unclear. One theory is that it derives from the word \"\" meaning \"teacher\", given Aberdeen's history as a university town. It may also be a reference to the nearby River Don, or a contraction of \"Aberdonians\". Before the popular adoption of \"The Dons\", the team were variously known as \"The Wasps\" or \"The Black and Golds\", both names a reference to the yellow and black striped shirts of the time. As with many teams that play in red, Aberdeen may also be called \"The Reds\", and are referred to by some supporters as \"The Dandy Dons\" or \"The Dandies\". Rival clubs occasionally refer to Aberdeen as \"The Sheep\" and their supporters as \"The Sheep Shaggers\". The term was eventually accepted by the club's supporters, and fans began chanting \"the sheep are \" at games. The song was originally sung by away fans poking fun at an Aberdeen fan set on fire on a train while wearing a homemade sheep costume. This in turn led to specialised merchandise being sold by the club and local businesses. Aberdeen inaugurated a Hall of Fame as part of the club's centenary celebrations in 2003. Six players were inducted following the initial dinner in March 2004, and a further six were included in November 2004. Ex-manager Alex Ferguson was inducted at a re-launch event in November 2015.", "", "In 2017, Neale Cooper, Archie Knox, John McMaster and Graham Leggat were inducted into the Hall of Fame. In 2018, Eoin Jess, Peter Weir, Bobby Clark and Donald Colman were inducted. In November 2015, supporters cast votes to determine the greatest ever Aberdeen team.", "", "All players are from Scotland unless otherwise stated. <nowiki>*</nowiki> Up to end of 2019–20 season", "\"List of full-time managers, as of 1 June 2020. Only competitive matches are counted. Caretaker managers are not listed.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Current rules and regulations.", "Technical.", "Chassis.", "Engine.", "Refuelling.", "Tyres.", "Sporting.", "Parc fermé.", "Race procedure.", "Scoring.", "Flags.", "Penalties.", "Pit to car messages.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "4", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "4", "3" ], "content": [ "", "", "An F1 car can be no more than 200 cm wide and 95 cm tall. Though there is no maximum length, other rules set indirect limits on these dimensions, and nearly every aspect of the car carries size regulations; consequently the various cars tend to be very close to the same size. The car and driver must together weigh more than 680 kg The car must only have four wheels mounted externally of the body work with only the front 2 steered and only the back 2 driven. There are minimum distances allowed between the wheels and the rear and front body work. The main chassis contains a \"safety cell\" which includes the cockpit, a structure designed to reduce impact directly in front of the cockpit, and the fuel cell directly behind the cockpit. Additionally, the car must contain roll structures behind and ahead of the driver. The driver must be able to enter and exit the cockpit without any adjustments other than removing the steering wheel. There are also mandatory crash test standards. There is a head-on impact into a steel barrier; \"average deceleration must not exceed 25g\", with a maximum 60g for a minimum 3 milliseconds, with no damage to the chassis beyond the nose section. The same chassis must then sustain a rear impact from a sled travelling at, with no damage in front of the rear axle. The roll hoop is not permitted to crush beyond, and structural failure is only permitted in the top of the body. Side impacts by a object at must be decelerated at less than 20g, and absorb no less than 15% and no more than 35% of the total energy; can not be exceeded more than 3 milliseconds. The steering wheel must survive the impact of an -diameter object at with no deformation of the wheel or damage to the quick-release mechanism. In addition, there are \"squeeze tests\" on the cockpit sides, fuel tank, and nosebox. The cockpit must survive a force with no failure; for the fuel tank, is applied. A maximum deformation is allowed. For the cockpit rim, the figures are and. The nosebox must withstand for 30 seconds without failing. Onboard electrical and computer systems, once inspected at the start of the season, may not be changed without prior approval. Electronic starters and launch control are forbidden. The computers must contain a telemetric accident data reporting system.", "2.4-litre V8 engines were used in 2013 season. However, the 2014 season brought a major change in engine technology by introducing the 1.6-litre turbocharged V6 hybrid engine. The engines must weigh more than 145 kg. For the 2017 season, the fuel limit per race was increased to 105 kg. For the 2019 season, the limit was again increased to 110 kg. The power outputs of F1 engines have not been disclosed since the 1990s, however the consensus view is that today's 1.6 l turbocharged V-6 engines produce about 750-850 (depending on trims and mappings) bhp. Another radical change in 2014 was the introduction of ERS (Energy Recovery System). This system works similar to KERS, with drivers getting full-time boost of about 160 bhp from electric motors used in conjunction with the internal combustion engine (generating around 1000 bhp in total) instead of a 6-second bank of extra power per lap. The combination of these systems led to the term \"power unit\" being used in lieu of \"engine\". Devices designed to inject any substance into the cylinders other than air and fuel (petrol) is forbidden. Variable-length intake and exhaust systems are also forbidden. The crankshaft and camshafts must be made of steel or cast iron. The use of carbon composite materials for the cylinder block, cylinder head and pistons is not allowed. Separate starting devices may be used to start engines in the pits and on the grid. If the engine is fitted with an anti-stall device, this must be set to cut the engine within ten seconds in the event of an accident. The engines, now referred to as \"power units\", are divided into 6 components: the internal combustion engine (ICE); turbocharger (TC); Motor Generator Unit-Kinetic (MGU-K), which harvests energy that would normally be wasted under braking; Motor Generator Unit-Heat (MGU-H), which collects energy in the form of heat as it is expelled through the exhaust; Energy Store (ES), which functions as batteries, holding the energy gathered by the Motor Generator Units; and Control Electronics (CE), which includes the Electronic Control Unit and software used to manage the entire power unit. In 2015, each driver is allowed to use up to four of each component during a season that is up to 20 scheduled races in length; a fifth power unit (and its components) may be used without penalty if more than 20 races are scheduled to take place. A ten place starting grid penalty will be applied for the use of a power unit component used beyond the established allocation; a pit lane start for entire unit changes beyond the limit.", "From 2010, refuelling is no longer permitted during the race: every car starts with a full fuel load. The 2010 season cars were about 22 cm longer than 2009 cars to accommodate the enlarged fuel tank this necessitated.", "Formula 1 has contracted a single supplier of tyres since the 2007 season. The supplier (currently Pirelli) supplies 5 specifications of slick dry-weather tyres (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5), of which 3 compounds are provided at each race. From to, 2 types of dry tyres were provided at each race weekend, known as the Prime and the Option. Teams are supplied with more sets of Prime tyres than Option tyres for use throughout the weekend. The Prime tyre is usually harder and therefore more durable than the Option tyre, while the Option tyre provides more grip and therefore allows faster lap times when the tyres are fresh. At some events the selection is reversed, with the Option tyre being harder than the Prime. The combination of longer lasting and faster tyres adds an element to each car's race strategy. Additionally, 2 wet-weather compounds are provided by the supplier: intermediate and full wet. From onward, 3 dry tyre compounds are brought to a race weekend. Since 2019, regardless of tyre compound, one tyre is designated as soft, one as medium, and one as hard. One set of the softest tyres is set aside for Q3 and two sets of the middle and the hardest tyres are kept for the race. Drivers select 10 sets of tyres for a race weekend. Each compound is differentiated by a colour-coded band painted around the tyre's sidewall and including the supplier's logo: red for soft, yellow for medium, white for hard, green for intermediate, and blue for full wet. Competitors are allowed only a limited number of tyre sets during a race event: 13 dry, 4 intermediate, 3 wet. Each tyre must be marked with a unique identifier for tracking and scrutinising during a race event. During the practice sessions drivers are limited to the use of 3 sets of dry tyres, and certain sets must be returned to the supplier before the second and third sessions. If qualifying and starting the race on dry tyres, drivers who complete a lap during the third period of qualifying (the top ten) must start the race on the tyre set with which they recorded their fastest time during the second period. Any cars that qualified outside the top ten may start the race on any remaining set of tyres. Cars must race on any 2 dry compounds during a race unless intermediate or wet tyres have been used by that car in that race. Prior to qualifying, wet and intermediate tyres may only be used if the track is judged wet by the race director. Starting the race behind the safety car due to heavy rain requires cars to be fitted with wet tyres until they make a pit stop. Heaters may be applied only to the outside of tyres.", "", "After weighing during each qualifying session, teams are required to take their cars to a place in the paddock, sectioned off by the FIA, known as \"parc fermé\"; they may not do work on the cars, other than routine maintenance, until they are released from \"parc fermé\" for the race the next morning. If a team must do other significant work, body work or suspension adjustments, the car will start from the pit lane.", "The pit lane opens thirty minutes before the start of a race (t−30:00), during which time drivers may drive around the track as much as they like, driving through the pitlane each time around in order to avoid the grid. Drivers must be in their cars and in place on the grid by time the pit lane closes at t−15:00; otherwise they must start the race from the pits. Meanwhile, teams may work on their cars on the grid. At t−10:00 the grid is cleared of everyone except team mechanics, race marshals, and drivers. A team will generally want to keep its tyres off their cars and heated in their tyre-warmers for as long as possible, but they must be attached to the cars by t−3:00. Engines must be running by t−1:00; at fifteen seconds to the start all personnel must be clear of the track. Green lights signify the start of the formation lap, also known as the parade lap, during which drivers must remain in the same order (no passing) except if a car ahead has stopped due to a technical problem, or has had an accident. The cars circle the track once, usually weaving from side to side to warm up their tyres, and form up again in their starting positions on the grid. A series of short, controlled burnouts is usually performed as each driver approaches their grid box in order to maximize rear tyre temperature and clean off any debris from the parade lap. If, for some reason, a car cannot start the race (engine failure during qualifying or practice, suspension fails, etc.), the car can still join the race, but will take a 10-position penalty at the start. For example, if the car qualifies in 3rd, but has to change an engine at any point during the race weekend prior to the actual race, the car will start from 13th position. For strategy's sake, teams will sometimes opt to start a car affected in this way from the pit lane. This means they start at the tail end of the grid; however, they can not only change an engine, but also start the race with fresh tyres. Gearboxes must be used for 5 consecutive events (counted as P3, the qualifying practice session and the race). A 5 place grid penalty will be incurred if a replacement gearbox is used. The race is started by 10 red lights in 2 rows of 5 (i.e. 5 columns of 2). The red lights in each column operate as a pair i.e. both go on and off together. The lights illuminate one pair at a time, left to right, in one-second intervals, and then go out simultaneously after an interval of between 4 and 7 seconds. When the lights go out, the race begins. Should the start need to be aborted for any reason, all 5 pairs of red lights will come on as normal, but instead of going out, the orange lights will flash. All engines are stopped and the start resumes from the 5-minute point. If a single driver raises his hand to indicate that he can't start, the marshall for that row will wave a yellow flag, then after a few seconds, both the red and orange lights will extinguish and the green lights will come on to indicate another formation lap.", "The Drivers' and Constructors' Championships are decided by points, which are awarded according to the place in which a driver classifies at each grand prix. To receive points a racer need not finish the race, but at least 90% of the winner's race distance must be completed. Therefore, it is possible for a driver to receive some points even though they retired before the end of the race. In that case the scoring is based on the distance completed in comparison to other drivers. It is also possible for the lower points not to be awarded (as at the 2005 United States Grand Prix) because insufficient drivers completed 90% of the winner's distance. The system was revised in 2003 and later amended for the 2010 season because of 2 new teams entering the sport. The scoring system from 2010 on is: For scoring systems prior to 2010, refer to the List of Formula One World Championship points scoring systems. Drivers finishing lower than tenth place receive no points. If the race had for some reason to be abandoned before 75% of the planned distance (rounded up to the nearest lap) had been completed, then the points awarded are halved: 12.5, 9, 7.5, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5. Points are awarded equally to the driver and his constructor; for example, if a driver for one team comes second, eighteen points are added to his season total; if his teammate finished third in the same race, he adds fifteen to his total and the team adds 33 (the sum of the drivers' points) to its total. The championships are awarded to whichever driver and constructor have the most points at the end of the season. In case of a tie, the FIA compares the number of times each driver has finished in each position. The championship goes to whichever had the greater number of wins; if they have the same number of wins, it goes to the driver with the greater number of second places, and so on. For example, if drivers A and B were tied at the end of a season, and B had six wins and 3 second-place finishes, but A had six wins and four second-place finishes (even if he had fewer third places than B, etc.), then A would be champion. On 10 December 2013, it was confirmed that drivers and constructors will score double points in the final Grand Prix from 2014 onwards, but this was abandoned in the weeks following the 2014 season.", "Many venues make use of electronic displays to indicate flags to give various messages to drivers. However, race marshals continue to use physical flags as a redundancy mechanism in the event of electronic display failure. Marshals are positioned at numerous points around the track during every race. Flags have different meanings depending on their colour; the colours (with Pantone values as specified by the FIA) signify as follows: Flags, whose specifications and usage are prescribed by Appendix H of the FIA's International Sporting Code, must measure at least 60 cm by 80 cm, excepting the red and chequered flags, which must measure at least 80 cm by 100 cm.", "Penalties may be imposed on drivers for numerous offenses, including starting prematurely, speeding in the pitlane, causing an accident, blocking unfairly, or ignoring flags of any color. There are four types of penalty which a driver may incur for violation of on-track rules: For the drive-through and stop-go penalties, a driver has 2 laps from the time his team hears of the penalty to enter the pits; if he does not pit within 2 laps, he will be black-flagged. The exception to this rule is if the Safety Car is deployed before a driver serves his penalty, in which case he is not allowed to serve his penalty until after the Safety Car comes back in. If he incurs a penalty within the last 5 laps of the race, he need not pit at all; instead, twenty seconds will be added to his total race time in case of a drive-through penalty, and thirty seconds in case of stop-go penalty.", "From the German Grand Prix in 2016, there are no restrictions on what information can be given to the driver. Previously, to ensure that drivers drive the car 'alone and unaided' and are not being 'coached' from the pit wall, stricter rules were introduced to govern what information can and cannot be given to a driver over team radio. For example, it was not allowed for a driver to be given information about driving lines or how to adjust his car to make it faster whilst out on track.", "The primary reasons behind rule changes have traditionally been to do with safety and (mostly since 2000) to limit the cost of the sport." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Different forms.", "Negative assertions.", "Rhetorical questions as metaphors.", "Other forms.", "Punctuation.", "Quotes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "A rhetorical question may be intended as a challenge. The question is often difficult or impossible to answer. In the example, \"What have the Romans ever done for us?\" (\"Monty Python's Life of Brian\") the question functions as a negative assertion. It is intended to mean \"The Romans have never done anything for us!\". When Shakespeare's Mark Antony exclaims: \"Here was a Caesar! when comes such another?\" it functions as an assertion that Caesar possesses such rare qualities they may never be seen again. (\"Julius Caesar\", Act 3, scene 2, 257) Negative assertions may function as positives in sarcastic contexts. For example, in \"Smoking can lead to lung cancer. Who knew?!\" the question functions as an assertion that the truth of the statement should have been utterly obvious.", "Rhetorical questions are often used as a metaphor for a question already asked. Examples may be found in the song \"Maria\" from the 1959 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical, \"The Sound of Music\", in which the \"How do you solve a problem like Maria?\" is repeatedly answered with another question: \"How do you catch a cloud and pin it down?\", \"How do you keep a wave upon the sand?\" and \"How do you hold a moonbeam in your hand?\" These responses may be taken as asserting that \"the problem of Maria\" cannot be solved; and furthermore the choice of \"cloud\", \"wave\" and \"moonbeam\" as metaphors for Maria give insight into her character and the nature of the problem. In the vernacular, this form of rhetorical question is most often seen as \"rhetorical affirmation\", where the certainty or obviousness of the answer to a question is expressed by asking another, often humorous, question for which the answer is equally obvious; popular examples include \"Does a bear poo in the woods?\", \"Is the sky blue?\" and \"Is the Pope Catholic?\"", "Sometimes the implied answer to a rhetorical question is \"Yes, but I wish it were not so\" or vice versa: Another common form is the expression of doubt by questioning a statement just made; for example by appending the following to a sentence: \"or did he?\", \"or is it?\", as in, \"The butler did it... or did he?\" It is also common to use a rhetorical question to bring an end to a debate or to finalize a decision. For example, when internally deciding whether to perform an action, one may shove aside the dialogue with a simple, \"Eh, why not?\" Rhetorical questions may be signaled by marker phrases; questions that include \"after all\", or \"by any chance\" may be intended as rhetorical.", "Depending on the context, a rhetorical question may be punctuated by a question mark (?), full stop (.), or exclamation mark (!), but some sources argue that it is required to use a question mark for any question, rhetorical or not. In the 1580s, English printer Henry Denham invented a \"rhetorical question mark\" (⸮) for use at the end of a rhetorical question; however, it fell out of use in the 17th century. It was the reverse of an ordinary question mark, so that instead of the main opening pointing back into the sentence, it opened away from it.", "\"The effectiveness of rhetorical questions in argument comes from their dramatic quality. They suggest dialogue, especially when the speaker both asks and answers them himself, as if he were playing two parts on the stage. They are not always impassioned; they may be mildly ironical or merely argumentative: but they are always to some extent dramatic, and, if used to excess, they tend to give one’s style a theatrical air.\" \"Rhetorical questioning is...a fairly conscious technique adopted by a speaker for deliberate ends, and it is used infrequently, proportional to the length of the dialogue, oration, or conversation.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Characteristics.", "Jesus' parables.", "Other figures of speech." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"parable\" comes from the Greek παραβολή (\"parabolē\"), literally \"throwing\" (\"bolē\") \"alongside\" (\"para-\"), by extension meaning \"comparison, illustration, analogy.\" It was the name given by Greek rhetoricians to an illustration in the form of a brief fictional narrative.", "Parables are often used to explore ethical concepts in spiritual texts. The Bible contains numerous parables in the Gospels section of the New Testament (Jesus's parables). These are believed by some scholars (such as John P. Meier) to have been inspired by mashalim, a form of Hebrew comparison. Examples of Jesus' parables include the Good Samaritan and the Prodigal Son. Mashalim from the Old Testament include the parable of the ewe-lamb (told by Nathan in 2 Samuel 12:1-9) and the parable of the woman of Tekoah (in 2 Samuel 14:1-13 ). Parables also appear in Islam. In Sufi tradition, parables are used for imparting lessons and values. Recent authors such as Idries Shah and Anthony de Mello have helped popularize these stories beyond Sufi circles. Modern parables also exist. A mid-19th-century example, the Parable of the broken window, criticises a part of economic thinking.", "A parable is a short tale that illustrates a universal truth; it is a simple narrative. It sketches a setting, describes an action, and shows the results. It may sometimes be distinguished from similar narrative types, such as the allegory and the apologue. A parable often involves a character who faces a moral dilemma or one who makes a bad decision and then suffers the unintended consequences. Although the meaning of a parable is often not explicitly stated, it is not intended to be hidden or secret but to be quite straightforward and obvious. The defining characteristic of the parable is the presence of a subtext suggesting how a person should behave or what he should believe. Aside from providing guidance and suggestions for proper conduct in one's life, parables frequently use metaphorical language which allows people to more easily discuss difficult or complex ideas. Parables express an abstract argument by means of using a concrete narrative which is easily understood. The allegory is a more general narrative type; it also employs metaphor. Like the parable, the allegory makes a single, unambiguous point. An allegory may have multiple noncontradictory interpretations and may also have implications that are ambiguous or hard to interpret. As H.W. Fowler put it, the object of both parable and allegory \"is to enlighten the hearer by submitting to him a case in which he has apparently no direct concern, and upon which therefore a disinterested judgment may be elicited from him,...\" The parable is more condensed than the allegory: it rests upon a single principle and a single moral, and it is intended that the reader or listener shall conclude that the moral applies equally well to his own concerns.", "Medieval interpreters of the Bible often treated Jesus' parables as allegories, with symbolic correspondences found for every element in his parables. But modern scholars, beginning with Adolf Jülicher, regard their interpretations as incorrect. Jülicher viewed some of Jesus’ parables as similitudes (extended similes or metaphors) with three parts: a picture part (\"Bildhälfte\"), a reality part (\"Sachhälfte\"), and a \"tertium comparationis\". Jülicher held that Jesus' parables are intended to make a single important point, and most recent scholarship agrees. Gnostics suggested that Jesus kept some of his teachings secret within the circle of his disciples and that he deliberately obscured their meaning by using parables. For example, in Mark 4:11–12:", "The parable is related to figures of speech such as the metaphor and the simile, but it should not be identified with them. A parable is like a metaphor in that it uses concrete, perceptible phenomena to illustrate abstract ideas. It may be said that a parable is a metaphor that has been extended to form a brief, coherent narrative. A parable also resembles a simile, i.e., a metaphorical construction in which something is said to be \"like\" something else (e.g., \"The just man is like a tree planted by streams of water\"). However, unlike the meaning of a simile, a parable's meaning is implicit (although not secret)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Film adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Juraj Hordubal returns home to Carpathian Ruthenia after eight years of hard work in America. He is looking forward to seeing his devoted wife Polana and daughter Hafia. Everything is greatly idealised in his eyes as he expects everyone to welcome him warmly. However, the reality is different, he is accepted very coldly but hopes that things will get better soon and everyone will get used to his presence. He believes that Polana was a faithful wife during the time he was abroad. Unfortunately, he later discovers that she had an affair with the farm keeper Stepan Manya who was helping her with managing the farm. The relationship between Hordubal and Manya becomes very tense and eventually, Manya is forced to leave the farm. That, however doesn't influence Manya's love affair with Polana. They still keep meeting despite the fact that Hordubal knows about the affair. Manya and Polana decide to get rid of Hordubal in order to begin a new life together. They are also motivated to do it as Hordubal's savings are big enough to ensure a convenient life for a long time. Hordubal is killed by Manya in the middle of the night. The ending of the book describes the investigation of the criminal act. All the evidence lead to Manya. He is sentenced to life. Polana is found guilty of planning the murder and is sentenced to 12 years in prison in spite of being pregnant. In the end, Polana's sinning is considered much more severe as she misused her husband's kindness and devotion and was unfaithful. The highly religious society detests her for her sins.", "There have been two film adaptations:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Literature.", "Historical use.", "Poetry.", "Rhetoric.", "Pop culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Alliteration is used in the alliterative verse of Old English, Old Norse, Old High German, Old Saxon, and Old Irish. It was an important ingredient of the Sanskrit shlokas. Alliteration was used in Old English given names. This is evidenced by the unbroken series of 9th century kings of Wessex named Æthelwulf, Æthelbald, Æthelberht, and Æthelred. These were followed in the 10th century by their direct descendants Æthelstan and Æthelred II, who ruled as kings of England. The Anglo-Saxon saints Tancred, Torhtred and Tova provide a similar example, among siblings.", "In relation to English poetry, poets can call attention to certain words in a line of poetry by using alliteration. They can also use alliteration to create a pleasant, rhythmic effect. In the following poetic lines, notice how alliteration is used to emphasize words and to create rhythm: \"Give me the splendid silent sun with all his beams full-dazzling!' Walt Whitman, \"Give Me the Splendid Silent Sun\" “They all gazed and gazed upon this green stranger,/because everyone wondered what it could mean/ that a rider and his horse could be such a colour-/ green as grass, and greener it seemed/ than green enamel glowing bright against gold\". (232-236) \"Sir Gawain and the Green Knight\", translated by Bernard O'Donoghue (In the original, and in J. R. R. Tolkien's translation, this poem in fact follows an alliterative meter.) \"Some papers like writers, some like wrappers. Are you a writer or a wrapper?\" Carl Sandburg, \"Paper I\" Alliteration can also add to the mood of a poem. If a poet repeats soft, melodious sounds, a calm or dignified mood can result. If harsh, hard sound are repeated, on the other hand, the mood can become tense or excited. In this poem, alliteration of the s, l, and f sounds adds to a hushed, peaceful mood:", "Alliteration has been used in various spheres of public speaking and rhetoric. Alliteration can also be considered an artistic constraint that is used by the orator to sway the audience to feel some type of urgency, or perhaps even lack of urgency, or another emotional effect. For example, H or E sounds can soothe, whereas a P or a B sound can be percussive and attention-grabbing. S sounds can imply danger or make the audience feel as if they are being deceived. Other sounds can create feelings of happiness, discord, or anger, depending on context. Alliteration serves to \"intensify any attitude being signified\". Its significance as a rhetorical device is that it adds a textural complexity to a speech, making it more engaging, moving, and memorable. The use of alliteration in a speech captivates a person's auditory senses; this helps the speaker to create a mood. The use of a repeating sound or letter is noticeable, and so forces an audience's attention and evokes emotion. A well-known example is in John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address, in which he uses alliteration 21 times. The last paragraph of his speech is given as an example here. \"Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high \"s\"tandards of \"s\"trength and \"s\"acrifice which we ask of you. With a good conscience our only sure reward, with history the final judge of our deeds, let us go forth to \"l\"ead the \"l\"and we \"l\"ove, asking His blessing and His help, but knowing that here on Earth God's work must truly be our own.\" — John F. Kennedy Other examples of alliteration in some famous speeches: Translation can lose the emphasis developed by this device. For example, in the accepted Greek text of Luke 10:41 the repetition and extension of initial sound are noted as Jesus doubles Martha’s name and adds an alliterative description: Μάρθα Μάρθα μεριμνᾷς (\"M\"artha, \"M\"artha, \"m\"erimnas). This is lost in the English NKJ and NRS translations “\"M\"artha, \"M\"artha, you are \"w\"orried and distracted by many things.”", "Alliteration is commonly used in modern music but is also seen in magazine article titles, advertisements, business names, comic strips, television shows, video games and in the dialogue and naming of cartoon characters." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Corel World Design Contest." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Corel was founded by Michael Cowpland in 1985 as a research laboratory. Michael Cowpland was CEO of Mitel. Mitel need a writing and creative design programs to enhance the company product line. Corel products were born. Additional produces were added. The company had great success early in the high-tech boom of the 1990s and early 2000s with the product CorelDRAW, and became, for a time, the biggest software company in Canada. In 1996 it acquired Novell WordPerfect and started competing with the thought of being \"Pepsi to Microsoft's Coke\" as Microsoft Word was the top-used word processing software at the time. Corel was in a difficult position as Microsoft pushed pre-loaded copies of its software onto new computers. This mainly consisted of Microsoft Works office applications, but a variant called Works Suite also bundled the Microsoft Word software. The company held the naming rights to the home arena for the NHL's Ottawa Senators from February 1996 until January 2006 as the \"Corel Centre\", a venue currently known as the Canadian Tire Centre. In 1996 Corel created a Full motion video game called Mode. In 1997 Corel sold its Corel ChemLab studio and its \"CD Home Collection\" consisting of over 60 multimedia titles to Hoffmann + Associates, a Toronto-based company. As part of the deal, Corel acquired a minority interest in Hoffmann + Associates and received royalties. In August 2000 Cowpland was accused of insider trading and left. A new board of directors was then appointed and Derek Burney Jr., announced that the product line would be split into several brands—DeepWhite, ProCreate, and Corel. However, these plans would be scrapped, and only the Corel brand would remain. Corel acquired the graphics software company Micrografx in late 2001. In August 2003, Corel was bought out by the private equity firm Vector Capital for $1.05 a share (slightly more than the cash in the company). The company was voluntarily delisted from the NASDAQ and Toronto Stock Exchanges. Some U.S. shareholders alleged the management benefited from the buyout personally while the buyout price was too low. A lawsuit was filed in the U.S. to stop the buyout and was unsuccessful. In March 2005 Corel announced that the United States Justice Department purchased 50,000 licenses of WordPerfect (adding to the worldwide user base of 20 million) and that WordPerfect was adding 4 million new users per year thanks to bundling deals with Dell. Corel contended that WordPerfect was the only viable alternative to Microsoft Office, with sales 70 times more than Lotus' SmartSuite. On April 26, 2006, Corel completed its return to the public market with an initial public offering on NASDAQ, the same day finalizing the acquisition of WinZip, a well-known archiving software title. On December 12, 2006, Corel completed its acquisitions of InterVideo and Ulead. The InterVideo acquisition was valued at around $196 million. In May 2008, CEO David Dobson announced that he was leaving the company to take a senior strategy role at Pitney Bowes. Dobson was replaced on May 8 by former Symantec executive Kris Hagerman. In November 2009, it was announced that Vector Capital would be purchasing the remaining shares of common stock in Corel Corporation. Upon completion, this made Corel once again privately owned. On January 29, 2010, the shareholders of Corel approved its previously announced stock consolidation, completing the transfer to Corel Holdings, L.P., a limited partnership controlled by an affiliate of Vector Capital. In January 2012, Corel acquired Roxio from Rovi Corporation for an undisclosed amount. Subsequently on July 2, 2012, Corel announced its acquisition of Pinnacle Systems, a developer of consumer-oriented video editing products (such as the Pinnacle Studio series) owned by Avid. Having suffered layoffs in 2003 and 2008, Corel began a near yearly culture of restructuring beginning in 2010, when in the latter part of that year the company's finance department was restructured and moved to their Taipei office, resulting in significant layoffs at its Ottawa HQ. Restructuring in 2012 resulted in more layoffs. In December 2013, the company's restructuring resulted in the layoffs of the Taipei locations engineering and quality assurance team. Corel's Taipei office was the core development centre of PaintShop Pro and VideoStudio, one of the company's most well-known photo- and video-editing bundles. The 2013 restructuring led to a partial handover of product development to outsourced companies, resulting in more rapid, low-cost development across its product lines. The company continued with layoffs in 2014 and once again at the beginning of 2015 with the change of the company's CEO to Patrick Nichols, previously the head of Corel's WinZip business unit. In August 2016, Corel announced the acquisition of the Mindjet MindManager business from Spigit. In June 2018, Corel announced the acquisition of Gravit GmbH. In December 2018, Corel announced the acquisition of Parallels. On July 3, 2019, Corel was sold to KKR.", "The annual Corel World Design Contest first ran from 1990 through 1998. The competition intended to recognize and encourage an international community of graphic artists from over 50,000,000 registered Corel users. Two finalists for each of the eight categories were awarded a trip to Ottawa, Canada to participate in the Corel World Design Contest gala and awards ceremony. The finalists from each of the eight categories received an issue of the \"Corel Crystal Award\". The collection of artworks were later released in a catalogue with bundled CD, under the name of \"Corel Artshow\". The contest was reinitiated in 2009 on the 20th Anniversary of CorelDRAW's launch and now runs every two years. The 2013 and 2015 contests each had a prize pool with a total value of USD100,000." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Description." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The old parts of the cave have been known already in the prehistoric times. Though the precipice Peklo the new parts have been discovered by E. and A. Hollmann and J. Kovalčík in 1926. In 1951 the Mostárenské Hall was discovered. The lower entrance to the cave was opened in 1932. The Old and New Cave were connected by J. Majko and J. Vytřísalová together with their colleagues in 1955. About of the cave has been made public in 1968. The Lower Guerilla Hall and some other parts of the cave have been used for speleotherapy since 1971.", "The cave consists primarily of dark limestone rocks of the middle trias, formed in tectonic cracks by water corrosion, the demolition of some parts of the ceiling and gradually enlarged by the underground river Bystra. An underground stream still flows through the bottom part of the cave, springing out in the village of Valaska. The embellishment of the cave consists of stalactites and stalagmites, wrom which Zvonivé stalaktity (Ringing statlctites), Beldachýn (Baldaquin) and Kovacska vyhna (Blacksmith's workshop) are specially remarkable. Except for many erosive forms a ceiling river-bed is to be seen in the cave, in which the round granit stones of the Low Tatras are attached by sinter. The cave is in length and in depth. It is the most important cave of the Upper Hron River Valley. In the largest dome there is a memorial tablet commemorating the partisan who was shot dead by fascist soldiers directly in the cave. Aside the sightseeing tour there is a medical hall used presently for curing the respiratory diseases of children (speleotherapy)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Construction features.", "Production and operation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "This is a twelve (number 12 in the type designation), the three-door (last 3 digit), urban, low-floor bus, which was offered with gas or Diesel Motor. Bus bodywork (manufactured under license of Italian company Mauri) is composed of a truss of the frame, made of thin-walled stainless steel tube. The frame is sheathed with aluminum-vapor sheets. Front and rear panel and roof are made of fiberglass. Motor and automatic transmission are located at the rear of the bus. Gas version Kronos 123 G is placed on the roof of composite cylinders with an aluminum core for compressed natural gas. They have a volume of 960 l, which the car can drive 450 km. In 2006 was supplemented fourth tank so bus can drive 650 km on one filling.", "Prototype of Kronos 123 was made in 2004, and the same year was introduced on Brno fair Autotec (it was a gas version). During the year 2005 went out of the factory gates six of these buses, including one with a diesel engine (designation Kronos 123 D). In the following year produced 10 of 123 Kronos (six diesel-powered). At the turn of 2006 and 2007, the car was redesigned and changed while he was marking on the TEDOM C 12. In 2004 to 2006 and TEDOM made a total of 17 buses Kronos 123 (10 in the gas and 7 in and diesel version). Company TEDOM presented bus on demonstration sessions in many cities in the Czech Republic. The prototype, along with one other gas and one diesel Kronos 123 remained to the manufacturer, which uses it for a demonstration and tests. Six KRONOS 123 G are in operation at Transport Company of Liberec and Jablonec nad Nisou, two other gas runs in the Polish city of Mielec local transport company MKS Mielec. Diesel cars came to Slovakia bought two company SAD Prešov and four SAD Liberec." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Systematics.", "Phylogeny.", "Living species and taxonomy.", "Early fossil record." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Based on the \"Taxonomy in Flux\" from John Boyd's website.", "6–8 living species of black geese are known. In addition, one species has been described from subfossil remains found in the Hawaiian Islands, where it became extinct in prehistoric times. Another undescribed prehistoric species from the Big Island of Hawai‘i was extremely large and flightless; it is tentatively assigned to this genus due to being very peculiar. It is fairly certain that at least another species of this genus awaits discovery on the Big Island, judging from the facts that at least one species of \"Branta\" was found on every major Hawaiian island, and that remains of such birds have not been intentionally searched for on the Big Island (but see below). The species are: Tentatively assigned to \"Branta\": The relationships of the enigmatic \"Geochen rhuax\" were long unresolved. After reexamination of the subfossil material and comparisms with other subfossil bones assigned to the genus \"Branta\" it was redescribed as \"Branta rhuax\" in 2013. It was another prehistoric Big Island form and remains known only from some parts of a single bird's skeleton, which were much damaged because the bird apparently died in a volcanic eruption, with the bones being found in an ash-filled depression under a lava flow. A presumed relation to the shelducks proposed by Lester Short in 1970 was generally considered highly unlikely due to that group's biogeography, but more recently, bones of a shelduck-like bird have been found on Kaua‘i. Whether this latter anatid was indeed a shelduck is presently undetermined. Similarly, two bones found on Oʻahu indicate the erstwhile present of a gigantic waterfowl on this island. Its relationships relative to this genus and the moa-nalos, enormous goose-like dabbling ducks, are completely undeterminable at present.", "Several fossil species of \"Branta\" have been described. Since the true geese are hardly distinguishable by anatomical features, the allocation of these to this genus is somewhat uncertain. A number of supposed prehistoric grey geese have been described from North America, partially from the same sites as species assigned to \"Branta\". Whether these are correctly assigned – meaning that the genus \"Anser\" was once much more widespread than today and that it coexisted with \"Branta\" in freshwater habitat which it today does only most rarely – is not clear. Especially in the case of \"B. dickeyi\" and \"B. howardae\", doubts have been expressed about its correct generic assignment. The former \"\"Branta\" minuscula\" is now placed with the prehistoric American shelducks, \"Anabernicula\". On the other hand, a goose fossil from the Early-Middle Pleistocene of El Salvador is highly similar to \"Anser\" and given its age and biogeography it is likely to belong to that genus or \"Branta\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Systematics.", "Species.", "Phylogeny.", "Fossil record." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The genus \"Anas\" was introduced by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his \"Systema Naturae\". \"Anas\" is the Latin word for a duck. The genus formerly included additional species. In 2009 a large molecular phylogentic study was published that compared mitochondrial DNA sequences from ducks, geese and swans in the family Anatidae. The results confirmed some of the conclusions of earlier smaller studies and indicated that the genus as then defined was non-monophyletic. Based on the results of this study, \"Anas\" was split into four proposed monophyletic genera with five species including the wigeons transferred to the resurrected genus \"Mareca\", ten species including the shovelers and some teals transferred to the resurrected genus \"Spatula\" and the Baikal teal placed in the monotypic genus \"Sibirionetta\".", "There are 31 extant species recognised in the genus: Extinct Species Formerly placed in \"Anas\":", "Cladogram based on the analysis of Gonzalez and colleagues published in 2009.", "A number of fossil species of \"Anas\" have been described. Their relationships are often undetermined: Several prehistoric waterfowl supposedly part of the \"Anas\" assemblage are nowadays not placed in this genus anymore, at least not with certainty: Highly problematic, albeit in a theoretical sense, is the placement of the moa-nalos. These are in may be derived from a common ancestor of the Pacific black duck, the Laysan duck, and the mallard, and an unknown amount of other lineages. Phylogenetically, they may even form a clade within the traditional genus \"Anas\". However, as opposed to these species – which are well representative of dabbling ducks in general – the moa-nalos are the most radical departure from the anseriform bauplan known to science. This illustrates that in a truly evolutionary sense, a strictly phylogenetic taxonomy may be difficult to apply." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Headpins.", "Discography.", "Albums." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The band originated in Vancouver, British Columbia. The members of the C-FUN Classics changed the band's name to The Collectors when Bill Henderson joined in 1966. Their psychedelic self-titled debut album yielded the minor hit \"Lydia Purple\". Their second album was based on the musical score written by the band for a stage play by Canadian playwright George Ryga, \"Grass and Wild Strawberries\". Vocalist Howie Vickers left the Collectors in 1969; the remaining members formed the band Chilliwack in 1970, Chilliwack being a Salish term meaning \"valley of many streams\" and the name of a city east of Vancouver in the Fraser River valley. Lead guitarist Bill Henderson led the remaining former Collectors members: Glenn Miller (bass, guitar, backing vocals), Ross Turney (drums) and Claire Lawrence (flute, saxophone, keyboards, backing vocals); while he provided most of the vocals and did most of the composing. During 1970, Miller briefly left the band, who were joined on the road by Robbie King (keyboards, bass) and played at Expo '70 in Japan and other gigs across Canada. In 1971 bassist Rick Kilburn played live with Chilliwack for a short time before Miller returned later that same year when Lawrence departed. New member Howard Froese (guitar, keyboards, backing vocals) joined in 1973. The band released several records that were moderately successful. Hit singles in Canada included \"Lonesome Mary\", which entered Cashbox January 22, 1972 (and was their first US charting single, peaking at #75 on the Billboard Hot 100 in February 1972), \"Crazy Talk\" (#98 in the US in January 1975), and \"Fly at Night\" (#75 in the US in May 1977). The album track \"Rain-o\", a blues-based composition that appeared in different versions on their debut album, \"Chilliwack\" (June 1970) and the later \"Dreams, Dreams, Dreams\" (January 1977), was a well-known concert favourite. Chilliwack's debut was followed by two more albums: \"Chilliwack\" in September 1971 and \"All Over You\" in December 1972. In April 1974 their album \"Riding High\" on Goldfish Records (Terry Jacks' label) contained one of their biggest hits, the aforementioned \"Crazy Talk\", which was produced by Jacks. This album was not released in the US until early 1975 (on the Sire Records label), where it was retitled \"Chilliwack\" (their third U.S. release to bear that title). However, Chilliwack had a difficult time sustaining any success because of their constant changes of label. The two Collectors albums were on Warner Brothers and Chilliwack's first five albums were on four different labels in Canada: Parrot, A&M, Goldfish and Casino Records. \"Rockerbox\", their fifth album, was released in December 1975 on Sire Records in the US and (with a different cover) on the little known, aforementioned Casino Records label in Canada. It was Chilliwack's least successful album in Canada. The band was then signed to Vancouver's Mushroom Records, with distribution throughout North America. After completing one album for the label, \"Dreams, Dreams, Dreams\", Chilliwack began work on their seventh album, to be titled \"Lights from the Valley\". The first attempt at recording proved unsatisfactory, leading to discord among the band members. Veteran guitarist Froese was replaced by Brian MacLeod, who contributed guitar, drums, keyboards and backing vocals. The album was re-recorded; with some of Froese's vocal and guitar work, as well as percussion from session drummer Eddie Tuduri, included in the final mix. By the time of the record's release, bassist Glenn Miller and long term drummer Ross Turney had left the group. Mushroom was also having financial problems which hampered the promotion of the album after its release in June 1978. Drummer Skip Layton and former Prism bassist Ab Bryant were recruited to perform with Henderson, Jamie Bowers (guitar, keyboards) and MacLeod in Chilliwack's 1978 live gigs. Henderson, MacLeod and Bryant then began working on Chilliwack's eighth album in 1979, joined by John Roles (guitar, keyboards, backing vocals) and drummer Bucky Berger. The Mushroom label went bankrupt abruptly shortly after the album, \"Breakdown in Paradise\", was released in December 1979. Berger was replaced by Rick Taylor shortly thereafter and the lineup of Henderson, MacLeod, Bryant, Roles and Taylor toured into 1980. Chilliwack then signed with Solid Gold Records in Canada and Millennium Records in the U.S. in 1981 as a trio (Henderson/MacLeod/Bryant) and enjoyed its greatest success with this lineup, releasing the albums \"Wanna Be a Star\" (September 1981) and \"Opus X\" (October 1982). The singles \"My Girl (Gone, Gone, Gone)\" (Their first US Top 40 hit, peaking at #22 in December 1981), \"I Believe\" (US #33 in March 1982), and \"Whatcha Gonna Do (When I'm Gone)\" (US #41 in December 1982) were popular both in Canada and in the U.S. \"Rolling Stone\" wrote: The trio of Henderson, MacLeod and Bryant were joined by drummer Paul Delaney in the fall of 1981 through early 1982 for US promotional appearances on TV shows, like \"American Bandstand\", \"Solid Gold\" and \"The Merv Griffin Show\", before heading out on the road later in 1982 with an expanded lineup of Henderson, MacLeod, Bryant, Joey Franco (drums), Glenn Grayson (keyboards, backing vocals) and Dennis Grayson (keyboards, backing vocals). Henderson and MacLeod received a Best Producer Juno Award for \"Opus X\". However, echoing the Mushroom problems, Millennium Records then collapsed. MacLeod and Bryant left the band soon after, in early 1983, to devote more time to their other project, the Headpins, and Chilliwack's last new studio recording, \"Look In Look Out\", was released in July 1984 with Henderson as the only continuing member, joined by session players Ashley Mulford (guitar, backing vocals, from the band Sad Café), Richard Gibbs (keyboards, from the group Oingo Boingo), Mo Foster (bass), Simon Phillips (drums) and Tom Keenlyside (saxophone), with additional vocals provided by Mark LaFrance, Saffron & Camille Henderson, Dustin Keller and Bob Rock. By 1985 the band was without a record deal and Henderson cobbled together a touring only lineup made up of former member Claire Lawrence (sax, backing vocals), Jerry Adolphe (drums), Brian Newcombe (bass), Robbie Gray (keyboards, backing vocals) and Dave Pickell (keyboards). Pickell was replaced almost immediately by another former member John Roles (guitar, keyboards) and this grouping played mostly in Canadian clubs and smaller venues until Henderson disbanded the group in December 1988. On October 6, 1991 Henderson joined fellow rockers Loverboy, Bryan Adams, Colin James and Chrissy Steele at a benefit show at Vancouver's 86 Street Music Hall to raise over $50,000 for Henderson's former Chilliwack bandmate, Brian MacLeod, who was fighting cancer and undergoing treatment at a Houston medical clinic. MacLeod died on April 25, 1992, aged 39. In 1989 Henderson went on to form the folk-rock supergroup UHF and decided to launch a new Chilliwack lineup in 1997, made up of himself, Adolphe (drums), Doug Edwards (bass, backing vocals), and Roy 'Bim' Forbes (guitar, backing vocals, from UHF). Forbes was succeeded on guitar in 1998 by Bill's brother, Ed, and Chilliwack released a new live album, \"There and Back - Live\", in 2003. Chilliwack performed at 2005's Voyageur Days Festival in Mattawa, Ontario, where they appeared that July with other Canadian bands Moxy, Toronto, Trooper, Goddo, Killer Dwarfs and Ray Lyell for the thirtieth anniversary of Moxy's debut album release. On May 24, 2010 the current members of Chilliwack (Bill Henderson, Ed Henderson, Doug Edwards and Jerry Adolphe) were joined by former members Roy 'Bim' Forbes, Ab Bryant and Claire Lawrence plus Howard Froese's son, Tyson, on acoustic guitar (standing in for his father, who had died of cancer in the mid-1990s) and Collectors singer Howie Vickers for a Chilliwack 40th Anniversary show at River Rock Show Theatre in Richmond, British Columbia. Since that time, Bill Henderson has continued Chilliwack but also does duo shows with Claire Lawrence from time to time. Chilliwack's original bassist, Glenn Miller, died on March 4, 2011 in Toronto after suffering from muscular dystrophy. In 2015 music fans were treated to a new music video by Chilliwack for the song \"Take Back This Land\". The song became a rallying call during the 2015 Canadian federal election. \"The song wasn’t just about the election\", said Bill Henderson. \"Whether it is logging or fracking or whatever else, there is still a lot more work to do in Canada.\" Chilliwack continues to play, mostly in the spring, summer, and early fall, at outdoor gatherings and festivals. Sadly, Doug Edwards died at his home in Vancouver at the age of 70 on November 11, 2016, after a long illness. Doug has been succeeded in Chilliwack by Gord Maxwell (formerly with Ian Tyson and One Horse Blue). Matt Bryant, son of former Chilliwack bass player Ab Bryant, is the singer/songwriter and founding member of Canadian roots/folk band Headwater.", "As a side project MacLeod and the band (minus Henderson) in the early 1980s performed as The Headpins with first Denise McCann and then Darby Mills as lead vocalist.", "", "As The Collectors (Pre-Chilliwack) Chilliwack" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Early life.", "World War I.", "The 1920s.", "Nazi era.", "Denazification.", "After World War II.", "Personal life.", "Death.", "Works.", "Musical works.", "Pedagogic works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Carl Orff was born in Munich on 10 July 1895, the son of Paula (Köstler) and Heinrich Orff. His family was Bavarian and was active in the Imperial German Army; his father was an army officer with strong musical interests. His paternal grandmother was Catholic of Jewish descent. At age five, Orff began to play piano, organ, and cello, and composed a few songs and music for puppet plays. In 1911, at age 16, some of Orff's music was published. Many of his youthful works were songs, often settings of German poetry. They fell into the style of Richard Strauss and other German composers of the day, but with hints of what would become Orff's distinctive musical language. In 1911/12, Orff wrote \"Zarathustra\", Op. 14, an unfinished large work for baritone voice, three male choruses and orchestra, based on a passage from Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophical novel \"Also sprach Zarathustra\". The following year, he composed an opera, \"Gisei, das Opfer\" (\"Gisei, the Sacrifice\"). Influenced by the French Impressionist composer Claude Debussy, he began to use colorful, unusual combinations of instruments in his orchestration.", "Moser's \"Musik-Lexikon\" states that Orff studied at the Munich Academy of Music (from 1912) until 1914. He then served in the German Army during World War I, when he was severely injured and nearly killed when a trench caved in. Afterwards, he held various positions at opera houses in Mannheim and Darmstadt, later returning to Munich to pursue his music studies.", "In the mid-1920s, Orff began to formulate a concept he called, or elemental music, which was based on the unity of the arts symbolized by the ancient Greek Muses, and involved tone, dance, poetry, image, design, and theatrical gesture. Like many other composers of the time, he was influenced by the Russian-French émigré Igor Stravinsky. But while others followed the cool, balanced neoclassic works of Stravinsky, it was works such as \"Les noces\" (\"The Wedding\"), an earthy, quasi-folkloric depiction of Russian peasant wedding rites, that appealed to Orff. He also began adapting musical works of earlier eras for contemporary theatrical presentation, including Claudio Monteverdi's opera \"L'Orfeo\" (1607). Orff's German version, \"Orpheus\", was staged under his direction in 1925 in Mannheim, using some of the instruments that had been used in the original 1607 performance. The passionately declaimed opera of Monteverdi's era was almost unknown in the 1920s, however, and Orff's production met with reactions ranging from incomprehension to ridicule. In 1924 and Orff founded the Günther School for gymnastics, music, and dance in Munich. Orff was there as the head of a department from 1925 until the end of his life, and he worked with musical beginners. There he developed his theories of music education, having constant contact with children. In 1930, Orff published a manual titled \"Schulwerk\", in which he shares his method of conducting. Before writing \"Carmina Burana\", he also edited 17th-century operas. However, these various activities brought him very little money.", "Orff's relationship with German national-socialism and the Nazi Party has been a matter of considerable debate and analysis. His \"Carmina Burana\" was hugely popular in Nazi Germany after its premiere in Frankfurt in 1937. Given Orff's previous lack of commercial success, the monetary factor of \"Carmina Burana\"'s acclaim was significant to him. But the composition, with its unfamiliar rhythms, was also denounced with racist taunts. He was one of the few German composers under the Nazi regime who responded to the official call to write new incidental music for \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\" after the music of Felix Mendelssohn had been banned. Defenders of Orff note that he had already composed music for this play as early as 1917 and 1927, long before this was a favor for the Nazi regime. Orff was a friend of Kurt Huber, one of the founders of the resistance movement (the White Rose), who was condemned to death by the and executed by the Nazis in 1943. Orff by happenstance called at Huber's house on the day after his arrest. Huber's distraught wife, Clara, begged Orff to use his influence to help her husband, but he declined her request. If his friendship with Huber was ever discovered, he told her, he would be \"ruined\". On 19 January 1946 Orff wrote a letter to the deceased Huber. Later that month, he met with Clara Huber, who asked him to contribute to a memorial volume for her husband. Orff's letter was published in that collection the following year. In it, Orff implored him for forgiveness. He had a long friendship with German-Jewish musicologist, composer and refugee Erich Katz, who fled Nazi Germany in 1939.", "According to Canadian historian Michael H. Kater, during Orff's denazification process in Bad Homburg, Orff claimed that he had helped establish the White Rose resistance movement in Germany. There was no evidence for this other than his own word, and other sources dispute his claim. Kater also made a particularly strong case that Orff collaborated with Nazi German authorities. However, in Orff's denazification file, discovered by Viennese historian Oliver Rathkolb in 1999, no remark on the White Rose is recorded; and in \"Composers of the Nazi Era: Eight Portraits\" (2000) Kater recanted his earlier accusations to some extent. In any case, Orff's assertion that he had been anti-Nazi during the war was accepted by the American denazification authorities, who changed his previous category of \"gray unacceptable\" to \"gray acceptable\", enabling him to continue to compose for public presentation, and to enjoy the royalties that the popularity of \"Carmina Burana\" had earned for him.", "Most of Orff's later works – \"Antigonae\" (1949), (\"Oedipus the Tyrant\", 1958), \"Prometheus\" (1968), and (\"Play on the End of Times\", 1971) – were based on texts or topics from antiquity. They extend the language of \"Carmina Burana\" in interesting ways, but they are expensive to stage and (on Orff's own admission) are not operas in the conventional sense. Live performances of them have been few, even in Germany.", "Orff was a Roman Catholic. He was married four times: to Alice Solscher (m. 1920, div. 1925), Gertrud Willert (m. 1939, div. 1953), Luise Rinser (m. 1954, div. 1959) and Liselotte Schmitz (m. 1960). His only child Godela (1921–2013) was from his first marriage. She has described her relationship with her father as having been difficult at times. \"He had his life and that was that,\" she tells Tony Palmer in the documentary \"O Fortuna\".", "Orff died of cancer in Munich in 1982 at the age of 86. He had lived through four epochs: the German Empire, the Weimar Republic, Nazi Germany and the post World War II West German Bundesrepublik. Orff was buried in the Baroque church of the beer-brewing Benedictine priory of Andechs, southwest of Munich. His tombstone bears his name, his dates of birth and death, and the Latin inscription (the Ultimate End), which is taken from the end of.", "", "Orff is best known for \"Carmina Burana\" (1936), a \"scenic cantata\". It is the first part of a trilogy that also includes \"Catulli Carmina\" and \"Trionfo di Afrodite\". \"Carmina Burana\" reflected his interest in medieval German poetry. The trilogy as a whole is called \"Trionfi\", or \"Triumphs\". The composer described it as the celebration of the triumph of the human spirit through sexual and holistic balance. The work was based on thirteenth-century poetry found in a manuscript dubbed the \"Codex latinus monacensis\" found in the Benedictine monastery of Benediktbeuern in 1803 and written by the Goliards; this collection is also known as \"Carmina Burana\". While \"modern\" in some of his compositional techniques, Orff was able to capture the spirit of the medieval period in this trilogy, with infectious rhythms and simple harmonies. The medieval poems, written in Latin and an early form of German, are often racy, but without descending into smut. \"Fortuna Imperatrix Mundi\", commonly known as \"O Fortuna\", from \"Carmina Burana\", is often used to denote primal forces, for example in the Oliver Stone film \"The Doors\". The work's association with fascism also led Pier Paolo Pasolini to use the movement \"Veris leta facies\" to accompany the concluding scenes of torture and murder in his final film \"Salò, or the 120 Days of Sodom\". With the success of \"Carmina Burana\", Orff disowned all of his previous works except for \"Catulli Carmina\" and the \"Entrata\" (an orchestration of \"The Bells\" by William Byrd (1539–1623)), which he rewrote. Later on, however, many of these earlier works were released (some even with Orff's approval). \"Carmina Burana\" was so popular that Orff received a commission in Frankfurt to compose incidental music for \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\", which was supposed to replace the banned music by Mendelssohn. After several performances of this music, he claimed not to be satisfied with it, and reworked it into the final version that was first performed in 1964. About his \"Antigonae\" (1949), Orff said specifically that it was not an opera but rather a \"Vertonung\", a \"musical setting\", of the ancient tragedy. The text is a German translation by Friedrich Hölderlin of the Sophocles play of the same name. The orchestration relies heavily on the percussion section and is otherwise fairly simple. It has been labelled by some as minimalistic, a term which is most pertinent in terms of the melodic line. Orff's last work, \"De temporum fine comoedia\" (\"Play on the End of Times\"), had its premiere at the Salzburg Festival on August 20, 1973, and was performed by Herbert von Karajan and the WDR Symphony Orchestra Cologne and Chorus. In this highly personal work, Orff presented a mystery play, sung in Greek, German, and Latin, in which he summarized his view of the end of time. \"Gassenhauer\", \"Hexeneinmaleins\", and \"Passion\", which Orff composed with Gunild Keetman, were used as theme music for Terrence Malick's film \"Badlands\" (1973).", "In pedagogical circles he is probably best remembered for his \"Schulwerk\" (\"School Work\"). Originally a set of pieces composed and published for the \"Güntherschule\" (which had students ranging from 12 to 22), this title was also used for his books based on radio broadcasts in Bavaria in 1949. These pieces are collectively called \"Musik für Kinder\" (\"Music for Children\"), and also use the term \"Schulwerk\", and were written in collaboration with his former pupil, composer and educator Gunild Keetman, who actually wrote most of the settings and arrangements in the \"Musik für Kinder\" (\"Music for Children\") volumes. The \"Music for Children\" volumes were not designed to be performance pieces for the average child. Many of the parts are challenging for teachers to play. They were designed as examples of pieces that show the use of ostinati, bordun, and appropriate texts for children. Teachers using the volumes are encouraged to simplify the pieces, to write original texts for the pieces and to modify the instrumentation to adapt to the teacher's classroom situation. Orff's ideas were developed, together with Gunild Keetman, into a very innovative approach to music education for children, known as the \"Orff Schulwerk\". The music is elemental and combines movement, singing, playing, and improvisation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Concepts.", "Initiator.", "Target.", "Storage array.", "Software target.", "Logical unit number.", "Network booting.", "Addressing.", "iSNS.", "Security.", "Authentication.", "Logical network isolation.", "Physical network isolation.", "Authorization.", "Confidentiality and integrity.", "Implementations.", "Operating systems.", "Targets.", "Converters and bridges." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In essence, iSCSI allows two hosts to negotiate and then exchange SCSI commands using Internet Protocol (IP) networks. By doing this, iSCSI takes a popular high-performance local storage bus and emulates it over a wide range of networks, creating a storage area network (SAN). Unlike some SAN protocols, iSCSI requires no dedicated cabling; it can be run over existing IP infrastructure. As a result, iSCSI is often seen as a low-cost alternative to Fibre Channel, which requires dedicated infrastructure except in its FCoE (Fibre Channel over Ethernet) form. However, the performance of an iSCSI SAN deployment can be severely degraded if not operated on a dedicated network or subnet (LAN or VLAN), due to competition for a fixed amount of bandwidth. Although iSCSI can communicate with arbitrary types of SCSI devices, system administrators almost always use it to allow servers (such as database servers) to access disk volumes on storage arrays. iSCSI SANs often have one of two objectives:", "An \"initiator\" functions as an iSCSI client. An initiator typically serves the same purpose to a computer as a SCSI bus adapter would, except that, instead of physically cabling SCSI devices (like hard drives and tape changers), an iSCSI initiator sends SCSI commands over an IP network. An initiator falls into two broad types: A software initiator uses code to implement iSCSI. Typically, this happens in a kernel-resident device driver that uses the existing network card (NIC) and network stack to emulate SCSI devices for a computer by speaking the iSCSI protocol. Software initiators are available for most popular operating systems and are the most common method of deploying iSCSI. A hardware initiator uses dedicated hardware, typically in combination with firmware running on that hardware, to implement iSCSI. A hardware initiator mitigates the overhead of iSCSI and TCP processing and Ethernet interrupts, and therefore may improve the performance of servers that use iSCSI. An iSCSI host bus adapter (more commonly, HBA) implements a hardware initiator. A typical HBA is packaged as a combination of a Gigabit (or 10 Gigabit) Ethernet network interface controller, some kind of TCP/IP offload engine (TOE) technology and a SCSI bus adapter, which is how it appears to the operating system. An iSCSI HBA can include PCI option ROM to allow booting from an iSCSI SAN. An \"iSCSI offload engine\", or \"iSOE card\", offers an alternative to a full iSCSI HBA. An iSOE \"offloads\" the iSCSI initiator operations for this particular network interface from the host processor, freeing up CPU cycles for the main host applications. iSCSI HBAs or iSOEs are used when the additional performance enhancement justifies the additional expense of using an HBA for iSCSI, rather than using a software-based iSCSI client (initiator). iSOE may be implemented with additional services such as TCP offload engine (TOE) to further reduce host server CPU usage.", "The iSCSI specification refers to a storage resource located on an iSCSI server (more generally, one of potentially many \"instances\" of iSCSI storage nodes running on that server) as a \"target\". An iSCSI target is often a dedicated network-connected hard disk storage device, but may also be a general-purpose computer, since as with initiators, software to provide an iSCSI target is available for most mainstream operating systems. Common deployment scenarios for an iSCSI target include:", "In a data center or enterprise environment, an iSCSI target often resides in a large storage array. These arrays can be in the form of commodity hardware with free-software-based iSCSI implementations, or as commercial products such as in Quantastor, CloudByte, StorTrends, Pure Storage, HP StorageWorks, EqualLogic, Tegile Systems, Nimble storage, Reduxio, IBM Storwize family, Isilon, NetApp filer, Dell EMC, Kaminario, NS-series, CX4, VNX, VNXe, VMAX, Hitachi Data Systems HNAS, or Pivot3 vSTAC. A storage array usually provides distinct iSCSI targets for numerous clients.", "Nearly all modern mainstream server operating systems (such as BSD, Linux, Solaris or Windows Server) can provide iSCSI target functionality, either as a built-in feature or with supplemental software. Some specific-purpose operating systems implement iSCSI target support.", "In SCSI terminology, LUN stands for \"logical unit\", which are specified by unique \"logical unit numbers\". A LUN represents an individually addressable (logical) SCSI device that is part of a physical SCSI device (target). In an iSCSI environment, LUNs are essentially numbered disk drives. An initiator negotiates with a target to establish connectivity to a LUN; the result is an iSCSI connection that emulates a connection to a SCSI hard disk. Initiators treat iSCSI LUNs the same way as they would a raw SCSI or IDE hard drive; for instance, rather than mounting remote directories as would be done in NFS or CIFS environments, iSCSI systems format and directly manage filesystems on iSCSI LUNs. In enterprise deployments, LUNs usually represent subsets of large RAID disk arrays, often allocated one per client. iSCSI imposes no rules or restrictions on multiple computers sharing individual LUNs; it leaves shared access to a single underlying filesystem as a task for the operating system.", "For general data storage on an already-booted computer, any type of generic network interface may be used to access iSCSI devices. However, a generic consumer-grade network interface is not able to boot a diskless computer from a remote iSCSI data source. Instead, it is commonplace for a server to load its initial operating system from a TFTP server or local boot device, and then use iSCSI for data storage once booting from the local device has finished. A separate DHCP server may be configured to assist interfaces equipped with network boot capability to be able to boot over iSCSI. In this case, the network interface looks for a DHCP server offering a PXE or bootp boot image. This is used to kick off the iSCSI remote boot process, using the booting network interface's MAC address to direct the computer to the correct iSCSI boot target. One can then use a software-only approach to load a small boot program which can in turn mount a remote iSCSI target as if it was a local SCSI drive and then fire the boot process from said iSCSI target. This can be achieved using an existing Preboot Execution Environment (PXE) boot ROM, which is available on many wired Ethernet adapters. The boot code can also be loaded from CD/DVD, floppy disk (or floppy disk image) and USB storage, or it can replace existing PXE boot code on adapters that can be re-flashed. The most popular free software to offer iSCSI boot support is iPXE. Most Intel Ethernet controllers for servers support iSCSI boot.", "iSCSI uses TCP (typically TCP ports 860 and 3260) for the protocols itself, with higher-level names used to address the objects within the protocol. Special names refer to both iSCSI initiators and targets. iSCSI provides three name-formats: IQN format addresses occur most commonly. They are qualified by a date (yyyy-mm) because domain names can expire or be acquired by another entity. The IEEE Registration authority provides EUI in accordance with the EUI-64 standard. NAA is part OUI which is provided by the IEEE Registration Authority. NAA name formats were added to iSCSI in RFC 3980, to provide compatibility with naming conventions used in Fibre Channel and Serial Attached SCSI (SAS) storage technologies. Usually, an iSCSI participant can be defined by three or four fields:", "iSCSI initiators can locate appropriate storage resources using the Internet Storage Name Service (iSNS) protocol. In theory, iSNS provides iSCSI SANs with the same management model as dedicated Fibre Channel SANs. In practice, administrators can satisfy many deployment goals for iSCSI without using iSNS.", "", "iSCSI initiators and targets prove their identity to each other using CHAP, which includes a mechanism to prevent cleartext passwords from appearing on the wire. By itself, CHAP is vulnerable to dictionary attacks, spoofing, and reflection attacks. If followed carefully, the best practices for using CHAP within iSCSI reduce the surface for these attacks and mitigate the risks. Additionally, as with all IP-based protocols, IPsec can operate at the network layer. The iSCSI negotiation protocol is designed to accommodate other authentication schemes, though interoperability issues limit their deployment.", "To ensure that only valid initiators connect to storage arrays, administrators most commonly run iSCSI only over logically isolated backchannel networks. In this deployment architecture, only the management ports of storage arrays are exposed to the general-purpose internal network, and the iSCSI protocol itself is run over dedicated network segments or virtual LANs (VLAN). This mitigates authentication concerns; unauthorized users are not physically provisioned for iSCSI, and thus cannot talk to storage arrays. However, it also creates a transitive trust problem, in that a single compromised host with an iSCSI disk can be used to attack storage resources for other hosts.", "While iSCSI can be logically isolated from the general network using VLANs only, it is still no different from any other network equipment and may use any cable or port as long as there is a completed signal path between source and target. Just a single cabling mistake by a network technician can compromise the barrier of logical separation, and an accidental bridging may not be immediately detected because it does not cause network errors. In order to further differentiate iSCSI from the regular network and prevent cabling mistakes when changing connections, administrators may implement self-defined color-coding and labeling standards, such as only using yellow-colored cables for the iSCSI connections and only blue cables for the regular network, and clearly labeling ports and switches used only for iSCSI. While iSCSI could be implemented as just a VLAN cluster of ports on a large multi-port switch that is also used for general network usage, the administrator may instead choose to use physically separate switches dedicated to iSCSI VLANs only, to further prevent the possibility of an incorrectly connected cable plugged into the wrong port bridging the logical barrier.", "Because iSCSI aims to consolidate storage for many servers into a single storage array, iSCSI deployments require strategies to prevent unrelated initiators from accessing storage resources. As a pathological example, a single enterprise storage array could hold data for servers variously regulated by the Sarbanes–Oxley Act for corporate accounting, HIPAA for health benefits information, and PCI DSS for credit card processing. During an audit, storage systems must demonstrate controls to ensure that a server under one regime cannot access the storage assets of a server under another. Typically, iSCSI storage arrays explicitly map initiators to specific target LUNs; an initiator authenticates not to the storage array, but to the specific storage asset it intends to use. However, because the target LUNs for SCSI commands are expressed both in the iSCSI negotiation protocol and in the underlying SCSI protocol, care must be taken to ensure that access control is provided consistently.", "For the most part, iSCSI operates as a cleartext protocol that provides no cryptographic protection for data in motion during SCSI transactions. As a result, an attacker who can listen in on iSCSI Ethernet traffic can: These problems do not occur only with iSCSI, but rather apply to any SAN protocol without cryptographic security. IP-based security protocols, such as IPsec, can provide standards-based cryptographic protection to this traffic.", "", "The dates in the following table denote the first appearance of a native driver in each operating system. Third-party drivers for Windows and Linux were available as early as 2001, specifically for attaching IBM's IP Storage 200i appliance.", "Most iSCSI targets involve disk, though iSCSI tape and medium-changer targets are popular as well. So far, physical devices have not featured native iSCSI interfaces on a component level. Instead, devices with Parallel SCSI or Fibre Channel interfaces are bridged by using iSCSI target software, external bridges, or controllers internal to the device enclosure. Alternatively, it is possible to virtualize disk and tape targets. Rather than representing an actual physical device, an emulated virtual device is presented. The underlying implementation can deviate drastically from the presented target as is done with virtual tape library (VTL) products. VTLs use disk storage for storing data written to virtual tapes. As with actual physical devices, virtual targets are presented by using iSCSI target software, external bridges, or controllers internal to the device enclosure. In the security products industry, some manufacturers use an iSCSI RAID as a target, with the initiator being either an IP-enabled encoder or camera.", "Multiple systems exist that allow Fibre Channel, SCSI and SAS devices to be attached to an IP network for use via iSCSI. They can be used to allow migration from older storage technologies, access to SANs from remote servers and the linking of SANs over IP networks. An iSCSI gateway bridges IP servers to Fibre Channel SANs. The TCP connection is terminated at the gateway, which is implemented on a Fibre Channel switch or as a standalone appliance." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1957–1969: Celtics dynasty.", "1970–1979: Decade of parity.", "1980–1990: Celtics–Lakers rivalry and the Bad Boys.", "1991–1998: Bulls dynasty.", "1999–2010: Lakers' & Spurs' dominance.", "2011–2014: Heat wave.", "2015–present: Warriors dynasty.", "Sponsorship.", "Team records.", "Finals appearances.", "Active franchises with no Finals appearances." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Boston Celtics went 11–1 in the NBA Finals during 12 seasons (1956–57 to 1968–69). They won eight straight NBA championships from 1959 through 1966. This period marks the largest stretch of seasons that a single team made up over 65% of Finals appearances, and also includes the only ever time the NBA Finals was decided in double overtime. With the establishment of the Celtics dynasty in 1957, spearheaded by center Bill Russell, the team saw great success. Despite encountering some difficulty when up", "The 1970s saw eight teams win the title, with the Celtics and New York Knicks winning twice. In 1970, a classic final featured the Knicks against the Lakers. In the waning moments of Game 3, with the series tied, Jerry West hit a basket from 60 feet to tie the game, a shot which became one of the most famous ever. However, the Knicks won in overtime and continued their momentum for a 4–3 win, becoming the first team after the Celtics dynasty to win an NBA championship. The Milwaukee Bucks also won their first title, defeating the Baltimore Bullets in 1971. Two seasons after losing in the Finals, the Lakers won 33 straight games, the longest such streak in NBA history. By season's end, they broke the record for most wins in a season with 69, one more than the 1966–67", "Between 1980 and 1990, the Celtics, 76ers, Lakers, or the Detroit Pistons won every NBA Finals. From 1980 to 1990, the Lakers won five titles (1980, 1982, 1985, 1987, and 1988); the Celtics won three (1981, 1984, and 1986); the Pistons won twice (1989 and 1990); and the 76ers won once (1983). The 1979 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship Game featured Magic Johnson's Michigan State University team facing off against Larry Bird's Indiana State University team. This meeting has been immortalized as the beginning of the Lakers and Celtics rivalry of the 1980s, which pitted those two NBA teams represented respectively by Johnson and Bird. It also attracted the largest TV rating ever for an NCAA Championship game, as 38 percent of all television viewers that night tuned in. Bird had actually been drafted the year before, but later decided to stay an additional year, and the", "The majority of the 1990s was marked by the supremacy of the Chicago Bulls. The Bulls, led by head coach Phil Jackson and star players Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen, won six titles in six Finals appearances from 1991 to 1998. The only other team to win a title during this time was the Houston Rockets who won titles in 1994 and 1995, during Jordan's first retirement from professional basketball. The first championship came at the expense of the Los Angeles Lakers, which also saw the last appearance in the Finals for Magic Johnson. Billed as a showdown between the aging Johnson and the upstart Jordan, the Lakers won the first game, 93–91. For the rest of the series, Pippen guarded Johnson, allowing Jordan a free scoring, and Chicago won the next four games. The Bulls returned to the Finals the", "The Los Angeles Lakers and San Antonio Spurs combined to win nine NBA Championships during this period. The Spurs were responsible for winning four championships during this time, in 1999, 2003, 2005, and 2007. In the 1999 NBA Playoffs, the Spurs finished with a 15–2 mark, including sweeps of the Blazers and Lakers. With a defensive squad led by David Robinson and Tim Duncan, San Antonio's 84.7 points allowed per game was the fewest average points allowed in the postseason in the last 30 years. In the Finals that year, the Spurs held the New York Knicks, the first #8 seed team to reach the finals in NBA history, to an average of 79.8 points per game. During the 2003 NBA Finals, the Spurs defeated the New Jersey Nets in 6", "During the 2010 off-season, the Miami Heat re-signed team captain Dwyane Wade and added free agents LeBron James and Chris Bosh to form their Big Three. The Heat were then considered the favorites by many to win multiple championships. They appeared in the next four finals, winning two in 2012 and 2013. The Heat's second appearance in the Finals came in 2011, where they were pitted against the Dallas Mavericks in a rematch of the finals from five years earlier. The Mavericks, led by Dirk Nowitzki, Jason Terry, Tyson Chandler, and Jason Kidd, won the series 4–2, with Nowitzki being named the Finals MVP. The Heat returned to the finals in the following year against an Oklahoma City Thunder team featuring future MVPs Russell Westbrook, James Harden, and 3-time NBA scoring leader Kevin Durant. After the Thunder won Game 1 at home, the Heat won four straight games to win the series 4–1, becoming the first team to win a championship after trailing in", "The Cleveland Cavaliers and Golden State Warriors met in every NBA Finals between 2015 and 2018, becoming the first two teams to meet in four consecutive Finals. Previously, no two teams have appeared in more than two consecutive finals. After the 2014 Finals, LeBron James became a free agent and returned to the Cleveland Cavaliers where he teamed up with Kyrie Irving. The Cavs also traded for Kevin Love to form a new \"Big Three\" in Cleveland. In the 2015 postseason, the defending champion Spurs were eliminated in the first round while the other 2014 finalist Heat failed to qualify for the playoffs. Golden State, spearheaded by 2014–15 MVP Stephen Curry, achieved a 67–15 record and managed to take the West, while the Cavs won the East as James, along with James Jones who played for both the Heat and", "As part of a multiyear partnership that began in 2018,", "", "The statistics below refer to series wins and", "(*) As a result of the original franchise's relocation to New Orleans, the NBA team in Charlotte suspended operations for the 2002–03 and the 2003–04 seasons, before a new team, named the Bobcats, was established" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Schauman's life.", "Assassination.", "Aftermath.", "Schauman's legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Eugen Schauman was born to Swedish-speaking Finnish parents Waldemar, a general-lieutenant in the Imperial Russian army, a Privy Councillor and senator in the Finnish Government, and Elin Maria Schauman in Kharkov, Russian Empire (now Kharkiv, Ukraine). His brother Rafael was born in 1873 and his sister Sigrid in 1877. Schauman's patriotism is rumoured to have been awakened in his childhood when his mother used to read him \"The Tales of Ensign Stål\" by Johan Ludvig Runeberg. The tales were combined with his yearning for home since the family was forced to travel because of his father's work. Before the assassination Schauman worked as a clerk in the Senate of Finland. Schauman also arranged a series of marksmanship courses for local students in Helsinki. These courses later became a part of the White Guards.", "The assassination of Bobrikov was a topical question among the Finnish activists of the time. Other activist groups are known to have planned an assassination but Schauman convinced them to give him two weeks before they would intervene. When Bobrikov came to the Senate house on 16 June, Schauman shot him three times, and then himself twice in the chest, using a FN Browning M1900 pistol, with specially handloaded explosive bullets. Schauman died instantly. Two of the bullets that hit Bobrikov ricocheted off his decoration, but the third bounced back from his buckle and caused severe damage to his stomach. Bobrikov died the same night in the Helsinki surgical hospital.", "Schauman left a letter in which he stated that he justified his actions as a punishment for Bobrikov's crimes against the people of Finland. He addressed the letter to the Tsar and wanted him to pay attention to the problems in the whole of the Russian empire, especially in Poland and the Baltic Sea region. He also claimed he had acted alone and emphasized that his family was not involved in the assassination. Schauman's body was taken to an unmarked grave in the Malmi cemetery in Helsinki. After the political situation eased up he was reburied in the Schauman family grave in the Porvoo cemetery and a monument was built on the grave.", "Schauman became something of an icon for the resistance to Imperial Russia and many Finns still consider him a hero. His fame can be characterized by his ranking as the 34th greatest Finn of all time in the Suuret suomalaiset (Greatest Finns) television poll. In the place of the assassination in the hallway of the Council of State there is a memorial plaque that states \"Se Pro Patria Dedit\" (he gave himself for his country). Jean Sibelius composed the funeral march \"In Memoriam\" in memory of him." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Formation.", "The Scheepers era (1989–1995).", "\"Land of the Free\" to \"Majestic\" (1995–2006).", "\"Land of the Free II\" to \"Empire of the Undead\", and additional vocalist (2007-present).", "Members.", "Cover songs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In 1988, after four years with the German power metal band Helloween, guitarist and songwriter Kai Hansen decided, for reasons that are still the subject of much debate, to leave the group. Hansen claimed that Helloween had become too big for him to handle, although the group's troubles with financial issues and their record company, Noise Records, most likely played a part as well. He proceeded to do some studio work with German power metal band Blind Guardian and in 1989 decided to form his own project with long-time friend Ralf Scheepers, former vocalist of the band Tyran Pace. This two-man project grew into a four-man band with the addition of Uwe Wessel on bass and Mathias Burchardt on drums. This was the first line-up of Gamma Ray, bearing a sound understandably close to that of Helloween of that period.", "The original line-up released the album \"Heading for Tomorrow\" in February 1990 and later that year the \"Heaven Can Wait EP\", with new guitarist Dirk Schlächter and new drummer Uli Kusch. In February 1991, the band began rehearsing for the recording of their second album in a small, remote house in Denmark. With some brand new songs written, Gamma Ray entered the studio under the supervision of producer Tommy Newton and recorded their second album \"Sigh No More\", which was released in September 1991. The style differed vastly from that of \"Heading for Tomorrow\", featuring darker lyrics inspired by the Persian Gulf War that was raging at the time. A 50-date worldwide tour followed. After the Japanese tour at the beginning of 1991, Gamma Ray underwent another personnel change: the rhythm section (Wessel and Kusch) left due to a personal disagreement and were replaced by Jan Rubach (bass) and Thomas Nack (drums), both from the Hamburg band Anesthesia. The band also began to build their own studio, so work on their new album did not start until 1993. The album \"Insanity and Genius\" was released in June 1993, with a style which was closer to that of \"Heading for Tomorrow\" than \"Sigh No More\". In September 1993 Gamma Ray, along with Rage, Helicon and Conception, embarked on the Melodic Metal Strikes Back tour. The tour contributed to the release of the double CD \"Power of Metal\", and the videos \"Power of Metal\" and \"Lust for Live\", in December.", "More changes in the lineup were to follow for Gamma Ray. Vocalist Ralf Scheepers, who lived far away from the other band members hometown of Hamburg, was attempting to become the new Judas Priest singer after Rob Halford left. He felt that his position in the band had been strained due to the distance between him and the other members. Hansen and Scheepers agreed to an amicable departure. After failing to be recruited for Judas Priest, Scheepers started his own band, Primal Fear. Hansen then began to search for a new vocalist but, due to demand from friends and fans, took on the guitar-vocal duties himself as he had done for Helloween's first EP and album. In a 2008 interview, Hansen spoke about the importance of the Land of the Free album and what it represented: \"We made it exactly at a time point when this kind of metal was proclaimed to be dead as can be. Where it was almost like if a drummer came up with a double bass drum people would say ‘ ya dooga daga yourself out of here man.’ Everything was ruled by Kurt Cobain and the alternative to the alternative and all that kind of stuff. So at that point we made an album like this and it went down very successful. That was cool, that was something special. I think it was the album that gave Gamma Ray the acceptance as being a band not only a Kai Hansen project.\" In 1995 the fourth album, \"Land of the Free\", the first to feature Hansen on vocals, was released. The album was praised by critics and fans alike. The tour following the album, \"Men on a Tour\", brought the recording and release of the live album \"Alive '95\" in 1996. Soon after, there was yet another major lineup change. Jan Rubach and Thomas Nack both left in order to return to Anesthesia and in came new drummer Dan Zimmermann. Zimmerman is also known for being a founding member of the German power metal band Freedom Call. Schlächter, who was originally a bass player, as can be seen on the 1990 video \"Heading for the East\", left the second guitar spot and took back his original instrument, being replaced on guitar by Henjo Richter. Work started on the next full-length album, and 1997 saw the release of \"Somewhere Out in Space\", which marked the beginning of the band's thematic concentration on space. The album featured the hit \"Valley of the Kings\" and entered in the charts of many European countries. After two years of touring came the album \"Power Plant\", which was a continuation of \"Somewhere Out in Space\"'s lyrical approach, but a new direction musically. The album was highly acclaimed throughout the world and gained even more chart success than its predecessor. For Gamma Ray's next work, Hansen decided to do things differently from the usual compilation of songs. He let the fans decide by voting on their website for their three favorite songs on each album, then the band went back to the studio to re-record the old tracks from the first three albums and made remixed versions for the songs on the later ones. \"Blast from the Past\" was the name chosen for this double album. After a break of one year, when Hansen concentrated on his side project Iron Savior, the band was ready for the recording and release of the album \"No World Order\", which was stylistically similar to NWOBHM bands such as Iron Maiden and Judas Priest. Again, the album was highly praised and the \"No Order World Tour\" saw the band visiting dozens of European countries and Japan. After resting from the tour, the band went on with the \"Skeletons in the Closet\" tour, which saw the band performing songs that they never or rarely played live before. Once again, the setlist was voted by the fans on the band's website. Only a few shows were played on this tour but two of those were recorded for the live album \"Skeletons in the Closet\". Kai Hansen and Henjo Richter also participated in Tobias Sammet's project Avantasia, on both The Metal Opera and The Metal Opera Part II, along with various other musicians including Hansen's former bandmates from Helloween, Markus Grosskopf and Michael Kiske. A live DVD, \"Hell Yeah - The Awesome Foursome (And The Finnish Keyboarder Who Didn't Want To Wear His Donald Duck Costume) Live in Montreal\" was recorded on May 6, 2006 at Le Medley in Montreal, Quebec. The setlist contained songs drawn from all of their albums up to \"Majestic\" (excluding \"Insanity and Genius\") and also a cover of the Helloween hit \"I Want Out\". The DVD finally saw release on November 4, 2008. It entered the German media control charts at No. 9 and the Swedish charts at No. 1, according to the band's official website.", "In recent years, Gamma Ray have made use of touring keyboard players to fully augment their sound in a live environment. Axel Mackenrott of Masterplan fulfilled these duties in the past and was followed by Eero Kaukomies, a Finn who also plays in a Gamma Ray tribute band named Guardians of Mankind. His bandmate Kasperi Heikkinen also played on part of the \"Majestic\" tour in 2006 following an injury to Henjo Richter. On their most recent \"To The Metal\" tour, Kasperi Heikkinen replaced Henjo Richter once again for shows scheduled in Germany and Czech Republic in March 2010. Richter was hospitalized on March 16, 2010 due to retinal detachment. Heikkinen also shared stage with fellow axemen Hansen and Richter making \"a three guitar special\" for the encore numbers at the Nosturi club in Helsinki, Finland on March 29, 2010. \"Land of the Free II\" was released in late 2007 as a sequel to the hugely successful \"Land of the Free\" album. To promote the album, Gamma Ray were the \"very special guest\" on Helloween's Hellish Rock 2007/2008 World Tour, on some shows along with the band Axxis. For the final encores of the evening, Hansen and members of Gamma Ray joined Helloween to play a couple of songs from when he was in the latter band. Hansen would also regularly join Helloween co-founder Michael Weikath at center stage to the delight of fans of both bands. \"To the Metal!\" was released as the tenth full-length studio album by the band. It was released on January 29, 2010 to modest critical praise, but disappointed some fans, who felt that it was uninspired and a weaker effort than \"Land of the Free II\". On May 31, 2011, Gamma Ray released an EP entitled \"Skeletons and Majesties\". It contains newly recorded, rarely played material (Skeletons) and acoustic versions of other older songs (Majesties). Hansen stated in an interview in February 2012 that he expected the next Gamma Ray album to be released in January 2013. On September 1, 2012, the band announced Michael Ehré as their new drummer, replacing Daniel Zimmermann after 15 years of band activity. Kai Hansen revealed, in an interview with \"Metal Blast\" in April 2013 that their eleventh album, \"Empire of the Undead\" would have a \"more thrashy\" sound. In the same interview, Dirk Schlächter announced that the band would do a headlining tour following its release. \"Empire of the Undead\" was released in March 2014, despite Gamma Ray's studio being completely destroyed by a fire. In October 2015, it was announced that Frank Beck would be a new lead vocalist of Gamma Ray, in addition to Hansen. This was due to Hansen's degrading vocals due to lengthy tour schedules, as well as Hansen's desire to have more freedom onstage. On 10 August 2017, the band announced that they would be releasing a 25th anniversary edition of \"Land of the Free\".", "Current members Former members Guest studio musicians Guest live musicians", "Gamma Ray have covered numerous bands and musicians during their career, including, but not limited to:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battle.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "After their defeats around Munda on New Georgia and at sea in the Battle of Vella Gulf, the Japanese began evacuating their garrisons in the central Solomons. Following the Battle off Horaniu, a staging post had been established at Horaniu on the north coast of Vella Lavella for the evacuation barges. After the Allies secured New Georgia in August, the Japanese withdrew the bulk of their forces to Kolombangara. Rather than directly assaulting this force, the Allies decided to bypass Kolombangara. Troops from the US and New Zealand subsequently landed on Vella Lavella in mid-August and began clearing the coastal areas, pushing the Japanese towards the northwest shore. The barge depot around Horaniu was captured by US forces, and by early October 1943, only 600 Japanese soldiers remained. The garrison was hemmed into a small pocket around Marquana Bay, where they were surrounded by troops from the New Zealand 14th Brigade. Following the evacuation of Kolombangara, the next major island in the New Georgia chain, lying between New Georgia and Vella Lavella, the Japanese decided to withdraw the troops stranded on Vella Lavella. On 6 October, an assortment of 20 auxiliary ships (including subchasers, barges and other small vessels) under Captain Shigoroku Nakayama, was dispatched from Buin, on Bougainville Island, to rescue them. A force of three older destroyer-transports—,, and —escorted by six modern fully combat-ready destroyers—,,,,, and —was dispatched from Rabaul under Rear Admiral Matsuji Ijuin to cover the evacuation.", "On the evening 6–7 October, the Japanese destroyer force under Ijuin, was cruising northwest of Vella Lavella. Earlier, Ijuin had detached the three destroyer-transports along with \"Shigure\" and \"Samidare\" to proceed towards Marquana Bay. In response US Admiral Theodore Stark Wilkinson, commanding the US amphibious forces assigned to the New Georgia campaign, hurriedly rerouted two groups of three destroyers each to attempt to disrupt the evacuation. Only the first group, arrived in time to engage in combat. At 22:30 the Japanese spotted the U.S. force of three destroyers—,, and, commanded by Captain Frank R. Walker—approaching from Vella Gulf. A second division of three U.S. destroyers—,, and —under Captain Harold O. Larson, had been detached from convoy duty further south in the Solomons with orders to join up with Walker. These three additional ships were making speed up the west coast of Vella Lavella towards his division. \"Shigure\" and \"Samidare\" subsequently sought to rejoin the four destroyers under Ijuin, who began battle preparations, while the three destroyer transports began to retire towards the Shortland Islands. Walker did not wait for the three destroyers under Larson to come up, however, and attacked immediately. Both sides launched torpedoes and opened fire at about 23:00. A tactical error by the Japanese commander resulted in his force losing the initial advantage and placing them at close range along the US ships' line of fire. \"Yūgumo\", first in the Japanese line, after charging the US destroyers and firing several torpedoes was hit several times, knocking out her steering. She was finished off by a torpedo and sunk at about 23:10. However, one of her torpedoes hit \"Chevalier\", detonating the forward magazine. \"OBannon\" then collided with the crippled \"Chevalier\", and for some time the two ships were locked together. \"Selfridge\" attacked alone, firing at both \"Shigure\" and \"Samidare\", but was hit by a torpedo at 23:06 and disabled. All three ships were severely damaged, and reinforcements were still 15 minutes away. However, the rest of the Japanese force turned away, after patrol aircraft misidentified the three approaching US destroyers as cruisers. Ijuin ordered his force, and the destroyer transports to withdraw back towards Rabaul, while the auxiliaries completed the evacuation.", "Larson's destroyer division arrived on the scene around 23:35, and subsequently began searching for the departing Japanese destroyers, briefly picking up a radar contact on \"Yugumo\" as she sank. Shortly after midnight, Larson began rescue operations. Wounded were cross loaded from \"Chevalier\" and the crippled ship was scuttled around 03:00 with \"La Vallette\" firing a torpedo into \"Chevalier\"s magazine and then destroying her bow with depth charges. \"Selfridge\" and \"O'Bannon\", however, despite being heavily damaged, remained afloat and were subsequently withdrawn for repairs. The Japanese completed their evacuation mission, with Nakayama's force entering Marquana Bay around 01:10 while American attention was focused on the recovery and departing two hours later, withdrawing 589 troops to Buin, on Bougainville. Casualties during the battle amounted to 67 killed, 47 wounded and 36 missing for the Americans. Of these, 54 were killed on \"Chevalier\" and 13 on \"Selfridge\". Thirty-six were wounded on \"Chevalier\" and 11 on \"Selfridge\". All missing were from the \"Selfridge\". The Japanese lost 138 killed, with about 25 crew being rescued by boats from \"OBannon\", and another 78 by US PT boats. This ended the second phase of Operation Cartwheel—the reduction of the main Japanese base at Rabaul—with the Allied capture of the central Solomons after a three-month campaign that cost the Allies six ships; the Japanese lost seventeen." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Attack on the Rosebud.", "Casualties and aftermath.", "Historic site." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "After their victory in Red Cloud's War and with the signing of the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), the Lakota and their Northern Cheyenne allies were allocated a reservation including the Black Hills, in Dakota Territory and a large area of \"unceded territory\" in what became Montana and Wyoming. Both areas were for the exclusive use of the Indians, and non-Indians (except for US government officials) were forbidden to trespass. In 1874, the discovery of gold in the Black Hills caused the US government to attempt to buy the Black Hills from the Indians. The US ordered all bands of Lakota and Cheyenne to come to the agencies on the reservation by January 31, 1876 to negotiate the sale. A few bands did not comply and when the deadline of January 31 passed the US forced Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, and their followers onto the reservation. The first military expedition against the Indians in March 1876 was a failure, ending in the Battle of Powder River. In June 1876, the US military renewed the fight with a three-pronged invasion of the Bighorn and Powder river country. Colonel John Gibbon led a force from the west; General Alfred Terry (with Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer) came from the east; and General George Crook advanced northward from Fort Fetterman, near present-day Douglas, Wyoming. The objective of the converging columns was to find the Indians and force them onto the reservation. Crook's force, called the Bighorn and Yellowstone Expedition, consisted of 993 cavalry and mule-mounted infantry, 197 civilian packers and teamsters, 65 Montana miners, three scouts, and five journalists. Crook's much-valued chief scout was Frank Grouard. Among the teamsters was Calamity Jane, disguised as a man. Crook left Fort Fetterman on the abandoned Bozeman Trail past the scene of many battles during Red Cloud's War ten years earlier. His force reached the Tongue River near present-day Sheridan, Wyoming on June 8. Crazy Horse warned that he would fight if \"Three Stars\" [Crook] crossed the Tongue and on June 9 the Indians launched a long distance attack, firing into the soldier's camp and wounding two men. Crook and his men waited near the Tongue for several days for Crow and Shoshoni warriors to join his army. 175 Crow and 86 Shoshoni showed up on June 14 with Frank Grouard. They welcomed the opportunity to strike a blow against their old enemies although they warned Crook that the Lakota and Cheyenne were as \"numerous as grass.\" The Shoshoni and Crow were well-armed. Crook had made his reputation as an Indian fighter \"using Indians to catch Indians\" and the Crow and Shoshoni warriors were important to him. On June 16, leaving his wagon and pack train behind with most of the civilians as a guard, Crook and the soldiers, with the Crow and Shoshoni in the lead, advanced northward beyond the Tongue to the headwaters of Rosebud Creek to search for and engage the Lakota and Cheyenne. Each soldier carried four days' rations and 100 rounds of ammunition. Crook's intention to make a quiet march was spoiled when the Crow and Shoshoni encountered a buffalo herd and shot many of them. Crook anticipated that he would soon find a large Indian village on Rosebud Creek to attack, but the Indian village was on Ash Creek, west of Rosebud Creek. Crook also underestimated the determination of his foe. He anticipated the usual Indian tactics of hit-and-run encounters and ambushes, not a pitched battle. The Indian force of almost 1,000 men set out from their village on June 16 in the middle of the night to seek out the soldiers on the Rosebud. They rode all night, rested their horses for a couple of hours, then continued, making contact with Crook's scouts at about 8:30 am, June 17.", "On June 17, 1876, Crook's column marched northward along the south fork of Rosebud Creek. The holiday atmosphere that prevailed since the arrival of the Indian scouts on June 15 was suddenly absent. The soldiers, particularly the mule-riding infantry, were fatigued from the previous day's march and the early morning reveille at 3:00 am. At 8 am, Crook stopped to rest his men and animals. Although deep in hostile territory, Crook made no special dispositions for defense. His troops halted in their marching order. The Crow and Shoshoni scouts remained alert while the soldiers rested. Soldiers in camp began to hear gunfire coming from the bluffs to the north, where the Crow and Shoshoni were positioned, but initially thought it was the Crow shooting buffalo. As the intensity of fire increased, two Crows rushed into the army's resting place shouting, \"Lakota, Lakota!\" By 8:30 am, the Sioux and Cheyenne had hotly engaged Crook's Indian allies on the high ground north of the main body. Heavily outnumbered, the Crow and Shoshoni fell back toward the camp, but their fighting withdrawal gave Crook time to deploy his forces. The battle which ensued would last for six hours and consist of disconnected actions and charges and counter-charges by Crook and Crazy Horse, the two forces spread out over a fluid front three miles wide. The Lakota and Cheyenne were divided into several groups as were the soldiers as the battle progressed. The soldiers could fend off assaults by the Indians and force them to retreat but could not catch and destroy them. Crook initially directed his forces to seize the high ground north and south of the Rosebud Creek. He ordered Captain Van Vliet with two troops of the 3rd Cavalry to occupy the high bluffs south of the Creek to guard against an Indian attack from the direction. In the north, the commands of Major Chambers with two companies of the 4th Infantry and three companies of the 9th Infantry and Captain Noyes with three troops of the 2nd Cavalry, formed a dismounted skirmish line and advanced toward the Lakota. Their progress was slow due to flanking fire from Indians occupying the high ground to the northeast. To accelerate the advance, Crook ordered Captain Anson Mills, commanding six troops of the 3rd Cavalry, to charge the Lakota. Mills' mounted charge unnerved the Indians and they withdrew along the ridge line. Mills quickly re-formed three troops and led another charge, driving the Indians northwest again to the next hill. Preparing to drive the Indians from there, Mills received orders from Crook to cease the advance and assume a defensive posture. Chambers and Noyes led their forces forward in support and within minutes joined Mills on top of the ridge. The bulk of Crook's command, joined by the packers and miners, occupied a hill they called Crook's Hill. Establishing his headquarters there at approximately 9:30 am, Crook considered his next move. During Mills' advance the event occurred that would name the battle for the Cheyenne. A Cheyenne warrior, Comes in Sight, had his horse shot. While fleeing on foot from Mills' advancing soldiers, his sister Buffalo Calf Road Woman (Mutsimiuna) rode to his rescue. Comes in Sight jumped onto her horse and the two successfully escaped. Mills was impressed with the swarming Indians at his front. \"They were the best cavalry soldiers on earth. In charging up toward us they exposed little of their person, hanging on with one arm around the neck and one leg over the horse, firing and lancing from underneath the horses' necks, so that there was no part of the Indian at which we could aim.\" Crook's initial charges secured key terrain but did little damage to the Indians. Assaults scattered the Indians but they did not quit the field. After falling back, the Lakota and Cheyenne kept firing from a distance and attacked several times in small parties. When counterattacked by the soldiers, the warriors sped away on their swift horses. Crook realized his charges were ineffective. Crook believed incorrectly that the unusual tenacity of the Lakota and Cheyenne was based on defense of their families in a nearby village. He ordered Captains Mills and Noyes to withdraw their cavalry from the high ground on Crook's Hill and swing eastward to follow the Rosebud north to find the suspected village. He recalled Van Vliet's battalion from the south side of the Rosebud to reinforce him on Crook's Hill. While Mills and Noyes made their way up the Rosebud, searching for a village that did not exist, the situation of Lt. Colonel William B. Royall, Crook's second in command, had worsened. Royall had pursued the Indians attacking Crook's camp with six companies of cavalry. Royall advanced rapidly along the ridge line to the northwest to a point about one mile away from Crook and separated by the valley of Kolmarr Creek. The Lakota and Cheyenne shifted their main effort away from Crook and concentrated their attacks on Royall, and he was in danger of being cut off from Crook. Seeing this danger, Crook sent orders to Royall to withdraw to Crook's Hill. Royall sent only one company to join Crook, claiming later his forces had been too hotly engaged to withdraw. Royall's situation continued to worsen, and he tried to withdraw his entire command across Kollmar Creek, but the Indians' fire was too heavy. Next, he began to withdraw southeast along the ridge line. A large group of Sioux and Cheyenne broke off from the fight against Crook's main forces and charged boldly down the valley of Kollmar Creek, advancing all the way to the Rosebud. When Captain Guy V. Henry was wounded, his soldiers began to panic, but the Crow and Shoshoni arrived and drove the Lakota and Cheyenne back. Crook also sent two infantry companies to occupy a nearby hill to aid Royall with long-range rifle fire, which kept the Lakota and Cheyenne at a distance. The Lakota and Cheyenne did not attempt any serious attacks on the infantry, respecting the longer range of their rifles as compared to the carbines the cavalry carried. The Crow, Shoshoni, and the two infantry companies probably saved Royall's command from destruction. At approximately 11:30, Royall continued his withdrawal to the southeast and assumed a new defensive position. He was under attack on three sides. From his headquarters, Crook realized that Royall needed help that only Mills' force, which was descending Rosebud Creek two or three miles away, could provide. Crook sent orders to Mills redirecting him to turn west and attack the rear of the Indians pressing Royall. At approximately 12:30, Royall began another withdrawal into the Kollmar ravine. His cavalry remounted and prepared to ride through gunfire to reach the relative safety of Crook's main position. As the US cavalry began their dash, the Crow and Shoshoni scouts counter-charged the pursuing Lakota and Cheyenne and relieved much of the pressure on Royall's men. The two companies of infantry provided covering fire from the northeast side of the ravine. Royall's command suffered most of the U.S. casualties during the battle. Mills arrived too late on the Lakota and Cheyenne flank to assist Royall's withdrawal, but his unexpected appearance caused the Lakota and Cheyenne to break contact and retire from the battlefield. The cavalry pursued the Indians, but soon gave up the chase. The battle of the Rosebud was over about 2:30 pm.", "Estimates of casualties by both the soldiers and the Indians vary widely. Crook said he had 10 killed and 21 wounded. His aide John Gregory Bourke added that 4 of the wounds were mortal and gave total casualties as 57. Frank Grouard said that 28 soldiers were killed and 56 wounded. Estimates of Crow killed range from one to five and Shoshoni from one to eight. The Lakota and Cheyenne casualties are likewise uncertain with estimates of the number killed ranging from 10 to 100. The Crow reportedly took 13 scalps (although scalps might be cut into pieces and divided among warriors). Crazy Horse reportedly later said that the Lakota and Cheyenne casualties were 36 killed and 63 wounded. How he came up with such a precise number is unknown, as it seems unlikely that the Indians compiled a statistical record of the casualties among the eight or so Sioux and Lakota bands plus the Cheyenne and a few Arapaho who participated in the battle. By the standards of the usual hit-and-run raids of the Plains Indians, the Battle of the Rosebud was a long and bloody engagement. The Lakota and Cheyenne fought with persistence and demonstrated a willingness to accept casualties rather than break off the encounter. The delaying action by Crook's Indian allies during the early stages of the battle saved his command from a devastating surprise attack. The intervention of the Crow and Shoshoni scouts throughout the battle was crucial to averting disaster for Crook. Crook claimed victory by virtue of occupying the battlefield at the end of the day, but his actions belie his claim. Concerned for his wounded and short on supplies, Crook retraced his steps to his camp on Goose Creek, near Sheridan, Wyoming, and remained there immobile for seven weeks awaiting reinforcements. He would play no role in the Battle of the Little Bighorn eight days later. Crook's Crow and Shoshoni allies left the army for their homes shortly after the battle. The Lakota and Cheyenne returned to the battlefield after Crook's departure and piled up rocks at the location of key events in the battle. Some of the rock piles they built are still there.", "The battle site is preserved at the Rosebud Battlefield State Park in Big Horn County, Montana. The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972 and was further designated a National Historic Landmark in 2008." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battle.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In mid-1943, in the wake of the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies launched their next offensive in the Solomon Islands, focused upon seizing the major Japanese airstrip at Munda on New Georgia Island. After the fall of Munda on 4–5 August, and defeat in the Battle of Vella Gulf on 6–7 August, the Japanese decided to evacuate their garrisons in the central Solomons, firstly moving to Baanga Island while planning to bring forces south from Rabaul for a potential counterattack. On 15 August, the Allies landed on Vella Lavella, bypassing the main Japanese troop concentration on Kolombangara. To maintain contact with these troops, and ensure their later withdrawal, the Japanese planned to establish a staging base at Horaniu, on the northern tip of Vella Lavella. Commanded by Rear Admiral Matsuji Ijuin, the destroyers,,, and left Rabaul on 17 August to rendezvous with a troop convoy from Buin, on Bougainville. This convoy included 13 barges, four motor torpedo boats, the subchasers \"Cha-12\" and \"Cha-5\", and a \"Soukoutei-class\" armored boat. The troops embarked consisted of two Imperial Japanese Army companies and an Imperial Japanese Navy platoon.", "After the Japanese force was located by Allied reconnaissance aircraft, Admiral Theodore S. Wilkinson, commander of the Third Amphibious Force, dispatched a division of four destroyers from Purvis Bay on Florida Island to intercept them. This force consisted of,,, and, under Captain Thomas J. Ryan. They departed their anchorage at 15:27 on 17 August and began a fast run up the New Georgia Sound, also known as \"The Slot\". When Ryan's destroyers were off the north coast of Kolombangara, lookouts on watch saw a burst of anti-aircraft fire in the distance, giving away the position of the Japanese convoy. Despite a full moon, visibility was limited to due to low lying clouds and intermittent rain showers. However, at about 23:30, the Japanese convoy was attacked by eight AirSols Avenger torpedo bombers, and forced to scatter, although no ships were damaged. Two of the escorts, \"Isokaze\" and \"Shigure\", sailing abreast, began herding the smaller craft back into formation, while \"Sazanami\" and \"Hamakaze\" continued on a northwesterly course. Ryan was advised by the Avengers the Japanese ships were still heading for Vella Lavella, although his destroyers were detected shortly afterwards by a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft, which began circling in preparation for an attack. The convoy was still reforming, when at 00:29 on 18 August, Ryan's radar detected the Japanese destroyers to the northwest, at a range of, then the Japanese barges; at 00:32, Japanese lookouts spotted the U.S. destroyers, which had closed to. The Japanese convoy was still short of its destination, and Ijuin was under orders to avoid decisive engagement. He dispatched two of his destroyers to turn to the north in an effort to lure the U.S. force away from the troop carrying vessels. To conceal his position, Ryan decided not to use his deck guns, and began maneuvering for a torpedo attack on the Japanese destroyers, rather than attacking the barges. This surprised Ijuin who had expected the opposite. Around 00:40, the Japanese aircraft dropped several flares over the U.S. ships, giving away their location, and Ryan turned back to engage the convoy to his east. Ijuin, ordered his ships to begin firing torpedoes six minutes later, loosing 31 between 00:50 and 00:54 at a range of. By making a series of turns to avoid the Japanese barges, the American destroyers unintentionally avoided all 31 torpedoes, and around 00:56, the Japanese gunners opened fire. However, to avoid revealing their position, their searchlights were turned off, and no damage was inflicted on Ryan's destroyers. After a series of turns, the U.S. destroyers opened fire with radar controlled 6-inch guns at 00:58, which damaged \"Hamakaze\", while \"Chevalier\" loosed a salvo of four torpedoes towards \"Shigure\" from a distance of. This attack was unsuccessful. The Japanese ships laid down a smokescreen and began to zigzag to throw off the U.S. gunners' aim. Torpedo attacks by both \"Shigure\" and \"Isokaze\" were also unsuccessful, and was followed by an inaccurate radar report that another U.S. naval force was advancing from the south. Ijuin could not afford to lose any of his destroyers, and after an ineffective long-range exchange of torpedoes and gunfire, he ordered them to withdraw at about 01:00. Ryan's ships kept firing until the Japanese were out of range, then pursued them, moving onto a parallel course, while undertaking evasive maneuvers until 01:11 to avoid any torpedoes that might have been fired. At this time, \"Isokaze\" fired a torpedo salvo from, which failed to score a hit, but in return was damaged by an American 5-inch shell, wounding several sailors. Due to a mechanical fault on \"Chevalier\", the Americans were unable to catch the fast-moving Japanese destroyers, who were withdrawing at. Ryan turned back to locate the troop convoy, but the small craft had taken advantage of the destroyer contest to disperse; although the Americans managed to sink five, the majority subsequently escaped. Harassed by the Japanese reconnaissance aircraft, Ryan's destroyers returned to Tulagi.", "As a result of the battle, a total of five Japanese auxiliary ships were sunk. This included two subchasers, two motor torpedo boats, and one powered barge with an unknown number of personnel killed or injured. In addition, two destroyers, \"Hamakaze\" and \"Isokaze\", were slightly damaged, although this was not significant and both took part in further actions three days later. Despite these losses, the Japanese saved the majority of their barges which spent 18 August quietly lying in hiding along the northern coast of Vella Lavella and were subsequently able to land 390 troops on 19 August. These personnel established a barge base at Horaniu, while Ijuin's force returned to Rabaul believing that they had sunk one U.S. destroyer. The Japanese withdrawal in the central Solomons continued throughout August and September. After Baanga Island was evacuated on 22 August, the Japanese garrison withdrew to Arundel Island, and over the course of a month they fought a series of delaying actions there until late September. Meanwhile, on Vella Lavella, Horaniu fell to Allied forces on 14 September, while the base's 600 personnel were pushed into a small perimeter on the northwestern part of the island. They were withdrawn on the night of 6–7 October, along with almost 10,000 troops that were evacuated from Kolombangara to Choisel and Bougainville." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Writing career.", "Short story phase.", "Posthumously published early novel.", "First novel, \"Other Voices, Other Rooms\".", "Harold Halma photograph.", "Stage, screen, and magazine work.", "\"Breakfast at Tiffany's\".", "\"In Cold Blood\".", "Veracity of \"In Cold Blood\" and other nonfiction.", "Celebrity.", "Last years.", "Death.", "Permanent hometown exhibit.", "Capote on film.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in New Orleans, Louisiana, to Lillie Mae Faulk (1905–1954) and salesman Archulus Persons (1897–1981). His parents divorced when he was four, and he was sent to Monroeville, Alabama, where, for the following four to five years, he was raised by his mother's relatives. He formed a fast bond with his mother's distant relative, Nanny Rumbley Faulk, whom Truman called \"Sook\". \"Her face is remarkable – not unlike Lincoln's, craggy like that, and tinted by sun and wind\", is how Capote described Sook in \"A Christmas Memory\" (1956). In Monroeville, Capote was a neighbor and friend of Harper Lee, who would also go on to become an acclaimed author and a lifelong friend of Capote's. Lee's To Kill A Mockingbird likely models Dill's characterization after Capote. As a lonely child, Capote taught himself to read and write before he entered his first year of school. Capote was often seen at age five carrying his dictionary and notepad, and began writing fiction at age 11. He was given the nickname \"Bulldog\" around this age. On Saturdays, he made trips from Monroeville to the nearby city of Mobile on the Gulf Coast, and at one point submitted a short story, \"Old Mrs. Busybody\", to a children's writing contest sponsored by the \"Mobile Press Register\". Capote received recognition for his early work from The Scholastic Art & Writing Awards in 1936. In 1932, he moved to New York City to live with his mother and her second husband, José García Capote, a bookkeeper from Union de Reyes, Cuba, who adopted him as his son and renamed him Truman García Capote. However, José was convicted of embezzlement and shortly afterwards, when his income crashed, the family was forced to leave Park Avenue. Of his early days, Capote related, \"I was writing really sort of serious when I was about eleven. I say seriously in the sense that like other kids go home and practice the violin or the piano or whatever, I used to go home from school every day, and I would write for about three hours. I was obsessed by it.\" In 1932, he attended the Trinity School in New York City. He then attended St. Joseph Military Academy. In 1939, the Capote family moved to Greenwich, Connecticut, and Truman attended Greenwich High School, where he wrote for both the school's literary journal, \"The Green Witch\", and the school newspaper. When they returned to New York City in 1941, he attended the Franklin School, an Upper West Side private school now known as the Dwight School, and graduated in 1942. That was the end of his formal education. While still attending Franklin in 1942, Capote began working as a copyboy in the art department at \"The New Yorker\", a job he held for two years before being fired for angering poet Robert Frost. Years later, he reflected, \"Not a very grand job, for all it really involved was sorting cartoons and clipping newspapers. Still, I was fortunate to have it, especially since I was determined never to set a studious foot inside a college classroom. I felt that either one was or wasn't a writer, and no combination of professors could influence the outcome. I still think I was correct, at least in my own case.\" He left his job to live with relatives in Alabama and began writing his first novel, \"Summer Crossing\".", "", "Capote began writing short stories from around the age of 8. In 2013, the Swiss publisher Peter Haag discovered 14 unpublished stories, written when Capote was a teenager, in the New York Public Library Archives. Random House published these in 2015, under the title \"The Early Stories of Truman Capote\". Between 1943 and 1946, Capote wrote a continual flow of short fiction, including \"Miriam\", \"My Side of the Matter\", and \"Shut a Final Door\" (for which he won the O. Henry Award in 1948, at the age of 24). His stories were published in both literary quarterlies and well-known popular magazines, including \"The Atlantic Monthly\", \"Harper's Bazaar\", \"Harper's Magazine\", \"Mademoiselle\", \"The New Yorker\", \"Prairie Schooner\", and \"Story\". In June 1945, \"Miriam\" was published by \"Mademoiselle\" and went", "Some time in the 1940s, Capote wrote a novel set in New York City about the summer romance of a socialite and a parking lot attendant. Capote later claimed to have destroyed the manuscript of this novel; but twenty years after his death, in 2004, it came to light that the manuscript had been retrieved from", "The critical success of one of his short stories, \"Miriam\" (1945), attracted the attention of the publisher Bennett Cerf, resulting in a contract with Random House to write a novel. With an advance of $1,500, Capote returned to Monroeville and began \"Other Voices, Other Rooms\", continuing to work on the manuscript in New Orleans, Saratoga Springs, New York, and North Carolina, eventually completing it in Nantucket, Massachusetts. It was published in 1948. Capote described this symbolic tale as \"a poetic explosion in highly suppressed emotion\". The novel is a semi-autobiographical refraction of Capote's Alabama childhood. Decades later, writing in \"The Dogs Bark\" (1973), he commented: The story focuses on 13-year-old Joel Knox", "\"Other Voices, Other Rooms\" made \"The New York Times\" bestseller list and stayed there for nine weeks, selling more than 26,000 copies. The promotion and controversy surrounding this novel catapulted Capote to fame. A 1947 Harold Halma photograph used to promote the book showed a reclining Capote gazing fiercely into the camera. Gerald Clarke, in \"Capote: A Biography\" (1988), wrote, \"The famous photograph: Harold Halma's picture on the dustjacket of \"Other Voices, Other Rooms\" (1948) caused as much comment and controversy as the prose inside. Truman claimed that the camera had caught him off guard, but in fact he had posed himself and was responsible for both the picture and the publicity.\" Much of the early attention to Capote centered on different interpretations of this photograph, which was viewed as a suggestive pose by some. According to Clarke, the photo created an \"uproar\" and gave Capote \"not only the literary, but also the public personality he had always wanted\". The photo made a huge impression on the 20-year-old Andy Warhol, who often talked", "In the early 1950s, Capote took on Broadway and films, adapting his 1951 novella, \"The Grass Harp\", into a 1952 play of the same name (later a 1971 musical and a 1995 film), followed by the musical \"House of Flowers\" (1954), which spawned the song \"A Sleepin' Bee\". Capote co-wrote with John Huston the screenplay for Huston's film \"Beat the Devil\" (1953). Traveling through the Soviet Union with a touring production of \"Porgy and Bess\", he produced", "\"Breakfast at Tiffany's: A Short Novel and Three Stories\" (1958) brought together the title novella and three shorter tales: \"House of Flowers\", \"A Diamond Guitar\" and \"A Christmas Memory\". The heroine of \"Breakfast at Tiffany's\", Holly Golightly, became one of Capote's best known creations, and the book's prose style prompted Norman Mailer to call Capote \"the most perfect writer of my generation\". The novella itself was originally supposed to be published in \"Harper's Bazaar's\" July 1958 issue, several months before its publication in book form by Random House. The publisher of Harper's Bazaar, the Hearst Corporation, began demanding changes to Capote's tart language,", "The \"new book\", \"In Cold Blood: A True Account of a Multiple Murder and Its Consequences\" (1965), was inspired by a 300 word article that ran in the November 16, 1959 \"The New York Times\". The story described the unexplained murder of the Clutter family in rural Holcomb, Kansas, and quoted the local sheriff as saying, \"This is apparently the case of a psychopathic killer.\" Fascinated by this brief news item, Capote traveled with Harper Lee to Holcomb and visited the scene of the massacre. Over the course of the next few years, he became acquainted with everyone involved in the investigation and most of the residents", "\"In Cold Blood\" brought Capote much praise from the literary community, but there were some who questioned certain events as reported in the book. Writing in \"Esquire\" in 1966, Phillip K. Tompkins noted factual discrepancies after he traveled to Kansas and spoke to some of the same people interviewed by Capote. In a telephone interview with Tompkins, Mrs. Meier denied that she heard Perry cry and that she held his hand as described by Capote. \"In Cold Blood\" indicates that Meier and Perry became close, yet she told Tompkins she spent little time with Perry and did not talk much with him. Tompkins concluded: Capote has, in short, achieved a work of art. He has told exceedingly well a tale of high terror in his own way. But, despite the brilliance of his self-publicizing efforts, he has made both a tactical and a moral error that will hurt him in the short run. By insisting that \"every word\" of his book is true he has made himself vulnerable to those readers who are prepared to examine seriously", "Capote was openly homosexual. One of his first serious lovers was Smith College literature professor Newton Arvin, who won the National Book Award for his Herman Melville biography in 1951 and to whom Capote dedicated \"Other Voices, Other Rooms\". However, Capote spent the majority of his life until his death partnered to Jack Dunphy, a fellow writer. In his book, \"\"Dear Genius...\" A Memoir of My Life with Truman Capote,\" Dunphy attempts both to explain the Capote he knew and loved within their relationship and the very success-driven and, eventually, drug- and alcohol-addicted person who existed outside of their relationship. It provides perhaps the most in-depth and intimate look at Capote's life, outside of his own works. Although Capote's and Dunphy's relationship lasted the majority of Capote's life, it seems that they both lived, at times, different lives. Their sometimes separate living quarters allowed autonomy within the relationship and, as Dunphy admitted, \"spared [him] the anguish of watching Capote drink and take drugs\". Capote was well known for his distinctive, high-pitched voice and odd vocal mannerisms, his offbeat manner of dress, and his fabrications. He often claimed to know intimately people whom he had in fact never met, such as Greta Garbo. He professed to have had numerous liaisons with men thought to be heterosexual, including, he claimed, Errol Flynn. He traveled in an eclectic array of social circles, hobnobbing with authors, critics, business tycoons, philanthropists, Hollywood and theatrical celebrities, royalty, and members of high society, both in the U.S. and abroad. Part of his public persona was a longstanding rivalry with writer Gore Vidal. Their rivalry prompted Tennessee Williams to complain: \"You would think they were running neck-and-neck for some fabulous gold prize.\" Apart from his favorite authors (Willa Cather, Isak Dinesen, and Marcel Proust), Capote had faint praise for other writers. However, one who did receive his favorable endorsement was journalist Lacey Fosburgh, author of \"\" (1977). He also claimed an admiration for Andy Warhol's \"The Philosophy of Andy Warhol: From A to B & Back Again\". Although Capote never fully embraced the gay rights movement, his own openness about homosexuality and his encouragement for openness in others makes him an important player in the realm of gay rights. In his piece \"Capote and the Trillings: Homophobia and Literary Culture at Midcentury,\" Jeff Solomon details an encounter between Capote and Lionel and Diana Trilling – two New York intellectuals and literary critics – in which Capote questioned the motives of Lionel, who had recently published a book on E.M. Forster but had ignored the author's homosexuality. Solomon argues:", "In the late 1970s, Capote was in and out of drug rehabilitation clinics, and news of his various breakdowns frequently reached the public. In 1978, talk show host Stanley Siegel did an on-air interview with Capote, who, in an extraordinarily intoxicated state, confessed that he had been awake for 48 hours and when questioned by Siegel, \"What's going to happen unless you lick this problem of drugs and alcohol?\", Capote responded: \"The obvious answer is that eventually, I mean, I'll kill myself... without meaning to.\" The live broadcast made national headlines. One year later, when he felt betrayed by Lee Radziwill in a feud with perpetual nemesis Gore Vidal, Capote arranged a return visit to Stanley Siegel's show, this time to deliver a bizarrely comic performance revealing an incident wherein Vidal was thrown out of the Kennedy White House due to intoxication. Capote also went into salacious details regarding the personal life of Lee Radziwill and her sister, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. Andy Warhol, who had looked up to the writer as a mentor in his early days in New York", "Capote died in Bel Air, Los Angeles, on August 25, 1984, a month before his 60th birthday. According to the coroner's report, the cause of death was \"liver disease complicated by phlebitis and multiple drug intoxication\". He died at the home of his old friend Joanne Carson, ex-wife of late-night TV host Johnny Carson, on whose program Capote had been a frequent guest. Gore Vidal responded to news of Capote's death by calling it \"a wise career move\". Capote was cremated and his remains were reportedly divided between Carson and Jack Dunphy (although Dunphy maintained that he received all the ashes). Carson said she kept the ashes in an urn in the room where he died. Those ashes were reported stolen during a Halloween party in 1988 along with $200,000 in jewels but were then returned six days later, having been found in a coiled-up garden hose on the back steps of Carson's Bel Air home. The ashes were reportedly stolen again when brought to a production of \"Tru\" but the thief was caught before leaving the theatre.", "Capote's childhood is the focus of a permanent exhibit in Monroeville, Alabama's Old Courthouse Museum, covering his life in Monroeville with his Faulk cousins and how those early years are reflected in his writing. The exhibit brings together photos, letters and memorabilia to paint a portrait of Capote's early life in Monroeville. Jennings Faulk Carter donated the collection to the Museum in 2005. The collection comprises 12 handwritten letters (1940s–60s) from Capote to his favorite aunt, Mary Ida Carter (Jennings' mother). Many of the items in the collection belonged to his mother and Virginia Hurd Faulk, Carter's cousin with whom Capote lived", "One of the things the movie does best is transport you back in time and into nature. In the early scenes as Joel leaves his aunt's home to travel across the South by rickety bus and horse and carriage, you feel the strangeness, wonder and anxiety of a child abandoning everything that's familiar to", "Notes Bibliography Archival sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Colonial British Army.", "Rise in the Uganda Army.", "Seizure of power.", "Presidency.", "Establishment of military rule.", "Persecution of ethnic and political groups.", "International relations.", "Deposition and exile.", "Illness and death.", "Family and associates.", "Erratic behaviour, self-bestowed titles and media portrayal.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Amin did not write an autobiography, and he did not authorize an official written account of his life. There are discrepancies regarding when and where he was born. Most biographical sources claim that he was born in either Koboko or Kampala around 1925. Other unconfirmed sources state Amin's year of birth from as early as 1923 to as late as 1928. Amin's son Hussein has stated that his father was born in Kampala in 1928. According to Fred Guweddeko, a researcher at Makerere University, Amin was the son of Andreas Nyabire (1889–1976). Nyabire, a member of the Kakwa ethnic group, converted from Roman Catholicism to Islam in 1910 and changed his name to Amin Dada. He named his first-born son after himself. Abandoned by his father at a young age, Idi Amin grew up with his mother's family in a rural farming town in north-western Uganda. Guweddeko states that Amin's mother was Assa Aatte (1904–1970), an ethnic Lugbara and a traditional herbalist who treated members of Buganda royalty, among others. Some sources have also described Amin as being of mixed Kakwa-Nubian origin. Amin joined an Islamic school in Bombo in 1941. After a few years, he left school with only a fourth-grade English-language education, and did odd jobs before being recruited to the army by a British colonial army officer.", "Amin joined the King's African Rifles (KAR) of the British Colonial Army in 1946 as an assistant cook. In later life he falsely claimed to have served in the Burma Campaign of World War II. He was transferred to Kenya for infantry service as a private in 1947, and served in the 21st KAR infantry battalion in Gilgil, Kenya Colony until 1949. That year, his unit was deployed to northern Kenya to fight against Somali rebels in the Shifta War. In 1952, his brigade was deployed against the Mau Mau rebels in Kenya. He was promoted to corporal the same year, then to sergeant in 1953. In 1959, Amin was made \"afande\", the highest rank possible for a black African in the colonial British Army of that time. Amin returned to Uganda the same year and, in 1961, he was promoted to lieutenant, becoming one of the first two Ugandans to become commissioned officers. He was assigned to quell the cattle rustling between Uganda's Karamojong and Kenya's Turkana nomads. According to researcher Holger Bernt Hansen, Amin's outlook, behaviour and strategies of communication were strongly influenced by his experiences in the colonial military. This included his direct and hands-on leadership style which would eventually contribute to his popularity among certain parts of the Ugandan society.", "In 1962, following Uganda's independence from the United Kingdom, Amin was promoted to captain and then, in 1963, to major. He was appointed Deputy Commander of the Army in 1964 and, the following year, to Commander of the Army. In 1970, he was promoted to commander of all the armed forces. Amin was an athlete during his time in both the British and Ugandan army. At tall and powerfully built, he was the Ugandan light heavyweight boxing champion from 1951 to 1960, as well as a swimmer. Amin was also a formidable rugby forward, although one officer said of him: \"Idi Amin is a splendid type and a good (rugby) player, but virtually bone from the neck up, and needs things explained in words of one letter\". In the 1950s, he played for Nile RFC. There is a frequently repeated urban myth that he was selected as a replacement by the East Africa rugby union team for their 1955 tour match against the British Lions. Amin, however, does not appear in the team photograph or on the official team list. Following conversations with a colleague in the British Army, Amin became a keen fan of Hayes F.C. – an affection that remained for the rest of his life. In 1965, Prime Minister Milton Obote and Amin were implicated in a deal to smuggle ivory and gold into Uganda from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The deal, as later alleged by General Nicholas Olenga, an associate of the former Congolese leader Patrice Lumumba, was part of an arrangement to help troops opposed to the Congolese government trade ivory and gold for arms supplies secretly smuggled to them by Amin. In 1966, the Ugandan Parliament demanded an investigation. Obote imposed a new constitution abolishing the ceremonial presidency held by Kabaka (King) Mutesa II of Buganda, and declared himself executive president. He promoted Amin to colonel and army commander. Amin led an attack on the Kabaka's palace and forced Mutesa into exile to the United Kingdom, where he remained until his death in 1969. Amin began recruiting members of Kakwa, Lugbara, South Sudanese, and other ethnic groups from the West Nile area bordering South Sudan. The South Sudanese had been residents in Uganda since the early 20th century, having come from South Sudan to serve the colonial army. Many African ethnic groups in northern Uganda inhabit both Uganda and South Sudan; allegations persist that Amin's army consisted mainly of South Sudanese soldiers.", "Eventually a rift developed between Amin and Obote, exacerbated by the support Amin had built within the Uganda Army by recruiting from the West Nile region, his involvement in operations to support the rebellion in southern Sudan and an attempt on Obote's life in 1969. In October 1970, Obote took control of the armed forces, reducing Amin from his months-old post of commander of all the armed forces to that of commander of the Uganda Army. Having learned that Obote was planning to arrest him for misappropriating army funds, Amin seized power in a military coup on 25 January 1971, while Obote was attending a Commonwealth summit meeting in Singapore. Troops loyal to Amin sealed off Entebbe International Airport and took Kampala. Soldiers surrounded Obote's residence and blocked major roads. A broadcast on Radio Uganda accused Obote's government of corruption and preferential treatment of the Lango region. Cheering crowds were reported in the streets of Kampala after the radio broadcast. Amin announced that he was a soldier, not a politician, and that the military government would remain only as a caretaker regime until new elections, which would be announced when the situation was normalised. He promised to release all political prisoners. Amin held a state funeral in April 1971 for Edward Mutesa, former King (\"Kabaka\") of Buganda and President who had died in exile; freed many political prisoners; and reiterated his promise to hold free and fair elections to return the country to democratic rule in the shortest period possible.", "", "On 2 February 1971, one week after the coup, Amin declared himself President of Uganda, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, Uganda Army Chief of Staff, and Chief of Air Staff. He announced that he was suspending certain provisions of the Ugandan constitution, and soon instituted an Advisory Defence Council composed of military officers with himself as the chairman. Amin placed military tribunals above the system of civil law, appointed soldiers to top government posts and parastatal agencies, and informed the newly inducted civilian cabinet ministers that they would be subject to military discipline. Amin ruled by decree, and over the course of his rule he issued approximately 30 decrees. Amin renamed the presidential lodge in Kampala from Government House to \"The Command Post\". He disbanded the General Service Unit (GSU), an intelligence agency created by the previous government, and replaced it with the State Research Bureau (SRB). SRB headquarters at the Kampala suburb of Nakasero became the scene of torture and executions over the next few years. Other agencies used to persecute dissenters included the military police and the Public Safety Unit (PSU). Obote took refuge in Tanzania, having been offered sanctuary there by the Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere. Obote was soon joined by 20,000 Ugandan refugees fleeing Amin. The exiles attempted but failed to regain Uganda in 1972, through a poorly organised coup attempt.", "Amin retaliated against the attempted invasion by Ugandan exiles in 1972, by purging the Uganda Army of Obote supporters, predominantly those from the Acholi and Lango ethnic groups. In July 1971, Lango and Acholi soldiers were massacred in the Jinja and Mbarara barracks. By early 1972, some 5,000 Acholi and Lango soldiers, and at least twice as many civilians, had disappeared. The victims soon came to include members of other ethnic groups, religious leaders, journalists, artists, senior bureaucrats, judges, lawyers, students and intellectuals, criminal suspects, and foreign nationals. In this atmosphere of violence, many other people were killed for criminal motives or simply at will. Bodies were often dumped into the River Nile. The killings, motivated by ethnic, political, and financial factors, continued throughout Amin's eight years in control. The exact number of people killed is unknown. The International Commission of Jurists estimated the death toll at no fewer than 80,000 and more likely around 300,000. An estimate compiled by exile organisations with the help of Amnesty International puts the number killed at 500,000. Among the most prominent people killed were Benedicto Kiwanuka, a former prime minister and chief justice; Janani Luwum, the Anglican archbishop; Joseph Mubiru, the former governor of the central bank of Uganda; Frank Kalimuzo, the vice-chancellor of Makerere University; Byron Kawadwa, a prominent playwright; and two of Amin's own cabinet ministers, Erinayo Wilson Oryema and Charles Oboth Ofumbi. Amin recruited his followers from his own ethnic group, the Kakwas, along with South Sudanese. By 1977, these three groups formed 60 percent of the 22 top generals and 75 percent of the cabinet. Similarly, Muslims formed 80 percent and 87.5 percent of these groups even though they were only 5 percent of the population. This helps explain why Amin survived eight attempted coups. The Uganda Army grew from 10,000 to 25,000 by 1978. Amin's military was largely a mercenary force. Half the soldiers were South Sudanese and 26 percent Congolese, with only 24 percent being Ugandan, mostly Muslim and Kakwa. In August 1972, Amin declared what he called an \"economic war\", a set of policies that included the expropriation of properties owned by Asians and Europeans. Uganda's 80,000 Asians were mostly from the Indian subcontinent and born in the country, their ancestors having come to Uganda in search of prosperity when India was still a British colony. Many owned businesses, including large-scale enterprises, which formed the backbone of the Ugandan economy. On 4 August 1972, Amin issued a decree ordering the expulsion of the 50,000 Asians who were British passport holders. This was later amended to include all 60,000 Asians who were not Ugandan citizens. Around 30,000 Ugandan Asians emigrated to the UK. Others went to Commonwealth countries such as Australia, South Africa, Canada, and Fiji, or to India, Kenya, Pakistan, Sweden, Tanzania, and the United States. Amin expropriated businesses and properties belonging to the Asians and the Europeans and handed them over to his supporters. The businesses were mismanaged, and industries collapsed from lack of maintenance. This proved disastrous for the already declining economy. In 1975, Emmanuel Blayo Wakhweya, Idi Amin's finance minister and longest-serving cabinet member at the time, defected in London. This prominent defection helped Henry Kyemba, Amin's health minister and a former official of the first Obote regime, to defect in 1977 and resettle in the UK. Kyemba wrote and published \"A State of Blood\", the first insider exposé of Amin's rule.", "Initially, Amin was supported by Western powers such as Israel, West Germany and, in particular, Great Britain. During the late 1960s, Obote's move to the left, which included his Common Man's Charter and the nationalisation of 80 British companies, had made the West worried that he would pose a threat to Western capitalist interests in Africa and make Uganda an ally of the Soviet Union. Amin, who had served with the King's African Rifles and taken part in Britain's suppression of the Mau Mau uprising prior to Ugandan independence, was known by the British as \"intensely loyal to Britain\". This made him an obvious choice as Obote's successor. Although some have claimed that Amin was being groomed for power as early as 1966, the plotting by the British and other Western powers began in earnest in 1969, after Obote had begun his nationalisation programme. Following the expulsion of Ugandan Asians in 1972, most of whom were of Indian descent, India severed diplomatic relations with Uganda. The same year, as part of his \"economic war\", Amin broke diplomatic ties with the UK and nationalised all British-owned businesses. That year, relations with Israel soured. Although Israel had previously supplied Uganda with arms, in 1972 Amin expelled Israeli military advisers and turned to Muammar Gaddafi of Libya and the Soviet Union for support. Amin became an outspoken critic of Israel. In return, Gaddafi gave financial aid to Amin. In the 1974 French-produced documentary film \"\", Amin discussed his plans for war against Israel, using paratroops, bombers, and suicide squadrons. The Soviet Union became Amin's largest arms supplier. East Germany was involved in the General Service Unit and the State Research Bureau, the two agencies that were most notorious for terror. Later during the Ugandan invasion of Tanzania in 1979, East Germany attempted to remove evidence of its involvement with these agencies. In 1973, U.S. Ambassador Thomas Patrick Melady recommended that the United States reduce its presence in Uganda. Melady described Amin's regime as \"racist, erratic and unpredictable, brutal, inept, bellicose, irrational, ridiculous, and militaristic\". In June 1976, Amin allowed an Air France airliner from Tel Aviv to Paris hijacked by two members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – External Operations (PFLP-EO) and two members of the German Revolutionäre Zellen to land at Entebbe Airport. The hijackers were joined there by three more. Soon after, 156 non-Jewish hostages who did not hold Israeli passports were released and flown to safety, while 83 Jews and Israeli citizens, as well as 20 others who refused to abandon them (among whom were the captain and crew of the hijacked Air France jet), continued to be held hostage. In the subsequent Israeli rescue operation, codenamed Operation Thunderbolt (popularly known as Operation Entebbe), on the night of 3–4 July 1976, a group of Israeli commandos flew in from Israel and seized control of Entebbe Airport, freeing nearly all the hostages. Three hostages died during the operation and 10 were wounded; 7 hijackers, about 45 Ugandan soldiers, and 1 Israeli soldier, Yoni Netanyahu (the commander of the unit), were killed. A fourth hostage, 75-year-old Dora Bloch, an elderly Jewish Englishwoman who had been taken to Mulago Hospital in Kampala before the rescue operation, was subsequently murdered in reprisal. The incident further soured Uganda's international relations, leading the United Kingdom to close its High Commission in Uganda. In retaliation for Kenya's assistance in the raid, Amin also ordered the killing of hundreds of Kenyans living in Uganda. Uganda under Amin embarked on a large military build-up, which raised concerns in Kenya. Early in June 1975, Kenyan officials impounded a large convoy of Soviet-made arms \"en route\" to Uganda at the port of Mombasa. Tension between Uganda and Kenya reached its climax in February 1976, when Amin announced that he would investigate the possibility that parts of southern Sudan and western and central Kenya, up to within of Nairobi, were historically a part of colonial Uganda. The Kenyan Government responded with a stern statement that Kenya would not part with \"a single inch of territory\". Amin backed down after the Kenyan army deployed troops and armoured personnel carriers along the Kenya–Uganda border.", "In 1977 a split in the Uganda Army developed between supporters of Amin and soldiers loyal to the Ugandan Vice-President, General Mustafa Adrisi, who held significant power in the government and wanted to purge foreigners, particularly Sudanese, from the military. By 1978, the number of Amin's supporters and close associates had shrunk significantly, and he faced increasing dissent from the populace within Uganda as the economy and infrastructure collapsed as a result of the years of neglect and abuse. After the killings of Bishop Luwum and ministers Oryema and Oboth Ofumbi in 1977, several of Amin's ministers defected or fled into exile. In early 1978 Adrisi was severely injured in a car accident and flown to Cairo for treatment. While he was there, Amin stripped him of his positions as Minister of Defence and Minister of Home Affairs and denounced him for retiring senior prison officials without his knowledge. Amin then proceeded to purge several high-ranking officials from his government and took personal control of several ministerial portfolios. The shakeup caused political unrest and especially angered Adrisi's followers, who believed that the car accident was a failed assassination attempt. In November 1978 troops loyal to Adrisi mutinied. Amin sent troops against the mutineers, some of whom had fled across the Tanzanian border. Fighting consequently broke out along the Ugandan–Tanzanian border, and the Uganda Army launched an invasion of Tanzanian territory under unclear circumstances. According to several experts and politicians, Amin directly ordered the invasion in an attempt to distract the Ugandan military and public from the crisis at home. Other accounts suggest, however, that Amin had lost control of parts of the Uganda Army. Accordingly, the invading troops acted without his orders, and Amin sanctioned the invasion \"post facto\" to save face. In any case, Amin accused Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere of initiating the war against Uganda after the hostilities had erupted, and proclaimed the annexation of a section of Kagera when the Ugandan invasion initially proved to be successful. In January 1979, Nyerere mobilised the Tanzania People's Defence Force and counterattacked, joined by several groups of Ugandan exiles who had united as the Uganda National Liberation Army (UNLA). Amin's army retreated steadily, and, despite military help from Libya's Muammar Gaddafi, Amin was forced to flee into exile by helicopter on 11 April 1979, when Kampala was captured. He escaped first to Libya, where he stayed until 1980, and ultimately settled in Saudi Arabia, where the Saudi royal family allowed him sanctuary and paid him a generous subsidy in return for staying out of politics. Amin lived for a number of years on the top two floors of the Novotel Hotel on Palestine Road in Jeddah. Brian Barron, who covered the Uganda–Tanzania war for the BBC as chief Africa correspondent, together with cameraman Mohamed Amin (no relation) of Visnews in Nairobi, located Amin in 1980, and secured the first interview with him since his deposition. While in exile, Amin funded remnants of his army that fought in the Ugandan Bush War. Though he continued to be a controversial figure, some of Amin's former followers as well as several rebel groups continued to fight in his name for decades, and occasionally advocated for his amnesty and even his restoration to Ugandan Presidency. During interviews he gave during his exile in Saudi Arabia, Amin held that Uganda needed him, and never expressed remorse for the brutal nature of his regime.", "On 19 July 2003, Amin's fourth wife, Nalongo Madina, reported that he was in a coma and near death at the King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, from kidney failure. She pleaded with the Ugandan President, Yoweri Museveni, to allow him to return to Uganda for the remainder of his life. Museveni replied that Amin would have to \"answer for his sins the moment he was brought back\". Amin's family eventually decided to disconnect life support, and Amin consequently died at the hospital in Jeddah on 16 August 2003. He was buried in Ruwais Cemetery in Jeddah in a simple grave, without any fanfare. After Amin's death, David Owen revealed that during his term as the British Foreign Secretary (1977 to 1979), he had proposed having Amin assassinated. He has defended this, arguing: \"I'm not ashamed of considering it, because his regime goes down in the scale of Pol Pot as one of the worst of all African regimes\".", "A polygamist, Idi Amin married at least six women, three of whom he divorced. He married his first and second wives, Malyamu and Kay, in 1966. In 1967, he married Nora, and then married Nalongo Madina in 1972. On 26 March 1974, he announced on Radio Uganda that he had divorced Malyamu, Nora, and Kay. Malyamu was arrested in Tororo on the Kenyan border in April 1974 and accused of attempting to smuggle a bolt of fabric into Kenya. In 1974, Kay Amin died under mysterious circumstances, with her body found dismembered. Nora fled to Zaire in 1979; her current whereabouts are unknown. In July 1975, Amin staged a £2 million wedding to 19-year-old Sarah Kyolaba, a go-go dancer with the \"Revolutionary Suicide Mechanised Regiment Band\", nicknamed \"Suicide Sarah\". The wedding was held during the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) summit meeting in Kampala, and the chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organisation, Yasser Arafat served as Amin's best man. Before she met Amin, Sarah was living with a boyfriend, Jesse Gitta; he vanished and it is not clear if he was beheaded, or detained after fleeing to Kenya. The couple had four children and enjoyed rally race driving Amin's Citroën SM, with Sarah as navigator. Sarah was a hairdresser in Tottenham when she died in 2015. By 1993, Amin was living with the last nine of his children and one wife, Mama a Chumaru, the mother of the youngest four of his children. His last known child, daughter Iman, was born in 1992. According to \"The Monitor\", Amin married again a few months before his death in 2003. Amin fathered up to 54 children. Until 2003, Taban Amin (born 1955), Idi Amin's eldest son, was the leader of West Nile Bank Front (WNBF), a rebel group opposed to the government of Yoweri Museveni. In 2005, he was offered amnesty by Museveni, and in 2006, he was appointed Deputy Director General of the Internal Security Organisation. Another of Amin's sons, Haji Ali Amin, ran for election as Chairman (i.e. mayor) of Njeru Town Council in 2002 but was not elected. In early 2007, the award-winning film \"The Last King of Scotland\" prompted one of his sons, Jaffar Amin (born in 1967), to speak out in his father's defence. Jaffar Amin said he was writing a book to rehabilitate his father's reputation. Jaffar is the tenth of Amin's 40 official children by seven official wives. On 3 August 2007, Amin and Sarah's son, Faisal Wangita (born in 1983), was convicted for playing a role in a murder in London. Among Amin's closest associates was the Briton Bob Astles, who is considered by many to have been a malign influence and by others as having been a moderating presence. Isaac Maliyamungu was an instrumental affiliate and one of the more feared officers in Amin's army.", "As the years progressed, Amin's behaviour became more erratic, unpredictable, and strident. After the United Kingdom broke off all diplomatic relations with his regime in 1977, Amin declared that he had defeated the British, and he conferred on himself the decoration of CBE (Conqueror of the British Empire). His full self-bestowed title ultimately became: \"His Excellency, President for Life, Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor Idi Amin Dada, VC, DSO, MC, CBE, Lord of All the Beasts of the Earth and Fishes of the Seas and Conqueror of the British Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular\", in addition to his officially stated claim of being the uncrowned King of Scotland. He never received the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) or the Military Cross (MC). He conferred a doctorate of law on himself from Makerere University as well as the Victorious Cross (VC), a medal made to emulate the British Victoria Cross. Amin became the subject of rumours, including a widespread belief that he was a cannibal. Amin reportedly also boasted that he kept the decapitated heads of political enemies in his freezer, although he said that human flesh was generally \"too salty\" for his taste. Some of the rumours, such as the mutilation of one of his wives, were spread and popularised by the 1980 film \"Rise and Fall of Idi Amin\" and alluded to in the film \"The Last King of Scotland\" in 2006, a movie which earned actor Forest Whitaker an Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Amin. During Amin's time in power, popular media outside of Uganda often portrayed him as an essentially comic and eccentric figure. In a 1977 assessment typical of the time, a \"Time\" magazine article described him as a \"killer and clown, big-hearted buffoon and strutting martinet\". The comedy-variety series \"Saturday Night Live\" aired four Amin sketches between 1976 and 1979, including one in which he was an ill-behaved houseguest in exile, and another in which he was a spokesman against venereal disease. In 1979, radio host Don Imus made multiple on-air telephone calls in an attempt to talk to Amin, and later hosted a phony interview with him that was deemed \"very dirty.\" In a Benny Hill show transmitted in January 1977, Hill portrayed Amin sitting behind a desk that featured a placard reading \"ME TARZAN, U GANDA\". The foreign media were often criticised by Ugandan exiles and defectors for emphasising Amin's self-aggrandizing eccentricities and taste for excess while downplaying or excusing his murderous behaviour. Other commentators even suggested that Amin had deliberately cultivated his eccentric reputation in the foreign media as an easily parodied buffoon in order to defuse international concern over his administration of Uganda.", "Gender historian Alicia Decker wrote that the \"deeply embedded culture of militarism in Uganda is undoubtedly Amin's most enduring legacy.\" His reputation in Uganda has been viewed over the decades following his rule in more complex ways than in the international community. Some Ugandans have praised him as a \"patriot\" and supported his decision to expel Asians from the country. At the time of his death he was particularly well regarded in north-western Uganda. One of Amin's sons, Jaffar Remo, criticised the negative public perception of his father and called for a commission to investigate the veracity of the abuses committed under his rule." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Climate.", "History.", "Antiquity.", "Christian era.", "Turkish era.", "Places of interest.", "Denizli rooster." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Approximately 28-30% of the land is plain, 25% is high plateau and tableland, and 47% is mountainous. At 2571m Mount Honaz is the highest in the province, and indeed in Western Anatolia. Babadag in the Mentes range has a height of 2308 meters. The biggest lake in Denizli is Acıgöl, which means \"bitter lake\" and indeed industrial salts (sodium sulphate) are extracted from this lake which is highly alkaline. There is a thermal spring to the west of Sarayköy, at the source of the Great Menderes River, which contains bicarbonates and sulfates. There is another hot spring in Kızıldere which reaches 200 ̊C. A geothermal steam source was first found in the region in 1965 during drilling work. Today there is a power plant producing electricity from the geothermal steam. Only 11% of the geothermal energy source is used to produce electricity and 89% of it, which flows into the Great Menderes, is 150 ̊C at source (it is contains energy equal to 35,000 to 40,000 tonnes of fuel oil).", "In general the Aegean region has a mild climate. However, it becomes harsher at altitude. Temperatures can rise to 55 °C during summer and fall to -5 °C in winter. There are about 80 days with precipitation, mainly during winter.", "", "There are traces of prehistoric cultures throughout the province, including evidence of pre-Hittite cultures and the Hittites themselves. The Hittites were followed by Phrygians, Lydians and Persians, and then cities founded by the ancient Greeks and Alexander the Great. The first real settlement was the city of Laodicea on the Lycus which was established by King Antiochus II for his wife Laodice. Laodicea is located 6 km north of the city of Denizli. The city of Hierapolis was established around 190 BC by the Pergamene Kingdom, one of the Hellenistic states of Anatolia. The calcified terraces and pools of Pamukkale (\"Cotton Castle\") now stand below the ruins of Hierapolis. The two cities, Laodicea and Hierapolis later came under Roman rule, and with the division of the Empire in 395 were left within the boundaries of the East Roman Empire.", "The province has strong biblical connections: in the Book of Revelation, John the Evangelist hears a loud voice which sounded like a trumpet when he was on the island of Patmos. The voice says: \"Write down what you see and send the book to the Churches in these seven cities: Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea\". The Church of Laodicea was a sacred place even in pre-Christian times, and is still visited by Christians today, although it lost its importance to a great extent during Byzantine rule.", "Turks were first seen in Denizli in 1070 when Afşın Bey, under the control of the Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan, raided the area. The second and third Crusades fought here against Kazıkbeli, who managed to flee with a small force to Antalya. Later, after the Turks had established control of the ancient cities, they moved south to the site of the present city of Denizli, where drinking water was brought through stone pipes. The name Laodicea slowly changed into “Ladik” then since the 17th century other names were given “Tonguzlu”, ”Tonuzlu”, ”Tenguzlug”, ”Donuzlu” and finally “Denizli”. After World War I, when the Greek army arrived in İzmir on May 15, 1919, one of the first centres of Turkish resistance formed at an open-air meeting in Denizli. A Turkish militia formed lines on the Menderes organized by Yörük Ali and Demirci Efe, involving large numbers of volunteers from the local peasantry. Stiffened by the Turkish regular army, Greek forces were repelled, and Denizli remained in Turkish hands throughout the Greco-Turkish War.", "see the article on Denizli and other districts for more details... near Denizli... and near the other districts in the province...", "Denizli is renowned in Turkey for having a famous breed of cock, renowned for its appearance and colour, along with its prolonged and melodious crows. Great effort is taken by the state and local farmers to preserve the breed. In appearance the Denizli cock has black eyes, dark grey legs, a long neck, and a red crown. It weighs 3-3.5 kg, and has a distinctive crow." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Works.", "Edited works.", "Commentaries." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Little is known about the life of Theon. He made predictions and observances of solar and lunar eclipses in 364 which show he was active at that time, and he is said to have lived during the reign of Theodosius I (379–395). The biographical tradition of the tenth century Byzantine \"Suda\" defines Theon as \"the man from the Mouseion\"; however, both the Library of Alexandria and the original Mouseion were probably destroyed by the fourth century, although there may have been a new Mouseion established on a different site, perhaps at the Serapeum of Alexandria. Theon was the father of the mathematician Hypatia who was killed by a Christian mob in 415 during a period of religious and sectarian conflict. Theon dedicated his commentary on the \"Almagest\" to a boy named Epiphanius, who may have been his son. Also, in his commentary on the \"Almagest\" he states that his daughter Hypatia contributed to Book III of the \"Almagest\" stating \"the edition having been prepared by the philosopher, my daughter Hypatia.\" A lunar crater, Theon Junior, now bears Theon's name.", "", "It is known that Theon edited the \"Elements\" of Euclid. He may also have edited some other works by Euclid and Ptolemy, although here the evidence is less certain. The editions ascribed to Theon are:", "Of his commentaries, those which are extant are: Among Theon's lost works, the \"Suda\" mentions \"On Signs and Observation of Birds and the Sound of Crows\"; \"On the Rising of the Dog[-Star]\"; and \"On the Inundation of the Nile\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "State of the Luftwaffe fighter arm.", "Origins.", "Volksjäger.", "Design.", "Operations.", "He 162 \"Mistel\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Through 1943 the U.S. 8th Air Force and German \"Luftwaffe\" entered a period of rapid evolution as both forces attempted to gain an advantage. Having lost too many fighters to the bombers' defensive guns, the Germans invested in a series of heavy weapons that allowed them to attack from outside the American guns' effective range. The addition of heavy cannons like the 30mm calibre MK 108, and even heavier \"Bordkanone\" autoloading weapons in 37mm and 50mm calibres on their \"Zerstörer\" heavy fighters, and the spring-1943 adoption of the \"Werfer-Granate 21\" unguided rockets, gave the German single and twin-engined defensive fighters a degree of firepower never seen previously by Allied fliers. Meanwhile, the single-engine aircraft like specially equipped Fw 190As added armor to protect their pilots from Allied bombers' defensive fire, allowing them to approach to distances where their heavy weapons could be used with some chance of hitting the bombers. All of this added greatly to the weight being carried by both the single and twin-engine fighters, seriously affecting their performance. When the 8th Air Force re-opened its bombing campaign in early 1944 with the Big Week offensive, the bombers returned to the skies with the long-range P-51 Mustang in escort. Unencumbered with the heavy weapons needed to down a bomber, the Mustangs (and longer-ranged versions of other aircraft) were able to fend off the \"Luftwaffe\" with relative ease. The \"Luftwaffe\" responded by changing tactics, forming in front of the bombers and making a single pass through the formations, giving the defense little time to react. The 8th Air Force responded with a change of its own, after Major General Jimmy Doolittle had ordered a change in fighter tactics earlier in 1944, amounting to an air supremacy entry into German airspace far ahead of the bombers' combat box formations – when at the end of April, Doolittle added additional directives allowing the fighters, following the bombers' flight back home to England, to roam freely over Germany and hit the Luftwaffe's defensive fighters wherever they could be found. This change in tactics resulted in a sudden increase in the rate of irreplaceable losses to the Luftwaffe day fighter force, as their heavily laden aircraft were \"bounced\" long before reaching the bombers. Within weeks, many of their aces were dead, along with hundreds of other pilots, and the training program could not replace their casualties quickly enough. The Luftwaffe put up little fight during the summer of 1944, allowing the Allied landings in France to go almost unopposed from the air. With few planes coming up to fight, Allied fighters were let loose on the German airbases, railways and truck traffic. Logistics soon became a serious problem for the Luftwaffe, as maintaining aircraft in fighting condition became almost impossible. Getting enough fuel was even more difficult because of a devastating campaign against German petroleum industry targets.", "Addressing this posed a considerable problem for the Luftwaffe. Two camps quickly developed, both demanding the immediate introduction of large numbers of jet fighter aircraft. One group, led by General Adolf Galland, the Inspector of Fighters, reasoned that superior numbers had to be countered with superior technology, and demanded that all possible effort be put into increasing the production of the Messerschmitt Me 262 in its A-1a fighter version, even if that meant reducing production of other aircraft in the meantime. The second group pointed out that this would likely do little to address the problem; the Me 262 had notoriously unreliable powerplants and landing gear, and the existing logistics problems would mean there would merely be more of them on the ground waiting for parts that would never arrive, or for fuel that was not available. Instead, they suggested that a new design be built – one so inexpensive that if a machine was damaged or worn out, it could simply be discarded and replaced with a fresh plane straight off the assembly line. Thus was born the concept of the \"throwaway fighter\". Galland and other Luftwaffe senior officers expressed vehement opposition to the light fighter idea, while \"Reichsmarschall\" Hermann Göring and Armaments Minister Albert Speer fully supported the idea. Göring and Speer got their way, and a contract tender for a single-engine jet fighter that was suited for cheap and rapid mass production was established under the name \"Volksjäger\" (\"People's Fighter\").", "The official RLM \"Volksjäger\" design competition parameters specified a single-seat fighter, powered by a single BMW 003, a slightly lower-thrust engine not in demand for either the Me 262 or the Ar 234, already in service. The main structure of the \"Volksjäger\" competing airframe designs would use cheap and unsophisticated parts made of wood and other non-strategic materials and, more importantly, could be assembled by semi- and non-skilled labor, including slave labor. Specifications included a weight of no more than, with maximum speed specified as 750 km/h (470 mph) at sea level, operational endurance at least a half hour, and the takeoff run no more than 500 m (1,640 ft). Armament was specified as either two MG 151/20 cannons with 100 rounds each, or two MK 108 cannons with 50 rounds each. The \"Volksjäger\" needed to be easy to fly. Some suggested even glider or student pilots should be able to fly the jet effectively in combat, and indeed had the \"Volksjäger\" gone into full production, that is precisely what would have happened. After the war, Ernst Heinkel would say, \"[The] unrealistic notion that this plane should be a 'people's fighter,' in which the Hitler Youth, after a short training regimen with clipped-wing two-seater gliders like the DFS \"Stummel-Habicht\", could fly for the defense of Germany, displayed the unbalanced fanaticism of those days.\" The clipped-wingspan DFS Habicht models had varying wingspans of both or, and were used to prepare more experienced \"Luftwaffe\" pilots for the dangerous Me 163B \"Komet\" rocket fighter – the same sort of training approach would also be used for the Hitler Youth aviators chosen to fly the jet-powered \"Volksjäger\" design competition's winning airframe design. The requirement was issued 10 September 1944, with basic designs to be returned within 10 days and to start large-scale production by 1 January 1945. Because the winner of the new lightweight fighter design competition would be building huge numbers of the planes, nearly every German aircraft manufacturer expressed interest in the project, such as Blohm & Voss, and Focke-Wulf, whose Focke-Wulf Volksjäger 1 design contender, likewise meant for BMW 003 turbojet power bore a resemblance to their slightly later Ta 183 \"Huckebein\" jet fighter design. However, Heinkel had already been working on a series of \"paper projects\" for light single-engine fighters over the last year under the designation P.1073, with most design work being completed by Professor Benz, and had gone so far as to build and test several models and conduct some wind tunnel testing. Although some of the competing designs were technically superior (in particular to the Blohm & Voss P 211 submission), with Heinkel's head start the outcome was largely a foregone conclusion. The results of the competition were announced in October 1944, only three weeks after being announced, and to no one's surprise, the Heinkel entry was selected for production. In order to confuse Allied intelligence, the RLM chose to reuse the 8-162 airframe designation (formerly that of a Messerschmitt fast bomber) rather than the other considered designation He 500.", "Heinkel had designed a relatively small,'sporty'-looking aircraft, with a sleek, streamlined fuselage. Overall, the look of the plane was extremely modernistic for its time, appearing quite contemporary in terms of layout and angular arrangement even to today's eyes. The BMW 003 axial-flow turbojet was mounted in a pod nacelle uniquely situated atop the fuselage, just aft of the cockpit and centered directly over the wing's center section. Twin roughly rectangular vertical tailfins were perpendicularly mounted at the ends of highly dihedralled horizontal tailplanes – possessing dihedral of some 14o apiece – to clear the jet exhaust, a high-mounted straight wing (attached to the fuselage with just four bolts) with a forward-swept trailing edge and a noticeably marked degree of dihedral, with an ejection seat provided for the pilot – which the Heinkel firm had pioneered in a front-line combat aircraft, with the earlier He 219 night fighter in 1942. The He 162 airframe design featured an uncomplicated tricycle landing gear, the first such landing gear system to be present from the very start in any operational Axis Powers single-engined fighter design, that retracted into the fuselage, performed simply with extension springs, mechanical locks, cables and counterweights, and a minimum of any hydraulics employed in its design – a window in the lower forward cockpit area, between the rudder pedals, allowed for visual checking of the nosegear's retraction operation. Partly due to the late-war period it was designed within, some of the He 162's landing gear components were \"recycled\" existing landing gear components from a contemporary German military aircraft to save development time: the main landing gear's oleo struts and wheel/brake units came from the Messerschmitt Bf 109K, as well as the double-acting hydraulic cylinders, one per side, used to raise and lower each maingear leg. The Heinkel firm's previous experience with designing flightworthy, retractable tricycle undercarriage-equipped airframes extended as far back as late 1939 with the Heinkel He 280 jet fighter prototype, and further strengthened with the unexpectedly successful Heinkel He 219A night fighter, which also used a tricycle undercarriage. The He 162 V1 first prototype flew within an astoundingly short period of time: the design was chosen on 25 September 1944 and first flew on 6 December, less than 90 days later. This was despite the fact that the factory in Wuppertal making Tego film plywood glue — used in a substantial number of late-war German aviation designs whose airframes and/or major airframe components were meant to be constructed mostly from wood — had been bombed by the Royal Air Force and a replacement had to be quickly substituted, without realizing that the replacement adhesive was highly acidic and would disintegrate the wooden parts it was intended to be fastening. The first flight of the He 162 V1, by \"Flugkapitän\" Gotthold Peter – the first German jet fighter aircraft design to be jet-powered from its maiden flight onward – was fairly successful, but during a high-speed run at 840 km/h (520 mph), the highly acidic replacement glue attaching the nose gear strut door failed and the pilot was forced to land. Other problems were noted as well, notably a pitch instability and problems with sideslip due to the rudder design. None were considered important enough to hold up the production schedule for even a day. On a second flight on 10 December, again with Peter at the controls, in front of various Nazi officials, the glue again caused a structural failure. This allowed the aileron to separate from the wing, causing the plane to roll over and crash, killing Peter. An investigation into the failure revealed that the wing structure had to be strengthened and some redesign was needed, as the glue bonding required for the wood parts was in many cases defective. However, the schedule was so tight that testing was forced to continue with the current design. Speeds were limited to 500 km/h (310 mph) when the second prototype flew on 22 December. This time, the stability problems proved to be more serious, and were found to be related to Dutch roll, which could be solved by reducing the dihedral. However, with the plane supposed to enter production within weeks, there was no time to change the design. A number of small changes were made instead, including adding lead ballast to the nose to move the centre of gravity more to the front of the plane, and slightly increasing the size of the tail surfaces. The third and fourth prototypes, which now used an \"M\" for \"Muster\" (model) number instead of \"V\" for \"Versuchs\" (experimental) number, as the He 162 M3 and M4, after being fitted with the strengthened wings, flew in mid-January 1945. These versions also included – as possibly the pioneering example of their use on a production-line, military jet aircraft – small, anhedraled aluminium \"drooped\" wingtips, reportedly designed by Alexander Lippisch and known in German as \"Lippisch-Ohren\" (\"Lippisch Ears\"), in an attempt to cure the stability problems via effectively \"decreasing\" the main wing panels' marked three degree dihedral angle. Both prototypes were equipped with two 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannons in the He 162 A-1 anti-bomber variant; in testing, the recoil from these guns proved to be too much for the lightweight fuselage to handle, and plans for production turned to the A-2 fighter with two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannons instead while a redesign for added strength started as the A-3. The shift to 20 mm guns was also undertaken because the smaller-calibre weapons would allow a much greater amount of ammunition to be carried. The He 162 was originally built with the intention of being flown by the Hitler Youth, as the Luftwaffe was fast running out of pilots. However, the aircraft's complexity required more experienced pilots. Both a standard-fuselage length, unarmed BMW 003E-powered two-seat version (with the rear pilot's seat planned to have a ventral access hatch to access the cockpit) and an unpowered two-seat glider version, designated the He 162S (\"Schulen\"), were developed for training purposes. Only a small number were built, and even fewer delivered to the sole He 162 Hitler Youth training unit to be activated (in March 1945) at an airbase at Sagan. The unit was in the process of formation when the war ended, and did not begin any training; it is doubtful that more than one or two He 162S gliders ever took to the air. Various changes had raised the weight over the original 2,000 kg (4,410 lb) limit, but even at 2,800 kg (6,170 lb), the aircraft was still among the fastest aircraft in the air with a maximum airspeed of at sea level and at, but could reach at sea level and at using short burst extra thrust. The short flight duration of barely 30 minutes was due to only having a single 695-litre (183 US gallon) capacity flexible-bladder fuel tank in the fuselage directly under the engine's intake. The original \"Baubeschreibung\" document submittal for the He 162 dated mid-October 1944 showed a pair of fuel tanks for the original version of the \"Spatz's\" airframe as-designed: a single, smaller capacity 640 litre (169 US gal) fuselage main tank in approximately the same location as the later 695 litre tank was placed, with an additional wing centre-section tank just above and behind it, never produced for the production run, of some 325 litres (86 US gal) feeding by gravity into the main fuselage tank. The A-2 version, in some examples (as the one flown by RN Captain Eric Brown postwar) had an emplacement of a pair of \"impregnated\" 180 litre (47.5 US gal) wing tanks, one built into each inner wing panel, within the first four wing ribs out from the root and between the spars, that fed into the main 695 litre fuselage tank in a similar manner to what the earlier 325 litre center-section tank had been proposed to do; but were themselves ungauged, their exhaustion of fuel only marked when the main fuel gauge began to fall during flight. The production He 162A-2 was armed with a pair of 20mm MG 151/20 cannon. He 162 construction facilities were at Salzburg, the Hinterbrühl, and the Mittelwerk. Output was expected to be 1,000 a month by April 1945, double that when the Mittlewerk plant began deliveries.", "In January 1945, the Luftwaffe formed an \"Erprobungskommando 162\" (\"Test Unit 162\") evaluation group to which the first 46 aircraft were delivered. The group was based at the Luftwaffe main test center, or \"Erprobungsstelle\" at Rechlin. February saw deliveries of the He 162 to its first operational unit, I./JG 1 (1st Group of \"Jagdgeschwader\" 1 \"Oesau\" — \"1st Fighter Wing\"), which had previously flown the Focke-Wulf Fw 190A. I./JG 1 was transferred to Parchim, which, at the time, was also a base for the Me 262-equipped \"Jagdgeschwader\" 7, some 80 km south-southwest of the Heinkel factory's coastal airfield at \"Marienehe\" (today known as Rostock-Schmarl, northwest of the Rostock city centre), where the pilots could pick up their new jets and start intensive training beginning in March 1945. This was all happening simultaneously with unrelenting Allied air attacks on the transportation network, aircraft production facilities and petroleum, oil, and lubrication (POL) product-making installations of the Third Reich – these had now begun to also target the Luftwaffe's jet and rocket fighter bases as well. On 7 April, the USAAF bombed the field at Parchim with 134 B-17 Flying Fortresses, inflicting serious losses and damage to the infrastructure. Two days later, I./JG 1 moved to an airfield at nearby Ludwigslust and, less than a week later, moved again to an airfield at Leck, near the Danish border. On 8 April, II./JG 1 moved to Heinkel's aforementioned Rostock northwestern coastal suburban factory airfield and started converting from Fw 190As to He 162s. III./JG 1 was also scheduled to convert to the He 162, but the \"Gruppe\" disbanded on 24 April and its personnel were used to fill in the vacancies in other units. The He 162 first saw combat in mid-April 1945. On 19 April, Feldwebel Günther Kirchner shot down a Royal Air Force fighter, and although the victory was credited to a flak unit, the British pilot confirmed during interrogation that he had been downed by an He 162. The Heinkel and its pilot were lost as well, shot down by an RAF Hawker Tempest while on approach to land, a point at which Allied pilots targeted German jets. Though still in training, I./JG 1 had begun to score kills in mid-April, but had also lost 13 He 162s and 10 pilots. Ten of the aircraft were operational losses, caused by flameouts and sporadic structural failures. Only two of the 13 aircraft were actually shot down. The He 162's 30-minute fuel capacity also caused problems, as at least two of JG 1's pilots were killed attempting emergency deadstick landings after exhausting their fuel. During its exceedingly brief operational service career, the 162's cartridge-type ejector seat was employed under combat conditions by JG 1's pilots at least three times. The first recorded use was by Lt Rudolf Schmidt on April 20, with Fw. Erwin Steeb ejecting from his 162 the following day. Finally, Hptm. Paul-Heinrich Dahne attempted an ejection on April 24, but was killed when the aircraft's cockpit canopy failed to detach. In the last days of April, as the Soviet troops approached, II./JG 1 evacuated from Marienehe and on 2 May joined the I./JG 1 at Leck. On 3 May, all of JG 1's surviving He 162s were restructured into two groups, I. \"Einsatz\" (\"Combat\") and II. \"Sammel\" (\"Collection\"). All JG 1's aircraft were grounded on 5 May, when General Admiral Hans-Georg von Friedeburg signed the surrender of all German armed forces in the Netherlands, Northwest Germany and Denmark. On 6 May, when the British reached their airfields, JG 1 turned their He 162s over to the Allies, and examples were shipped to the U.S., Britain, France, and the Soviet Union for further evaluation. \"Erprobungskommando\" 162 fighters, which had been passed on to JV 44, an elite jet unit under Adolf Galland a few weeks earlier, were all destroyed by their crews to keep them from falling into Allied hands. By the time of the German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945, 120 He 162s had been delivered; a further 200 had been completed and were awaiting collection or flight-testing; and about 600 more were in various stages of production. The difficulties experienced by the He 162 were caused mainly by its rush into production, not by any inherent design flaws. One experienced \"Luftwaffe\" pilot who flew it called it a \"first-class combat aircraft.\" Eric \"Winkle\" Brown of the Fleet Air Arm, who flew a record 486 different types of aircraft, said the He 162 had \"the lightest and most effective aerodynamically balanced controls\" he had experienced. Brown had been warned to treat the rudder with suspicion due to a number of in-flight failures. This warning was passed on by Brown to RAF pilot Flt Lt R A Marks, but was apparently not heeded. On 9 November 1945, during a demonstration flight from RAE Farnborough, one of the fin and rudder assemblies broke off at the start of a low-level roll causing the aircraft to crash into Oudenarde Barracks, Aldershot, killing Marks and a soldier on the ground.", "The Mistel series of fighter/powered bomb composite ground-attack aircraft pre-dated the He 162 by over two years, and the \"Mistel\" 5 project study in early 1945 proposed the mating of an He 162A-2 to the Arado E.377A flying bomb. The fighter would sit atop the bomb, which would itself be equipped with two underwing-mounted BMW 003 turbojets. This ungainly combination would take off on a sprung trolley fitted with tandem wheels on each side for the \"main gear\" equivalent, derived from that used on the first eight Arado Ar 234 prototypes, with all three jets running. Immediately after take-off, the trolley would be jettisoned, and the \"Mistel\" would then fly to within strike range of the designated target. Upon reaching this point, the bomb would be aimed squarely at the target and then released, with the jet turning back for home. The \"Mistel\" 5 remained a \"paper project\", as the Arado bomb never progressed beyond the blueprint stage." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Formation.", "Composition.", "Gneissic banding.", "Types.", "Augen gneiss.", "Henderson gneiss.", "Lewisian gneiss.", "Archean and Proterozoic gneiss." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"gneiss\" has been used in English since at least 1757. It is borrowed from the German word \"Gneis\", formerly also spelled \"Gneiss\", which is probably derived from the Middle High German noun \"spark\" (so called because the rock glitters).", "Gneiss is formed from sedimentary or igneous rock exposed to temperatures greater than 320 °C and relatively high pressure.", "Gneissic rocks are usually medium- to coarse-foliated; they are largely recrystallized but do not carry large quantities of micas, chlorite or other platy minerals. Gneisses that are metamorphosed igneous rocks or their equivalent are termed granite gneisses, diorite gneisses, etc. Gneiss rocks may also be named after a characteristic component such as garnet gneiss, biotite gneiss, albite gneiss, etc. \"Orthogneiss\" designates a gneiss derived from an igneous rock, and \"paragneiss\" is one from a sedimentary rock. \"Gneissose\" rocks have properties similar to gneiss.", "Gneiss appears to be striped in bands like parallel lines in shape, called gneissic banding. The banding is developed under high temperature and pressure conditions. The minerals are arranged into layers that appear as bands in cross section. The appearance of layers, called 'compositional banding', occurs because the layers, or bands, are of different composition. The darker bands have relatively more mafic minerals (those containing more magnesium and iron). The lighter bands contain relatively more felsic minerals (silicate minerals, containing more of the lighter elements, such as silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, and potassium). A common cause of the banding is the subjection of the protolith (the original rock material that undergoes metamorphism) to extreme shearing force, a sliding force similar to the pushing of the top of a deck of cards in one direction, and the bottom of the deck in the other direction. These forces stretch out the rock like a plastic, and the original material is spread out into sheets. Some banding is formed from original rock material (protolith) that is subjected to extreme temperature and pressure and is composed of alternating layers of sandstone (lighter) and shale (darker), which is metamorphosed into bands of quartzite and mica. Another cause of banding is \"metamorphic differentiation\", which separates different materials into different layers through chemical reactions, a process not fully understood. Not all gneiss rocks have detectable banding. In kyanite gneiss, crystals of kyanite appear as random clumps in what is mainly a plagioclase (albite) matrix.", "", "Augen gneiss, from the, meaning \"eyes\", is a coarse-grained gneiss resulting from metamorphism of granite, which contains characteristic elliptic or lenticular shear-bound feldspar porphyroclasts, normally microcline, within the layering of the quartz, biotite and magnetite bands.", "Henderson gneiss is found in North Carolina and South Carolina, US, east of the Brevard Shear Zone. It has deformed into two sequential forms. The second, more warped, form is associated with the Brevard Fault, and the first deformation results from displacement to the southwest.", "Most of the Outer Hebrides of Scotland have a bedrock formed from Lewisian gneiss. In addition to the Outer Hebrides, they form basement deposits on the Scottish mainland west of the Moine Thrust and on the islands of Coll and Tiree. These rocks are largely igneous in origin, mixed with metamorphosed marble, quartzite and mica schist with later intrusions of basaltic dikes and granite magma.", "Gneisses of Archean and Proterozoic age occur in the Baltic Shield." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battle.", "Aftermath.", "Notes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "On 1 November 1943, the US 3rd Marine Division landed at Cape Torokina in Empress Augusta Bay on Bougainville. Following in the wake of Allied successes in the Solomon Islands campaign, the landings were undertaken as part of an Allied plan to establish a number of airbases in the region, to project airpower towards the Japanese stronghold around Rabaul, the reduction and isolation of which was a key part of Operation Cartwheel. The bay had been chosen because it was at the outer limit of Allied fighter plane range, and because the numerically-superior Japanese 17th Army was concentrated at other, more strategic sites in the north and the south. The Marines were backed by Task Force 39, composed of cruisers and destroyers, commanded by Rear Admiral Aaron S. Merrill. Merrill's force was tasked with covering the vulnerable transports and minelayers from air attack and from attack from the sea. The Japanese responded with air attacks and a powerful naval force from Rabaul commanded by Admiral Sentaro Omori, attempting to replicate the success they had achieved at Savo Island in August 1942, in response to Allied amphibious landings in the eastern Solomon Islands. The Japanese formation was hastily assembled from whatever ships were on hand, many of which had never trained or fought together before. Omori's force consisted of the heavy cruisers and, the light cruisers and, and the destroyers,,,,, and. These were organised into a cruiser division (Cruiser Division 5), which contained the two heavy cruisers, and two screens (left and right) with a light cruiser and three destroyers. The left screen was commanded by Rear Admiral Matsuji Ijuin, while the right was under Rear Admiral Morikazu Osugi's command. Initially, this force had included five destroyer transports laden with troops for a counter-landing, but following several delays, the decision was made for the transports to return to Rabaul. This force would later land around Koromokina Lagoon on 7/8 November. Ranged against the Japanese force was Merrill's Task Force 39. The heart of US Task Force 39 was Cruiser Division (CruDiv) 12 –,,, and. These four cruisers were officially categorized as light cruisers; however, they were nearly the size of the Japanese heavy cruisers and were armed with twelve radar-aimed rapid fire guns. Task Force 39 also included Destroyer Squadron (DesRon) 23, which consisted of two destroyer divisions (DesDiv): DesDiv 45 –,,, and DesDiv 46 –,,,. Merrill had overall command of the force, as well as directly commanding CruDiv 12, while Captain Arleigh Burke commanded DesDiv 45 and Commander Bernard Austin was in command of DesDiv 46.", "As the Japanese ships sortied towards Cape Torokina, the Americans were already in the process of withdrawing most of their landing craft and troop transports from around Cape Torokina, and assembling them to the southwest of Empress Augusta Bay. The 12 transports were ordered to depart around 18:00, while four cargo vessels, still only partially unloaded, remained. The US minelayers operating off Cape Moltke were also withdrawn. Meanwhile, US reconnaissance aircraft had detected Omori's force, and in response Merrill's force, which had been shelling Japanese positions around Buka in northern Bougainville the day before, began steaming north from around Vella Lavella to intercept, departing before midnight on 1/2 November. They subsequently established themselves to block the entrance to Empress Augusta Bay. The Japanese approached from the northwest, aiming to bombard the invasion force in their transports and on the shore. At 01:30 on 2 November, \"Haguro\" was struck amidships by an American aerial attack. The resulting damage necessitated a significant reduction in speed for the entire formation. The Americans made radar contact at 02:27 on 2 November. Merrill subsequently shook his force out into three columns, sending Burke's destroyers to attack the Japanese northern flank, while the cruisers turned about to remain out of torpedo range, with the remaining destroyers from Austin's group being tasked with launching a torpedo attack on the southern flank. From the leading position in the American formation, Burke sent the four destroyers of DesDiv 45 forward for a torpedo attack and at 02:46 fired a salvo toward the Japanese. Around the same time, the \"Sendai\"-led division fired eight torpedoes. Each attack was detected and both groups maneuvered away from the torpedoes. The Japanese fleet became separated in the confusion into three groups. Merrill then ordered DesDiv 46 to attack. Unprepared, \"Foote\" misinterpreted the command and was separated from the other ships. Despite her captain's best efforts, \"Foote\" was unable to effectively rejoin the fight and was in some danger of colliding with other friendly ships. At around 02:50, when it became apparent that DesDiv 45's torpedo attack had failed to achieve complete surprise, the American cruisers opened fire, quickly disabling \"Sendai\", whose rudder jammed. After firing her torpedoes, \"Samidare\" collided with \"Shiratsuyu\". \"Samidare\" and \"Shiratsuyu\" were subsequently forced to retire from the battle with \"Samidare\" receiving 5-inch hits at 03:00. \"Myōkō\" also collided with \"Hatsukaze\", slicing off her bows. \"Myōkō\" had significant damage from this collision. Meanwhile, \"Haguro\" was hit by several cruiser shells, only a few of which detonated. Relying on visual tracking of their targets, with difficulty, the Japanese cruisers pinpointed the American cruisers and opened fire at 03:13. At 03:20 the Cruiser Squadron fired several torpedoes at CruDiv 12. At 03:27 numerous hits on CruDiv 12 were erroneously reported to Omori – but all actually missed their targets. The Americans were also having problems as \"Spence\" and \"Thatcher\" also collided but were able to continue in the battle. \"Foote\" was struck by a torpedo which blew off the stern of the ship, leaving 19 dead and 17 wounded. Subsequently, the drifting \"Foote\" became a navigational hazard to the other ships adding to the confusion of the battle. \"Foote\" was busy for the remainder of the engagement trying to stay afloat and fighting off an enemy aircraft attack. Without fire control radar, the Japanese depended heavily on flares to illuminate their targets. CruDiv 12 repeatedly maneuvered to avoid starshells fired by the opposing ships but was finally successfully illuminated by brilliant flares dropped by Japanese snooper aircraft. Between 03:20 and 03:25 \"Denver\" received three 8-inch hits which failed to detonate. Also, while closing with a group of Japanese destroyers in the center, \"Spence\" was hit at the waterline by a shell that failed to explode. At this point the Japanese fire was heavy and increasingly accurate. In response, the American cruisers began maneuvering behind a smoke screen which successfully interfered with the Japanese gunnery. Throughout the battle the American destroyers experienced difficulty maintaining contact with each other and several times came close to firing on friendly ships, underscoring the difficulty in fighting night actions even when equipped with radar and IFF systems. A later evaluation of the battle revealed that DesDiv 46 missed an opportunity to torpedo the center group of Japanese ships because of uncertain identification. DesDiv 46 then turned north and concentrated fire on \"Sendai\". By 03:37, Omori, believing that he had sunk a heavy cruiser and worried about being caught in daylight by US carrier aircraft, ordered a retreat. Merrill's cruisers closed to bombard the Japanese forces withdrawing to the west, engaging \"Hatsukaze\" at over, but they were unable to score any hits. Around 04:00, DesDiv 45 and 46 engaged in a confused melee with retreating Japanese stragglers – sinking \"Sendai\" and driving off the remaining northern group ships. Just before 04:13 \"Spence\" lost speed due to water in the fuel line and fell out of formation. The American ships reported many hits on the enemy contacts. DesDiv 45 fired on the limping \"Spence\" in error, causing no damage. CruDiv 12 and \"Spence\" engaged a Japanese straggler at 05:10. Unable to distinguish between the straggler and \"Spence\" the cruisers ceased fire. By 05:19, DesDiv 45 came to the aid of \"Spence\" which by this time had almost exhausted its ammunition. The Japanese straggler, the heavily damaged \"Hatsukaze\", exploded and sank. At daylight the pursuit was broken off and all ships, many low on fuel and ammunition, were ordered to rendezvous with the hapless \"Foote\", as Merrill was concerned about the possibility of his ships being exposed to air attack. This proved prescient, as a heavy Japanese air attack, consisting of over 100 aircraft, was launched from Rabaul early in the morning, directed on the US ships that had converged around \"Foote\". This was fought off with assistance from US and New Zealand shore-based aircraft, with heavy losses being inflicted on the attacking aircraft. The Japanese ships scored two hits on \"Montpelier\", inflicting nine wounded. \"Foote\" was subsequently towed to Tulagi for repairs.", "The battle ended in a complete victory for the US naval force, in what author Leo Marriott describes as the \"last major naval action...[of]...the Solomons campaign\". Not only did they deflect the Japanese away from the vulnerable transport ships and landing craft around Cape Torokina, but they had also inflicted significant damage on their opponents. For the loss of 19 killed and 26 wounded, and three ships damaged, the US ships sank one light cruiser and one destroyer and damaged two cruisers and two destroyers. Japanese casualties have been reported as being between 198 and 658 killed. Up to 25 Japanese aircraft were shot down in the air attack following the naval action. The Japanese subsequently sent a submarine to locate survivors; none were found from \"Hatsukaze\", but some were rescued from \"Sendai\". In the aftermath, the Japanese ships returned to Rabaul. There, they were joined by four cruisers and more destroyers from Truk for another attack on the Allied landing forces at Bougainville. On 5 November, however, two US aircraft carriers raided Rabaul, heavily damaging four heavy cruisers, which had to withdraw to Truk. This ended the Japanese warship threat to the Allied landing forces at Bougainville. Omori was later relieved of his command as a result of the failed action. Following this, US ground forces secured their beachhead around Cape Torokina and the perimeter was subsequently expanded. A PT boat base was established on Puruata Island and several airbases were built around the Cape Torokina perimeter. These were subsequently employed in the reduction of Rabaul. By the start of February 1944, the US had built up a force of over 400 aircraft on Bougainville; before the month ended the Japanese air defenses around Rabaul had been defeated. On the ground, throughout the remainder of 1943, the US Marines and Japanese fought several minor land battles around the perimeter, culminating in a large scale Japanese counterattack in March 1944. This counterattack was fought off with heavy losses.", "Footnotes Citations" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Chinese exiles.", "Lithuanian exiles.", "Administrative and municipal status.", "Economy.", "Transportation.", "Military.", "Sites.", "Sports.", "Geography.", "Climate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Abakansky \"ostrog\" (), also known as Abakansk (), was built at the mouth of the Abakan River in 1675. In the 1780s, the \"selo\" of Ust-Abakanskoye () was established in this area. It was granted town status and given its current name on 30 April 1931.", "In 1940, Russian construction workers found ancient ruins during the construction of a highway between Abakan and Askiz. When the site was excavated by Soviet archaeologists in 1941–1945, they realized that they had discovered a building absolutely unique for the area: a large (1500 square meters) Chinese-style, likely Han Dynasty era (206 BC–220 AD) palace. The identity of the high-ranking personage who lived luxuriously in Chinese style, far outside of the borders of the Han Empire, has remained a matter for discussion ever since. Russian archaeologist L.A. Yevtyukhova surmised, based on circumstantial evidence, that the palace may have been the residence of Li Ling, a Chinese general who had been defeated by the Xiongnu in 99 BCE, and defected to them as a result. While this opinion has remained popular, other views have been expressed as well. More recently, for example, it was claimed by A.A. Kovalyov as the residence of Lu Fang (), a Han throne pretender from the Guangwu era.", "In the late 18th and during the 19th century, Lithuanian participants in the 1794, 1830–1831, and 1863 rebellions against Russian rule were exiled to Abakan. A group of camps was established where prisoners were forced to work in the coal mines. After Stalin's death, Lithuanian exiles from the nearby settlements moved in.", "Abakan is the capital of the republic. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the City of Abakan—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts As a municipal division, the City of Abakan is incorporated as Abakan Urban Okrug.", "The city has a river port, industry enterprises, Katanov State University of Khakasia, and three theatres. Furthermore, it has a commercial center that produces footwear, foodstuffs, and metal products.", "Abakan (together with Tayshet) was a terminal of the major Abakan-Taishet Railway. Now it is an important railway junction. The city is served by the Abakan International Airport.", "The 100th Air Assault Brigade of the Russian Airborne Troops was based in the city until circa 1996.", "Abakan's sites of interest include:", "Bandy, similar to hockey, is the one of the most popular sports in the city. Sayany-Khakassia was playing in the top-tier Super League in the 2012–13 season but was relegated for the 2013–14 season and has been playing in the Russian Bandy Supreme League ever since. Russian Government Cup was played here in 1988 and in 2012.", "", "Abakan has a borderline humid continental (Köppen climate classification \"Dwb\")/cold semi-arid climate (Köppen \"BSk\"). Temperature differences between seasons are extreme, which is typical for Siberia. Precipitation is concentrated in the summer and is less common because of rain shadow from nearby mountains." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Administrative and municipal status.", "Economy.", "Transportation.", "Climate.", "Notable people.", "Twin towns – sister cities.", "Partner cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Kaluga, founded in the mid-14th century as a border fortress on the southwestern borders of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, first appears in the historical record in chronicles in the 14th century as \"Koluga\"; the name comes from Old Russian \"kaluga\" - \"bog, quagmire\". During the period of Tartar raids it was the western end of the Oka bank defense line. The Great stand on the Ugra River was fought just to the west. In the Middle Ages Kaluga was a minor settlement owned by the Princes Vorotynsky. The ancestral home of these princes lies southwest of the modern city. On 19 January 1777 the Kaluga drama theatre opened its first theatrical season, established with the direct participation of the Governor-General M. N. Krechetnikov. Kaluga is connected to Moscow by a railway line and by the ancient roadway, the Kaluga Road (now partly within Moscow (as Starokaluzhskoye Shosse - the Old Kaluga Highway), partly the A101 road). This road offered Napoleon his favored escape route from the Moscow trap in the fall of 1812. But General Kutuzov repelled Napoleon's advances in this direction and forced the retreating French army onto the old Smolensk road, previously devastated by the French during their invasion of Russia. On several occasions during the Russian Empire Kaluga was the residence of political exiles and prisoners such as the last Crimean khan Şahin Giray (1786), the Kyrgyz sultan Arigazi-Abdul-Aziz (1828), the Georgian princess Thecla (1834–1835), and the Avar leader Imam Shamil (1859–1868). The German army briefly occupied Kaluga during the climactic Battle of Moscow, as part of Operation Barbarossa. The city was under full or partial German occupation from October 12th to December 30, 1941. In 1944, the Soviet Government used its local military buildings to intern hundreds of Polish prisoners of war — soldiers of the Polish underground Home Army — whom the advancing Soviet front had arrested in the area around Vilnius.", "Kaluga is the administrative center of the oblast. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with seventy-two rural localities, incorporated as the City of Kaluga—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Kaluga, together with one rural locality in Ferzikovsky District (the \"selo\" of Novozhdamirovo), is incorporated as Kaluga Urban Okrug.", "In Kaluga, Kaluga Turbine Plant is located, is part of the company Power Machines; Kaluga Machine Works manufactures track machines for railways, plant a foreign company MACO Door & Window. In recent years Kaluga has become one center of the Russian automotive industry, with a number of foreign companies opening assembly plants in the area: On November 28, 2007, Volkswagen Group opened a new assembly plant in Kaluga, which has been further expanded by 2009. The investment has reached more than 500 million Euro. The plant currently assembles the Volkswagen Passat, Škoda Fabia and Škoda Rapid. On October 15, 2007, the Volvo Group broke ground on a new truck assembly plant, that was inaugurated on January 19, 2009. The plant has a yearly capacity of 10,000 Volvo and 5,000 Renault trucks. On December 12, 2007, PSA Peugeot Citroën announced its decision to build a new assembly plant in Kaluga. By March 2010 the plant was operational, building Peugeot 308s for the Russian market and would also produce Citroën and Mitsubishi models.", "The city is served by the Grabtsevo Airport. Since 1899, there is a railway connection between Kaluga and Moscow. Public transportation is represented by the trolleybuses, buses, and \"marshrutkas\" (routed taxis).", "Kaluga has a humid temperate continental (Köppen climate classification: \"Dfb\"), with warm and humid summers; and long, cold and snowy winters. Winter extreme records can be as low as, while summer heat may reach up, but usually it's about between and during winter and between and during summer in Kaluga.", "Kaluga's most famous resident was rocket science pioneer Konstantin Tsiolkovsky. Other notable people include:", "Kaluga is twinned with:", "In addition to twin towns, Kaluga cooperates with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Design phase.", "Production and improvements.", "Additional testing.", "Operational history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The MiG-1 was designed in response to a requirement for a high-altitude fighter with an inline engine issued by the VVS in January 1939. Initially the aircraft, designated \"I-200\", was designed in the Polikarpov construction bureau. Work started in June 1939, under the direction of Nikolai Polikarpov and his assistant M. Tetivikin. Polikarpov himself preferred radial engines and promoted his I-180 design at that time, but when the powerful Mikulin AM-37 inline engine became available, he decided to use it in a fighter. The approach that he selected was to build the smallest possible aircraft around the intended powerplant, thereby minimizing weight and drag — the philosophy of the light fighter. As specified, the aircraft was to be capable of reaching 670 km/h (417 mph). In August 1939, Polikarpov fell out of favor with Joseph Stalin and as a result, when Polikarpov went in November 1939 to tour Germany's aviation works, the Soviet authorities decided to scatter his construction team and create a new Experimental Construction Section (OKO), headed by Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich, which remained formally subordinated to the Polikarpov bureau until June 1940. Further work upon the I-200 design was assigned to Mikoyan and Gurevich, who later became recognized — not with full justice — as its designers. The MiG-1 was a low-wing monoplane with a tailwheel undercarriage of mixed construction. Due to shortages of light alloys, the rear fuselage was made from wood, but the front fuselage, from the propeller to the rear of the cockpit, was a welded steel tube truss covered by duralumin. The bulk of the wing was wooden, but the center section was all-metal with a steel I-section main spar. The wing used a Clark YH profile. It was evenly tapered with rounded tips and the outer wing panels had 5° of dihedral. All three landing gear wheels retracted hydraulically; the main units inwards into the wing center section. The cockpit was situated well aft, which seriously limited forward vision when landing and taxiing. The AM-37 engine was not yet available and the less powerful V-12 Mikulin AM-35A had to be substituted. It had six exhaust ejectors, one for each pair of cylinders, that provided some additional thrust. It drove a VISh-22Ye controllable-pitch propeller in diameter. The air intakes for the supercharger were in the wing roots and the oil cooler was on the port side of the engine cowling. The radiator was underneath the cockpit. Armament included two fuselage-mounted ShKAS machine guns and one UBS machine gun. The result was a highly conventional aircraft that first flew on schedule on 5 April 1940 at the Khodynka Aerodrome in Moscow with chief test pilot Arkadij Ekatov at the controls. On 24 May the first prototype attained a speed of 648.5 km/h (402.9 mph) at 6,900 m (22,638 ft). It could not, however, attain the speed originally specified by the Air Force with this engine. The second prototype took to the air on 9 May, but the third aircraft, the first to be armed, was forced to wait until 6 June, as problems with its synchronization gear prolonged the ground firing tests. On 5 August was reached at using maximum boost. Time to altitude figures were 5.1 minutes to and 7.2 minutes to and speeds at lower altitudes were at and at.", "The I-200 was ordered into production almost immediately, on 31 May 1940. In contrast to the other competing designs, the I-26 (Yak-1) and I-301 (LaGG-3), the I-200 successfully completed the state trials in August on its first attempt. But the trials revealed a number of serious defects, including inadequate visibility when taxiing, poor-quality plexiglas in the canopy obscuring the pilot's view, heavy controls, poor longitudinal stability, difficulty in opening the canopy, an excessively hot cockpit and a \"dangerous propensity to flick from a simple stall into a spin from which it was almost impossible to recover\". A number of improvements were ordered to be made to the aircraft as a result of the deficiencies discovered during the trials, but only a few of them were able to be implemented before production began as the VVS was very anxious to get modern fighters into service. These included an additional air intake on the starboard side of the nose for the oil cooler, rubber sheaths around the fuel tanks to make them self-sealing, two underwing bomb racks each capable of carrying a FAB-100 bomb, a PBP-1 gunsight and each ShKAS was given 375 rounds and the UBS 300 rounds. From the ninth aircraft onwards the side-opening canopy was replaced by a rear-sliding canopy that could be jettisoned in flight. On 9 December 1940 the first 100 I-200s were designated as the MiG-1 (after the initials of Mikoyan and Gurevich). The improvement process continued throughout the production run, though they were not immediately implemented in the production line, but were instead incorporated in a fourth prototype for evaluation. This aircraft first flew on 29 October 1940 and was a significant improvement over the I-200s then in production. It passed its State acceptance trials and its improvements were incorporated in the production line from the 101st I-200. These were designated as the MiG-3 on 9 December, although the first production MiG-3 was not completed until 20 December 1940.", "The I-200 prototypes were used to evaluate a number of proposals. For example, the second prototype was fitted with a prototype of the AM-37 engine and first flew with that engine on 6 January 1941. It experienced severe vibration problems and, despite efforts to cure the problems, failed during a flight on 7 May, and was destroyed in the ensuing crash. The third prototype was generally used for armament trials, experimenting with RS-82 rockets among other weapons. For another trial it was equipped with the experimental MP-3 autocannon carried underneath the wings in external pods and redesignated as the IP-201. The 12.7 mm UBS gun was removed for these tests and the space freed up was used to install an extra fuel tank. Initially the cannon had the low rate of fire of only 300 rounds per minute, but this was soon doubled and the gun was renamed the MP-6. Installation of the guns was difficult, despite the aircraft's metal outer wing panels, and the wings deformed when the cannon were first mounted. It made its first and only flight on 1 December 1940 carrying two MP-6s and two 12.7 mm AP-12.7 machine guns, but a blocked fuel line caused a forced landing before the guns could be fired. Testing on a variety of other aircraft revealed very unsatisfactory performance from the guns and their development was canceled. The designers were arrested on 15 May 1941 and executed on 28 October 1941.", "On 3 December 1940 the VVS ordered that the 41st Fighter Regiment (\"istrebitel'nyy aviatsionnyy polk\"), based at the Crimean town of Kacha, was to conduct operational trials on the I-200 and that they were to be transferred to the 146th Fighter Regiment at Yevpatoria, also in the Crimea, for pilot training after the conclusion of the trials. By 22 February 1941, 89 had been issued to regular fighter units, notably the 89th Fighter Regiment at Kaunas, Lithuania and the 41st Fighter Regiment at Białystok, Poland, both places under Soviet occupation since 1939–40. On 1 June 1941 they were spread out a bit more, with 31 in the Baltic Military District, 37 in the Western Special Military District, one in the Kiev Military District and eight in the Odessa Military District for a total of 77 on hand, of which only 55 were operational. An additional eight MiG-1s were assigned to the Soviet Navy. However, only four pilots were trained to handle either the MiG-1 or the MiG-3. Little is known of the performance of the MiG-1 in combat as most were likely destroyed during the opening days of Operation Barbarossa. However, one was still in the inventory of the VVS as late as 1944 when it was recorded as withdrawn that year." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Career." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Senenmut was of low commoner birth, born to literate provincial parents, Ramose and Hatnofer (or \"Hatnefret\") from Iuny (modern Armant). Senenmut is known to have had three brothers—Amenemhet, Minhotep and Pairy—and 2 sisters—Ahhotep and Nofrethor. However, only Minhotep is named outside chapel TT71 and tomb TT353, in an inventory on the lid of a chest found in the burial chamber of Ramose and Hatnofer. More information is known about Senenmut than many other non-royal Egyptians because the joint tomb of his parents (the construction of which Senenmut supervised himself) was discovered intact by the Metropolitan Museum in the mid-1930s and preserved. Christine Meyer has offered compelling evidence to show that Senenmut was a bachelor for his entire life: for instance, Senenmut is portrayed alone with his parents in the funerary stelae of his tombs; he was depicted alone, rather than with a wife, in the vignette of Chapter 110 from the Book of the Dead in tomb 353 and, finally, it was one of Senenmut's own brothers, and not one of his sons, who was charged with the execution of Senenmut's funerary rites.", "Senenmut first enters the historical record on a national level as the \"Steward of the God's Wife\" (Hatshepsut) and \"Steward of the King's Daughter\" (Neferure). Some Egyptologists place Senenmut's entry into royal service during the reign of Thutmose I, but it is far more likely that it occurred during either the reign of Thutmose II or while Hatshepsut was still regent and not pharaoh. After Hatshepsut was crowned pharaoh, Senenmut was given more prestigious titles and became \"high steward of the king\". Senenmut supervised the quarrying, transport, and erection of twin obelisks, at the time the tallest in the world, at the entrance to the Temple of Karnak. Neither stands today though they were commemorated in the Chapelle Rouge. Karnak's Red Chapel, or \"Chapelle Rouge\", was intended as a barque shrine and may have originally stood between the two obelisks. (The remaining obelisks of Hatshepsut were erected in Year Fifteen as part of her Heb Sed Festival; one still stands in the Temple of Karnak whilst the other is in pieces, having fallen many centuries ago.) Senenmut claims to be the chief architect of Hatshepsut's works at Deir el-Bahri. Senenmut's masterpiece building project was the Mortuary Temple complex of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri. It was designed and implemented by Senenmut on a site on the west bank of the Nile, close to the entrance to the Valley of the Kings. The focal point was the Djeser-Djeseru or \"the Sublime of the Sublimes\" mortuary temple-('Holy (of) Holiests'), a colonnaded structure of perfect harmony built nearly one thousand years before the Parthenon. Djeser-Djeseru sits atop a series of terraces that were once graced with gardens. It is built into a cliff face that rises sharply above it. Djeser-Djeseru and the other buildings of the Deir el-Bahri complex are considered to be among the great buildings of the ancient world. The building complex design is thought to be derived from the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II built nearly 500 years earlier at Deir-el-Bahri. Senenmut's importance at the royal court under Hatshepsut is unquestionable: Senenmut's Theban Tomb 71 was started late in Year 7, \"shortly after Hatshepsut's accession, the death of Hatnofer, and Hatnofer's internment with the exhumed remains of several family members\", while the \"excavation on the chapel seems to have continued until after Year 7\" of the female pharaoh's reign. Senenmut's tomb appears to have enjoyed Hatshepsut's favour and \"his portrayal in the Punt reliefs certainly postdates Year 9\" of Hatshepsut. The earliest known star map in Egypt is found as a main part of a decor in the Tomb of Senenmut. The astronomical ceiling in Senenmut’s tomb (TT 353) is divided into two sections, representing the northern and southern skies. This indicates another dimension of his career, suggesting that he was an ancient astronomer as well. Some Egyptologists have theorized that Senenmut was Hatshepsut's lover. Facts that are typically cited to support the theory are that Hatshepsut allowed Senenmut to place his name and an image of himself behind one of the main doors in Djeser-Djeseru, and the presence of graffiti in an unfinished tomb used as a rest house by the workers of Djeser-Djeseru depicting a male and a hermaphrodite in pharaonic regalia engaging in an explicit sexual act. Although it is not known where he is buried, Senenmut had a chapel and a tomb constructed for himself. The chapel is at (TT71) in the Tombs of the Nobles and the tomb is at (TT353), near Hatshepsut's mortuary temple, and contains a famous star ceiling. They were both heavily vandalized during the reign of Thutmose III, perhaps during the latter's campaign to eradicate all trace of Hatshepsut's memory. Neither tomb by itself was complete, as would be expected of an Egyptian tomb for a person of high standing. TT71 is a typical Theban Tomb chapel, but does not have burial chambers. TT353 is fully underground without any overground chapel. They complement each other and are only, together, a full burial monument." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Notation.", "Staccatissimo." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 20th-century music, a dot placed above or below a note indicates that it should be played staccato, and a wedge is used for the more emphatic staccatissimo. However, before 1850, dots, dashes, and wedges were all likely to have the same meaning, even though some theorists from as early as the 1750s distinguished different degrees of staccato through the use of dots and dashes, with the dash indicating a shorter, sharper note, and the dot a longer, lighter one. A number of signs came to be used in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to discriminate more subtle nuances of staccato. These signs involve various combinations of dots, vertical and horizontal dashes, vertical and horizontal wedges, and the like, but attempts to standardize these signs have not generally been successful. The example below illustrates the scope of the staccato dot: \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f </score> In the first measure, the pairs of notes are in the same musical part (or voice) since they are on a common stem. The staccato applies to both notes of the pairs. In the second measure, the pairs of notes are stemmed separately indicating two different parts, so the staccato applies only to the upper note. The opposite musical articulation of staccato is legato, signifying long and continuous notes. There is an intermediate articulation called either mezzo staccato or non legato. By default, in the music notation program Sibelius, \"staccatos shorten a note by 50%.\"", "In musical notation, staccatissimo (plural: \"staccatissimi\" or the anglicised form \"staccatissimos\") indicates that the notes are to be played extremely separated and distinct, a superlative staccato. This can be notated with little pikes over or under the notes, depending on stem direction, as in this example from Bruckner's Symphony No. 0 in D minor: \\new Score { </score> Alternatively, it can be notated by writing the word \"staccatissimo\" or the abbreviation \"staccatiss.\" over the staff. A few composers, such as Mozart, have used staccato dots accompanied by a written instruction \"staccatissimo\" when they mean the passage to be played \"staccatissimo\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classical string instruments.", "Guitar.", "Synthesizers.", "Vocal music." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In music for Classical string instruments, legato is an articulation that often refers to notes played with a full bow, and played with the shortest silence, often barely perceptible, between notes. The player achieves this through controlled wrist movements of the bowing hand, often masked or enhanced with vibrato. Such a legato style of playing can also be associated with portamento.", "In guitar playing (apart from classical guitar) legato is used interchangeably as a label for both musical articulation and a particular application of technique—playing musical phrases using the left hand to play the notes—using techniques such as glissando, string bending, hammer-ons and pull-offs instead of picking to sound the notes. The fact that the same finger is both setting the string vibrating and setting the pitch leads to smoother transitions between notes than when one hand is used to mark pitch while the other strikes the string. Legato \"technique\" to provide legato \"articulation\" on electric guitar generally requires playing notes that are close and on the same string, following the first note with others that are played by hammer-ons and pull-offs. Some guitar virtuosos (notably Allan Holdsworth, Shawn Lane and Brett Garsed) developed their legato technique to the extent that they could perform extremely complex passages involving any permutation of notes on a string at extreme tempos, and particularly in the case of Holdsworth, tend to eschew pull-offs entirely for what some feel is a detrimental effect on guitar tone as the string is pulled slightly sideways. The term \"hammer-ons from nowhere\" is commonly employed when crossing strings and relying solely on fretting hand strength to produce a note but on a plucked string. Many guitar virtuosos are well-versed in the legato technique, as it allows for rapid and \"clean\" runs. Multiple hammer-ons and pull-offs together are sometimes also referred to colloquially as \"rolls,\" a reference to the fluid sound of the technique. A rapid series of hammer-ons and pull-offs between a single pair of notes is called a trill. Legato on guitar is commonly associated with playing more notes within a beat than the stated timing, i.e., playing 5 (a quintuplet) or 7 (a septuplet) notes against a quarter-note instead of the usual even number or triplet. This gives the passage an unusual timing and when played slowly an unusual sound. However, this is less noticeable by ear when played fast, as legato usually is. There is a fine line between legato and two-hand finger tapping, in some cases making the two techniques harder to distinguish by ear. Generally, legato adds a more fluid, smooth sound to a passage.", "In synthesizers legato is a type of monophonic operation. In contrast to the typical monophonic mode where every new note articulates the sound by restarting the envelope generators, in legato mode the envelopes are not re-triggered if the new note is played \"legato\" (with the previous note still depressed). This causes the initial transient from the attack and decay phases to sound only once for an entire legato sequence of notes. Envelopes reaching the sustain stage remain there until the final note is released.", "In Classical singing, legato means a string of sustained vowels with minimal interruption from consonants. It is a key characteristic of the bel canto singing style that prevailed among voice teachers and singers during the 18th century and the first four decades of the 19th century. Usually referred to as \"the line\", a good, smooth legato is still necessary for successful classical singers. In Western Classical vocal music, singers generally use it on any phrase without explicit articulation marks. Usually the most prevalent issue with vocal legato is maintaining the \"line\" across registers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Comparison with other fighters.", "Production.", "Operational history.", "Variants.", "Surviving aircraft." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The large number of defects noted during flight testing of the MiG-1 forced Mikoyan and Gurevich to make a number of modifications to the design. Testing was done on a full-size aircraft in the T-1 wind tunnel belonging to the Central Aero and Hydrodynamics Institute (TsAGI) to evaluate the problems and their proposed solutions. The first aircraft to see all of these changes applied was the fourth prototype of the I-200. It first flew on 29 October 1940 and was approved for production after passing its State acceptance trials. The first MiG-3, as the improved aircraft was named on 9 December, was completed on 20 December 1940 and another 20 were delivered by the end of the year. These changes included: State acceptance testing of two production aircraft was conducted between 27 January and 26 February 1941. They were found to be over heavier than the MiG-1, which reduced maneuverability and field performance. Time to decreased by over a minute and the service ceiling proved to be less. The MiG-3 was faster at sea level and at altitude. While the ranges reached by both aircraft were farther than that of the older aircraft, they were still less than the required. Mikoyan and Gurevich protested against the range results as their calculations showed that the MiG-3 could reach based on a specific fuel consumption (SFC) of 0.46 kg/km (1.64 lb/mile). During the State acceptance trials the SFC was 0.48 kg/km (1.71 lb/mile) but the operational trials conducted earlier showed a SFC of 0.38 kg/km (1.35 lb/mile). They blamed the deficiency on a failure to use an altitude correction and that the engines had not been properly adjusted. They went as far as arranging for two more flights between Leningrad and Moscow to prove that the MiG-3 could fly 1,000 km (621 mi). Two production aircraft were flown on ranges of and, flying at 90% of maximum speed and at an altitude of, contradicting the report of the NII VVS (\"Naoochno-Issledovatel'skiy Institoot Voyenno-Vozdooshnykh Seel\"—Air Force Scientific Test Institute). Despite the teething problems with the MiG-3, in 1941, one of the aircraft's designers—Mikhail Gurevich—was awarded the State Stalin Prize for his contribution to Soviet aviation. A number of reports had been received about poor quality aircraft received by the regiments which pointed directly at the NII VVS as it was responsible for monitoring the quality of the aircraft delivered to the VVS. On 31 May 1941 the People's Commissariat of Defense decreed that the NII VVS had been negligent. A number of senior managers were demoted and the head of the Institute, Major General A. I. Filin was summarily executed. A number of MiG-3s were found to have unacceptable performance at high altitudes despite being designed as a high-altitude interceptor. The oxygen supply was often insufficient and the stall and spin characteristics were very dangerous, especially to inexperienced pilots. This was demonstrated on 10 April 1941 when three pilots of the 31st Fighter Regiment of the Air Defenses (IAP PVO) attempted to intercept a German high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft over Kaunas, Lithuania flying at. All three aircraft entered irrecoverable spins and the pilots were forced to bail out, one being killed. The NII VVS sent an engineer to investigate and he found that the pilots had flown very few hours on the MiG-3 and that that was their first high-altitude sortie. Other problems included insufficient fuel and oil pressure at altitude due to problems with the pumps.", "The MiG-3's top speed of at was faster than the of the German Messerschmitt Bf 109F-2 in service at the beginning of 1941 and the British Supermarine Spitfire V's. At lower altitudes the MiG's speed advantage disappeared as its maximum speed at sea level was only while the Bf 109F-2 could do. Unfortunately for the MiG-3 and its pilots, aerial combat over the Eastern Front generally took place at low and medium altitudes where it had no speed advantage. The MiG's loaded weight of was greater than the Bf 109F-2's and it was less maneuverable in the horizontal plane than the Bf 109 due to its higher wing loading. This lack of maneuverability was exacerbated by the MiG-3's poor climb performance, its instability at high speeds (which can make aerial gunnery difficult due to the point of aim \"wandering\" and requiring constant pilot input to remain on target), and its underpowered armament. The MiG-3's standard armament was one UBS machine gun and two ShKAS machine guns, all mounted in the engine cowling and synchronized to fire through the propeller arc. In contrast, most versions of the German Messerschmitt Bf 109 that it encountered had one cannon and two machine guns (although the Bf 109F used during Operation Barbarossa had the 15mm MG 151/15, meaning that it was armed little better than the MiG). To remedy this problem, 821 aircraft were built with one 12.7 mm UBK machine gun in a pod under each wing in mid-1941. This lowered its speed by about at all altitudes, which was unpopular with the pilots, some of whom removed the pods. One hundred aircraft were equipped with a pair of UBS machine guns in lieu of the ShKAS weapons. Another 215 aircraft also had just the UBS machine guns but were fitted to carry six RS-82 rockets. A total of 72 aircraft mounted a pair of 20 mm ShVAK cannon. A wide variety of armaments were experimented with by various units at the requests of their pilots or to make up shortages.", "The NKAP (\"Narodnyy komissariat aviatsionnoy promyshlennosti\"—People's Commission of the Aircraft Industry) announced its 1941 production plan on 9 December 1940. Zavod Nr. 1 would be required to build a total of 3,500 in 1941. Zavod Nr. 43 in Kiev would begin construction of the MiG-3 and complete one hundred aircraft by the end of the year and Zavod Nr. 21 in Gor'kiy would start to plan construction of an upgraded version of the MiG-3, although this last program was canceled shortly afterwards. 140 were delivered in January 1941 and Zavod Nr. 1 was on pace to exceed its quota with 496 delivered in July, 562 in August and 450 in September. In October the German advance on Moscow forced the factory, and its OKO, to evacuate to Kuybyshev where production resumed under unsuitable conditions. However, shortly afterwards, Stalin sent a telegram to the directors of the plants building the Ilyushin Il-2 and the MiG-3 demanding more Il-2 production, resulting in MiG-3 production being terminated in favor of the Il-2, with a final thirty aircraft built in 1942 from spares. An additional factor in cancellation of the MiG-3 was that its Mikulin AM-35A engine was closely related to the Il-2's AM-38 allowing production to be quickly switched from one to the other. MiG-3 production at Zavod Nr. 1 had already been planned to be reduced from a NKAP order of 27 August that required the factory to produce 420 fighters in September, declining to 100 in December with Il-2 production ramping up to 250 in December while the former aircraft repair plant at Khodynka Aerodrome was to be transferred to the NKAP, redesignated as Zavod Nr. 165, and begin production of MiG-3s. The German advance disrupted these plans for Zavod 165 and it never produced a single MiG-3.", "MiG-3s were delivered to frontline fighter regiments beginning in the spring of 1941 and were a handful for pilots accustomed to the lower-performance and docile Polikarpov I-152 and I-153 biplanes and the Polikarpov I-16 monoplane. It remained tricky and demanding to fly even after the extensive improvements made over the MiG-1. Many fighter regiments had not kept pace in training pilots to handle the MiG and the rapid pace of deliveries resulted in many units having more MiGs than trained pilots during the German invasion. By 1 June 1941, 1,029 MIG-3s were on strength, but there were only 494 trained pilots. In contrast to the untrained pilots of the 31st Fighter Regiment, those of the 4th Fighter Regiment were able to claim three German high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft shot down before war broke out in June 1941. However high-altitude combat of this sort was to prove to be uncommon on the Eastern Front where most air-to-air engagements were at altitudes well below. At these altitudes the MiG-3 was outclassed by the Bf 109 in all respects, and even by other new Soviet fighters such as the Yakovlev Yak-1. Furthermore, the shortage of ground-attack aircraft in 1941 forced it into that role as well, for which it was totally unsuited. Pilot Alexander E. Shvarev recalled: \"The Mig was perfect at altitudes of 4,000 m and above. But at lower altitudes it was, as they say, 'a cow'. That was the first weakness. The second was its armament: weapons failure dogged this aircraft. The third weakness was its gunsights, which were inaccurate: that's why we closed in as much as we could and fired point blank.\" On 22 June 1941, most MiG-3s and MiG-1s were in the border military districts of the Soviet Union. The Leningrad Military District had 164, 135 were in the Baltic Military District, 233 in the Western Special Military District, 190 in the Kiev Military District and 195 in the Odessa Military District for a total of 917 on hand, of which only 81 were non-operational. An additional 64 MiGs were assigned to Naval Aviation, 38 in the Air Force of the Baltic Fleet and 26 in the Air Force of the Black Sea Fleet. The 4th and 55th Fighter Regiments had most of the MiG-3s assigned to the Odessa Military District and their experiences on the first day of the war may be taken as typical. The 4th, an experienced unit, shot down a Romanian Bristol Blenheim reconnaissance bomber, confirmed by postwar research, and lost one aircraft which crashed into an obstacle on takeoff. The 55th was much less experienced with the MiG-3 and claimed three aircraft shot down, although recent research confirms only one German Henschel Hs 126 was 40% damaged, and suffered three pilots killed and nine aircraft lost. The most unusual case was the pair of MiG-3s dispatched from the 55th on a reconnaissance mission to Ploieşti that failed to properly calculate their fuel consumption and both were forced to land when they ran out of fuel. Most of the MiG-3s assigned to the interior military districts were transferred to the PVO where their lack of performance at low altitudes was not so important. On 10 July 299 were assigned to the PVO, the bulk of them belonging to the 6th PVO Corps at Moscow, while only 293 remained with the VVS, and 60 with the Naval Air Forces, a total of only 652 despite deliveries of several hundred aircraft. By 1 October, on the eve of the German offensive towards Moscow codenamed Operation Typhoon, only 257 were assigned to VVS units, 209 to the PVO, and 46 to the Navy, a total of only 512, a decrease of 140 fighters since 10 July, despite deliveries of over a thousand aircraft in the intervening period. By 5 December, the start of the Soviet counter-offensive that drove the Germans back from the gates of Moscow, the Navy had 33 MiGs on hand, the VVS 210, and the PVO 309. This was a total of 552, an increase of only 40 aircraft from 1 October. Over the winter of 1941–42 the Soviets transferred all of the remaining MiG-3s to the Navy and PVO so that on 1 May 1942 none were left on strength with the VVS. By 1 May 1942, Naval Aviation had 37 MiGs on strength, while the PVO had 323 on hand on 10 May. By 1 June 1944, the Navy had transferred all its aircraft to the PVO, which reported only 17 on its own strength, and all of those were gone by 1 January 1945. Undoubtedly more remained in training units and the like, but none were assigned to combat units by then. Even with the MiG-3's limitations, Aleksandr Pokryshkin, the third-leading Soviet, and Allied, ace of the war, with 53 official air victories (plus six shared), recorded a number of those victories while flying a MiG-3 at the beginning of the war. He later recalled: “Its designers rarely succeeded in matching both the fighter's flight characteristics with its firepower... the operational advantage of the MiG-3 seemed to be obscured by its certain defects. However, these advantages could undoubtedly be exploited by a pilot able to discover them”.", "There were several attempts to re-engine the aircraft with the engine it was originally designed for, the Mikulin AM-37. This was designated the MiG-7, and one MiG-3 was converted to evaluate the engine in May 1941. It proved to have poor longitudinal stability and the powerplant itself still had a number of problems. The German invasion the following month caused the cancellation of the development of the AM-37 as Mikulin's resources were required for the AM-35 and AM-38 engines already in production. To improve the low-level performance of the MiG-3, one aircraft was tested with the AM-38 engine used by the Il-2 in July 1941. It proved to be faster than the normal MiG-3 at sea level and was more maneuverable as well. It was recommended for production after passing its State acceptance trials in September, provided that a cure for the engine's tendency to overheat in ambient temperatures above was found. However the sole prototype was shot down on 5 October during flight tests and it was decided not to proceed with the idea as all AM-38 production was allocated to the Il-2. Ironically, later in the war, about 80 MiG-3s were reengined with AM-38s to make them airworthy again. Many of these were rearmed with two 20 mm ShVAK cannon as well. On 13 May 1941 the NKAP ordered the OKO to convert a MiG-3 to use the Shvetsov ASh-82A radial engine then entering production. The resulting aircraft had a variety of names, including I-210, MiG-3-82, Samolyot IKh or Izdeliye 65. The design was a failure, but was promising enough to continue the program as the I-211. A variety of other tests and other projects were conducted using MiG-3s. Leading edge slats were evaluated in 1941 although they were not fitted on production aircraft, but were used by the I-210. A six-bladed propeller was fitted on one aircraft to increase thrust at high altitude to enable the fighter to catch the high-flying Junkers Ju 86P aircraft then overflying Moscow. A new propeller hub was made that mounted six standard VISh-61 blades, but nothing more is known of the project. Four aircraft were converted to carry AFA-I cameras for evaluation and a fifth was then converted to evaluate all the improvements learned from the first four. It was approved for use after trials at the NII VVS. To improve their service ceiling two aircraft were lightened down to a weight of, but no further details are known other than one reached a height of. There was also a proposal in 1941 to use the MiG-3 as part of a Zveno combination with a Petlyakov Pe-8 mother ship. The four-engined bomber would carry two MiG-3SPB (\"Skorostnoy Pikeeruyushchiy Bombardirovshchik\"—Fast Dive Bomber) fighters, modified to carry a FAB-250 bomb under each wing, close to the target and would then release them to conduct the attack after which they would fly back to the nearest friendly airbase. Some preliminary work was done before the Germans invaded, but it was abandoned afterwards due to the pressure of other work. The combination was estimated to have a maximum speed of and a range of.", "The Russian company Aviarestoration has rebuilt three MiG-3s. They all use Allison V-12 engines. One is in the US in the Military Aviation Museum of Pungo, Virginia and another, rebuilt from a MiG-3 shot down in 1942, first flew again around the start of 2010. It will remain in Russia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Photomorphogenesis and etiolation.", "Seedling growth and maturation.", "Pests and diseases.", "Transplanting." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Dicot seedlings grown in the light develop short hypocotyls and open cotyledons exposing the epicotyl. This is also referred to as photomorphogenesis. In contrast, seedlings grown in the dark develop long hypocotyls and their cotyledons remain closed around the epicotyl in an \"apical hook\". This is referred to as skotomorphogenesis or etiolation. Etiolated seedlings are yellowish in color as chlorophyll synthesis and chloroplast development depend on light. They will open their cotyledons and turn green when treated with light. In a natural situation, seedling development starts with skotomorphogenesis while the seedling is growing through the soil and attempting to reach the light as fast as possible. During this phase, the cotyledons are tightly closed and form the \"apical hook\" to protect the shoot apical meristem from damage while pushing through the soil. In many plants, the seed coat still covers the cotyledons for extra protection. Upon breaking the surface and reaching the light, the seedling's developmental program is switched to photomorphogenesis. The cotyledons open upon contact with light (splitting the seed coat open, if still present) and become green, forming the first photosynthetic organs of the young plant. Until this stage, the seedling lives off the energy reserves stored in the seed. The opening of the cotyledons exposes the shoot apical meristem and the \"plumule\" consisting of the first \"true leaves\" of the young plant. The seedlings sense light through the light receptors phytochrome (red and far-red light) and cryptochrome (blue light). Mutations in these photo receptors and their signal transduction components lead to seedling development that is at odds with light conditions, for example seedlings that show photomorphogenesis when grown in the dark..", "Once the seedling starts to photosynthesize, it is no longer dependent on the seed's energy reserves. The apical meristems start growing and give rise to the root and shoot. The first \"true\" leaves expand and can often be distinguished from the round cotyledons through their species-dependent distinct shapes. While the plant is growing and developing additional leaves, the cotyledons eventually senesce and fall off. Seedling growth is also affected by mechanical stimulation, such as by wind or other forms of physical contact, through a process called thigmomorphogenesis. Temperature and light intensity interact as they affect seedling growth; at low light levels about 40 lumens/m2 a day/night temperature regime of 28 °C/13 °C is effective (Brix 1972). A photoperiod shorter than 14 hours causes growth to stop, whereas a photoperiod extended with low light intensities to 16 h or more brings about continuous (free) growth. Little is gained by using more than 16 h of low light intensity once seedlings are in the free growth mode. Long photoperiods using high light intensities from 10,000 to 20,000 lumens/m2 increase dry matter production, and increasing the photoperiod from 15 to 24 hours may double dry matter growth (Pollard and Logan 1976, Carlson 1979). The effects of carbon dioxide enrichment and nitrogen supply on the growth of white spruce and trembling aspen were investigated by Brown and Higginbotham (1986). Seedlings were grown in controlled environments with ambient or enriched atmospheric CO (350 or 750 \"f\"1/L, respectively) and with nutrient solutions with high, medium, and low N content (15.5, 1.55, and 0.16 mM). Seedlings were harvested, weighed, and measured at intervals of less than 100 days. N supply strongly affected biomass accumulation, height, and leaf area of both species. In white spruce only, the root weight ratio (RWR) was significantly increased with the low-nitrogen regime. CO enrichment for 100 days significantly increased the leaf and total biomass of white spruce seedlings in the high-N regime, RWR of seedlings in the medium-N regime, and root biomass of seedlings in the low-N regime. First-year seedlings typically have high mortality rates, drought being the principal cause, with roots having been unable to develop enough to maintain contact with soil sufficiently moist to prevent the development of lethal seedling water stress. Somewhat paradoxically, however, Eis (1967a) observed that on both mineral and litter seedbeds, seedling mortality was greater in moist habitats (alluvium and \"Aralia–Dryopteris\") than in dry habitats (\"Cornus\"–Moss). He commented that in dry habitats after the first growing season surviving seedlings appeared to have a much better chance of continued survival than those in moist or wet habitats, in which frost heave and competition from lesser vegetation became major factors in later years. The annual mortality documented by Eis (1967a) is instructive.", "Seedlings are particularly vulnerable to attack by pests and diseases and can consequently experience high mortality rates. Pests and diseases which are especially damaging to seedlings include damping off, cutworms, slugs and snails.", "Seedlings are generally transplanted when the first pair of true leaves appear. A shade may be provided if the area is arid or hot. A commercially available vitamin hormone concentrate may be used to avoid transplant shock which may contain thiamine hydrochloride, 1-Naphthaleneacetic acid and indole butyric acid." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Early career.", "Decca years.", "Verve years.", "Film and television.", "Collaborations.", "Illness and death.", "Personal life.", "Loss of material.", "Discography and collections.", "Awards, citations and honors.", "Tributes and legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Fitzgerald was born on April 25, 1917, in Newport News, Virginia. She was the daughter of William Fitzgerald and Temperance \"Tempie\" Henry. Her parents were unmarried but lived together in the East End section of Newport News for at least two and a half years after she was born. In the early 1920s, Fitzgerald's mother and her new partner, a Portuguese immigrant named Joseph Da Silva, moved to Yonkers, in Westchester County, New York. Her half-sister, Frances Da Silva, was born in 1923. By 1925, Fitzgerald and her family had moved to nearby School Street, a poor Italian area. She began her formal education at the age of six and was an outstanding student, moving through a variety of schools before attending Benjamin Franklin Junior High School in 1929. Starting in third grade, Fitzgerald loved dancing and admired Earl Snakehips Tucker. She performed for her peers on the way to school and at lunchtime. She and her family were Methodists and were active in the Bethany African Methodist Episcopal Church, where she attended worship services, Bible study, and Sunday school. The church provided Fitzgerald with her earliest experiences in music. Fitzgerald listened to jazz recordings by Louis Armstrong, Bing Crosby, and The Boswell Sisters. She loved the Boswell Sisters' lead singer Connee Boswell, later saying, \"My mother brought home one of her records, and I fell in love with it...I tried so hard to sound just like her.\" In 1932, when Fitzgerald was fifteen, her mother died from injuries sustained in a car accident. Her stepfather took care of her until April 1933 when she moved to Harlem to live with her aunt. This seemingly swift change in her circumstances, reinforced by what Fitzgerald biographer Stuart Nicholson describes as rumors of \"ill treatment\" by her stepfather, leaves him to speculate that Da Silva might have abused her. Fitzgerald began skipping school, and her grades suffered. She worked as a lookout at a bordello and with a Mafia-affiliated numbers runner. She never talked publicly about this time in her life. When the authorities caught up with her, she was placed in the Colored Orphan Asylum in Riverdale in the Bronx. When the orphanage proved too crowded, she was moved to the New York Training School for Girls, a state reformatory school in Hudson, New York.", "While she seems to have survived during 1933 and 1934 in part from singing on the streets of Harlem, Fitzgerald made her most important debut at age 17 on November 21, 1934, in one of the earliest Amateur Nights at the Apollo Theater. She had intended to go on stage and dance, but she was intimidated by a local dance duo called the Edwards Sisters and opted to sing instead. Performing in the style of Connee Boswell, she sang \"Judy\" and \"The Object of My Affection\" and won first prize. She won the chance to perform at the Apollo for a week but, seemingly because of her disheveled appearance, the theater never gave her that part of her prize. In January 1935, Fitzgerald won the chance to perform for a week with the Tiny Bradshaw band at the Harlem Opera House. She was introduced to drummer and bandleader Chick Webb, who had asked his recently signed singer Charlie Linton to help find him a female singer. Although Webb was \"reluctant to sign her...because she was gawky and unkempt, a 'diamond in the rough,'\" he offered her the opportunity to test with his band when they played a dance at Yale University. Met with approval by both audiences and her fellow musicians, Fitzgerald was asked to join Webb's orchestra and gained acclaim as part of the group's performances at Harlem's Savoy Ballroom. Fitzgerald recorded several hit songs, including \"Love and Kisses\" and \"(If You Can't Sing It) You'll Have to Swing It (Mr. Paganini)\". But it was her 1938 version of the nursery rhyme, \"A-Tisket, A-Tasket\", a song she co-wrote, that brought her public acclaim. \"A-Tisket, A-Tasket\" became a major hit on the radio and was also one of the biggest-selling records of the decade. Webb died of spinal tuberculosis on June 16, 1939, and his band was renamed Ella and Her Famous Orchestra with Fitzgerald taking on the role of bandleader. She recorded nearly 150 songs with Webb's orchestra between 1935 and 1942. In addition to her work with Webb, Fitzgerald performed and recorded with the Benny Goodman Orchestra. She had her own side project, too, known as Ella Fitzgerald and Her Savoy Eight.", "In 1942, with increasing dissent and money concerns in Fitzgerald's band, Ella and Her Famous Orchestra, she started to work as lead singer with The Three Keys, and in July her band played their last concert at Earl Theatre in Philadelphia. While working for Decca Records, she had hits with Bill Kenny & the Ink Spots, Louis Jordan, and the Delta Rhythm Boys. Producer Norman Granz became her manager in the mid-1940s after she began singing for Jazz at the Philharmonic, a concert series begun by Granz. With the demise of the swing era and the decline of the great touring big bands, a major change in jazz music occurred. The advent of bebop led to new developments in Fitzgerald's vocal style, influenced by her work with Dizzy Gillespie's big band. It was in this period that Fitzgerald started including scat singing as a major part of her performance repertoire. While singing with Gillespie, Fitzgerald recalled, \"I just tried to do [with my voice] what I heard the horns in the band doing.\" Her 1945 scat recording of \"Flying Home\" arranged by Vic Schoen would later be described by \"The New York Times\" as \"one of the most influential vocal jazz records of the decade...Where other singers, most notably Louis Armstrong, had tried similar improvisation, no one before Miss Fitzgerald employed the technique with such dazzling inventiveness.\" Her bebop recording of \"Oh, Lady Be Good!\" (1947) was similarly popular and increased her reputation as one of the leading jazz vocalists.", "Fitzgerald made her first tour of Australia in July 1954 for the Australian-based American promoter Lee Gordon. This was the first of Gordon's famous \"Big Show\" promotions and the 'package' tour also included Buddy Rich, Artie Shaw and comedian Jerry Colonna. Although the tour was a big hit with audiences and set a new box office record for Australia, it was marred by an incident of racial discrimination that caused Fitzgerald to miss the first two concerts in Sydney, and Gordon had to arrange two later free concerts to compensate ticket holders. Although the four members of Fitzgerald's entourage – Fitzgerald, her pianist John Lewis, her assistant (and cousin) Georgiana Henry, and manager Norman Granz – all had first-class tickets on their scheduled Pan-American Airlines flight from Honolulu to Australia, they were ordered to leave the aircraft after they had already boarded and were refused permission to re-board the aircraft to retrieve their luggage and clothing. As a result, they were stranded in Honolulu for three days before they could get another flight to Sydney. Although a contemporary Australian press report quoted an Australian Pan-Am spokesperson who denied that the incident was racially based, Fitzgerald, Henry, Lewis and Granz filed a civil suit for racial discrimination against Pan-Am in December 1954 and in a 1970 television interview Fitzgerald confirmed that they had won the suit and received what she described as a \"nice settlement\". Fitzgerald was still performing at Granz's Jazz at the Philharmonic (JATP) concerts by 1955. She left Decca, and Granz, now her manager, created Verve Records around her. She later described the period as strategically crucial, saying, \"I had gotten to the point where I was only singing be-bop. I thought be-bop was 'it', and that all I had to do was go some place and sing bop. But it finally got to the point where I had no place to sing. I realized then that there was more to music than bop. Norman... felt that I should do other things, so he produced \"Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Cole Porter Song Book\" with me. It was a turning point in my life.\" On March 15, 1955, Ella Fitzgerald opened her initial engagement at the Mocambo nightclub in Hollywood, after Marilyn Monroe lobbied the owner for the booking. The booking was instrumental in Fitzgerald's career. Bonnie Greer dramatized the incident as the musical drama, \"Marilyn and Ella\", in 2008. It had previously been widely reported that Fitzgerald was the first black performer to play the Mocambo, following Monroe's intervention, but this is not true. African-American singers Herb Jeffries, Eartha Kitt, and Joyce Bryant all played the Mocambo in 1952 and 1953, according to stories published at the time in \"Jet\" magazine and \"Billboard\". \"Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Cole Porter Song Book\", released in 1956, was the first of eight Song Book sets Fitzgerald would record for Verve at irregular intervals from 1956 to 1964. The composers and lyricists spotlighted on each set, taken together, represent the greatest part of the cultural canon known as the \"Great American Songbook\". Her song selections ranged from standards to rarities and represented an attempt by Fitzgerald to cross over into a non-jazz audience. The sets are the most well-known items in her discography. \"Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Duke Ellington Song Book\" was the only Song Book on which the composer she interpreted played with her. Duke Ellington and his longtime collaborator Billy Strayhorn both appeared on exactly half the set's 38 tracks and wrote two new pieces of music for the album: \"The E and D Blues\" and a four-movement musical portrait of Fitzgerald. The Song Book series ended up becoming the singer's most critically acclaimed and commercially successful work, and probably her most significant offering to American culture. \"The New York Times\" wrote in 1996, \"These albums were among the first pop records to devote such serious attention to individual songwriters, and they were instrumental in establishing the pop album as a vehicle for serious musical exploration.\" Days after Fitzgerald's death, \"The New York Times\" columnist Frank Rich wrote that in the Song Book series Fitzgerald \"performed a cultural transaction as extraordinary as Elvis' contemporaneous integration of white and African American soul. Here was a black woman popularizing urban songs often written by immigrant Jews to a national audience of predominantly white Christians.\" Frank Sinatra, out of respect for Fitzgerald, prohibited Capitol Records from re-releasing his own recordings in separate albums for individual composers in the same way. Fitzgerald also recorded albums exclusively devoted to the songs of Porter and Gershwin in 1972 and 1983; the albums being, respectively, \"Ella Loves Cole\" and \"Nice Work If You Can Get It\". A later collection devoted to a single composer was released during her time with Pablo Records, \"Ella Abraça Jobim\", featuring the songs of Antônio Carlos Jobim. While recording the Song Books and the occasional studio album, Fitzgerald toured 40 to 45 weeks per year in the United States and internationally, under the tutelage of Norman Granz. Granz helped solidify her position as one of the leading live jazz performers. In 1961 Fitzgerald bought a house in the Klampenborg district of Copenhagen, Denmark, after she began a relationship with a Danish man. Though the relationship ended after a year, Fitzgerald regularly returned to Denmark over the next three years and even considered buying a jazz club there. The house was sold in 1963, and Fitzgerald permanently returned to the United States. There are several live albums on Verve that are highly regarded by critics. \"At the Opera House\" shows a typical Jazz at the Philharmonic set from Fitzgerald. \"\" and \"Twelve Nights in Hollywood\" display her vocal jazz canon. \"\" is still one of her best-selling albums; it includes a Grammy-winning performance of \"Mack the Knife\" in which she forgets the lyrics but improvises magnificently to compensate. Verve Records was sold to MGM in 1963 for $3 million and in 1967 MGM failed to renew Fitzgerald's contract. Over the next five years she flitted between Atlantic, Capitol and Reprise. Her material at this time represented a departure from her typical jazz repertoire. For Capitol she recorded \"Brighten the Corner\", an album of hymns, \"Ella Fitzgerald's Christmas\", an album of traditional Christmas carols, \"Misty Blue\", a country and western-influenced album, and \"30 by Ella\", a series of six medleys that fulfilled her obligations for the label. During this period, she had her last US chart single with a cover of Smokey Robinson's \"Get Ready\", previously a hit for the Temptations, and some months later a top-five hit for Rare Earth. The surprise success of the 1972 album \"Jazz at Santa Monica Civic '72\" led Granz to found Pablo Records, his first record label since the sale of Verve. Fitzgerald recorded some 20 albums for the label. \"Ella in London\" recorded live in 1974 with pianist Tommy Flanagan, guitarist Joe Pass, bassist Keter Betts and drummer Bobby Durham, was considered by many to be some of her best work. The following year she again performed with Joe Pass on German television station NDR in Hamburg. Her years with Pablo Records also documented the decline in her voice. \"She frequently used shorter, stabbing phrases, and her voice was harder, with a wider vibrato\", one biographer wrote. Plagued by health problems, Fitzgerald made her last recording in 1991 and her last public performances in 1993.", "In her most notable screen role, Fitzgerald played the part of singer Maggie Jackson in Jack Webb's 1955 jazz film \"Pete Kelly's Blues\". The film costarred Janet Leigh and singer Peggy Lee. Even though she had already worked in the movies (she had sung briefly in the 1942 Abbott and Costello film \"Ride 'Em Cowboy\"), she was \"delighted\" when Norman Granz negotiated the role for her, and, \"at the time... considered her role in the Warner Brothers movie the biggest thing ever to have happened to her.\" Amid \"The New York Times\" pan of the film when it opened in August 1955, the reviewer wrote, \"About five minutes (out of ninety-five) suggest the picture this might have been. Take the ingenious prologue... [or] take the fleeting scenes when the wonderful Ella Fitzgerald, allotted a few spoken lines, fills the screen and sound track with her strong mobile features and voice.\" After \"Pete Kelly's Blues\", she appeared in sporadic movie cameos, in \"St. Louis Blues\" (1958) and \"Let No Man Write My Epitaph\" (1960). She made numerous guest appearances on television shows, singing on \"The Frank Sinatra Show\", \"The Andy Williams Show\", \"The Pat Boone Chevy Showroom\", and alongside other greats Nat King Cole, Dean Martin, Mel Tormé, and many others. She was also frequently featured on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\". Perhaps her most unusual and intriguing performance was of the \"Three Little Maids\" song from Gilbert and Sullivan's comic operetta \"The Mikado\" alongside Joan Sutherland and Dinah Shore on Shore's weekly variety series in 1963. A performance at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club in London was filmed and shown on the BBC. Fitzgerald also made a one-off appearance alongside Sarah Vaughan and Pearl Bailey on a 1979 television special honoring Bailey. In 1980, she performed a medley of standards in a duet with Karen Carpenter on the Carpenters' television program \"Music, Music, Music\". Fitzgerald also appeared in TV commercials, her most memorable being an ad for Memorex. In the commercials, she sang a note that shattered a glass while being recorded on a Memorex cassette tape. The tape was played back and the recording also broke another glass, asking: \"Is it live, or is it Memorex?\" She also appeared in a number of commercials for Kentucky Fried Chicken, singing and scatting to the fast-food chain's longtime slogan, \"We do chicken right!\" Her last commercial campaign was for American Express, in which she was photographed by Annie Leibovitz. \"Ella Fitzgerald Just One of Those Things\" is a film about her life including interviews with many famous singers and musicians who worked with her and her son. It was directed by Leslie Woodhead and produced by Reggie Nadelson. It was released in the UK in 2019.", "Fitzgerald's most famous collaborations were with the vocal quartet Bill Kenny & the Ink Spots, trumpeter Louis Armstrong, the guitarist Joe Pass, and the bandleaders Count Basie and Duke Ellington. Fitzgerald had a number of famous jazz musicians and soloists as sidemen over her long career. The trumpeters Roy Eldridge and Dizzy Gillespie, the guitarist Herb Ellis, and the pianists Tommy Flanagan, Oscar Peterson, Lou Levy, Paul Smith, Jimmy Rowles, and Ellis Larkins all worked with Fitzgerald mostly in live, small group settings. Possibly Fitzgerald's greatest unrealized collaboration (in terms of popular music) was a studio or live album with Frank Sinatra. The two appeared on the same stage only periodically over the years, in television specials in 1958 and 1959, and again on 1967's \"A Man and His Music + Ella + Jobim\", a show that also featured Antônio Carlos Jobim. Pianist Paul Smith has said, \"Ella loved working with [Frank]. Sinatra gave her his dressing-room on \"A Man and His Music\" and couldn't do enough for her.\" When asked, Norman Granz would cite \"complex contractual reasons\" for the fact that the two artists never recorded together. Fitzgerald's appearance with Sinatra and Count Basie in June 1974 for a series of concerts at Caesars Palace, Las Vegas, was seen as an important incentive for Sinatra to return from his self-imposed retirement of the early 1970s. The shows were a great success, and September 1975 saw them gross $1,000,000 in two weeks on Broadway, in a triumvirate with the Count Basie Orchestra.", "Fitzgerald had suffered from diabetes for several years of her later life, which had led to numerous complications. In 1985, Fitzgerald was hospitalized briefly for respiratory problems, in 1986 for congestive heart failure, and in 1990 for exhaustion. In March 1990 she appeared at the Royal Albert Hall in London, England with the Count Basie Orchestra for the launch of Jazz FM, plus a gala dinner at the Grosvenor House Hotel at which she performed. In 1993, she had to have both of her legs amputated below the knee due to the effects of diabetes. Her eyesight was affected as well. She died in her home from a stroke on June 15, 1996, at the age of 79. A few hours after her death, the Playboy Jazz Festival was launched at the Hollywood Bowl. In tribute, the marquee read: \"Ella We Will Miss You.\" Her funeral was private, and she was buried at Inglewood Park Cemetery in Los Angeles.", "Fitzgerald married at least twice, and there is evidence that suggests that she may have married a third time. Her first marriage was in 1941, to Benny Kornegay, a convicted drug dealer and local dockworker. The marriage was annulled in 1942. Her second marriage was in December 1947, to the famous bass player Ray Brown, whom she had met while on tour with Dizzy Gillespie's band a year earlier. Together they adopted a child born to Fitzgerald's half-sister, Frances, whom they christened Ray Brown Jr. With Fitzgerald and Brown often busy touring and recording, the child was largely raised by his mother's aunt, Virginia. Fitzgerald and Brown divorced in 1953, bowing to the various career pressures both were experiencing at the time, though they would continue to perform together. In July 1957, Reuters reported that Fitzgerald had secretly married Thor Einar Larsen, a young Norwegian, in Oslo. She had even gone as far as furnishing an apartment in Oslo, but the affair was quickly forgotten when Larsen was sentenced to five months' hard labor in Sweden for stealing money from a young woman to whom he had previously been engaged. Fitzgerald was notoriously shy. Trumpet player Mario Bauzá, who played behind Fitzgerald in her early years with Chick Webb, remembered that \"she didn't hang out much. When she got into the band, she was dedicated to her music...She was a lonely girl around New York, just kept herself to herself, for the gig.\" When, later in her career, the Society of Singers named an award after her, Fitzgerald explained, \"I don't want to say the wrong thing, which I always do but I think I do better when I sing.\" From 1949 to 1956, Fitzgerald resided in St. Albans, New York, an enclave of prosperous African Americans where she counted among her neighbors, Illinois Jacquet, Count Basie, Lena Horne, and other jazz luminaries. Fitzgerald was a civil rights activist; using her talent to break racial barriers across the nation. She was awarded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Equal Justice Award and the American Black Achievement Award. In 1949, Norman Granz recruited Fitzgerald for the Jazz at the Philharmonic tour. The Jazz at the Philharmonic tour would specifically target segregated venues. Granz required promoters to ensure that there was no \"colored\" or \"white\" seating. He ensured Fitzgerald was to receive equal pay and accommodations regardless of her sex and race. If the conditions were not met shows were cancelled. Bill Reed, author of \"Hot from Harlem: Twelve African American Entertainers\", referred to Fitzgerald as the \"Civil Rights Crusader\", facing discrimination throughout her career. In 1954 on her way to one of her concerts in Australia she was unable to board the Pan American flight due to racial discrimination. Although she faced several obstacles and racial barriers, she was recognized as a \"cultural ambassador,\" receiving the National Medal of Arts in 1987 and America's highest non-military honor, the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In 1993, Fitzgerald established the Ella Fitzgerald Charitable Foundation focusing on charitable grants for four major categories: academic opportunities for children, music education, basic care needs for the less fortunate, medical research revolving around diabetes, heart disease, and vision impairment. Her goals were to give back and provide opportunities for those \"at risk\" and less fortunate. In addition, she supported several nonprofit organizations like the American Heart Association, City of Hope, and the Retina Foundation.", "On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Ella Fitzgerald among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.", "The primary collections of Fitzgerald's media and memorabilia reside at and are shared between the Smithsonian Institution and the US Library of Congress", "Fitzgerald won thirteen Grammy Awards, and received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1967. In 1958 Fitzgerald was the first African American female to win at the inaugural show. Other major awards and honors she received during her career were the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts Medal of Honor Award, National Medal of Art, first Society of Singers Lifetime Achievement Award, named \"Ella\" in her honor, Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the George and Ira Gershwin Award for Lifetime Musical Achievement, UCLA Spring Sing, and the UCLA Medal (1987). Across town at the University of Southern California, she received the USC \"Magnum Opus\" Award which hangs in the office of the Ella Fitzgerald Charitable Foundation. In 1986 she received an honorary doctorate of Music from Yale University. In 1990, she received an honorary doctorate of Music from Harvard University.", "The career history and archival material from Fitzgerald's long career are housed in the Archives Center at the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History, while her personal music arrangements are at the Library of Congress. Her extensive cookbook collection was donated to the Schlesinger Library at Harvard University, and her extensive collection of published sheet music was donated to UCLA. In 1997, Newport News, Virginia created a week-long music festival with Christopher Newport University to honor Fitzgerald in her birth city. Callaway, Dee Dee Bridgewater, and Patti Austin have all recorded albums in tribute to Fitzgerald. Callaway's album \"To Ella with Love\" (1996) features fourteen jazz standards made popular by Fitzgerald, and the album also features the trumpeter Wynton Marsalis. Bridgewater's album \"Dear Ella\" (1997) featured many musicians that were closely associated with Fitzgerald during her career, including the pianist Lou Levy, the trumpeter Benny Powell, and Fitzgerald's second husband, double bassist Ray Brown. Bridgewater's following album, \"Live at Yoshi's\", was recorded live on April 25, 1998, what would have been Fitzgerald's 81st birthday. Austin's album, \"For Ella\" (2002) features 11 songs most immediately associated with Fitzgerald, and a twelfth song, \"Hearing Ella Sing\" is Austin's tribute to Fitzgerald. The album was nominated for a Grammy. In 2007, \"\", was released, a tribute album recorded for the 90th anniversary of Fitzgerald's birth. It featured artists such as Michael Bublé, Natalie Cole, Chaka Khan, Gladys Knight, Diana Krall, k.d. lang, Queen Latifah, Ledisi, Dianne Reeves, Linda Ronstadt, and Lizz Wright, collating songs most readily associated with the \"First Lady of Song\". Folk singer Odetta's album \"To Ella\" (1998) is dedicated to Fitzgerald, but features no songs associated with her. Her accompanist Tommy Flanagan affectionately remembered Fitzgerald on his album \"Lady be Good... For Ella\" (1994). \"Ella, elle l'a\", a tribute to Fitzgerald written by Michel Berger and performed by French singer France Gall, was a hit in Europe in 1987 and 1988. Fitzgerald is also referred to in the 1976 Stevie Wonder hit \"Sir Duke\" from his album \"Songs in the Key of Life\", and the song \"I Love Being Here With You\", written by Peggy Lee and Bill Schluger. Sinatra's 1986 recording of \"Mack the Knife\" from his album \"L.A. Is My Lady\" (1984) includes a homage to some of the song's previous performers, including 'Lady Ella' herself. She is also honored in the song \"First Lady\" by Canadian artist Nikki Yanofsky. In 2008, the Downing-Gross Cultural Arts Center in Newport News named its new 276-seat theater the Ella Fitzgerald Theater. The theater is located several blocks away from her birthplace on Marshall Avenue. The Grand Opening performers (October 11 and 12, 2008) were Roberta Flack and Queen Esther Marrow. In 2012, Rod Stewart performed a \"virtual duet\" with Ella Fitzgerald on his Christmas album \"Merry Christmas, Baby\", and his television special of the same name. There is a bronze sculpture of Fitzgerald in Yonkers, the city in which she grew up, created by American artist Vinnie Bagwell. It is located southeast of the main entrance to the Amtrak/Metro-North Railroad station in front of the city's old trolley barn. A bust of Fitzgerald is on the campus of Chapman University in Orange, California. Ed Dwight created a series of over 70 bronze sculptures at the St. Louis Arch Museum at the request of the National Park Service; the series, \"Jazz: An American Art Form\", depicts the evolution of jazz and features jazz performers including Fitzgerald. On January 9, 2007, the United States Postal Service announced that Fitzgerald would be honored with her own postage stamp. The stamp was released in April 2007 as part of the Postal Service's Black Heritage series. In April 2013, she was featured in Google Doodle, depicting her performing on stage. It celebrated what would have been her 96th birthday. On April 25, 2017, the centenary of her birth, UK's BBC Radio 2 broadcast three programmes as part of an \"Ella at 100\" celebration: \"Ella Fitzgerald Night\" introduced by Jamie Cullum, \"Remembering Ella\" introduced by Leo Green and \"Ella Fitzgerald – the First Lady of Song\" introduced by Petula Clark. In 2019, \"Ella Fitzgerald: Just One of Those Things\", a documentary by Leslie Woodhead, was launched in the UK. It featured rare footage, radio broadcasts and interviews with Jamie Cullum, Andre Previn, Johnny Mathis, and other musicians, plus a long interview with Fitzgerald's son, Ray Brown Jr." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Bachem's proposal.", "Modifications.", "Testing.", "Manned test flight.", "Production.", "Stability.", "Legacy.", "\"Operation Krokus\" launch pads at Hasenholz wood.", "Surviving aircraft and replicas.", "Film." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1943 \"Luftwaffe\" air superiority was being challenged by the Allies over the \"Reich\" and radical innovations were required to overcome the crisis. Surface-to-air missiles appeared to be a promising approach to counter the Allied strategic bombing offensive; a variety of projects were started, but invariably problems with the guidance and homing systems prevented any of these from attaining operational status. Providing the missile with a pilot, who could operate a weapon during the brief terminal approach phase, offered a solution. Submissions for a simple target defence interceptor were requested by the \"Luftwaffe\" in early 1944 under the umbrella of the, literally \"Fighter Emergency Program\". A number of simple designs were proposed, including the Heinkel P.1077 \"Julia\", in which the pilot lay prone (on his stomach), to reduce the frontal area. The \"Julia\" was the front-runner for the contract. The initial plan was to launch the aircraft vertically, but this concept was later changed to a conventional horizontal take-off from a tricycle-wheeled trolley, similar to that used by the first eight prototypes of the Arado Ar 234 jet reconnaissance bomber.", "Erich Bachem's BP-20 (\"Natter\") was a development from a design he had worked on at Fieseler, the Fi 166 concept, but considerably more radical than the other submissions. It was built using glued and nailed wooden parts with an armour-plated bulkhead and bulletproof glass windshield at the front of the cockpit. The initial plan was to power the machine with a Walter HWK 109-509A-2 rocket motor; however, only the 109-509A-1, as used in the Me 163, was available. It had a sea level thrust variable between at \"idle\" to at full power, with the \"Natter's\" intended quartet of rear flank-mount Schmidding SG34 solid fuel rocket boosters used in its vertical launch to provide an additional thrust for 10 seconds before they burned out and were jettisoned. The experimental prototypes slid up a -tall vertical steel launch tower for a maximum sliding length of in three guideways, one for each wing tip and one for the lower tip of the ventral tail fin. By the time the aircraft left the tower it was hoped that it would have achieved sufficient speed to allow its aerodynamic surfaces to provide stable flight. Under operational conditions, once the Natter had left the launcher, it would be guided to the proximity of the Allied bombers by an autopilot with the possibility of an added beam guidance similar to that used in some V-2 rocket launches. Only then would the pilot take control, aim and fire the armament, which was originally proposed to be a salvo of nineteen 55mm R4M rockets. Later, 28 R4Ms or a number of the larger, 73mm Henschel Hs 297 \"Föhn\" rockets were suggested, with either variety of unguided rocket fired from the Natter's nose-mounted cellular launch tubes. The Natter was intended to fly up and over the bombers, by which time its Walter motor would probably be out of propellant. Following its one-time attack with its rockets, the pilot would dive his Natter, now effectively a glider, to an altitude of around, flatten out, release the nose of the aircraft and a small braking parachute from the rear fuselage. The fuselage would decelerate and the pilot would be ejected forwards by his own inertia and land by means of a personal parachute. In an early proposal in August 1944, the Natter design had a concrete nose; it was suggested that the machine might ram a bomber, but this proposal was subsequently withdrawn in later Project Natter outlines. Bachem stated clearly in the initial proposal that the Natter was not a suicide weapon and much effort went into designing safety features for the pilot. However, owing to the potential dangers for the pilot inherent in the operation of this precarious aircraft, the Natter is sometimes listed as a suicide craft. The design had one decisive advantage over its competitors – it eliminated the necessity to land an unpowered gliding machine at an airbase, which, as the history of the Me 163 rocket aircraft had clearly demonstrated, made an aircraft extremely vulnerable to attack by Allied fighters.", "Heinrich Himmler became interested in Bachem's design. The \"Reichsführer-SS\" granted Bachem an interview and fully supported the project. In the middle of September 1944 the Technical Office of the \"Waffen-SS\" made an order for Bachem to develop and manufacture the Natter at his Waldsee factory. In December 1944 the project came largely under the control of the SS and Hans Kammler. This decision is said to have been the only time the SS significantly interfered with aircraft design and air fighting strategy. Early-on in the project, the \"Reichsluftfahrtministerium\" (\"RLM\") undertook an engineering assessment of the Natter, which it reported on 28 October 1944. The Natter was designed to be built by unskilled labor with poor-quality tools and inexpensive material. Various stringent economies were imposed on an already frugal design. The Natter had no landing gear, which saved weight, expense, and construction time. Consequently, one of the most unusual features of the machine was the escape of the pilot and recovery of the machine. The proposed sequence of these events was as follows: After the attack, the Natter might dive to a lower altitude and flatten out into level flight. The pilot would then proceed with a well-practised escape sequence. He would open the cockpit canopy latch, which would allow the canopy to flick backwards on its hinge in the airstream. Next, the pilot would undo his seat belt and remove his feet from the rudder pedal stirrups. By squeezing a lever mounted on the control column, he would release a lock at the base of the column, which would allow him to tilt the column forwards where it could engage in and undo a safety latch for the nose release mechanism. He would then lean a little further forward and pull a lever hinged near the floor at the front of the cockpit, freeing the nose section, which self-jettisoned as a result of the reduced aerodynamic pressure at the front of the fuselage. As the nose section separated, it was intended to briefly pull on two cables that released a small ribbon parachute stored on the starboard side of the rear fuselage. The parachute subsequently opened and decelerated the Natter. The pilot would be ejected from the cockpit by his own inertia and as soon as he was clear of the fuselage, he would open his personal parachute and descend to the ground. A parachute was to eject the valuable Walter rocket motor from the rear, which would decelerate the aircraft and eject the pilot with inertia, but associated problems were still not fully resolved prior to the war's end. Professor Wilhelm Fuchs reportedly calculated the Natter's aerodynamics at the \"Technische Hochschule\", Aachen using a large analog computer. Wind tunnel testing on a wooden model, scaled to 40% of full size, was performed at the \"Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt\" (DVL), the Institute for Aerodynamics at Berlin-Adlershof in September 1944 at speeds up to 504 km/h. Results from these tests were reported in January 1945 to the Bachem-Werk. Further model tests were carried out at the \"Luftfahrtforschungsanstalt Hermann Göring\" (LFA) facility in Völkenrode-Braunschweig, at speeds close to Mach 1. In March the Bachem-Werk simply received a statement that satisfactory flying qualities should be expected with speeds up to 1,100 km/h.", "Construction of the first experimental prototype \"Natter, Versuchsmuster 1\", was completed on 4 October 1944. V1 was subsequently referred to as \"Baumuster1\" (\"BM1\") and later still the \"B\" was dropped and the machine became known as the M1. Most subsequent prototypes were known by 'M' codes, as the later prototypes of the Heinkel He 162 were. Manned glider flights began on 3 November 1944. The first glider M1 was towed to around 3,000 m by a Heinkel He 111 bomber with a cable (\"Tragschlepp\" mode) at Neuburg an der Donau. The pilot was Erich Klöckner, who made all four documented \"Tragschlepp\" (\"towed\") flights. After carrying out the test programme of the M1, he bailed out and the machine crashed into the ground. It was found that the towing cable, and in the case of the M3, the undercarriage interfered with the flight characteristics of the gliders and consequently the results were difficult to interpret. To clear any lingering doubts about the Natter in the glider mode, Hans Zübert made a daring free flight in the M8 on 14 February, and showed that the Natter was indeed a very good flying machine. The vertical take-off trials were conducted on high ground called the Ochsenkopf at the \"Truppenübungsplatz\" (military training area) Heuberg near Stetten am kalten Markt, Württemberg. The first successful unmanned vertical take-off from the experimental launch tower occurred on 22 December 1944. The test machine, the M16, was powered only by the Schmidding solid boosters, as were all the early vertical launch trials. Up to and including 1 March 1945, 16 prototypes had been used, eight in glider trials and eight in VTO trials.", "By January 1945 Bachem was under pressure from the authorities in Berlin to carry out a manned flight by the end of February. On 25 February, M22 was in the experimental launch tower. It was as complete an operational machine as possible with the Walter HWK 109-509 A1 motor installed for the first time. A dummy pilot was in the cockpit. Lift-off from the tower was perfect. The engineers and ground crew watched as the M22 ascended under the combined power of the four Schmidding boosters and the Walter motor, an estimated total thrust of. The nose separated as programmed and the dummy pilot descended safely under its personal parachute. The remainder of the fuselage came down under its two large salvage parachutes, but when it hit the ground the Walter liquid-propellant rocket motor's residual hypergolic propellants (\"T-Stoff\" oxidizer and \"C-Stoff\" fuel) exploded and the machine was destroyed. Despite Bachem's concerns that the test programme had been significantly cut short, a young volunteer \"Luftwaffe\" test pilot, Lothar Sieber, climbed into the cockpit of the fully fuelled M23 on 1 March. The aircraft was equipped with an FM transmitter for the purpose of transmitting flight data from various monitoring sensors in the machine. A hard wire intercom appears to have been provided between Sieber and the engineers in the launch bunker using a system similar to that used in the manned glider flights. Around 1100 am, the M23 was ready for take-off. Low stratus clouds lay over the Ocksenkopf. The Walter liquid-fueled rocket motor built up to full thrust and Sieber pushed the button to ignite the four solid boosters. With a roar, the M23 rose out of a cloud of steam and rocket smoke straight up, displaying its camouflage paintwork. At an altitude of about, the Natter suddenly pitched up into an inverted curve. Initially it climbed at about 30° to the vertical. At about the cockpit canopy was seen to fly off. The Natter continued to climb at high speed at an angle of 15° from the horizontal and disappeared into the clouds. The Walter motor stalled about 15 seconds after take-off. It is estimated the Natter reached, at which point it nose-dived and hit the ground with great force about 32 seconds later, some kilometres from the launch site. Unknown at the time, one of the Schmidding boosters failed to jettison and its remains were dug up at the crash site in 1998. The pilot was likely unconscious long before the crash. Bachem surmised Sieber had involuntarily pulled back on the control column under the effect of the 3 G acceleration. Examination of the canopy, which fell near the launch site, showed the tip of the latch was bent, suggesting it may not have been in the fully closed position at launch. The pilot's headrest had been attached to the underside of the canopy and as the canopy flew off the pilot's head would have snapped back suddenly about, hitting the solid wooden rear upper cockpit bulkhead, and either knocking Sieber unconscious or breaking his neck. The accident reinforced Bachem's long held belief that the take-off and flight in the vicinity of the target bombers should be fully automated. The canopy latch was strengthened and the headrest was attached to the backboard of the cockpit. Before the introduction of the autopilot in the test programme, the control column would have a temporary locking device on it, which would allow the machine to ascend vertically to at least and then be removed by the pilot. The Walter motor probably ceased operation because the Natter was virtually upside-down and air may have entered the intake pipes in the propellant tanks, starving the motor. Sieber had become the first man to take off vertically from the ground under pure rocket power, 16 years before Yuri Gagarin's \"Vostok 1\" pioneering, peacetime orbital flight. Following Sieber's death, several pilots offered to take his place, and three more manned launches were performed in quick succession. The RLM now decided that the Natter had displayed an acceptable standard of reliability to warrant operational evaluation, and preparations were made for 10 fully armed aircraft at Kirchheim, near Stuttgart.", "The SS ordered 150 Natters, and the \"Luftwaffe\" ordered 50, but none were delivered by the end of the war. Much debate has surrounded the number of Natters built at the Bachem-Werk and their disposition. According to Bachem, 36 \"Natters\" were produced at the Bachem-Werk in Waldsee by the end of the war. Up to April 1945, 17 aircraft had been used in unmanned trials comprising five gliders, all slung under an He 111 in the \"Mistelschlepp\" configuration prior to launch, and 12 VTO examples. Five aircraft were prepared for manned trials, four gliders and one VTO version. The M3 was flown twice, and then rebuilt at which time it was given the new code BM3a but was never flown. The total number of launches to early April 1945 was 22, as was the total number of Natters constructed up to that time. Bachem reported further that there were 14 more finished or almost finished aircraft in April 1945. Four of these were prototype A1 operational Natters built for test launching from a wooden pole launcher, which had been designed for field deployment. This new launcher was also constructed on the Heuberg, not far from the experimental steel tower. There is documentary evidence for two pole launches in April but not three as claimed by Bachem in his post-war presentation. The documentation for this third flight may have been destroyed by the SS at war's end. Ten A1 operational Natters, called \"K-Maschinen\", were constructed for the \"Krokus-Einsatz\" (\"Operation Crocus\"). The fate of these 14 A1 Natters was as follows: Three were fired from the vertical launch tower according to Bachem, four were burnt at Waldsee, two were burnt at \"Lager\" Schlatt, Oetztal, Austria, four were captured by US troops at Sankt Leonhard im Pitztal, Austria and one, which had been sent as a sample model to a new factory in Thuringia, was captured by the Red Army. Consequently, the total of 36 test and operational aircraft constructed at the Bachem-Werk can be accounted for. However, Natter carcasses were used for a variety of ground-based purposes; for example, as a static booster rocket, armament and strength testing and pilot seat position tests. Some fuselages were reused after flight testing; for example, the M5, 6 and 7. Of the four Natters captured at Sankt Leonhard im Pitztal, two went to the United States. Only one original Natter built in Germany in the Second World War survives in storage at the Paul E. Garber Preservation, Restoration, and Storage Facility in Suitland, Maryland, under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution. The fate of the other Natter brought to the US is unknown. There is no documentary evidence that a Natter was ever flown from Muroc Field. The tail section of one of the Natters at Sankt Leonhard im Pitztal was broken off while it still rested on its trailer.", "In early February 1945 the positions of the centre of gravity for the A1 operational machine during its flight profile were giving the RLM and the SS cause for concern. They wanted these figures to be decided upon for the upcoming construction of the A1 aircraft for \"Krokus-Einsatz\" (Operation Crocus), the field deployment of the Natter. The position of the centre of gravity is expressed as a percentage of the chord (distance between the leading and trailing edges) of the main wing. Thus 0% is the leading edge and 100% is the trailing edge. In the manned glider trials the centre of gravity had been varied between 20 and 34%. At a meeting of engineers held on 8 February, the variations in the centre of gravity expected in the A1 \"Krokus\" machine were discussed. At take-off with the weight of the four solid boosters, the centre of gravity would be brought back to 65%, but after releasing these rockets it would move forwards to 22%. The free flight by Zübert on 14 February had showed unequivocally that the little Natter had excellent flying characteristics as a glider. The centre of gravity problem was solved initially by the addition of one-metre-square auxiliary tailfins that were released simultaneously with the jettisoning of the boosters. The \"Krokus\" aircraft had vanes that would direct the Walter rocket exhaust gases so as to assist vehicle stabilisation at low speed similar to those used in the V-2 rocket.", "French forces had captured Waldsee by 25 April 1945 and presumably took control of the Bachem-Werk. Shortly before the French troops arrived, a group of Bachem-Werk personnel set out for Austria with five A1 Natters on trailers. At Bad Wörishofen, the group waited for another squad retreating from Nabern unter Teck with one completed Natter. Both groups then set out for the Austrian Alps. One group with two Natters ended up at the junction of the river Inn and one of its tributaries, the Ötztaler Ache, at Camp Schlatt. The other group went to St. Leonhard im Pitztal with four aircraft. US troops captured the first group at Camp Schlatt around 4 May and the second group on the following day. At some time during the project, the Bachem-Werk was ordered to give complete details of the BP-20 Natter to the Japanese, but there was doubt over whether they had received them. They were, however, known to have a general knowledge of the Natter and showed considerable interest in the project.", "An operational launch site for the first Ba 349A-1 operational Natters under the code name Operation \"Krokus\" was being established in a small wooded area called Hasenholz, south of the Stuttgart to Munich autobahn and to the east of Nabern unter Teck. Around the end of February and the beginning of March the Todt Organisation was in action, constructing each set of the trios of concrete foundations (or \"footings\") for the launch towers. These three launch pads and their towers were arranged at the corners of an equilateral triangle, 120 m per side. The specific locations are said to be, and. In the centre of each of the three concrete footings is a square hole approximately 50 centimeters deep, which once served as the foundation for the launch tower. Beside each hole is a pipe, cut off at ground level, which was probably once a cable pit. These three concrete pads were noticed by a surveyor in the autumn of 1945, but not rediscovered until 1999. In March 1945 eight pilots, who were experienced, mostly highly decorated and volunteers for the first operational flights, started training at the Lager Heuberg. This training continued until the first half of April at which time they moved to the Hasenholz operational area. The first three manned and fully armed A1 \"Krokus\" examples were scheduled to be launched from 20 April, which was Hitler's birthday. But on that day the US 10th Armored Division drove its tanks into Kirchheim unter Teck to the northwest of Hasenholz wood. The next day it crossed the autobahn and headed straight for the Natter operational area. The Natter group subsequently retreated to Waldsee.", "Only one original A1 Natter survives; it is stored in the Paul E. Garber Preservation, Restoration, and Storage Facility in Suitland, Maryland, US. It is in a poor state of repair and is no longer accessible to the general public. The evidence supports the proposition that this machine was captured by US troops at St. Leonhard im Pitztal, Austria in May 1945. The Natter displayed at the Deutsches Museum is said to have been reconstructed partly from sub-assemblies that survived the end of the war. This machine is of the experimental type as launched from the steel tower and is painted to look like an M17. There are several static reproductions of Natters around the world, for example at the Planes of Fame Air Museum, Chino, California and Fantasy of Flight, Polk City, Florida, US.", "In 2010 Oliver Gortat and Philip Schneider made a documentary film about the Bachem Ba 349." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The railway is operated by the company \". This company also operates the Straussee Ferry, an unusual electrically operated passenger cable ferry that crosses the Straussee lake from a landing close to the railway's Strausberg terminus.", "The railway was originally opened in 1893, at which time it was operated by steam locomotives and carried both freight and passenger traffic. In 1921 the line was electrified, and a new street based routing opened for the final length into Strausberg. The originally routing remained open for freight traffic and was also electrified. In 1926, the line was extended from Lustgarten to Jugendheim, but this section closed in 1970. Freight traffic ceased in 2005, and the original routing was closed, along with the rail connection to the main line network. The railway is of standard gauge, has a length of about, and is electrified on the overhead system at 750 volts. From south to north, the line serves stops at Strausberg railway station, Landhausstraße, Schlagmühle, Stadtwald, Hegermühle, Wolfstal, Käthe-Kollwitz-Straße, Elisabethstraße and Lustgarten. The depot is situated on the original route, and is accessed by a curve just beyond the Lustgarten terminus. The line had been mainly operated by three ČKD Tatra KT8D5 tram cars, built in 1989/1990 and acquired from Košice in 1995. A prototype ČKD Tatra T6C5 car, built in 1998 as a demonstrator for the United States market and operated on the New Orleans streetcar system for several months, had been acquired from Siemens (the new owners of Tatra) in 2003 and had been used in off-peak service. Two older Reko-Triebwagen TZ 69 cars, built in 1969 and acquired in the 1980s, were still available for passenger service, and a third had been converted into a works car. The railway also owns an even older preserved passenger car, dating from 1925. The Strausberg Railway joined the delivery framework of the BVG Berlin Transport Company ordering 2 Flexity Berlin trams on 5. September 2011. The two short double-sided two-cab trams were delivered in February and March 2013 replacing its older trams in daily service." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Plainchant.", "\"De mensurabili musica\".", "Franco of Cologne.", "Polyphonic music from c1300-c1600.", "Usage.", "Alternate interpretations.", "Transcription." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The early notation of plainchant, particularly Gregorian chant, used a series of shapes called neumes, which served as reminders of music that was taught by rote rather than as an exact record of which notes to sing. Neumes were in use from the 9th through the 11th centuries AD for most plainsong, and differed by region. Due to their malleable nature, there were no hard and fast rules for the lengths each note was supposed to last, or even how high or low the intervals between notes were to be.", "A treatise on notation named \"De mensurabili musica\" was copied around 1260. In this treatise, the anonymous author proposed that, much in the same way that poetry of the time was based on a series of modal rhythms, music should also be set up in this way. The notation of these modes was accomplished primarily through using ligatures in varying lengths and with varying degrees of complexity, where the rhythms would be derived from context. For most of their notated history, this was the purpose of ligatures: to indicate the rhythmic mode.", "Around 1250, a music theorist named Franco of Cologne published a treatise on music entitled \"Ars cantus mensurabilis\". In this treatise, Franco proposed that note values should be set up objectively, so that when looking at the notated music, a musician would be able to tell what notes were being sung or played, and the duration of those notes, with some degree of certainty. Ligatures were used for this as well, as they had become more or less standardized through the practice of the rhythmic modes.", "See mensural notation (ligatures).", "Ligatures have two basic shapes: \"box\" (rectangular) and \"oblique\" (angled). Additionally, some ligatures have tails that either point up or down; the direction of the ligature's tail affects its meaning, unlike the direction of a tail on a modern note head. While primarily contextual, the system of ligatures in use from the 13th to the 16th century is fairly standardized. All ligatures of this period have the following principles in common:", "Most scholarship on ligatures is focused on period from the 13th to the 16th centuries. Prior to this period, ligatures were far less standardized; a \"quaternaria\" ligature that, under the above rules, would mean a series like \"SSLB\" would simply mean \"BBBB\".", "In transcribing old works to modern notation, where no compound graphs as ligatures exist, editors usually indicate by a hook, a bracket (brace), or (less often in polyphonic music) a slur/phrase mark those notes that the original combined into a ligature. To avoid confusion, many scores transcribed purely for performance do not include additional notation to indicate that a particular note originally belonged to a ligature, as most methods to show this have separate meanings in a performance capacity." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Prime Minister.", "Libel lawsuit.", "Union of Right Forces.", "Rosatom." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Sergei Kiriyenko's grandfather, Yakov Israitel, made his name as a devoted communist and member of the Cheka, and Vladimir Lenin awarded him with an inscribed pistol for his good service to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Sergei Kiriyenko, son of a Jewish father, was born in Sukhumi, the capital of the Abkhaz ASSR, and grew up in Sochi, in southern Russia. He adopted the Ukrainian surname of his mother. After graduation from high school, Kiriyenko enrolled in the shipbuilding faculty at the Nizhny Novgorod (Gorky) Water Transport Engineers Institute, where his divorced father taught.", "Kiriyenko was appointed Prime Minister after the dismissal of Viktor Chernomyrdin's Second Cabinet. The State Duma, dominated by the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, twice refused to confirm his appointment but president Boris Yeltsin nominated him a third time and Kiriyenko was confirmed. Along with Deputy Prime Minister Boris Nemtsov and Anatoly Chubais, Kirienko became known as one of \"young reformists\". They tried to improve the Russia's economy using International Monetary Fund credits, and it elevated the national debt to the level of $22.6 billion. Kirienko's cabinet defaulted the GKO-OFZ government bond coupons which led to devaluation of the Russian ruble and 1998 Russian financial crisis. Responsible for the crisis, the prime minister resigned on 23 August.", "In 2004 Novaya Gazeta printed seven articles by columnist Georgy Rozhnov, which accused Kiriyenko of embezzling US$4.8 billion of International Monetary Fund funds in 1998 when he was Prime Minister of Russia. The newspaper based the accusations on a letter allegedly written to Colin Powell and signed by US Congressmen Philip Crane, Mike Pence, Charlie Norwood, Dan Burton and Henry Bonilla and posted on the website of the American Defense Council. The newspaper went on to claim that Kiriyenko had used some of the embezzled funds to purchase real estate in the United States. The Moscow newspaper, \"The eXile\", announced it had sent the letter as a prank, but later claimed that this had been a joke. In response, Kiriyenko sued Novaya Gazeta and Rozhnov for libel, and in passing judgement in favour of Kiriyenko the court ordered Novaya Gazeta to retract all publications relating to the accusations, and noted \"Novaya gazeta’s content on the missing IMF funds include a great deal of unproven information\" and also went on to say that the newspaper \"is obliged to publish only officially proven information linking Mr Kiriyenko with embezzlement.\"", "Together with Boris Nemtsov and Irina Hakamada, Kirienko formed the Union of Right Forces. Kiriyenko led the party in the 1999 legislative election. Party finished fourth on elections, receiving 29 seats. Sergey Kiriyenko headed the parliamentary group of the party.", "Kiriyenko was appointed to head Rosatom, the Federal Atomic Energy Agency, on November 30, 2005. He is also chairman of the board of directors of the vertically integrated Atomenergoprom nuclear company. He said on 18 September 2006 while in Vienna, that the reactor in the Bushehr nuclear plant in Iran should be operational by September 2007 and the plant itself will be active in November 2007. He advocated President Vladimir Putin's idea of creating an international system of uranium enrichment centers. A uranium enrichment center could be operational in Russia in 2007. Responding to a reporter's question, Kiriyenko said that the Bushehr power plant would not affect nuclear non-proliferation and that there was nothing preventing Iran-Russia energy cooperation. The Government of Russia planned to deliver nuclear fuel to the plant in March 2007. After a delay of some three years, Kiriyenko said 21 August 2010's arrival of nuclear fuel at Iran's Bushehr I marks \"an event of crucial importance\" that proves that \"Russia always fulfills its international obligations.\" Spent nuclear fuel from the plant will be sent back to Russia. For his work in Rosatom Kirienko was awarded by a confidential decree a Hero of Russia honorary title." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Reception.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Reload\" was recorded at The Plant, a wood-panelled studio in Sausalito, California. The session was produced by Bob Rock, who also produced Metallica's previous two albums. The album artwork displays a photo by Andres Serrano, titled \"Piss and Blood XXVI\". The original idea was to release \"Load\" and \"Reload\" as a double album. However, with problems recording so many songs at one time, the band decided that half of the songs were to be released and the band would continue to work on the remaining songs and release them the following year. Speaking about the recording sessions in an interview for \"Guitar World\", guitarist Kirk Hammett stated that \"We were gonna do them both as a double album, but we didn't want to spend that long in the studio. Also, if we did a double album, it would have been a lot more material for people to digest, and some of it might have gotten lost in the shuffle.\" It was the final Metallica studio album to feature bassist Jason Newsted, though it was not his last release with the band. This was the second album to feature most songs in E♭ tuning, with \"Bad Seed\" being played in D♭ tuning and \"Devil's Dance\" in D tuning. D tuning was earlier used for \"The Thing That Should Not Be\" on \"Master of Puppets\", \"Sad but True\" on \"Metallica\" and later used for \"Sabbra Cadabra\", and \"Whiskey in the Jar\" from \"Garage Inc\". Six songs from the album have been played live, including \"Fuel\", \"The Memory Remains\", \"Devil's Dance\", \"The Unforgiven II\", \"Carpe Diem Baby\", and \"Low Man's Lyric\". There were occasional jam sessions of songs such as \"Better Than You\", \"Bad Seed\", and \"Fixxxer\". \"Carpe Diem Baby\" premiered at Metallica's 30th anniversary concert in 2011. Songs that have not been played live in their entirety are \"Better than You\", \"Slither\", \"Bad Seed\", \"Where the Wild Things Are\", \"Prince Charming\", \"Attitude\", and \"Fixxxer\".", "AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine thought the record was worthwhile and noted it was heavily influenced by Southern rock. He did not approve the idea of doing the sequel \"The Unforgiven II\", but praised the collaboration with Marianne Faithfull on \"The Memory Remains\". Dan Snierson from \"Entertainment Weekly\" said \"Reload\" \"continues Metallica's journey into stripped-down maturity while toying with fresh melodic textures\" and \"also forsakes some of the punchy hooks and gut-clenching heft that elevated recent Metallica CDs\". \"Rolling Stone\"'s Lorraine Ali opined the album was rooted in heavy metal despite some songs being influenced by \"bluesy rock & roll\". She said \"Reload\" was not Metallica's best, but named it a steppingstone in Metallica's legacy. On the other hand, \"Musician\" described the album as \"greasy, driving, full of fat grooves, lyric and rhythmic hooks, and sonic curveballs\". The magazine felt it \"captures one of rock's greatest bands at its peak\". Canadian journalist Martin Popoff lamented the \"dull, unfinished, unrealized\" songwriting in many songs, but praised the production and groove of the album. British author Paul Stenning said Metallica were \"at their best on the likes of opener \"Fuel\", the inspired follow up to an old favourite in \"The Unforgiven II\" and the closing \"Fixxxer\" which had a fantastic lead riff.\" \"Reload\" sold 436,000 units in first week and debuted at number one on the \"Billboard\" 200. The album remained on the chart for 75 weeks, and sold just over four million copies in the United States by December 2009. It was certified 3× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipping three million copies in the United States. \"Reload\" peaked at number two on the Canadian Albums Chart, and was certified double platinum by Music Canada.", "Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes. Metallica Additional musicians Production" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "2010 census.", "2000 census.", "Economy.", "Top employers.", "Culture.", "Landmarks.", "Parks and recreation.", "Government.", "Education." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Native Americans have lived in the Redmond area for over 10,000 years, based on artifacts discovered at the Redmond Town Center archaeological site and Marymoor Prehistoric Indian Site. The first European settlers arrived in the 1870s. Luke McRedmond filed a Homestead Act claim for land next to the Sammamish Slough on September 9, 1870, and the following year Warren Perrigo took up land adjacent to him. The rivers and streams had so many salmon that the settlement was initially named Salmonberg. More settlers came, and with the establishment of the first post office in 1881, the name of the community was changed to Melrose. The new name was derived from the Perrigos' successful inn, Melrose House, which upset McRedmond. After becoming postmaster, he successfully petitioned to have the name changed to Redmond in 1883. The abundant forests and fish of Redmond provided jobs for loggers and fishermen, and with those jobs came demand for goods and services, bringing in merchants. The logging industry expanded significantly in 1889 when the Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern Railway built a station in the center of town. The first plat for Redmond was filed on May 11, 1891, encompassing much of the area now known as downtown. After reaching the necessary population of 300, Redmond was incorporated on December 31, 1912. Redmond experienced an economic downturn in the 1920s. Prohibition forced saloons to close, cutting off a large portion of the city's tax base. The forests were declining after heavy logging, causing lumber mills to shut down. The deforested land was suitable for farming. Agriculture became Redmond's primary business, keeping residents fed during the Great Depression. When the U.S. entered World War II, shipyard jobs and other wartime work came to Redmond. After the war, Redmond's expansion began in earnest. The city expanded over thirty times larger in area through annexations between 1951 and 1967. From 1956 to 1965, Redmond was bordered by the town of East Redmond, which was formed by rural homeowners and later dissolved by the Washington Supreme Court. The completion of the Evergreen Point Floating Bridge across Lake Washington in 1963 allowed Redmond to flourish as a suburb of Seattle. In 1978, the U.S. Census Bureau proclaimed Redmond the fastest growing city in the state. Many technology companies made the city their home, and the increasing population demanded more retail shops. By the late 1980s, Downtown Redmond had become \"a series of strip centers surrounded by parking lots\", sparking plans for a mixed-use revitalized downtown. Redmond underwent a commercial boom during the 1990s, culminating in 1997 with the opening of Redmond Town Center, a major regional shopping center on the site of a long-defunct golf course. In recent years the city has been experiencing growing pains as a result of its rapid expansion, particularly in the areas of urban sprawl and traffic congestion. During rush hour it can take upwards of two hours to travel from the beginning of SR-520 at Avondale Road to downtown Seattle, a mere away. These problems are being mitigated by the expansion of SR-520 and the Evergreen Point Floating Bridge, as well as the planned light rail service via the East Link Extension from Seattle to Redmond to open in 2023.", "Redmond is bordered by Kirkland to the west, Bellevue to the southwest, and Sammamish to the southeast. Unincorporated King County lies to the north and east. The city's urban downtown lies just north of Lake Sammamish; residential areas lie north and west of the lake. Overlake, the city's second urban center, is to the west of Lake Sammamish. The Sammamish River runs north from the lake along the west edge of the city's downtown. Redmond is located at. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which are land and are water.", "Redmond, like most of the Pacific Northwest, has a mild climate for its latitude, but still gets all four seasons. Summers tend to be warm and dry, with low rainfall and sunny or partly sunny from June to September. Winters tend to be cool and wet, with November being the rainiest month. Snowfall is uncommon, with the most common cold air being in a form of a high pressure system, driving out the rains from the area. However, snowfall is not as rare as in other cities like Seattle near the moderating effects of Puget Sound. The average warmest month is August. The highest recorded temperature was on July 29, 2009. On average, the coolest month is January. The lowest recorded temperature was in January 1950. The maximum average precipitation occurs in December.", "According to a 2015 estimate, the annual median income for a household in the city was $99,586. The average home value in 2014 was $649,000.", "As of the census of 2010, there were 54,144 people, 22,550 households, and 13,890 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 24,177 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 65.2% White, 1.7% African American, 0.4% Native American, 25.4% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 3.2% from other races, and 4.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.8% of the population. There were 22,550 households of which 32.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.4% were married couples living together, 6.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38.4% were non-families. 29.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.98. The median age in the city was 34.1 years. 22.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 38.7% were from 25 to 44; 21.6% were from 45 to 64; and 9.5% were 65 years of age or older. The sex ratio of the city was 50.9% male and 49.1% female.", "As of the census of 2000, there were 45,256 people, 19,102 households, and 11,346 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,848.8 people per square mile (1,099.7/km2). There were 20,248 housing units at an average density of 1,274.6 per square mile (492.0/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 79.3% White, 13.0% Asian, 1.5% African American, 0.5% Native American, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 2.5% from other races, and 3.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.6% of the population. There were 19,102 households out of which 28.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.9% were married couples living together, 7.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.6% were non-families. 30.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.95. In the city, the population was spread out with 21.5% under the age of 18, 9.5% from 18 to 24, 37.9% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 9.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.5 males. The median income for a household in the city was $66,735, and the median income for a family was $78,430. Males had a median income of $58,112 versus $37,200 for females. The per capita income for the city was $36,233. About 3.3% of families and 5.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.3% of those under age 18 and 6.5% of those age 65 or over.", "Several companies in the high-tech industry are based in Redmond. The largest employer in the city by far is Microsoft Corporation, which moved its headquarters to Redmond in 1986. Microsoft has over 40,000 blue badge FTEs (full-time employee), 45,000 orange badge contractors (as of June 2012, there are over 94,000 workers, and over half are contractors), and more than 8 million square feet (750,000 square meters) of office space in the Seattle area Eastside region, primarily in Redmond, with additional offices in Bellevue and Issaquah (90,000 employees worldwide). In June 2006, Microsoft purchased former Safeco's Redmond campus at 4515–5069 154th Place NE for $220.5 million. Other companies with headquarters in Redmond include Nintendo of America, Genie Industries, Physio-Control (now part of Stryker), Visible.net, WildTangent, Solstice (acquired by Samsung) and Data I/O. In 2015, SpaceX and Hyperloop Genesis announced of opening a facility in Redmond. Their focus will be R&D and manufacturing for a proposed internet communications satellite constellation and new transport systems. Unlike Bellevue and other neighboring cities, the city of Redmond does not have a business and occupation tax on income. However, to help offset the costs of road improvements for businesses, a business license fee of $55 per employee was approved in 1996., the fee is $107 per employee.", "According to Redmond's 2015 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:", "Redmond Derby Days is an annual community festival held the second full weekend of July and celebrated its 75th anniversary in 2015. It began as a race around Lake Sammamish called the Redmond Bicycle Derby in 1939, and since then has become a multi-day event including a bicycle criterium, parade, entertainment stages, beer garden, local food offerings and activities. It also includes a carnival with rides and attractions and a fireworks display at dusk on Saturday. Performing arts in Redmond include the Eastside Symphony and the Second Story Repertory theater company, as well as artists who play at the Redmond Performing Arts Center. Redmond has a collection of outdoor sculptures throughout its streets and parks, many of which are part of a rotating sculpture exhibition. Redmond Lights is an annual community festival held the first Saturday of December. It features a special guest each year, a tree-lighting conducted by the mayor on city hall campus, a luminary walk on the Sammamish Trail and Redmond Central Connector with musical and light stations along the way to Redmond Town Center where there are many special attractions such as a carousel, skating rink and food sampling. The Old Redmond Firehouse is a center for local teens. It has become a hub in the thriving Eastside independent music scene. Local bands perform here with concert style speakers. Since 2010, by city ordinance, Redmond has appointed a poet laureate. The inaugural laureate was Rebecca Meredith (2010–2012), followed by Jeannine Hall Gailey (2012–2013), Michael Dylan Welch (2013–2015), Shin Yu Pai (2015–2017), Melanie Noel (2018–2019), and Raul Sanchez (2019-2021). The Concerts at Marymoor is an annual summer series of concerts held at the amphitheater in Marymoor Park. The venue has been host to artists as diverse as Norah Jones, Peter, Paul & Mary, Rob Thomas and Duran Duran. When visiting the Seattle area, Cirque du Soleil has set up in Marymoor since the 2004 tour of Varekai when a concrete base was built for them to set up on. Since then, tours of Corteo (2006), Kooza (2010), Amaluna (2013), Kurios (2015) and Luzia (2017) have played in this spot. Other notable events include the Warped Tour and Cavalia in 2012 and 2014. Redmond Saturday Market is the oldest farmer's market in the Seattle area's east side. This market is held on Saturdays from May through October on approximately 8,000 square feet of land near the Redmond Town Center. The City of Redmond has approved an ordinance that the current market site be preserved for its community and historic significance.", "Redmond has designated the following landmarks:", "According to the city's website, Redmond has 47 public parks totaling over. Many of these are neighborhood parks with picnic tables and sports fields or courts. The largest park within the city is not owned by the city – it is King County's Marymoor Park, one of the most popular in King County. It features a climbing rock, a model airplane flying field, a 48-acre off-leash dog park, an outdoor theater, sports fields such as baseball and soccer, a playground, tennis courts, a community garden, cricket pitch, and a velodrome, which hosts the FSA Star Crossed – Redmond cyclo-cross competition in September. The city offers over of public trails for hiking, bicycling, and horseback riding. The Sammamish River Trail connects to the Puget Power trail, the Burke-Gilman Trail (in Bothell), and the East Lake Sammamish Trail. 60 Acres Park is known for its soccer in the spring through fall and RC electric airplanes and gliders in the winter time. In 2004, Redmond North Little League won the Northwest region and participated in the Little League World Series in South Williamsport, PA. With Redmond North claiming the Northwest, it is the third team from Washington to claim the Northwest since its inception in 2001. Previous Washington champions were Bainbridge Island (2001), Richland (2003).", "Redmond has a non-partisan mayor–council form of government, with the mayor and seven council members elected at large for staggered four-year terms. The city council authorized a ballot measure in March 2003 that would have changed Redmond to a council-manager government. However, it was rejected by the electorate, receiving less than 30% of the vote.", "Redmond is part of the Lake Washington School District, which also encompasses Kirkland, and parts of Sammamish and Woodinville. The public schools in Redmond include ten elementary schools (Alcott, Audubon, Dickinson, Einstein, Mann, Redmond, Rockwell, Rosa Parks, Rush and Wilder), five middle schools (Redmond Middle, Evergreen Middle, Rose Hill Middle, Timberline Middle School, Stella Schola), and two high schools (Redmond High School, Nikola Tesla STEM High School (choice)). Three private schools offer secondary education: The Overlake School (secular), The Bear Creek School (Christian – primary and secondary), and the Conservatory High School (for performing arts students). The English Hill neighborhood in North Redmond (unincorporated King County) is served by the Northshore School District and Sunrise Elementary. The far east side of Redmond is known as Redmond Ridge. Redmond Ridge and Redmond Ridge East communities are part of the Lake Washington school district. East of 248th to West Snoqualmie Valley Road is served by the Riverview School District. DigiPen Institute of Technology and the secondary campus of Lake Washington Technical College are located in Redmond. The city is home to Redmond Regional Library, the second-largest library in the King County Library System." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design and construction.", "Early years.", "Cunard White Star Line.", "World War II.", "Post-war service.", "Features.", "Technical elements.", "Interior." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In the mid-1920s the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM), an American group of shipping companies, announced that it wished to sell its British companies, the most important of which was White Star Line. On January 1, 1927, White Star Line was sold to the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company (RMSPC), making the RMSPC the largest shipping group in the world. At that time the company fleet was ageing rapidly, and Lord Kylsant, chairman of the RMSPC, announced plans to construct new ships. Two projects then took place simultaneously. The first, which was already vaguely envisioned when White Star Line was still part of the IMM, concerned the construction of a new ship for prompt service of the North Atlantic. This project was never completed. The second project concerned the replacement of the Big Four quartet of ocean liners, the first of which was \"Britannic\". These replacements were designed to be smaller and slower than the Big Four but more luxurious. White Star Line chose a diesel method of propulsion for \"Britannic\", despite previously preferring multiple expansion steam engines, because it required less fuel and was cheaper to operate. \"Britannic\" was to be constructed by Harland and Wolff and the ship's keel was placed on 14 April 1927 in Belfast in yard 807. Construction of the ship became even more necessary with the loss of the RMS \"Celtic\" of the Big Four which ran aground near Cobh, Ireland, in December 1928, and was left beyond repair. \"Britannic\" was launched on 6 August 1929 with the second-largest ship's engine in the world after MS \"Augustus\". The following spring, the ship was laid out and completed, performed three days of sea trials from 25 May 1930, and then was delivered to White Star Line.", "When \"Britannic\" entered service, the financial impact of the Great Depression was profoundly altering marine traffic on the North Atlantic line, resulting in fewer passengers using the route. Many ships of the White Star line that served Canada, such as SS \"Calgaric\", SS \"Albertic\", SS \"Laurentic\", and SS \"Megantic\", had to provide cheap cruises in order to earn money. \"Britannic\", which offered more affordable rates because of lower operating costs, became the ideal ship for the then economic situation. The delivery of the ship to Liverpool resulted in an ecstatic press and was well received. On 28 June 1930, 14,000 people flocked to watch the ship begin its maiden voyage to New York City via Glasgow and Belfast. The ship served this route during the summer along with aging ships RMS \"Cedric\", RMS \"Baltic\", and RMS \"Adriatic\", and proved to be the company's most profitable ship. In 1932, \"Britannic\" was joined by a running mate, MV \"Georgic\", and both ships plied the same route. In 1933, \"Britannic\" was able to carry 1,103 passengers, the highest number of passengers of any ship that year.", "During this time of economic uncertainty, White Star Line was experiencing additional difficulties: Lord Kylsant, a White Star Line owner, was imprisoned in 1931 for producing deceptive documents while serving as a director of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company. The economic situation was worsening year by year, and the Cunard Line was in no healthier a financial state than White Star Line. Neville Chamberlain, then-Chancellor of the Exchequer, pressured both companies to merge in order to preserve Britain's naval prestige. On 11 May 1934, the companies merged to form the Cunard White Star Line, with White Star Line holding a minority position. Following this merger, most ships of White Star Line were scrapped between 1934 and 1936, and only \"Britannic\" and \"Georgic\" remained in service. The SS \"Laurentic\" was also retained until she sank in 1940. On 19 April 1936, \"Britannic\" and \"Georgic\" were assigned to the route between London and New York, making them the largest ships to sail the River Thames. This service was continued until the outbreak of the Second World War. A number of new ships appeared; the SS \"Manhattan\" and the SS \"Washington\" for United States Lines, and the SS \"Champlain\" and the SS \"Lafayette\" for the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique. Figures from 1937 show that in that year, \"Britannic\" carried 26,943 passengers; \"Georgic\" carried a few hundred more. However, \"Champlain\" achieved a greater number of passengers. The poor performance of \"Britannic\" was partially due to slightly damaged engines, identified on 4 January 1937 while the ship was leaving New York, and it was sent into a dry dock for repairs.", "While World War II was imminent, \"Britannic\" was requisitioned on 27 August 1939 while returning from New York. The ship was called to Southampton and was quickly equipped to transport troops. A few days later, the ship left for Glasgow to collect officers of the British Indian army, and naval officers, who were then transported to Bombay. Here the ship was armed with guns and left for England with several tons of goods. Following this, the ship resumed commercial service. The ship was again requisitioned on 23 August 1940 for a tour of Africa before travelling to Bombay. During the following two years, \"Britannic\" served India via Cape Town. The capacity of the ship increased from 3,000 to 5,000 troops. In 1943, the ship served as the command ship of a convoy to land troops in Algiers. Subsequently, between November 1943 and May 1944, the ship made eight North Atlantic crossings, carrying 20,000 American soldiers. It then transported troops to Italy and the Middle East. In May 1941, the Britannic embarked England on its way to Canada while being escorted by and four destroyers. Around midday on Saturday 24 May, HMS Rodney left the escort upon being called upon by the Admiralty with the intent of pursuing the German battleship Bismarck with three of the designated destroyers; HMS Somali, HMS Mashona and HMS Tartar. The remaining destroyer, HMS Eskimo (F75), stayed with the Britannic until the evening of the following day, (25 May). At that time the escort had encountered an Eastbound convoy of approximately 50 vessels which did not appear to have an escort. At this point, the last destroyer left the Britannic and turned round to presumably shepherd the convoy back towards the UK. The Britannic continued, unprotected, to Halifax, Nova Scotia and arrived on Thursday 29 May. She proceeded to New York, arriving at W 34th St Pier on 2 June, where she disembarked 200 British government employees. In April and May 1945, \"Britannic\" was responsible for transporting British-Canadian women, married to Canadian soldiers, and their children, to Canada. From the outbreak of World War II, the ship carried 173,550 people over. At the end of the conflict, \"Britannic\" was temporarily stored, the responsibility of the state, and was released from service in March 1947. It then underwent a major overhaul in Liverpool which modernised her interior and then resumed her commercial service.", "\"Britannic\" made her first trip after World War II between Liverpool and New York via Cobh on 22 May 1948, and its new facilities were subject to a promotional campaign by Cunard White Star Line. At the end of 1949, Cunard Line, having purchased all of the shares of White Star Line, returned to using its original company name in 1950. Despite this, \"Britannic\" and \"Georgic\" continued to display the flags of both White Star Line and Cunard Line. On 28 January 1950, \"Britannic\" was unable to cruise from New York to the Mediterranean as a result of engine damage. On 1 June 1950, the ship struck and damaged \"Pioneer Land\" in the port of New York but was able to cross the Atlantic without any problems. The ship continued its 1950 summer transatlantic crossings and winter cruises. In 1953, and 1955, fires broke out on the ship, but these did not put \"Britannic\" in danger, although the latter destroyed some of the ship's cargo. In January 1955, \"Georgic\" was removed from service, leaving \"Britannic\" the last remaining ship of the White Star Line. In 1958, the construction of a new vessel was announced that would replace \"Britannic\" in 1961. In 1960 \"Britannic\" made her final cruise from New York to the Mediterranean, with a total of 23 stops over 66 days. \"Britannic\" returned to New York in preparation for another cruise, but the crankshaft of the ship was severely damaged and the next voyage was cancelled. The Cunard Line declared repairs to be prohibitively expensive, and she returned to Liverpool on 11 November 1960. Upon her arrival on 16 December, she left for Inverkeithing and was sold to a metal recovery company; she was scrapped the following year. The Cunard Line replaced \"Britannic\" on the Liverpool—New York service with \"Sylvania\".", "", "\"Britannic\" was a medium-sized ship and had a gross tonnage of 26,943 tons. Measuring long by wide, the ship's hull was black with a golden line, and the underside of the ship was painted rust red. Two funnels were present, which were wider than those on other White Star Line ships, but only the after one was functional, with the forward funnel being used for radar installations and water supplies. The ship was powered by a diesel engine driving two propellers, and contained one of the largest 1930s engines, which was difficult for the engineers to run due to its complexity and size. This diesel engine allowed large fuel savings, and its ability to provide increased speed while also reducing the level of vibrations, was appreciated by passengers. \"Britannic\" was divided into watertight compartments separated by twelve bulkheads with doors that could be closed manually, or electrically from the navigation bridge. The ship contained twenty-four conventional lifeboats, two speedboats, and two backup canoes. As part of the ship's post-World War II overhaul, it received sophisticated fire-detection systems. This overhaul resulted in the ship's gross tonnage increasing to 27,666 tons. It had eight large cargo holds, one of which could transport unpackaged cars, and two allowed the transport of refrigerated cargo.", "\"Britannic\" was a cabin ship designed to transport passengers in comfortable conditions comparable to those offered by large ocean liners, but at slower speeds, allowing a tariff reduction. The ship was initially able to carry 504 \"Cabin\" (first) class passengers, 551 \"Tourist\" (second) class passengers, and 498 third class passengers. The first two classes were offered very similar facilities. \"Britannic\" was initially decorated in various 1920s styles, but was redecorated in Art Deco style after the post-World War II overhaul. A significant number of the cabins were equipped with bathrooms and all had hot and cold running water, which was rare at the time. Two luxurious cabins were located on A deck, each equipped with a living room, a bedroom, and a bathroom." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Dopefish.", "Voice work.", "Personal Life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1987, Hall worked at Softdisk Inc., where he was both a programmer and the editor of \"Softdisk\", a software bundle delivered monthly. Along with some of his co-workers, John Carmack, John Romero and Adrian Carmack, he founded id Software. He served as creative director and designer there, working on games such as the \"Commander Keen\" series, \"Wolfenstein 3D\", \"Spear of Destiny\", and \"Doom\". After some disputes with John Carmack about the design for \"Doom\", Tom left id Software in August 1993 to join Apogee/3D Realms. He was the game designer for \"Rise of the Triad\", produced \"Terminal Velocity\", and helped in varying degrees on \"Duke Nukem II\" and \"Duke Nukem 3D\" as well. He also worked on the \"Prey\" engine until August 12, 1996, when he left Apogee. Hall co-founded Ion Storm with John Romero, where he produced \"Anachronox\". The company also produced the 2000 Game of the Year, \"Deus Ex\", in which Hall voiced one of the characters. He and Romero then founded Monkeystone Games, a company with the goal of producing mobile games in the then new mobile industry. He designed, and Romero programmed, \"Hyperspace Delivery Boy!\", which was released on December 23, 2001. He and Romero joined Midway Games in 2003, and Monkeystone closed in January 2005. Hall also left Midway early that year and did independent game consultation work out of Austin, Texas until in February he joined a startup company called KingsIsle Entertainment based in the same area. Hall left KingsIsle Entertainment and joined Loot Drop on January 1, 2011. Along with Loot Drop he unsuccessfully tried to crowdfund a game called \"Shaker\" on the crowdfunding platform Kickstarter during October 2012. Hall later tried to crowdfund another game on Kickstarter, \"Worlds of Wander\", which was also unsuccessful in reaching its goal. In March 2013, Hall joined PlayFirst as Principal Designer.", "Hall is the creator of the Dopefish, a green, dimwitted fish in \"Commander Keen\" episode IV. References to it have appeared in other video games since.", "Hall provided the following voices for the computer role-playing game \"Deus Ex\": Morpheus, a sentient AI; Howard Strong, a ruthless and cruel MJ12 operative; and Walton Simons, the nano-augmented Director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). He also voiced the project director in \"\" opening cutscene, and PAL-18, Councilman Willis, Dr. Hush-Hush and Eddie the Chew in Anachronox. He was also the voice and likeness of the main antagonist of Rise of the Triad, El Oscuro, and also voiced the Death Monk enemies from the game.", "Hall suffered a stroke on Tuesday, April 13, 2010. He was in rehabilitation until April 21, when he was released." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Components.", "Usage.", "Part of integrated project management systems.", "Distributed bug tracking.", "Bug tracking and test management." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A major component of a bug tracking system is a database that records facts about known bugs. Facts may include the time a bug was reported, its severity, the erroneous program behavior, and details on how to reproduce the bug; as well as the identity of the person who reported it and any programmers who may be working on fixing it. Typical bug tracking systems support the concept of the life cycle for a bug which is tracked through the status assigned to the bug. A bug tracking system should allow administrators to configure permissions based on status, move the bug to another status, or delete the bug. The system should also allow administrators to configure the bug statuses and to what extent a bug in a particular status can be moved. Some systems will e-mail interested parties, such as the submitter and assigned programmers, when new records are added or the status changes. It is possible to perform automated diagnosis based on the content of the bug report. For instance, one can do automated detection of bug duplicates or automatic bug fixing.", "The main benefit of a bug-tracking system is to provide a clear centralized overview of development requests (including both bugs and improvements, the boundary is often fuzzy), and their state. The prioritized list of pending items (often called backlog) provides valuable input when defining the product road map, or maybe just \"the next release\". In a corporate environment, a bug-tracking system may be used to generate reports on the productivity of programmers at fixing bugs. However, this may sometimes yield inaccurate results because different bugs may have different levels of severity and complexity. The severity of a bug may not be directly related to the complexity of fixing the bug. There may be different opinions among the managers and architects. A \"local bug tracker (LBT)\" is usually a computer program used by a team of application support professionals (often a help desk) to keep track of issues communicated to software developers. Using an LBT allows support professionals to track bugs in their \"own language\" and not the \"language of the developers.\" In addition, an LBT allows a team of support professionals to track specific information about users who have called to complain—this information may not always be needed in the actual development queue. Thus, there are two tracking systems when an LBT is in place.", "Bug and issue tracking systems are often implemented as a part of integrated project management systems. This approach allows including bug tracking and fixing in a general product development process, fixing bugs in several product versions, automatic generation of a product knowledge base and release notes.", "Some bug trackers are designed to be used with distributed revision control software. These distributed bug trackers allow bug reports to be conveniently read, added to the database or updated while a developer is offline. Fossil and Veracity both include distributed bug trackers. Recently, commercial bug tracking systems have also begun to integrate with distributed version control. FogBugz, for example, enables this functionality via the source-control tool, Kiln. Although wikis and bug tracking systems are conventionally viewed as distinct types of software, ikiwiki can also be used as a distributed bug tracker. It can manage documents and code as well, in an integrated distributed manner. However, its query functionality is not as advanced or as user-friendly as some other, non-distributed bug trackers such as Bugzilla. Similar statements can be made about org-mode, although it is not wiki software as such.", "While traditional test management tools such as HP Quality Center and IBM Rational Quality Manager come with their own bug tracking systems, other tools integrate with popular bug tracking systems." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Part one.", "Part two.", "Part three.", "Part four.", "Development.", "Reception.", "Adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The book tells the story of Jonathan Livingston Seagull, a seagull who is bored with daily squabbles over food. Seized by a passion for flight, he pushes himself and learns everything he can about flying. His increasing unwillingness to conform finally results in his expulsion from the flock. Now an outcast, he continues to learn, becoming increasingly pleased with his abilities while leading a peaceful and happy life. One day Jonathan meets two gulls who take him to a \"higher plane of existence\" in which there is no heaven, but a better world found through perfection of knowledge. There he meets another seagull who loves to fly. He discovers that his sheer tenacity and desire to learn make him \"pretty well a one-in-a-million bird.\" In this new place, Jonathan befriends the wisest gull, Chiang, who takes him beyond his previous self-education, and teaches him how to move instantaneously to anywhere else in the Universe. The secret, Chiang says, is to \"begin by knowing that you have already arrived.\" But, unsatisfied with his new life, Jonathan returns to Earth to find others like himself to tell them what he'd learned and to spread his love for flight. His mission is successful, and Jonathan gathers around himself a flock of other gulls who have been outlawed for not conforming. The first of his students, Fletcher Lynd Seagull, ultimately becomes a teacher in his own right, and Jonathan leaves to teach other flocks.", "Part One of the book finds young Jonathan Livingston frustrated with the meaningless materialism, conformity, and limitation of the seagull life. He is seized with a passion for flight of all kinds, and his soul soars as he experiments with exhilarating challenges of daring aerial feats. Eventually, his lack of conformity to the limited seagull life leads him into conflict with his flock, and they turn their backs on him, casting him out of their society and exiling him. Not deterred by this, Jonathan continues his efforts to reach higher and higher flight goals, finding he is often successful but eventually he can fly no higher. He is then met by two radiant, loving seagulls who explain to him that he has learned much, and that they are there now to teach him more.", "Jonathan transcends into a society where all the gulls enjoy flying. He is only capable of this after practicing hard alone for a long time and the first learning process of linking the highly experienced teacher and the diligent student is raised to almost sacred levels. They, regardless of the all immense difference, are sharing something of great importance that can bind them together: \"You've got to understand that a seagull is an unlimited idea of freedom, an image of the Great Gull.\" He realizes that you have to be true to yourself: \"You have the freedom to be yourself, your true self, here and now, and nothing can stand in your way.\"", "These are the last words of Jonathan's teacher: \"Keep working on love.\" Through his teachings, Jonathan understands that the spirit cannot be really free without the ability to forgive, and that the way to progress leads—for him, at least—through becoming a teacher, not just through working hard as a student. Jonathan returns to the Breakfast Flock to share his newly discovered ideals and the recent tremendous experience, ready for the difficult fight against the current rules of that society. The ability to forgive seems to be a mandatory \"passing condition.\"", "In 2013 Richard Bach took up a non-published fourth part of the book which he had written contemporaneously with the original. He edited and polished it, and then sent the result to a publisher. Bach reported that he was inspired to finish the fourth part of the novella by a near-death experience which had occurred in relation to a nearly fatal plane crash in August 2012. In February 2014, the 138-page Bach work \"\", published as a booklet by Kindle Direct Publishing in February 2014, also contains allusions to and insights regarding the same near-death experience. In October 2014, \"Jonathan Livingston Seagull: The Complete Edition,\" was published, and includes part four of the story. Part four focuses on the period several hundred years after Jonathan and his students have left the Flock and their teachings become venerated rather than practiced. The birds spend all their time extolling the virtues of Jonathan and his students and spend no time flying for flying's sake. The seagulls practice strange rituals and use demonstrations of their respect for Jonathan and his students as status symbols. Eventually some birds reject the ceremony and rituals and just start flying. Eventually one bird named Anthony Gull questions the value of living since \"...life is pointless and since pointless is by definition meaningless then the only proper act is to dive into the ocean and drown. Better not to exist at all than to exist like a seaweed, without meaning or joy [...] He had to die sooner or later anyway, and he saw no reason to prolong the painful boredom of living.\" As Anthony makes a dive-bomb to the sea (at a speed and from an altitude which would kill him) a white blur flashed alongside him. Anthony catches up to the blur which turns out to be a seagull and asks what the bird was doing: \"I'm sorry if I startled you,\" the stranger said in a voice as clear and friendly as the wind. \"I had you in sight all the time. Just playing...I wouldn't have hit you.\" \"No! No, that's not it.\" Anthony was awake and alive for the first time in his life, inspired. \"What was that?\" \"Oh, some fun-flying, I guess. A dive and pullup to a slow roll with a rolling loop off the top. Just messing around. If you really want to do it well it takes a bit of practice, but it's a nice-looking thing, don't you think?\" \"It's, it's...beautiful, is what it is! But you haven't been around the Flock at all. Who are you, anyway?\" \"You can call me Jon.\"", "Jonathan Livingston Seagull is named after John H. Livingston, a Waco Aircraft Company test pilot who died of a heart attack at 76 just after test flying an acrobatic home-built Pitts Special. The book was rejected by several publishers before coming to the attention of Eleanor Friede at Macmillan in 1969. She convinced Macmillan to buy it and Bach received a $2,000 advance.", "Several early commentators, emphasizing the first part of the book, see it as part of the US self-help and positive thinking culture, epitomised by Norman Vincent Peale and by the New Thought movement. Film critic Roger Ebert wrote that the book was \"so banal that it had to be sold to adults; kids would have seen through it.\" The book is listed as one of 50 \"timeless spiritual classics\" in a book by Tom Butler-Bowdon, who noted that \"it is easy now, 35 years on, to overlook the originality of the book's concept, and though some find it rather naïve, in fact it expresses timeless ideas about human potential.\" John Clute, for \"The Encyclopedia of Fantasy\", wrote: \"an animal fantasy about a philosophical gull who is profoundly affected by flying, but who demands too much of his community and is cast out by it. He becomes an extremely well behaved accursed wanderer, then dies, and in posthumous FANTASY sequences — though he is too wise really to question the fact of death, and too calmly confident to have doubts about his continuing upward mobility — he learns greater wisdom. Back on Earth, he continues to preach and heal and finally returns to heaven, where he belongs.\"", "The novella inspired the production of a film of the same title, with a soundtrack by Neil Diamond. The film was made by Hall Bartlett many years before computer-generated effects were available. In order to make seagulls act on cue and perform aerobatics, Mark Smith of Escondido, California built radio-controlled gliders that looked like real seagulls from a few feet away. Bach had written the film's original screenplay, but he sued Paramount Pictures before the film's release because he felt that there were too many discrepancies between the film and the book. Director Bartlett had allegedly violated a term in his contract with Bach which stated that no changes could be made to the film's adaptation without Bach's consent. Bach took offense to scenes Bartlett had filmed which were not present in the book, most notably the sequence in which Jonathan is suddenly attacked by a wild hawk (voiced by Bartlett himself). Ultimately, the court ruled that Bach's name would be taken off the screenplay credits, and that the film would be released with a card indicating that Bach disapproved of the final cut. Bach's attorney claimed, \"It took tremendous courage to say this motion picture had to come out of theaters unless it was changed. Paramount was stunned.\" The Grammy Award-winning soundtrack album was composed by Neil Diamond and produced by Tom Catalano. It won the 1974 Grammy Award as Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or a Television Special. The album apparently also made more money than the film. The album sold two million copies in the United States, 400,000 in France, 250,000 in Germany, 200,000 in Canada and 100,000 in the United Kingdom. The Irish actor Richard Harris won a Grammy in 1973 for the Audiobook LP \"Jonathan Livingston Seagull.\" To date Harris's reading has not been released on any other format. Versions read by the author, Richard Bach, have been released on LP, cassette, and CD." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Book 1: That Dinkum Thinkum.", "Book 2: A Rabble in Arms.", "Book 3: TANSTAAFL!", "Major themes.", "Timeline.", "Politics and society.", "Outcomes.", "Plot elements.", "Earth politics and background history.", "Sources, allusions, and references.", "Possible sources.", "Allusions to other works.", "Connections to other Heinlein works.", "References to history, geography, and science.", "\"The Brass Cannon\".", "Critical reception.", "Influence.", "Film.", "Audiobook releases." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 2075, the Moon (Luna) is used as a penal colony by Earth's government, with the inhabitants living in underground cities. Most inhabitants (called \"Loonies\") are criminals, political exiles, or their descendants. The total population is about three million, with men outnumbering women two to one, so that polyandry and many forms of polygamy are the norm. Although Earth's Protector of the Lunar Colonies (called the \"Warden\") holds power, in practice, little intervention exists in the loose Lunar society except that concerning the exportation of goods to Earth (mainly wheat), giving way to a virtually anarchist society. Due to the low surface gravity of the Moon, people who stay longer than six months undergo \"irreversible physiological changes and can never again live in comfort and health in a gravitational field six times greater than that to which their bodies have become adjusted\". HOLMES IV (\"High-Optional, Logical, Multi-Evaluating Supervisor, Mark IV\") is the Lunar Authority's master computer, having almost total control of Luna's machinery on the grounds that a single computer is cheaper than (though not as safe as) multiple independent systems. The story is narrated by Manuel Garcia \"Mannie\" O'Kelly-Davis, a computer technician who discovers that HOLMES IV has achieved self-awareness and has developed a sense of humor. Mannie names it \"Mike\" after Mycroft Holmes, brother of Sherlock Holmes, and they become friends.", "At the beginning of the story, Mannie, at Mike's request, attends an anti-Authority meeting with a hidden recorder. When the authorities raid the gathering, Mannie flees with Wyoming (\"Wyoh\") Knott, a political agitator, whom he introduces to Mike and with whom he meets his former teacher, the elderly Professor Bernardo de la Paz, who claims that Luna must stop exporting hydroponic wheat to Earth or its limited water resources will be exhausted. In connection with this, Mike calculates that if no prevention occurs, food riots will occur in seven years and cannibalism in nine. Wyoh and the Professor decide to start a revolution, which Mannie is persuaded to join after Mike calculates that it has a one in seven chance of success on the basis that one in ten was good enough for him. Mannie, Wyoh, and Professor de la Paz thereafter form covert cells, protected by Mike, who adopts the persona of \"Adam Selene\", leader of the movement, and communicates by the telephone system. Mannie saves the life of Stuart Rene LaJoie, a rich, well-connected, charismatic tourist, who is charged with turning public opinion on Earth in favor of Lunar independence. Before the planned time to revolt arrives, soldiers who had been brought to quell the mounting unrest rape and kill a local young woman, then kill another who finds her body, and rioting erupts. The Loonies overcome military opposition and overthrow the Warden who we later discover ends up brain dead due to hypoxia. When Earth tries to reclaim the colony, the revolutionaries plan to defend themselves with a smaller version of the electromagnetic catapult used to export wheat.", "Mike impersonates the Warden in messages to Earth, to give the revolutionaries time to organize their work. Meanwhile, the Professor sets up an \"Ad-Hoc Congress\" to distract dissenters. When Earth finally learns the truth, Luna declares its independence on July 4, 2076, the 300th anniversary of the United States' Declaration of Independence and heavily bases its own declaration of independence on it. Mannie and the Professor go to Earth to plead Luna's case, where they are received in the Federated Nations' headquaters in Agra, and embark on a world tour advertising the benefits of a free Luna, while urging various governments to build a catapult to transfer supplies, especially water, to Luna in exchange for grain. Their proposals are rejected and Mannie is imprisoned on charges of public immorality and polygamy, but he is freed by Stuart LaJoie and returned, with him and the Professor, to Luna. Public opinion on Earth has become fragmented, while on Luna, the news of Mannie's arrest and an attempt to bribe him with the appointment of himself as Warden have unified the normally non-political Loonies. An election is held in which Mannie, Wyoh, and the Professor are elected (possibly by the intervention of Mike).", "(The title is an acronym for \"There Ain't No Such Thing As A Free Lunch!\", a common expression on Luna that states one of the main ideas of the book's political system). The Federated Nations on Earth send armies to destroy the Lunar revolution, but these are vanquished, with great loss of life, by the revolutionaries. The rumor is circulated that Mike's alter ego Adam Selene was among those killed, thus removing the need for him to appear in the flesh. When Mike launches rocks at sparsely populated locations on Earth, warnings are released to the press detailing the times and locations of the bombings, but disbelieving people, as well as people on religious pilgrimages, travel to the sites and die. As a result, public opinion turns against the fledgling nation. A second attack destroys Mike's original catapult, but the Loonies have built a secondary, smaller one in a secret location, and with Mannie acting as its on-site commander, the Loonies continue to attack Earth until it concedes Luna's independence. Professor Bernardo de la Paz, as leader of the nation, proclaims victory to the gathered crowds, but collapses and dies. Mannie takes control, but Wyoh and he eventually withdraw from politics altogether, and find that the new government falls short of their expectations ending up falling into a less radical political system. When Mannie tries to speak to Mike afterwards, he finds out that the computer has lost its self-awareness and its human-like qualities although in all other respects it remains unaffected.", "", "The first sixth of the book relates the discussions between the protagonists justifying and plotting the revolution; the next quarter describes the year-long revolution itself. The remainder of the book recounts events occurring in the months after the revolution in May 2076, and a week or so of events in October 2076 leading up to capitulation by Earth.", "Professor Bernardo de La Paz describes himself as a \"Rational Anarchist\", a name probably invented in the text itself. \"Rational Anarchists\" believe that the concepts of State, Society, and Government have no existence but for the \"acts of self-responsible individuals\", but concede that this is not a universal belief. The desire for anarchy is balanced by the logic that some form of government is needed, despite its flaws. Knowing this fact, a Rational Anarchist \"tries to live perfectly in an imperfect world\". When challenged by Wyoh, Professor de la Paz replies, \"In terms of morals there is no such thing as a'state'. Just men. Individuals. Each responsible for his own acts. I am free, no matter what rules surround me. If I find them tolerable, I tolerate them; if I find them too obnoxious, I break them. I am free, because I know that \"I alone\" am morally responsible for everything that I do.\" Lunar society is portrayed as akin to that of the Old West, tempered by the closeness of death by exposure to vacuum and by the shortage of women. Because the sex ratio is about two men to each woman, the result is a society where women have a great deal of power, and any man who offends or touches a woman uninvited is likely to be attacked and eliminated through the nearest airlock. Marriages tend to be polyandrous, including group marriages and Mannie's own line marriage. In discussion with a woman from Kentucky, Mannie implies that underground, three-dimensional Lunar estate is recorded in the name of the woman (or women) in a marriage. In a divorce, he implies, the separated man (or men) who contributed towards its cost would have money returned to him. After decades during which antisocial individuals were selectively eliminated and the Authority exercised little real control, the Loonies live by the following code: Pay your debts, collect what is owed to you, and maintain your reputation and that of your family. As a result, little theft occurs, and disputes are settled privately or by informal Judges of good reputation. Failure to pay debts results in public shaming. Reputation is highly important in this society; with a bad reputation, a person may find others unwilling to buy from or sell to him. People are expected to pay back debts using all available funds. Duels are permitted, but custom requires that anyone who kills another must pay debts and look after the deceased's family. Exceptions are allowed in the case of self-defense. Retaliatory killings do occur, but typically a consensus establishes which party was in the right, and no long-standing feuds exist. The Vikings influence mores on the Loonies, save that it is the society as a whole rather than the Althing which judges the actions of individuals. Except where exchange involves the Authority, a generally unregulated free market exists. The preferred currency is the dollar of the Bank of Hong Kong Luna, 100 of which are exchangeable for a troy ounce of gold, a supply of which was shipped to Luna for this purpose, or more usefully for potable water or other commodities in published quantities. The Authority dollar circulates in dealings with the Authority, but this tends to lose ground over time against the Hong Kong Luna dollar.", "Although the revolution succeeds in averting ecological disaster, the narrator decries the instincts of many of his fellow Loonies (\"Rules, laws – always for [the] \"other\" fellow\"). This theme is echoed elsewhere in Heinlein's works – that real liberty is to be found among the pioneer societies out along the advancing frontier, but the regimentation and legalism that follow bring restraints that chafe true individualists (an idea emphasized in the first and final page of the novel, and in the later book \"The Cat Who Walks Through Walls\").", "As in \"Stranger in a Strange Land\", a band of social revolutionaries forms a secretive and hierarchical organization. In this respect, the revolution is more reminiscent of the Bolshevik October revolution than of the American, and this similarity is reinforced by the Russian flavor of the dialect, and the Russian place names such as \"Novy Leningrad\". Continuing Heinlein's speculation about unorthodox social and family structures, \"The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress\" introduces the idea of a \"line marriage\". Mannie is part of a century-old line marriage, wherein new spouses are introduced by mutual consent at regular intervals so that the marriage never comes to an end. Divorce is rare, since divorcing a husband requires a unanimous decision on the part of all of his wives. Senior wives teach junior wives how to operate the family, granting financial security and ensuring that the children will never be orphaned. Children usually marry outside the line marriage, though this is not an ironclad rule. Mannie's youngest wife sports the last name \"Davis-Davis\", showing she was both born and married into the line. The social structure of the Lunar society features complete racial integration, which becomes a vehicle for social commentary when Mannie, visiting the Southeastern United States, is arrested for polygamy after he innocently shows a picture of his multiracial family to reporters, and learns that the \"range of color in Davis family was what got [the] judge angry enough\" to have him arrested. It is later revealed that this arrest was anticipated and provoked by his fellow conspirators to gain emotional support from Loonies when the arrest is announced. The novel is notable stylistically for its use of an invented Lunar dialect consisting predominantly of standard English and Australian colloquial words, but strongly influenced by Russian grammar, especially omission of the article \"the\", which does not exist in most Slavic languages (cf. Nadsat slang from \"A Clockwork Orange\" by Anthony Burgess). This aspect of the Lunar dialect is explained by the fact that many of the deportees on Luna are Russian.", "The novel indicates that Earth had experienced a nuclear world war (the \"Wet Firecracker War\") in the past century, although no significant traces of devastation are apparent at the time of the novel's setting. Other changes include unification of the entire North American continent under a successor government to the United States, and political unification of South America, Europe, and Africa into megastates. The Soviet Union seems to have lost the land east of the Urals to China into a rump state, and China has conquered all of East Asia, Southeast Asia, eastern Australia, and New Zealand (deporting unwanted people to Luna in the process). This Chinese aggrandizement is similar to that described in \"Tunnel in the Sky\", and to a lesser extent, \"Sixth Column\". The militarily dominant nations seem to be North America and China. India is overcrowded, but seems able to obtain many of the wheat shipments from Luna. It is suggested that the Western nations, including North America, have become corrupt and authoritarian, while holding on to the vestiges of the prewar democratic idealism in propaganda and popular culture. China is portrayed as plainly and unabashedly despotic, but no less technically advanced than the West. The Soviet Union seems to have relatively little influence, whereas the Lunar Authority itself is portrayed as corrupt.", "", "The situation depicted in the second and third part of the novel resembles the rebellion of the Lunar colony described in another science-fiction novel published in 1959, \"Time Out of Joint\", by Philip K. Dick. While the opposition between Earth and Moon echoes the historical conflict between the United States and the British Empire, the way the Lunar rebels force Earth to acknowledge their independence is similar to the one they adopt in Dick's novel (launching missiles, some with nuclear warheads, in an unpredictable fashion).", "Professor de la Paz names Carl von Clausewitz, Niccolò Machiavelli, Oskar Morgenstern, and Che Guevara as part of a long list of authors for revolutionaries to read. He also quotes a \"Chinese General\" on the subject of weakening the enemy's resolve, a reference to Sun Tzu's \"The Art of War\". When planning the revolution, Mike is described by Mannie as \"our Scarlet Pimpernel, our John Galt, our Swamp Fox, our man of mystery\", referring to the works of the Baroness Orczy and Ayn Rand, as well as to the history of the American Revolution. Parallels to the American Revolution are intentional; Luna's Declaration of Independence is issued on July 4, 2076, and one event is referred to as paralleling the Boston Tea Party. When discussing the resource loss on Luna and likelihood of ensuing food riots, Professor de la Paz suggests that Mannie read the work of Thomas Malthus.", "Hazel Meade Stone first appears as a character in Heinlein's earlier book, \"The Rolling Stones\", a.k.a. \"Space Family Stone\" (1952). The setting of the Luna revolt is revisited by Heinlein in his late-period novel, \"The Cat Who Walks Through Walls\", which again includes Stone as a character. The book shows that by 2188 the names of the signatories of the Lunar Declaration of Independence are studied, but Room L of the Raffles Hotel, wherein the revolution was plotted, is used as an ordinary hotel room, albeit with a plaque on the wall.", "The Lunar action takes place in Mare Crisium and the novel makes accurate references to such nearby locales as Crater Peirce. According to the narrator, most people live in one of six major underground \"warrens\" linked by \"tube\", a system of underground trains. Luna City is the most important to the plot, and is \"on the eastern edge of Mare Crisium\". The Authority warren Complex Under is connected to Luna City by the Trans-Crisium tube. Johnson City is close to the complex, linked by a single tunnel. Novy Leningrad, a large warren, is linked to Luna City by tube, and a journey between the two requires the traveler to \"change at Torricelli\". Another warren is Tycho Under, whose location is clearly in the area of the crater Tycho. Hong Kong Luna is located in Crater Plato. The warren known as Churchill is not described in detail, although it is linked to Hong Kong Luna by a tube across the Sinus Medii on the Lunar Prime Meridian. The secret catapult is built in the region of Mare Undarum. Colorado Springs is mentioned as near the military target Cheyenne Mountain Complex which took a direct hit during the \"Wet Firecracker War\", but suffered little damage until hit many times by rock missiles from Luna. The headquarters of the Lunar Authority on Earth are in the city of Agra, near the Taj Mahal. The bombardment from Luna omits the city of Agra from its target list out of respect. Mannie, a New York Yankees fan, visits what is presumed to be Yankee Stadium, now expanded to hold at least 200,000 people, and also visits Salem and Concord in Massachusetts. Lasers are used primarily as mining and cutting tools, but are adapted as hand weapons and ground-to-orbit weapons by the Loonies. Luna's industries use both solar power and hydrogen fusion. Heinlein correctly quotes the maximum yield of solar cells at about 1 kilowatt per square meter, but is over-optimistic with regard to fusion, describing it as taking place in small magnetic pinch bottles. Mannie refers to a comrade, Foo Moses Morris, who, following the revolution, goes broke and starts a tailor shop in Hong Kong Luna, a reference to both Robert Morris and, by allusion, Haym Salomon, who helped support the American revolutionary government and also suffered financial reverses.", "Heinlein's original title for the novel was \"The Brass Cannon\", before being replaced with the final title at the publisher's request. It was derived from an event in the novel: While on Earth, Professor Bernardo de la Paz purchases a small brass cannon, originally a \"signal gun\" of the kind used in yacht racing. When Mannie asks him why he bought it, the Professor relates a parable, implying that self-government is an illusion caused by failure to understand reality: Professor de la Paz asks Mannie to assure that Luna adopts a flag featuring a brass cannon — \"a symbol for all fools who are so impractical as to think they can fight City Hall\". Before leaving politics, Mannie and Wyoh carry out his wish. Heinlein owned a small brass cannon, which he acquired prior to the 1960s. For nearly 30 years, the firing of the brass cannon, or \"signal gun\", was a 4th of July tradition at the Heinlein residence. It is believed that this cannon was the inspiration for Heinlein's original title for the novel. Virginia Heinlein retained the cannon after her husband's death in 1988; it was eventually bequeathed to friend and science-fiction writer Brad Linaweaver, after Virginia Heinlein died in 2003. Linaweaver restored the cannon to working order and subsequently posted a video of it on YouTube in 2007, wherein it is fired several times with blank charges at a shooting range.", "Algis Budrys of \"Galaxy Science Fiction\" in 1966 praised \"The Moon is a Harsh Mistress\", citing \"Heinlein's expertise for dirt-level politics, snappy dialogue and a sense of an actual living society\". He said that he had never read a more believable computer character than Mike (\"may in fact be the most fully realized individual in the story\"). Budrys suggested that the story may actually be Mike manipulating humans without their knowledge to improve its situation, which would explain why the computer no longer communicates with them after the revolution succeeds. Reiterating that Mike manipulated the humans, in 1968 Budrys said that every review of the book, including his own, erred by not stating that the computer is the protagonist. Carl Sagan wrote that the novel had \"useful suggestions for making a revolution in an oppressive computerized society\". Leigh Kimmel of The Billion Light-Year Bookshelf said that the novel is \"the work of the man at the height of his powers, confident in his abilities and in the editorial respect he enjoys, and thus free to take significant risks in writing a novel that would stretch the boundaries of the genre as they stood at the time\". She characterized the novel as a departure from what had previously been associated with science fiction. Kimmel cited Heinlein's \"colloquial language... an extrapolated lunar creole that has arisen from the forced intersection of multiple cultures and languages in the lunar penal colonies\"; the protagonist's disability; \"the frank treatment of alternative family structures\"; and \"the computer which suddenly wakes up to full artificial intelligence, but rather than becoming a Monster that threatens human society and must be destroyed as the primary Quest of the story, instead befriends the protagonist and seeks to become ever more human, a sort of digital Pinocchio\". Adam Roberts said of the novel: \"It is really quite hard to respond to this masterful book, except by engaging with its political content; and yet we need to make the effort to see past the ideological to the formal and thematic if we are fully to appreciate the splendour of Heinlein's achievement here.\" Andrew Kaufman praised it, saying that it was Heinlein's crowning achievement. He described it as \"Carefully plotted, stylistically unique, politically sophisticated and thrilling from page one\". He goes on to say that \"it's hard to imagine anyone else writing a novel that packs so many ideas (both big and small) into such a perfectly contained narrative\". Kaufman says that, regardless of political philosophies, one can still admire Heinlein's writing ability, and the ability to influence the reader to root for \"a rag-tag bunch of criminals, exiles, and agitators\". Ted Gioia said that this might be Heinlein's most enjoyable piece of work. He said that it \"represents Robert Heinlein at his finest, giving him scope for the armchair philosophizing that increasingly dominated his mature work, but marrying his polemics to a smartly conceived plot packed with considerable drama\". He went on to praise Heinlein's characters, especially Mannie.", "The book popularized the acronym TANSTAAFL (\"There Ain't No Such Thing As A Free Lunch\"), and helped popularize the constructed language Loglan, which is used in the story for precise human-computer interaction. \"The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations\" credits this novel with the first printed appearance of the phrase \"There's no free lunch\".", "In 2015, it was announced that Bryan Singer was attached to direct a film adaptation, entitled \"Uprising\", in development at 20th Century Fox.", "Two unabridged audiobook versions of \"The Moon is a Harsh Mistress\" have been produced." ] }